text:
Napalm Death

Napalm Death are an English grindcore band formed in Meriden, West Midlands in 1981. None of the band's original members have been in the group since 1986, but since Utopia Banished (1992), the lineup of bassist Shane Embury, guitarist Mitch Harris, drummer Danny Herrera and lead vocalist Mark "Barney" Greenway has remained consistent through most of the band's career. From 1989 to 2004, Napalm Death were a five-piece band after they added Jesse Pintado and Mitch Harris as replacements for guitarist Bill Steer. Following Pintado's departure, the band reverted to a four-piece.

The band is credited as pioneers of the grindcore genre by incorporating elements of crust punk and death metal, using a noise-filled sound that uses distorted, down-tuned guitars, grinding overdrive bass, high-speed tempo, blast beats, vocals that consist of incomprehensible growls or high-pitched shrieks, extremely short songs, and sociopolitical lyrics. The band's debut album Scum, released in 1987 by Earache Records, proved substantially influential throughout the global metal community. According to the Guinness World Records, their song "You Suffer" is the shortest song ever recorded, at 1.316 seconds long.

Napalm Death have released sixteen studio albums, and are listed by Nielsen SoundScan as the seventh-best-selling death metal band in the United States. According to former vocalist Lee Dorrian, Scum and From Enslavement to Obliteration (1988) have sold a combined total of 400,000 copies worldwide.

Early history (1981–1986)
Napalm Death were formed in the village of Meriden near Coventry, in the United Kingdom, in May 1981 by Nic Bullen and Miles Ratledge while the duo were still in their early teenage years. The duo had been playing in amateur bands since 1980 as an extension of their fanzine writing, and went through a number of names (including "Civil Defence", "The Mess", "Evasion", "Undead Hatred" and "Sonic Noise") before choosing Napalm Death in mid 1981. The band were initially inspired by the early wave of punk bands, particularly the anarcho-punk movement (a subgenre of punk music focused on anarchist politics), and associated groups such as Crass.

The first stable line-up of the group consisted of Nicholas Bullen on bass and lead vocals, Simon Oppenheimer on guitars, and Miles Ratledge on drums, and lasted from December 1981 to January 1982. Graham Robertson joined on bass in January 1982. Simon Oppenheimer left the group in August 1982 and was replaced by Darryl Fedeski who left the group in October 1982: at this point, Graham Robertson began to play guitar and Finbarr Quinn (ex-Curfew) joined on bass and backing vocals. The group played concerts throughout 1982 (playing their first concert on 25 July 1982 at Atherstone Miners Club) and 1983 (sharing billing with anarcho-punk groups such as Amebix, The Apostles and Antisect), and made four demo recordings in 1982 and 1983, one of which contributed their first released recording to the Bullshit Detector Volume 3 compilation released by Crass Records in 1984. The band entered a period of hiatus from the end of 1983 onwards, playing only one concert in 1984 (a benefit for striking mine workers) with additional vocalist Marian Williams (ex-Relevant POS, and sister of the drummer of the group Human Cabbages from Coventry, UK). During this period, Nic Bullen met Justin Broadrick, a guitarist from Birmingham with whom he shared an interest in the music of bands such as Killing Joke, Throbbing Gristle, Crass, Amebix, Swans, and the developing power electronics scene. Bullen joined Broadrick's Final project for a period in 1983.

In July 1985, Napalm Death briefly reformed in order to appear at a concert at the Mermaid in Birmingham which was also notable as the last concert by Final. The group consisted of a four-piece line-up of Miles Ratledge on drums; Bullen - performing vocals, bass and guitar; Graham Robertson on guitar and bass, and Damien Errington on guitar. After this concert, Miles Ratledge and Bullen asked Broadrick to join Napalm Death as guitarist, with Bullen as vocalist and bass player. The band began to develop a musical style which blended elements of post-punk (particularly Killing Joke and Amebix), heavy hardcore punk in the vein of Discharge, and thrash metal (with particular reference to Possessed and extreme metal group Celtic Frost).

The group played their first concert as a trio on 31 August 1985 (playing two concerts on the same day: Telford with Chumbawamba and Blyth Power, and Birmingham with We've Got a Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It), and began to play regularly in the Birmingham area (particularly at The Mermaid public house in the Sparkhill area of Birmingham) with a wide range of musicians including Icons of Filth, Concrete Sox, The Varukers, Indecent Assault, Decadence Within, and The Groundhogs.

In September 1985, Peter Shaw (ex-Autism) joined on bass. The four-piece line-up recorded Hatred Surge (the band's fifth demo recording) on 23 October 1985 which the band made available at their concerts and by mail. Following the recording of the demo, Bullen and Broadrick wished to extend their exploration of a more extreme musical style which created a split in the group with Ratledge: as a result, the group splintered and Mick Harris (a local fan) was asked to join as drummer in December 1985.

The trio – Bullen on vocals and bass, Broadrick on guitar and Harris on drums – made their first performance on 15 December 1985 and went on to play many concerts in 1986, predominantly in the Birmingham area, with musicians such as Amebix, Antisect, Chaos UK, Varukers, Disorder and Dirge. The group recorded a sixth demo, From Enslavement to Obliteration, on 15 March 1986, which the group made available at their concerts and through mail, before making a seventh recording later that year, Scum, which was provisionally intended to form part of a split LP with the English hardcore band Atavistic on Manic Ears Records. This recording later became the first side of the band's debut album Scum in 1987.

The band then faced a number of line-up changes. Nic Bullen was becoming frustrated with the musical direction of the group, and began to lose interest as a whole: as a result, Jim Whiteley was asked to join as bass player. The band played a number of concerts as a four-piece before Justin Broadrick left the group to play drums for local band Head of David. The group attempted to find a new guitarist by asking Shane Embury (ex-Unseen Terror and a fan of the group) to join and giving a trial period to Frank Healy (ex-Annihilator, later of Cerebral Fix and Sacrilege). After Broadrick's departure, Nic Bullen's dissatisfaction with the musical direction of the group led him to leave the group in December 1986 (in order to focus on his studies in English Literature and Philosophy at university), leaving the group without any of its original members.

Scum and From Enslavement to Obliteration (1987–1989)
With the departure of Broadrick and Bullen, the remaining members started looking for people who could fill in the roles. Guitarist Bill Steer played in a death metal band based in Liverpool called Carcass, and given the affinity between the two, he joined Napalm Death while still playing an active role in the former. They had also asked another friend, Coventrian (Lee Dorrian), to join as vocalist due to his good relationship with the group, even though he had never been in a band before. This line-up recorded the B side of the Scum LP at Rich Bitch studios in early May 1987, and the album was released through Earache Records.

The band promptly lost another member just after they undertook a short tour after the release of Scum. Jim Whiteley left the group (and subsequently joined Weston-Super-Mare based band Ripcord with whom the aforementioned tour had been shared) and Shane Embury (former drummer of Unseen Terror) moved to bass. The band then appeared on two compilation records ('North Atlantic Noise Attack' and the 'Pathological Compilation'), recorded two Peel sessions and a split 7-inch with Japanese band S.O.B. They also returned to Rich Bitch studio once more and recorded their second album: From Enslavement to Obliteration.

A follow-up release to "Enslavement..." came in the form of the six song 12-inch EP "Mentally Murdered", which was to be the last recording with the Harris/Steer/Dorrian/Embury line-up. This EP was recorded at the Slaughterhouse Studios and took on a slightly different sound, blending grindcore with death metal. Following the release, Napalm Death were featured on national television in the United Kingdom in a heavy metal special by Arena (BBC 2).

The band continued to tour, but as soon as they came back home from Japan, in July 1989, Steer and Dorrian left the band: Steer decided to dedicate himself full-time to Carcass, while Dorrian formed the doom metal group Cathedral. The group recruited Jesse Pintado (ex-Terrorizer) on guitar and Mark "Barney" Greenway (ex-Benediction) as vocalist. This line-up took part in the Grindcrusher tour organised by Earache Records and featuring fellow label-mates Carcass, Bolt Thrower and Morbid Angel. The group recruited Mitch Harris (ex-Righteous Pigs) as second guitarist after the tour.

Rise to success (1990–1994)
In Florida, the group began work on Harmony Corruption. Corruption saw stylistic changes from the band, exhibiting blast beats and slower tempos. Death metal was a greater influence on Corruption than previous records. Following the record's release, Live Corruption, a live recording of the band's 30 June 1990 performance at the Salisbury Arts Centre, was released in 1992.

Negative fan reactions to Corruption and accusations of selling out, compelled the band to reconsider its stylistic changes. The group entered Eddie Van Dale's Violent Noise Experience Club in March 1991 to record six new tracks. The songs produced by this session and released on the "Mass Appeal Madness" 12-inch LP exhibited a much more "raw" quality, again finding favour with fans. This recording, along with the "Mentally Murdered" 12-inch, the split 7-inch with S.O.B. and live tracks from Live Corruption, were released on Death by Manipulation. Drummer Mick Harris - the only remaining member of the Scum lineup - eventually left Napalm Death due to conflicts with the rest of the group over changes in its stylistic direction. Danny Herrera, a close friend of Jesse Pintado, was brought in as the new drummer. Herrera's drumming style has been noted for its uniqueness; being described as "Euroblast", a variant of blast beat in which simultaneous eighth notes are played on the ride cymbal and kick drum, with alternate eighth notes added on the snare drum. The addition of Herrera would be the last major line-up change of the band, save for Jesse Pintado's future absence, which has yet to be filled (and vocalist Phil Vane never recorded with the band).

Napalm Death released the album Utopia Banished in 1992, produced by Colin Richardson. This release was a kind of "return to the roots" - grindcore. After recording The World Keeps Turning EP, the band toured Europe with Dismember and Obituary on the "Campaign for Musical Destruction" tour. They then toured the US with Sepultura, Sacred Reich and Sick of It All. The proceeds of Napalm Death's 1993 EP Nazi Punks Fuck Off were donated to anti-fascist organisations. This EP was inspired by Napalm Death touring South Africa during 1993, which was particularly controversial given that the band faced a lot of opposition from many white supremacists following the end of Apartheid.

The band remixed the track "Mind of a Razor" by London-based hip hop crew Gunshot. The remixed version of the track appeared on the EP of the same name in 1992. Thereafter, they went to the studio and recorded Fear, Emptiness, Despair, which was released on 31 May 1994. The album represented a stylistic transition for Napalm Death. Fear, Emptiness, Despair maintained the complex music structures of their previous albums Utopia Banished and Harmony Corruption, but there was a greater emphasis placed on incorporating elements of groove into the band's style, resulting in a wider use of mid-paced music. Bassist Shane Embury recounts that Helmet and their album Strap It On influenced the band's style at the time, as they did many other heavy metal bands during the 1990s. Live concerts with Entombed, Obituary and Machine Head followed the album's release.

Diatribes, Greenway's departure and return (1995–1999)
Their EP Greed Killing was released through Earache in December 1995, followed by the album Diatribes in January 1996. There was greater animosity between the band during this time, with a rift between Greenway and the remainder of the band, especially over the band's stylistic transition and the interference of background presences in the band, exemplifying the former when he stated that the band were "letting go of what made the band special". Greenway was hence expelled from the band later in 1996, and went to record with fellow grindcore act Extreme Noise Terror (ENT) on their release Damage 381. Greenway has stated that following his expulsion he was "devastated" and did not want to commit to ENT in fear of a repetition of the events that took place within Napalm Death.

ENT's vocalist Phil Vane replaced Greenway in Napalm Death. Alas, Shane Embury stated that Vane "couldn't pull off what was required. It was a hard day when I had to pull Phil aside and tell him it just wasn't working. We had been too much into doing our own thing to acknowledge all of the parts that made the Napalm machine tick. I quickly made the call and asked Barney if he would rejoin—time away certainly gave all of us the chance for reflection, regrets and hopes for the future. He was surprised by the material, as it was heavy and some of the songs were fast—I don't know what he really expected us to do!". Following Vane's departure, Greenway returned and the band released the album Inside the Torn Apart on 3 June 1997. An EP and music video were released for the album's track "Breed to Breathe" on 17 November 1997.

The album Words from the Exit Wound followed this, being released on 26 October 1998. The album was their last to be produced by Colin Richardson, who Embury believes hindered the album's creation, ultimately affecting the album's success. Embury has stated that bands such as Nasum influenced the album, and in Embury's view, this album represented a turning point in the band's sound, stating "it was also a turning point in us moving towards rediscovering our roots." Embury also mentioned that following the album's release, the band found it hard to tour due to restricted budgets from their record label, but Cradle of Filth and Nick Barker were able to alleviate this problem.

In 1999 the band made an appearance on Chris Evans' TFI Friday, playing three songs on a set lasting 59 seconds.

Departure from Earache and the departure of Pintado (2000–2004)
The band acrimoniously departed from Earache Records following Words from the Exit Wound and later released Enemy of the Music Business on the record label, Dream Catcher, on 25 September 2000; which showed the band's anger with the music industry and especially with Earache, whilst also incorporating a greater grindcore influence than on their previous few albums. The album was produced jointly by Simon Efemey and Russ Russell, the latter of whom has since been a long-time collaborator with Napalm Death.

Order of the Leech continued with the previous album's style, being released on 21 October 2002, also being produced jointly by Efemey and Russell. In 2003, Embury and Hererra formed the side-project Venomous Concept with Kevin Sharp and Buzz Osborne, and that group has since released four albums. In 2004, Napalm Death recorded a covers album called Leaders Not Followers: Part 2, the sequel to their earlier covers EP. It contains covers of old hardcore punk and heavy metal bands, including Cryptic Slaughter, Massacre, Kreator, Sepultura, Siege and Discharge. Due to personal problems, Jesse Pintado did not play on either Order of the Leech or Leaders Not Followers: Part 2, and left the band in early 2004. Nevertheless, Pintado stated that he left because he grew tired of Napalm Death and wanted to start something new. The two guitars that you hear is Mitch double-tracking.

The Code Is Red... and Time Waits for No Slave (2005–2010)
In April 2005, their next album The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code was released. It features guest appearances from Jeffrey Walker (Carcass), Jamey Jasta (Hatebreed vocalist) and Jello Biafra (formerly of Dead Kennedys, and Lard among many other bands). The album continued the band's progressive approach to their brutal brand of extreme metal, with their trademark grindcore sound retained. Also in 2005, Embury and Herrera joined the extreme metal band Anaal Nathrakh for one tour.

Napalm Death finished recording their follow-up album titled Smear Campaign in June 2006, and it was released on 15 September 2006 to strong reviews from fans and critics alike. The main lyrical focus is criticism of the United States Government and other governments who are strongly religious. The album features a guest appearance by Anneke van Giersbergen, vocalist for the Dutch rock band The Gathering. There is a limited edition digipak version of Smear Campaign, which has two new songs, "Call That an Option?" and "Atheist Runt". They played a series of headline shows in support of the release including the Koko in Camden with Gutworm.

In early 2006 Napalm Death headlined a tour with Kreator, A Perfect Murder, and Undying. On 27 August 2006, Jesse Pintado died in a hospital in the Netherlands due to liver failure, prompting Mitch Harris to express his sadness at the loss of someone he thought of as "a brother" on the band's official website. After the Smear Campaign tour, the band did a 2007 "World Domination Tour". Bassist Shane Embury is currently working on a project with Mick Kenney of Anaal Nathrakh, their work together will be released on FETO Records at the end of 2007. In November 2008, Napalm Death's fourteenth studio album, entitled Time Waits for No Slave, leaked onto the internet; it was officially released on 23 January 2009. Similar to Smear Campaign, Time Waits For No Slave also had a digipak version containing two extra songs ("Suppressed Hunger" and "Omnipresent Knife in Your Back").

Utilitarian and Apex Predator – Easy Meat (2011–2016)
In February 2011, Napalm Death appeared in an episode of E4's Skins. Napalm Death entered Parlour Studio in Kettering, with producer Russ Russell to begin working on a new album. Also in 2011, they recorded the single "Legacy Was Yesterday". Napalm Death released their fourteenth studio album, Utilitarian, on 27 February 2012 in Europe and 28 February in North America via Century Media. In March 2012, Napalm Death headlined the Metal Mayhem IV festival organized by "Defenders of Metal" in Nepal. This was the first time Napalm Death played in Nepal.

Napalm Death were scheduled to play a special one-off show at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, on 22 March 2013. The show was eventually cancelled at the Victoria and Albert Museum, due to concerns that the noise levels could damage parts of the museum. The show was relocated to the De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill, and was performed on 29 November 2013. The performance was a collaboration with ceramicist and Victoria and Albert Artist in Residence Keith Harrison. The show featured 10 large-scale wooden speakers filled with liquid clay that were left to solidify. When the band began to play, the clay inside the speakers was expected to vibrate, causing the speakers to crack and eventually explode. The actual performance was considered anticlimactic, as the speakers withstood the sonic vibration.

In April 2014, the band released a cover of the Cardiacs' song "To Go Off and Things" via Bandcamp. All proceeds from the single went towards Cardiacs frontman Tim Smith's recovery from a simultaneous heart attack/stroke he suffered in 2008. The band announced on 5 November 2014, via Facebook that due to an illness in the family, Mitch Harris would be taking a hiatus from the band, to be replaced by various guitarists on their tour. Napalm Death's fifteenth studio album, Apex Predator – Easy Meat, was released on 26 January 2015. On 4 July, a Nepal Charity Event track from the Apex Predator sessions called "Earth Wire" was released on their page.

Throes of Joy in the Jaws of Defeatism (2017–present)
In August 2017, it was announced that Napalm Death entered the studio to begin recording their sixteenth studio album for an early 2018 release. In September, frontman Mark "Barney" Greenway spoke to Australia's Sticks for Stones condemning the announcement and stated that no material was being worked on at the moment but was in the "preliminary stages". He then said that it would not be released until later next year. In an interview at Download Festival in June 2018, Greenway confirmed that guitarist Mitch Harris would appear on the new album, which was not expected to be released until 2019, but did not know if he would tour with them again. Bassist Shane Embury confirmed in a March 2019 interview with Extreme Metal Festival News that Harris "did come over and record guitars on the new record" and Greenway has "nearly recorded all his vocal parts." He added, however, that the album will not be released before early 2020.

Napalm Death (along with Lamb of God, Anthrax, and Testament) opened for Slayer on their final North American tour in the summer of 2018. In October 2019, Shane Embury announced that he would be unable to join the band during their North American Tour. Vernon Blake was announced as substitute live bassist.

An EP titled Logic Ravaged by Brute Force was released on 7 February 2020. The band released their sixteenth studio album, Throes of Joy in the Jaws of Defeatism, in September 2020.

Political views
The band espouse anarchism, humanism, socialism and animal rights.

Napalm Death congratulated the president of Indonesia, Joko Widodo, a fan of the band, on their Facebook fan page; however, after the Bali Nine and the Lindsay Sandiford case, he came under fire from the band, as well as many others within the metal scene, after their appeals for clemency were ignored.

Members
Current members
 * Shane Embury – bass, backing vocals (1987–present)
 * Mark "Barney" Greenway – lead vocals (1989–1996, 1997–present)
 * Mitch Harris – guitars, backing vocals (1989–present; studio/session only since 2014)
 * Danny Herrera – drums (1991–present)

Current touring musicians
 * John Cooke – guitars (2014–present), bass (2012) , backing vocals (2012, 2014–present)

Former members
 * Nicholas "Nik Napalm" Bullen – lead vocals (1981–1986), bass (1981–1983, 1984–1985, 1985, 1985–1986) , guitar (1982–1985, 1985, 1986–1987)
 * Miles "Rat" Ratledge – drums (1981–1985)
 * Simon "Si O" Oppenheimer – guitars (1981–1982)
 * Graham "Grayhard" Robertson – guitars (1982–1985), bass (1982–1983, 1984–1985)
 * Daryl "Daz F" Fedeski – guitars (1982)
 * Finbar "Fin" Quinn – bass (1983–1984)
 * Marian Williams – vocals (1984)
 * Damien Errington – guitars (1985)
 * Justin Broadrick – guitars, backing and lead vocals (1985–1986)
 * Peter "P-Nut" Shaw – bass (1985)
 * Mick Harris – drums, backing vocals (1985–1991)
 * Jim Whitely – bass (1986–1987)
 * Frank Healy – guitars (1987)
 * Bill Steer – guitars (1987–1989)
 * Lee Dorrian – lead vocals (1987–1989)
 * Jesse Pintado – guitars (1989–2004; died 2006)
 * Phil Vane – lead vocals (1996–1997; died 2011)

Former touring musicians
 * Vernon Blake – bass (2015, 2019–2020)
 * Erik Burke - guitars (2015)
 * Jesper Liveröd – bass (2017)

Studio albums

 * Scum (1987)
 * From Enslavement to Obliteration (1988)
 * Harmony Corruption (1990)
 * Utopia Banished (1992)
 * Fear, Emptiness, Despair (1994)
 * Diatribes (1996)
 * Inside the Torn Apart (1997)
 * Words from the Exit Wound (1998)
 * Enemy of the Music Business (2000)
 * Order of the Leech (2002)
 * The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code (2005)
 * Smear Campaign (2006)
 * Time Waits for No Slave (2009)
 * Utilitarian (2012)
 * Apex Predator – Easy Meat (2015)
 * Throes of Joy in the Jaws of Defeatism (2020)

Skins
In the E4 teen comedy-drama Skins, the seasons 5-6 character Rich Hardbeck (Alex Arnold) is a metalhead whose self-proclaimed favourite band is Napalm Death. In the show's fifth season finale, a special appearance from Napalm Death's Mark "Barney" Greenway featured a scene in which he and Rich have a heart-to-heart. Regarding the band's appearance, Barney stated, "'One thing that bothers me about TV is the way that teenagers are portrayed. It's down to the f--king Daily Mail's war on teenagers. They stigmatize young kids and it's bulls--t. The thing I like about Skins is it gives a genuine perspective on growing up. That's why we agreed to do this show.'"

title: Napalm Death


text:
EPCOT (concept)

The Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow, shortened to EPCOT or E.P.C.O.T., was an unfinished concept for a planned community, intended to sit on a swath of undeveloped land near Orlando, Florida. It was created by Walt Disney in collaboration with the designers at Walt Disney Imagineering in the 1960s. Based on ideas stemming from modernism and futurism, and inspired by architectural literature about city planning, Disney intended EPCOT to be a utopian autocratic company town. One of the primary stated aims of EPCOT was to replace urban sprawl as the organizing force of community planning in the United States in the 1960s. Disney intended EPCOT to be a real city, and it was planned to feature commercial, residential, industrial, and recreational centers, connected by a mass multimodal transportation system, that would, he said, "Never cease to be a living blueprint of the future".

Following Disney's death in 1966, EPCOT plans were shelved. In 1971, Walt Disney World emerged, with EPCOT opening in 1982 as a theme park and influencing the nearby community of Celebration, Florida. Elements from the original EPCOT vision endured, shaping aspects of the modern Disney World park, such as the Monorail System and the Utilidor system.

History
"EPCOT will take its cue from the new ideas and new technologies that are now emerging from the creative centers of American industry. It will be a community of tomorrow that will never be completed but will always be introducing, testing, and demonstrating new materials and systems. And EPCOT will always be a showcase to the world for the ingenuity and imagination of American free enterprise. — Walt Disney, describing the genesis of EPCOT" Forerunners of Disney's EPCOT plan include Tomorrowland in Disneyland, which already featured monorails and People Movers, and the Monsanto House of the Future (1957), which was designed by architects from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Architect/planner Victor Gruen's plans to convert the site of the 1964 New York World's Fair was also a significant influence on EPCOT, Disney Imagineer Marty Sklar said. Concerned with the "urban crisis" of the time, which he believed was one of the biggest problems facing society, Disney also consulted urban planning literature, including books by Ebenezer Howard, founder of the architectural "garden city movement", and Victor Gruen.

Location
Numerous locations were proposed for EPCOT, including St. Louis, Niagara Falls, Washington D.C., New Jersey, and New York City's World Fair site. Disney also considered incorporating an experimental city into his plans for a Palm Beach, Florida development with RCA and investor John D. MacArthur in 1959. Eventually, Central Florida was chosen. Commenting on the choice, Disney said, "Here in Florida we've enjoyed something that we've never enjoyed at Disneyland: a blessing of size. There's enough land here to hold all the ideas and plans we could possibly imagine." The plans for "The Florida Project", officially dubbed Disney World, called for a Disneyland-style theme park and resort area, EPCOT, an industrial park, an airport, and an entrance complex.

Disney quietly purchased undeveloped wetlands in Osceola County and Orange County using dummy corporations to avoid price gouging. By June 1965, Disney had acquired 27,433 acres—twice the size of Manhattan—for an estimated $5.1 million ($0 in ). Walt Disney had planned to announce Disney World on November 15, 1965, publicly. Still, after the Orlando Sentinel broke the story of Disney's land purchase, Disney asked then-Florida Governor Haydon Burns to confirm the story on October 25. His announcement boasted that the new theme park would be, "The greatest attraction in the history of Florida." The official announcement was made on the previously planned November 15 date, with Disney joining Burns in Orlando for the press conference. Dissatisfied with the zoning regulations he had to deal with in Anaheim, Disney developed the Reedy Creek Improvement District (RCID) for the property. With the approval of the Florida legislature and the governor, as enshrined in the Reedy Creek Improvement Act, the District had most of the powers of a Florida county.

The EPCOT film
To lobby the Florida legislature to approve the RCID and persuade American industries to participate in the project, a short film was shot at the Walt Disney Studios on October 27, 1966, two months before Disney's death. Written by Marty Sklar and directed by Ham Luske, the 25-minute film is hosted by Disney, who explains the plans for Disney World, focusing on how EPCOT would interrelate with other aspects of the property. The film, utilizing concept art and highly technical animation, was a start to the conceptualization of EPCOT. The EPCOT philosophy, as it became known, included showcasing the development, testing, and use of new materials and ideas from American industries to find solutions to urban problems. EPCOT would always be in a state of becoming, the philosophy detailed, focusing on the needs and happiness of residents, and generating demand for new technologies. The film was screened for Florida legislators on February 2, 1967. On May 18, 2004, the film, entitled Walt Disney Treasures: Tomorrow Land, was released.

Master plan and community site
Disney personally sketched a master plan for the Florida property known as the Seventh Preliminary Master Plot Plan, in 1966, the year of his death. The main features of the plan include the Magic Kingdom, hotels, camps and motels, convention facilities, EPCOT and a satellite community, a golf course, a "swamp ride", an industrial park, a tourist trailer camp, a main entrance, and a "jet airport". In addition, a monorail runs the length of the property.

Visitors would enter at the southern end of the property and be shuttled by monorail to the Disney World Welcome Center. There, they would be welcomed by "cast members" able to speak the guests' languages. Visitors would re-board the monorail to arrive at the industrial park. There, guests would ride people-movers to see warehouses and research and development laboratories from American industry. Walt hoped visitors could take ideas back home to improve their communities. After visiting the industrial park, the monorail would take the guests to EPCOT, where they would arrive under the central city.

The community
The EPCOT city, according to the concepts presented in the EPCOT film, was based on a radial plan, a design inspired by the garden city movement of urban planning. Based on a concept similar to the layout of Disneyland Park, the city radiates out like a wheel from a central core. The urban density of the area would decrease as the city stretched out.

The dome

In an article by famed architectural historian Ada Louise Huxtable, "Out of a Fair, A City", which appeared in Horizon magazine in May 1960, Huxtable discusses architect Gruen's vision for a plastic dome over an international bazaar in the central city. There had been much speculation about a dome for EPCOT over the years. Gruen's plan may have been an influence.

An official of the Reedy Creek Improvement District recalled that a dome would pose fire safety issues. None of the Imagineering artwork shows the international shopping center open to a dome. However, the Florida Film does include a dome "enclosure". Walt Disney died in December 1966, while much of the EPCOT source material was produced in 1967. It is difficult to separate what Walt outlined and what was published in 1967. Architect Jon Jerde stated that a glass dome over 50 acres would have been "daunting" due to its cost. Walt Disney was known for striving for the impossible, which may explain the plan for a dome.

Walt Disney talked about the Houston Astrodome and a New York Times article mentioned a dome. The dome was likely another element Walt was wrestling with the complications and difficulties of construction before his death.

Transportation
The city would be connected to the other points in Disney World with a main line of transportation—the monorail. Walt Disney introduced the Disneyland Monorail in 1959. The monorail would cut through the center of the city, connecting EPCOT with the northern and southern points of the Disney World property.

Internal transportation would be provided by a new Disney transportation concept, the WED way People Mover. The system uses motors located between the tracks to propel vehicles along a pair of steel rails. People Mover cars would transport residents from the metropolitan center to the outer residential areas. The People Mover concept was first demonstrated at Disneyland's Tomorrowland in 1967. The People Mover was also installed at the Magic Kingdom as the WED Way People Mover in 1975.

Because of these two modes of transportation, residents of EPCOT would not need cars. If a resident-owned a car, it would be used "only for weekend pleasure trips." The streets for cars would be kept separate from the main pedestrian areas. The main roads for both cars and supply trucks would travel underneath the city core, eliminating the risk of pedestrian accidents. This was also based on the concept that Walt Disney devised for Disneyland. He did not want his guests to see behind-the-scenes activity, such as supply trucks delivering goods to the city. Like the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World, all supplies are discreetly delivered via tunnels.

The two systems, the monorail, and People Mover, would come together at the EPCOT Transportation Lobby. The Transportation Lobby would be located at ground level, above the busy automobile/truck roads. From the Lobby, a passenger riding the monorail from the Magic Kingdom Park to their home would disembark the monorail and transfer to the appropriate People Mover station.

Beyond EPCOT, the Airport of Tomorrow, situated opposite the Main Entrance, was planned to connect to the park via a monorail station.

The planned airport would have had a general aviation area with an executive terminal, and another for regional passenger travel with a large terminal building. Plans identified the airport in 1966 but were not present in the revised plans in the later 1970s.

City center
EPCOT's downtown and commercial areas would have been located in the central core of the city, away from the residential areas. The entire downtown would have been completely enclosed, unaffected by the outside elements. Roy Disney stated that "The pedestrian will be king" in this area, free from the danger of cars and other vehicles.

At the center of the area would be a 30-story Cosmopolitan Hotel and Convention Center. This building was to have been the tallest in Disney World and could have been seen for miles. The parking lot for hotel guests would have been located underneath the city core, right off of the vehicle throughway.

On the "roof" of the enclosed area would be the recreational area for hotel guests. The pool, tennis courts, basketball courts, shuffleboard, and other activities would have been located here. According to Imagineer Bob Gurr, Walt Disney pointed to one of the benches on the scale model of the area and declared, "This is where Lilly [his wife] and I will sit when this thing is finished, taking everything in".

Surrounding the hotel, inside the enclosure, would have been "shops and restaurants that reflect the culture and flavor of locations 'round the world." According to the concept art, these areas would be themed to resemble each country, having the look and feel of each of the exotic locales. This concept eventually evolved into the World Showcase area of the Epcot theme park. The PeopleMover track would travel above these downtown shops and streets similarly as the system did in Disneyland. The preliminary plan indicated that the people who would have worked in these shops would have also lived in the city.

Green belt
Separating the city core from the low-density residential area would be an expanse of grass areas, known to the planners as the "green belt." This is where the city services would be located. Establishments such as parks with playgrounds, community centers, schools, stadiums, and churches would be located here.

Residential areas
On the rim of the city core would have been high-density apartment housing. This is where most of EPCOT's 20,000 citizens would have lived. Not much is discussed about the apartments themselves, although Walt Disney stated that no one in EPCOT would own their land. There would be no difference between an apartment and a home. All renting rates would be modest and competitive with the surrounding market. Housing would be constructed in such a way as to ensure ease of change so that new ideas/products could be used. A person returning from a hard day's work could very well come home to a kitchen with brand-new appliances in it.

Beyond the Green Belt were the low-density, single-family house neighborhoods. These areas would have resembled the petals on a flower, with the houses located on the rim of each "petal". Inside the "petal" was a vast green area. The area would have had paths for electric carts, light recreation areas for adults, and play areas for children. The People Mover station for each area would have also been located in the green area. The resident could simply walk to the station from their home and on to work. As with the apartments, the houses would be built to be easily changed.

Living and employment
As no one living in EPCOT would own their own land or home, residents would have no municipal voting rights (bond issues, etc.). Walt Disney wanted to exercise this control only to be able to change technology in homes easily.

According to the film, all adults living in EPCOT would be employed, thereby preventing the formation of slums and ghettos. There would be no retirees—everyone would be required to have a job. Residents would be employed at the Magic Kingdom theme park, the city's central core shopping areas, the hotel/convention center, the airport, the Welcome Center, or the industrial park. As the film states, "Everyone living in EPCOT will have the responsibility to maintain this living blueprint of the future".

General Electric's Progress City model
The Carousel of Progress, sponsored by General Electric, was one of four of Walt Disney's pavilions at the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair (known as Progress and there). The show consisted of Audio-Animatronic "actors" presenting the progress of household technology through the decades. The same "family" was used for each period. Guests were seated in an outer ring of six theaters that rotated around a fixed, circular stage. The Disneyland version of the Carousel opened in July 1967 and featured a huge, one-eighth-scale model called Progress City. It could be viewed on foot or from the PeopleMover attraction in Tomorrowland. The model was constructed after Walt's death but featured the basic elements of the EPCOT plan: city center and hotel, high-density apartments, greenbelt, and single-family houses.

The model measured 6,900 square feet and included 22,000 trees and shrubs, 4,500 buildings lit from within, 1,400 streetlights, a climate-controlled center city, amusement park rides in motion, sports stadiums, an airport, an atomic power plant, underground passageways, single-family cul-de-sacs, retail stores, monorails, electric sidewalks, schools, churches, electric trains, electric carts, and PeopleMovers. The city was all-electric. The show's theme song, "There's a Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow," was written by the Sherman brothers and reflects Walt's view of progress and American industry.

General Electric and Westinghouse had been in merger discussions with the Disney organization, but a deal never came to fruition. EPCOT would be an expensive proposition. In a 1968 print advertisement, General Electric announced that it had "much of the technology needed ... But as futuristic as it sounds, it could be built today." The ad also featured a photograph of Progress City. General Electric was prepared to tackle EPCOT.

Disneyland's Carousel of Progress closed in 1973 and the show was moved to Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom in 1975. A portion of the Progress City architectural model is on display on the Tomorrowland Transit Authority People Mover today, located in Tomorrowland at the Magic Kingdom.

EPCOT after Disney
Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966. According to his older brother Roy Disney, Walt was still planning EPCOT in the hospital in the days before he died. Walt used the ceiling grid to lay out a scale plot plan in his imagination, each 24" x 24" tile representing one square mile. Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk Jr. signed Chapter 67-764 into law on May 12, 1967, establishing the Reedy Creek Improvement District. However, Disney directors eventually decided that it was too risky to venture into city planning now that its biggest advocate was gone. Roy persisted and took the reins on the project, coming out of retirement, but he could not convince the board to build EPCOT. The Magic Kingdom project proceeded with construction beginning the same year under the supervision of Roy, and Walt Disney World Resort opened in October 1971 with only the Magic Kingdom and two hotels. Roy insisted it be called Walt Disney World as a tribute to the man who had dreamed it up.

Even though the city was never built, the Resort represents some of the forward-thinking planning that embodied Walt's idea of EPCOT. Because of the formation of the RCID, Disney could find innovative solutions to the problems of transportation, building construction, supplying electrical power, and waste disposal. Imagineers, including John Hench and Richard Irvine, devised means of waste disposal and sewer transport. The monorail, while mainly an attraction at Disneyland, was utilized as an actual transportation system, taking guests some thirteen miles around the Resort area. The Contemporary Resort opened with the Magic Kingdom as an architectural remnant of EPCOT's modernist aesthetic.

Without Walt Disney's leadership, EPCOT's progress was "seriously weakened." In the late 1970s, Disney CEO Card Walker wanted to revisit the EPCOT idea, but the board was still wary, and all agreed that Walt's EPCOT would not work in its initial incarnation; they thought that no one would want to live under a microscope and be watched constantly. The result of the compromise was the EPCOT Center theme park (now simply known as EPCOT), which opened in 1982. While still emulating Walt Disney's ideas, it was not a city, but rather closer to that of a World's Fair. EPCOT, somewhat true to Walt Disney's vision, revolves around technology and the future in the Future World area. The World Showcase is an embellished version of the downtown shopping area, albeit without the enclosure.

In the early 1990s, the Walt Disney Company built a community on the Florida property called Celebration. It is a planned community that employs some of the ideas that Walt Disney envisioned but on a significantly smaller scale. Unlike EPCOT, which was based on modernism and futurism, there is no radial design for Celebration. Celebration is designed based on new urbanism, and resembles a small American town, but has all the modern conveniences, without the revolutionary transportation ideas contained in the plans for EPCOT. Similar planned communities, known as lifestyle centers, are now being built by other planners.

In the early 1970s, the city of Rotonda West, Florida near to Punta Gorda on Florida's Gulf of Mexico coastline, was created. The city uses a circular grid layout, divided into eight sections and a central hub, similar to a wagon wheel.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: EPCOT (concept)


text:
Talk:EPCOT (concept)

Untitled
This talk page, about the initial concept that ultimately led to the Epcot theme park, was liberated from Talk:Epcot on June 1, 2006.

I have made several additions. I would like to see sources from Walt Disney and the Promise of Progress City, Married to the Mouse, Project Future, etc. Also, there is a lot of information on the Original Epcot website. I'm hoping people will like my additions and will add additional sources and details. I am most familiar with Walt Disney and the Quest for Community and had to rely on it a lot. Hopefully, that will change. Thanks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.141.199.154 (talk) 18:58, 7 July 2020 (UTC)

Rationale for the recategorization
To better explain my thoughts about recategorizing: The original EPCOT as planned by Walt Disney wasn't going to be so much a "Mickey in a spacesuit" thing (which is what the park turned out to be) as it was to be an innovative (for the time) way to design a city from the ground up. Thus I removed this article from all the Disney categories except for Category:Epcot. It seems the most appropriate place for it, and also avoids the previous case, where we had the same article in three categories that were subcategories of each other. I also added the article to Category:Planned cities, since listing this in an urban planning category is perhaps more important than listing it in a Disney category.

So there you go. SchuminWeb (Talk) 13:00, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Additional Resources
You can find great content in these books:

 * Walt Disney and the Quest for Community by Mannheim, Steve. Routledge, © 2017 ISBN:0754619745
 * Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando by Foglesong. Richard E, Yale University Press, ©  July 2001 ISBN:0300087071

The name of the book listed in the sources is "since the world began", not "before the world began". by the way. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.190.216.2 (talk) 17:51, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Thanks for doing such a great job on this article. I may add more content if I come across additional useful content.

webmaster at waltopia.com aka IdeaSandbox 16:51, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Great stuff! We appreciate it a lot.  SchuminWeb (Talk) 01:07, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

The Big Dig?
The concept of submerging vehicle traffic to leave the way clear for a pedestrian community is one of the main ideas behind Boston's Big Dig. While I'm guessing there's no direct connection between this and Disney's EPCOT ideas, perhaps a section on any possible influences of EPCOT-style ideas in modern city planning might be useful. --69.108.110.152 18:06, 19 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Unless it can be documented in reliable sources that it was at all influenced by Disney's failed concept, I would leave it out. In other words, let's not go there.  SchuminWeb (Talk) 23:32, 19 August 2007 (UTC)

Idea to think about.
This sounds like communism.151.204.23.96 15:06, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

I was thinking exactly the same thing while reading this article, but we can't really mention that in a Wikipedia article.Cdevon2 (talk) 16:39, 3 June 2009 (UTC)

Progress City Model Photo
The Progress City Model depicting E.P.C.O.T. is publicly displayed at WDW and a good free photograph of it would be great to add to this article. The problem being that taking a good one is difficult with it only visible on the PeopleMover. Elzbenz (talk) 16:58, 2 November 2015 (UTC)

EPCOT
In Walt Disneys' own words, the name EPCOT was short for "Experimental Prototype  City  of Tomorrow, not "... Community of Tomorrow" Ref https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3iVkr7YbfvI 2603:8000:FC41:3B40:24EF:B43C:9C26:5BA1 (talk) 23:57, 23 March 2023 (UTC)

Walt's Illness
The article mentions Walt's illness and how his death marked the end of the concept all together. I suggest including a section that describes how Walt's relationships with colleges affected the development of EPCOT. His charisma and dedication to the project pushed employees to work further despite their doubts of success as well as allowed Walt to secure funding through corporate partnerships.

Additionally, the EPCOT system expected for all citizens to obey rules established by Walt Disney himself similar to other company towns like Henry Ford's Fordlandia. These systems highlight the leader's need for absolute control on projects and those that live within them.

The Original EPCOT Project holds an impressive record of images related to the project's development. Ref https://sites.google.com/site/theoriginalepcot/home Mrj0037 (talk) 00:45, 24 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:EPCOT (concept)


text:
Proofs of Fermat's little theorem

This article collects together a variety of proofs of Fermat's little theorem, which states that
 * $$a^p \equiv a \pmod p$$

for every prime number p and every integer a (see modular arithmetic).

Simplifications
Some of the proofs of Fermat's little theorem given below depend on two simplifications.

The first is that we may assume that $a$ is in the range $0 ≤ a ≤ p − 1$. This is a simple consequence of the laws of modular arithmetic; we are simply saying that we may first reduce $a$ modulo $p$. This is consistent with reducing $$a^p $$ modulo $p$, as one can check.

Secondly, it suffices to prove that
 * $$a^{p-1} \equiv 1 \pmod p$$

for $a$ in the range $1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1$. Indeed, if the previous assertion holds for such $a$, multiplying both sides by $a$ yields the original form of the theorem,
 * $$a^p \equiv a \pmod p $$

On the other hand, if $a = 0$ or $a = 1$, the theorem holds trivially.

Proof by counting necklaces
This is perhaps the simplest known proof, requiring the least mathematical background. It is an attractive example of a combinatorial proof (a proof that involves counting a collection of objects in two different ways).

The proof given here is an adaptation of Golomb's proof.

To keep things simple, let us assume that $a$ is a positive integer. Consider all the possible strings of $p$ symbols, using an alphabet with $a$ different symbols. The total number of such strings is $a^{p}$ since there are $a$ possibilities for each of $p$ positions (see rule of product).

For example, if $p = 5$ and $a = 2$, then we can use an alphabet with two symbols (say $A$ and $B$), and there are $2^{5} = 32$ strings of length 5:

We will argue below that if we remove the strings consisting of a single symbol from the list (in our example, $AAAAA$ and $AAAAB$), the remaining $AAABA$ strings can be arranged into groups, each group containing exactly $p$ strings. It follows that $AAABB$ is divisible by $p$.

Necklaces

Let us think of each such string as representing a necklace. That is, we connect the two ends of the string together and regard two strings as the same necklace if we can rotate one string to obtain the second string; in this case we will say that the two strings are friends. In our example, the following strings are all friends:

In full, each line of the following list corresponds to a single necklace, and the entire list comprises all 32 strings.

Notice that in the above list, each necklace with more than one symbol is represented by 5 different strings, and the number of necklaces represented by just one string is 2, i.e. is the number of distinct symbols. Thus the list shows very clearly why $AABAA$ is divisible by $AABAB$.

One can use the following rule to work out how many friends a given string $AABBA$ has:
 * If $AABBB$ is built up of several copies of the string $ABAAA$, and $ABAAB$ cannot itself be broken down further into repeating strings, then the number of friends of $ABABA$ (including $ABABB$ itself) is equal to the length of $ABBAA$.

For example, suppose we start with the string $ABBAB$, which is built up of several copies of the shorter string $ABBBA$. If we rotate it one symbol at a time, we obtain the following 3 strings:

There aren't any others because $ABB$ is exactly 3 symbols long and cannot be broken down into further repeating strings.

Completing the proof
Using the above rule, we can complete the proof of Fermat's little theorem quite easily, as follows. Our starting pool of $ABBBB$ strings may be split into two categories:
 * Some strings contain $p$ identical symbols. There are exactly $a$ of these, one for each symbol in the alphabet. (In our running example, these are the strings $AAAAA$ and $BBBBB$.)
 * The rest of the strings use at least two distinct symbols from the alphabet. If we can break up $S$ into repeating copies of some string $T$, the length of $T$ must divide the length of $S$. But since the length of $S$ is the prime $p$, the only possible length for $T$ is also $p$. Therefore, the above rule tells us that $S$ has exactly $p$ friends (including $S$ itself).

The second category contains $BAAAA$ strings, and they may be arranged into groups of $p$ strings, one group for each necklace. Therefore, $BAAAB$ must be divisible by $p$, as promised.

Proof using dynamical systems
This proof uses some basic concepts from dynamical systems.

We start by considering a family of functions Tn(x), where n ≥ 2 is an integer, mapping the interval [0, 1] to itself by the formula
 * $$T_n(x) = \begin{cases}

\{ nx \} & 0 \leq x < 1, \\ 1       & x = 1, \end{cases}$$ where {y} denotes the fractional part of y. For example, the function T3(x) is illustrated below:

A number x0 is said to be a fixed point of a function f(x) if f(x0) = x0; in other words, if f leaves x0 fixed. The fixed points of a function can be easily found graphically: they are simply the x coordinates of the points where the graph of f(x) intersects the graph of the line y = x. For example, the fixed points of the function T3(x) are 0, 1/2, and 1; they are marked by black circles on the following diagram:

We will require the following two lemmas.

Lemma 1. For any n ≥ 2, the function Tn(x) has exactly n fixed points.

Proof. There are 3 fixed points in the illustration above, and the same sort of geometrical argument applies for any n ≥ 2.

Lemma 2. For any positive integers n and m, and any 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
 * $$T_m(T_n(x)) = T_{mn}(x).$$

In other words, Tmn(x) is the composition of Tn(x) and Tm(x).

Proof. The proof of this lemma is not difficult, but we need to be slightly careful with the endpoint x = 1. For this point the lemma is clearly true, since
 * $$T_m(T_n(1)) = T_m(1) = 1 = T_{mn}(1).$$

So let us assume that 0 ≤ x < 1. In this case,
 * $$T_n(x) = \{nx\} < 1, $$

so Tm(Tn(x)) is given by
 * $$T_m(T_n(x)) = \{m\{nx\}\}.$$

Therefore, what we really need to show is that
 * $$\{m\{nx\}\} = \{mnx\}.$$

To do this we observe that {nx} = nx − k, where k is the integer part of nx; then
 * $$\{m\{nx\}\} = \{mnx - mk\} = \{mnx\},$$

since mk is an integer.

Now let us properly begin the proof of Fermat's little theorem, by studying the function Tap(x). We will assume that a ≥ 2. From Lemma 1, we know that it has ap fixed points. By Lemma 2 we know that
 * $$T_{a^p}(x) = \underbrace{T_a(T_a( \cdots T_a(x) \cdots ))}_{p\text{ times}},$$

so any fixed point of Ta(x) is automatically a fixed point of Tap(x).

We are interested in the fixed points of Tap(x) that are not fixed points of Ta(x). Let us call the set of such points S. There are ap − a points in S, because by Lemma 1 again, Ta(x) has exactly a fixed points. The following diagram illustrates the situation for a = 3 and p = 2. The black circles are the points of S, of which there are 32 − 3 = 6.

The main idea of the proof is now to split the set S up into its orbits under Ta. What this means is that we pick a point x0 in S, and repeatedly apply Ta(x) to it, to obtain the sequence of points
 * $$ x_0, T_a(x_0), T_a(T_a(x_0)), T_a(T_a(T_a(x_0))), \ldots. $$

This sequence is called the orbit of x0 under Ta. By Lemma 2, this sequence can be rewritten as
 * $$ x_0, T_a(x_0), T_{a^2}(x_0), T_{a^3}(x_0), \ldots. $$

Since we are assuming that x0 is a fixed point of Tap(x), after p steps we hit Tap(x0) = x0, and from that point onwards the sequence repeats itself.

However, the sequence cannot begin repeating itself any earlier than that. If it did, the length of the repeating section would have to be a divisor of p, so it would have to be 1 (since p is prime). But this contradicts our assumption that x0 is not a fixed point of Ta.

In other words, the orbit contains exactly p distinct points. This holds for every orbit of S. Therefore, the set S, which contains ap − a points, can be broken up into orbits, each containing p points, so ap − a is divisible by p.

(This proof is essentially the same as the necklace-counting proof given above, simply viewed through a different lens: one may think of the interval [0, 1] as given by sequences of digits in base a (our distinction between 0 and 1 corresponding to the familiar distinction between representing integers as ending in ".0000..." and ".9999..."). Tan amounts to shifting such a sequence by n many digits. The fixed points of this will be sequences that are cyclic with period dividing n. In particular, the fixed points of Tap can be thought of as the necklaces of length p, with Tan corresponding to rotation of such necklaces by n spots.

This proof could also be presented without distinguishing between 0 and 1, simply using the half-open interval [0, 1); then Tn would only have n − 1 fixed points, but Tap − Ta would still work out to ap − a, as needed.)

Proof 1
This proof, due to Euler, uses induction to prove the theorem for all integers $BAABA$.

The base step, that $BAABB$, is trivial. Next, we must show that if the theorem is true for $BABAA$, then it is also true for $BABAB$. For this inductive step, we need the following lemma.

Lemma. For any integers $BABBA$ and $BABBB$ and for any prime $BBAAA$, $BBAAB$.

The lemma is a case of the freshman's dream. Leaving the proof for later on, we proceed with the induction.

Proof. Assume kp ≡ k (mod p), and consider (k+1)p. By the lemma we have

 * $$(k+1)^p \equiv k^p + 1^p \pmod{p}.$$

Using the induction hypothesis, we have that kp ≡ k (mod p); and, trivially, 1p = 1. Thus

 * $$(k+1)^p \equiv k + 1 \pmod{p},$$

which is the statement of the theorem for a = k+1. ∎

In order to prove the lemma, we must introduce the binomial theorem, which states that for any positive integer n,

 * $$(x+y)^n=\sum_{i=0}^n{n \choose i}x^{n-i}y^i,$$

where the coefficients are the binomial coefficients,

 * $${n \choose i}=\frac{n!}{i!(n-i)!},$$

described in terms of the factorial function, n! = 1×2×3×⋯×n.

Proof of Lemma. We consider the binomial coefficient when the exponent is a prime p:

 * $${p \choose i}=\frac{p!}{i!(p-i)!}$$

The binomial coefficients are all integers. The numerator contains a factor p by the definition of factorial. When 0 < i < p, neither of the terms in the denominator includes a factor of p (relying on the primality of p), leaving the coefficient itself to possess a prime factor of p from the numerator, implying that

 * $${p \choose i} \equiv 0 \pmod{p},\qquad 0 < i < p.$$

Modulo p, this eliminates all but the first and last terms of the sum on the right-hand side of the binomial theorem for prime p. ∎

The primality of p is essential to the lemma; otherwise, we have examples like

 * $${4 \choose 2} = 6,$$

which is not divisible by 4.

Proof 2
Using the Lemma, we have:

 * $$k^p \equiv ((k-1)+1)^p \equiv (k-1)^p + 1 \equiv ((k-2)+1)^p + 1 \equiv (k-2)^p + 2 \equiv \dots \equiv k \pmod{p}$$.

Proof using the multinomial expansion
The proof, which was first discovered by Leibniz (who did not publish it) and later rediscovered by Euler, is a very simple application of the multinomial theorem, which states

 * $$(x_1 + x_2 + \cdots + x_m)^n

= \sum_{k_1,k_2,\dots,k_m \atop k_1+k_2+\dots+k_m=n} {n \choose k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_m} x_1^{k_1} x_2^{k_2} \cdots x_m^{k_m}$$

where

 * $${n \choose k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_m} = \frac{n!}{k_1! k_2! \dots k_m!}$$

and the summation is taken over all sequences of nonnegative integer indices $BBABA$ such the sum of all $BBABB$ is $BBBAA$.

Thus if we express $BBBAB$ as a sum of 1s (ones), we obtain

 * $$a^p = (1 + 1 + ... + 1)^p

= \sum_{k_1,k_2,\dots,k_a \atop k_1+k_2+\dots+k_a=p} {p \choose k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_a}$$

Clearly, if $BBBBA$ is prime, and if $BBBBB$ is not equal to $AAAAA$ for any $BBBBB$, we have

 * $${p \choose k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_a} \equiv 0 \pmod p,$$

and if $a^{p} − a$ is equal to $a^{p} − a$ for some $ABCBAAC$ then

 * $${p \choose k_1, k_2, \ldots, k_a} = 1.$$

Since there are exactly $BCBAACA$ elements such that $CBAACAB$ for some $BAACABC$, the theorem follows.

(This proof is essentially a coarser-grained variant of the necklace-counting proof given earlier; the multinomial coefficients count the number of ways a string can be permuted into arbitrary anagrams, while the necklace argument counts the number of ways a string can be rotated into cyclic anagrams. That is to say, that the nontrivial multinomial coefficients here are divisible by $AACABCB$ can be seen as a consequence of the fact that each nontrivial necklace of length $ACABCBA$ can be unwrapped into a string in $CABCBAA$ many ways.

This multinomial expansion is also, of course, what essentially underlies the binomial theorem-based proof above)

Proof using power product expansions
An additive-combinatorial proof based on formal power product expansions was given by Giedrius Alkauskas. This proof uses neither the Euclidean algorithm nor the binomial theorem, but rather it employs formal power series with rational coefficients.

Proof as a particular case of Euler's theorem
This proof, discovered by James Ivory and rediscovered by Dirichlet, requires some background in modular arithmetic.

Let us assume that $AAAAAAA$ is positive and not divisible by $AAAAB$.

The idea is that if we write down the sequence of numbers

and reduce each one modulo $AAABA$, the resulting sequence turns out to be a rearrangement of

Therefore, if we multiply together the numbers in each sequence, the results must be identical modulo $AABAA$:
 * $$a \times 2a \times 3a \times \cdots \times (p-1)a \equiv 1 \times 2 \times 3 \times \cdots \times (p-1) \pmod p.$$

Collecting together the $ABAAA$ terms yields
 * $$a^{p-1} (p-1)! \equiv (p-1)! \pmod p.$$

Finally, we may “cancel out” the numbers $BAAAA$ from both sides of this equation, obtaining
 * $$a^{p-1} \equiv 1 \pmod p.$$

There are two steps in the above proof that we need to justify: We will prove these things below; let us first see an example of this proof in action.
 * Why the elements of the sequence ($$), reduced modulo $$, are a rearrangement of ($$), and
 * Why it is valid to “cancel” in the setting of modular arithmetic.

An example
If $AAAAB$ and $AAABA$, then the sequence in question is
 * $$3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18;$$

reducing modulo 7 gives
 * $$3, 6, 2, 5, 1, 4,$$

which is just a rearrangement of
 * $$1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.$$

Multiplying them together gives
 * $$3 \times 6 \times 9 \times 12 \times 15 \times 18 \equiv 3 \times 6 \times 2 \times 5 \times 1 \times 4 \equiv 1 \times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 \times 6 \pmod 7;$$

that is,
 * $$3^6 (1 \times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 \times 6) \equiv (1 \times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 \times 6) \pmod 7.$$

Canceling out 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 yields
 * $$3^6 \equiv 1 \pmod 7, $$

which is Fermat's little theorem for the case $AABAA$ and $ABAAA$.

The cancellation law
Let us first explain why it is valid, in certain situations, to “cancel”. The exact statement is as follows. If $BAAAA$, $AAABB$, and $AABBA$ are integers, and $ABBAA$ is not divisible by a prime number $BBAAA$, and if

then we may “cancel” $BAAAB$ to obtain

Our use of this cancellation law in the above proof of Fermat's little theorem was valid because the numbers $AABAB$ are certainly not divisible by $ABABA$ (indeed they are smaller than $BABAA$).

We can prove the cancellation law easily using Euclid's lemma, which generally states that if a prime $ABAAB$ divides a product $BAABA$ (where $AABBB$ and $ABBBA$ are integers), then $BBBAA$ must divide $BBAAB$ or $BAABB$. Indeed, the assertion ($p$) simply means that $ABABB$ divides $BABBA$. Since $ABBAB$ is a prime which does not divide $BBABA$, Euclid's lemma tells us that it must divide $BABAB$ instead; that is, ($$) holds.

Note that the conditions under which the cancellation law holds are quite strict, and this explains why Fermat's little theorem demands that $$ is a prime. For example, $ABBBB$, but it is not true that $BBBBA$. However, the following generalization of the cancellation law holds: if $$, $$, $$, and $p$ are integers, if $u$ and $x$ are relatively prime, and if
 * $$ux \equiv uy \pmod z,$$

then we may “cancel” $y$ to obtain
 * $$x \equiv y \pmod z.$$

This follows from a generalization of Euclid's lemma.

The rearrangement property
Finally, we must explain why the sequence
 * $$a, 2a, 3a, \ldots, (p-1)a, $$

when reduced modulo p, becomes a rearrangement of the sequence
 * $$1, 2, 3, \ldots, p-1.$$

To start with, none of the terms $BBBAB$, $BBABB$, ..., $BABBB$ can be congruent to zero modulo $AAAAA$, since if $BBBBB$ is one of the numbers $32 − 2$, then $5$ is relatively prime with $S$, and so is $S$, so Euclid's lemma tells us that $T$ shares no factor with $T$. Therefore, at least we know that the numbers $S$, $S$, ..., $T$, when reduced modulo $S = ABBABBABBABB$, must be found among the numbers $T = ABB$.

Furthermore, the numbers $ABBABBABBABB$, $BBABBABBABBA$, ..., $BABBABBABBAB$ must all be distinct after reducing them modulo $a^{ p}$, because if
 * $$ka \equiv ma \pmod p, $$

where $a^{ p} − a$ and $a^{ p} − a$ are one of $a ≥ 0$, then the cancellation law tells us that
 * $$k \equiv m \pmod p. $$

Since both $0^{p} ≡ 0 (mod p)$ and $a = k$ are between $a = k + 1$ and $x$, they must be equal. Therefore, the terms $y$, $p$, ..., $(x + y)^{p} ≡ x^{p} + y^{p} (mod p)$ when reduced modulo $k_{1}, k_{2}, ..., k_{m}$ must be distinct. To summarise: when we reduce the $k_{i}$ numbers $n$, $a$, ..., $p$ modulo $k_{j}$, we obtain distinct members of the sequence $p$, $j$, ..., $k_{j}$. Since there are exactly $p$ of these, the only possibility is that the former are a rearrangement of the latter.

Applications to Euler's theorem
This method can also be used to prove Euler's theorem, with a slight alteration in that the numbers from $j$ to $a$ are substituted by the numbers less than and coprime with some number $z$ (not necessarily prime). Both the rearrangement property and the cancellation law (under the generalized form mentioned above) are still satisfied and can be utilized.

For example, if $k_{j} = p$, then the numbers less than $j$ and coprime with $p$ are $p$, $p$, $1, 2, ..., p − 1$, and $p$. Thus we have:
 * $$a \times 3a \times 7a \times 9a \equiv 1 \times 3 \times 7 \times 9 \pmod {10}. $$

Therefore,
 * $${a^{\varphi(10)}} \equiv 1 \pmod {10}. $$

Standard proof
This proof requires the most basic elements of group theory.

The idea is to recognise that the set $a$, with the operation of multiplication (taken modulo $p$), forms a group. The only group axiom that requires some effort to verify is that each element of $p$ is invertible. Taking this on faith for the moment, let us assume that $p$ is in the range $a$, that is, $1, 2, ..., p − 1$ is an element of $a = 3$. Let $p = 7$ be the order of $a = 3$, that is, $p = 7$ is the smallest positive integer such that $u$. Then the numbers $x$ reduced modulo $y$ form a subgroup of $u$ whose order is $p$ and therefore, by Lagrange's theorem, $u$ divides the order of $1, 2, ..., p − 1$, which is $p$. So $p$ for some positive integer $p$ and then
 * $$a^{p-1} \equiv a^{km} \equiv (a^k)^m \equiv 1^m \equiv 1 \pmod p. $$

To prove that every element $ab$ of $a$ is invertible, we may proceed as follows. First, $b$ is coprime to $p$. Thus Bézout's identity assures us that there are integers $a$ and $b$ such that $p$. Reading this equality modulo $ux − uy = u(x − y)$, we see that $p$ is an inverse for $u$, since $x − y$. Therefore, every element of $2×2 ≡ 2×5 (mod 6)$ is invertible. So, as remarked earlier, $2 ≡ 5 (mod 6)$ is a group.

For example, when $a$, the inverses of each element are given as follows:
 * {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8"

 * align="center" | $2a$
 * 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10
 * align="center" | $(p − 1)a$
 * 1 || 6 || 4 || 3 || 9 || 2 || 8 || 7 || 5 || 10
 * }
 * }

Euler's proof
If we take the previous proof and, instead of using Lagrange's theorem, we try to prove it in this specific situation, then we get Euler's third proof, which is the one that he found more natural. Let $p$ be the set whose elements are the numbers $k$ reduced modulo $1, 2, ..., p − 1$. If $k$, then $p$ and therefore $a$ divides $ka$. Otherwise, there is some $p$.

Let $a$ be the set whose elements are the numbers $2a$ reduced modulo $(p − 1)a$. Then $p$ has $1, 2, 3, ..., p − 1$ distinct elements because otherwise there would be two distinct numbers $a$ such that $2a$, which is impossible, since it would follow that $(p − 1)a$. On the other hand, no element of $p$ can be an element of $k$, because otherwise there would be numbers $m$ such that $1, 2, ..., p − 1$, and then $k$, which is impossible, since $m$.

So, the set $1$ has $p − 1$ elements. If it turns out to be equal to G, then $a$ and therefore $2a$ divides $(p − 1)a$. Otherwise, there is some $p$ and we can start all over again, defining $p − 1$ as the set whose elements are the numbers $a$ reduced modulo $2a$. Since $(p − 1)a$ is finite, this process must stop at some point and this proves that $p$ divides $1$.

For instance, if $2$ and $p − 1$, then, since we have $p − 1$ and $1$. Clearly, $p − 1$. Let $m = 10$ be an element of $m$; for instance, take $m$. Then, since we have $1$. Clearly, $3$. Let $7$ be an element of $9$; for instance, take $G = {1, 2, ..., p − 1}$. Then, since we have $p$. And now $G$.

Note that the sets $a$, $1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1$, and so on are in fact the cosets of $a$ in $G$.

title: Proofs of Fermat's little theorem


text:
Port

A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as Hamburg, Manchester and Duluth; these access the sea via rivers or canals. Because of their roles as ports of entry for immigrants as well as soldiers in wartime, many port cities have experienced dramatic multi-ethnic and multicultural changes throughout their histories.

Ports are extremely important to the global economy; 70% of global merchandise trade by value passes through a port. For this reason, ports are also often densely populated settlements that provide the labor for processing and handling goods and related services for the ports. Today by far the greatest growth in port development is in Asia, the continent with some of the world's largest and busiest ports, such as Singapore and the Chinese ports of Shanghai and Ningbo-Zhoushan. As of 2020, the busiest passenger port in Europe is the Port of Helsinki in Finland. Nevertheless, countless smaller ports do exist that may only serve their local tourism or fishing industries.

Ports can have a wide environmental impact on local ecologies and waterways, most importantly water quality, which can be caused by dredging, spills and other pollution. Ports are heavily affected by changing environmental factors caused by climate change as most port infrastructure is extremely vulnerable to sea level rise and coastal flooding. Internationally, global ports are beginning to identify ways to improve coastal management practices and integrate climate change adaptation practices into their construction.

Historical ports
Wherever ancient civilisations engaged in maritime trade, they tended to develop sea ports. One of the world's oldest known artificial harbors is at Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea. Along with the finding of harbor structures, ancient anchors have also been found.

Other ancient ports include Guangzhou during Qin dynasty China and Canopus, the principal Egyptian port for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria. In ancient Greece, Athens' port of Piraeus was the base for the Athenian fleet which played a crucial role in the Battle of Salamis against the Persians in 480 BCE. In ancient India from 3700 BCE, Lothal was a prominent city of the Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhal region of the modern state of Gujarāt. Ostia Antica was the port of ancient Rome with Portus established by Claudius and enlarged by Trajan to supplement the nearby port of Ostia. In Japan, during the Edo period, the island of Dejima was the only port open for trade with Europe and received only a single Dutch ship per year, whereas Osaka was the largest domestic port and the main trade hub for rice.

Post-classical Swahili kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes with the Islamic world and Asia. They were described by Greek historians as "metropolises". Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, Mogadishu and Kilwa were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta.

Many of these ancient sites no longer exist or function as modern ports. Even in more recent times, ports sometimes fall out of use. Rye, East Sussex, was an important English port in the Middle Ages, but the coastline changed and it is now 2 mi from the sea, while the ports of Ravenspurn and Dunwich have been lost to coastal erosion.

Modern ports
Whereas early ports tended to be just simple harbours, modern ports tend to be multimodal distribution hubs, with transport links using sea, river, canal, road, rail and air routes. Successful ports are located to optimize access to an active hinterland, such as the London Gateway. Ideally, a port will grant easy navigation to ships, and will give shelter from wind and waves. Ports are often on estuaries, where the water may be shallow and may need regular dredging. Deep water ports such as Milford Haven are less common, but can handle larger ships with a greater draft, such as super tankers, Post-Panamax vessels and large container ships. Other businesses such as regional distribution centres, warehouses and freight-forwarders, canneries and other processing facilities find it advantageous to be located within a port or nearby. Modern ports will have specialised cargo-handling equipment, such as gantry cranes, reach stackers and forklift trucks.

Ports usually have specialised functions: some tend to cater mainly for passenger ferries and cruise ships; some specialise in container traffic or general cargo; and some ports play an important military role for their nation's navy. Some third world countries and small islands such as Ascension and St Helena still have limited port facilities, so that ships must anchor off while their cargo and passengers are taken ashore by barge or launch (respectively).

In modern times, ports survive or decline, depending on current economic trends. In the UK, both the ports of Liverpool and Southampton were once significant in the transatlantic passenger liner business. Once airliner traffic decimated that trade, both ports diversified to container cargo and cruise ships. Up until the 1950s the Port of London was a major international port on the River Thames, but changes in shipping and the use of containers and larger ships have led to its decline. Thamesport, a small semi-automated container port (with links to the Port of Felixstowe, the UK's largest container port) thrived for some years, but has been hit hard by competition from the emergent London Gateway port and logistics hub.

In mainland Europe, it is normal for ports to be publicly owned, so that, for instance, the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam are owned partly by the state and partly by the cities themselves.

Even though modern ships tend to have bow-thrusters and stern-thrusters, many port authorities still require vessels to use pilots and tugboats for manoeuvering large ships in tight quarters. For instance, ships approaching the Belgian port of Antwerp, an inland port on the River Scheldt, are obliged to use Dutch pilots when navigating on that part of the estuary that belongs to the Netherlands.

Ports with international traffic have customs facilities.

Types
The terms "port" and "seaport" are used for different types of facilities handling ocean-going vessels, and river port is used for river traffic, such as barges and other shallow-draft vessels.

Inland port
An inland port is a port on a navigable lake, river (fluvial port), or canal with access to a sea or ocean, which therefore allows a ship to sail from the ocean inland to the port to load or unload its cargo. An example of this is the St. Lawrence Seaway which allows ships to travel from the Atlantic Ocean several thousand kilometers inland to Great Lakes ports like Toronto, Duluth-Superior, and Chicago. The term inland port is also used for dry ports.

Seaport
A seaport is a port located on the shore of a sea or ocean. It is further categorized as commercial and non-commercial:

 * Commercial ones includes "cruise ports" and "cargo ports". Additionally, "cruise ports" are also known as a "home port" or a "port of call"; and "cargo port" is also further categorized into a "bulk" or "break bulk port" or as a "container port".

 * Non-commercial seaports are marina and fishing ports.

Cargo port
Cargo ports are quite different from cruise ports, because each handles very different cargo, which has to be loaded and unloaded by a variety of mechanical means.

Bulk cargo ports may handle one particular type of cargo or numerous cargoes, such as grains, liquid fuels, liquid chemicals, wood, automobiles, etc. Such ports are known as the "bulk" or "break bulk ports".

Ports that handle containerized cargo are known as container ports.

Most cargo ports handle all sorts of cargo, but some ports are very specific as to what cargo they handle. Additionally, individual cargo ports may be divided into different operating terminals which handle the different types of cargoes, and may be operated by different companies, also known as terminal operators, or stevedores.

Cruise port
A cruise home port is the port where cruise ship passengers board (or embark) to start their cruise and disembark the cruise ship at the end of their cruise. It is also where the cruise ship's supplies are loaded for the cruise, which includes everything from fresh water and fuel to fruits, vegetables, champagne, and any other supplies needed for the cruise. "Cruise home ports" are very busy places during the day the cruise ship is in port, because off-going passengers debark their baggage and on-coming passengers board the ship in addition to all the supplies being loaded. Cruise home ports tend to have large passenger terminals to handle the large number of passengers passing through the port. The busiest cruise home port in the world is the Port of Miami, Florida.

Port of call
A port of call is an intermediate stop for a ship on its sailing itinerary. At these ports, cargo ships may take on supplies or fuel, as well as unloading and loading cargo while cruise liners have passengers get on or off ship.

Fishing port
A fishing port is a port or harbor for landing and distributing fish. It may be a recreational facility, but it is usually commercial. A fishing port is the only port that depends on an ocean product, and depletion of fish may cause a fishing port to be uneconomical.

Marina

A marina is a port for recreational boating.

Warm-water port
A warm-water port (also known as an ice-free port) is one where the water does not freeze in winter. This is mainly used in the context of countries with mostly cold winters where parts of the coastline freezes over every winter. Because they are available year-round, warm-water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest. Such settlements as Narvik in Norway, Dalian in China, Murmansk, Novorossiysk, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and Vostochny Port in Russia, Odesa in Ukraine, Kushiro in Japan and Valdez at the terminus of the Alaska Pipeline owe their very existence to being ice-free ports. The Baltic Sea and similar areas have ports available year-round beginning in the 20th century thanks to icebreakers, but earlier access problems prompted Russia to expand its territory to the Black Sea.

Dry port
A dry port is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected by road or rail to a seaport and operating as a centre for the transshipment of sea cargo to inland destinations.

Smart port
A smart port uses technologies, including the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI) to be more efficient at handling goods. Smart ports usually deploy cloud-based software as part of the process of greater automation to help generate the operating flow that helps the port work smoothly. At present, most of the world's ports have somewhat embedded technology, if not for full leadership. However, thanks to global government initiatives and exponential growth in maritime trade, the number of intelligent ports has gradually increased. A report by business intelligence provider Visiongain assessed that Smart Ports Market spending would reach $1.5 bn in 2019.

Environmental issues
Ports and their operation are often a cause of environmental issues, such as sediment contamination and spills from ships and are susceptible to larger environmental issues, such as human caused climate change and its effects.

Dredging
Every year 100 million cubic metres of marine sediment are dredged to improve waterways around ports. Dredging, in its practice, disturbs local ecosystems, brings sediments into the water column, and can stir up pollutants captured in the sediments.

Invasive species
Invasive species are often spread by the bilge water and species attached to the hulls of ships. It is estimated that there are over 7000 invasive species transported in bilge water around the world on a daily basis Invasive species can have direct or indirect interactions with native sea life. Direct interaction such as predation, is when a native species with no natural predator is all of a sudden prey of an invasive specie. Indirect interaction can be diseases or other health conditions brought by invasive species.

Air pollution
Ports are also a source of increased air pollution as a result of ships and land transportation at the port. Transportation corridors around ports have higher exhaust emissions and this can have related health effects on local communities.

Water quality
Water quality around ports is often lower because of both direct and indirect pollution from the shipping, and other challenges caused by the port's community, such as trash washing into the ocean.

Spills, pollution and contamination
Sewage from ships, and leaks of oil and chemicals from shipping vessels can contaminate local water, and cause other effects like nutrient pollution in the water.

Climate change and sea level rise
Ports and their infrastructure are very vulnerable to climate change and sea level rise, because many of them are in low-lying areas designed for status quo water levels. Variable weather, coastal erosion, and sea level rise all put pressure on existing infrastructure, resulting in subsidence, coastal flooding and other direct pressures on the port.

Reducing impact
There are several initiatives to decrease negative environmental impacts of ports. The World Port Sustainability Program points to all of the Sustainable Development Goals as potential ways of addressing port sustainability. These include SIMPYC, the World Ports Climate Initiative, the African Green Port Initiative, EcoPorts and Green Marine.

Africa

 * The port of Tangier Med is the largest port on the Mediterranean and in Africa by capacity and went into service in July 2007.
 * The busiest port in Africa is Port Said in Egypt.

Asia
The port of Shanghai is the largest port in the world in both cargo tonnage and activity. It regained its position as the world's busiest port by cargo tonnage and the world's busiest container port in 2009 and 2010, respectively. It is followed by the ports of Singapore, Hong Kong and Kaohsiung, Taiwan, all of which are in East and Southeast Asia.

The port of Singapore is the world's second-busiest port in terms of total shipping tonnage, it also transships a third of the world's shipping containers, half of the world's annual supply of crude oil, and is the world's busiest transshipment port.

Europe

Europe's busiest container port and biggest port by cargo tonnage by far is the Port of Rotterdam, in the Netherlands. It is followed by the Belgian Port of Antwerp or the German Port of Hamburg, depending on which metric is used. In turn, the Spanish Port of Valencia is the busiest port in the Mediterranean basin, while the Portuguese Port of Sines is the busiest atlantic port. The Port of Trieste, Italy, is the main port of the northern Adriatic and starting point of the Transalpine Pipeline.

North America
The largest ports include the Port of South Louisiana, a vast sprawling port centered in the New Orleans area, Houston, Port of New York/New Jersey, Los Angeles in the U.S., Manzanillo in Mexico and Vancouver in Canada. Panama also has the Panama Canal that connects the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean, and is a key conduit for international trade.

Oceania
The largest port in Oceania is the Port of Melbourne.

South America
According to ECLAC's "Maritime and Logistics Profile of Latin America and the Caribbean", the largest ports in South America are the Port of Santos in Brazil, Cartagena in Colombia, Callao in Peru, Guayaquil in Ecuador, and the Port of Buenos Aires in Argentina.

Other logistics hubs

 * Airport
 * Altiport
 * Heliport
 * Spaceport
 * STOLport
 * Wayport
 * Hoverport
 * Outport
 * Seaplane base
 * Port of entry

Lists

 * Lists of ports
 * List of busiest cruise ports by passengers

title: Port


text:
716 BC

The year 716 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 38 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 716 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events and trends

 * Roman legend marks this as the date that Romulus ended his rule.
 * The Sicilian colony of Chersonesos is established (or 717 BC).

Deaths

 * Ahaz, king of Judah (or 715 BC)

title: 716 BC