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Talk:Mach number

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Pronunciation
I cannot fully agree to the below comments made to the pronounciation of the surname "Mach". During all my life, including my studies of aeronautics in Germany, I have never heard anybody pronouncing his name with a long "a". It is indeed to be pronounced like the german imperative of the 2nd person of "machen" ("do!"), which is with a short "a", like in the english word "duck". The "ch" at the end however is the bit that most non-german speakers will find most difficult to pronounce. It cannot be described in written form, but it is correct that it does not sound like "ck".

Regards from Germany, Christian —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.124.114.36 (talk) 15:53, 12 August 2008 (UTC)

(Ernst) Mach is definitely pronounced like (Johann Sebastian) Bach, therefore {max}. "Mach" is also in German the imperative of "to do". "Mach etwas" means "do something".
 * But "Mach" (of Ernst) has got a long "a", and "Mach" in "Mach etwas" a short one. Other than that, I agree, it's like "Bach". "Mack" or "Mock" are nonsense. 80.75.192.71 08:38, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

--

Is Mach number really pronounced, as the article says, "mack" in British English and "mock" in American English? The reason I ask is that there has been some discussion on how Mach kernel is pronounced. In the discussion there (see Talk:Mach_kernel), some presume it is named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach, and was pronounced the same as his name (like Bach). This would contradict to the information in this article about Mach number. So, the question really is, how is Ernst Mach pronounced (plus possible variants/alternatives)? Then, is Mach number named after his, yes or no? And if it is, is it pronounced like him or differently and why? And finally, is Mach kernel named after Ernst Mach and/or after Mach number and/or something else, and how and why is it pronounced (plus possible variants/alternatives)?
 * Mach is pronounced with Hard ch, same as J.S.Bach, it is named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach, both are german names. Only some ignorant clod could use ill-sounding form like "mack". Why is it even mentioned in the article?? -- IEEE (talk) 02:29, 28 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, if you happen to speak a southern British dialect which doesn't use that [x] phoneme, it's usually much more comfortable to use "mack". Especially since with the long vowel you could confuse it with the word 'mark'. Either way, I agree that the pronunciation issue is irrelevant.--81.156.177.239 (talk) 21:11, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1...

 * When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape. It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as fast moving aircraft travels over head.

What was wrong with this paragraph, and how can it be fixed? AxelBoldt 00:27 Oct 3, 2002 (UTC)

Removed warp speed reference. It's not correct even in the ST universe. Roadrunner 17:58, 30 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Overview
Can someone please de-confuse this section? what is it trying to say about how the speed corresponding to Mach-1 changes with height and temperature? We are told that an aircraft travelling at 20 deg. C travels at 86% of the speed compared to when it is at 11,000 metres and -50 deg. C. So what height is it at 20 deg. C? is that sea-level? How does the Mach-1 speed in metres/sec vary with different temperatures and heights? any ideas? someone must know :) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Historikeren (talk • contribs) 21:42, 26 February 2011 (UTC)
 * It seems more like a random fact than an overview and could be removed. The section previous to it appears to be the overview.Rmason81 (talk) 04:30, 13 January 2017 (UTC)
 * It's not random at all; it's based on how temperature is assumed to vary with altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere model. (The 20 deg. C was incorrect; standard sea level temperature is 15 deg. C.) I've tried to reorder it to make it clearer. JustinTime55 (talk) 16:09, 13 January 2017 (UTC)
 * What would really help to make it a lot clearer is if this page didn't keep secret the variation of sonic speed with absolute temperature:
 * $$c_{\mathrm{ideal}} = \sqrt{\gamma \cdot R_* \cdot T},$$ found in Speed of sound. JustinTime55 (talk) 16:25, 13 January 2017 (UTC)

Speeds
Wanting opinions before making an edit I'm unsure of: Would it be beneficial to list, on the table, speeds (in kph, or mph, or m/s, or whatever) corresponding to each Mach number at typical temperatures and pressures? -FZ 22:21, 3 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm for creating a simple, small table of mach numbers at sea level and standard operational temperatures. If I were a middle or high school kid looking up mach numbers, I'd probably expect to find something like that on this page.  --ABQCat 00:26, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Ditto --Teradon 01:19, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

what happen to this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.27.191.227 (talk) 14:37, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

Images
I think that the images on this page are terrifically illuminating and valuable, but they are all taken from http://www.kurssit.lut.fi/040301000/main/11_3_2.html. User:Prkl75 added the images to Wikipedia and this article. There may be some copyright issues (despite the claim on the image pages), so if anyone happens to have some images that would work for this page in place of those aleady in use, I think that would be good. --ABQCat 00:50, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * The main image on the page is captioned "An F/A-18 Hornet breaking sound barrier". The caption implies that we can tell it is travelling supersonically from the visible condensation disc behind it. Other sources on the internet suggest this is an example of condensation from the Prandtl-Glauert singularity, and is not indicative of supersonic flow.JBel 16:11, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

The air flow diagrams are actually wrong because they depict the Equal transit-time fallacy. 142.103.207.10 (talk) 21:37, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

I don't get it.
I don't understand. How are sound and the sonic boom effect related? Do sound waves have anything to do with this or are they unrelated?

 * This is partially addressed in the article, "When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This abrupt pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called Mach cone). It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as fast moving aircraft travels overhead...".
 * I think what could help any discussion here is if you were to ask a specific question which would potentially benefit the article through an explanation here and future inclusion into the article if needed. I think you may be looking more for an article such as "sonic boom" which has a less technical discussion of the phenomenon (some of which may actually benefit this article, if only to point non-technical readers to a more apropriate article for their inquiries).  --ABQCat 19:54, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

mach number and propagation of sound waves
How can one show the diagrams for the propagation of the sub-sonic, sonic and supersonic waves in form of their concentric circles formed and also their mach angle?

Remove the PAF reference
Even though I'm Pakistani myself, I do not agree with putting the PAF page here. It does not contain generic information related to the unit of measure, and is a patriotic page. It does not belong here.

 * Link removed.
 * It was added again. I'll remove it, the link doesn't even work. Keta 21:17, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

High-speed flow around objects

High speed flight can be classified in five categories: can thee following info also put in brackets in addition like as follows:

* Subsonic: Ma < 1 * Sonic: Ma = 1 * Transonic: 0.8 < Ma < 1.2 [0.8 Ma - 1.2 Mach] * Supersonic: 1.2 < Ma < 5 [1.2 Ma - 5 Mach] * Hypersonic: Ma > 5

Newbies and dummies like me find it easier this easier.

Ernst Mach
was Czech...not Austrian...

That's not true. Ernst Mach was born in 1838 in a region which at that time belonged to the empire of Austria. Nonregarding the fact that that area NOW is part of the Tchech Republic, Ernst Mach was nevertheless of austrian nationality. He died in Munich, Germany.

Regards from Hamburg, Germany, Christian —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.124.114.36 (talk) 15:05, 12 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Тhe current state jurisdiction of the city where he was born is not a reason to change his nationality. Its name is not even Czech, but German. And Republic of Czechoslovakia was formed in 1918 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, even after Mach's death (1916).Xunonotyk (talk) 10:09, 9 April 2019 (UTC)

Speed of Sound depends on Pressure
In general, the speed of sound depends on the pressure of the medium. This is the main reason why the speed of sound decreases with increasing altitude. Of course, temperature also has an effect on pressure and thereby also affecting slightly the speed of sound. Didi7 12:04, 18 January 2007 (UTC)
 * According to the Speed of sound article you have this backwards. The temperature is the important quantity. "Air pressure has no effect at all in an ideal gas approximation." Spiel496 21:41, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

So density of material is important, but pressure within that material is not? One would think that the closer the molecules are, the faster a wave can travel through it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.186.72.98 (talk) 09:39, 22 January 2011 (UTC)

Assuming the medium in question is (or at least is modelled as) a perfect gas, the speed of sound is independent of pressure. Increasing pressure does increase the 'elasticity' of the gas, but it equally increases the density. Since the speed of sound is governed by the relative variation of these properties, the effect of pressure is 'self cancelling' - the only way to alter pressure independently of density is to alter the temperature.80.229.172.13 (talk) 16:46, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

Mach speed decreases with altitude?
If actual speed at Mach 1 increases with altitude, why do the numbers in the overview decrease? BQZip01 18:31, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Huh? 'Mach 1 increases with altitude', where does the article say that? Temperature goes down with altitude.WolfKeeper 18:43, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

 * The temperature drops, but the air density does too. As for the reference "So, an aircraft travelling at Mach 1 at sea level (340.3 m/s, 1,225.08 km/h) will experience shock waves in much the same manner as when it is travelling at Mach 1 at 11,000 m (36,000 ft), even though it is travelling at 295 m/s (654.632 MPH, 1,062 km/h, 86% of its speed at sea level)." If this were the case, aircraft would fly lower to fly faster (which makes precious little sense). P.S. please don't take this as criticism, I just am confused. It may be one of those things that is counterintuitive BQZip01 18:54, 27 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Still awaiting an answer on this one BQZip01 14:59, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Mach number is just a number that describes some aspect of the flow around the vehicle. The vehicles in general are trying to minimise drag for the speed that they are travelling at. This in general can be done at an optimum altitude for the current vehicle mass/weight, which varies over the length of the flight. As the vehicle weight goes down, the vehicle's ballistic coefficient is reduced and the vehicle needs to fly higher to maintain the same fuel efficiency over the ground. At low altitude the mach number would be the same or lower as at higher altitude, but the air drag would be much higher as well, so the fuel economy would suffer.WolfKeeper 02:12, 18 March 2007 (UTC)

LEO Mach
Is it correct to say "(For comparison: the required speed for low Earth orbit is ca. 7.5 km·s-1 = Ma 25.4 in air at high altitudes)"? Agnamus (talk) 12:25, 1 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Not really. Most, if not all treatments of the speed of sound, mach number, fluid dynamics, etc. are (at least in this article) based on modelling fluids as a continuum - by the time (altitude) you get to low earth orbit, the molecules are so far apart, the Mach number is more or less meaningless. See Knudsen number. I'm not 100% sure about this, but I'm almost certain that it is the case (?) 80.229.172.13 (talk) 17:41, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

increment
what is the increment between each mach speed? is Mach 2 twice the speed of sound? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.27.191.227 (talk) 14:39, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

 * If a body is moving at true airspeed V in a gas, and the temperature of the gas in the vicinity of the body is T, then the Mach number of the body is V divided by the speed of sound in the gas at temperature T. If the body is moving at Mach 2 it is moving at twice the speed of sound; if it is moving at X times the speed of sound it is moving at Mach X.  Apologies for the delay in providing an answer to your question.  Dolphin51 (talk) 10:46, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

sorry to piggyback on this guys thing but my question is what is the highest mach we have gotten up to?Mail me at qanda666@yahoo.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.12.165.254 (talk) 23:05, 10 February 2009 (UTC)

Critical Mach Number
Explanation / definition of 'critical mach number' of subsonic aircraft, please. GilesW (talk) 14:54, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

 * The Critical Mach number refers to the speed at which loss of control of the aircraft is evident, i.e., moving the control(s) - usually the elevator - has no effect. The slightly lower Mach number at which a subsonic aircraft is still capable of useful maneuvering, i.e., in combat, is called the Tactical Mach number. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.40.254.30 (talk) 18:23, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Don't you think there should be some explanation on the article then. 'Mcrit' is written with no explanation for what it is and I still don't fully understand. Officially Mr X (talk) 10:39, 15 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Perhaps the simplest explanation for a layman is this: As an aeroplane approaches the speed of sound, Mach 1, the compression of the air (due to the aeroplane moving through it) creates shock waves that buffet the aircraft. Then, as the speed increases further, the effect of the shock waves is to move the centre of pressure (lift) backwards towards the tail, changing the balance of the aircraft so that it becomes nose-heavy, and wants to dive. To counteract this, the pilot must pull back on the control column to raise the elevators and prevent the nose from dropping. As speed increases still further, there comes a point where the pilot can no longer hold the nose of the aeroplane up, and the aircraft then starts to do what is called a 'bunt' - a downwards half-loop. It is at around this point where the pilot can no longer stop the nose from dropping that the Critical Mach Number is usually measured.

 * In the days of the last piston-engined fighters and the first jet fighters these sorts of speeds were only capable of being reached in a dive, and with the controls all manually operated, a pilot's physical strength had a degree of bearing on when he could no longer prevent the nose from dropping below the intended flight path (i.e., steepening the dive), hence a strong pilot would be able to endure a higher speed in a dive compared to a physically weaker pilot. So the Mcrit is not really a fixed figure for these aircraft, it's more of a guideline and is usually based on the abilities of the 'average' service pilot. The problem here of course, is that the aeroplane is already diving, so that any steepening of the dive actually increases the airspeed due to the effects of gravity. When this happens the pilot is faced not only with a loss of control, but with a steadily worsening strain on the airframe, which may well cause it to break up. The only good point about these dives was that as the aircraft descended to lower altitudes, the air was warmer and the speed of sound (Mach 1) rose relative to airspeed, so that eventually the shock waves dissipated - the speed of sound in air is lower the higher you fly - it's about 660 knots at sea level. This was the problem that was known in aviation circles in the late 1930s/1940s as the Sound Barrier. Transonic and supersonic aircraft don't have a Critical Mach Number, as they are expressly designed to be able to be controlled at and above the speed of sound.

 * Incidently, this backwards-moving of the 'balance' of the aeroplane occurs in all aircraft that go through the 'sound barrier' and in the case of the Concorde supersonic airliner, the balance of the aeroplane was maintained by pumping fuel from tanks at the front of the aircraft to tanks at the rear when going supersonic. This procedure was then reversed when slowing down to below the speed of sound. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.112.53.227 (talk) 13:15, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

Speed of sound is dependent on the density of the fluid, not its temperature
The article claims that the speed of sound is solely dependent on ambient air temperature. This is inaccurate. The higher the density of the fluid (in this case, a gas) the more condensed its atoms become - hence increasing the rate at which sound can propagate through the medium. Whilst temperature does have a direct effect on density, it also has an effect on pressure. According to the Ideal gas law, we can surmise that pV = nRT - where P = Pressure V = Volume, n = number of molecules (mole) R = gas constant and T = temperature. By transposing the formula to n = pV.RT, we can see that temperature, gas constant, pressure and volume all determine the density of the fluid. The higher the value of n, the more molecules per unit of V. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 211.27.67.61 (talk) 11:16, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

I think you are overstating the case. The speed of sound can be expressed in a number of different ways. Speed of sound shows that it can be expressed as follows:

1.    $$ c = \sqrt{\tfrac{K}{\rho}}\, $$

Expression 1. permits us to say the speed of sound is a function of the bulk modulus K of the medium, and the density of the medium.

2.   $$ c^2=\frac{\partial p}{\partial\rho}$$

Expression 2. permits us to say the speed of sound is a function of the rate of change of pressure with respect to density.

3.   $$ c_{\mathrm{ideal}} = \sqrt{\gamma \cdot R \cdot T \over M}= \sqrt{\gamma \cdot k \cdot T \over m}\, $$

Expressions 3. permit us to say that, for a given medium, the speed of sound is solely a function of the absolute temperature.

You are correct in saying the speed of sound can be expressed as a function of density (and also the bulk modulus.) However, none of the above expressions permit us to say the speed of sound can only be expressed correctly in one way, and all other ways are incorrect. Therefore you are incorrect in saying the speed of sound cannot be expressed solely as a function of temperature.

In aviation, it is common for people to ask about the speed of sound at a particular pressure altitude. The best reply is to say the speed of sound is related to the ambient air temperature, but is not related to the air pressure (or the pressure altitude), or the air density (or density altitude.)  Dolphin  ( t ) 11:58, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

 * It is true that the speed of sound is a function of bulk modulus and the reciprocal of density:

 * $$c = \sqrt{\tfrac{K}{\rho}}\,$$
 * However, Bulk modulus shows that bulk modulus is a function of pressure:

 * $$K_s=\gamma P$$

 * Therefore it is accurate to state that the speed of sound is a function of pressure and the reciprocal of density, and this can be expressed in the following formula:

 * $$c = \sqrt{\tfrac{\gamma P}{\rho}}$$
 * But the equation of state $$P=\rho R T$$ allows us to transform the speed of sound to:

 * $$c = \sqrt{\gamma R T}$$

 * which shows the speed of sound for a given medium (such as air) is a function of temperature only.

 * All this shows the speed of sound is a function of any of the following:

 * bulk modulus and the reciprocal of density
 * pressure and the reciprocal of density
 * temperature
 * Hence the accuracy of the statement in the article that the speed of sound in air is solely dependent on air temperature. Dolphin  ( t ) 01:39, 19 October 2010 (UTC)

Could someone savvy add a CHART/TABLE of speeds for each Mach number?
It would be great to have a CHART/TABLE that lists speeds for each Mach number.

For Example:

Mach1 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

Mach2 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

Mach3 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

Mach4 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

Mach5 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

Mach6 = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever

...

Mach881,000* (the supposed speed of light) = MPH | KmH | Knots | Whatever.

Please? Thank you!

Misty MH (talk) 00:38, 8 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Misty, the problem is that the speed of sound varies quite a bit with pressure altitude, tempreature, etc. However, if someone could come up with numbers for a "standard" day (Sea level, 29.92" mercury, 59°F (15°C)), that might be a somewhat useful form of comparison. We could also go with just some set parameters and show a disclaimer stating what the parameters were. Here's a calculator you can use to fiure out the numbers and add it yourself! Buffs (talk) 02:42, 8 September 2011 (UTC)

 * Thanks Buffs.
 * I actually thought there was something like that standard-day idea; or maybe it was in a related W. article.
 * Misty MH (talk) 00:32, 11 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Buffs is correct on a couple of points, but incorrect when he suggests the speed of sound varies with pressure altitude, and misleading when he suggests we could come up with numbers for a standard day. The speed of sound in air varies only with temperature.  Regardless of the altitude, or pressure altitude, or whether it is a standard day or not, once we know the temperature of the air we can determine the speed of sound in that air with a high level accuracy.
 * The formula for the speed of sound a in a gas is:
 * $$a = \sqrt{\gamma R T}$$ where γ is the heat capacity ratio for the gas, R is the specific gas constant for the gas, and T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin.
 * For example, in air at 15°C (288K) the speed of sound is 661.5 knots, 1116.4 ft.s-1, 761.2 mi.hr-1, 340.3 m.s-1, 1 225 km.hr-1, regardless of whether this air at 15°C is at sea level or some other altitude. See Speed of sound.  Dolphin  ( t ) 06:09, 11 September 2011 (UTC)

Which standard?
"At Standard Sea Level conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius), the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 661.5 knots, or 1116 ft/s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is mostly dependent on temperature Standard Sea Level conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius), the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 661.5 knots, or 1116 ft/s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is mostly dependent on temperature." Thnidu (talk) 00:51, 10 July 2015 (UTC)
 * That would be the International Standard Atmosphere. JustinTime55 (talk) 17:35, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Mach number. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20110904190008/http://www.aviation.org.uk/pdf/Aircraft_Performance_Flight_Testing.pdf to http://www.aviation.org.uk/pdf/Aircraft_Performance_Flight_Testing.pdf

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 14:42, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

Plural or singular?
"compressibility effects will be small and a simplified incompressible flow equations can be used"

Is it plural or singular?

Aisteco (talk) 20:10, 11 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Plural, unless proven otherwise. Andy Dingley (talk) 21:11, 11 January 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mach number


text:
The Russians Are Coming the Russians Are Coming

The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming is a 1966 American Cold War comedy film directed and produced by Norman Jewison for United Artists. The satirical story depicts the chaos following the grounding of the Soviet submarine СпруT (pronounced "sproot" and meaning "octopus") off a small New England island. The film stars Alan Arkin in his first major film role, Carl Reiner, Eva Marie Saint, Brian Keith, Theodore Bikel, Jonathan Winters, John Phillip Law, Tessie O'Shea, and Paul Ford.

The screenplay is based on the 1961 Nathaniel Benchley novel The Off-Islanders, and was adapted for the screen by William Rose. The title alludes to Paul Revere's midnight ride, as does the subplot in which the town drunk (Ben Blue) rides his horse to warn people of the "invasion".

The film premiered on May 25, 1966, and was a widespread critical and commercial success. At the 39th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for four Oscars, including Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Actor for Alan Arkin. It also won two Golden Globes, for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for Arkin.

Plot
One September morning, a Soviet Navy submarine called Sprut draws too close to the New England coast when its captain wants to see North America and runs aground on a sandbar near Gloucester Island, off the New England coast, with a population of about 200 people. Rather than radio for help and risk an embarrassing international incident, the captain sends a nine-man landing party, headed by his zampolit Lieutenant Yuri Rozanov, to find a motor launch to help free the submarine. The men arrive at the house of Walt Whittaker, a vacationing playwright from New York City. Whittaker is eager to get his wife Elspeth and two children, $9 1/2$-year-old Pete and 3-year-old Annie, off the island now that summer is over.

Pete tells his disbelieving dad that nine armed Russians are near the house, but Walt is soon met by Rozanov and one of his men, Alexei Kolchin, who identify themselves as strangers on the island and ask if there are any boats available. Walt is skeptical and asks if they are armed Russians. This startles Rozanov into admitting that they are Russians, and pulling a gun on Walt. Rozanov promises no harm to the Whittakers if they hand over their station wagon. Elspeth provides the car keys, but before the Russians depart, Rozanov orders Alexei to prevent the Whittakers from fleeing.

The Whittakers' station wagon quickly runs out of gasoline, forcing the Russians to walk. They steal an old sedan from Muriel Everett, the postmistress; she calls Alice Foss, the gossipy telephone switchboard operator, and soon, wild rumors about Russian parachutists and an air assault on the airport throw the island into confusion. Police Chief Link Mattocks and his assistant Norman Jonas try to squelch a citizens' militia led by Fendall Hawkins.

Meanwhile, Walt, accompanied by Elspeth and Pete, overpowers Alexei when Alison Palmer, an 18-year-old neighbor who works as Annie's babysitter, arrives for work that day and gives Walt an opening. Alexei flees during the commotion, but when Walt, Elspeth, and Pete leave to find help, he returns to retrieve his weapon from the house, where only Alison and Annie remain. Despite wanting no fighting, Alexei must obey his superiors in guarding the residence. He promises not to harm anyone and offers to surrender his gun as proof. Alison says that she trusts him and does not want his firearm.

Trying to find the Russians himself, Walt is recaptured by them in the telephone central office. After subduing Mrs. Foss, tying Walt and her together, and disabling the island's telephone switchboard, seven Russians appropriate civilian clothes from a dry cleaner's, steal a cabin cruiser, and head to the submarine. Back at the Whittaker house, Alexei and Alison have talked, kissed and fallen in love. At the phone exchange, Walt and Mrs. Foss hop outside the office. They are eventually discovered by Elspeth and Pete, who untie them. They return to their house, and Walt shoots at and almost kills Rozanov, who reached there just ahead of them. With the misunderstandings cleared up, the Whittakers, Rozanov, and Alexei decide to head into town together to explain to everyone what is happening.

As the tide rises, the sub floats off the sandbar, and it proceeds on the surface to the island's main harbor. Chief Mattocks, having investigated and debunked the rumor of an aerial assault, arrives back in town with the civilian militia. With Rozanov acting as translator, the Russian captain threatens to open fire on the town unless the seven missing sailors are returned to him; his crew faces upwards of 100 armed townspeople. As the situation nears the breaking point, two small boys climb up to the church steeple to see better and one slips and falls, but his belt catches on a gutter, leaving him hanging 40 feet in the air. The American islanders and the Russian submariners unite to form a human pyramid and rescue the boy.

Peace is established between the two parties. However, Hawkins contacted the Air Force by radio. In a joint decision, the submarine leaves the harbor with villagers in boats protecting it. Alexei says goodbye to Alison, the stolen boat with the missing Russian sailors meets the sub, which they board, before two Air Force jets arrive. The jets, however, break off after seeing the escorting flotilla of small craft. To the cheers of the islanders, the Octopus is free to proceed to deep water and safety.

Production

Although set on the fictional "Gloucester Island" off the coast of Massachusetts, the movie was filmed on the coast of Northern California, mainly in Mendocino. The harbor scenes were filmed in Noyo Harbor in Fort Bragg, California, about 7 miles (11 km) north of Mendocino. Because of the filming location on the West Coast, the dawn scene at the beginning of the film was actually filmed at dusk through a pink filter.

The submarine used was a fabrication. The United States Navy refused to lend one for the production, so the producers asked the Russian Embassy for a Soviet submarine, which was similarly refused. The Mirisch Company rented a mockup of a submarine that had been used in the 1965 film Morituri.

The planes used were actual F-101 Voodoo jets from the 84th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, located at the nearby Hamilton Air Force Base. They were the only Air Force planes that were based near the location of the supposed island.

The title alludes to Paul Revere's midnight ride, as does the subplot in which the town drunk (Ben Blue) rides his horse to warn people of the "invasion".

Pablo Ferro created the main title sequence, using the American flag's red, white, and blue colors and the Soviet hammer and sickle as transitional elements, zooming into each to create a montage, which ultimately worked to establish the tone of the film. The music in the sequence alternates between the American "Yankee Doodle" march and a combination of the Russian songs "Polyushko Pole" (Полюшко Поле, usually "Meadowlands" in English) and the "Song of the Volga Boatmen".

Much of the dialog was spoken by the Russian characters, played by American actors at a time when few American actors were adept at Russian accents. Musician and character actor Leon Belasco –who was born in Russia, spoke fluent Russian and specialized in foreign accents during his 60-year career –was the dialog director. Alan Arkin extensively studied Russian in preparation for his role as Lt. Rozanov. As of 2017, he could still remember his Russian lines from the film. Theodore Bikel was able to pronounce Russian so well (he had taken a few classes, but was not at all fluent in the language) that he won the role of the submarine captain. Alex Hassilev, of The Limelighters, also spoke fluent Russian and played the sailor Hrushevsky. John Phillip Law's incorrect pronunciation of difficult English phonemes, most notably in Alison Palmer's name ("ah-LYEE-sown PAHL-myerr"), was unusually authentic by the standards of the day. Brian Keith, who also spoke fluent Russian, did not do so in the film.

Musical score and soundtrack
The film score was composed, arranged and conducted by Johnny Mandel and the soundtrack album was released on the United Artists label in 1966. Film Score Monthly reviewed Mandel's soundtrack in their liner notes for their reissue of the score, noting the presence of Russian folk songs, writing that "These pre-existing melodies mix with original Mandel compositions, including a Russian choral anthem, a humorous march theme for the island residents' quasi-military response to the Soviet incursion, and a tender love theme...". "The Shining Sea" was sung on the soundtrack by Irene Kral, although it had featured as an instrumental in the film itself. The lyrics to "The Shining Sea" were written by Peggy Lee, who was contractually bound to Capitol Records, and so unable to appear on the soundtrack album. The line "His hands, his strong brown hands" was believed by Lee's friends to be a reference to Quincy Jones with whom she had a brief affair. Lee herself later recorded "The Shining Sea" with her lyrics on May 21, 1966. Mandel had played the music for "The Shining Sea" to Lee, and had asked her to "paint a word picture" of what she had heard. Lee's lyrics, by coincidence, exactly matched the action on the screen of the two lovers on the beach, which astonished Mandel, who had not shown her the film.

Track listing
All compositions by Johnny Mandel unless otherwise indicated

 * 1) "The Russians Are Coming...The Russians Are Coming" - 01:37
 * 2) "The Shining Sea" (lyrics by Peggy Lee) - 02:42
 * 3) "Hop Along" - 02:25
 * 4) "Volga Boat Song" (arranged by Mandel) - 01:22
 * 5) "Escorts Away (The Russians Are Coming)" - 03:45
 * 6) "The Shining Sea" - 03:14
 * 7) "Sailor's Chorus" (Bonia Shur, Mandel) - 02:45
 * 8) "Tipperary" (Harry J. Williams, Jack Judge) - 00:32
 * 9) "The Airport" - 02:14
 * 10) "The Russians Are Coming...The Russians Are Coming" - 02:09

Reception
Robert Alden of The New York Times called it "a rousingly funny – and perceptive – motion picture about a desperately unfunny world situation." Arthur D. Murphy of Variety declared it "an outstanding cold-war comedy," adding that Jewison "has made expert use of all types of comedy technique, scripted and acted in excellent fashion by both pros and some talented newcomers to pix."

Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Considering that it is made up of variations on a single theme, the picture is astonishingly inventive. And considering that it was never done as a play on the stage (where laughs can be pre-tested and rough spots ironed out) it racks up a high average indeed, though it has its lapses and some of its points are forced—over-milked, as they say in the trade." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it "a refreshingly witty topical comedy ... Some exceptionally skilled comics, familiar and unfamiliar, are extremely amusing." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote that the film "almost falls flat when it indulges in sententious philosophising about the need for Russians and Americans to live peacefully together," but is "considerably helped by an amiable script (by former Ealing writer William Rose) which often manages to invest the film with the high farce of the best of the Ealing comedies." Brendan Gill of The New Yorker called it "an unfunny big farce ... The heavy-handed producer and director of the picture, Norman Jewison, has permitted nearly every moment of it to become twice as brightly colored, twice as noisy, and twice as frantic as it needed to be; this is all the more a pity because the cast includes a number of excellent comic actors."

According to Norman Jewison, the film –released at the height of the Cold War –had considerable impact in both Washington and Moscow. It was one of the few American films of the time to portray the Russians in a positive light. Senator Ernest Gruening mentioned the film in a speech in Congress, and a copy of it was screened in the Kremlin. According to Jewison, when screened at the Soviet film writers' union, Sergei Bondarchuk was moved to tears. Jewison, in an interview, also stated that not only were the Russians thrilled with the movie, they were a little disappointed they hadn't thought of the plot first.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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The Sand Pebbles (film)

The Sand Pebbles is a 1966 American epic war film directed by Robert Wise in Panavision. It tells the story of an independent, rebellious U.S. Navy machinist's mate first class, aboard the fictional river gunboat USS San Pablo, on Yangtze Patrol in 1920s China. The production was filmed on location in Taiwan and Hong Kong.

The film stars Steve McQueen, Richard Attenborough, Richard Crenna and Candice Bergen, and features Marayat Andriane, Mako and Larry Gates in supporting roles. Robert Anderson adapted the screenplay from the 1962 novel of the same name by Richard McKenna.

The Sand Pebbles was a critical and commercial success during its general release. It became the fourth highest-grossing film of 1966 and was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Steve McQueen, his only Oscar nomination, and eight Golden Globe Awards, with Attenborough winning the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor.

Text in opening credits
"CHINA 1926... Ravaged from within by corrupt warlords... oppressed from without by the great world powers who had beaten China to her knees a century before... China... a country of factions trying to unite to become a nation... through revolution..."

Plot
In 1926, during China's Warlord Era, Jake Holman transfers to the Yangtze River Patrol gunboat USS San Pablo as their new engineer. The ship is nicknamed the "Sand Pebble," and its sailors are "Sand Pebbles".

The crew hires unofficial Chinese workers to do most of the work. Holman upsets the balance when he takes responsibility for the operation of the ship's engine and becomes friends with Frenchy, a seasoned sailor.

A problem with the engine causes the death of Chien, the chief Chinese engine worker, due to an issue Holman noticed but the captain declined to fix. Lop-eye Shing, leader of the Chinese workers, blames Holman. The captain tells Holman he needs to find a Chinese replacement. Holman trains Po-Han to understand the work they are doing.

While on shore leave, the sailors spend time at a bar and brothel run by a former sailor. They are transfixed by Maily, the new hostess, but discover that she fetches a high price since she is still a virgin. Frenchy discovers that the price is the debt she needs to pay to get her freedom.

Meanwhile, sailor Stawski conspires with Shing to get Po-Han fired. Holman convinces Stawski to participate in a boxing match: if Stawski wins, he gets the money needed for a night with Maily, but if he loses, Po-Han gets his job back. During the fight, Stawski is subdued. As he is being counted, the alarm sounds for all sailors to return. They embark ahead of a mob: the captain had gotten word of a battle between British warships and a Chinese warlord. This has soured Chinese opinion of foreigners. It has also boiled over into the Chinese Civil War between the Communist Party under Mao Zedong and the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek. The San Pablo must remain neutral while rescuing stranded Americans, including missionary Jameson and Shirley Eckert, his schoolteacher assistant. During the rescue, Shing sends Po-Han ashore, where he is tortured by the mob. Holman violates the captain's orders by shooting Po-Han, putting him out of his misery.

As the ship returns to port, they find that local opinion of them has not improved. Jameson and Shirley continue their mission on shore. At the bordello, Frenchy tries to pay for Maily's freedom, but instead she is put up for auction. Holman tries to help Frenchy pay the higher amount, but a fight breaks out and the three of them make a dash for it. Eventually, Frenchy and Maily have an unofficial marriage in an empty church. Holman and Shirley fall in love, but he thinks it cannot last, as he will likely be shipping out of China soon. The crew is stuck for the winter, waiting for the water levels to rise. The Chinese workers abandon ship, and shore leave is cancelled. Frenchy regularly swims to shore to be with Maily, but the cold winter waters eventually cause his death. Chinese forces kill Maily and frame Holman for her murder. They surround the ship and demand his surrender. The crew also demands he surrender, until the captain fires a gun across the bow of a Chinese ship and calls for the San Pablo to attempt to leave.

The same day, they received word of the Nanjing Incident, characterized by anti-foreigner riots. They travel to rescue Jameson and Shirley. The San Pablo must break through a barricade of roped-together junks blocking the river. A team is sent to cut the rope. Fighting breaks out, and twelve U.S. crewmen and many Chinese are killed. Holman chops through the rope while under fire. He kills a Chinese militiaman who attacks him, then recognizes him as a friend of Jameson and Shirley. Once free, the ship continues upriver.

Upon arrival, Jameson and Shirley refuse rescue. Collins orders Holman to remove them, but he declares that he is staying with them. Nationalist soldiers attack, killing Jameson. Collins orders the patrol to take Shirley to the ship and remains behind to provide cover fire. Collins is killed, leaving Holman in command. Before parting, Holman and Shirley declare their love, with Holman promising to follow her. He kills several soldiers but is fatally shot as he is about to rejoin the others. Shirley and the remaining two sailors reach the ship, and the San Pablo sails away.

Cast
• Steve McQueen as Holman

• Richard Attenborough as Frenchy

• Richard Crenna as Collins

• Candice Bergen as Shirley

• Marayat Andriane as Maily

• Mako as Po-han

• Larry Gates as Jameson

• Charles Robinson as Ensign Bordelles

• Simon Oakland as Stawski

• Ford Rainey as Harris

• Joe Turkel as Bronson

• Gavin MacLeod as Crosley

• Joseph di Reda as Shanahan

• Richard Loo as Major Chin

• Barney Phillips as Franks

• Gus Trikonis as Restorff

• Shepherd Sanders as Perna

• James Jeter as Farren

• Tom Middleton as Jennings

• Paul Chinpae as Cho-jen

• Tommy Lee as Chien

• Beulah Quo as Mama Chunk

• James Hong as Victor Shu

• Stephen Jahn as Haythorn

• Jay Allan Hopkins as Wilsey

• Steve Ferry as Lamb

• Ted Fish as Wellbeck

• Loren Janes as Coleman

• Glenn Wilder as Waldron Former child actor and career naval officer Frank Coghlan Jr. was the technical advisor to the film regarding the U.S. Navy, and made an uncredited appearance as one of the American businessmen stripping Maily.

Development
For years, Robert Wise had wanted to make The Sand Pebbles, but the film companies were reluctant to finance it. The Sand Pebbles was eventually financed by Twentieth Century-Fox, but because its production required extensive location scouting and pre-production work, as well as being affected by a monsoon in Taipei, its producer and director Wise realized that it would be more than a year before principal photography could begin. At the insistence of Fox, Wise agreed to direct a "fill-in" project, The Sound of Music, a film that became one of the most popular and acclaimed films of the 1960s.

Pre-production
Fox spent $250,000 building a replica gunboat named the San Pablo, based on the USS Villalobos (PG-42) — a former Spanish Navy gunboat that was seized by the U.S. Navy in the Philippine Islands during the Spanish–American War (1898–1899) — but with a greatly reduced draft to allow sailing on the shallow Tam Sui and Keelung Rivers. Although it was supposed to be based on the Villalobos, the replica's final design was closer to that of 1928 river gunboats than that of the Villalobos. A seaworthy vessel that was actually powered by Cummins diesel engines, the San Pablo made the voyage from Hong Kong to Taiwan and back under her own power during shooting of The Sand Pebbles. After filming was completed, the San Pablo was sold to the DeLong Timber Company and renamed the Nola D, then later sold to Seiscom Delta Exploration Co., which used it as a floating base camp with significant modifications, including removal of its engines and the addition of a helipad. The boat was towed to Singapore and broken up in 1975.

Robert Wise's cinematographer from The Sound of Music, Ted McCord, had taken a scouting trip to the Asian locations, but he informed Wise that his heart problems made him not capable enough to shoot the film.

Filming
The Sand Pebbles was filmed both in Taiwan and Hong Kong. Its filming, which began on November 22, 1965, in Keelung, was scheduled to take about nine weeks, but it ended up taking seven months. The cast and crew took a break for the Christmas holidays in Tamsui, Taipei.

At one point, a 15-foot camera boat capsized on the Keelung River, setting back the schedule because the soundboard was ruined when it sank. When the filming was finally completed in Taiwan, the government of the Republic of China was rumored to have held the passports of several cast members because of unpaid additional taxes. In March 1966, the filming moved to Hong Kong and Shaw Brothers Studio for three months, mainly for scenes in Sai Kung and Tung Chung. In June, production traveled to Hollywood to finish its interior scenes at Fox Studios.

Due to frequent rain and other difficulties in Hong Kong, the filming was halted and nearly abandoned. McQueen had developed an abscessed molar and returned to California because he did not wish to be treated in Hong Kong. By the time he received treatment in Los Angeles, he was very ill and was ordered by his dentist and physician to take an extended period of rest, one that further delayed production for several more weeks.

Some filming took place on the dreadnought-type battleship USS Texas, but these scenes were cut from the final film and have been lost.

Themes and background
The military life of the San Pablo's crew, the titular "Sand Pebbles", portrays the era's culture and colonialism on a small scale through the sailors' relations with the coolies, who run their gunboat, and the bargirls, who serve them off-duty, as well as, on a large scale, with the West's gunboat diplomacy domination of China.

Although the 1962 novel antedated extensive U.S. activity in Vietnam, and was not based on any historic incidents, by the December 1966 release of the film, it was seen as an explicit statement on the U.S.'s extensive combat involvement in the Vietnam War in reviews published by The New York Times and Life magazine.

Release
It rained the night of the premiere, December 20, 1966, at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City. Afterward, McQueen did not do any film work for about a year due to exhaustion, saying that whatever sins he had committed in his life had been paid for when he made The Sand Pebbles. He was not seen on film again until two 1968 films, The Thomas Crown Affair and Bullitt.

Critical reception
The film was acclaimed by a wide array of critics. The film has an 89% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 18 reviews.

Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it "a beautifully mounted film" with "a curiously turgid and uneven attempt to generate a war romance". Crowther thought, "It is not as historical romance that it is likely to grab the audience, but as a weird sort of hint of what has happened and is happening in Vietnam."

Arthur D. Murphy of Variety declared it "a handsome production, boasting some excellent characterizations. Steve McQueen delivers an outstanding performance."

Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times called it "adventure on the grand scale, of a kind on which the British have too long enjoyed an exclusive monopoly. 'The Sand Pebbles' earns a place up there beside 'The Bridge on the River Kwai,' 'Lawrence of Arabia,' 'Doctor Zhivago,' et al ... Too, the parallel with 1966 and Vietnam could hardly be more timely."

Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called the film "a strong story with highly unusual backgrounds, a character perfectly suited to Steve McQueen and an engrossing drive that falters only because three hours is a bit much."

The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "History, of course, never really repeats itself in the way script-writers would like it to, and the parallel between China in 1926 and Vietnam today is distinctly dubious. But this striking of attitudes is the film's undoing, since it seriously undermines the narrative by presenting the characters as little more than pawns in a didactic chess game. And in any case, the script never decides which side of the political fence it wants to sit on."

Brendan Gill of The New Yorker wrote that McQueen "works hard and well" in his role but described Robert Wise's direction as "molasses-in-January".

Box office
According to Fox records, the film needed to earn $21,200,000 in rentals to break even, and by December 1970, made $20,600,000. In September 1970, the studio recorded a loss of $895,000 on the movie.

Accolades
The performance earned Steve McQueen the only Academy Award nomination of his career.

The film is recognised by American Film Institute in these lists:
 * 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated

Additional footage
After more than 40 years, 20th Century Fox found 14 minutes of footage that had been cut from the film's initial roadshow version shown at New York's Rivoli Theatre. The restored version has been released on DVD. The sequences are spread throughout the film and add texture to the story, though they do not alter it in any significant way.

title: The Sand Pebbles (film)


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Efik mythology

Efik mythology consists of a collection of myths narrated, sung or written down by the Efik people and passed down from generation to generation. Sources of Efik mythology include bardic poetry, art, songs, oral tradition and proverbs. Stories concerning Efik myths include creation myths, supernatural beings, mythical creatures, and warriors. Efik myths were initially told by Efik people and narrated under the moonlight. Myths, legends and historical stories are known in Efik as Mbụk while moonlight plays in Efik are known as Mbre Ọffiọñ.

Historical literature
Since the inception of the triangular trade, the Efik people have been in the limelight of historical scholarship. Several works have centred on different aspects of Efik culture and tradition. Although little focus has been made on the subject of Efik mythology, several works have been written on aspects relating to Efik mythology. The earliest Efik dictionary by Rev Hugh Goldie reveals a number of mythical animals and places. Goldie's Principle of Efik Grammar is also the goto for the Efik creation story. Works such as Rosalind Hackett's religion in Calabar discuss some Efik deities. Percy Talbot's "Life in Southern Nigeria" is also useful in the study of Efik and Ibibio mythology.

Art
Art is an underemphasized contributor to Efik mythology. Efik beliefs in Ndem and Ekpe were transmitted via engravings on Brass plates (Akpangkpang). Prior to the depiction of myths, events and stories on Brass plates, Efik women mainly engaged in decorating houses with geometric designs of various kinds. Women were regarded as the artisans in Old Calabar society. Mr Ironbar also known as Edem Ndarake is regarded as the father of Brass Art in Efik history. The wives of Ironbar were active members of the Calabash engraving industry at Old Calabar. The women would create beautifully finished products which would then be taken as souvenirs from Old Calabar by English traders. However, these products particularly the calabashes were fragile and several goods did not arrive England safely. Mr Ironbar chose to solve the matter by choosing to transfer the designs to Brass which was more durable. After several negotiations with English traders, iron bars were imported from Europe to aid in the manufacture of brass products such as trays, dishes and basins. Several brass dishes were designed with images of Efik deities. These dishes aid in the description of deities and also depict animals that are symbolic to the deities.

Songs
Religious songs used in reverence to Ndem and Ekpe contribute to the understanding of Efik mythology. These songs show praise and reverence for the various Ndem. An example of a song is mentioned below:

The song above mentions the names of several important Efik deities and declares respect and honour for them. Among the list of deities mentioned in the song are Anansa, Afia Añwan, Atakpọr Uruan, Ukọñ Esuk, Anantigha and Añwakañ. References to the mythical tailed pygmies known in the Efik language as Amamaisim can also be deciphered in the 8th and final stanza of the song.

Efik Literature
Efik literature is a major source of mythology. A variety of myths can be found within Efik literature ranging from creation myths to tales of mythical places and monsters. Early Efik writers often inserted many mythical tales within their writings. Aspects of Efik literature that contain myths include Uto (bardic poetry), Mbuk (stories), Ase (commemorative poetry) and Nke (folktales, riddles and proverbs).

Folktales
Writers such as E.N. Amaku, Esien-Ekpe Edet Okon, E.E. Nkaña and several others capture several myths in their literary works. Myths may also function as sources of stereotypes. For example, the myth of Akpa Uyok is captured in a poem by Mbukpa E. Eyo. Akpa Uyok is believed to have been an Efik chief who lived for so long that the Efik people sought to get rid of him. They get rid of Akpa Uyok by leaving him in a canoe and abandoning him by a river bank with the hope that the tides will take his canoe away. Akpa Uyok is said to have solicited the aid of three Efik deities against his offenders and curses them denying them the benefits of a ripe old age.

Bardic poetry
Bardic poetry Uto is an important aspect of Efik culture and literature. Prior to the inception of the Efik Alphabets, Efik literature was mainly oral. Bardic or Epic poetry was recited in the Efik language by knowledgeable bards who were experts in recounting events that occurred in Efik history. These recollected events often contain myths and legends. According to Aye, "At night, a secret society, Ekpri Akata, with the use of certain mechanisms to disguise their voices, sang or repeated some satirical poetry aimed at holding up people's vices or follies to ridicule, or lampooning against certain individuals. There were also songs of lamentation at the death of a dear one. The stock of subjects for the poetry was drawn from the actual present." Some popular myths recalled during such epic poetry include the death of Akpa Uyok, the disappearance of Otu Asiya, the events of Efik-Portuguese interrelations. Some Efik bards of the early 20th century were Adiaha Etim Anwa Anwa, Atim Etayong, Okpok Ndem Ndem, Nne Eke Mkpananie, Etim Anwa Etim Nsa.

Creation myth
The creation story of the Efik reveals characters such as Abasi, Atai and the first humans. It is believed that Abasi first created the earth and later created the first humans; a man and a woman. Abasi did not let the first humans live on earth because he wanted no one to contend with him. Abasi's wife Atai disagreed with him and insisted that Man and woman should live on earth. Abasi gave the humans permission to live on earth but ordered that the Humans should not cultivate their own food but should dine in the heavens whenever a bell is rung. Abasi also ordered that the man and woman should not procreate. This second instruction was given so that the humans would never forget Abasi. Each day, a bell would be rung and the humans would visit the heavens to dine with Abasi. The law prohibiting the cultivation of crops of Earth was first broken by the woman. The woman cultivated plants and used them to cook food which she served to the man. The man and woman also broke Abasi's second command by sleeping together and having intercourse. The next time the bell was rung, the man came alone. Abasi asked the man where his wife was located, the man lied, saying she was unwell. In reality, the man had hidden his wife because she was pregnant. The woman had borne a son and later bore a daughter. Abasi was aware of what had transpired on Earth and told Atai that the humans had broken his laws, had neglected and forgotten him. Atai reassured Abasi that the humans would never forget Abasi and sent death into the world. Some versions of the story attest that Atai killed the man and his wife while other versions employ a form of poetic language attesting that Atai sent chaos and death into the world. The names of the first humans are not given but Burton attests that the earliest humans may have been known as Esefe and Ọkpọrọ, as there are names which featured often in Efik proverbs.

Myths on deities
Abasi is regarded as the supreme being, the all powerful being who created everything. In the creation story of the Efik, Abasi is depicted as a loving father who desires to have a personal relationship with the Humans. When the man lies to Abasi that the woman is unwell to hide her sin, Abasi is already aware that the man and woman have broken the laws. Abasi's knowledge of the affairs on earth reveals his trait as all-knowing and all-seeing. Abasi is also depicted as a listening husband who takes into consideration the advice of his wife. The Efik originally believed that Abasi was too high up in the heavens and was unbothered by the affairs of man. Such beliefs may have been used in the past as justification for the worship of Ndem, whom the Efik believed had more connection with the earth. In some Efik myths, there exists a concept of a triune God. Ibom Enọ is regarded as the father of Abasi who gave birth to two sons Abasi Ibom and Inyañ Ibom. Burton hypothesises that Abasi Ibom and Inyang Ibom are personifications of Earth and Water.

Atai is regarded as the wife of the supreme being Abasi Ibom. She is featured prominently in the creation story of the Efik as an all-powerful goddess who desires the utmost satisfaction of her husband, Abasi. In the Efik creation story, she suggests to Abasi that man should inhabit the Earth. This part of the story reveals two contradicting views towards the future of man. While Abasi desires that man and woman should live in the heavens, Atai suggests that they reside on earth. The creation story reveals Atai as one whose suggestion is invaluable in the abode of Abasi. Atai is therefore regarded as a decisionmaker in Abasi's kingdom. Atai is later saddened when she realises that things did not turn out the way, her husband expected for the humans. She sends death and chaos to the world with aim of ensuring that the humans never forget God and are rejoined with him in the heavens. Atai is also regarded as the messenger of Abasi. She is believed to be represented on earth by the Vulture which is known in the Efik language as Utere and nicknamed "Atai Abasi". There is no evidence to suggest that the Efik worshipped Atai. This would be unlikely as Atai's principal desire is that her husband should be worshipped. However, the Efik determine the presence of a vulture as a sign from Abasi which further affirms the theory that Atai was not just a decision maker but a messenger of Abasi. During sacrifices to Abasi, the presence of the vulture at the end of the sacrifice meant that the sacrifice had been accepted by Abasi. The story of Atai sending death and chaos into the world may also explain why the vulture is nicknamed "Atai Abasi". Vultures are often found in places where death has taken place. In the traditional kingship of the Efik, the wife of the Edidem is known as Atai Abasi. The reason for the title assigned to the first wife of the Edidem is that the Edidem is regarded as a representative of Abasi on earth. Therefore, his wife is regarded as the voice of Atai, Abasi's principal wife.

Eka Abasi is regarded as the goddess of Fertility in Efik mythology. She is greatly revered and equally dreaded. Although the name Eka Abasi literally translates to "Mother of God", she is not believed to be an actual relative of God but is so-called because she possesses the power of giving children to her followers. Eka Abasi was worshipped by the Efik and the Ibibio but is viewed differently between both ethnic groups. Among the Ibibio, Eka Abasi is regarded as the great mother whom by her own might, gave birth to Obuma, the god of thunder.

Ndem
Marine deities also known as Ndem (Singular: Idem) form a principal part of Efik traditional religion. The Ndem are regarded as territorial in character as they are believed to reside in several areas in the lower Cross River. Among the Ndem include Udominyan, Anansa, Atabrinyang, Atakpor Uruan Inyang, Afianwan, Ekpenyong, Ekanem and several others. Although Ndem are regarded as territorial, certain Ndem are believed to be present in several other locations while still headquartered at one site. Among these would include Atakpor Uruan Inyang. This is further confirmed in the Uruan saying: "Ke Ndem Efik Iboku, Atakpọr Ndem Uruan ke Ekụk", which can be interpreted to mean "Where there is the Efik deity, there is also Atakpor Uruan to share with it." Many Ndem are described as possessing extremely beautiful features, among them is the deity Udominyang. Udominyang is a symbol of beauty and is believed to reside at the bottom of the river where she possesses a fine mansion. Udominyang is also believed to possess a lot of wealth as she obtains everything that falls into the river from capsized ships and canoes. She is depicted on several brass trays as possessing a fish body with a woman's head and upper torso. Another principal deity is Anansa also known as Anansa Ikang Obutong or Anansa Ikot Obutong or Anansa Enwang. Anansa is exalted in many Efik songs, one of the most popular was sung by Chief Inyang Nta Henshaw. She is believed to reside at the head of a spring or river near the Hope Waddell Training Institution. Ekpenyong may be regarded as a national deity in the area formerly known as Eburutu. By the 17th century, the cult of Ekpenyong was quickly spreading from the focal point which was Old Calabar. Ekpenyong or Ekpenyong Abasi is known by several names. At Arochukwu, it was known as Ekpenyong Ibritam; Ibn Ukpabi and Ibitam inokon. The deity was mainly worshipped by riverine communities such as Eniong, Uruan, Ito, Ukwa, Idere and several others. Among the Efik, Ekpenyong is regarded as the custodian of Nsibidi. Although Ekpenyong is regarded as a marine deity, his spirit is believed to reside in a tree known as Ekom. Some Efik communities such as Mbiabo Ikot Offiong believe that his spirit dwells in the cotton tree known in Efik as Ukịm. At Mbiabo Ikot Offiong, Ekpenyong is believed to have had a son known as Akpan Ekpenyong. Unlike Ekpenyong, Akpan Ekpenyong is believed to reside in the water. Just as Ekpenyong is believed to have bore a son, he is also believed to be married to the deity Ekanem Abasi. The worship of Ekanem was also prominent in the lower Cross River but the cult of Ekanem did not travel as far as the cult of Ekpenyong. In many Efik folktales, Ekpenyong and Ekanem are featured as the supreme god and goddess. Like Ekpenyong, the spirit of Ekanem is also believed to inhabit a cotton tree.

As Ndem are primarily marine deities, most of its emblems are aquatic creatures. Among these creatures include python, alligator and crocodile. The species of Crocodile known in the Efik language as Fiom Nkọi represents Atabrinyang, a deity believed to reside at Effiat. The black kite is regarded as the messenger of Atakpor Uruan. Marriages are also believed to occur among the Ndem. Anansa Ikang Obutong is believed to be the spouse of Anantigha Enwang. Atakpor Uruan is also believed to be the spouse of Atabrinyang. Other unions between Ndem include Obo and Eme; Ebebe and Ukọñ Esụk.

Myths on the Origin of Ekpe
The Ekpe society plays a prominent role in Efik society. During the Pre-colonial era, Ekpe was the government of the day at Old Calabar. The society operates via a grading system. Some ekpe grades include Nyamkpe, Okuakama, Okpoho, Mboko and Mboko Mboko. As much as Ekpe acted as the preserver of law and order in Efik society, the society is also grounded in esoteric rituals. Ekpe is the Efik word for "Leopard" and is believed to be a mysterious being or spirit residing in the forest. According to Savage,"...despite the fact that Ekpe is a forest spirit, very often when Ekpe chiefs go to bring it from the forest to the village, town or shrine, they do so by means of a canoe. Thus this forest spirit is convened by water transport to land." It is also believed that only the initiates of the Ekpe society can see the Ekpe spirit. Several legends surround the founding of Ekpe. One legend as documented by Donald Simmons in 1958 states: "An Efut woman named Ata Iroko observed several supernatural spirits playing in the forest. When they departed they left behind the mbɔkɔ which Ata Iroko found and took home. This is the instrument which produces a sound similar to a leopard roar and knowledge of its mechanism constitutes the greatest secret of the Leopard Sooioty, Ata Iroko took the mbɔkɔ to her husband, who showed it to the town chiefs. They were so captivated they Immediately bribed the husband to kill his wife so that no woman would know of the mechanism. Accordingly, the husband killed Ata Iroko, The Efik subsequently purchased the secrets of the Leopard Society from the Efut," Donald Simmons also provides another narrative which states that Ata Iroko was shown the secrets of Mbɔkɔ by her father because he loved her so much. On the death of Chief Iroko, Ata and her husband fled with her husband from Usakedet to Calabar. Thereafter, Ata showed Mbɔkɔ to the chiefs who immediately decapitated her and her husband so that no one except the chiefs could dispense the secrets of Mbɔkɔ. Donald Simmons further asserts that when the Efik desire to produce the mbɔkɔ sound, they first make a sound similar which represents the name Ata Iroko. In spite of Simmons assertions, the names mainly called during Ekpe processions include Eyo Ema, Esien Ekpe, Asibong Ekondo, Mutaka and Nkok Ofuta. Another myth narrated in 1964 at the Hart's Enquiry by Barrister E. Koofreh states, "Asibong Ekondo discovered Ekpe floating on the river and he sold it to Esien Ekpe as his personal property. All the people of Usak Edet from where Asibong Ekondo hailed are reputed to be able to live under water and know what transpire there. Their souls normally lived underwater. Until recent times, they performed Ekpe plays under the water. When he sold the Ekpe to the Efiks whose souls do not live under water, Asibong Ekondo showed them how to use it." Aspects of comparative mythology can be observed in the tale narrated by Koofreh. The Balondo of Cameroon equally narrate a similar tale regarding the origin of Ekpe. The Balondo of Cameroon call Ekpe, "Matamu". According to Roschenthaler as quoted by Nanji: In the Balondo version, the women had been fishing, the women caught the Nyankpe from fishing in the river, the women caught a giant fish. The head of the fish produced a growling sound. The women made it sing, but the women did not know how to drum it. They tried in vain to control the sound of the fish. Their drumming did not help. The men knew how to drum. Then later they cut the físh, took the head for themselves and gave the tail to the women. Whenever Butamu (Ekpe) escapes into the river or forest, only the women can get it back... The myth does not explain how the men made the society and what it looked like at the beginning. It only says that the men took Nyankpe from the women and made its growling voice the basis of a powerful association.

Mythical Creatures
Several mythical creatures can be found in Efik mythology. Such creatures are different from the Efik Ndem which equally have their own separate descriptions in folklore. Some of these creatures include Okukubarakpa (also known as Ukara-akpa), Akaka Obu, Animana, Ikọñwọ, Unanim and several others. Okukubarakpa is regarded as a monstrous serpent that stretches across the river disturbing the waters. The creature can be likened to the Leviathan or the Dragon. Okukubarakpa is described by E. U. Aye as, "a large water serpent said to possess a diamond stone in its head and grows a comb on its head like that of a cock." The creature can be found in several folk tales of the people of the lower Cross River and certain parts of Cameroon. Talbot narrates a tale told to him regarding Okukubarakpa:

"Two towns, which lay on either side of a narrow creek, had long been on unfriendly terms. After a while the inhabitants of one of these crossed over at low tide and attacked the other, thinking to gain an easy victory. Instead of this, after hard fighting, they themselves were driven back to the edge of the water, which had, meanwhile, risen so that they, were cut off from escape. Now, in the creek lived a great python named Kukubarakpa, and no sooner did he see the plight of the invaders than he laid himself bridge-wise across the water—his head on the one bank and his tail upon the other. Over his body fled the van¬ quished, and, when all were safely landed on the farther shore, the bravest of the victors tried to follow. Kukubarakpa waited until these were crossing over his body, then sank suddenly, dragging them down with him, so that all were drowned. In gratitude, none of the people whose ancestors were thus saved kill or eat python to this day."

Another creature, Ikpun kpun kpun Ine also known as Ọkpọñ ọkpọñ ọkpọñ is described as a mammoth-like creature far greater than the elephant but existing only in fables. Unanim is described as, "a terrible prehistoric creature said to be extinct". Unanim is believed to have been aquatic and may have been an ancestor to a species of shark known as Unaonịm. Ikọñwọ is believed to be related to a species of catfish but was far monstrous. The Efik believed that Two giant crabs (Akaka Obu) both male and female, guarded the entrance to the Calabar river and protected Old Calabar.

Mythical Human-like species
Several mythical human-like species can be discovered in Efik folktales and legends. Among them include Amamaisim, the people of the woods and the undead. In all the legends of the people of the lower Cross River can be found the tale of a group of short pygymies with tails known by the name "Amamaisim". Amamaisim which translates to "they love their tails" were short stunted pygmies with tails. A study of the various folktales and sparse literature across the lower Cross River define them as intelligent, with great farming, hunting and trading skills. Their most common hunting equipment was the bow and arrow. Several variations of the tale of Amamaisim can be found in almost all the lower Cross River communities which include the Efik (specifically those in Akpabuyo), Eniong, Eki, Ibibio and Oron.

Among the Efik, the Amamaisim were believed to have been first spotted at Akpabuyo. There is no evidence that suggests that the Efik met the Amamaisim at Ikpa ene, Ndodoghi, Uruan or on the Calabar coast. Records of such sitings were narrated to Colonial Anthropologist Jeffreys in the 1930s and attempts to document what was remembered about such sitings were made in the 1970s. Many Ibibio communities also narrate that these pygmies were the earliest inhabitants of the present-day Akwa Ibom. Enwang and Oron folktales talk of the war of the pygmies which scattered many communities. This was known in the Enwang language as "Ekung Amamaisim-isim asuan ofid oduobot" (The war of the pygmies has scattered the whole world). Among the Eniong, legend has it that the Amamaisim were the earliest inhabitants of Akani Obio Eniong. Some myths incorporate these creatures as members of the host of Ndem (Marine spirits). For example, in E.E.E. Okon's Nkukunpoyoriyo he writes, "Ofuri esien eki ekpono ndem Eki- Ebe ye ñwan nte Zeus ye Hera. Ebe ye nwan esie edi mme amamaisim; mmọ edu ke mmọñ. Ke mmọñ, mmọ edi owo; edọk obot ekabade Ekpọ itiaba" (translation: All the clans of Eki worship Ndem Eki- Husband and Wife like Zeus and Hera. Husband and Wife are amamaisim; they inhabit the waters. In the water, they are people; they climb up the hill, they turn into Ekpọ itiaba (A demon that is seven times more diabolical i.e. A Hydra). In the chants of Ndem adherents, references to these mysterious being may be heard, "Ebe itip itip Nwan Itip Itip, itip itip idiaha nkpo utan enyon". Itipitip is the Efik word for dwarf. Some legends in Cameroon also mention pygmies but it is uncertain if the pygmies in the tales of the Bantu Cameroon actually had tails.

Many Efik folktales mention people who spring out of trees and fruits. The storyline in these folktales often involves a person who seeks a child and is fortunate to find one that emanates from a fruit or a tree. Talbot also narrates a tale of people being brought back to life by the Annang. These people when returned were regarded as having a non-energetic character. There were known in the Efik language as "Owo emeade ke Ude esio".

Myth on Bush soul
Prior to the prominence of Christian beliefs in Efik society, the Efik believed in the soul's affinity to animals. It was believed that every individual had a soul in an animal, could transfer their consciousness to the body of the animal and materialise as the animal. Children were taught never to kill a wall gecko (Ukpọñ Eyen). Whatever occurred to the animal-affinity also occurred to the human. According to Rosalind Hackett who quotes Etubom Ewa Henshaw, "There was a hierarchy of animals, the leopard being the highest followed by wild dogs, crocodiles, boa constrictors and other snakes, wall geckos and so on." Animals and some species of fish were regarded as potential affinities, but never plants, insects or rocks. The choice of the animal was made before birth and was influenced by Eka Abasi (The Mother God). A person's personality and behavioural characteristics were considered to be determined by the animal soul. According to Simmons, "A very slow person possessed the python as his animal-affinity while a filthy person had a pig affinity, A strong, healthy individual possessed either a crocodile or spitting cobra and the affinity of one who had many white discolorations on the skin was thought to be a species of lizard called owuri; such people had the ability to draw money to themselves at night when the lizard howled. If an Individual craved oil palm fruits he possessed either a monkey affinity or that of a fish called ɔfɔt. A very powerful Individual has the animal affinity of a chimpanzee."

Mythical Places
Several mythical places can be found in the Efik cosmology. The Efik believed that the world was flat as such, the edge of the world was known as Ononkoni (Ọnọkọni)). The Efik believed in the existence of a realm known as Ọnọsi where the spirits of the dead reside. Ọnọsi is said to have been located around the village of Usahadet and was bordered by the realm of the Ndem (Marine deities) known as Obio Ndem. Obio Ndem was believed to be the meeting place of the society known as Ekongeze. Obio Ndem is described by Etinyin Andem Ita stating:

"Obio Ndem is like a city on land with the only difference being that it is under water. Like us on land, they have roofed houses, families, markets, etc. The city is ruled by the deity overseeing the region. Sometimes, when people go missing while swimming, fishing or sojourning by water, sacrifices are offered to the deity overseeing the jurisdiction where the person went missing when such sacrifices are accepted, the person resurfaces back on land most times with no recollection of how he/she got there and other times with vague recollection of being held hostage in a city under the sea where people gathered and deliberated on what is to be done to the hostage."

Myth on Witchcraft
The Efik word for witchcraft is Ifọt. The Efik believe that there are two types of Ifọt i.e. Afia ifọt (White witchcraft) and Obubit ifọt (Black witchcraft). White witchcraft is utilised for protective and positive purposes while black witchcraft is used to cause harm and destruction to others. A person possessing the power of white witchcraft never attempts to kill or hurt someone but protects people by exposing the possessors of black witchcraft. A practitioner of black witchcraft often causes death, sickness or loss of wealth to a person. Practitioners of white witchcraft often admit that they possess such power, while a practitioner of black witchcraft does not admit to possessing such power. Black witches are believed to join to form a society and meet at night to cause people harm. According to Simmons, "Under ordinary conditions they are only visible to possessors of white witchcraft, but when they congregate at night they are visible to everyone and reported to be red in color. This is due to the removal of their skin which they leave at home to make people think that they are asleep while they go outside to dance in their raw flesh." Some nocturnal animals are often associated with practitioners of witchcraft such as owls, bats, cockroaches and moths. Dogs barking at night are believed to have spotted a witch. Witches were believed to use bats and rats as messengers to discover where money was hidden. Witch trials were often common in Old Calabar. The earliest mention of a witch trial can be found in W.F. Daniell's 1848 work titled "On the Natives of Old Callebar, West Coast of Africa". A witch trial often occurs in situations where a person is ill and is unable to discover the source of his illness or a person dies and is suspected to have been killed by witchcraft. If a person believed the cause of his illness was the workings of witchcraft, he would cut his hair and send it to all the Efik towns stating that if he died, they should launch an inquiry regarding his death. A person accused of witchcraft usually demanded that he undergo a witch trial to prove his innocence. The suspect ate eight Calabar beans and drank a mixture of ground Calabar beans and water. If the suspect was a witch his mouth shook and mucus came from his nose. If he was innocent he lifted his right hand and then regurgitated. Should the poison continue to affect the suspect after his innocence had been established, an antidote was administered consisting of either male or female excrement, depending on the suspect's sex, mixed with water which had been used to wash a female's external genitalia. This mixture was taken as a drink. If the suspect is found to be guilty, however, no antidote is given and he is allowed to die. After his demise his corpse is thrown into the forest.

Myths of death and the Afterlife
The Efik originally believed in the power of reincarnation. The Efik believed that seven reincarnations were to occur before the final judgement by Abasi. If an infant had a mark on its body which was equally on the body of a previously deceased sibling, the infant was believed to be a reincarnation of the deceased sibling. Belief in reincarnations accounts for the assigning of personal names such as Nyong (Nyọñ) which is given to a child whose siblings have died before they were born. The name may also be given to a child who resembles a deceased relative. According to Simmons, "One Efik belief postulates the existence of several worlds each separated from the sky above and the earth below. A person who dies in one world becomes reborn in the world below... When an Individual has passed through the entire seven worlds in seven generations he travels on a path which connects world seven with world one. Before he commences another seven-world cycle he renders an account to God of his actions during his sojourn in each of the worlds." The spot where the individual renders an account to God of his actions was known as Usan Emana (Plate of Birth). Spirits about to reincarnate were believed to dwell in Effiatt (formerly known as Tom Shott's island). The Efik also believed in the existence of a realm inhabited by the souls of the dead. According to Aye, "It was believed that all the ghosts of persons who die in a year sail in a large canoe at midnight of every December 31, singing and paddling to their new home in Ọnọsi thus: Ekpo ke ẹnyọño Ọnọsi-o uwaya! The ghosts are returning to Onosi-o uwaya." There was also a belief in a realm deep within the Land of the dead known as mkpọsọk which could be likened to the Greek Tartarus.

External influence on Efik mythology
Due to peregrinations of the Efik across the Cross river and their external trade with the Europeans, several foreign influences can be seen in the myths of the Efik. Oral tradition maintains that the earliest Europeans to interact and trade with the Efik were the Portuguese. Later Europeans entrants into the Cross River were the Dutch, British and French. Christianity also played a role in shaping Efik mythology. The earliest Christian missionaries arrived from Jamaica in April 1846.

title: Efik mythology