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Holkham National Nature Reserve

Holkham National Nature Reserve is England's largest national nature reserve (NNR). It is on the Norfolk coast between Burnham Overy Staithe and Blakeney, and is managed by Natural England with the cooperation of the Holkham Estate. Its 3900 ha comprise a wide range of habitats, including grazing marsh, woodland, salt marsh, sand dunes and foreshore. The reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest, and the larger area is additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of both an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and a World Biosphere Reserve. Holkham NNR is important for its wintering wildfowl, especially pink-footed geese, Eurasian wigeon and brant geese, but it also has breeding waders, and attracts many migrating birds in autumn. Many scarce invertebrates and plants can be found in the dunes, and the reserve is one of the only two sites in the UK to have an antlion colony.

This stretch of coast originally consisted of salt marshes protected from the sea by ridges of shingle and sand, and Holkham's Iron Age fort stood at the end of a sandy spit surrounded by the tidal wetland. The Vikings navigated the creeks to establish Holkham village, but access to the former harbour was stopped by drainage and reclamation of the marshes between the coast and the shingle ridge which started in the 17th century, and was completed in 1859. The Holkham estate has been owned by the Coke family, later Earls of Leicester since 1609, and their seat at Holkham Hall is opposite the reserve's Lady Anne's Drive entrance. The 3rd Earl planted pines on the dunes to protect the pastures reclaimed by his predecessors from wind-blown sand. The national nature reserve was created in 1967 from 1700 ha of the Holkham Estate and 2200 ha of foreshore belonging to the Crown.

The reserve has over 100,000 visitors a year, including birdwatchers and horse riders, and is therefore significant for the local economy. The NNR has taken steps to control entry to the fragile dunes and other areas important for their animals or plants because of the damage to sensitive habitats that could be caused by unrestricted access. The dunes are an essential natural defence against the projected rises in sea level along this vulnerable coast.

Description
The reserve lies to the north of the A149 coast road, starting just west of Burnham Overy Staithe and extending west past Holkham to Beach Road, Wells-next-the-Sea. It also includes the tidal salt marshes continuing further east to Blakeney. Its total area of about 3900 ha makes it the largest NNR in England. The reserve can be accessed by footpaths from Wells and the local villages including the Peddars Way/Norfolk Coast long-distance trail that traverses the main part of the reserve, and National Cycle Route 1 loops through the core of the NNR between Holkham and Wells. There is a car park near Holkham village at the north end of Lady Anne's Drive that gives access to two bird hides, and another parking area at the end of Beach Road in Wells. To the east of the Wells Channel, the reserve is mainly salt marshes and mud flats, and is difficult and potentially dangerous to access, although a public footpath runs along the southern edge of these tidal areas.

The salt marshes on this coast are stated in the Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) notification document to be "among the best in Europe ... the flora is exceptionally diverse". Holkham also has good examples of sand dunes, and the pines planted on the dunes have provided shelter for other trees and shrubs to become established, making this the only substantial area of woodland in the North Norfolk Coast SSSI. The dunes are created and altered by the elements, and the sand islands in Holkham Bay have formed only within the last 60 years. The flat ground inland from the dunes is a reclaimed salt marsh that was used as pasture until the 1940s, but converted to arable land during World War II. The value of the fields to wildlife was reduced by the resulting lower water table, but Natural England's management measures have raised the water levels, attracting breeding and wintering birds. Water management can also be used to ensure a high water table in summer, benefiting breeding waders, and drier conditions in winter, preferred by the geese. The management of water levels and grassland increased the number of breeding wetland birds from 120 pairs of ten species in 1986 to 795 pairs of 26 species in 1994, and the number of wintering birds of four key wildfowl species rose from 1,215 to 17,305 in the decade from 1983/84.

History
Norfolk has a long history of human occupation. Both modern and Neanderthal people were present in the area between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, before the last glaciation, and humans returned as the ice retreated northwards. The archaeological record is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly because of the then prevailing very cold conditions, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic (10,000–5,000 BCE), the sea level rose, filling what is now the North Sea. This brought the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line, so that many ancient sites are now under the sea in an area now known as Doggerland.

The coast at Holkham originally consisted of salt marshes protected from the sea by ridges of shingle and sand. A large Iron Age fort (Holkham Camp) at the end of a sandy spit in the marshes could only be approached along the spit; it enclosed 2.5 ha and remained in use until the defeat of the Iceni in 47 AD. The Vikings navigated the tidal creeks to establish Holkham, the name deriving from the Danish for "ship town".

The Holkham Estate has been owned by the Coke family since 1609, and Holkham Hall, built by Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester between 1734 and 1764, is opposite the NNR entrance. Until the 17th century, ships could navigate the tidal creeks to reach the staithe (harbour) at Holkham village, but local landowners began to reclaim the marshes from 1639, and the final embankment at Wells was constructed by the 2nd Earl in 1859, completing the conversion of about 800 ha to farmland. The 3rd Earl planted Corsican, maritime and Scots pines on the dunes in the late 19th century to shelter the agricultural land from wind-blown sand, which is carried inland when the wind speed exceeds three metres (10 ft) per second and blows from directions between northwest to northeast.

The Holkham National Nature Reserve was created in 1967 from 1700 ha of the Holkham Estate and 2200 ha of intertidal sand and mud flats belonging to the Crown Estate. In 1986 the NNR was subsumed into the newly created 7700 ha North Norfolk Coast SSSI. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The coast from Holkham NNR to Salthouse, together with Scolt Head Island, is a Biosphere Reserve.

Birds
As many as 50,000 pink-footed geese, 13,000 Eurasian wigeon and 7,000 Brent geese winter at Holkham, making it of international importance for these species. Up to 400 white-fronted geese and a few tundra bean geese may join the wildfowl flocks, and the odd peregrine falcon, short-eared owl, merlin, marsh harrier or hen harrier may hunt over the fields. The shingle banks and foreshore hold wintering flocks of shore larks, snow buntings and twite, and waders like knots, curlews, dunlins and grey plover probe for invertebrates in the mud flats.

Spring migration is relatively quiet, although sightings of ring ouzel and firecrest are possible amongst the more common arrivals. Breeding birds include lapwings, common snipe, pied avocets, common redshanks and marsh harriers on the grazing marshes, ringed plovers and little terns on the beach, and black-headed, herring and lesser black-backed gulls on the salt marsh. The small grey heron colony has been joined by little egrets, and, from 2010, by Eurasian spoonbills. In 2020, a pair of cattle egrets successfully bred at the site, the first time the species had successfully bred in Norfolk. The pines may occasionally have nesting siskins or common crossbills, and parrot crossbills bred in 1984 and 1985.

Holkham's north-facing coastal location can attract large numbers of migrating birds in autumn if the weather conditions are right, especially with north to north-east wind. The common species may be accompanied by a wryneck, red-backed shrike or greenish warbler in August, with goldcrests, thrushes and finches later in the season, and perhaps red-breasted flycatchers and yellow-browed warblers. Vagrant rarities such as Pallas's, Radde's or dusky warblers may occur; a red-breasted nuthatch in 1989 was the first, and, as of 2019, the only individual of its species to be recorded in the UK.

Other animals and plants
Brown hares and European otters are found all along the north Norfolk coast, but red squirrels disappeared from the Holkham pines by 1981. The rare natterjack toad breeds at Holkham, one of only two sites along this coast, although the common frog, common toad and common lizard are widespread in appropriate habitats. The green hairstreak, purple hairstreak, comma, hummingbird hawk-moth, broad-bordered bee hawk-moth and ghost moth are sometimes seen in the woods with the common butterfly and moth species, and a clouded yellow or Camberwell beauty may also occur in some years. Grayling, small heath and common blue butterflies can be found in the dunes, where there is also a large antlion colony, making Holkham one of only two locations for this predatory insect in the UK. Dragonflies include the migrant hawker, southern hawker and ruddy darter.

On exposed parts of the coast, the mud and sands are scoured by the tides, and have no vegetation except possibly algae or eelgrass, but where the shoreline is more protected, internationally important salt marshes can form, with several uncommon species. The salt marsh contains glassworts and annual seablite in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with sea purslane in the creeks and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants. Scrubby sea-blite and matted sea lavender are characteristic plants of the drier upper salt marsh here, although they are uncommon in the UK away from the Norfolk coast.

Grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass are important in the driest areas of the marshes, and on the coastal dunes, where marram grass, sand couch-grass, lyme-grass and red fescue help to bind the sand. Sea holly and sand sedge are other specialists of this arid habitat, and petalwort is a nationally rare bryophyte found on damper dunes. Bird's-foot trefoil, pyramidal orchid, bee orchid, lesser centaury and carline thistle flower on the more stable dunes, where the rare Jersey cudweed and grey hair-grass are also found. The narrow 5-km (3-mi) belt of pines shelters creeping lady's tresses and yellow bird's nest.

Recreation
A 2005 survey at Holkham and five other North Norfolk coastal sites found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit. The 7.7 million day visitors and 5.5 million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122 million, and created the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs. Holkham NNR is one of three sites within the SSSI that attract 100,000 or more visitors annually, the others being Titchwell Marsh and Cley Marshes. The large number of visitors at coastal sites sometimes has negative effects. Wildlife may be disturbed, a frequent difficulty for species that breed in exposed areas such as Ringed Plovers and Little Terns, and also for wintering geese. Plants can be trampled, which is a particular problem in sensitive habitats such as dunes and vegetated shingles. The discovery of the nationally rare tiny earthstar fungus at Holkham led its finders to state that "The survival of this species in Britain would undoubtedly benefit from the construction of a boardwalk across this fragile and frequently-visited habitat."

The Little Tern colony at Holkham, holding seven per cent of the British population, is cordoned off in the breeding season, with signs explaining why people are excluded from the area. The dune vegetation can be damaged by too many people walking over it, leading to blowout, and the rapid wind erosion of the sand. Boardwalks and steps enable visitors to reach the beach on foot without harming the dunes, and horse riders and naturists are asked to stay on the beach and keep off the dunes. As the climate becomes warmer in the future, there is likely to be more tourism pressure on the coasts, but the effects of this may be mitigated by a move towards lower-impact activities like bathing.

The Norfolk Coast Partnership, a grouping of conservation and environmental bodies, divides the coast and its hinterland into three zones for tourism development purposes. Holkham Dunes, along with Holme Dunes and Blakeney Point, were considered to be sensitive habitats already suffering from visitor pressure, and were designated as red-zone areas with no development or parking improvements to be recommended. The rest of the NNR is placed in the orange zone, for locations with fragile habitats but less tourism pressure.

Threats
The underlying geology of the North Norfolk coast is Cretaceous chalk, exposed at Hunstanton cliffs just to the west of the SSSI, but buried by soft Quaternary glacial debris for the entire length of the SSSI coast. Unlike the soft, rapidly eroding cliffs further east, the coast of the SSSI has shown a less consistent pattern, with a net accretion of beach material between 1880 and 1950. However, this coastline is threatened by climate change, with the sea level rising an estimated 1–2 mm per year for the last 100 years, increasing the risk of flooding and coastal erosion.

Half the area of the salt marshes that formed in the lee of Scolt Head Island has been reclaimed in the last 300 years, creating ecologically important, but very fragile, grazing marshes. Although Holkham is low-lying and can flood in severe weather conditions, it is protected by the spit that developed at the Holkham Gap in the 1990s and the dunes along the coast, which are increasingly being stabilised by vegetation. The Environment Agency's management plan until 2105 is to rely on the natural protection of the dunes, intervening only if work is necessary to maintain their effectiveness in the face of a potential sea level rise of 1.1 m (3 ft) by that date. The shingle that makes up Scolt Head Island is moving westwards and southwards at up to 3.5 m (10 ft) per year. This may affect the movement of sediment, and lead to some erosion of the dunes and beaches at Holkham, but should not destroy their effectiveness as a sea defence unless the island reattaches to the mainland at some date in the distant future.

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title: Holkham National Nature Reserve


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Talk:Cooke County, Texas

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Talk:Coryell County, Texas

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This article is mostly a general history of Texas, not of Coryell county specifically. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.4.93.30 (talk) 21:51, 31 July 2010 (UTC)

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Talk:Cottle County, Texas

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Talk:Crane County, Texas

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Talk:Crockett County, Texas

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hey Emotionalemergency (talk) 18:55, 17 January 2018 (UTC)

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Borders 9 counties
Hi 198.86.238.201: I don't doubt that Crockett is a rarity in bordering 9 other counties, but do we have a citation for this assertion? Casey (talk) 01:55, 9 January 2022 (UTC)

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Talk:Crosby County, Texas

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Talk:Culberson County, Texas

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Hello, how can I improve this article? I live in Texas. —Picardin (talk) 00:58, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

Time Zone
I believe part of this county observes Mountain Time and the other portion Central Time, Shouldn't this be included? speednat (talk) 00:07, 9 May 2012 (UTC)

As an American, I do believe this should be in Moutain Time Zone. 22:29, 29 December 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 104.228.148.126 (talk)

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Talk:Dallam County, Texas

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Talk:Dallas County, Texas

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Purported naming after George Mifflin Dallas
I find that this statement in the lead to be improbable & unverifiable: "The county ... was possibly named for George Mifflin Dallas, the 11th Vice President of the United States under U.S. President James K. Polk."

Dallas states "John Neely Bryan established a permanent settlement near the Trinity River named Dallas in 1841." George Mifflin Dallas did not become the U.S. Vice President until March 4, 1845. Therefore it is unlikely that it was named for him as an honor to being Vice President, as the naming antedated his term in office. It is just as likely that Dallas was named after Alexander J. Dallas (statesman), his father, or Alexander J. Dallas (United States Navy officer), his brother, or yet another source. Peaceray (talk) 20:53, 21 June 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dallas County, Texas


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Talk:Dawson County, Texas

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title: Talk:Dawson County, Texas


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Talk:Deaf Smith County, Texas

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See history. First, a deaf scout, then a nuclear waste dump that never was. By such small accretions, the rambot's contributions are woven into the Wikipedia. If you know something about a city or county or state, go to the entry and put what you know in the Wikipedia. Ortolan88

Deaf?
Was he "hearing impaired" or was he "deaf"? This is not a place for "politically correct" terms; this is a place for CORRECT terms. If he could not hear at all, or close enough that the difference rarely mattered, then the correct term is "deaf". If he was not "deaf", then clarify so. --Scott McNay 12:21, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

Texas Home Quarterly
Quick Google search does not show that this publication does not exist, the 9th best place statement seems to me to be a joke. I removed the following staement from from the article: Deaf Smith County has been ranked the 9th best place for less affluent Texans to live, according to Texas Home Quarterly. 219.106.152.19 (talk) 02:46, 4 June 2012 (UTC)

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This sentence makes no sense.
"The pronunciation of "Deaf", like that of Smith himself, is ; however, most residents pronounce it  ."

title: Talk:Deaf Smith County, Texas


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Talk:Delta County, Texas

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title: Talk:Delta County, Texas


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Talk:Denton County, Texas

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Northern87 (talk) 18:36, 13 May 2010 (UTC) Edited out the line about property taxes lowering home values and robin hood. It did not add any information about Denton County and may have been opinion.

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Notable people
You added Henry Lee Lucas to the "notable people" section, yet nothing in his Wikipedia article, or in the source provided, suggests he ever lived in Denton County. What makes him notable here? Thank you. Magnolia677 (talk) 11:15, 11 January 2022 (UTC)

City of Dallas.
A small portion of the Southeast corner of the county is in the City of Dallas. But contains several 1000 folks. JdelaF (talk) 17:43, 3 August 2022 (UTC)

Ooops. I see that this was mentioned. BTW the Denton Appraisal District doesn’t seem to be aware of this. Also its website lists 1238 sqmi as being in cities but this wiki pg gives 953 for the whole county. JdelaF (talk) 17:50, 3 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Denton County, Texas


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Talk:DeWitt County, Texas

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Winter home of Hon. Susan S. Barnes, An Appointee of President Bush as Vice Chairman of the "Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Council. The council has jurisdiction over all government properties worldwide regarding historic preservation.  Also the "Preserve America" program of which Cuero is an honoree.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.131.99.244 (talk) 19:24, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:DeWitt County, Texas


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Talk:Dickens County, Texas

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Talk:Dimmit County, Texas

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title: Talk:Dimmit County, Texas


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Talk:Donley County, Texas

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title: Talk:Donley County, Texas


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Talk:Duval County, Texas

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"anglo"
" Not long after, a wave of Anglo immigrants entered the county to raise sheep. Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, Irishmen, and Scots came." This really needs to be changed. "englishmen" are the only people in that group who are anglo and could very well be the only people who spoke english as a first language. If you mean anglophone then write anglophone. If you're talking about ethnicity then use it properly. 101.169.42.156 (talk) 13:15, 31 October 2013 (UTC)jb

Agreed - State markers only mention Anglos, as in Englishmen for this particular county, while some other counties nearby had other groups. — Preceding unsigned comment added by HistorianNYC1010 (talk • contribs) 02:25, 19 February 2020 (UTC)

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History unsourced
There isn't an actual source for the entire History Section of this page. "Lynch" is not a source. And the Texas almanac doesn't even make a mention of this. Entire History section should be edited to use real sources such as the ones I provided. Or if mentioning a source, use it properly. @Sphilbrick, you need to check the sources that I provided for this section instead of reverting to a source called "lynching" which appears more as vandalism as the entire Almanac article doesn't even mention this. These sources are all public domain. --HistorianNYC1010 (talk) 23:25, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * , I see that you are brand-new, so you may be unaware that there are a number of rules that editors need to follow.
 * Am I right to assume that you recently created a registered account but you attempted to edit Duval County, Texas as an unregistered IP?
 * Assuming that unregistered IP was you, I trust you recall adding some information in this edit
 * Do you agree that the material in the matches the material at this source.
 * It appears you believe that this material is public domain. Is that your belief? Can you explain why you believe it is public domain?
 * You may be unaware that, even if it happens to be public domain material, you are required to provide a reference, and added template indicating that it is public domain, so even if it turns out to be public domain, your edit did not conform to our guidelines, but let's check to see if you can demonstrate that it's public domain, and if you can, we can talk about how to help you include that material in an appropriate way. S Philbrick  (Talk)  01:30, 19 February 2020 (UTC)
 * , While it is improper to remove material without providing a good reason, either in an edit summary or a post on the article talk page or both, I now have some concerns about some material that you improperly removed. I left a note for the editor who added it here: User_talk:Anders.Warga S Philbrick  (Talk)  01:55, 19 February 2020 (UTC)
 * It appears you believe that this material is public domain. Is that your belief? Can you explain why you believe it is public domain?
 * You may be unaware that, even if it happens to be public domain material, you are required to provide a reference, and added template indicating that it is public domain, so even if it turns out to be public domain, your edit did not conform to our guidelines, but let's check to see if you can demonstrate that it's public domain, and if you can, we can talk about how to help you include that material in an appropriate way. S Philbrick  (Talk)  01:30, 19 February 2020 (UTC)
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Glad you are checking the sources for "Lynch" which is clearly not a source. The information isn't historically accurate as you can find better notes on the State Markers at the Duval County Courthouse. I will be meeting with some other wiki editors tomorrow so they can assist in properly updating this article to meet standards. — Preceding unsigned comment added by HistorianNYC1010 (talk • contribs) 02:05, 19 February 2020 (UTC)

 * , a few of the regulars were also missing last night. Too bad they missed the discussion of WP:Wikisource, which was unexpected and highly informative. Teaching and coaching sessions for new editors will be held tomorrow at 14th Street and the next day at 135th Street, and many more in the next few weeks as it's the busy season of Meetup/NYC. Remember to sign with four tildes ~ . Jim.henderson (talk) 18:24, 20 February 2020 (UTC)

Fwiw, amended Lynch ref to Lynch, Dudley M. (January 1, 1976). The Duke of Duval: The Life and Times of George B. Parr. Waco: Texian Press. pp 8-10. ISBN 978-0-87244-044-9. LCCN 76-54438. Retrieved 2013-09-09. AndersW (talk) 03:21, 4 May 2020 (UTC)

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Tuvaluan language

Tuvaluan, often called Tuvalu, is a Polynesian language closely related to the Ellicean group spoken in Tuvalu. It is more or less distantly related to all other Polynesian languages, such as Hawaiian, Māori, Tahitian, Samoan, Tokelauan and Tongan, and most closely related to the languages spoken on the Polynesian Outliers in Micronesia and Northern and Central Melanesia. Tuvaluan has borrowed considerably from Samoan, the language of Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The population of Tuvalu is approximately 10,645 people (2017 Mini Census), but there are estimated to be more than 13,000 Tuvaluan speakers worldwide. In 2015 it was estimated that more than 3,500 Tuvaluans live in New Zealand, with about half that number born in New Zealand and 65 percent of the Tuvaluan community in New Zealand is able to speak Tuvaluan.

Name variations
Native speakers of Tuvaluan have various names for their language. In the language itself, it is often referred to as te ggana Tuuvalu which translates to "the Tuvaluan language", or less formally as te ggana a tatou, meaning "our language". The dialects of Vaitupi and Funafuti are together known as a standard language called te 'gana māsani, meaning ‘the common language’. Formerly, the country of Tuvalu was known as the Ellice Islands and the Tuvaluan language is also therefore known as Ellice or Ellicean.

History
Like all other Polynesian languages, Tuvaluan descends from an ancestral language, which historical linguists refer to as "Proto-Polynesian", which was spoken perhaps about 2,000 years ago.

Language influences
Tuvaluan has had significant contact with Gilbertese, a Micronesian language; Samoan; and, increasingly, English. Gilbertese is spoken natively on Nui, and was important to Tuvaluans when its colonial administration was located in the Gilbert Islands. Samoan was introduced by missionaries, and has had the most impact on the language. During an intense period of colonization throughout Oceania in the nineteenth century, the Tuvaluan language was influenced by Samoan missionary-pastors. In an attempt to "Christianize" Tuvaluans, linguistic promotion of the Samoan language was evident in its use for official government acts and literacy instruction, as well as within the church, until being replaced by the Tuvaluan language in the 1950s.

English's influence has been limited, but is growing. Since gaining political independence in the 1970s, knowledge of the English language has gained importance for economic viability in Tuvalu. The ability to speak English is important for foreign communications and is often the language used in business and governmental settings.

Vowels
The sound system of Tuvaluan consists of five vowels. All vowels come in short and long forms, which are contrastive.

There are no diphthongs so every vowel is sounded separately. Example: taeao ‘tomorrow’ is pronounced as four separate syllables (ta-e-a-o).

Consonants
The sound system of Tuvaluan consists of 10 or 11 consonants, depending on the dialect. All consonants also come in short and geminated (long) forms, which are contrastive. The phoneme is written. All other sounds are represented with letters corresponding to their IPA symbols.

Phonotactics
Like most Polynesian languages, Tuvaluan syllables can either be V or CV. Both vowels and consonants can be long or short. There is no restriction on the placement of consonants, although they cannot be used at the end of words (as per the syllabic restrictions). Consonant clusters are not available in Tuvaluan.

Phonology of loanwords
None of the units in the Tuvaluan phonemic inventory are restricted to loanwords only. English is the only language from which loanwords are currently being borrowed – loans from Samoan and Gilbertese have already been adapted to fit Tuvaluan phonology. More established, conventional English borrowings are more likely to have been adapted to the standard phonology than those that have been adopted more recently.

Stress, gemination and lengthening
Stress is on the penultimate mora. Geminated consonants have the following main functions:

 * Pluralisation – e.g. nofo 'sit' (singular) v nnofo 'sit' (plural)
 * Contraction of reduplicated syllable – e.g. lelei 'good' in Northern dialects becomes llei in Southern dialects.
 * Contraction of the definite article te – e.g. te tagata 'the man' becomes ttagata.
 * Differentiation of meaning between two words – e.g. mmala 'overcooked' v mala 'plague'

Long vowels can be used to indicate pluralisation or a differentiation of meaning.

Word order
Like many Polynesian languages, Tuvaluan generally uses a VSO word order, with the verb often preceded by a verb marker. However, the word order is very flexible, and there are more exceptions to the VSO standard than sentences which conform to it. Besnier (p. 134) demonstrates that VSO is statistically the least frequent word order, and OVS is the most frequent word order, but still believes VSO is syntactically the default. Often if emphasis is to be placed on a first person pronoun or personal name, then it may precede the verb so that the sentence structure becomes SVO.

Morphology
In Tuvaluan, there is virtually no inflectional or derivational morphology – Tuvaluan uses markers to indicate case, tense, plurality, etc. The table below, adapted from Jackson's An Introduction to Tuvaluan, outlines the main markers, although there are also negative and imperative derivatives. Vowel gemination can also sometimes illustrate semantic change.

Reduplication is one of the most common morphological devices in Tuvalu, and works in a wide variety of ways. Firstly, it operates on verbs and adjectives. Jackson lists six ways it can function:

filemu → fifilemu
 * Intensification of action:

{‘peaceful, quiet’} {} {‘to be very peaceful, quiet’} fakalogo → fakalogologo
 * Diminished action:

{‘to listen carefully, obey’} {} {‘to listen casually’} tue → tuetue
 * Continued, repeated action:

{‘to shake, dust off’} {} {‘to shake, dust off repeatedly’} masae → masaesae
 * A more widely distributed activity:

{‘to be ripped, torn’} {} {‘ripped, torn in many places’} maavae → mavaevae
 * Pluralisation:

{‘separated, divided’} {} {‘divided into many parts’} fakaoso → fakaosooso
 * Change of meaning:

{‘to provoke’} {} {‘to tempt’ }

The prefix faka- is another interesting aspect of Tuvaluan. It operates as a ‘causative’ – to make a verb more ‘active’, or shapes an adjective ‘in the manner of’. Jackson describes faka- as the most important prefix in Tuvaluan.

Adjectives: llei → fakallei

{‘good’} {} {‘to make good, better, reconcile’} aogaa → fakaaogaa

‘useful’ {} {‘to use’}

Verbs: tele → fakatele

{‘run, operate’} {} {‘to operate, to run’} fua → fakafua

{‘to produce’} {} {‘to make something produce’ }

Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs
Tuvaluan tends to favour using verbs over nouns. Nouns can be formed from many verbs by adding the suffix –ga. In the Southern dialect, the addition of –ga lengthens the final vowel of the verb root of the new noun. Many nouns can also be used as verbs. Tuvaluan relies heavily on the use of verbs. There are many ‘state of being’ words which are verbs in Tuvaluan, which would be classified as adjectives in English. Generally, verbs can be identified by the tense marker which precedes them (usually immediately, but occasionally separated by adverbs). Verbs do not change form because of tense, and only occasionally undergo gemination in the plural. Passive and reciprocal verbs undergo some changes by the use of affixes, but these forms are used infrequently and usually apply to loan words from Samoan.

The distinction between verb and adjective is often only indicated by the use of verb/tense markers and the position of the word in the sentence. Adjectives always follow the noun they reference. Adjectives regularly change in the plural form (by gemination) where nouns do not. Many adjectives can become abstract nouns by adding the definite article te, or a pronoun, before the adjective. This is similar to English adjectives adding the suffix -ness to an adjective to form a noun.

Adverbs usually follow the verb they apply to, although there are some notable exceptions to this rule.

Articles
There are three possible articles in Tuvaluan: definite singular te, indefinite singular se or he (depending on the dialect) and indefinite plural ne or ni (depending on the dialect). Indefinite and definite concepts are applied differently in Tuvaluan from English. The singular definite te refers to something or someone that the speaker and the audience know, or have already mentioned – as opposed to the indefinite, which is not specifically known or has not been mentioned. The Tuvaluan word for ‘that’ or ‘this’ (in its variations derivations) is often used to indicate a more definite reference.

Pronouns
Like many other Polynesian languages, the Tuvaluan pronoun system distinguishes between exclusive and inclusive, and singular, dual and plural forms (see table below). However, it does not distinguish between gender, instead relying on contextual references to the involved persons or things (when it is necessary to identify ‘it’). This often involves the use of tangata (‘male’) or fafine (‘female’) as an adjective or affix to illustrate information about gender.

Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are composed of three elements: a full or reduced article; designation of o (inalienable) or a (alienable) for the possession; an additional suffix related to personal pronoun. Whether an object is designated alienable (a class) or inalienable (o class) depends on the class of object. Inalienable generally includes body parts, health, origin, objects acquired through inheritance, personal things in close contact to the body, emotions and sensations, and ‘traditional’ possession (e.g., canoes, axes, spears, lamps).

Dialects
Tuvaluan is divided into two groups of dialects, Northern Tuvaluan, comprising dialects spoken on the islands of Nanumea, Nanumaga, and Niutao and Southern Tuvaluan, comprising dialects spoken on the islands of Funafuti, Vaitupu, Nukufetau and Nukulaelae. All dialects are mutually intelligible, and differ in terms of phonology, morphology, and lexicon. The Funafuti-Vaitupu dialects are together known as a standard language called te 'gana māsani, meaning ‘the common language’ and is the de facto national language, although speakers of the Northern dialects often use their own dialect in public contexts outside of their own communities. The inhabitants of one island of Tuvalu, Nui, speak a dialect of Gilbertese, an Oceanic language less related to Tuvaluan.

Tuvaluan is mutually intelligible with Tokelauan, spoken by the approximately 1,700 inhabitants of the three atolls of Tokelau and on Swains Island, as well as the several thousand Tokelauan migrants living in New Zealand.

Literature
The Bible was translated into Tuvaluan in 1987. Jehovah's Witnesses publish Watchtower Magazine on a monthly basis in Tuvaluan. There is also an "Introduction to Tuvaluan" & "Tuvaluan Dictionary" both by Geoffrey Jackson. Apart from this, there are very few Tuvaluan language books available. The Tuvalu Media Department provides Tuvaluan language radio programming and publishes Fenui News, a Facebook page and email newsletter.

A Tuvaluan writer Afaese Manoa (1942–) wrote the song "Tuvalu for the Almighty (Tuvaluan: Tuvalu mo te Atua)", adopted in 1978 as Tuvalu's national anthem.

Oral traditions
Although Tuvaluan does not have a longstanding written tradition, there is a considerable corpus of oral traditions that is also found in the Music of Tuvalu, which includes material that pre-dates the influence of the Christian missionaries sent to Tuvalu by the London Missionary Society. The missionaries were predominantly from Samoa and they both suppressed oral traditions that they viewed as not being consistent with Christian teaching and they also influenced the development of the music of Tuvalu and the Tuvaluan language.

According to linguist Thomason, "some artistic forms are inextricably tied to the language they are expressed in." A report on the sustainable development of Tuvalu posits the sustainability of traditional songs depends on the vitality of the Tuvaluan language. Grammatical documentation of the Tuvaluan language indicates that various linguistic features have been preserved specifically within domains of verbal art. For example, the use of passives in Tuvaluan has become obsolete, except in folklore and ancient songs.

Academic study and major publications
Tuvaluan is one of the least documented languages of Polynesia. There has been limited work done on Tuvaluan from an English-speaking perspective. The first major work on Tuvaluan syntax was done by Donald Gilbert Kennedy, who published a Handbook on the language of the Tuvalu (Ellice) Islands in 1945. Niko Besnier has published the greatest amount of academic material on Tuvaluan – both descriptive and lexical. Besnier's description of Tuvaluan uses a phonemic orthography which differs from the ones most commonly used by Tuvaluans - which sometimes do not distinguish geminate consonants. Jackson's An Introduction to Tuvaluan is a useful guide to the language from a first contact point of view. The orthography used by most Tuvaluans is based on Samoan, and, according to Besnier, isn't well-equipped to deal with important difference in vowel and consonant length which often perform special functions in the Tuvaluan language. Throughout this profile, Besnier's orthography is used as it best represents the linguistic characteristics under discussion.

Risk of Endangerment
Isolation of minority-language communities promotes maintenance of the language. Due to global increases in temperature, rising sea levels threaten the islands of Tuvalu. Researchers acknowledges that within a "few years," the Pacific Ocean may engulf Tuvalu, swallowing not only the land, but its people and their language. In response to this risk, the Tuvaluan government made an agreement with the country of New Zealand in 2002 that agreed to allow the migration of 11,000 Tuvaluans (the island nation's entire population). The gradual resettlement of Tuvaluans in New Zealand means a loss of isolation for speakers from the larger society they are joining that situates them as a minority-language community. As more Tuvaluans continue to migrate to New Zealand and integrate themselves into the culture and society, relative isolation decreases, contributing to the language's endangerment.

Lack of isolation due to forced migration since 2002 has contributed to the endangerment of the Tuvaluan language and may further threaten it as more Tuvaluans are removed from their isolated linguistic communities.

title: Tuvaluan language


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Talk:Erath County, Texas

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July 10, 2009
Hey, I guess I am the first one to 'edit and tell' about it. Today I just edited the land size of Falls County (the area of it in square miles, in land, and water) and I edited the cities and town section, and broke it down into two articles about the main towns in Falls County, Texas, and unincorporated communities in Falls County. Some of them don't have pages yet, which I will do later this afternoon. Underdog96 (talk) 17:05, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

Citizens of Falls County
Does anybody on Wikipedia live in Falls County? Underdog96 (talk) 17:05, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

I used to.--Gunner99 (talk) 00:35, 7 May 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 7 one external links on Falls County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx to http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100615184447/http://digital.library.okstate.edu:80/kappler/Vol2/treaties/com0554.htm to http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/VOL2/treaties/com0554.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120314204853/http://www.9key.com/markers/marker_detail.asp?atlas_number=5145001563 to http://www.9key.com/markers/marker_detail.asp?atlas_number=5145001563
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090403162815/http://www.marlintexas.com:80/history.htm to http://www.marlintexas.com/history.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120314204859/http://www.9key.com/markers/marker_detail.asp?atlas_number=5145011717 to http://www.9key.com/markers/marker_detail.asp?atlas_number=5145011717
 * Added tag to http://www.census.gov/popest/data/counties/totals/2015/CO-EST2015-alldata.html
 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html to http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov to http://factfinder2.census.gov

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External links modified
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I have just modified 10 external links on Falls County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://www.webcitation.org/603vHHbP4?url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48145.html to http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48145.html
 * Added tag to http://www.texasffa.org/%5Cdocs/2011%20Texas%20Farm%20Facts%209%2016.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100524144101/http://www.shsu.edu/~smm_www/History/ to http://www.shsu.edu/~smm_www/History/
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/VOL2/treaties/com0554.htm
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.marlintexas.com/history.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060912172901/http://saap.tnorr.com/ to http://saap.tnorr.com/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110409011728/http://www.mopac.org/history_mp.asp to http://www.mopac.org/history_mp.asp
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://factfinder2.census.gov/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100725201337/http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/unitdirectory/n1.htm to http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/unitdirectory/n1.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100725201237/http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/unitdirectory/hb.htm to http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/unitdirectory/hb.htm

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title: Talk:Falls County, Texas


text:
Talk:Fannin County, Texas

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I have just modified 3 one external links on Fannin County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx to http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx
 * Added tag to http://www.census.gov/popest/data/counties/totals/2015/CO-EST2015-alldata.html
 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fprod%2Fwww%2Fdecennial.html to http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov to http://factfinder2.census.gov

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External links modified
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I have just modified 3 external links on Fannin County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://www.webcitation.org/603vSb2OG?url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48147.html to http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48147.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://factfinder2.census.gov/

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title: Talk:Fannin County, Texas


text:
Talk:Fayette County, Texas

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 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX to http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html

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I have just modified 3 one external links on Fayette County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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 * Added tag to http://www.census.gov/popest/data/counties/totals/2015/CO-EST2015-alldata.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov to http://factfinder2.census.gov

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I have just modified 2 external links on Fayette County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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title: Talk:Fayette County, Texas


text:
Talk:Fisher County, Texas

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Longworth
Is Longworth, Texas in this county? If so, it needs a WP article. Badagnani 00:17, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
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I have just modified 3 one external links on Fisher County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20110531210815/http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx to http://www.naco.org/Counties/Pages/FindACounty.aspx
 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6YSasqtfX to http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130911234518/http://factfinder2.census.gov to http://factfinder2.census.gov

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External links modified
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I have just modified 3 external links on Fisher County, Texas. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://www.webcitation.org/6049e6tfO?url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48151.html to http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/48/48151.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://factfinder2.census.gov/

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title: Talk:Fisher County, Texas