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Queen Máxima of the Netherlands

Máxima (born Máxima Zorreguieta;    17 May 1971) is Queen of the Netherlands as the wife of King Willem-Alexander.

Argentine by birth, she worked in finance when she met Willem-Alexander, eldest son and heir apparent of Queen Beatrix, in 1999. They married in 2002, and became king and queen on the abdication of her mother-in-law on 30 April 2013. Máxima has promoted social integration of immigrants, LGBT rights, and financial inclusion. She and Willem-Alexander have three daughters, Princesses Catharina-Amalia, Alexia, and Ariane, who are first, second, and third, respectively, in the line of succession.

Early life and education

Máxima Zorreguieta  was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971. She is the daughter of Jorge Zorreguieta (1928–2017), who served as Secretary of Agriculture under General Jorge Rafael Videla during Argentina's last civil-military dictatorship (1976–1983), and his second wife, María del Carmen Cerruti (born 1944). She has two brothers, a sister (deceased), and three half-sisters by her father's first wife, Marta López Gil. She is named after her paternal great-grandmother Máxima Bonorino González (1874–1965), of Italian and Spanish descent. Originally from the Basque country, her ancestor carrying the Zorreguieta surname, José Antonio Sorreguieta y Oyarzábal Gamboa y Sagastume, migrated to Argentina around the year 1790. Maxima's father was a scion of the Zorreguieta family who had been landed gentry, professionals, regional politicians, and statesmen for generations. Her maternal great-grandfather was also from the landed gentry; Domingo Carricart Etchart (1885–1953) was a landowner, politician, Director of the Banco de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, first mayor of González Chaves, and mayor of Tres Arroyos. She also has Portuguese ancestry through her father's side, and is a descendant of King Afonso III of Portugal.

She grew up in the Recoleta neighbourhood of Buenos Aires and studied at Northlands School, a bilingual school of the city of Olivos. She graduated with a degree in economics from the Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina (UCA) in 1995. This private university is governed by a directory of local bishops, including the current Pope Francis, then Archbishop of Buenos Aires and Grand Chancellor of UCA. During her student years, Francis presided over the traditional Mass at the beginning of classes. She later completed her studies with a master's degree in the United States.

From 1989 to 1990, while still in college, she worked for Mercado Abierto Electrónico S.A. From 1992 to 1995, she worked in the sales department of Boston Securities SA in Buenos Aires, where she conducted research on software for financial markets. From July 1996 to February 1998, she worked for HSBC James Capel Inc. in New York City, where she became vice president of institutional sales for Latin America. From then until July 1999, she was vice president of the emerging markets division of Dresdner Kleinwort Benson in New York. From May 2000 to March 2001, she worked for Deutsche Bank in Brussels. She also worked as a teacher of English to children and adults, and of mathematics for high school students and freshmen.

Relationship with Willem-Alexander

Máxima met Willem-Alexander in April 1999 in Seville, Spain, during the Seville Spring Fair. In an interview, they stated that he introduced himself only as "Alexander", so that she did not know he was a prince. She thought he was joking when he later told her that he was the Prince of Orange and heir apparent to the Dutch throne. According to the unauthorised biography "Máxima. La construcción de una reina", she was invited to Seville by a friend living in New York who openly said she would introduce her to two European princes. They agreed to meet again two weeks later in New York, where Máxima was working for Dresdner Kleinwort Benson. Their relationship apparently began in New York.

The news of the couple's relationship and eventual marriage plans caused controversy in the Netherlands, due to the involvement of Máxima's father Jorge Zorreguieta as a cabinet minister during the National Reorganization Process, the most recent Argentine dictatorship. Her father's 1979-1981 tenure as a minister took place during the later stages of the Dirty War (1974–82), a period of repression that saw about 30,000 people killed or disappeared during the seven-year military regime. At the request of the States General, Michiel Baud, a Dutch professor in Latin American studies, carried out an inquiry into the involvement of Zorreguieta in the Dirty War. Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he was unaware of the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister. Baud determined that Máxima's father had not been directly involved in any of the numerous atrocities that took place during that period. However, Baud also concluded that Zorreguieta was almost certainly aware of them; in Baud's view, it was highly unlikely that a cabinet minister would not have known about them.

A television series Máxima Zorreguieta: Motherland will begin airing on Videoland in the Netherlands in April 2024. The series is set to focus on her early life in Argentina and meeting King Willem-Alexander.

Marriage and family
The couple announced their engagement on 30 March 2001; Máxima addressed the nation in Dutch (which at the time she only spoke at a basic conversational level) during the live televised broadcast. Máxima was granted Dutch citizenship by a royal decree on 17 May 2001 and now has dual citizenship: Argentine and Dutch. The engagement was formally approved by the States General later that year—a necessary step for Willem-Alexander to remain in line to the throne.

Máxima and Willem-Alexander were married on 2 February 2002 in a civil ceremony in the Beurs van Berlage, Amsterdam, which was then followed by a religious ceremony at Amsterdam's Nieuwe Kerk ("New Church"). Máxima's parents were not present at the wedding; her father was told he could not attend due to his role as a cabinet minister during the National Reorganization Process, and her mother chose not to attend without her husband.

The couple are the parents of three daughters:

Activities
Queen Máxima has a particular concern for the integration of immigrants into Dutch culture. She was a member of a special parliamentary commission which sought to recommend ways to increase the participation of female immigrants in the workforce. Máxima stresses the importance for immigrants of learning the Dutch language (as she did) in order to fully participate in Dutch society. Dutch is the Queen's third language; she is also fluent in Spanish (her native language) and English. She speaks French at a conversational level.

In 2007, Máxima inadvertently caused a wave of massive criticism when in a speech to the Scientific Council for Government Policy she said that in the seven years that she had been in the Netherlands, she had been unable to find the Dutch identity. Maxima is quoted as having said the following:

"... but 'the' Dutch identity? No, I have not found it. The Netherlands is: large windows without curtains so everyone can look in; but also adherence to privacy and coziness. The Netherlands is: one biscuit at tea; but also great hospitality and warmth. The Netherlands is: sobriety, control and pragmatism; but also the experience of intense emotions together. The Netherlands is far too diverse to summarize in one cliché. 'The' Dutchman does not exist. As a consolation I can tell you that 'the' Argentine also does not exist. I therefore find it very interesting that the title of the report of the Scientific Council for Government Policy is not 'the Dutch identity'. But: Identification with the Netherlands. That leaves room for development and diversity."

She participates in conferences around the world representing the Netherlands. She was granted a seat in the Dutch Council of State on 20 October 2004, the highest advisory body and court of administration. She was a member of the Committee for Ethnic Minority Women's Participation from July 2003 until 2005. She has a seat on the board of governors of the Chair on the Management of Diversity and Integration at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; she (along with her husband) is a patron of the Orange Fund (established to promote social welfare and cohesion in the Netherlands); and she also chairs the Board of Trustees of the Prince Claus Chair in Development and Equity of the International Institute of Social Studies and the University of Utrecht.

Máxima is one of the few members of royal families anywhere in the world to be an open supporter of gay rights, and was the first member of a royal family to attend an LGBT rights conference, having attended a conference concerned with LGBT rights on 5 March 2008.

Queen Máxima has been honorary chair of the Money Wise Platform since 2010. In this capacity, the Queen focuses attention on the importance of financial education and managing money sensibly, especially where children and young people are concerned. The Queen acts as special advisor to the Platform and consults with interested parties on ways of increasing people's financial awareness and resilience.

Since 10 June 2015, Queen Máxima has been the honorary chair of the Ambassadors for Music at School Platform. Queen Máxima has for some years been committed to giving as many children as possible the opportunity to create music.

Queen Máxima is a member of the Committee for Enterprise and Finance, which succeeded the Microfinance Council in 2011. The Queen is committed to extending the reach of various financing opportunities, both through coaching and by providing credit for new and existing small businesses in the Netherlands. She also works to increase the number of women entrepreneurs and the scope they have to expand their businesses.

Since March 2022 Queen Máxima is a Honorary President of "MIND Us" – a mental health platform created in collaboration with the MIND Foundation.

UNSGSA
Queen Máxima currently serves as the United Nations Secretary-General's Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development (UNSGSA). In September 2009 then UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon designated her to this role in order to raise awareness on the importance of inclusive financial systems for achieving economic and development goals such as poverty alleviation, food security and education. In her work as UNSGSA, the Queen focuses on how formal financial services such as savings, insurance, and credit can prevent people from falling into poverty due to expenditures on healthcare, and people who are not able to protect themselves against rising food prices and poverty because they do not have access to basic savings accounts. The role of the UNSGSA is to foster action by governments, private sector, financial system standard setters, and others towards a more inclusive financial system that works for the poor. In later years, her focus as a special advocate expanded to advocating digital financial inclusion, financial health, responsible technology for financial inclusion to support Sustainable Development Goals and agricultural finance. Máxima is also an advocate for increasing access to financial services, improving consumer protection and enhancing financial literacy. According to the UNSGSA website, she "aims to unlock development opportunities and economic inclusion for all."

Queen Máxima visited several countries on behalf of the United Nations. She also recorded a video for the launch of the Global Findex Database 2021. Queen Máxima is also the honorary patron of the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI) since June 2011. In this role she works with governments and partners to advance the G20 Action Plan on Financial Inclusion, and the G20 Financial Inclusion Peer Learning Program. Previously, the Queen was a member of the Advisors Group for the United Nations' International Year of Microcredit 2005 and until 2009, was a member of UN Advisors Group on Inclusive Financial Sectors. She also work as the Global Agenda Trustee for the World Economic Forum's Global Challenge Initiative on the Future of the Global Financial System. Máxima convened the CEO Partnership for Economic Inclusion.

Titles, honours and arms
By a decree issued on 25 January 2002, upon the solemnization of marriage, Máxima Zorreguieta was granted the titles Princess of the Netherlands and Princess of Orange-Nassau, and the style Royal Highness was formally conferred upon her. She also became "mevrouw van Amsberg" (Mrs. van Amsberg).

Another decree issued on the same day also granted her own personal coat of arms and a personal standard.

On 13 May 2011, the Dutch parliament confirmed that Máxima would become queen consort of the Netherlands upon her husband's accession, after a debate over her future title and style. On 28 January 2013, it was announced that Queen Beatrix would abdicate on 30 April in favour of Willem-Alexander. Máxima is the kingdom's first queen consort since Princess Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the second wife of William III. She is the first Dutch queen to have been born as a commoner, and the first to have been born outside Europe.

Royal titles and styles

 * 2 February 2002 – 30 April 2013: Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs. van Amsberg
 * 30 April 2013 – present: Her Majesty The Queen or Her Majesty Queen Máxima

Máxima's full title is: Her Majesty Queen Máxima, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau.

National

 * Netherlands:
 * Order of the Netherlands Lion ribbon - Knight Grand Cross.svg Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion of the Netherlands (2 February 2002)
 * Royal Wedding Medal 2002.gif Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Prince Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange and Máxima Zorreguieta
 * King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal 2013 - ribbon.svg King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)
 * NED Huisorde van Oranje A1 BAR.png Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange (6 May 2021)

Foreign

 * 🇦🇹 Austria: Grand Star of the Order of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium:
 * Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
 * Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
 * Brunei: Member of the Family Order of Laila Utama
 * 🇨🇻 Cape Verde: First Class of the Medal of Merit
 * 🇨🇱 Chile: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant
 * 🇪🇪 Estonia: Member 1st Class of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (5 June 2018)
 * 🇫🇷 France:
 * Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour (11 April 2023)
 * Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (20 January 2014)
 * 🇩🇪 Germany:
 * Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (5 July 2021)
 * Grand Cross 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (8 October 2007)
 * 🇬🇷 Greece: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (31 October 2022)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
 * 🇯🇵 Japan: Grand Cordon (Paulownia) of the Order of the Precious Crown
 * 🇯🇴 Jordan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance (20 March 2018)
 * 🇱🇻 Latvia: Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Three Stars
 * 🇱🇹 Lithuania: Grand Cross of the Order for Merits to Lithuania
 * 🇱🇺 Luxembourg:
 * Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico: Sash of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
 * 🇳🇴 Norway: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Olav
 * 🇴🇲 Oman: Member 1st Class of the Order of Sultan Qaboos
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: Knight of the Order of the White Eagle
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry
 * 🇸🇰 Slovakia: Member 1st Class of the Order of the White Double Cross (7 March 2023)
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea: Member 1st Class (Grand Gwanghwa Medal) of the Order of Diplomatic Service Merit (12 December 2023)
 * 🇪🇸 Spain:
 * Dame Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Charles III (26 March 2024)
 * Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic (19 October 2001)
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden:
 * Member of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (11 October 2022)
 * Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Polar Star (21 April 2009)
 * 🇦🇪 United Arab Emirates: Grand Cross of the Order of Union

title: Queen Máxima of the Netherlands


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Diophantine

Diophantine means pertaining to the ancient Greek mathematician Diophantus. A number of concepts bear this name:

 * Diophantine approximation
 * Diophantine equation
 * Diophantine quintuple
 * Diophantine set

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Diophantine


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Sally Hemings

Sarah "Sally" Hemings (c. 1773 – 1835) was a female slave with one-quarter African ancestry who was owned by president of the United States Thomas Jefferson, one of many he inherited from his father-in-law, John Wayles.

Hemings' mother was Betty Hemings, the daughter of a female slave and an English captain, John Hemings. Sally's father, the owner of Betty, John Wayles, was also the father of Jefferson's wife, Martha. Therefore, Sally was half-sister to Jefferson's wife and was of approximately three quarters English descent. Martha died during her marriage in 1782. In 1787, when she was 14, Sally Hemings accompanied Jefferson's daughter, also named Martha, to Paris where they joined Thomas Jefferson. There, Sally was a legally free and paid servant as slavery was not legal in France. At some time during her 26 months in Paris, the widower Jefferson is believed to have begun intimate relations with her.

As attested by her son, Madison Hemings, Sally later agreed with Jefferson that she would return to Virginia and resume her life in slavery, as long as all their children would be freed when they came of age. Multiple lines of evidence, including modern DNA analyses, indicate that Jefferson impregnated Hemings several times over years while they lived together on Jefferson's Monticello estate, and historians now broadly agree that he was the father of her six children. Whether this should be described as rape remains a matter of controversy by historians, as there's no evidence that Jefferson sexually assaulted her, but due to him having near-complete control over her life and that she was only 14 while he was 44, the conclusion that Jefferson was coercive is easily reached. Four of Hemings' children survived into adulthood and were freed as they came of age during Thomas Jefferson's life or in his will. Hemings died in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1835 in the home of her freed sons.

The historical question of whether Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children is the subject of the Jefferson–Hemings controversy. Following renewed historical analysis in the late 20th century, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation empaneled a commission of scholars and scientists who worked with a 1998–1999 genealogical DNA test that was published in 2000 that found a match between the Jefferson male line and a descendant of Hemings' youngest son, Eston Hemings. The Foundation's panel concluded that Jefferson fathered Eston and likely her other five children as well. A rival society was then founded, the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society, which commissioned another panel of scholars in 2001 that found that it has not been proven that Thomas Jefferson fathered Sally Hemings' children.

In 2018, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation of Monticello announced its plans to have an exhibit titled Life of Sally Hemings, and affirmed that it was treating as a settled issue that Jefferson was the father of her known children. The exhibit opened in June 2018.

Early life
Sally Hemings was born about 1773 to Elizabeth "Betty" Hemings (1735–1807), a female slave. Sally's father was their slave owner John Wayles (1715–1773). Betty's parents were another female slave, a "full-blooded African", and a white English sea captain, whose surname was Hemings. Annette Gordon-Reed speculates that Betty's mother's name was Parthena (or Parthenia), based on the wills of Francis Eppes IV and John Wayles. Captain Hemings tried to purchase them from Eppes, but the planter refused. Upon Eppes' passing, Parthena and Betty were inherited by his daughter, Martha Eppes, who took them with her as personal slaves upon her marriage to Wayles.

John Wayles was the son of Edward and Ellen (née Ashburner) Wayles, both from Lancaster, England. Following Martha's death, Wayles remarried and was widowed twice more. Several sources assert that, Wayles took Betty Hemings as his concubine, and had six children by her during the last 12 years of his life, the youngest of these being Sally Hemings. These children were younger half-siblings to his daughters by his wives. His first child, Martha Wayles (named after her mother, John Wayles' first wife), married the young planter and future president Thomas Jefferson.

The children of Betty Hemings and John Wayles were three-quarters European in ancestry and fair-skinned. According to the 1662 Virginia Slave Law, children born to slave mothers were considered slaves under the principle of partus sequitur ventrem: the enslaved status of a child followed that of the mother. Betty and her children, including Sally Hemings and all Sally's children, were legally slaves, even though the fathers were their white slave owners and the children were of majority-white ancestry.

After John Wayles died in 1773, his daughter Martha and her husband, Thomas Jefferson, inherited the Hemings family among a total of 135 slaves from Wayles' estate, along with 11000 acres of land. The youngest of the six Wayles-Hemings children was Sally, an infant that year and about 25 years younger than Martha. She, her siblings, their mother, and various other slaves were brought to Monticello, Jefferson's home. As the mixed-race Wayles-Hemings children grew up at Monticello, they were trained and given assignments as skilled artisans and domestic servants, at the top of the slave hierarchy. Betty Hemings' other children and their descendants, also mixed race, were bestowed privileged assignments, as well. None worked in the fields.

Appearance
The former slave Isaac (Granger) Jefferson described Hemings' physical appearance as "Sally was mighty near white..Sally was very handsome, long straight hair down her back ”. While Jefferson's grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph recalled her as "Light colored and decidedly good looking.”

Hemings in Paris
In 1784, Thomas Jefferson was appointed the American envoy to France; he took his eldest daughter Martha (Patsy) with him to Paris, as well as several of his slaves. Among them was Sally's elder brother James Hemings, who became a chef trained in French cuisine. Jefferson left his two younger daughters in the care of their aunt and uncle, Francis and Elizabeth Wayles Eppes of Eppington in Chesterfield County, VA. After his youngest daughter, Lucy Elizabeth, died in 1784, Jefferson sent for his surviving daughter, nine-year-old Mary (Polly), to live with him. The child slave, Sally Hemings, was chosen to accompany Polly to France after an older female slave became pregnant and could not make the journey. Correspondence between Jefferson and Abigail Adams indicates that Jefferson originally arranged for Polly to "be in the care of her nurse, a black woman, to whom she is confided with safety"; Adams wrote back: "The old Nurse whom you expected to have attended her, was sick and unable to come. She has a Girl about 15 or 16 with her."

In 1787, Sally, aged 14, accompanied Polly to London and then to Paris, where the widowed Jefferson, aged 44 at the time, was serving as the United States Minister to France. Hemings spent two years there. Most historians believe Jefferson and Hemings' sexual relationship began while they were in France or soon after their return to Monticello. The exact nature of their relationship remains unclear. The Monticello exhibition on Hemings acknowledged this uncertainty, while noting the power imbalance inherent in the relationship between a wealthy white male envoy and a 14-year-old quarter-black female slave. The president of the Thomas Jefferson Foundation said, "We really can't know what the dynamic was. Was it rape? Was there affection? We felt we had to present a range of views, including the most painful one." Hemings remained enslaved in Jefferson's house until his death in 1826. In 2017, a room identified as her quarters at Monticello, under the south terrace, was discovered in an archeological examination. It is being restored and refurbished.

Polly and Sally landed in London, where they stayed with Abigail and John Adams from June 26 until July 10, 1787. Jefferson's associate, a Mr. Petit, arranged transportation and escorted the girls to Paris. In a letter to Jefferson on June 27, 1787, Abigail wrote: "The Girl [who appeared to Abigail to be 15 or 16] who is with [Polly] is quite a child, and Captain Ramsey is of opinion will be of so little Service that he had better carry her back with him. But of this you will be a judge. She seems fond of the child and appears good natured." On July 6, Abigail wrote to Jefferson, "The Girl she has with her, wants more care than the child, and is wholy incapable of looking properly after her, without some superiour to direct her."

Sally Hemings remained in France for 26 months. Slavery had been abolished in that country after the Revolution in 1789; Jefferson paid wages to her and James while they were in Paris. He paid Sally Hemings the equivalent of $2 a month. In comparison, he paid James Hemings $4 a month as chef-in-training, and his Parisian scullion $2.50 a month; the other French servants earned from $8 to $12 a month. Toward the end of their stay, James used his money to pay for a French tutor and to learn the language, and Sally was also learning French. There is no record of where she lived: it may have been with Jefferson and her brother in the Hôtel de Langeac on the Champs-Elysées, or at the convent Abbaye de Penthemont where the girls Maria and Martha were schooled. Whatever the weekday arrangements, Jefferson and his retinue spent weekends together at his villa. Jefferson purchased some fine clothing for Hemings, which suggests that she accompanied Martha as a lady's maid to formal events.

According to her son Madison's memoir, Hemings became pregnant by Jefferson in Paris. She was about 16 at the time. Under French law, Sally and James could have petitioned for their freedom, but if she returned to Virginia with Jefferson, it would be as a slave. She agreed to return with him to the United States, based on his promise to free her children when they came of age (at 21). Hemings' strong ties to her mother, siblings, and extended family likely drew her back to Monticello.

Return to the United States and children's freedom

In 1789, Sally and James Hemings returned to the United States with Jefferson, who was 46 years old and seven years a widower. As shown by Jefferson's father-in-law, John Wayles, wealthy Virginia widowers frequently had sexual relations with female slaves. This would not have been seen as unusual for Jefferson either. White society simply expected such men to be discreet about these relationships.

According to Madison Hemings, Sally's first child died soon after her return from Paris. Hemings had six children after her return to the U.S.; their complete names are in some cases uncertain:
 * Harriet Hemings [I] (October 5, 1795 – December 1797)
 * Beverly Hemings, possibly William Beverley Hemings (April 1, 1798 – after 1873)
 * Daughter, possibly named Thenia Hemings after Sally's sister (born in 1799 and died in infancy)
 * Harriet Hemings [II] (May 1801 – Unknown)
 * Madison Hemings, possibly James Madison Hemings (January 19, 1805 – November 28, 1877)
 * Eston Hemings, possibly named Thomas Eston Hemings (May 21, 1808 – January 3, 1856)

Jefferson recorded births of slaves in his Farm Book. Unlike his practice in recording births of other slaves, he did not note the father of Sally Hemings' children.

Sally Hemings' documented duties at Monticello included being a nursemaid-companion, lady's maid, chambermaid, and seamstress. It is not known whether she was literate, and she left no known writings. She was described as very fair. She is believed to have lived as an adult in a room in Monticello's "South Dependencies", a wing of the mansion accessible to the main house through a covered passageway.

In 2017, the Monticello Foundation announced that what they believe to be Hemings' room, adjacent to Jefferson's bedroom, had been found through an archeological excavation, as part of the Mountaintop Project. It was space that had been converted to other public uses in 1941. Hemings' room will be restored and refurbished as part of a major restoration project for the complex. Its goals include telling the stories of all the families at Monticello, both slave and free.

Hemings never married. As a slave, she could not have a marriage recognized under Virginia law, but many slaves at Monticello are known to have taken partners in common-law marriages and had stable lives. No such partnership of Hemings is noted in the records. She kept her children close by while she worked at Monticello. According to her son Madison, while young, the children "were permitted to stay about the 'great house', and only required to do such light work as going on errands". At the age of 14, each of the children began their training: the brothers with the plantation's skilled master of carpentry, and Harriet as a spinner and weaver. The three boys all learned to play the violin, which Jefferson himself played.

In 1822, at the age of 24, Beverley "ran away" from Monticello and was not pursued. His sister Harriet Hemings, 21, followed in the same year, apparently with at least tacit permission. The overseer, Edmund Bacon, said that he gave her $50 ($1,131 in 2021) and put her on a stagecoach to the North, presumably to join her brother. In his memoir, published posthumously, Bacon said Harriet was "near white and very beautiful", and that people said Jefferson freed her because she was his daughter. However, Bacon did not believe this to be true, citing someone else coming out of Sally Hemings' bedroom. The name of this person was left out by Rev. Hamilton W. Pierson in his 1862 book because he did not wish to cause pain to anyone living at that time.

Jefferson formally freed two slaves while he was alive: Sally's older brothers Robert, who bought his freedom, and James, who was required to train his brother Peter for three years to get his freedom. Jefferson eventually (primarily posthumously, through his will) freed all of Sally's surviving children, Beverly, Harriet, Madison, and Eston, as they came of age. (Harriet was the only female slave Jefferson allowed to go free.) Of the hundreds of slaves he legally owned, Jefferson freed only five in his will, all men from the Hemings family. They were also the only slave family group freed by Jefferson. Sally Hemings' children were seven-eighths European in ancestry, and three of the four entered white society after gaining their freedom; their descendants likewise identified as white. His will also petitioned the legislature to allow the freed Hemingses to stay in the state.

No documentation has been found for Sally Hemings' own emancipation. Jefferson's daughter Martha (Patsy) Randolph informally freed the elderly Hemings after Jefferson's death, by giving her "her time", as was a custom. As the historian Edmund S. Morgan has noted, "Hemings herself was withheld from auction and freed at last by Jefferson's daughter, Martha Jefferson Randolph, who was, of course, her niece," as Sally was a half-sister to Martha's mother, Jefferson's deceased wife. This informal freedom allowed Hemings to live in Virginia with her two youngest sons in nearby Charlottesville for the next nine years until her death. In the Albemarle County 1833 census, all three were recorded as free persons of color. Hemings lived to see a grandchild born in a house that her sons owned.

Although Jefferson inherited great wealth at a young age, he was bankrupt by the time he died. His estate, including his slaves (besides the Hemings), was sold by his daughter Martha to repay his debts.

Jefferson–Hemings controversy

The Jefferson–Hemings controversy is the question of whether Jefferson impregnated Sally Hemings and fathered any or all of her six children of record. There were rumors as early as the 1790s. Jefferson's sexual relationship with Hemings was first publicly reported in 1802 by one of Jefferson's enemies, a political journalist named James T. Callender, after he noticed several light-skinned slaves at Monticello. He wrote that Jefferson "kept, as his concubine, one of his own slaves" and had "several children" by her. After that the story became widespread, spread by newspapers and by Jefferson's Federalist opponents. Jefferson himself is never recorded to have publicly denied this allegation. However, several members of his family did. In the 1850s, Jefferson's eldest grandson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, said that Peter Carr, a nephew of Jefferson, had fathered Hemings' children, rather than Jefferson himself. This information was published and became the common wisdom, with major historians of Jefferson denying Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children for the next 150 years.

In the late 20th century, historians began re-analyzing the body of evidence. In 1997, Annette Gordon-Reed published a book, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy, that analyzed the historiography of the debate, demonstrating how historians since the 19th century had accepted early assumptions. They favored Jefferson family testimony while criticizing Hemings family testimony as "oral history", and failed to note all the facts. A consensus began to emerge after the results of a DNA analysis,  commissioned in 1998 by Daniel P. Jordan, president of the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, which operates Monticello as a house museum and archive. The DNA evidence showed no match between the Carr male line, proposed for more than 150 years as the father(s), and the one Hemings descendant tested. It did show a match between the Jefferson male line and the Eston Hemings descendant.

Since 1998 and the DNA study, several historians have concluded that Jefferson maintained a long sexual relationship with Hemings and fathered six children with her, four of whom survived to adulthood. In an article that appeared in Science, eight weeks after the DNA study, Eugene Foster, the lead co-author of the DNA study, is reported to have "made it clear that Thomas was only one of eight or more Jeffersons who may have fathered Eston Hemings". The Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF) published in 2000 an independent historic review in combination with the DNA data, as did the National Genealogical Society in 2001; scholars involved mostly concluded Jefferson was probably the father of all Hemings' children.

In an interview in 2000, the historian Annette Gordon-Reed said of the change in historical scholarship about Jefferson and Hemings: "Symbolically, it's tremendously important for people ... as a way of inclusion. Nathan Huggins said that the Sally Hemings story was a way of establishing black people's birthright to America."

A vocal minority of critics, such as the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS, founded shortly after the DNA study), dispute Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children. All but one of 13 TJHS scholars expressed considerable skepticism about the conclusions. The TJHS report suggested that Jefferson's younger brother Randolph Jefferson could have been the father – the DNA test cannot distinguish between Jefferson males. They also speculate that Hemings might have had consensual or non consensual sexual relations with multiple men. Three of the Hemings children were given names from the Randolph (surname) family, relatives of Thomas Jefferson through his mother. Herbert Barger, the founder and director-emeritus of the TJHS and the husband of a Jefferson descendant, assisted Foster in the DNA study. By contrast, all but one member of the DNA Study Committee commissioned by TJF thought that the DNA and documentary evidence combined made it probable that Thomas Jefferson was the father of one or more of the Hemings children.

TJF committee participant W. McKenzie (Ken) Wallenborn wrote a late-1999 minority report disagreeing with some aspects of the committee's full report (not made public until 2000; TJF also published this dissent in 2000). While Wallenborn concurred with the validity of the genetic testing and with the documentary research collected, he disputed some of the interpretation, and concluded: "The historical evidence is not substantial enough to confirm nor for that matter to refute [Jefferson's] paternity of any of the children of Sally Hemings." He gave considerable weight to four pieces of non-genetic evidence. First are a pair of late letters of Jefferson to close associates which can be read as denials of adultery slanders spread by Federalist political enemies (though the letters do not specifically mention Hemings). Second is an unequivocal counterclaim made by Jefferson's foreman Edmund Bacon and published by H. W. Pierson (with the name of the alleged actual father redacted). Third is that Col. Thomas Jefferson Randolph, who was frequently in his grandfather Thomas Jefferson's household and who worked as his farm manager and was later his estate executor, was reported to have denied that any relations between Jefferson and any of the Hemings women existed, but claimed that resident nephew Peter Carr was involved with Sally, while her niece Betsey was openly the mistress of his brother Samuel Carr (though this account is third-hand). Finally, some materials claimed that Martha (Jefferson) Randolph and her sons demonstrated that Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings had been separated for some fifteen months before the birth of the son "who most resembled" Jefferson (presumed by Wallenborn to be Eston Hemings). In Wallenborn's view, it was thus quite possible that Sally Hemings bore children to multiple men in the Jefferson/Randolph/Carr clan, and that none of them was necessarily Thomas Jefferson, but that the children were just genetically close, a "Jefferson DNA Haplotype carrier" in at least one case. He conceded that the DNA results "enhance the possibility" of Jefferson's paternity of one or more of the Hemings children but do not prove it. This view is consistent with that expressed by the DNA study's lead, Eugene Foster, regarding what could or could not be concluded from the DNA evidence. While supporting TJF's continued education mission at Monticello, Wallenborn warned that "historical accuracy should never be overwhelmed by political correctness".

Lucia Cinder Stanton, writing for the majority of the committee, responded a month later with a rebuttal. She noted that the Jefferson, Bacon/Pierson, and Randolph material contained various ambiguities, partisanship, timeline errors, and contradictions or outright misrepresentations. She suggested that Madison Hemings probably knew who his father was, and there was no evidence that ghostwriter Wetmore injected fiction even if he polished the wording for print. She also indicated that the claim of a Jefferson–Hemings separation during one conception period cannot be sustained, and that Wallenborn did not correctly understand that material. Stanton stated outright that "Sally Hemings never conceived in Jefferson's absence." TJF president Jordan, though he had insisted on publication of the Wallenborn dissent, endorsed the Stanton rebuttal.

The next month, May 2000, the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) emerged: "a group of concerned businessmen, historians, genealogists, scientists, and patriots formed ... as a response ... to efforts by many historical revisionists to portray Thomas Jefferson as a hypocrite, a liar, and a fraud." The new group's opening press release specifically accused the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation (TJMF, now Thomas Jefferson Foundation, TJF) and its report of "shallow and shoddy scholarship ... to achieve an apparently desired conclusion."

Wallenborn (a former TJMF/TJF employee before his committee participate, and now a director of TJHS ) produced in June a heated follow-up reply to Stanton's rebuttal. He claimed that many scholars agreed with his version, and that Jordan had contradicted his support of Stanton's, having expressing skepticism of a Jefferson–Hemings affair in a PBS-TV documentary (though it is unclear if this was recorded before the DNA research and subsequent report). Wallenborn repeated many of his original points in more detail; bolstered the potential reliability of Bacon while casting doubt of that of the Madison-via-Whetmore memoir; and insisted again that "the son of Sally that most resembled Thomas Jefferson" surely meant Eston (without any new evidence). He added the argument that Madison Hemings' probable date of conception was close to that of the death of Jefferson's daughter Maria (arguably not a likely inspiration for sexual involvement); and that during Jefferson's presidency, Sally Hemings' exact whereabouts did not survive in any records. Wallenborn attempted to use two sets of records to show gaps in Jefferson's known location during some of the conception periods – but editorial interpolation of footnotes by Jordan with additional records closed those gaps in every case, supporting Stanton's claim. Wallenborn added another new observation, of what he called "some striking coincidences", that Sally Hemings' known pregnancies stopped, despite Thomas Jefferson's presence, after both his brother Randolph and Randolph's son Thomas married women outside Monticello, c. 1808 or 1809. Wallenborn accused TJF of rushing the report to finalization without accounting for his objections, and concluded his letter in a much more hostile tone than in his original minority report: "If the Thomas Jefferson Foundation and the DNA Study Committee majority had been seeking the truth and had used accurate legal and historical information rather than politically correct motivation" that it would have written "... it is still impossible to prove with absolute certainty whether Thomas Jefferson did or did not father any of Sally Hemings' five children" (emphasis in original). He continued: "This statement is accurate and honest and it would have helped discourage the campaign by leading universities (including Thomas Jefferson's own University of Virginia), magazines, university publications, national commercial and public TV networks, and newspapers to denigrate and destroy the legacy of one of the greatest of our founding fathers and one of the greatest of all of our citizens." TJF did not publish any further back-and-forth disputation.

In 2012, the Smithsonian Institution and the Thomas Jefferson Foundation held a major exhibit at the National Museum of American History: Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty; it says that "the documentary and genetic evidence ... strongly support the conclusion that [Thomas] Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings' children."

Children's lives
In 2008, Gordon-Reed published The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, which explored the extended family, including James's and Sally's lives in France, Monticello and Philadelphia, during Thomas Jefferson's lifetime. She was not able to find much new information about Beverley or Harriet Hemings, who left Monticello as young adults, moving north and probably changing their names.

Madison Hemings' memoir (edited and put into written form by journalist S. F. Wetmore in the Pike County Republican in 1873) and other documentation, including a wide variety of historical records, and newspaper accounts, has revealed some details of the lives of the Beverley and Harriet, and younger sons Madison and Eston Hemings (later Eston Jefferson), and of their descendants. Eventually, three of Sally Hemings' four surviving children (Beverley, Harriet, and Eston, but not Madison) chose to identify as white adults in the North; they were seven-eighths European in ancestry, and this was consistent with their appearance. Harriet was described by Edmund Bacon, the longtime Monticello overseer, as "nearly as white as anybody, and very beautiful". In his memoir, Madison wrote that both Beverley and Harriet married well in the white community in the Washington, D.C., area. For some time, Madison wrote to Beverley and Harriet and learned of their marriages. He knew that Harriet had children and was living in Maryland. But gradually she and Beverley stopped responding to his letters, and the siblings lost touch. Madison also claimed publicly in the 1873 memoir that he was Thomas Jefferson's son, and he had done likewise on the 1870 U.S. census.

Both Madison and Eston married free women of color in Charlottesville. After their mother's death in 1835, they and their families moved to Chillicothe in the free state of Ohio. Census records classified them as "mulatto", at that time meaning mixed-race. The census enumerator, usually a local person, classified individuals in part according to who their neighbors were and what was known of them. Around 60 years later, a Chillicothe newswriter reminisced in 1902 about his acquaintance with Eston (then a well-known local musician), whom he described as "a remarkably fine looking colored man" with a "striking resemblance to Jefferson" recognized by others, who had already heard a rumors of his paternity and were credulous of it.

High demand for slaves in the Deep South and passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 heightened the risk for free black people of being kidnapped by slave catchers, as they needed little documentation to claim black people as fugitives. Legally free people of color, Eston and his family later moved to Madison, Wisconsin, to be farther away from slave catchers. There he changed his name to "Eston H. Jefferson" to acknowledge his paternity, and all his family adopted the surname. From then on, the Jeffersons lived in the white community.

Madison's family were the only Monticello Hemings descendants who continued to identify with the black community. They intermarried within the community of free people of color before the Civil War. Over time, some of their descendants passed into the white community, while many others continued within the black community.

Both Eston and Madison achieved some success in life, were well-respected by their contemporaries, and had children who built on their successes. They worked as carpenters, and Madison also had a small farm. Eston became a professional musician and bandleader, "a master of the violin, and an accomplished 'caller' of dances", who "always officiated at the 'swell' entertainments of Chillicothe". He was in demand across southern Ohio. The aforementioned journalist neighbor in Chillicothe described him thus: "Quiet, unobtrusive, polite and decidedly intelligent, he was soon very well and favorably known to all classes of our citizens, for his personal appearance and gentlemanly manners attracted everybody's attention to him."

Madison's descendants
Madison's sons fought on the Union side in the Civil War. Thomas Eston Hemings enlisted in the United States Colored Troops (USCT); captured, he spent time at the Andersonville POW camp and died in a POW camp in Meridian, Mississippi. According to a Hemings descendant, his brother James attempted to cross Union lines and "pass" as a white man to enlist in the Confederate army to rescue him. Later, James Hemings was rumored to have moved to Colorado and perhaps passed into white society. Like some others in the family, he disappeared from the record, and the rest of his biography remains unknown.

A third son, William Hemings, enlisted in the regular Union Army as a white man. Madison's last known male-line descendant, William, never married and was not known to have had children. He died in 1910 in a veterans' hospital.

Some of Madison Hemings' children and grandchildren who remained in Ohio suffered from the limited opportunities for blacks at that time, working as laborers, servants, or small farmers. They tended to marry within the mixed-race community in the region, who eventually became established as people of education and property.

Madison's daughter, Ellen Wayles Hemings, married Alexander Jackson Roberts, a graduate of Oberlin College. When their first son was young, they moved to Los Angeles, California, where the family and its descendants became leaders in the 20th century. Their first son, Frederick Madison Roberts (1879–1952) – Sally Hemings' and Jefferson's great-grandson – was the first person of known black ancestry elected to public office on the West Coast: he served for nearly 20 years in the California State Assembly from 1919 to 1934. Their second son, William Giles Roberts, was also a civic leader. Their descendants have had a strong tradition of college education and public service.

Eston's descendants

Eston's sons also enlisted in the Union Army, both as white men from Madison, Wisconsin. His first son John Wayles Jefferson had red hair and gray eyes like his grandfather Jefferson. By the 1850s, John Jefferson in his twenties was the proprietor of the American Hotel in Madison. At one time he operated it with his younger brother Beverley. He was commissioned as a Union officer during the Civil War, during which he was promoted to the rank of Colonel and served at the Battle of Vicksburg. He wrote letters about the war to the newspaper in Madison for publication. After the war, John Jefferson returned to Wisconsin, where he frequently wrote for newspapers and published accounts about his war experiences. He later moved to Memphis, Tennessee, where he became a successful and wealthy cotton broker. He never married or had known children, and left a sizeable estate.

Eston's second son, Beverley Jefferson, also served in the regular Union Army. After operating the American Hotel with his brother John, he later separately operated the Capital Hotel. He also built a successful horse-drawn "omnibus" business. He and his wife Anna M. Smith had five sons, three of whom reached the professional class as a physician, attorney, and manager in the railroad industry. According to his 1908 obituary, Beverley Jefferson was "a likeable character at the Wisconsin capital and a familiar of statesmen for half a century". His friend Augustus J. Munson wrote, "Beverley Jefferson['s] death deserves more than a passing notice, as he was a grandson of Thomas Jefferson .... [He] was one of God's noblemen – gentle, kind, courteous, charitable." Beverley and Anna's great-grandson John Weeks Jefferson is the Eston Hemings descendant whose DNA was tested in 1998; it matched the Y-chromosome of the Thomas Jefferson male line.

There are known male-line descendants of Eston Hemings Jefferson, and known female-line descendants of Madison Hemings' three daughters: Sarah, Harriet, and Ellen.

Cultural depictions of Sally Hemings
Sally Hemings has been the main subject of a novel, a television mini-series, a stage play, two operas, and an operatic oratorio. She is also the subject of the second half of the film Jefferson in Paris. She has also appeared as a supporting character or a subject of discussion in many other shows and stage productions.

The power dynamic between Hemings and Thomas Jefferson is portrayed in Titus Kaphar's "Behind the Myth of Benevolence", a portrait of the founding father peeling back to reveal the nude figure of Hemings.

For young readers

 * Jane Feldman, Shannon Lanier, Jefferson's Children: The Story of One American Family: (Random House, 2001), for ages 10 and up
 * Kimberly Brubaker Bradley, "Jefferson's Sons": (Dial Books for Young Readers, 2011), historical fiction for ages 10 and up

title: Sally Hemings


text:
Joseph Ellis

Joseph John-Michael Ellis III (born July 18, 1943) is an American historian whose work focuses on the lives and times of the Founding Fathers of the United States. His book American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson won a National Book Award in 1997 and Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation won the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for History. Both of these books were bestsellers.

Education
He received his B.A. from the College of William and Mary, where he was initiated into Theta Delta Chi. He earned his M.A. and Ph.D. from Yale University in 1969, where Edmund S. Morgan directed his dissertation on the English writer Samuel Johnson. At William and Mary, Ellis was in ROTC.

Career
Ellis entered the United States Army in August 1969 and spent three years teaching history at the United States Military Academy at West Point before being discharged a captain in 1972. Ellis later joined the faculty at Mount Holyoke College. In 1979, he was made full professor and later became the Ford Foundation Professor of History. He has also taught at Williams College and in the Commonwealth Honors College at the University of Massachusetts. His scholarly work has concentrated on the Founding Fathers of the United States, including biographies of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington, the American Revolution, and the history of the Federalist Era, which lasted from 1788 to 1800.

Ellis served as dean of faculty at Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts from 1980 to 1990; following that, he was named by the trustees to the endowed Ford Foundation Chair in history. For part of 1984, he also served as the college's acting president while president Elizabeth Topham Kennan was on leave. Ellis was suspended without pay in 2001 after falsely telling his students that he had fought in the Vietnam War; he was reappointed to the chair four years later, in 2005. Ellis retired from Mount Holyoke in 2012.

Presidential biographies
Together with histories of the founding of the republic, since 1993 Ellis has written biographies about individual early presidents and, in 2010, a joint biography of John and Abigail Adams. Interested in how men shaped and were shaped by their times, he writes with a novelist's emphasis on character. Ellis is notable as a respected scholar whose work has also gained popular success; his biography of Jefferson and work on the Founding Fathers have been bestsellers, attaining sales of hundreds of thousands of copies. In 2004, the critic Jonathan Yardley wrote of him: "Ellis doubtless is now the most widely read scholar of the Revolutionary period, and thus probably the most influential as well—at least among the general public..."

John Adams
As a result of his research, Ellis believed that Adams was under-appreciated as president; he worked to reveal the man's contributions and character. His book, Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams, led to a revival of interest in Adams and new appreciation for his achievements.

Thomas Jefferson
In his book American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1996), Ellis explored the character and personality of Jefferson, and his many contradictions. He emphasized how important privacy was to him, and how the president and statesman preferred to work behind the scenes in politics, through letters, meetings and discussions over dinners. Ellis noted Jefferson's success in this style.

In relation to one of the major questions about his private life, whether Jefferson had a liaison with his slave Sally Hemings, Ellis suggested that evidence was "inconclusive." His deep analysis of Jefferson's character led him to conclude that the statesman did not have the liaison. Specifically, Ellis says in the appendix to American Sphinx: "Unless the trustees of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation decide to exhume the remains and do DNA testing on Jefferson as well as some of his alleged progeny, it leaves the matter a mystery about which advocates on either side can freely speculate... This means that for those who demand an answer the only recourse is plausible conjecture, prefaced as it must be with profuse statements about the flimsy and wholly circumstantial character of the evidence. In that spirit, which we might call the spirit of responsible speculation, after five years mulling over the huge cache of evidence that does exist on the thought and character of the historical Jefferson, I have concluded that the likelihood of a liaison with Sally Hemings is remote."

On November 5, 1998, Dr. Eugene Foster and his team published the results of Y-DNA analysis of Jefferson male-line descendants (he had no known male descendants but Y-DNA is passed on virtually unchanged through direct male-line descendants) and descendants of others reputed to be associated with him. Foster reported that DNA results showed a match between the Jefferson male line and the descendant of Eston Hemings. Given that and other historical evidence, they concluded that Thomas Jefferson was the father of Eston and probably of Sally Hemings' other children. The study showed no match between the Carr line, named by two of Jefferson's grandchildren as the father(s) of Hemings' children, and the Eston Hemings descendant, disproving the major alternative to Thomas Jefferson as father.

In interviews on The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer in November 1998 and Frontline's Jefferson's Blood in 2000, Ellis made public statements about his change of opinion following the DNA studies, saying he believed that Jefferson had a long-term relationship with Sally Hemings.

George Washington
In His Excellency: George Washington (2004), Ellis sought to penetrate myth and examine Washington during three major periods of his life. Ellis described how Washington's experiences in earlier leadership contributed to his actions and development as president. Ellis wrote that "we do not need another epic [Washington biography], but rather a fresh portrait focused tightly on Washington's character", which the critic Jonathan Yardley said he had achieved.

False claims of combat service and anti-war leadership
In June 2001, The Boston Globe revealed that Ellis had misled his students in lectures and the media about his role in the Vietnam War years. Ellis falsely claimed that he had been involved in protests in the civil rights movement and anti-war movement in the 1960s. He also repeatedly claimed to have fought in the Vietnam War. In one of his lectures, Ellis stated that he had been involved in helping to clear an area near My Lai shortly before a well-known massacre was carried out in the village. In a 2000 interview, he claimed to have been a platoon leader, a paratrooper in the 101st Airborne Division, and to have served on the staff of General William Westmoreland in Saigon. In actuality, although he had been in the U.S. Army, Ellis had never served in Vietnam at all.

Ellis issued a public apology in August 2001. He cited rumors at Mount Holyoke campus that he had served in Vietnam but would not talk about it because of some disturbing experience as something that led him to fabricate claims of service. He said that he had felt guilty about not actually serving in Vietnam. In the ensuing controversy, Mount Holyoke suspended him without pay for a year. He returned to the classroom at the end of that time. However, Ellis was prohibited from again teaching his course on the 1960s, during which most of his fabrications were made. In May 2005, Mount Holyoke restored his position as Ford Foundation Professor of History.

Personal life
Ellis currently lives in Western Massachusetts and Vermont with his wife Ellen Wilkins Ellis, and is the father of three adult sons.

Essays

 * long listing
 * "1776, the summer America was born", Salon.com, Jun 16, 2013
 * "Madison’s Radical Agenda", American Heritage, Winter 2010
 * "Inventing the Presidency", American Heritage, October 2004.
 * "Intimate Enemies" (John Adams and Thomas Jefferson), American Heritage, September 2000.

Editorials

 * "Tea party wants to take America back -- to the 18th century," Los Angeles Times, Op-Ed, October 15, 2013.
 * "A promise of unpredictability: Presidential candidates pledge a lot, but history says you can ignore most of it" - Los Angeles Times (Jan 2, 2008)
 * "What Would George Do?: Okay, He Never Saw a Chopper, but He Can Still Teach Us a Thing or Two." - Washington Post (Dec 23, 2007)
 * "Finding a Place for 9/11 in American History" - New York Times (Jan 28, 2006)

title: Joseph Ellis


text:
User:Kinnerc

 Monday 29 July  UTC

=Richard C.S. "Doc" Kinne=

Biography
I am Richard "Doc" Kinne. I live in East Somerville, MA. I am an Astronomical Technologist with great interest in Linux computer operating systems and variable star research.

I live with cat, Castor, and my boyfriend, Morgan, in Norfolk Flat, a small, pinkish duplex.

Academics
High School was spent at Rome (NY) Catholic High. I was semi active in the newspaper and yearbook.

Undergraduate years were spent at SUNY Oswego in NY where my major was Computer Science with a minor in Astronomy. I was active in the local TV media, WTOP-TV Ch. 10, as weather reporter, then weather director, and a Board member.

Graduate school was virtually done in Melbourne, AUS at Swinburne Technical University where I received a MSc. in Astronomy.

Current Activities

 * I own and operate Amateur Radio station KE1ML.
 * I study and practice Zen Buddhism and am also active in a local Unitarian-Universalist meetinghouse.
 * I am an Astronomical Technologist with the American Association of Variable Star Observers.

Wiki Career
I first began doing a bit of edits with Vikipedio, the Esperanto version of Wikipedia a few years ago. From there I moved to Wikipedia. I spent a bit of time involved in Wikinews starting in November, 2006 after seeing and being very impressed with Good Night, and Good Luck. Hey, everyone needs an inspiration.

The Blog
The Wiki Projects have a strict policy of a neutral point of view, and in this context NPOV is a wise, wise policy. However, as a human being, I have a hell of a lot of opinions. You can read them here on my LiveJournal.

Contact
The best way to contact me is by email. Try "kinnerc at gmail dot com"

-

Pages Worked On:

 * ALPO
 * Astronomy Cast
 * Clinton B. Ford
 * John Paul Wiggin
 * Slacker Astronomy
 * The Pluto debate
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Pages Created:

 * 367732 Mikesimonsen
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 * Pamela L. Gay
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title: User:Kinnerc


text:
Talk:Sally Hemings

Paternity of Sally Hemming's children and her alleged affair with Jefferson
As stated in the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Societies Report of the Scholars Commission, "Dr. Foster cooperated fully in our enquiry and has readily acknowledged that the DNA tests do not suggest that Thomas Jefferson was Eston's father as opposed to someone like his younger brother Randolph or one of Randolph's sons. Indeed, every knowledgeable authority we have consulted, including other scientists who conducted the tests, has denied that these tests could possibly have distinguished among the male members of the Jefferson family in determining the paternity of Eston Hemmings." The Dr. Foster in the quote being the man who administered the original DNA test which this article, and all other scholarly sources, cite as being the primary proof of Eston's paternity.

The claims that Jefferson began an affair with Hemmings in Paris are also disputed in the report, on the grounds that they originate from an interview with Hemmings second youngest son, Madison, and his 1873 interview with a "highly partisan" newspaper editor. The Scholars Report states that there are many problems with Madison's story, such as the fact that Madison could not have personally been witness to the information in the report and cites no source for his claims, as well as the fact that many unusual words in the interview match an 1802 political smear article written about Jefferson by a disreputable reporter.

There are many more claims in the Scholars Report which make a compelling case for casting the paternity of Eston Hemmings into doubt, and I will not repeat them all here. Yet, in spite of this scholarly disagreement on the topic, the opening of this article seems highly biased in favor of the belief that there is generally a scholarly consensus on the matter in favor, not just of the affair and not just of Jefferson being the father of Eston, but in fact of his being the father of many more children by Hemmings. The Report of the Scholars commission is placed at the very end of the introduction to the article, which I contend leads the uninformed reader to making a rash conclusion before they are even aware of its existence. Though I will not be so antagonistic as to make a hasty edit, I call for a review of the wording of this article and hope that moderators will eliminate any potential bias found herein, as well as subsequently reword the introduction so as to present a balanced view of the controversy which is not in danger of leading the general public into a dangerous assumption which lacks the necessary scholarly support. Procopius00 (talk) 23:01, 16 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sally Hemings


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Curt Sachs

Curt Sachs (29 June 1881 – 5 February 1959) was a German musicologist. He was one of the founders of modern organology (the study of musical instruments). Among his contributions was the Hornbostel–Sachs system, which he created with Erich von Hornbostel.

Biography
Born in Berlin, Sachs studied piano, music theory and composition as a youth in that city. However, his doctorate from Berlin University (where he was later professor of musicology) in 1904 was on the history of art, with his thesis on the sculpture of Verrocchio. He began a career as an art historian, but promptly became more devoted to music, eventually being appointed director of the Staatliche Instrumentensammlung, a large collection of musical instruments. He reorganised and restored much of the collection, and his career as an organologist began.

In 1913, Sachs saw the publication of his book Real-Lexicon der Musikinstrumente, probably the most comprehensive survey of musical instruments in 200 years. The following year, he and Erich Moritz von Hornbostel published the work for which they are probably now best known in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, a new system of musical instrument classification. It is today known as the Sachs-Hornbostel system. It has been much revised over the years, and has been the subject of some criticism, but it remains the most widely used system of classification by ethnomusicologists and organologists.

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Sachs was dismissed from his posts in Germany by the Nazi Party because he was a Jew. As a result, he moved to Paris, and later to the United States, where he settled in New York City. From 1937 to 1953 he taught at New York University, and also worked at the New York Public Library. In 1953, he was appointed adjunct professor at Columbia University, a post he held until his death in 1959. He was a member of the American Musicological Society and served as president from 1948 to 1950.

His numerous books include works on rhythm, dance and musical instruments, with his The History of Musical Instruments (1940), a comprehensive survey of musical instruments worldwide throughout history, seen as one of the most important. The long relationship he had with W. W. Norton & Company began with The Rise of Music in the Ancient World (1943). Although these works have been superseded by more recent research in some respects, they are still seen as essential texts in the field.

Sachs died in 1959 in New York City. In honor of Sachs' legacy, the American Musical Instrument Society established the Curt Sachs Award in 1983, which it gives each year to an individual who has made significant contributions to field of organology.

title: Curt Sachs


text:
Bateau-Lavoir

The Bateau-Lavoir ("Washhouse Boat") is the nickname of a building in the Montmartre district of the 18th arrondissement of Paris that is famous in art history as the residence and meeting place for a group of outstanding early 20th-century artists such as Pablo Picasso, men of letters, theatre people, and art dealers. It is located at No. 13 Rue Ravignan at Place Emile Goudeau, just below the Place du Tertre.

A fire destroyed most of the building in May 1970 and only the façade remained, but it was completely rebuilt in 1978.

History
Formerly a ballroom and piano factory, Bateau Lavoir was squatted and divided into 20 small workshops in 1889. Distributed along a corridor were small unheated rooms that shared a single source of water. The name "Le Bateau-Lavoir" was coined by French poet Max Jacob. The building was dark and dirty, almost seeming to be a scrap pile rather than a dwelling. On stormy days, it swayed and creaked, reminding people of washing-boats on the Seine River, hence the name.

The building stands on a small cobblestone square that was known as Place Ravignan. In 1911, it was rechristened Place Émile Goudeau for Émile Goudeau (1849–1906), a popular novelist, poet, and journalist who founded Les Hydropathes, a renowned and famous literary club. The square now has a Wallace fountain and is planted with horse chestnut trees.

Maxime Maufra (1863–1918) was the first noted artist to take up residence in Bateau-Lavoir, around 1890. Kees van Dongen and Pablo Picasso took up residence between 1900 and 1904. After 1904 more artists and writers moved in, including Otto van Rees, Amedeo Modigliani, Pierre Mac Orlan, Juan Gris, André Salmon, Pablo Gargallo, Max Jacob, Luigi Corbellini, and Pierre Reverdy.

It became an unofficial club that included artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Marie Laurencin, Modigliani, Jean-Paul Laurens, Maurice Utrillo, Jacques Lipchitz, María Blanchard, Jean Metzinger and Louis Marcoussis; writers Guillaume Apollinaire, Alfred Jarry, Jean Cocteau, Gustave Coquiot, Cremnitz (Maurice Chevrier), Paul Fort, André Warnod, Raymond Radiguet, and Gertrude Stein; actors Charles Dullin, Harry Baur, and Gaston Modot; and art dealers Ambroise Vollard, Clovis Sagot, Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, and Berthe Weill.

While residing at the Bateau-Lavoir, Picasso painted works such as Young Girl with a Flower Basket, and Garçon à la pipe (Boy with a Pipe) in 1905, and one of his most noted works, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon in 1907, considered by art historians as a proto-Cubist painting (the precursor of a movement that became known as Cubism).

Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, creative artists living at the Bateau-Lavoir and in the neighbourhood began moving elsewhere, mainly to Montparnasse.

Notable residents

 * Guillaume Apollinaire
 * Georges Braque
 * Jose De Creeft
 * Luigi Corbellini
 * Tibor Csernus
 * Kees van Dongen
 * Otto Freundlich
 * Pablo Gargallo
 * Juan Gris
 * Auguste Herbin
 * Max Jacob
 * Marie Laurencin
 * Pierre Mac Orlan
 * Maxime Maufra
 * Ksenia Milicevic
 * Igor Mitoraj
 * Amedeo Modigliani
 * Fernande Olivier
 * Pablo Picasso
 * Augusta Preitinger
 * Adya van Rees-Dutilh
 * Otto van Rees
 * Pierre Reverdy
 * Endre Rozsda
 * André Salmon
 * Ardengo Soffici

Notable events
In 1908, a celebration banquet for Henri Rousseau was organised in Picasso's studio in the Bateau-Lavoir.

One night, Amedeo Modigliani destroyed a number of his friends' paintings while in an alcoholic rage in the Bateau-Lavoir, according to memoirs of his daughter, Jeanne.

In popular culture
The Le Bateau-Lavoir is a featured setting in the 2018 season of Genius, which focuses on the life and art of Pablo Picasso.

It is also featured in the 1995 Éric Rohmer film Les Rendez-vous de Paris.

title: Bateau-Lavoir


text:
Talk:Back-formation

Untitled

 * The term is also often used by non-experts to include what, in the field of linguistics, is more accurately called a retronym.

The term back formation is used in the linguistics community as well. This statement isn't entirely accurate—Trevor Caira 14:08, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Ummm... Do I detect cross purposes? Whoever wrote the first comment seems to have suggested rightly that retronym and back-formation have different meanings that are frequently confused. As Trevor says, both are used in linguistics. However the distinction is subtle and the two meanings, though different are not mutually exclusive. JonRichfield (talk) 09:45, 11 May 2013 (UTC)

Orient/orientate
Fowler says both came from French "orienter", short in C18, long in C19.

 * Sometimes there is a forward-formation (Note: That is an example of a back-formation from "back-formation.") and then a back-formation: The verb "orient" produced the noun "orientation" that produced the verb "orientate" as a back-formation that means the same thing as "orient" and is now considered acceptable in British English (though it is still considered a mistake in American English).

Lousy article, folks.
Many of the "back-formations" listed here are not true back formations at all. I shall add a few of my own to the list at the bottom....

"Utopia" discussion problematic...
I'm not so sure of the accuracy of this section. "Utopia" is not genuinely Ancient Greek -- it was coined by Sir Thomas More in the 17th century. Although it's true that it would literally translate as "nowhere," as More described it, it was an idealized fantasy-land (akin to the more English expression "never-never-land"). So to use the word "utopia" or "utopian" to describe a perfect place, or perfection, isn't really due to reinterpretation of the word, or back-formation in particular. It's using the word in the sense with which it was intended.

I'm inclined to remove the paragraph. Any objections?
 * (No objections; deleted.) Ex0pos 17:07, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Isolate, donate
The examples donation and execution run counter to the definition of back-formation that is given in the first paragraph. The affix -tion was NOT "spuriously supposed" in these examples. The article needs to explain the difference between spuriously supposed affixes (like the holic in alcoholic) and legitimately supposed affixes (like the tion in donation and execution).-- Anon

The picture seems a little muddy here, particularly for isolate. Are we sure that isolate, as in "an isolate of ..." is back-formed from isolation and not derived from isolatum or some similar Latin form? Does this apply to any latinate verb ending in -ate, e.g., relate, inflate, gyrate, state (back-formed from station??) ...? What about similar forms with no corresponding -ation, e.g., date, rebate, debate, plate ...? If these are not back-formations, what's special about donate and isolate? -Dmh 16:09, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

 * These verbs (e.g. relate) are all formed from supine stems: the equivalent verb formed from the present stem is refer. Not all verbs of this kind end in "-ate", for example act, refract, resurrect, pollute and many others are also supine stem verbs. Such verbs are now an absolutely regular feature of the English language, and they can't all be back-formations or even mistakes: in many cases it simply wouldn't be possible to coin a verb from the present stem  (*done, *isole, *age, *refringe, *resurge, *pollue?).  Some, such as impact as a verb, clearly are neologisms (there is already a perfectly good present stem verb impinge), but the point of a back-formation is that it reconstructs a "root" that never existed.

 * I am not sure how or when English came to have all these supine stem verbs in the first place: neither French nor any of the other Romance languages has anything equivalent. My impression is that many date from the Tudor period, when there was a conscious attempt to Latinize the language.  They could have been coined through several different routes.

 * 1. In some cases, a noun or adjective derived from the Latin past participle already existed as a word in English, for example "act". This would then have been made into the verb "to act" (as in to take action) as so many nouns are, without any need to posit back-formation.

 * 2. In other cases, the pre-existing word was a noun of agency (which, in Latin, is always formed from the supine stem): examples are "actor" and "editor".   From these we get, as back-formations, "act" in its other sense (of what we do on the stage) and "edit", for the things an actor or an editor does.

 * 3. The question of "-tion" words is more complicated. These too, in Latin, are invariably formed from the supine and not the present stem. (The only exceptions in English are "reflection" and "connection"; and there is a strong argument for bringing these into line with the general rule by spelling them with an x.)  So cutting off the "-ion" to form an imaginary present stem may be a back-formation of sorts, but there is no class of "-ion" words genuinely formed from a present stem to act as a model for this.  "Resurrect", as mentioned in the first paragraph of the article, is therefore not a particularly good example.  (When people mis-spell the names of certain dogs as "Alsation" and "Dalmation" I often wonder how one alsates or dalmates :-) )

 * 4. Finally, in some cases Latin itself coined a verb from the supine stem of another verb, to denote intensity or repetition. For example canere is the verb for to sing, with supine cantum, but then there is the secondary verb cantare, to chant.  (In the same way, when we lend money we make a loan, but some people use a secondary verb to loan.  Similarly the liquid we use to marinate something in is a marinade, but cookery writers in magazines have coined the wholly unnecessary secondary verb to marinade.)  So English, in coining all these supine stem verbs, may simply be taking an established but rare usage in Latin and expanding it to the nth degree.

 * My feeling is that, while a few verbs may have crept into English by one or other of these routes, once they were established they soon came to be regarded as instances of a rule that any Latin verb may be turned into English by using the supine stem. A verb like "resonate" (as a substitute for the earlier present-stem verb "resound") is not a back-formation from a noun *"resonăte", "resonator" or "resonation", or derived from an imaginary Latin intensive *resonatare, but simply the standard way of rendering resonare into English.

 * I would therefore be in favour of removing "donate" and "isolate" as examples, but leaving "edit". Any objections?-- Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) 12:20, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

Not sure about this. Though, as you say, most -tion and -ssion words are formed from supines, there are some -ion words formed from present stems, e.g. "opinion" and "region". "Resurrection"-->"resurrect", and some others, may well have been formed on the analogy of these. That said, your 1. is the most likely route. In Elizabethan times it was a rule that (Latinate) verbs ending with t and d sounds did not add "-ed" to form a past participle. Thus an adjective like "deject" (meaning downcast) could then be interpreted as the past participle of a verb "to deject"; and then when the Elizabethan taboo had disappeared, it could generate a secondary past participle "dejected". I am not at all sure about your 4. "Cantare" (and "saltare") are probably shortened frequentatives, formed by adding "-itare" to the present stem (like "volitare", to flutter), rather than by adding "are" to the supine stem. Can any real Latin scholar comment?

 * I think your "Elizabethan rule" puts the cart before the horse. It was only after verbs like "deject" had already evolved that the adjective could be interpreted as a past participle and the "rule" established.  As with -tion words, there are no genuine examples of the "rule" to act as the model for the back-formed examples. --Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) 10:32, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

In some cases, the very same form has one historic and one back-formed use. For example, "process" (as in processed peas or data processing) versus "procéss" (walk in procession); "obsess" (this obsesses me) versus "obsess" (don't obsess about it).

Cherry
"Cherry" is not a back-formation of "cherise". It is the normal evolution of a word taken over from one language into another language, in this case in fact several languages have been influential: Late Latin "ceresia" via Old North French "cherise" into the ultimate English "cherry", through several intermediate forms. It is a natural development that happens to most words. A back-formation is a neologism created from an already existing original form of a word which by having affixes added takes on a new inflection. Dieter Simon 00:47, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Sure it is. This example is mentioned in morphology textbooks. This "natural evolution/development" is exactly backformation. The French form was borrowed as cherise, cheris with a final [z] sound. This [z] was subsequently reanalyzed as a plural suffix. Backformation. Compare the words pea, shay/chay (from French chaise/chaize), riches (from French richeise/richesce/richece/richesse). – ishwar  (speak)  02:40, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

-istics/-istry and -ist
Are comparative linguist and organic chemist considered back-formation? I think they are better described as subtraction, but I'm not sure. When you reanalyze editor as edit and -or, edit becomes basic and editor becomes a result of suffixation. However, comparative linguistics and organic chemistry remain basic even when comparative linguist and organic chemist are created. There's no reanalysis. - TAKASUGI Shinji 09:18, 13 April 2006 (UTC)
 * According to SIL's definition, subtraction must remove a segment from a root or a stem. Comparative linguist and organic chemist therefore should be considered back-formations. - TAKASUGI Shinji 11:32, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

 * linguist is not a backformation, rather linguist + -ic-s. Likewise, chemistry < chemist. But, chemist is a backformation from alchemist ( < alchemister).

 * There are different definitions of backformation. It has been mostly discussed as a historical word-formation process. Synchronically, it has been categorized as a sub-type of clipping by some. Basically, these (subtractive morphs or processes, backformation, clipping) are all similar in that they shorten word bases to create new lexemes. – ishwar  (speak)  05:34, 21 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I don't mean chemist and linguist are backformations. I mean organic chemist and comparative linguist are.  I know chemistry comes from chemist, but organic chemist comes from organic chemistry, not vice versa.  Anyway, I admit they are not prototypical backformations.  We may call them shortening by analogy.  Analogy also explains some odd-looking compounds, such as artificial florist and electric guitarist.  - TAKASUGI Shinji (talk) 01:20, 27 November 2007 (UTC)

Illiterate, or what?
The article says: "Some regard such divergence as incorrect, or as a mark of ignorance. Others assert that a language is determined by its usage and that strictly applying such a principle of correctness would render English a highly irregular blend of Anglo-Saxon, Latin, French and every other language from which it had ever borrowed." (Isn't it anyway??)

I think most people would judge different examples piecemeal, depending on how long the particular word has been in use. For example, I regard singulars such as "bicep", "specie" (except in the sense of "money in specie") and "serie" as unforgivably awful, but have no problem in accepting "asset" and "diplomat". As in most cases, the best advice is that of Pope: "Be not the first by whom the new are try’d, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside". -- Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) 13:47, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

dis- gruntled
Disgruntled is an adjective like saddened, not like sad, and 'gruntled' is a word. It's the past tense of the intransitive verb 'gruntle' "to grunt or sulk". The word 'gruntled' was always a mistake. The prefix dis- marks the verb transitive, and therefore allows someone to be disgruntled. One cannot be gruntled. Interestingly, 'gruntle' was back-formed to mean "cause to be more favorably inclined". RoseWill 11:16, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

Workaholic, Chocaholic etc.
Are words ending in 'aholic' (from alcoholic) truly "back-formations"? and if so, i'd like to see them listed... as they are truly annoying to language pedants. ;-)

 * I suppose that the suffix "-aholic" is a back-formation. But I don't think the composite words such as "workaholic" are, which is a pity because we need a list of words like this. --Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) 12:19, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Other imaginary suffixes are "-thon" (from Marathon) and "-gate" (from Watergate). These formations are often jocular, and I'm not sure where to fit them in this (or any other) article. --Sir Myles na Gopaleen (the da) 09:42, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Black-formation?
This surely is trolling? So-called black-formation, who is calling it so, does the term really exist? It needs citing its sources. A conjugated noun? Do we mean inflected noun, or uninflected noun? Perceived high degree of use in African-American pop culture? You really will have to tell us who established these facts. Conversate? If there is any substance to this, please re-enter with full citation of sources. Have rolled back and am waiting to be informed of these facts. Dieter Simon 00:54, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Dystopia/utopia
I'm not seeing dystopia as a backformation of utopia. Topia might be one, but then 1) I don't know of topia being used in English and 2) for all I know, topia is an actual Latin(?) word. --Badger151 05:21, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

dystopia is a backformation in the same way that cheeseburger and beefburger are - the incorrect assumption by whoever coined the term was that 'topia' was a suffix to which 'dys' could be added as a suffix. Adambrowne666 11:09, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Actually, maybe I should take that back - from the dystopia article, it seems 'topia' is kind of a legitimate suffix, so maybe it's not a backformation after all. Not sure what to think now. Adambrowne666 02:15, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

My least favorite back-formations
"Bicep" and "quadricep" - as if "biceps" and "quadriceps" are actually plural forms. GregorB (talk) 17:26, 20 August 2008 (UTC)

Part of speech
Back-formation is distinguished from clipping because they change the part of speech

Except that back-formation doesn't necessarily change the part of speech, as illustrated by the examples that derive a noun from a noun. 72.75.81.72 (talk) 20:27, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Not sure what you are saying: are you saying that back-formation can change its morphology whereas a clipping cannot? Or vice versa? Dieter Simon (talk) 23:19, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

Peace Back-formation
"...leading to the back-formation pea."

Is this correct? --Jwitch (talk) 12:45, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

Back-formation and Clipping
The article begins by distinguishing these two concepts, but does not make it clear enough that back-formation is completely unrelated to clipping. The reader is left with a sense that back-formation is a sort of sub-category of clipping, which is quite incorrect. Clipping is a phonological reduction of an existing form, where back-formation is the creation of a spurious derivation based on a false analogy, as in, where "administrate" would be a back-formation from "administration". Clipping, on the other hand, requires no such thing This is why back-formation can change the part of speech (though it need not), while clipping cannot. The former is analysis (though incorrect) while, the latter is simple abbreviation. Fader (talk) 16:17, 5 March 2010 (UTC)

I don't understand...
Don't worry, I do actually understand the article! It's just I've seen someone I know use "derstand" as a comical opposite of "understand" (with "un" usually being a negative affix, of course). I'm wondering how well-known this one is and if it deserves a mention in the article, if only due to "understand" being a rather common verb. Thanks, Ը२ձւե๓ձռ17 21:37, 15 April 2010 (UTC)

It's a weak one, if you ask me, mainly because it's obviously not an actual case. The "administrate" case I mention above is actual language on the hoof - I actually had to edit that out of a letter written by the CEO of the company I was working for at the time. There are plenty of good examples, I don't see any reason why this spurious case would need to go in. But it's your encyclopedia, put it in if you think it goes in. --Fader (talk) 03:10, 23 November 2010 (UTC)

"derstand"!? This is terrible. It would be funnier if the person said that he overstands

Southern and Northern blotting
What about the terms denoting nucleic acid hybridization? First, hybridization of DNA was invented by Prof. Edwin Southern and termed Southern blotting. Later, hybridization of RNA was developed and termed, correspondingly, Northern blotting. Zwyciezca (talk) 03:44, 16 June 2011 (UTC)

Disdain, desdeign
Judging from the etymology of "disdain," the example from Scrubs is not true back-formation. "Deign" is a word, and though it is spelled differently in the modern spelling of "disdain," it means to "regard as worthy" or to respect. From that word is derived the word "disdain." So if the script of Turk's line was spelled "deign," then he would not be inventing a word.Cdg1072 (talk) 20:19, 1 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Ware folk etymology!!! Deign is (eventually) from Latin dignus. The derivation has nothing to do with modern spelling and neither word was derived from the other; the origin of deign is fairly remote from that of dain, dis or not. In my ignorance I had long regarded "dain" as a joke, like gruntle, but in response to the foregoing comments I looked it up in my trusty Oxford and was richly rewarded as follows (scan lightly edited for readability):
 * Dain, sb. ME. [Syncope f. dedain, Disdain sb.]
 * 1. Disdain -1591.
 * 2. Stink. Still dial.
 * So Dain a. haughty; stinking.
 * Dain v. to disdain.
 * Dainful a. disdainful.
 * Interestingly, like gruntle/disgruntle, dain/disdain are not opposites. The first time I saw this was in Mad magazine in the 1950s (I think! It just MIGHT have been Cracked, but I doubt it.) Interviewee when asked "why ... you disdain xyz" replied "...I do not at all dain dis xyz..." and I thought that he had inverted the parity of his negatives, but now I am reamused to see that ad- or abvertently, his construction was quite correct. Of course, the question of the back-formation is more complicated -- lexicographically back-formation has nothing to do with it, but in everyday comic use I reckon dain must have been back-formed repeatedly, almost routinely. JonRichfield (talk) 09:35, 11 May 2013 (UTC)

Back-formation in more morphological regular languages?
Is back-formation something that it is considered in languages that are more morphologically regular for given sets of lexemes, or does it tend to just be classed as "back-formation" in languages that have inherited a set of lexemes that is internally consistent, but that do not themselves fit into the morphology of the wider target language (like English can be with certain Latin/Greek lexemes)? — Sasuke Sarutobi (talk) 18:37, 31 August 2017 (UTC)

Galvanization
Is galvanization correctly described as a "back-formation", or is it something else?

Luigi Galvani discovered 'animal electricity' and the ability to make non-living animal tissue move by applying an electric current to it. This gave rise to a widespread early 19th century field of Galvanism, the largely quackery pseudo-medical 'science' of applying electricity to the living for fun and profit. This was so successful that it led a paint maker, who had discovered a new and effective means of rustproofing iron, to term it 'galvanic paint', despite having no evident connection to Galvani's work or to Galvanism. It was a success and the rustproofing technique based on applying a zinc coating is still widespread today under the name galvanisation. Yet Galvani had no part in this, and the name is a most indirect formation from Galvani's.

Thanks for any linguistic pointers. Andy Dingley (talk) 19:22, 15 January 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Back-formation


text:
Talk:The Pluto debate

is this page necessary? Couldn't we merge it into the article on Pluto, which isn't that long? Objections, before I forge ahead? -- Tarquin

 * I live in New York, where de Sopranos are gonna go on parade wit da mayor, and I say whack it! --Ed Poor

 * I also live in New York, and would rather not model my behavior on that of fictional criminals. Nonetheless, I don't feel strongly about whether the article should be separate. I've made some revisions and additions, but they can be folded in with the other Pluto stuff. Vicki Rosenzweig

 * I'm completely baffled by what Ed said. O_o -- Tarquin

 * I agree. Moving this material over to Pluto's main article. Bryan

title: Talk:The Pluto debate


text:
Auseklis Ozols

Auseklis Ozols (born September 22, 1941) is a Latvian-born American artist and professor based in New Orleans. Ozols has been active in the fields of oil painting, watercolor painting, ink, and photography.

Biography
Auseklis Ozols was born in Strenci, Latvia in 1941. He moved to the U.S. with his family in 1950. Ozols graduated in 1961 from the Trenton School of Industrial Arts. In 1965, Ozols went on to earn a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the University of Pennsylvania and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, before receiving a Master of Fine Arts in 1969 from Temple University.

Ozols moved to New Orleans in 1970, where he married Gwendolyn Laan; they had three daughters. Gwendolyn Laan Ozols died in 1980.

Inspired by Thomas Eakins and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Ozols founded the New Orleans Academy of Fine Arts in 1978. Ozols also designed The Academy Gallery, located inside the New Orleans Academy of Fine Arts. The school is still in operation today.

Ozols’ works have been included in public and private collections internationally. In New Orleans, he has received the Delgado Award from the New Orleans Museum of Art, the Strength in Age Award, and the Community Arts Award from the Arts Council of New Orleans. His works have been displayed at the Louisiana Governor's Mansion, the New Orleans Museum of Art, the New Jersey State Museum, and the Latvian Museum of Art in Riga, Latvia.

Ozols lost the sight of his right eye in 2012, but continues to paint and teach. He retired from his work with the New Orleans Academy in 2020. Noteworthy students of Ozols include Kate Samworth and Matt Rinard.

title: Auseklis Ozols


text:
Super

Super may refer to:

Computing

 * SUPER (computer program), or Simplified Universal Player Encoder & Renderer, a video converter / player
 * Super (computer science), a keyword in object-oriented programming languages
 * Super key (keyboard button)

Film and television

 * Super (2005 film), a Telugu film starring Nagarjuna, Anushka Shetty and Ayesha Takia
 * Super (2010 Indian film), a Kannada language film starring Upendra and Nayantara
 * Super (2010 American film), a film written and directed by James Gunn, and starring Rainn Wilson and Elliot Page
 * "Super" (Person of Interest), an episode of the TV series Person of Interest

Music

 * Super (Jão album), 2023
 * Super (Pet Shop Boys album), 2016
 * "Super" (Cordae song), a 2021 song by American rapper Cordae
 * "Super (1, 2, 3)", a 2000 song by Italian DJ Gigi D'Agostino
 * "Super" (Neu! song), a 1972 song by German band Neu!
 * "Super" (Seventeen song), a 2023 song by South Korean band Seventeen

Other uses

 * Hillary Super, American business executive
 * Súper, a Spanish professional footballer
 * Super!, an Italian television network
 * Super (company), film distributor
 * Super (gamer) (born 2000), professional Overwatch player
 * Building superintendent, a manager, maintenance or repair person, custodian, or janitor
 * Pension (abbreviation of superannuation)
 * Supernumerary actor, the stage equivalent of an extra in film
 * Suomen lähi- ja perushoitajaliitto or SuPer, Finnish Union of Practical Nurses
 * Zab Judah or Super, American boxer
 * .38 Super, a pistol cartridge
 * The "Super", Teller's H-bomb idea, a thermonuclear fusion bomb ignited by a smaller fission bomb
 * Super.com, an American technology company

title: Super


text:
Natural (disambiguation)

Natural is an adjective that refers to nature.

Natural or The Natural(s) may also refer to:

Music

 * Natural sign, a musical notation
 * Natural (group), an American boy group

Albums

 * Natural (Crystal Kay album), originally titled Crystal Kay, 2003
 * Natural (The Mekons album), 2007
 * Natural (Orange Range album), 2005
 * Natural (Peter Andre album) or the title song (see below), 1996
 * Natural (The Special Goodness album), 2012
 * Natural (T-Square album), 1990
 * The Natural (Haystak album), 2002
 * The Natural (Mic Geronimo album) or the title song (see below), 1995
 * The Naturals, by Catherine, or the title song, 2007

Songs

 * "Natural" (Imagine Dragons song), 2018
 * "Natural" (Peter Andre song), 1997
 * "Natural" (S Club 7 song), 2000
 * "The Natural" (song), by Mic Geronimo, 1995
 * "Natural", by D'Masiv from Persiapan, 2012
 * "Natural", by Howard Jones from Human's Lib, 1984
 * "Natural", by InMe from Overgrown Eden, 2003
 * "Natural", by P-Model from Potpourri
 * "Natural", by Woody, 2019
 * "Natural", by Zayn from Icarus Falls, 2018

Sports and games

 * Butch Reed (1954–2021), or "The Natural", American professional wrestler
 * The Naturals, an American professional wrestling duo
 * Northwest Arkansas Naturals, a Minor League Baseball team
 * Natural (gambling), in some games of chance, a specific type of good outcome
 * Natural, a style of bidding in contract bridge

Other uses

 * Natural (4GL), an Adabas programming language
 * Natural (archaeology), a sediment containing no evidence of human activity
 * The Natural, a 1952 novel by Bernard Malamud
 * The Natural (film), a 1984 adaptation of Malamud's novel
 * The Naturals (book series), a 2013–2017 series of young adult novels by Jennifer Lynn Barnes

title: Natural (disambiguation)