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Banner-making

Banner-making is the ancient art or craft of sewing banners. Techniques used include applique, embroidery, fabric painting, patchwork and others.

Trade union banners
In the United Kingdom, the first of these banners were sometimes painted by local signwriters, coachpainters or decorators. More often than not, they were made by a member of the local branch who was considered to be artistic. However, from 1837 onwards, more than three quarters were made by the firm of George Tutill of Chesham in Buckinghamshire. All their banners were made from pure silk woven by Huguenots in London. At the height of banner production there were said to be 17,000 looms in operation.

The silk was stretched taut over a wooden frame and coated with India rubber, and the oil colours applied to it were 'old', i.e. had been standing around for a while. This allowed the paint to dry quickly and to make it more pliant or elastic.

There were many designs from the Bible (e.g. David slaying Goliath), from heraldry or from popular tradition, e.g. the "all-seeing eye", or symbols of truth, hope or justice.

Present

With the advent of Conservative governments in Britain after the 1979 general election, trades union banners lost their popularity, and many languished in damp cellars or lofts. Additionally the large number of trade union mergers (see for example UNISON and Amicus) meant that many banners no longer had the correct union name on and became obsolete. In the last 10 years or so, the interest in these banners has been rekindled, and many books, videos, postcards and the like have been produced to help people rediscover and celebrate this part of the history of working men and women.

Durham Miners Gala is probably the largest current parade of trade union banners.

There are special museums which restore, preserve and exhibit trade union banners, e.g. the People's History Museum in Manchester and Beamish Museum in the North East.

Church banners
Design is all-important in a banner for ecclesiastical use. The banner maker needs a sound knowledge of religious symbolism and iconography. There is also the question of its use, i.e. indoor or outdoor. If outdoor, it needs weatherproofing and must be able to be carried. Whether indoor or outdoor, proper storage provision must be made. The types of material can vary from vinyl to cloth.

title: Banner-making


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Talk:Banner-making

[Untitled]
I have removed the phrase dismantling of the welfare state, as it is false. Whatever the difference in welfare provision between now and before the Thatcher governments, the welfare state most certainly has not been dismantled. This article should provide a better link between the Conservative governments and trade union banners than that. Tozznok (talk) 22:10, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Talk:Automated teller machine

South Korea but not North Korea
I noticed that there was a photo of a South Korean machine but not of a north Korean machine. This shows an attitude of disdain for North Korea as if it didn't exist or didn't matter. This happens too often in Wikipedia. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Geofffeldman (talk • contribs) 18:23, 2 May 2018 (UTC)
 * Provide a picture of a North Korean machine with proper documentation and it can be shown. Any bias against North Korean information would be likely only because most of us have not been there. Nutster (talk) 04:41, 1 April 2019 (UTC)

Don Wetzel
Why is there no mention of the above person in this article? He holds the patent for the ATM and is generally considered to have invented it.

Here is a reference;

— Preceding unsigned comment added by Puzzledvegetable (talk • contribs) 00:16, 15 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I think that you might have missed the mention Automated teller machine, where Donald Wetzel's contribution is and was mentioned in the first line. Klbrain (talk) 11:31, 2 February 2019 (UTC)

Merge proposal
Supporting the 2017 merge proposal. Scrip cash dispenser is a barely-referenced article which described what seems to be a rare variant of an ATM; where the automated teller is remote from the location where cash is dispensed. It seem reasonable that it would fit as a section here, rather than having a stand-alone article. Klbrain (talk) 11:23, 2 February 2019 (UTC)

Time period context!
These machines really took off and became universal in the US and in western Europe during the mid-1980s. Why isn't this recognized in the article? True, they were present in the 1970s, but they comparatively used to are are degree.Dogru144 (talk) 03:47, 27 May 2020 (UTC)

 * The first interactive ATM is claimed by Lloyd's Bank in 1972 yet Barclays are credited with having one in 1967....?
 * I remember the pre-paid cards at both Barclays and Nat West early 1977 so fully interactive ATMs in 1967 is unlikely.
 * HuttonIT (talk) 09:37, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

Carbon-14
I'm curious about the statement that C-14 is used to prevent fraud, which at first sight sounds unlikely. How does this work (I don't see any reference to it in article Carbon-14). --Brian Josephson (talk) 13:00, 30 September 2022 (UTC)

Invent anglohispanic
The first ATM in the world was invented in Cieza ( Murcia, Spain) by the English Bernard Brunton (London)  and the Ciezan Luis Anaya about 100 years ago (1913). Bernardo Brunton and Luis Anaya were the inventors of a curious money-dispensing machine patented in 1913. This box was designed to save the family economy "it distributed daily the amount proportional to the salary that was received regularly, thus establishing a balance in spending".

http://www.tecnologiaycultura.net/investiga/PlacAutocajero.JPG (in spanish) https://www.laopiniondemurcia.es/buzzeando/2022/10/25/invento-murcia-utilizas-dias-saberlo-dv-77661467.html — Preceding unsigned comment added by 185.174.181.71 (talk) 10:48, 29 October 2022 (UTC)

Patent mess
The last paragraph of the section Docutel in the United States, has a mess of bare links to US Patents, as well as text that should be hidden referring to Wayback Machine archives of these links. Please fix this. Paulmlieberman (talk) 20:52, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

Change topic to ATM (the short form)
please change topic to short form (atm) 🫡 183.87.191.150 (talk) 16:16, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Automated teller machine


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Bogon

Bogon may refer to:

Places

 * Bogon, Kale, a village in western Burma
 * Bogon, Shwegu, a village in north-eastern Burma
 * Bogon Islet, a South Pacific islet in the Enewetak Atoll

Other uses

 * Bogon filtering, the filtering of bogus IP addresses (bogon space)

title: Bogon


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Neith

Neith (, a borrowing of the Demotic form nt, likely originally to have been nrt "the terrifying one"; also spelled Nit, Net, or Neit) was an early ancient Egyptian deity. She was said to be the first and the prime creator, who created the universe and all it contains, and that she governs how it functions; and the inventor of birth. She was the goddess of the cosmos, fate, wisdom, water, rivers, mothers, childbirth, hunting, weaving, and originally: war.

Neith was the tutelary deity of Sais (ⲥⲁⲓ Sai from Egyptian Zau), where her cult was centered in the western Nile Delta of Lower Egypt. It is attested as early as the First Dynasty. Neith was also one of the three tutelary deities of the southern city of Latopolis or Esna (Snē) (Sahidic Coptic:  from earlier Egyptian: t3-snt, also iwnyt). Latopolis was located on the western bank of the River Nile some 55 km south of Luxor (Thebes). She was associated with Athena, and was said to have migrated from Libya to build her temple at Sais in the Nile Delta.

Symbolism
In her usual representations, she is portrayed as a fierce deity, a woman wearing the Red Crown, occasionally holding or using the bow and arrow, in others, a harpoon. Neith also is a goddess of war and of hunting and that is the symbolism depicted most often. Her symbol was two arrows crossed over a shield. The hieroglyphs of her name usually are followed by a determinative containing the archery elements, with the shield symbol of the name being explained as either double bows (facing one another), intersected by two arrows (usually lashed to the bows), or, by other imagery associated with her worship. As she is connected with weaving, the symbol is sometimes suggested to be a shuttle. Her symbol also identified the city of Sais. This symbol was displayed on top of her head in Egyptian art. In her form as a goddess of war, she was said to make the weapons of warriors and to guard their bodies when they died.

As a deity, Neith is normally shown carrying the was scepter (symbol of rule and power) and the ankh (symbol of life). She is associated with Mehet-Weret, as a cow who gives birth to the sun daily, whose name means "Great Flood." In these forms, she is associated with the creation of both the primeval time and the daily "re-creation". As protectress of Ra or the king, she is represented as a uraeus. In time, this led to her being considered as the personification of the primordial waters of creation.

Neith is one of the most ancient deities associated with ancient Egyptian culture. Flinders Petrie noted the earliest depictions of her standards were known in predynastic periods, as can be seen from a representation of a barque bearing her crossed arrow standards in the Predynastic Period, as is displayed in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

Her first anthropomorphic representations occur in the early dynastic period, on a diorite vase of King Ny-Netjer of the Second Dynasty. The vase was found in the Step Pyramid of Djoser (Third Dynasty) at Saqqara. That her worship predominated the early dynastic periods is demonstrated by a preponderance of theophoric names (personal names that incorporate the name of a deity) within which Neith appears as an element. Predominance of Neith's name in nearly forty percent of early dynastic names, and particularly in the names of four royal women of the First Dynasty, clearly emphasizes the importance of this goddess in relation to the early society of Egypt, with special emphasis on association with the Royal House.

In the very early periods of Egyptian history, the main iconographic representations of this goddess appear to have been limited to her hunting and war characteristics, although there is no Egyptian mythological reference to support the concept that this was her primary function as a deity.

It has been theorized that Neith's primary cult point in the Old Kingdom was established in Saïs (modern Sa el-Hagar) by Hor-Aha of the First Dynasty, in an effort to placate the residents of Lower Egypt by the ruler of the unified country. Textual and iconographic evidence indicates that she was a national goddess for Old Kingdom Egypt, with her own sanctuary in Memphis, indicating the high regard held for her. There, she was known as "North of her Wall", as counterpoise to Ptah's "South of his Wall" epithet. While Neith is generally regarded as a deity of Lower Egypt, her worship was not consistently located in that delta region. Her cult reached its height in Saïs and apparently in Memphis in the Old Kingdom, and remained important, although to a lesser extent, through the Middle and New Kingdom. Her cult regained cultural prominence again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty when worship at Saïs flourished again, as well as at Esna in Upper Egypt. Neith's symbol and part of her hieroglyph also bore a resemblance to a loom, and so in later syncretisation of Egyptian myths by the Greek ruling class of that time she was conflated with Athena, a Greek deity of war and weaving.

Sometimes Neith was pictured as a woman nursing a baby crocodile, and she then was addressed with the title, "Nurse of Crocodiles", reflecting a southern provincial mythology in Upper Egypt that she served as either the mother of the crocodile god, Sobek. As the mother of Ra, in her Mehet-Weret form, she was sometimes described as the "Great Cow who gave birth to Ra". As a maternal figure (beyond being the birth-mother of the sun-god Ra), Neith is associated with Sobek as her son (as early as the Pyramid Texts), but in later religious conventions that paired deities, no male deity is consistently identified with her in a pair and so, she often is represented without one. Later triad associations made with her have little or no religious or mythological supporting references, appearing to have been made by political or regional associations only.

Some modern writers assert that they may interpret that as her being 'androgynous', since Neith is the creator capable of giving birth without a partner (asexually) and without association of creation with sexual imagery, as seen in the myths of Atum and other creator deities; which in turn led to her being accredited as the creator of birth itself. However, her name always appears as feminine. Erik Hornung interprets that in the Eleventh Hour of the Amduat, Neith's name appears written with a phallus. In reference to Neith's function as creator with both male and female characteristics, Peter Kaplony has said in the Lexikon der Ägyptologie: "Die Deutung von Neith als Njt "Verneinung" ist sekundär. Neith ist die weibliche Entsprechung zu Nw(w), dem Gott der Urflut (Nun and Naunet)." She was considered to be eldest of the Ancient Egyptian deities. Neith is said to have been "born the first, in the time when as yet there had been no birth".

In the Pyramid Texts, Neith is paired with the goddess Selket as the two braces for the sky, which places these goddesses as the supports for the heavens (see PT 1040a-d, following J. Gwyn Griffths, The Conflict of Horus and Seth, (London, 1961) p. 1). This ties in with the vignette in The Contendings of Horus and Seth when, as the most ancient among them, Neith is asked by the deities to decide who should rule. She was appealed to as an arbiter in the dispute between Horus and Seth. In her message of reply, Neith selects Horus, and says she will "cause the sky to crash to the earth" if he is not selected.

The click beetle (likely specifically agrypnus notodonta) is one of the beetles depicted in ancient Egyptian art. The shape of the beetle resembles the shape of some ancient Egyptian shields, and necklaces with beads shaped like the beetle have been found. Additionally, the beetles have been found depicted as part of a symbol of Neith. This association appears as early as the Protodynastic period, and may be the origin of one of Neith's stylized cult signs.

Attributes
An analysis of her attributes shows Neith was a goddess with many roles. From predynastic and early dynasty periods, she was referred to as an "Opener of the Ways" (same as Wepwawet), which may have referred, not only to her leadership in hunting and war but also as a psychopomp in cosmic and underworld pathways, escorting souls. References to Neith as the "Opener of Paths" occurs in Dynasty Four through Dynasty Six, and Neith is seen in the titles of women serving as priestesses of the goddess. Such epithets include: "Priestess of Neith who opens all the (path)ways", "Priestess of Neith who opens the good pathways", "Priestess of Neith who opens the way in all her places". (el-Sayed, I: 67-69). el-Sayed asserts his belief that Neith should be seen as a parallel to Wepwawet, the ancient jackal god of Upper Egypt, who was associated in that southern region with both royalty in victory and as a psychopomp for the dead.

The main imagery of Neith as Wepwawet was as the deity of the unseen and limitless sky, as opposed to representations of Nut and Hathor, who respectively represented the manifested night and day skies. Neith's epithet as the "Opener of the Sun's paths in all her stations" refers to how the sun is reborn (due to seasonal changes) at various points in the sky, under Neith's control of all beyond the visible world, of which only a glimpse is revealed prior to dawn and after sunset. It is at these changing points that Neith reigns as a form of sky goddess, where the sun rises and sets daily, or at its 'first appearance' to the sky above and below. It is at these points, beyond the sky that is seen, that Neith's true power as the deity who creates life is manifested.

Georges St. Clair noted that Neith is represented at times as a cow goddess with a line of stars across her back (as opposed to representations of Nut with stars across the belly) [See el-Sayed, II, Doc. 644], and maintained this indicated that Neith represents the full ecliptic circle around the sky (above and below), and is seen iconographically in ancient texts as both the regular and the inverted determinative for the heavenly vault, indicating the cosmos below the horizon. St. Clair maintained it was this realm that Neith personified, for she is the complete sky that surrounds the upper (Nut) and lower (Nunet?) sky, and who exists beyond the horizon, and thereby, beyond the skies themselves. Neith, then, is that portion of the cosmos that is not seen, and in which the sun is reborn daily, below the horizon (which may reflect the statement assigned to Neith as "I come at dawn and at sunset daily").

Since Neith also was goddess of war, she thus had an additional association with death: in this function, she shot her arrows into the enemies of the dead, and thus she began to be viewed as a protector of the dead, often appearing as a uraeus snake to drive off intruders and those who would harm the deceased (in this form she is represented in the tomb of Tutankhamun). She also is shown as the protectress of one of the Four sons of Horus, specifically Duamutef, the god who protected the stomach. Through her role as a goddess of weaving, she was associated with the wrappings of mummies.

Mythology
In some ancient Egyptian creation myths, Neith was identified as the mother of Ra and Apep. When she was identified as a water goddess, she was viewed as the mother of Sobek, the crocodile. It was because of this association with water, i.e. the Nile, that during pairing of deities she sometimes was considered the wife of Khnum and sometimes was associated with the source of the River Nile. In that cult center, she also was associated with the Nile Perch as well as being the goddess of the triad.

As the goddess of creation and weaving, she was said to reweave the world on her loom daily. An interior wall of the temple at Esna records an account of creation in which Neith brings forth the Nun, the first land, from the primeval waters. All that she conceived in her heart comes into being, including all thirty deities. Having no husband she has been described as "Virgin Mother Goddess":

"Unique Goddess, mysterious and great who came to be in the beginning and caused everything to come to be. The divine mother of Ra, who shines on the horizon..."

Proclus (412–485 AD) wrote that the adyton of the temple of Neith in Sais (of which nothing now remains) carried the following inscription:

"I am the things that are, that will be, and that have been. No one has ever laid open the garment by which I am concealed. The fruit which I brought forth was the sun."

It was said that Neith interceded in the kingly war between Horus and Set, over the Egyptian throne, recommending that Horus rule.

A great festival, called the Feast of Lamps, was held annually in honor of Neith and, according to the Greek historian Herodotus, her devotees burned a multitude of lights in the open air all night during the celebration.

Syncretic relationships
The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484) noted that the Egyptian citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped Neith. The Greeks sought to draw a syncretic relationship to associate Egyptian deities with those of Greece. They identified Neith with Athena. The Timaeus, a dialogue written by Plato, mirrors that identification with Athena, possibly as a result of the identification of both goddesses with war and weaving.

The English Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge suggested that the Christian biblical account of the flight into Egypt as recorded in the apocryphal gospels was directly influenced by stories about Isis and Horus; Budge argued that the writers of these gospels ascribed to Mary, the mother of Jesus, many peculiarities which, at the time of the rise of Christianity, were perceived as belonging to both Isis and Neith, for example, the parthenogenesis concept shared by both Neith and Mary.

Neith has been speculated by some scholars, such as J. Gwyn Griffiths and Jan Assmann, to be the actual goddess depicted in the first and second century Greek historian Plutarch's description of the Veil of Isis in his On Isis and Osiris. The veiled Isis is a motif which associates her with mystery and ceremonial magic. Plutarch described the statue of a seated and veiled goddess in the Egyptian city of Sais. He identified the goddess as "Athena, whom [the Egyptians] consider to be Isis." However, Sais was the cult center of the goddess Neith, whom the Greeks compared to their goddess Athena, and could have been the goddess that Plutarch spoke of. More than 300 years after Plutarch, the Neoplatonist philosopher Proclus wrote of the same statue in Book I of his Commentaries on Plato's "Timaeus". In this version, a statement is added: "The fruit of my womb was the sun", which could further be associated with Neith, due to her being the mother of the Sun god Ra.

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Sobek

Sobek (sbk, Ⲥⲟⲩⲕ), also known as Suchus (Σοῦχος), was an ancient Egyptian deity with a complex and elastic history and nature. He is associated with the sacred and Nile crocodiles and is often represented as a crocodile-headed humanoid, if not as a crocodile outright. Sobek was also associated with pharaonic power, fertility, and military prowess, but served additionally as a protective deity with apotropaic qualities, invoked especially for protection against the dangers presented by the Nile.

History
Sobek enjoyed a longstanding presence in the ancient Egyptian pantheon, from the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2686–2181 BCE) through the Roman period (c. 30 –350). He is first known from several different Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom, particularly from spell PT 317. The spell, which praises the pharaoh as the living incarnation of the crocodile god, reads: "Unis is Sobek, green of plumage, with alert face and raised fore, the splashing one who came from the thigh and tail of the great goddess in the sunlight ... Unis has appeared as Sobek, Neith's son. Unis will eat with his mouth, Unis will urinate and Unis will copulate with his penis. Unis is lord of semen, who takes women from their husbands to the place Unis likes according to his heart's fancy."

The origin of his name, Sbk in Egyptian, is debated among scholars, but many believe that it is derived from a causative of the verb "to impregnate". Though Sobek was worshipped in the Old Kingdom, he truly gained prominence in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650), most notably under the Twelfth Dynasty pharaoh, Amenemhat III. Amenemhat III had taken a particular interest in the Faiyum of Egypt, a region heavily associated with Sobek. Amenemhat and many of his dynastic contemporaries engaged in building projects to promote Sobek – projects that were often executed in the Faiyum. In this period, Sobek also underwent an important change: he was often fused with the falcon-headed god of divine kingship, Horus. This brought Sobek even closer with the kings of Egypt, thereby giving him a place of greater prominence in the Egyptian pantheon. The fusion added a finer level of complexity to the god's nature, as he was adopted into the divine triad of Horus and his two parents: Osiris and Isis.

Sobek first acquired a role as a solar deity through his connection to Horus, but this was further strengthened in later periods with the emergence of Sobek-Ra, a fusion of Sobek and Egypt's primary sun god, Ra. Sobek-Horus persisted as a figure in the New Kingdom (1550–1069 ), but it was not until the last dynasties of Egypt that Sobek-Ra gained prominence. This understanding of the god was maintained after the fall of Egypt's last native dynasty in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt (c. 332 – 390). The prestige of both Sobek and Sobek-Ra endured in this time period and tributes to him attained greater prominence – both through the expansion of his dedicated cultic sites and a concerted scholarly effort to make him the subject of religious doctrine.

Cult centers
The entire Faiyum region – the "Land of the Lake" in Egyptian (specifically referring to Lake Moeris) – served as a cult center of Sobek. Most Faiyum towns developed their own localized versions of the god, such as Soknebtunis at Tebtunis, Sokonnokonni at Bacchias, and Souxei at an unknown site in the area. At Karanis, two forms of the god were worshipped: Pnepheros and Petsuchos. There, mummified crocodiles were employed as cult images of Petsuchos.

Sobek Shedety, the patron of the Faiyum's centrally located capital, Crocodilopolis (or Egyptian "Shedet"), was the most prominent form of the god. Extensive building programs honoring Sobek were realized in Shedet, as it was the capital of the entire Arsinoite nome and consequently the most important city in the region. It is thought that the effort to expand Sobek's main temple was initially driven by Ptolemy II. Specialized priests in the main temple at Shedet functioned solely to serve Sobek, boasting titles like "prophet of the crocodile-gods" and "one who buries of the bodies of the crocodile-gods of the Land of the Lake". For the Greco-Roman period, the settlements Bakchias, Narmouthis, Soknopaiou Nesos, Tebtunis and Theadelphia at the edges of the Faiyum provide numerous papyri, ostraca and inscriptions that relate to temples and priests of Sobek and his local incarnations: The sources from these five settlements are central to study cult practice, temple economy and social networks of priestly families under Roman rule.

Outside the Faiyum, Kom Ombo, in southern Egypt, was the biggest cultic center of Sobek, particularly during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Kom Ombo is located about 30 miles (48 km) north of Aswan and was built during the Graeco-Roman period (332 BCE – 395 CE). The temple at this site was called the "Per-Sobek", meaning the "house of Sobek".

Character and surrounding mythologies
Sobek is, above all else, an aggressive and animalistic deity who lives up to the vicious reputation of his patron animal, the large and violent Nile crocodile / West African crocodile. Some of his common epithets portray this nature succinctly, the most notable of which being: "he who loves robbery", "he who eats while he also mates", and "pointed of teeth". However, he also displays grand benevolence in more than one celebrated myth. After his association with Horus and consequent adoption into the Osirian triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus in the Middle Kingdom, Sobek became associated with Isis as a healer of the deceased Osiris (following his violent murder by Set in the central Osiris myth). In fact, though many scholars believe that the name of Sobek, Sbk, is derived from s-bAk, "to impregnate", others postulate that it is a participial form of the verb sbq, an alternative writing of sAq, "to unite", thereby meaning Sbk could roughly translate to "he who unites (the dismembered limbs of Osiris)".

It is from this association with healing that Sobek was considered a protective deity. His fierceness was able to ward off evil while simultaneously defending the innocent. He was thus made a subject of personal piety and a common recipient of votive offerings, particularly in the later periods of ancient Egyptian history. It was not uncommon, particularly in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, for crocodiles to be preserved as mummies to present at Sobek's cultic centers. Sobek was also offered mummified crocodile eggs, meant to emphasize the cyclical nature of his solar attributes as Sobek-Ra.

Likewise, crocodiles were raised for religious reasons as living incarnations of Sobek. Upon their deaths, they were mummified in a grand ritual display as sacred, but earthly, manifestations of their patron god. This practice was executed specifically at the main temple of Crocodilopolis. These mummified crocodiles have been found with baby crocodiles in their mouths and on their backs. The crocodile is one of the few reptiles seen to diligently care for their young, and often transports its offspring in this manner. The practice of preserving this aspect of the animal's behavior via mummification is likely intended to emphasize the protective and nurturing aspects of the fierce Sobek, as he protects the Egyptian people in the same manner that the crocodile protects its young.

In Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, a local monograph called the Book of the Faiyum centered on Sobek with a considerable portion devoted to the journey made by Sobek-Ra each day with the movement of the sun through the sky. The text also focuses heavily on Sobek's central role in creation as a manifestation of Ra, as he is said to have risen from the primal waters of Lake Moeris, not unlike the Ogdoad in the traditional creation myth of Hermopolis.

Many varied copies of the book exist and many scholars feel that it was produced in large quantities as a "best-seller" in antiquity. The integral relationship between the Faiyum and Sobek is highlighted via this text, and his far reaching influence is seen in localities that are outside the Faiyum as well; a portion of the book is copied on the Upper Egyptian (meaning southern Egyptian) Temple of Kom Ombo.

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Jah

Jah or Yah (, Yāh) is a short form of the tetragrammaton יהוה (YHWH), the personal name of God: Yahweh, which the ancient Israelites used. The conventional Christian English pronunciation of Jah is, even though the letter J here transliterates the palatal approximant (Hebrew י Yodh). The spelling Yah is designed to make the pronunciation explicit in an English-language context (see also romanization of Hebrew), especially for Christians who may not use Hebrew regularly during prayer and study.

This short form of the name occurs 50 times in the text of the Hebrew Bible, of which 24 form part of the phrase "Hallelujah", a phrase that continues to be employed by Jews and Christians to give praise to Yahweh. In the Christian King James Version (1611) there is a single instance of JAH (capitalized), in Psalm 68:4. An American Translation (1939) and the New King James Version "NKJV" (1982) follows KJV in using Yah in this verse.

While pronouncing the tetragrammaton is forbidden for Jews, articulating "Jah"/"Yah" is allowed, but is usually confined to prayer and study.

The name Jah is frequently employed by adherents of Rastafari to refer to God.

Etymology
The name of the national god of the kingdoms of Israel (Samaria) and Judah is written in the Hebrew Bible as יהוה (YHWH), which modern scholars often render as Yahweh. The short form Jah/Yah, appears in Exodus 15:2 and 17:16, Psalm 89:9, (arguably, by emendation) Song of Songs 8:6, as well as in the phrase Hallelujah. The name of Yahweh is also incorporated into several theophoric names, however, in almost all cases the Hebrew name itself uses -yāhū, not -yāh. This does not preclude the translation of several -yāhū names without the added ū, such as Elijah (ʾĒlīyyāhū) or Hezekiah (H̱īzəqīyyahū), or the existence of several Hebrew names which do use the -yāh form, such as Jedidjah, Malchijah, and Adonijah.

In the Tanakh
Yah occurs 50 times: 43 times in the Psalms, in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; and Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, as well as twice in Isaiah 38:11.

In the Christian New Testament
At Revelation 19:1-6, Jah is embedded in the phrase "hallelujah" (Tiberian halləlûyāh), a Hebrew expression that literally means "Praise Jah". The short form "IA" (Yah or Jah (יה)) in the phrase hallelouia (Ἁλληλουιά) is transcribed by the Greek ia.

Jewish and Christian Bibles
In the King James Version of the Christian Bible, the Hebrew יהּ is transliterated as "JAH" (capitalised) in only one instance: "Sing unto God, sing praises to his name: extol him that rideth upon the heavens by his name JAH, and rejoice before him". An American Translation renders the Hebrew word as "Yah" in this verse. In the 1885 Revised Version and its annotated study edition, The Modern Reader's Bible, which uses the Revised Version as its base text, also transliterates "JAH" in Psalms 89:8 which reads, "O LORD God of hosts, who is a mighty one, like unto thee, O JAH? and thy faithfulness is round about thee".

With the rise of the Reformation, reconstructions of the Tetragrammaton became popular. The Tyndale Bible was the first English translation to use the anglicized reconstruction. The modern letter "J" settled on its current English pronunciation only around 500 years ago; in Ancient Hebrew, the first consonant of the Tetragrammaton always represents a "Y" sound.

Rotherham's Emphasised Bible includes 49 uses of Jah. In the Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition Bible, the Jerusalem Bible, and the New Jerusalem Bible (prior to 1998) the name "YHWH" and its abbreviated form "Yah" is found. The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, used primarily by Jehovah's Witnesses, employs "Jah" in the Hebrew Scriptures, and translates Hallelujah as "Praise Jah" in the Greek Scriptures. The Divine Name King James Bible employs "JAH" in 50 instances within the Old Testament according to the Divine Name Concordance of the Divine Name King James Bible, Second Edition.

The Spanish language Reina Valera Bible employs "JAH" in 21 instances within the Old Testament according to the Nueva Concordancia Strong Exhaustiva. The Darby Bible, Young's Literal Translation, The Jubilee Bible 2000, Lexham English Bible, The Complete Jewish Bible, Names of God Bible, The Recovery Version, Green's Literal Translation, the New Jewish Publication Society or NJPS Tanakh and World English Bible includes "Jah" (Yah in the Lexham English Bible, Complete Jewish Bible, the NJPS Tanakh and the World English Bible) numerous times within the Old Testament (as well as in the New Testament or New Covenant as is the case in Christian and Messianic Jewish Bibles) as "Hallelujah!" or "Alleluia!" (Praise Jah or Yah in either instance) which is also employed throughout the Old Testament of these Bible versions.

"Hallelujah!" or "Alleluia!" is also used in other Bible versions such as the Divine Name King James Bible, American Standard Version, the Recovery Version, The Tree of Life Version, Amplified Bible, God's Word Translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible, International Standard Version, The Message, New American Bible Revised Edition, The Jerusalem Bible, The New Jerusalem Bible, NJPS Tanakh, The first JPS translation, The Living Bible, The Bible in Living English, Young's Literal Translation, King James Version, The Spanish language Reina Valera and even in Bible versions that otherwise do not generally use the Divine Name such as the New King James Version, English Standard Version, J.B. Phillips New Testament, New International Version, Douay-Rheims Version, God's Word Translation, Revised Standard Version, New Revised Standard Version, The Jubilee Bible 2000, New American Standard Bible, New Century Version, New International Reader's Version and several other versions, translations and/or editions in English and other languages varying from once to numerous times depending on the Bible version especially and most notably in Revelation Chapter 19 in Christian and Messianic Jewish Bibles.

Rastafari usage
Rastafari use the terms Jah or sometimes Jah Jah as a term for the Lord God or Haile Selassie, who some Rastafari regard as the incarnation of the God of the Old Testament or as the reincarnation of Jesus Christ, who is also known by the Ethiopian title Janhoy.

title: Jah


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Iah

Iah (Egyptian: (jꜥḥ; 𓇋𓂝𓎛𓇹, Coptic ) is a lunar deity in ancient Egyptian religion. The word jꜥḥ simply means "Moon". It is also transcribed as Yah, Jah, Aa, or Aah.

Worship
By the New Kingdom (16th century to 11th century BC) he was less prominent than other gods with lunar connections, Thoth and Khonsu. As a result of the functional connection between them, he could be identified with either of those deities.

Iah was sometimes considered an adult form of Khonsu and was increasingly absorbed by him. He continued to appear in amulets and occasional other representations, similar to Khonsu in appearance, with the same lunar symbols on his head and occasionally the same tight garments. He differed in usually wearing a full wig instead of a child's sidelock, and sometimes the Atef topped by another symbol. As time went on, Iah also became Iah-Djehuty, meaning "god of the new moon". In this role, he assumed the lunar aspect of Thoth (also known as Djehuty), who was the god of knowledge, writing and calculation. The segments of the moon were also used as fractional symbols in writing.

Iah was also assimilated with Osiris, god of the dead, perhaps because, in its monthly cycle, the Moon appears to renew itself.

title: Iah


text:
Senet

Senet or senat (𓊃𓈖𓏏𓏠; cf. Coptic ⲥⲓⲛⲉ, 'passing, afternoon') is a board game from ancient Egypt that consists of ten or more pawns on a 30-square playing board. The earliest representation of senet is dated to c. 2620 BCE from the Mastaba of Hesy-Re, while similar boards and hieroglyphic signs are found even earlier, including in the Levant in the Early Bronze Age II period. Even though the game has a 2,000-year history in Egypt, there appears to be very little variation in terms of key components. This can be determined by studying the various senet boards that have been found by archaeologists, as well as depictions of senet being played throughout Egyptian history on places like tomb walls and papyrus scrolls. However, the game fell out of use following the Roman period, and its original rules are the subject of conjecture.

Evidence of senet over time
Fragmentary boards that could be senet have been found in First Dynasty burials in Egypt, c. 3100 BCE. The first unequivocal painting of this ancient game is from the Third Dynasty tomb of the high official Hesy (c. 2686–2613 BCE). People are depicted playing senet in a painting in the tomb of the Fifth Dynasty vizier Rashepses as well as from other tombs of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (c. 2500 BCE). There are depictions of individuals such as Tutankhamun and Nefertari (wife of Ramesses II) playing senet in tomb art as well during the New Kingdom.

Senet is depicted in ancient texts, including in Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead, where the individual who has died plays the game against an invisible opponent. The game of senet is also depicted in a scene depicted on papyrus dating from roughly 1250–1150 BCE that shows a lion and a gazelle playing senet (in the possession of the British Museum).

A game that could be senet is also referenced in the Roman-era Egyptian literary work that has been given the title in modern times of Setne Khamwas and Si-Osire. In this story, Naneferkaptah challenges Setne to a board game, with the winner taking a book he had been looking for as a prize. The game in this story is not explicitly stated; however, similarities such as the religious implications and structure of the game support the idea that it could be senet being depicted.

Senet in the archaeological record
The oldest intact senet boards date to the Middle Kingdom, but graffiti on Fifth and Sixth Dynasty monuments could date as early as the Old Kingdom. However, there have been no actual senet boards that have been dated to the Fourth through Sixth Dynasties, just evidence that they did exist from depictions in tombs. In a painting from the Third Dynasty tomb of Hesy-Re, a senet game is depicted along with other boardgames from this era.

A study on a senet board in the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, dating back to the early New Kingdom of Egypt, showed the evolution of the game from its secular origins into a more religious artefact. However, the archaeological context of this senet board in question is unknown—it was acquired by the Rosicrucian Museum in London in 1947, and due to poor archaeological practices of the time, the provenance at this point appears to not have been recorded.

Outside of Egypt
Some historians believe that senet could have originated in the Levant before Egypt; however, due to Egypt's involvement in the Levant, Egyptian influence could have introduced the game. Senet was also adopted in Cyprus around the end of the third millennium BCE and continued until at least the Bronze Age.

Though some historians argue that senet essentially disappeared after the Romans, there are some examples of senet graffiti on the roof of the Roman Temple of Dendera, which dates to the Roman period, and which would be the most concrete evidence that the game was played or did exist to some extent during the Roman period.

Gameplay

Due to the game falling out of use during the Roman period, the exact detailed rules of play are not known.

The senet board itself was usually constructed out of wood, ivory, faience, or some combination of these materials, and the layout of the board was a grid of 30 squares, arranged in three rows of ten. A complete senet game set would have contained a distinct set of pawns for each of the two players. At least by the New Kingdom, these pieces were in the form of hounds or dog-headed figurines. Through most of the game's 2,000-year history, the senet boards themselves would indicate the direction of play, usually from the top left corner and indicated by the decorations on the spaces. The last five squares were often the most decorated on the board. The decorations on the last five squares were unique, usually having a mark related to goodness or an aquatic reference on them.

At least by the New Kingdom in Egypt (1550–1077 BCE), the game reflected the concept of the ka passing through the duat—represented in the game by the spaces connecting the individual to different stages of their lives. This connection is made in the Great Game Text, which appears in a number of papyri, as well as the appearance of markings of religious significance on senet boards themselves.

Modern interpretation
Although details of the original game rules are a subject of some conjecture, historians Timothy Kendall and R. C. Bell have made their own reconstructions of the game rules. These rules are based on snippets of texts that span over a thousand years, over which time gameplay is likely to have changed. Therefore, it is unlikely these rules reflect the exact course of ancient Egyptian gameplay. However, their rules have been adopted by sellers of modern senet sets.

Various other Egyptologists have also tried to reconstruct the game; however, these are frequently discredited with more archaeological research/finds regarding the subject.

title: Senet


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HEP

HEP or hep may refer to:

Science and medicine

 * Hepatitis, a medical condition of the liver
 * Hepatoerythropoietic porphyria, a blood disease
 * High-energy physics
 * Homotopy extension property, a property in algebraic topology
 * Humane endpoint, predetermined stopping point in animal welfare practices to minimize animal distress and suffering

Technology

 * Head-end power, a method for providing electricity to train carriages
 * Heterogeneous Element Processor, the first commercial MIMD computer
 * High-efficiency plasma, a type of lamp
 * High-explosive plastic, a general-purpose ammunition
 * Hotel electric power. electricity generated and used aboard a ship for general purposes
 * Hydroelectric power, producing electrical energy through the use of moving water

Organisations

 * Hep Records, a jazz record label in Scotland
 * Hrvatska elektroprivreda, a Croatian power company
 * People's Labor Party, pro-Kurdish political party in Turkey

Other

 * HEP (shopping mall)
 * Healthy eating pyramid
 * Housing equity partnership
 * Hep, a synonym for hip (slang)
 * HEP (Latin: Hierosolyma est perdita or Jerusalem is lost); see cheering
 * Human Exemptionalism Paradigm, a concept in environmental sociology

title: HEP


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Hapi (Nile god)

Hapi (Ancient Egyptian: ḥꜥpj) was the god of the annual flooding of the Nile in ancient Egyptian religion. The flood deposited rich silt (fertile soil) on the river's banks, allowing the Egyptians to grow crops. Hapi was greatly celebrated among the Egyptians. Some of the titles of Hapi were "Lord of the Fish and Birds of the Marshes" and "Lord of the River Bringing Vegetation". Hapi is typically depicted as an androgynous figure with a prominent belly and large drooping breasts, wearing a loincloth and ceremonial false beard, depicted in hieroglyphics as an intersex person.

Mythology
The annual flooding of the Nile occasionally was said to be the Arrival of Hapi. Since this flooding provided fertile soil in an area that was otherwise desert, Hapi symbolised fertility. He had large female breasts because he was said to bring a rich and nourishing harvest. Due to his fertile nature he was sometimes considered the "father of the gods", and was considered to be a caring father who helped to maintain the balance of the cosmos, the world or universe regarded as an orderly, harmonious system. He was thought to live within a cavern at the supposed source of the Nile near Aswan. The cult of Hapi was mainly located at the First Cataract named Elephantine. His priests were involved in rituals to ensure the steady levels of flow required from the annual flood. At Elephantine the official nilometer, a measuring device, was carefully monitored to predict the level of the flood, and his priests must have been intimately concerned with its monitoring.

Hapi was not regarded as the god of the Nile itself but of the inundation event. He was also considered a "friend of Geb", the Egyptian god of the earth, and the "lord of Neper", the god of grain.

Iconography
Although male and wearing the false beard, Hapi was pictured with pendulous breasts and a large stomach, as representations of the fertility of the Nile. He also was usually given blue or green skin, representing water. Other attributes varied, depending upon the region of Egypt in which the depictions exist. In Lower Egypt, he was adorned with papyrus plants and attended by frogs, present in the region, and symbols of it. Whereas in Upper Egypt, it was the lotus and crocodiles which were more present in the Nile, thus these were the symbols of the region, and those associated with Hapi there. Hapi often was pictured carrying offerings of food or pouring water from an amphora, but also, very rarely, was depicted as a hippopotamus. During the Nineteenth Dynasty Hapi is often depicted as a pair of figures, each holding and tying together the long stem of two plants representing Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolically binding the two halves of the country around a hieroglyph meaning "union". This symbolic representation was often carved at the base of seated statues of the pharaoh. Egyptian historian Al Maqrizi (1364–1442) related in his "El Khutat El Maqrizia (The Maqrizian Plans) that living virgins were sacrificed annually as "brides of the Nile" ("Arous El Nil") and this has been historically accepted as late as the 1970s, but this claim is disputed by some Egyptologists such as Bassam El Shammaa.

title: Hapi (Nile god)


text:
Intel 8085

The  Intel 8085 ("eighty-eighty-five") is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in March 1976. It is the last 8-bit microprocessor developed by Intel.

It is software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added interrupt and serial input/output features. However, it requires less support circuitry, allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built.

The "5" in the part number highlighted the fact that the 8085 uses a single +5-volt (V) power supply by using depletion-mode transistors, rather than requiring the +5 V, −5 V and +12 V supplies needed by the 8080. This capability matched that of the competing Z80, a popular 8080-derived CPU introduced the year before. These processors could be used in computers running the CP/M operating system.

The 8085 is supplied in a 40-pin DIP package. To maximise the functions on the available pins, the 8085 uses a multiplexed address/data (AD0-AD7) bus. However, an 8085 circuit requires an 8-bit address latch, so Intel manufactured several support chips with an address latch built in. These include the 8755, with an address latch, 2 KB of EPROM and 16 I/O pins, and the 8155 with 256 bytes of RAM, 22 I/O pins and a 14-bit programmable timer/counter. The multiplexed address/data bus reduced the number of PCB tracks between the 8085 and such memory and I/O chips.

Both the 8080 and the 8085 were eclipsed by the Zilog Z80 for desktop computers, which took over most of the CP/M computer market, as well as a share of the booming home-computer market in the early-to-mid-1980s.

The 8085 had a long life as a controller, no doubt thanks to its built-in serial I/O and five prioritized interrupts, arguably microcontroller-like features that the Z80 CPU did not have. Once designed into such products as the DECtape II controller and the VT102 video terminal in the late 1970s, the 8085 served for new production throughout the lifetime of those products. This was typically longer than the product life of desktop computers.

Description
The 8085 is a conventional von Neumann design based on the Intel 8080. Unlike the 8080 it does not multiplex state signals onto the data bus, but the 8-bit data bus is instead multiplexed with the lower eight bits of the 16-bit address bus to limit the number of pins to 40. State signals are provided by dedicated bus control signal pins and two dedicated bus state ID pins named S0 and S1. Pin 40 is used for the power supply (+5 V) and pin 20 for ground. Pin 39 is used as the Hold pin.

The processor was designed using nMOS circuitry, and the later "H" versions were implemented in Intel's enhanced nMOS process called HMOS II ("High-performance MOS"), originally developed for fast static RAM products. Only a single 5-volt power supply is needed, like competing processors and unlike the 8080. The 8085 uses approximately 6,500 transistors.

The 8085 incorporates the functions of the 8224 (clock generator) and the 8228 (system controller) on chip, increasing the level of integration. A downside compared to similar contemporary designs (such as the Z80) is the fact that the buses require demultiplexing; however, address latches in the Intel 8155, 8355, and 8755 memory chips allow a direct interface, so an 8085 along with these chips is almost a complete system.

The 8085 has extensions to support new interrupts, with three maskable vectored interrupts (RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5), one non-maskable interrupt (TRAP), and one externally serviced interrupt (INTR). Each of these five interrupts has a separate pin on the processor, a feature which permits simple systems to avoid the cost of a separate interrupt controller. The RST 7.5 interrupt is edge triggered (latched), while RST 5.5 and 6.5 are level-sensitive. All interrupts except TRAP are enabled by the EI instruction and disabled by the DI instruction. In addition, the SIM (Set Interrupt Mask) and RIM (Read Interrupt Mask) instructions, the only instructions of the 8085 that are not from the 8080 design, allow each of the three maskable RST interrupts to be individually masked. All three are masked after a normal CPU reset. SIM and RIM also allow the global interrupt mask state and the three independent RST interrupt mask states to be read, the pending-interrupt states of those same three interrupts to be read, the RST 7.5 trigger-latch flip-flop to be reset (cancelling the pending interrupt without servicing it), and serial data to be sent and received via the SOD and SID pins, respectively, all under program control and independently of each other.

SIM and RIM each execute in four clock cycles (T states), making it possible to sample SID and/or toggle SOD considerably faster than it is possible to toggle or sample a signal via any I/O or memory-mapped port, e.g. one of the port of an 8155. (In this way, SID can be compared to the SO ["Set Overflow"] pin of the 6502 CPU contemporary to the 8085.)

Like the 8080, the 8085 can accommodate slower memories through externally generated wait states (pin 35, READY), and has provisions for Direct Memory Access (DMA) using HOLD and HLDA signals (pins 39 and 38). An improvement over the 8080 is that the 8085 can itself drive a piezoelectric crystal directly connected to it, and a built-in clock generator generates the internal high-amplitude two-phase clock signals at half the crystal frequency (a 6.14 MHz crystal would yield a 3.07 MHz clock, for instance). The internal clock is available on an output pin, to drive peripheral devices or other CPUs in lock-step synchrony with the CPU from which the signal is output. The 8085 can also be clocked by an external oscillator (making it feasible to use the 8085 in synchronous multi-processor systems using a system-wide common clock for all CPUs, or to synchronize the CPU to an external time reference such as that from a video source or a high-precision time reference).

The 8085 is a binary compatible follow-up on the 8080. It supports the complete instruction set of the 8080, with exactly the same instruction behavior, including all effects on the CPU flags (except for the AND/ANI operation, which sets the AC flag differently). This means that the vast majority of object code (any program image in ROM or RAM) that runs successfully on the 8080 can run directly on the 8085 without translation or modification. (Exceptions include timing-critical code and code that is sensitive to the aforementioned difference in the AC flag setting or differences in undocumented CPU behavior.) 8085 instruction timings differ slightly from the 8080—some 8-bit operations, including INR, DCR, and the heavily used MOV r,r' instruction, are one clock cycle faster, but instructions that involve 16-bit operations, including stack operations (which increment or decrement the 16-bit SP register) generally one cycle slower. It is of course possible that the actual 8080 and/or 8085 differs from the published specifications, especially in subtle details. (The same is not true of the Z80.) As mentioned already, only the SIM and RIM instructions were new to the 8085.

Programming model
The processor has seven 8-bit registers accessible to the programmer, named A, B, C, D, E, H, and L, where A is also known as the accumulator. The other six registers can be used as independent byte-registers or as three 16-bit register pairs, BC, DE, and HL (or B, D, H, as referred to in Intel documents), depending on the particular instruction.

Some instructions use HL as a (limited) 16-bit accumulator. As in the 8080, the contents of the memory address pointed to by HL can be accessed as pseudo register M. It also has a 16-bit program counter and a 16-bit stack pointer to memory (replacing the 8008's internal stack). Instructions such as PUSH PSW, POP PSW affect the Program Status Word (accumulator and flags). The accumulator stores the results of arithmetic and logical operations, and the flags register bits (sign, zero, auxiliary carry, parity, and carry flags) are set or cleared according to the results of these operations. The sign flag is set if the result has a negative sign (i.e. it is set if bit 7 of the accumulator is set). The auxiliary or half carry flag is set if a carryover from bit 3 to bit 4 occurred. The parity flag is set to 1 if the parity (number of 1-bits) of the accumulator is even; if odd, it is cleared. The zero flag is set if the result of the operation was 0. Lastly, the carry flag is set if a carryover from bit 7 of the accumulator (the MSB) occurred.

Commands/instructions
As in many other 8-bit processors, all instructions are encoded in a single byte (including register-numbers, but excluding immediate data), for simplicity. Some of them are followed by one or two bytes of data, which can be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a port number. A NOP "no operation" instruction exists, but does not modify any of the registers or flags. Like larger processors, it has CALL and RET instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which can be conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and restore any 16-bit register-pair on the machine stack. There are also eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines located at the fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h,...,38h. These are intended to be supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding interrupt-service routine, but are also often employed as fast system calls. One sophisticated instruction is XTHL, which is used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address indicated by the stack pointer.

8-bit instructions
All two-operand 8-bit arithmetic and logical (ALU) operations work on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register). For two-operand 8-bit operations, the other operand can be either an immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory cell addressed by the 16-bit register pair HL. The only 8-bit ALU operations that can have a destination other than the accumulator are the unary incrementation or decrementation instructions, which can operate on any 8-bit register or on memory addressed by HL, as for two-operand 8-bit operations. Direct copying is supported between any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and an HL-addressed memory cell, using the MOV instruction. An immediate value can also be moved into any of the foregoing destinations, using the MVI instruction. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV instruction (using nearly a quarter of the entire opcode space) there are redundant codes to copy a register into itself (MOV B,B, for instance), which are of little use, except for delays. However, what would have been a copy from the HL-addressed cell into itself (i.e., MOV M,M) instead encodes the HLT instruction, halting execution until an external reset or unmasked interrupt occurs.

16-bit operations
Although the 8085 is an 8-bit processor, it has some 16-bit operations. Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL) or SP can be loaded with an immediate 16-bit value (using LXI), incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL (using DAD). LHLD loads HL from directly addressed memory and SHLD stores HL likewise. The XCHG operation exchanges the values of HL and DE. XTHL exchanges last item pushed on stack with HL. Adding HL to itself performs a 16-bit arithmetic left shift with one instruction. The only 16-bit instruction that affects any flag is DAD (adding BC, DE, HL, or SP to HL), which updates the carry flag to facilitate 24-bit or larger additions and left shifts. Adding the stack pointer to HL is useful for indexing variables in (recursive) stack frames. A stack frame can be allocated using DAD SP and SPHL, and a branch to a computed pointer can be done with PCHL. These abilities make it feasible to compile languages such as PL/M, Pascal, or C with 16-bit variables and produce 8085 machine code. Subtraction and bitwise logical operations on 16 bits is done in 8-bit steps. Operations that have to be implemented by program code (subroutine libraries) include comparisons of signed integers as well as multiplication and division.

Undocumented instructions
A number of undocumented instructions and flags were discovered by two software engineers, Wolfgang Dehnhardt and Villy M. Sorensen in the process of developing an 8085 assembler. These instructions use 16-bit operands and include indirect loading and storing of a word, a subtraction, a shift, a rotate, and offset operations.

By the time 8085 was designed but not yet announced, many designers found it to be inferior to the competing products already on the market. A next generation 8086 CPU was already in development. Intel made a last minute decision to leave 10 out of 12 new 8085 instructions undocumented to speed up and simplify the design of the upcoming 8086 CPU.

Input/output scheme
The 8085 supports both port-mapped and memory-mapped I/O. It supports up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports via dedicated Input/Output instructions, with port addresses as operands. Port-mapped IO can be an advantage on processors with limited address space. During a port-mapped I/O bus cycle, the 8-bit I/O address is output by the CPU on both the lower and upper halves of the 16-bit address bus.

Devices designed for memory mapped I/O can also be accessed by using the LDA (load accumulator from a 16-bit address) and STA (store accumulator at a 16-bit address specified) instructions, or any other instructions that have memory operands. A memory-mapped IO transfer cycle appears on the bus as a normal memory access cycle.

Development system
Intel produced a series of development systems for the 8080 and 8085, known as the MDS-80 Microprocessor System. The original development system had an 8080 processor. Later 8085 and 8086 support was added including ICE (in-circuit emulators). It is a large and heavy desktop box, about a 20" cube (in the Intel corporate blue color) which includes a CPU, monitor, and a single 8-inch floppy disk drive. Later an external box was made available with two more floppy drives. It runs the ISIS operating system and can also operate an emulator pod and an external EPROM programmer. This unit uses the Multibus card cage which was intended just for the development system. A surprising number of spare card cages and processors were being sold, leading to the development of the Multibus as a separate product.

The later iPDS is a portable unit, about 8"16"20", with a handle. It has a small green screen, a keyboard built into the top, a 5¼ inch floppy disk drive, and runs the ISIS-II operating system. It can also accept a second 8085 processor, allowing a limited form of multi-processor operation where both processors run simultaneously and independently. The screen and keyboard can be switched between them, allowing programs to be assembled on one processor (large programs took a while) while files are edited in the other. It has a bubble memory option and various programming modules, including EPROM, and Intel 8048 and 8051 programming modules which are plugged into the side, replacing stand-alone device programmers. In addition to an 8080/8085 assembler, Intel produced a number of compilers including those for PL/M-80 and Pascal, and a set of tools for linking and statically locating programs to enable them to be burned into EPROMs and used in embedded systems.

A lower cost "MCS-85 System Design Kit" (SDK-85) board contains an 8085 CPU, an 8355 ROM containing a debugging monitor program, an 8155 RAM and 22 I/O ports, an 8279 hex keypad and 8-digit 7-segment LED, and a TTY (Teletype) $20 mA$ current loop serial interface. Pads are available for one more 2K×8 8755 EPROM, and another $256 byte$ RAM 8155 I/O Timer/Counter can be optionally added. All data, control, and address signals are available on dual pin headers, and a large prototyping area is provided.

Applications
The 8085 processor was used in a few early personal computers, for example, the TRS-80 Model 100 line used an OKI manufactured 80C85 (MSM80C85ARS). The CMOS version 80C85 of the NMOS/HMOS 8085 processor has several manufacturers. In the Soviet Union, an 80C85 clone was developed under the designation IM1821VM85A (ИМ1821ВМ85А) 2016 was still in production. Some manufacturers provide variants with additional functions such as additional instructions.

The radiation hardened version of the 8085 has been in on-board instrument data processors for several NASA and ESA space physics missions in the 1990s and early 2000s, including CRRES, Polar, FAST, Cluster, HESSI, the Sojourner Mars Rover, and THEMIS. The Swiss company SAIA used the 8085 and the 8085–2 as the CPUs of their PCA1 line of programmable logic controllers during the 1980s.

Pro-Log Corp. put the 8085 and supporting hardware on an STD Bus format card containing CPU, RAM, sockets for ROM/EPROM, I/O and external bus interfaces. The included Instruction Set Reference Card uses entirely different mnemonics for the Intel 8085 CPU. The product was a direct competitor to Intel's Multibus card offerings.

MCS-85 family
The 8085 CPU is one part of a family of chips developed by Intel for building a complete system. Many of these support chips were also used with other processors. The original IBM PC based on the Intel 8088 processor used several of these chips; the equivalent functions today are provided by VLSI chips, namely the "Southbridge" chips.
 * 8085 – CPU
 * 8231 – Arithmetic Processing Unit
 * 8232 – Floating-Point Processor
 * 8205 – 1 of 8 Binary Decoder

Static RAM

 * 8155 – 2K-bit static MOS RAM with 3 I/O Ports and Timer. The industrial version of ID8155 was available for US$37.50 in quantities of 100 and up.  The military version of M8155 was available for US$100.00 in quantities of 100.  There is a $5 MHz$ version of Intel 8155–2.  The available 8155H was introduced using the HMOS II technology which it uses 30 percent less power than the previous generation.  The plastic package version of P8155H (3 MHz) and P8155H-2 (5 MHz) are available for US$5.15 and US$6.40 per 100 in quantities respectively.
 * 8156 – 2K-bit static MOS RAM with 3 I/O Ports and Timer. The industrial version of ID8156 was available for US$37.50 in quantities of 100.   There is a $5 MHz$ version of Intel 8156–2.  The available 8156H was introduced using the HMOS II technology which it uses 30 percent less power than the previous generation.  The plastic package version of P8156H (3 MHz) and P8156H-2 (5 MHz) are available for US$5.15 and US$6.40 per 100 in quantities respectively.
 * 8185 – 1,024 x 8-bit Static RAM. It included three chip selects and an internal address latch driven directly by the 8085's ALE. The $5 MHz$ version of Intel 8185-2 was available for US$48.75 in quantity of 100.

ROM memory

 * 8355 – 2,048 × 8-bit ROM, two 8-bit I/O ports. The industrial version of ID8355 was available for US$22.00 in quantities of 1000. There is a $5 MHz$ version of Intel 8355–2.
 * 8604 – 4096-bit (512 ×8) PROM
 * 8755 – 2048 x 8-bit EPROM, two 8-bit I/O ports. The Intel 8755A-2 is the $5 MHz$ version. That version was available for US$81.00 in quantity of 100.  There was an Industrial Grade version Intel I8755A-8.

RAM controllers

 * 8202 – Dynamic RAM Controller. This supports the Intel 2104A, 2117, or 2118 DRAM modules, up to 128 KB of DRAM modules. Price was reduced to US$36.25 for quantities of 100 for the D8202 package style around May 1979.
 * 8203 – Dynamic RAM Controller. The Intel 82C03 CMOS version dissipates less than 25 mA.  It supports up to 16x 64K-bit RAM for a total capacity of up to $256 KB$. It refreshes every 10 to 16 microseconds. It supports multiplexing of row and column memory addresses. It generates strobes to latch the address internally. It arbitrates between simultaneous requests for memory access and refresh. It also acknowledges memory-access cycles to the system CPU. The 82C03 was available in either ceramic or plastic packages for US$32.00 in 100 pieces quantity.
 * 8207 – DRAM Controller

Periphery

 * 8206 – Error Detection & Correction Unit
 * 8210 – TTL To MOS Shifter & High Voltage Clock Driver
 * 8212 – 8-bit I/O Port. The industrial version of ID8212 was available for US$6.75 in quantities of 100.
 * 8216 – 4-bit Parallel Bidirectional Bus Driver. The industrial version of ID8216 was available for US$6.40 in quantities of 100.
 * 8218/8219 – Bus Controller
 * 8226 – 4-bit Parallel Bidirectional Bus Driver. The industrial version of ID8226 was available for US$6.40 in quantities of 100.
 * 8237 – DMA Controller
 * 8251 – USART Communication Controller
 * 8253 – Programmable Interval Timer
 * 8254 – Programmable Interval Timer. The 82C54 CMOS version was outsourced to Oki Electronic Industry Co., Ltd.
 * 8255 – Programmable Peripheral Interface
 * 8256 – Multifunction Peripheral. This multifunction chip uses Serial Communications, Parallel I/O, Counter/Timers and Interrupts. The Intel 8256AH was available for US$21.40 in quantities of 100. This integrated circuit chip integrates the chips with the following functionality:
 * Intel 8251A Programmable Communications Interface
 * Intel 8253 Programmable Interval Timer
 * Intel 8255A Programmable Peripheral Interface
 * Intel 8259A Programmable Interrupt Controller.
 * 8257 – DMA Controller
 * 8259 – Programmable Interrupt Controller
 * 8271 – Programmable Floppy Disk Controller
 * 8272 – Single/Double Density Floppy Disk Controller. It is compatible with IBM 3740 and System 34 formats and provides both Frequency Modulation (FM) or Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM). This version was available for US$38.10 in quantities of 100.
 * 8273 – Programmable HDLC/SDLC Protocol Controller. This device supports ISO/CCITT's HDLC and IBM's SDLC communication protocols. These were available for US$33.75 ($4 MHz$) and US$30.00 ($8 MHz$) in quantities of 100.
 * 8274 – Multi-Protocol Serial Controller. This support three different protocols using the following feature of Asynchronous Operation, Byte Synchronous Operation and Bit Synchronous Operation. The Byte Synchronous mode is compatible to IBM's Bisync signal protocol.  The Bit Synchronous mode is compatible to IBM's SDLC and the International Standards Organization's HDLC protocol and is compatible with CCITT X.25 international standard as well.  It was packaged in 40-pin product using the Intel's HMOS technology.  The available version is rated up to 880 kilobaud for US$30.30 in the quantities of 100.  NEC μPD7201 was also compatible.
 * 8275 – Programmable CRT Controller. It refreshes the raster scan display by buffering from main memory and keeping track of the display portion. This version was available for US$32.00 in quantities of 100.
 * 8276 – Small System CRT Controller
 * 8278 – Programmable Key Board Interface
 * 8279 – Key Board/Display Controller
 * 8282 – 8-bit Non-Inverting Latch with Output Buffer
 * 8283 – 8-bit Inverting Latch with Output Buffer
 * 8291 – GPIB Talker/Listener. This controller can operate from 1 to $8 MHz$. It was available for US$23.75 in quantities of 100.
 * 8292 – GPIB Controller. Designed around Intel 8041A which it has been programmed as an controller interface element. It also controls the bus using three lock-up timers to detect issues on the GPIB bus interface. It was available for US$21.25 in quantities of 100.
 * 8293 – GPIB Transceiver. This chipset supports up to 4 different modes: Mode 0 Talker/Listener Control Lines, Mode 1 Talker/Listener/Controller Control Lines, Mode 2 Talker/Listener/Controller Data Lines, and Mode 3 Talker/Listener Data Lines. It was available for US$11.50 in quantities of 100.  At the time of release, it was available in samples then full production in the first quarter of 1980.
 * 8294 – Data Encryption/Decryption Unit + 1 O/P Port. It encrypts and decrypts 64-bit blocks of data using the Federal Information Processing Data Encryption Standard algorithm. This also uses the National Bureau of Standards encryption algorithm. This DEU operates using a 56-bit user-specified key to generate 64-bit cipher words. It was available for US$22.50 in quantities of 100.
 * 8295 – Dot Matrix Printer Controller. This interfaces with LRC 7040 Series dot matrix printers and other small printers as well. It was available for US$20.65 in quantities of 100.

Educational use
In many engineering schools the 8085 processor is used in introductory microprocessor courses. Trainer kits composed of a printed circuit board, 8085, and supporting hardware are offered by various companies. These kits usually include complete documentation allowing a student to go from soldering to assembly language programming in a single course. Also, the architecture and instruction set of the 8085 are easy for a student to understand. Shared Project versions of educational and hobby 8085-based single-board computers are noted below in the External Links section of this article.

Simulators
Software simulators are available for the 8085 microprocessor, which allow simulated execution of opcodes in a graphical environment.

title: Intel 8085