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Hindu mythology

Hindu mythology is the body of myths attributed to, and espoused by, the adherents of the Hindu religion, found in Hindu texts such as the Vedas, the itihasa (the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana,) the Puranas, and mythological stories specific to a particular ethnolinguistic group like the Tamil Periya Puranam and Divya Prabandham, and the Mangal Kavya of Bengal. Hindu myths are also found in widely translated popular texts such as the fables of the Panchatantra and the Hitopadesha, as well as in Southeast Asian texts.

Meaning of "myth"
Myth is a genre of folklore or theology consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. For folklorists, historians, philosophers or theologians this is very different from the use of "myth" simply indicating that something is not true. Instead, the truth value of a myth is not a defining criterion.

Hindu myths can be found in the Vedas, the itihasa (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and the major Puranas. Other sources include the Bengali literature, such as Mangal-Kāvya, and the Tamil literature, such as Divya Prabandham, Tirumurai and the Five Great Epics.

Indus Valley Civilisation
According to Joseph Campbell, the Indus Valley (2600–1900 BCE) may have left traces in the beliefs and traditions of Hinduism. Artefacts have revealed motifs that are also employed and revered by Hindus today, such as primary male deities worshipped by a ruling elite, mother goddesses, nature spirits, snake worship, as well as the reverence of other theriomorphic (animal-shaped) beings. These themes would be maintained by the Dravidian folk religion even after the decline of its parent civilisation around 1800 BCE.

Vedic Period
A major factor in the development of Hinduism was the Vedic religion. The Indo-Aryan migration brought their distinct beliefs to the Indian subcontinent, where the Vedas were composed around 1500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans Vedic pantheon of deities included the chief god Indra, the sun deity Surya, Ushas, as well as Agni.

Brahmanical Period
This period saw the composition of commentaries referred to as the Brahmanas.

Upanishad Period
According to Williams, from 900 to 600 BCE, the protests of the populace against sacrifices made towards the Vedic gods and rebellions against the Brahmin class led to the embrace of reform by the latter and the composition of the fourth Veda and the Vedanta texts. About half of the Upanishads were mystical and unitive, speaking of experiencing the divine as the one (ekam), while the other half promoted devotion to one or more deities. New gods and goddesses were celebrated, and devotional practices began to be introduced.

Sramanic movements
Elements such as those emerging from Buddhism and Jainism made their "heteroprax" contributions to later Hindu mythology, such as temples, indoor shrines, and rituals modeled after service to a divine king. Renunciate traditions contributed elements that questioned sacrifices and the killing of animals, and promoted asceticism and vegetarianism. All of these themes would be incorporated by the Brahmin classes into the later Hindu synthesis, which developed in response to the sramanic movements between ca. 500–300 BCE and 500 CE, and also found their way into Hindu mythology.

Epic Period
The era from 400 BCE to 400 CE was the period of the compilation of India’s great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. These were central manifestations of the newly developing Hindu synthesis, contributing to a specific Hindu mythology, emphasising divine action on earth in Vishnu's incarnations and other divine manifestations. The lore of the devas and the asuras expanded. Epic mythology foreshadowed the rich polytheism of the next two periods. The Mahabharata contained two appendices that were extremely important sources for later mythological development, the Bhagavad Gîta and the Harivamsa.

Puranic Period
According to Williams, the mythology of the Puranas can be broken into three periods (300–500; 500–1000; 1000–1800), or the whole period may simply be referred to as the Hindu Middle Ages. This age saw the composition of the major Puranic texts of the faith, along with the rise of sectarianism, with followers amassing around the cults of Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi. The three denominations within this period help locate in time historical developments within the sectarian communities, the rise and decline of Tantrism and its influence on mainstream mythology, the tendencies in Puranic mythologising of subordinating Vedic gods and past heroes to ever-increasing moral weaknesses, going on to be identified as a period of exuberant polytheism. However, this was also accompanied with the belief in monotheism, the idea that all paths lead to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman.

Tantric Period
According to Williams, during the Tantric period from 900 to 1600 CE, the mythology of Tantra and Shaktism revived and enriched blood sacrifice and the pursuit of pleasure as central themes. Tantra’s stories differed radically in meaning from those of epic mythology, which favored devotion, asceticism, and duty. There was either a revival or emphasis that was placed on the shakti or the cosmic energy of goddesses, a concept that had emerged during the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Modern Period
In the contemporary era, the mythologies of the dominant traditions of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism prevail. Several myths were found or invented to make tribals or former "outcastes" Hindus and bring them within the cultural whole of a reconstructed Hindu mythological community.

Mythical themes and types

Academic studies of mythology often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of eschatology (what happens in the "after-life"). This is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. In its broadest academic sense, the word myth simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories. Folklorists often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters".

In classical Greek, muthos, from which the English word myth derives, meant "story, narrative." Hindu mythology does not often have a consistent, monolithic structure. The same myth typically appears in various versions, and can be represented differently across different regional and socio-religious traditions. Many of these legends evolve across these texts, where the character names change or the story is embellished with greater details. According to Suthren Hirst, these myths have been given a complex range of interpretations. While according to Doniger O'Flaherty, the central message and moral values remain the same. They have been modified by various philosophical schools over time, and are taken to have deeper, often symbolic, meaning.

Cosmology

 * Brahman The Ultimate Reality in Hinduism
 * Satyaloka The abode of Brahma
 * Hiranyagarbha The golden egg from which creation emerges
 * Vaikuntha The abode of Vishnu
 * Goloka The abode of Radha Krishna
 * Kailasa The abode of Shiva
 * Bhumi The Hindu name for Earth.
 * Patala The netherworld
 * Svarga The Hindu concept of "heaven", but not strictly related to afterlife, but more like "utopia" in real world.
 * Naraka The Hindu concept of "hell", but not a site of permanent damnation

Deities
Pantheism
 * Brahman The Ultimate Reality

Vaishnavism (Vishnu-centric)
 * Vishnu The God of Preservation
 * Lakshmi The Goddess of Prosperity
 * Dashavatara Ten incarnations of Vishnu, chiefly Krishna and Rama

Shaivism (Shiva-centric)
 * Shiva The God of Destruction
 * Parvati The Goddess of Power
 * Ganesha The God of Auspiciousness
 * Kartikeya The God of Victory and War

Shaktism (Goddess-centric)
 * Mahadevi Supreme Goddess
 * Saraswati Goddess of Wisdom
 * Lakshmi Goddess of Prosperity
 * Parvati Goddess of Power

Henotheism and Polytheism Dravidian folk religion' (Indigenous Dravidian faith)
 * Brahma The God of Creation
 * Vishnu The God of Preservation
 * Shiva The God of Destruction
 * Indra The King of the Devas and Svarga
 * Saraswati The Goddess of Wisdom
 * Lakshmi The Goddess of Prosperity
 * Parvati The Goddess of Power
 * Ganesha The God of Auspiciousness
 * Krishna The God of love and protection
 * Radha The goddess of love, chief consort of Krishna
 * Rukmini The first queen consort and principal wife of Krishna
 * Satyabhama The third queen consort of Krishna
 * Yamuna one of the main sacred river goddesses in Hinduism and the fourth queen consort of Krishna
 * Bhudevi Goddess of the Earth
 * Kartikeya (Murugan) God of Victory and War
 * Rama The seventh incarnation of Vishnu
 * Kali A terrible aspect of Parvati
 * Durga A principal aspect of Mahadevi
 * Ashvins Twin gods of medicine
 * Agni God of Fire
 * Rudra God of the storm
 * Shakti Personification of power
 * Vayu God of the wind
 * Surya God of the Sun
 * Varuna God of the oceans
 * Lakshmana Younger Brother of Rama
 * Hanuman Highest devotee of Rama
 * Sita Consort of Rama and incarnation of Lakshmi
 * Sati An incarnation of the goddess Shakti
 * Kubera God of Wealth
 * Parshurama The sixth incarnation of Vishnu
 * Yama God of Death and the Underworld
 * Chandra God of the Moon
 * Balarama incarnation of Shesha and in some traditions an avatar of Vishnu
 * Prajapati Creator deity
 * Kalki Prophesied final incarnation of Vishnu
 * Dashavatara (Ten Incarnations of Vishnu)
 * Narada Divine sage, messenger of gods
 * Sundaravalli Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
 * Devasena Daughter of Vishnu, consort of Murugan
 * Kamadeva The God of love and desire
 * Rati The Goddess of love and desire
 * Shani Divine Personification of the planet saturn
 * Shesha naag The serpent god

 * Mariamman Mother goddess
 * Ayyanar Guardian deity
 * Ayyappan God of Dharma

Connections to other belief systems
Hinduism shares mythemes with Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

General sources

title: Hindu mythology


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Outline of Hinduism

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Hinduism:

Hinduism – predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Its followers are called Hindus, who refer to it as  (सनातनधर्मः), amongst many other expressions. Hinduism has no single founder, and is formed of diverse traditions, including a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on the notion of karma, dharma, and societal norms. Among its direct roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the "oldest living religion" or the "oldest living major religion" in the world.

General reference

 * Pronunciation:
 * IPA:
 * Common English name: Hinduism
 * Adherent(s): Hindus
 * Sacred language: Sanskrit (sa)
 * Sacred sign: Om (ॐ)

History

 * History of Hinduism in Pakistan
 * History of Hinduism in Southeast Asia
 * History of Hinduism in Afghanistan
 * History of Hinduism in China
 * History of Hinduism in the Philippines

Prehistoric

 * Indus Valley civilisation
 * Dravidian folk religion

Vedic history

 * Historical Vedic religion
 * Vedic Sanskrit
 * Iron Age in India
 * Proto-Indo-Europeans
 * Proto-Indo-European religion
 * Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
 * Indo-Aryan migrations

Vaishnavism

 * Manipuri Vaishnavism
 * Bhagavatism
 * Vaikhanasas
 * Pancharatra
 * Thenkalais
 * Vadakalais
 * Munitraya
 * Krishnaism
 * Jagannathism
 * Warkari
 * Mahanubhava
 * Haridasa
 * Sahajiya
 * Baul
 * Pushtimarg
 * Ekasarana
 * Gaudiya
 * Radha-vallabha
 * Ramanandi
 * Kapadi
 * Balmiki
 * Kabir panth
 * Dadu panth
 * Pranami
 * Swaminarayan
 * Ramsnehi
 * Mahanam

Shaivism

 * History of Shaivism
 * Kashmir Shaivism
 * Shiva
 * Sadasiva
 * Bhairava
 * Rudra
 * Virabhadra
 * Shakti
 * Parvati
 * Sati
 * Durga
 * Kali
 * Ganesha
 * Kartikeya
 * Sastha
 * Shiva forms
 * Others
 * Agamas and Tantras
 * Shivasutras
 * Tirumurai
 * Vachanas
 * Pati
 * Pashu
 * Pasam

Three bondages

 * Karma
 * Maya
 * 36 Tattvas
 * Yoga
 * Satkaryavada
 * Abhasavada
 * Svatantrya
 * Aham
 * Samariscus
 * Vibhuti
 * Rudraksha
 * Panchakshara
 * Bilva
 * Maha Shivaratri
 * Yamas-Niyamas
 * Guru-Linga-Jangam
 * Philosophies and Schools
 * Adi Margam
 * Pashupata
 * Kalamukha
 * Kapalika
 * Mantra Margam Saiddhantika
 * Siddhantism Non - Saiddhantika
 * Kashmir Shaivism
 * Pratyabhijna
 * Vama
 * Dakshina
 * Kaula: Trika-Yamala-Kubjika-Netra
 * Others
 * Nath
 * Inchegeri
 * Veerashaiva/Lingayatism
 * Siddharism
 * Sroutaism
 * Aghori
 * Indonesian

Newer movements

 * Advait Mat
 * Divine Light Mission
 * American Meditation Institute
 * Ananda (Ananda Yoga)
 * Ananda Ashrama
 * Ananda Marga
 * Art of Living Foundation
 * Arya Samaj
 * Ayyavazhi
 * Brahma Kumaris
 * Brahmoism (Brahmo Samaj)
 * Adi Dharm
 * Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
 * Chinmaya Mission
 * Datta Yoga
 * Divine Life Society
 * Hanuman Foundation
 * Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy
 * Advaita Vedanta
 * Akshar-Purushottam Darshan
 * Bhedabheda
 * Achintya Bheda Abheda
 * Dvaitadvaita
 * Dvaita Vedanta
 * Integral yoga
 * Pratyabhijna
 * Shaiva Siddhanta
 * Shiva Advaita
 * Shuddhadvaita
 * Vishishtadvaita

Festivals

 * Diwali
 * Holi
 * Shivaratri
 * Raksha Bandhan
 * Navaratri
 * Durga Puja
 * Ramlila
 * Vijayadashami
 * Ganesh Chaturthi
 * Rama Navami
 * Janmashtami
 * Onam
 * Pongal
 * Makar Sankranti
 * New Year
 * Bihu
 * Gudi Padwa
 * Pahela Baishakh
 * Puthandu
 * Vaisakhi
 * Vishu
 * Ugadi
 * Kumbh Mela
 * Haridwar
 * Nashik
 * Prayag
 * Ujjain
 * Ratha Yatra
 * Teej
 * Vasant Panchami

Philosophy

 * Bhakti
 * Krishnaism
 * Supreme Personality of Godhead
 * Japa
 * Yoga
 * Meditation
 * Hare Krishna
 * Mantras
 * Puja
 * Arati
 * Bhajan
 * Kirtan
 * Sattvic diet
 * Ahimsa
 * Rishis
 * Tilaka
 * Guru
 * Diksha
 * Dashavatara
 * Matsya
 * Kurma
 * Varaha
 * Krishna
 * Balarama
 * Rama
 * Narasimha
 * Vamana
 * Buddha
 * Parashurama
 * Kalki
 * Dhanvantari
 * Kapila
 * Pancha-tattva
 * Chaitanya
 * Nityananda
 * Advaita Acharya
 * Gadadhara Pandita
 * Srivasa Thakura

Politics

 * Hindu studies
 * Hindutva
 * Hindu nationalism

Hindu groups and political parties

 * Bharatiya Janata Party
 * Shiv Sena
 * Hindu Samaj Party
 * Asom Bharatiya Janata Party
 * Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
 * Hindu Munnani
 * Hindu Dharma Samudaya of Bhutan
 * Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party
 * Hindu Makkal Katchi
 * Dr. Syamaprasad Jana Jagaran Manch
 * Bharath Dharma Jana Sena
 * Hindu Mahasabha
 * Hindu Mahajana Sangam
 * Hindu Samhati
 * Shivsena Nepal
 * Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal
 * Rastriya Prajatantra Party
 * Hindu Prajatantrik Party
 * Siva Senai
 * Banga Sena
 * Swadhin Bangabhumi Andolan
 * Pakistan Hindu Party
 * Progressive Reform Party (Suriname)
 * HINDRAF
 * Malaysia Makkal Sakti Party
 * Malaysian Ceylonese Congress
 * Malaysian Advancement Party
 * Minority Rights Action Party
 * Sangh Parivar
 * Vishva Hindu Parishad
 * Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
 * Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
 * Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh
 * Bharatiya Kisan Sangh
 * Bajrang Dal
 * Hindu Swayamsevak Sangh
 * Akhil Bharatiya Adhivakta Parishad
 * Swadeshi Jagaran Manch
 * Deen Dayal Shodh Sansthan
 * Bharat Vikas Parishad
 * Sabarimala Ayyappa Seva Samajam
 * Seva Bharati
 * Hindu Aikya Vedi
 * Ekal Vidyalaya
 * Saraswati Shishu Mandir
 * Vidya Bharati Akhil Bharatiya Shiksha Sansthan
 * Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram
 * Friends of Tribals Society
 * Akhil Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana
 * India Development and Relief Fund

Organisations

 * Survey of Hindu organisations
 * ISKCON
 * Swaminarayan Sampraday
 * Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha
 * Arya Samaj
 * Ramakrishna Mission
 * Sringeri Sharada Peetham
 * Banga Mahila Vidyalaya
 * Gaudiya Math
 * Hindu Maha Sabha (Fiji)
 * Manav Dharma Sabha
 * Paramahansa Mandali
 * Prarthana Samaj
 * Ratnagiri Hindu Sabha
 * Satyashodhak Samaj
 * Tattwabodhini Sabha
 * Theosophical Society of the Arya Samaj
 * Trust deed of Brahmo Sabha
 * Hindu Sewa Parishad
 * Sri Trimurtidham Balaji Hanuman Mandir
 * Saiva Siddhanta Church
 * Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha
 * Sanatan Sanstha
 * Santhigiri Ashram
 * Sathya Sai Organization
 * Satsang (Deoghar)
 * Science of Identity Foundation
 * Science of Spirituality (a.k.a. Sawan Kirpal Ruhani Mission)
 * Self-Realization Fellowship
 * Yogoda Satsanga Society of India
 * Shree Shree Anandamayee Sangha
 * Siddha Yoga Dham Associates Foundation
 * Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres
 * Society of Abidance in Truth
 * Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam
 * Alwaye Advaita Ashram
 * Sree Narayana Trust
 * List of Sree Narayana Institutions
 * Sri Aurobindo Ashram
 * Auroville Foundation
 * Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Rewa
 * Sri Aurobindo International School, Hyderabad
 * Sri Chinmoy Centres
 * Sri Ramana Ashram
 * Sri Sri Radha Govindaji Trust
 * Sringeri Sharada Peetham
 * Swadhyay Parivar
 * Swaminarayan Mandir Vasna Sanstha
 * Vishwa Madhwa Maha Parishat
 * Vishwa Nirmala Dharma

Hindu texts

 * Shruti
 * Smriti

Vedas

 * Rigveda
 * Samaveda
 * Yajurveda
 * Atharvaveda
 * Samhita
 * Brahmana
 * Aranyaka
 * Upanishads

108 Upanishads

 * The 108 Upanishads
 * Isha
 * Kena
 * Katha
 * Prashna
 * Mundaka
 * Mandukya
 * Taittiriya
 * Aitareya
 * Chandogya
 * Brihadaranyaka
 * Brahma
 * Kaivalya
 * Jabala
 * Shvetashvatara
 * Hamsa
 * Aruneya
 * Garbha
 * Narayana
 * Paramahamsa
 * Amritabindu
 * Amritanada
 * Atharvashiras
 * Atharvashikha
 * Maitrayaniya
 * Kaushitaki
 * Brihajjabala
 * Nrisimha Tapaniya
 * Kalagni Rudra
 * Maitreya
 * Subala
 * Kshurika
 * Mantrika
 * Sarvasara
 * Niralamba
 * Shukarahasya
 * Vajrasuchi
 * Tejobindu
 * Nadabindu
 * Dhyanabindu
 * Brahmavidya
 * Yogatattva
 * Atmabodha
 * Naradaparivrajaka
 * Trishikhi-brahmana
 * Sita
 * Yogachudamani
 * Nirvana
 * Mandala-brahmana
 * Dakshinamurti
 * Sharabha
 * Skanda
 * Mahanarayana
 * Advayataraka
 * Rama Rahasya
 * Ramatapaniya
 * Vasudeva
 * Mudgala
 * Shandilya
 * Paingala
 * Bhikshuka
 * Maha
 * Sariraka
 * Yogashikha
 * Turiyatita
 * Sannyasa
 * Paramahamsaparivrajaka
 * Akshamalika
 * Avyakta
 * Ekakshara
 * Annapurna
 * Surya
 * Akshi
 * Adhyatma
 * Kundika
 * Savitri
 * Atma
 * Pashupatabrahma
 * Parabrahma
 * Avadhuta
 * Tripuratapini
 * Devi
 * Tripura
 * Kathashruti
 * Bhavana
 * Rudrahridaya
 * Yoga-Kundalini
 * Bhasma
 * Rudraksha
 * Ganapati
 * Darshana
 * Tarasara
 * Mahavakya
 * Pancabrahma
 * Pranagnihotra
 * Gopala-Tapani
 * Krishna
 * Yajnavalkya
 * Varaha
 * Shatyayaniya
 * Hayagriva
 * Dattatreya
 * Garuda
 * Kali-Santarana
 * Jabali
 * Saubhagyalakshmi
 * Sarasvati-rahasya
 * Bahvricha
 * Muktikā

Rig Vedic

 * Aitareya
 * Kaushitaki

Sama Vedic

 * Chandogya
 * Kena

Yajur Vedic

 * Brihadaranyaka
 * Isha
 * Taittiriya
 * Katha
 * Shvetashvatara
 * Maitri

Atharava Vedic

 * Mundaka
 * Mandukya
 * Prashna

Vedangas

 * Shiksha
 * Chandas
 * Vyakarana
 * Nirukta
 * Kalpa
 * Jyotisha

Brahma Puranas

 * Brahma
 * Brahmānda
 * Brahmavaivarta
 * Markandeya
 * Bhavishya

Vaishnava Puranas

 * Vishnu
 * Bhagavata
 * Naradiya
 * Garuda
 * Padma
 * Vamana
 * Varaha Purana
 * Kurma
 * Matsya

Shaiva Puranas

 * Shiva
 * Linga
 * Skanda
 * Vayu
 * Agni

Shastras and Sutras

 * Dharma Shastra
 * Artha Shastra
 * Kamasutra
 * Brahma Sutras
 * Samkhya Sutras
 * Mimamsa Sutras
 * Nyāya Sūtras
 * Vaiśeṣika Sūtra
 * Yoga Sutras
 * Pramana Sutras
 * Charaka Samhita
 * Sushruta Samhita
 * Natya Shastra
 * Vastu Shastra
 * Panchatantra
 * Divya Prabandha
 * Tirumurai
 * Ramcharitmanas
 * Yoga Vasistha
 * Swara yoga
 * Shiva Samhita
 * Gheranda Samhita
 * Panchadasi
 * Vedantasara
 * Stotra

Literary texts

 * Ramayana
 * Mahabharata
 * Bhagavad Gita

Hindu people

 * List of Hindus
 * List of Hindu gurus

Freedom fighters

 * Pazhassi Raja
 * Mangal Pandey
 * Chandrashekhar Azad
 * Subhas Chandra Bose
 * Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
 * Lokmanya Tilak
 * Mahatma Gandhi

Social leaders

 * B. R. Ambedkar
 * K.B. Hedgewar
 * Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar
 * K.S. Sudarshan
 * Pravin Togadia
 * Shanta Kumar

Politicians

 * Mahatma Gandhi
 * Jawaharlal Nehru
 * Vallabhbhai Patel
 * Lal Bahadur Shastri
 * Rajiv Gandhi
 * Indira Gandhi
 * Atal Bihari Vajpayee
 * Lal Krishna Advani
 * Balasaheb Thackeray
 * Yogi Adityanath
 * Govindacharya
 * Narendra Modi
 * Uma Bharti
 * Himanta Biswa Sarma
 * Rajnath Singh

Other terms and concepts

 * Maya (illusion)
 * Itihasa
 * Karma in Hinduism
 * Kosas
 * Sri
 * Shakti
 * Purusha
 * Gayatri
 * Vac

Inter-religious

 * Hinduism and Buddhism
 * Gautama Buddha in Hinduism
 * Theravada
 * Hinduism and Jainism
 * Rama in Jainism
 * Salakapurusa
 * Hinduism and Sikhism
 * Rama in Sikhism
 * Dasam Granth
 * Hinduism and Islam
 * Hindu-Muslim riots
 * Hindu–Muslim unity
 * Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb
 * Hinduism and Christianity
 * Hinduism and Judaism

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Outline of Hinduism


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Fire drill

A fire drill is a method of practicing how a building should evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergencies. In most cases, the building's existing fire alarm system is activated and the building is evacuated by means of the nearest available exits, as if an emergency had actually occurred. Fire drill procedures may vary depending on the building type, such as hospitals or high rise buildings, where occupants may be relocated within the building as opposed to evacuating the building. Generally, the evacuation interval is measured to ensure that it is fast enough, and problems with the emergency system or evacuation procedures are identified so that they may be remedied.

In addition to fire drills, most buildings have their fire alarm systems checked on a regular basis to ensure that the system is working. Fire alarm tests are often done outside normal business hours so as to minimize disruption of building functions; in schools, they are often done when students and staff are not around or during the holidays where specialist fire alarm engineers test alarms in the building for repair if needed.

History of fire drills
The purpose of fire drills in buildings is to ensure that everyone knows how to exit safely as quickly as possible if a fire, smoke, carbon monoxide, or other emergency occurs, and to familiarize building occupants with the sound of the fire alarm.

Before regular fire drills were instituted, an infamous fire broke out at the private Catholic school Our Lady of the Angels in 1958, in Chicago. Children on the second floor were trapped there, with neither teachers nor pupils knowing how to get out of the building safely. Many children jumped out of windows, and many were killed as they could not make their way to an exit. Although the school had passed a fire inspection only two months before, and had the number of fire exits and fire extinguishers required at the time, it lacked smoke detectors or adequate fire alarms, and was overcrowded.

The need for fire drills was recognized; monthly fire drills were implemented after the Our Lady of the Angels fire. It was found in a later study that education on fire also helped to prevent it: people started to learn more about what started fires, and what to do in the case of one starting. They were also aware of the hazards that allow a fire to start and grow. Within a year of the fire, many of the hazardous conditions such as found in Our Lady of the Angels had been eliminated in thousands of schools around the United States.

Other improvements in fire safety
After the fire at Our Lady of the Angels, state regulations required that there had to be fire alarm street boxes no more than 100 ft from the front of the building. The General Assembly of Illinois also passed life safety codes in response to the fire at Our Lady of the Angels. Things such as more control over waste disposal, proper storage of combustible supplies, more frequent fire drills, and inspections were put in place. Other reforms triggered by the fire include the city of Chicago modifying the Municipal Building Code of Chicago, affecting fire safety of schools as well as other buildings with two or more stories.

To prevent fires and deaths caused by fires, schools must have an evacuation plan in place, and make sure that all the proper fire alarms and warnings work. Teachers must take charge of the situation and act as leaders. Teachers should also consider the number of students that they have, and the need for enough space and time to get all of the students out quickly and safely. Teachers should also be alert to the causes of fires, in order to try and stop them from happening.

Fire drill regulations
Many jurisdictions require that fire drills be conducted at certain intervals. This is the case in educational institutions, and also other workplaces and buildings. The frequency of such drills and what must be done during them may be laid down in statutes.

United States
In the United States, school fire drill regulations are set by individual states. While all mandate fire drills during the course of a school year, the frequency and number vary from state to state.

The following states require that schools conduct a fire drill once per month: • Alabama

• Alaska

• Arkansas

• California (elementary schools)

• Colorado

• Connecticut

• Delaware

• District of Columbia

• Florida

• Georgia

• Indiana

• Kentucky

• Missouri

• Nebraska

• Nevada

• New Hampshire

• New Jersey

• North Carolina

• New York

• Ohio

• Oregon

• Pennsylvania

•  Rhode Island

• South Carolina

• Tennessee

• Texas

• Utah (elementary schools)

• West Virginia

• Wisconsin

The following states require that schools conduct a specific number of drills over the course of the entire school year, or that a certain number of drills must be conducted within a certain period of time: • Alaska

• Arizona

• California (middle and high schools)

• Florida

• Hawaii

• Illinois

• Iowa

• Kansas

• Louisiana

• Maine

• Maryland

• Massachusetts

• Michigan

• Minnesota

• Montana

• New Mexico

• Oklahoma

• South Dakota

• Utah (middle and high schools)

• Vermont

• Virginia

The following states specify a greater frequency of fire drills at the beginning of the school year: • District of Columbia

• Georgia

• Louisiana

• Maine

• Ohio

• Rhode Island

• Tennessee

• Utah

• Virginia

• Washington

• West Virginia

Until regulations changed on November 1, 2010, New Jersey was unique in its requirement that schools conduct 2 fire drills per month. Under later requirements, one of the 2 fire drills was replaced by a monthly security drill.

United Kingdom
The National Union of Teachers requires that all schools, colleges and universities and any other education establishment perform a fire evacuation drill every term. It is required that most schools perform a fire drill at the start of the academic year. According to UK fire regulations, any new buildings that were built after the fire safety regulations changed in 2005, every room should have at least one fire alarm device such as a bell, a sounder (siren) or smoke/heat alarm installed. Regular safety checks such as testing fire alarms or smoke alarms and fire extinguishers should be performed weekly and does not require building evacuation. According to the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005, all workplaces must have an emergency plan specifying staff actions, evacuation plans and arrangements for contacting the fire brigade.

New Zealand
The New Zealand Fire Service requires all schools and educational facilities to carry out a fire drill (termed a trial evacuation) at least once every six months, unless a shorter period is specified in the school's approved evacuation scheme. Schools need to give the Fire Service 7–10 working days' notice before a fire drill is planned, and must submit a report to the Fire Service within 7–10 working days of the drill; an unplanned alarm activation does not count as a fire drill.

title: Fire drill


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Dyaus

Dyaus (द्यौष्, ) or Dyauspitr (द्यौष्पितृ, ) is the Rigvedic sky deity. His consort is Prthvi, the earth goddess, and together they are the archetypal parents in the Rigveda.

Nomenclature
stems from Proto-Indo-Iranian *dyā́wš, from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) daylight-sky god, and is cognate with the Greek Διας - Zeus Patēr, Illyrian Dei-pátrous, and Latin Jupiter (from Old Latin Dies piter Djous patēr), stemming from the PIE Dyḗus ph₂tḗr ("Daylight-sky Father").

The noun (when used without the  'father') refers to the daylight sky, and occurs frequently in the Rigveda, as an entity. The sky in Vedic writing was described as rising in three tiers,, , and or.

Literature
Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́ appears in hymns with Prithvi Mata 'Mother Earth' in the ancient Vedic scriptures of Hinduism.

In the Ṛg·veda, Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́ appears in verses 1.89.4, 1.90.7, 1.164.33, 1.191.6, 4.1.10. and 4.17.4 He is also referred to under different theonyms: Dyavaprithvi, for example, is a dvandva compound combining 'heaven' and 'earth' as Dyauṣ and Prithvi.

Dyauṣ's most defining trait is his paternal role. His daughter, Uṣas, personifies dawn. The gods, especially Sūrya, are stated to be the children of Dyauṣ and Prithvi. Dyauṣ's other sons include Agni, Parjanya, the Ādityas, the Maruts, and the Angirases. The Ashvins are called "divó nápāt", meaning offspring/progeny/grandsons of Dyauṣ. Dyauṣ is often visualized as a roaring animal, often a bull, who fertilizes the earth. Dyauṣ is also known for the rape of his own daughter, which, according to Jamison and Brereton (2014), is vaguely but vividly mentioned in the Rigveda.

Dyauṣ is also stated to be like a black stallion studded with pearls in a simile with the night sky.

Indra's separation of Dyauṣ and Prithvi is celebrated in the Rigveda as an important creation myth.

title: Dyaus


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Prithvi

Prithvi (Sanskrit: पृथ्वी, ', also पृथिवी, ', "the Vast One"), also rendered Pṛthvī Mātā, is the Sanskrit name for the earth, as well as the name of a devi (goddess) in Hinduism of the earth and some branches of Buddhism. In the Vedas, her consort is Dyaus, the sky god. Her Puranic equivalent is known as Bhumi, the consort of Varaha.

As Pṛthvī Mātā ('Mother Earth') she is complementary to Dyaus Pita ('Father Sky'). In the Rigveda, the earth and the sky are primarily addressed dually as Dyavapṛthivi. She is associated with the cow; Prithu, an incarnation of Vishnu, milked her in the form of a cow.

Owing to strong historical Hindu influence, the name is also used for national personifications of Indonesia, where she is referred to as Ibu Pertiwi.

Buddhism
In Buddhist texts and visual representations, Pṛthvī is described as both protecting Gautama Buddha and as being his witness for his enlightenment. Prithvi appears in Early Buddhism in the Pāli Canon, dispelling the temptation figure Mara by attesting to Gautama Buddha's worthiness to attain enlightenment. The Buddha is frequently depicted performing the bhūmisparśa or "earth-touching" mudrā as a symbolic invocation of the goddess.

In Chinese Buddhism, she is considered one of the Twenty-Four Protective Deities (二十四諸天 Èrshísì zhūtiān) and is usually enshrined in the Mahavira Hall of Buddhist temples along with the other devas.

Pṛthvī Sūkta
The  is a hymn of the Atharvaveda (12.1).

title: Prithvi


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Dyavaprthivi

Dyavaprthivi is a compound word, referring to a dual devata, that is the merged personification of "heaven and earth". The term occurs 65 times in the Rig Veda. This pair devata has several connotation and meaning in their splinted being such as Dyaus, the Sky Father, and Prthivi, the Earth Mother.

Etymology
Dyavaprthivi is a Sanskrit dvandva, or compound word, meaning "heaven and earth".

title: Dyavaprthivi


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Asura

Asuras (असुर) are a class of beings in Indian religions. They are described as power-seeking deities related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) aka Gods in Hinduism. In its Buddhist context, the word is translated as "titan", "demigod", or "antigod".

According to Hindu texts, the asuras are in constant fear of the devas. Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods with good or bad qualities. In early Vedic literature, the good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna, while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra. In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of their being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called Devas, while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods".

Asuras are part of Hinduism along with Devas, Yakshas (nature spirits), Rakshasas (fierce man-eating beings or demons), Bhutas (ghosts) and many more. Asuras have been featured in many cosmological theories and legends in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Traditional etymologies
Asura is a given name by Devas to other races collectively as Asura means not-sura, where sura is another name for Devas.

The 5th century Buddhist philosopher, Buddhaghosa explains that their name derives from the myth of their defeat at the hands of the god Śakra. According to the story, the asura were dispossessed of their state in Trāyastriṃśa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru. After this incident, they vowed never to drink sura again. In some Buddhist literature, they are sometimes referred to as pūrvadeva (Pāli: pubbadeva), meaning "ancient gods."

Modern theories
Monier-Williams traces the etymological roots of asura (असुर) to asu (असु), which means 'life of the spiritual world' or 'departed spirits'.

In the oldest verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, the Asuras are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature. In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the Asuras are "evil spirits, demons and opponents of the gods". Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Indo-Iranian mythology about the battle between good and evil.

According to Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola, the word Asura was borrowed from Proto-Indo-Aryan into Proto-Uralic during an early period of contact, in the form *asera-, showing a meaning "lord, prince".

Rig Veda
Bhargava states the word, asura, including its variants, asurya and asura, occurs "88 times in the Rig Veda, 71 times in the singular number, 4 times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and 3 times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in one hymn and twice each in two other hymns".

Bhargava gives a count of the word use for every Vedic deity: Asura is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the Rig Veda, two generous kings – as well as some priests – have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura. In nine hymns, Indra is described as asura. He is said to possess asurya 5 times, and once he is said to possess asuratva. Agni has total of 12 asura descriptions, Varuna has 10, Mitra has 8, and Rudra has 6. Book 1 of the Rig Veda describes Savitr (Vedic solar deity) as an asura who is a "kind leader".

"हिरण्यहस्तो असुरः सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् । अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥

May he, gold-handed Asura, kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour. Driving off Raksasas and Yatudhanas, [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening. – Translated by Ralph Griffith

The golden-handed lord of good guidance, of good grace, of good help—let him drive in our direction. Repelling demons and sorcerers, the god has taken his place facing evening, while being hymned. – Translated by Stephanie W. Jamison, Joel P. Brereton"

- Rig Veda 1.35.10

Samaveda
In the Jaiminya (3.35.3), one of three recensions of the SamaVeda, the term 'Asura' is stated to be derived from 'rests' (√ram) in the vital airs (asu), i.e. 'Asu' + 'ram' = 'Asuram' (Asura); this is in reference to the mind being 'asura[-like]'.

Mahabharata
According to the Bhagavad Gita (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within each. The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults. According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).

Brahmanda Purana
In the Brahmanda Purana, it is stated the term 'Asura' was used for the Daityas due to their rejection of Varuni (Goddess of Wine) after she emerged from the Ocean of Milk (i.e. 'a-sura', meaning 'those who do not have Sura', that is, 'wine' or more generally 'liquor'). However, in other legends, the Asuras accept Varuni (see Kurma).

Vishnu Purana
According to the Vishnu Purana, during the Samudra Manthana or the "churning of the ocean", the daityas came to be known as asuras because they rejected Varuni, the goddess of sura "wine", while the devas accepted her and came to be known as suras.

Shiva Purana
Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.

Alain Daniélou states that the concept of asuras evolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolent asuras and the rakshasa. The allusions to the disastrous wars between the asuras and the suras, found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.

Context
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the Asura concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on Asura concept are those of FBJ Kuiper, W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, kumaraswamy, Shamasastry, Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, Hermann Oldenberg, Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and Jan Gonda.

Kuiper calls Asuras a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe. Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of Devas, the underworld becomes that of Asuras. The god Indra is the embodiment of good and represents the Devas, while the dragon Vrtra is the embodiment of evil and an Asura. During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major dualism to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe. Hale (1999), in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings. Secondly, Rig Veda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.

Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of Devas, the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon. Asuras are non-believers of God and believe in their own powers.

Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as being similar in concept to the Twelve Olympians and the Titans of Greek mythology; both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology. According to Coomaraswamy, "the Titan [Asura] is potentially an Angel [Deva], the Angel still by nature a Titan" in Hinduism.

Indo-Aryan context
In the 19th century, Haug pioneered the idea that the term Asura is linguistically related to the Ahuras of Indo-Aryan people and pre-Zoroastrianism era. In both religions, Ahura of pre-Zoroastrianism (Asura of Indian religions), Vouruna (Varuna) and Daeva (Deva) are found, but their roles are on opposite sides. That is, Ahura evolves to represent the good in pre-Zoroastrianism, while Asura evolves to represent the bad in Vedic religion, while Daeva evolves to represent the bad in pre-Zoroastrianism, while Deva evolves to represent the good in Vedic religion. This contrasting roles have led some scholars to deduce that there may have been wars in proto-Indo-European communities, and their gods and demons evolved to reflect their differences. This idea was thoroughly researched and reviewed by Peter von Bradke in 1885.

The relationship between ahuras / asuras and daevas / devas in Indo-Aryan times, was discussed at length by F.B.J. Kuiper. This theory and other Avesta-related hypotheses developed over the 20th century, are all now questioned particularly for lack of archaeological evidence. Asko Parpola has re-opened this debate by presenting archaeological and linguistic evidence, but notes that the links may go earlier to Uralic languages roots. The Indo-Aryan Asura may also be related to the Assyrian deity Ashur.

Relation to Germanic deities
Some scholars such as Asko Parpola suggest that the word Asura may be related to proto-Uralic and proto-Germanic history. The Aesir-Asura correspondence is the relation between Vedic Sanskrit Asura and Old Norse Æsir and Proto-Uralic *asera, all of which mean 'lord, powerful spirit, god'. Parpola states that the correspondence extends beyond Asera-Asura, and extends to a host of parallels such as Inmar-Indra, Sampas-Stambha and many other elements of respective mythologies.

Characteristics
In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas  and Asuras. A much-studied hymn of the Rig Veda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas). Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (Prajapati), share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.

"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill-gotten Soma, and for wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force, and violence. Further, in Hindu mythology, when they lose, miss, or don't get what they want (because they were distracted by their cravings) the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge, and attack the "Asuras who became Devas" to loot or extract a portion of what the Devas have and the Asuras do not.

The hostility between the two groups is the source of extensive legends, tales, and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms – without explicit moral connotations or condemnation. Some of these tales constitute the background of major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the Ramayana, and the legend of Asura Hiranyakashipu and Deva Vishnu as Narasimha, the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of Holika and Holi.

In Buddhist mythology, while all the gods of the Kāmadhātu are subject to passions to some degree, the asuras above all are addicted to them, especially wrath, pride, envy, insincerity, falseness, boasting, and bellicosity. The asuras are said to experience a much more pleasurable life than humans, but they are plagued by envy for the devas, whom they can see just as animals perceive humans.

Symbolism
Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature. In the Upanishads, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies. Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort. Similar dichotomies are present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self. Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being. In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.

Asuri
Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means 'belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits'. Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses. The term Asuri also means a Rakshasi in Indian texts.

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against leprosy.

"First, before all, the strong-winged Bird was born, thou wast the gall thereof. Conquered in fight, the Asuri took then the shape and form of plants. The Asuri made, first of all, this medicine for leprosy, this banisher of leprosy. She banished leprosy, and gave one general colour to the skin."

- A charm against leprosy, Atharva Veda, Hymn 1.24

In Book 7, Asuri is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva Indra in Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power in Asuri, and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.

"I dig this Healing Herb that makes my lover look on me and weep, That bids the parting friend return and kindly greets him as he comes. This Herb wherewith the Asuri drew Indra downward from the Gods, With this same Herb I draw thee close that I may be most dear to thee.

Thou art the peer of Soma, yea, thou art the equal of the Sun, The peer of all the Gods art thou: therefore we call thee hitherward. I am the speaker here, not thou: speak thou where the assembly meets. Thou shalt be mine and only mine, and never mention other dames.

If thou art far away beyond the rivers, far away from men, This Herb shall seem to bind thee fast and bring thee back my prisoner."

- A maiden's love-charm, Atharva Veda, Hymn 7.38

Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals. Asuri Kalpa is an abhichara (craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.

Buddhism

Asuras (ལྷ་མིན; ; 阿修羅) are a type of supernatural beings (antigods, demigods, or titans) in traditional Buddhist cosmology and a realm of rebirth based on one's karma in current or past lives. They are described in Buddhist texts as creatures who live in lower levels of mount Sumeru, obsessed with sensuous aspects of existence, living with jealousy, and endlessly engaged in wars against the creatures who are Devas (gods). As Buddhism spread into East Asia and Southeast Asia, the Asura concept of Indian Buddhism expanded and integrated local pre-existing deities as a part of regional Buddhist pantheon.

Asura realm
The asura realm is one of the realms in which one can be reborn as a result of experiencing the fruits of wholesome karma, while engaging in unwholesome karma. Generally, the desire realm is recognized as consisting of five realms and the realm of the asuras tends to be included among the deva realms, but the addition of the asuras in the six-world bhavacakra was created in Tibet at the authority of Je Tsongkhapa.

Deva-Asura War
The asuras were dispossessed of their state in Trāyastriṃśa because they became drunk and were thrown down Mount Sumeru by the bodhisatta, as mentioned in Jatakas. This led to ever lasting war between the Devas of Tavatimsa and Asuras, which still continues.

Asurendra
In Buddhism, the leaders of the asuras are called asurendra (Pāli: Asurinda, 阿修羅王; lit. "Asura-lord"). There are several of these, as the Asuras are broken into different tribes or factions. In Pali texts, names that are found include Vepacitti, Rāhu (Verocana), Pahārāda, Sambara, Bali, Sucitti, and Namucī. According to the Lotus Sutra, the four leaders of the asuras took refuge in the Buddha after hearing his sermon.

title: Asura


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Sesa, Spain

Sesa is a municipality located in the Hoya de Huesca comarca, province of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2010 census the municipality has a population of 225 inhabitants. Its postal code is 22110.

There is a church in Sesa, the church of San Juan Bautista, and the hermitage of Nuestra Señora de la Jarea is also found in the village. Both date back to the 12th century. There is an ancient Iberian archaeological site at a place known as "El Portillo", located within Sesa's municipal territory. In the Middle Ages there was an important castle in Sesa.

title: Sesa, Spain


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Naga

Naga or NAGA may refer to:

Mythology

 * Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions
 * Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong River
 * Naga, another name for Bakunawa, an unrelated sea serpent deity in Filipino mythology
 * Naga Kingdom, in the epic Mahabharata

Clans and ethnic groups

 * Naga people, an ethnic group of northeast India and northwest Burma
 * Nagas of Padmavati, a royal dynasty of the 3–4 centuries AD
 * Naga Rajputs, a group of Rajput clans
 * Naga people (Lanka), an ancient tribe of Sri Lanka
 * Naga Sadhus, Hindu ascetics of the Himalayas

Hot peppers

 * Naga Morich
 * Bhut jolokia
 * Naga Viper pepper

Organizations

 * Naga Regiment, an infantry regiment of the Indian Army
 * North American Grappling Association
 * North American Guqin Association
 * National African American Gun Association
 * Native American Guardians Association

People

 * Prince Naga (c. 8th century), Japanese prince
 * Tarek Naga (born 1953), Egyptian architect
 * Nagarjuna (actor) (born 1959), Indian film actor
 * Kal Naga (born 1966), Egyptian actor, director and producer
 * Naga Munchetty (born 1975), English journalist and television presenter
 * Indra Perdana Sinaga (born 1983), Indonesian male singer known as Naga
 * Naga Kiran (born 1983), Indian actor
 * Alobo Naga (born 1984), Indian singer and songwriter
 * Naga Chaitanya (born 1986), Indian film actor
 * Naga (director), Indian television and film director

Places

 * Naga, Camarines Sur, Philippines
 * Naga, Cebu, Philippines
 * Naga, Zamboanga Sibugay, Philippines
 * Naga River, river in Philippines
 * Kampung Naga, West Java, Indonesia
 * Naga District, Mie, Japan
 * Naga District, Wakayama, Japan
 * Naga Hills on the India-Myanmar border
 * Naga Hills District or Hkamti District in Burma
 * Nagaland in eastern India
 * Naga, Wakayama, a town in Japan
 * Naqa (alternative spelling Naga), a ruined city and archaelogic site in Sudan

Fictional characters

 * Naga (Marvel Comics), a supervillain in the Marvel Universe
 * Naga the Serpent, a character in the Slayers media franchise
 * Naga, a character in the video game and anime series Monster Rancher
 * Naga Sadow, a Sith Lord in the Star Wars Expanded Universe
 * Naga, the primary antagonist of the anime television series, Bakugan Battle Brawlers
 * Naga (The Legend of Korra), a female polar bear-dog character and Avatar Korra's faithful animal guide in The Legend of Korra
 * Nagi, the reincarnation of Naga from Fire Emblem: Shadow Dragon and Fire Emblem: Shin Monshō no Nazo ~Hikari to Kage no Eiyū~
 * Naga Ray, a character from Uchu Sentai Kyuranger
 * Naga, an operator in the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War.

Other fictional elements

 * Naga (Dungeons & Dragons), various creatures
 * Naga, a race of Rokugan in the Legend of the Five Rings fictional setting
 * Naga (Warcraft), an amphibious race in the Warcraft series
 * Naga, a battlecruiser-sized ship class in Eve Online
 * Naga, a race of cryptids in The Secret Saturdays
 * The Naga Empire, an antagonistic faction in the 2015 action-adventure video game Rodea the Sky Soldier

Other uses in arts and media

 * Naaga, a 2003 Indian film
 * Naga (album), a 2018 studio album by B.o.B

Other uses

 * Naga languages, spoken in northeastern India and Myanmar
 * Naga Bikol, the variant of the Bikol languages spoken in Naga, Camarines Sur, Philippines
 * Naga fireball, a phenomenon seen along the Mekong River
 * Razer Naga, a series of gaming mice by Razer
 * NAGA (gene), which encodes the enzyme alpha-N-acetylgalactosaminidase

title: Naga


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Nagas

Nagas may refer to the following:

 * Ken Nagas, Australian rugby league footballer
 * Nāga, serpent deities in Indian mythology
 * Naga Kingdom, a legendary kingdom in the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata
 * Nagas of Padmavati, a dynasty of ancient India
 * Nagas of Vidisha, a dynasty of ancient India
 * Nagas of Vindhyatabi, a dynasty of Odisha, India
 * Naga people (Sri Lanka), snake worshippers mentioned in ancient Sri Lankan chronicles
 * Naga people, the modern Tibeto-Burman tribal people
 * Naga Rajputs, a caste of India

title: Nagas


text:
Ananta

Ananta (infinite) literally means "unending" and has additional meanings in the context of Indic religions.

Anant/Ananta may also refer to:

Hinduism

 * Ananta Shesha, the serpent that circles the world

Places

 * Ananta (Arequipa), a mountain in the Arequipa Region, Peru
 * Ananta (Cusco), a mountain in the Cusco Region, Peru
 * Ananta (Puno), a mountain in the Puno Region, Peru
 * Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, a district of Andhra Pradesh, India
 * Ananta Vasudeva Temple (thirteenth century) at Bhubaneswar, in Orissa state of India
 * Thiruvananthapuram (holy city of Anantha), capital city of Kerala

People in government

 * Ananta (king) (died 1068 AD), a king of the Lohara dynasty of Kashmir
 * Ananta Narcina Naik, Indian politician
 * Ananta Nayak (born 1969), Indian politician
 * Ananta Prasad Paudel (born 1962), Nepalese politician
 * Ananta Singh (1903–1979), Indian revolutionary

People in film

 * Anant Balani (1962–2003), Bollywood film director and screenwriter
 * Ananta Jalil, film actor, producer of Bangladesh
 * Ananth Babu, Indian Telugu film actor
 * Ananta Sriram (born 1984), Indian lyricist working primarily in Telugu film

People in literature

 * Ananta Charan Sukla (1942–2020), Indian philosopher and writer
 * Ananta Kandali (1540–1580), Brahmin poet

Other people

 * Ananta Charan Sai Babu (1915–1989), Indian dancer
 * Ananta Kumar Ghosh (born 1954), Indian football coach
 * Ananta Mandal (born 1983), Indian artist
 * Fahd Ananta (born 1988), Bangladeshi entrepreneur
 * Ananth Dodabalapur, Indian-American engineer
 * Anant Kumar Agarwal, engineer

Others
Ananta Bhalobasha, a 1999 Bangladeshi film featuring Shakib Khan

title: Ananta


text:
Mucalinda

Mucalinda, Muchalinda or Mucilinda is the name of a nāga, a snake-like being, who protected the Gautama Buddha from the elements after his enlightenment.

It is said that six weeks after Gautama Buddha began meditating under the Bodhi Tree, the heavens darkened for seven days, and a prodigious rain descended. However, the mighty King of Serpents, Mucalinda, came from beneath the earth and protected with his hood the One who is the source of all protection. When the great storm had cleared, the serpent king assumed his human form, bowed before the Buddha, and returned in joy to his palace.

Development
Mucalinda first appears in the Mucalinda Sutta, where it is described that the naga king protected Buddha from the elements by encircling Buddha's body seven times with his coils and standing with his hood spread over. After Buddha finished meditating and the sky cleared, Mucalinda adopted the form of a youth and bowed before him.

The first existent artwork depicting Mucalinda comes from a 2nd-century BC stupa in Pauni, Maharashtra, where the naga is portrayed as having five heads and guarding Buddha's empty seat. Contemporaneous artwork from Sanchi has him portrayed in zoo-anthropomorphic form and attended by a retinue of nagini.

Artistic representations
The subject of Buddha meditating under the protection of Mucalinda is very common in Lao Buddhist art. A particularly striking gigantic modern rendition is present in Bunleua Sulilat's sculpture park Sala Keoku.

Art depicting Buddha with Mucalinda's hood over him might have been influenced by Jain art of Parshvanatha, himself depicted as a man with a cobra-like hood.

title: Mucalinda


text:
Shesha

Shesha (शेष), also known by his epithets Sheshanaga (शेषनाग) and Adishesha (आदिशेष), is a serpentine demigod (naga) and king of the serpents (Nagaraja), as well as a primordial being of creation in Hinduism. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha.

The Narayana form of Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha, accompanied by his consort Lakshmi. Shesha is considered as one of the two mounts of Vishnu alongside Garuda. He is said to have descended upon Earth in the following human forms or incarnations: Lakshmana, brother of Vishnu's incarnation Rama during the Treta Yuga, and according to some traditions, as Balarama, brother of Vishnu's incarnation Krishna during the Dvapara Yuga. According to the Mahabharata (Adi Parva), his father was Kashyapa and his mother Kadru, though in other accounts, he is usually a primordial being created by Vishnu.

His name means "he who remains", from the Sanskrit root śiṣ, because even as the world is destroyed at the end of each kalpa, Shesha remains as he is.

Form
Shesha is generally depicted with a massive form that floats coiled through space, or upon the Ocean of Milk, to form the bed upon which Vishnu lies. Sometimes, he is depicted as a five-headed or seven-headed or a ten-headed serpent; but more commonly as one thousand-headed, or five thousand-headed, or even as many as a one million-headed serpent; sometimes with each head wearing an ornate crown.

Origin and legends
According to the Mahabharata, Shesha was born to the sage Kashyapa and his wife Kadru. Kadru gave birth to a thousand snakes, of which Shesha was the eldest. After Shesha, Vasuki, Iravati and Takshaka were born, in that order. A lot of Shesha's brothers were cruel and were bent upon inflicting harm on others. They were even unkind to Garuda, who was Kashyapa's son through Vinata, sister of Kadru. (Kadru and Vinata were daughters of Daksha).

Shesha, disgusted by the cruel acts of his brothers, left his mother and kin, and took on austere penances. He lived on air and meditated in places including Gandhamadhana, Badrikashrama, Gokarna, Pushkara, and the Himalayas. His penances were so severe that his flesh, skin, and muscles dried up and merged with his frame. Brahma, convinced of Shesha's will, asked Shesha to request a boon. Shesha asked that he be able to keep his mind under control so that he could continue to perform ascetic penances. Brahma gladly accepted the request. Brahma then asked a favour of Shesha: to go beneath the precarious earth and stabilise it. Shesha agreed and went to the netherworld and stabilised Bhumi with his hood. He is believed to support her even today, thus making Patala his perennial residence.

Vishnu and Shesha
Shesha is usually depicted as floating in the ocean of the changing world, forming the bed of a primordial form of Vishnu, i.e. Narayana, Vāsudeva or in later Puranic Vaishnavism, Mahavishnu.

In the Bhagavata Purana, Shesha is named Sankarshana, the tamasic energy of Narayana himself, and is said to live deep within the inner layers of Patala, where there are many serpents with gems on their heads and where he reigns as its ruler. He is said to have existed before the creation of the universe. When the universe is towards its end, he creates the 11 Rudras from the serpents to destroy the universe for a new one to be created.

Sankarshana is also one of the four vyuhas, or primitive forms of Vishnu, the other three being Vasudeva, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha.

In Gaudiya accounts, Sankarshana expands himself as Garbhodakshayi-Vishnu in the beginning of the universe to create Brahma. In other words, Sankarshana is believed to be Narayana himself.

In the first few chapters of the Puranas, it is also said that Sankarshana preached the Bhagavata to the Four Kumaras, who in turn passed on this message. At some point, the message was passed to sage Maitreya, who in turn preached it to Vidura.

Marriage
According to legends, Shesha is married to Nagalakshmi. As per the Garga Samhita, she is considered to be the personification of the divine ocean called the Kshira Sagara.

Avatars
Shesha is believed to have taken six incarnations on earth. During the Satya Yuga, he came down in his original form to form a seat for Vishnu's avatar of Narasimha, who had incarnated to slay the impious Hiranyakashipu.

During the Treta Yuga, Shesha took birth as Lakshmana, as Vishnu's (as Rama) brother. Lakshmana is a very prominent character in the Ramayana, along with Hanuman and Sita. His consort, Nagalakshmi was born as Urmila, the sister of Sita.

During Dvapara Yuga, he is a stated to have incarnated as Balarama again as a brother to Vishnu (as Krishna). This is often disputed by the original line-ups of the Dasavatara, where Balarama is also considered to be an incarnation of Vishnu. His consort was born as Revati, the daughter of King Kakudmi.

During the Kali Yuga, according to Sri Vaishnava tradition, he was born as Patanjali, Ramanuja, and Manavala Mamunigal. He was not accompanied by God during the Kali Yuga. Instead, he incarnated alone to spread devotion among the people, being a peaceful incarnation.

Sri Vaishnavism also states that Balarama is an incarnation of both Vishnu and Shesha. In the Bhagavad Gita, in the middle of the battlefield Kurukshetra, Krishna, explaining his omnipresence, says: "Of Nāgas, I am Ananta" indicating the importance of Shesha.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism states that Shesha incarnated as Nityananda, a friend and associate of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who is described as an incarnation of Krishna. According to the texts and scriptures of the Gaudiya Sampradaya, the appearance of Nityananda Prabhu was very similar to Balarama (incarnation of Shesha).

Literature
The Brahma Purana describes the attributes of Ananta: "Daityas and Dānavas are not capable of recounting his good qualities. He is honoured by Devas and celestial sages. He is spoken of as Ananta. He has a thousand hoods, and he is clearly bedecked in Svastika ornaments devoid of impurities. He illuminates all quarters by thousand jewels on his hoods.

For the welfare of the universe, he deprives the Asuras of their prowess. His eyes whirl and rove due to intoxication. He has only one earring at all times.

Wearing a crown and garlands he shines like a white mountain aflame with fire.

He is clad in blue garments. He is intoxicated with pride. He is resplendent with white garlands. He is lofty like the mountain of Kailāsa where the celestial Gaṅgā falls. He has placed his hand on the plough-share; he holds an excellent iron club. He is attended upon by the embodied splendour of Varuṇa.

At the end of the Kalpa, Rudra in the form of Saṅkarṣaṇa comes out of his mouth, blazing like the flame of poisonous fire and devours the three worlds.

He holds the entire sphere of the world rising above like a peak." The Brahmanda Purana also described Shesha in Patala: "With his two thousand eyes that have the reddish splendour of the rising sun and with his body that is white and glossy, he appears like the mountain. Kailāsa surrounded by clusters of flames. He has the white complexion like the Moon as well as the Kunda flowers. Hence the cluster of his eyes shines like the cluster of midday suns on the peak of the white Mountain (Śveta Parvata).

He has a huge terrible body. With it (resting) in his reclining pose on his couch, he appears like a thousand-peaked mountain of vast dimensions (resting) over the earth.

This (enormously) huge lord of serpents, himself of great splendour, is being attended upon by extremely wise and noble-souled great serpents of huge physique. He is the king of all serpents. He is Ananta, Śeṣa, of excessive brilliance."The Bhagavata Purana equates Shesha and Balarama: "The foremost manifestation of Lord Vishnu is Sankarṣana, who is known as Ananta. He is the origin of all incarnations within this material world. Previous to the appearance of Lord Shri Krishna, this original Sankarsana will appear as Baladeva, just to please the Supreme Lord Shri Krishna in His transcendental pastimes.'" In the Bhagavad Gita chapter 10, verse 29, Krishna describes 75 of his common manifestations, and declares, : Among Nāgas (a special class of serpents), I am the serpent-god Ananta.

In popular culture
The Palliyodam, a type of large snake boat built and used by Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Kerala for the annual water processions of Uthrattathi Jalamela and Valla Sadhya has the legend that it was designed by Krishna and were made to look like Shesha.

The capital of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, is named after the King of the Serpents and is translated as "The Sacred City of Ananta".

On the SCP Foundation wiki, the winning article for the SCP-3000 contest is titled Anantashesha. The article features SCP-3000, a gargantuan serpentine entity swimming in the Bay of Bengal with anomalous abilities, based on the fact that Shesha "would linger past the end".

Other names

 * Sheshanaga (Shesha the serpent)
 * Shesha (the first Shesha)
 * Anantashesha (Endless Shesha)
 * Ananta (endless/infinite)
 * Alternative spellings: Sesa, Shesha,
 * Shesha Sayana or Nagar Syana means Vishnu who sleeps (Sayana) on Sheshanaga

title: Shesha


text:
Balarama

Balarama (बलराम, ) is a Hindu god, and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Baladeva, Balabhadra, and Sankarshana.

The first two epithets associate him with hala (langala, "plough") from his strong associations with farming and farmers, as the deity who used farm equipment as weapons when needed, and the next two refer to his strength.

Originally an agri-cultural deity, Balarama is mostly described as an incarnation of Adi Shesha, the serpent associated with the deity Vishnu while some Vaishnava traditions regard him as the eighth avatar of Vishnu, with Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda (c.1200) "incorporat[ing] Balarama into the pantheon" as the ninth of the 10 principal avatars of Vishnu.

Balarama's significance in Indian culture has ancient roots. His image in artwork is dated to around the start of the common era, and in coins dated to the second-century BCE. In Jainism, he is known as Baladeva, and has been a historically significant farmer-related deity.

History
Balarama is an ancient deity, a prominent one by the epics era of Indian history as evidenced by archeological and numismatic evidence. His iconography appears with Nāga (many-headed serpent), a plough and other farm artifacts such as a watering pot, possibly indicating his origins in a bucolic, agricultural culture.

Texts
Narratives of Balarama are found in Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana, and other Puranas. He is identified with the vyuha avatar of Sankarshana, along with the deities of Shesha and Lakshmana. The legend of Balarama as the avatar of Shesha, the demigod-serpent Vishnu rests upon, reflects his role and association with Vishnu. However, Balarama's mythology and his association with the ten avatars of Vishnu is relatively younger and post-Vedic, because it is not found in the Vedic texts.

Balarama's legend appears in many Parva (books) of the Mahabharata. Book Three (Vana Parva) states about Krishna and him that Balarama is an avatar of Vishnu, while Krishna is the source of all avatars and existence. In some art works of the Vijayanagara Empire, temples of Gujarat and elsewhere, for example, Baladeva is the eighth avatar of Vishnu, prior to the Buddha (Buddhism) or Arihant (Jainism).

Balarama finds a mention in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th to 2nd century BCE), where according to Hudson, his followers are described as "ascetic worshippers" with shaved heads or braided hair.

Balarama, as Baladewa, is an important character in the 11th-century Javanese text Kakawin Bhāratayuddha, the Kakawin poem based on the Mahabharata.

Archeology, coins, arts, and epigraphy
Balarama was anciently a powerful local deity named Samkarshana, associated with the local cult of the Vrishni heroes in Mathura from around the 4th century BCE. The concept of the avatars of Vishnu formed during the Kushan period in the 3rd to 2nd century CE.

Coins dated to about 185-170 BCE belonging to the Indo-Greek King Agathocles show Balarama's iconography and Greek inscriptions. Balarama-Samkarshana is typically shown standing with a gada in his right hand and holding a plough in his left. On the other side of these coins is Vāsudeva-Krishna holding the conch and chakra.

At Chilas II archeological site dated to the first half of 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near Afghanistan border, are engraved two males along with many Buddhist images nearby. The larger of the two males hold a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as Rama-Krsna, and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers Balarama and Krishna. The early Balarama images found in Jansuti (Mathura, Uttar Pradesh) and two at Tumain (Ashoknagar, Madhya Pradesh) are dated to 2nd/1st-century BCE and these show Balarama holding a Hala (plough) and a musala (pestle) in his two hands.

In all of these early depictions, Balarama-Samkarsana seems to hold a senior position over Vāsudeva-Krishna. On the coins of Agathocles of Bactria, Balarama is on the front of the coin (the side with a legend in Greek), whereas Vāsudeva-Krishna is on the reverse (Brahmi side). At Chilas, Balarama is shown taller and bigger than Vāsudeva-Krishna. The same relationship is also visible in the hierarchy of the Vrishni heroes.

In some Indian ancient arts and texts, Balarama (Sankarsana) and Krishna (Vasudeva) are two of the five heroes (Pancaviras of the Vrishnis). The other three differ by the text. In some those are "Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha", in others "Anadhrsti, Sarana and Viduratha". The 1st-century Mora well inscription near Mathura, dated between 10 and 25 CE, mention the installation of five Vrishni heroes in a stone temple.

The earliest surviving southeast Asian artwork related to Balarama is from the Phnom Da collection, near Angkor Borei in Cambodia's lower Mekong Delta region.

Legend
Balarama was the son of Vasudeva. The evil king Kamsa, the tyrant of Mathura, was intent upon killing the children of his cousin, Devaki, because of a prophecy that he would die at the hands of her eighth child. The Harivamsha states that Kamsa went on to murder the first six children of the imprisoned Devaki by smashing the newborns against a stone floor. When Balarama was conceived, Vishnu intervened, state the Hindu legends; his embryo was transferred from Devaki's womb into the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife. In some texts, this transfer gives Balarama the epithet Sankarshana (one who was dragged away). Balarama grew up with his younger brother Krishna with his foster-parents, in the household of the head of cowherds Nanda, and his wife, Yashoda. The chapter 10 of the Bhagavata Purana describes it as follows:

"The Bhagavan as the Self of everything tells the creative power of His unified consciousness (yogamaya) about His plan for His own birth as Balarama and Krishna. He begins with Balarama. The whole of Shesha, which is my abode, will become an embryo in Devaki's womb which you shall transplant to Rohini's womb."

He was named Rama, but because of his great strength, he was called Balarama, Baladeva, or Balabhadra, meaning Strong Rama. He was born on Shraavana Purnima, which coincides with the occasion of Raksha Bandhan.

Childhood and marriage

One day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Gargamuni, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda received him well and requested the naming ceremony. Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. Nanda, therefore, asked Garga to perform the ceremony in secret and Garga did so:

"Because Balarama, the son of Rohini, increases the transcendental bliss of others, his name is Rama and because of his extraordinary strength, he is called Baladeva. He attracts the Yadus to follow his instructions and therefore his name is Sankarshana."

"When his elder brother, fatigued from playing, would lie down with his head upon the lap of a cowherd boy, Lord Kṛiṣṇa would help him relax by personally massaging his feet and offering other services" Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kamsa, as well as Pralamba and Mushtika wrestlers sent by the king. When Krishna was killing Kamsa, Balarama slew his mighty commander, Kalavakra. After the evil king was slain, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani at Ujjain for their education. Balarama married Revati, the daughter of King Kakudmi. He had two sons - Nishatha and Ulmuka, and a daughter - Shashirekha also known as Vatsala.

Balarama is the celebrated tiller, one of the embodiments of agriculture along with livestock with whom Krishna is associated with. The plough is Balarama's weapon. In the Bhagavata Purana, he uses it to fight asuras, dig a way for Yamuna river to bring it closer to Vrindavan, and he also availed it to drag the entire capital of Hastinapura into the Ganga river.

Kurukshetra War
Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of war with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama carried obligations for both sides and so remained neutral. He went for a pilgrimage with his nephew Pradyumna and other Yadavas during the war, and returned on the last day, to watch the fight between his disciples. When Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the thigh with his mace, a traditional violation of the rules of combat, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of Bhima's vow—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhima's wife, Draupadi.

Disappearance
In the Bhagavata Purana, it is described that after Balarama took part in the battle causing the destruction of the remainder of the Yadu dynasty and witnessing the disappearance of Krishna, he sat down in a meditative state and departed from this world.

Some scriptures describe a great white snake that left the mouth of Balarama, in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha, a form of Vishnu. The place where he departed is situated near Somnath Temple in Gujarat.

The local people of Veraval believe about the cave near the temple place, that the white snake who came out of Balarama's mouth got into that cave and went back to Patala.

Significance
In Hindu tradition, Balarama is depicted as a farmer's patron deity, signifying the one who is "harbinger of knowledge", of agricultural tools and prosperity. He is almost always shown and described with Krishna, such as in the act of stealing butter, playing childhood pranks, complaining to Yashoda that his baby brother Krishna had eaten dirt, playing in cow sheds, studying together at the school of guru Sandipani, and fighting malevolent beasts sent by Kamsa to kill the two brothers. He is the constant companion of Krishna, ever watchful, leading to the epithet "Luk Luk Dauji" (or Luk Luk Daubaba) in the Pustimarga tradition of Vaishnavism. In the classical Tamil work Akananuru, Krishna hides from Balarama when he steals the clothes of the milkmaids while they bathe, suggesting his brother's vigilance. He is a creative store of knowledge for the agriculturists: the knowledge that dug a water channel to bring Yamuna water to Vrindavan; that restored groves, farms and forests; that produced goods and drinks.

In Hindu texts, Balarama almost always supports Krishna in form and spirit. However, there are occasions where the dialogues between Balarama and Krishna present different viewpoints, with Krishna's wisdom establishing him to be the ultimate divinity. Balarama's constant symbolic association with Krishna makes him the protector and supporter of dharma.

Iconography

Balarama is depicted as light-skinned, in contrast to his brother, Krishna, who is dark-skinned; Krishna in Sanskrit means dark. His ayudha or weapons are the plough hala and the mace gadā. The plough is usually called Balachita. He often wears blue garments and a garland of forest flowers. His hair is tied in a topknot and he has earrings, bracelets and armlets; he is known for his strength, the reason for his name; Bala means strength in Sanskrit.

In the Jagannath tradition, one particularly popular in eastern and central regions of India, he is more often called Balabhadra. Balarama is one in the triad, wherein Balarama is shown together with his brother Jagannath (Krishna) and sister Subhadra (Subhadra). Jagannath is identifiable from his circular eyes compared to an oval of Shubhadra and almond-shaped eyes of the abstract icon for Balarama. Further, Balarama's face is white, Jagannath's icon is dark, and Subhadra icon is yellow. The third difference is the flat head of Jagannath icon, compared to the semi-circular carved head of abstract Balarama. The shape of Balabhadra's head, also called Balarama or Baladeva in these regions, varies in some temples between somewhat flat and semi-circular.

Temples

 * Kendrapara, Baladevjew Temple, Odisha
 * Ananta Vasudeva Temple
 * Kathmandu temples, Nepal
 * Shri Dauji Mandir, Hathras, Uttar Pradesh

Jainism
The Jain Puranas, notably, the Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita of Hemachandra, narrate hagiographical accounts of nine Baladevas or Balabhadras who are believed to be śalākāpuruṣas (literally torch-bearers, great personalities). Balarama was the ninth one. Balarama along with Krishna are considered as cousins of the revered Tirthankara Neminatha (Aristanemi) by Jains.

The Jainism tradition lists 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva, and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. Between the triads, Baladeva upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva, who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, Vasudeva-Krishna has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the Prati-Vasudeva. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsa Purana (8thcentury CE) of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.

The story of Krishna's life in the Puranas of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include Jain Tirthankaras as characters in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana. For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his gopis and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the third hell in Jain cosmology, while Balarama is said to go to the sixth heaven.

In other Jain texts, Krishna and Baladeva are stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Naminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of Religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the Bhagavad Gita as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.

Evidence related to early Jainism, states Patrick Olivelle and other scholars, suggests Balarama had been a significant farmer deity in Jain tradition in parts of the Indian subcontinent such as near the Mathura region. Jain texts such as the Kalpasutra describe the same idea of embryo transfer, as in Hindu texts for Balarama, for the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira; in the latter case, the embryo of a Brahmin woman is moved into the womb of a Kshatriya woman. Balarama, states Pratapaditya Pal, was one of the historic deities revered in Jainism along with Ambika, Lakshmi and others. As with the Hindu farmers, state Paul Dundas and other scholars, it is likely that Balarama was the patron deity of Jain farmers in the early centuries of the common era, because a large number of Balarama images have been found in early Jain arts.

Buddhism
Balarama images have been discovered in central Indian Buddhist sites, such as with Sanchi stupas at Andher, Mehgaon and Chandna. These are dated to around the start of the common era. The Ghata Jataka, one of the Jataka Tales that form part of Buddhist scriptures, depicts Krishna as a previous birth of Buddha's disciple Sariputta and has Balarama depicted as the previous birth of one of the Buddha's disciples.

title: Balarama


text:
Neatishead

Neatishead is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. The village is situated some 20 km north-east of the city of Norwich, within The Norfolk Broads and to the west of Barton Broad. Access to Neatishead from the broad is by way of Limekiln Dyke, a narrow channel leading off the broad.

The village's name origin is uncertain 'Vassal's household' or perhaps, 'Snaet's household'.

The civil parish has an area of 7.71 km2 and in the 2001 census had a population of 537 in 235 households, the population increasing to 565 at the 2011 census. For local government, the parish falls within the district of North Norfolk.

It is well known due to the nearby RAF Neatishead radar station.

title: Neatishead


text:
Horsey

Horsey may refer to:

 * Horse, in baby-talk

Places
The name comes from Anglo-Saxon "hors-eg" and means horse-island.
 * Horsey, Norfolk, England
 * Horsey, Somerset, England
 * Horsey, Virginia, United States
 * Horsey Down, near Lechlade
 * Horsey Island, near Walton-on-the-Naze in Essex, England
 * Horsey Island, Devon, a nature reserve near Braunton, England; see Braunton Canal
 * Horsey Mere, one of the Norfolk Broads in the east of England

People

 * David Horsey (born 1951), American editorial cartoonist
 * David Horsey (golfer) (born 1985), English professional golfer
 * Edward Horsey (1525–1583), conspirator against Queen Mary I of England
 * Henry R. Horsey (1924–2016), American jurist
 * Jerome Horsey (c. 1550–1626), English explorer, diplomat and politician
 * John Horsey (died 1546) (1489–1546), knight of Henry VIII of England
 * John Horsey (died 1564) (1510–1564/65), knight of Henry VIII, son of above
 * Michael Horsey (born 1949), American politician from Philadelphia
 * Outerbridge Horsey (1777–1842), lawyer and U.S. Senator from Delaware
 * Christopher Horsey (born 1972), Australian entertainer

Other uses

 * Horsey (album), album by Current 93
 * Horsey (band), an English rock band from London
 * Horsey (film), a 1997 Canadian independent film

title: Horsey


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Belaugh

Belaugh is a small village (population 105) increasing to 134 at the 2011 Census, that occupies a bend in the River Bure in Norfolk, England - within The Broads National Park. It is accessible via the road between Hoveton and Coltishall or from the river. It contains no pubs or shops. The main civic features are the church of St Peter, Belaugh and the Old School, which also belongs to the church and is used for parish council meetings and for celebrating the harvest festival. The local broad is Belaugh Broad. Most of the land around Belaugh - about 850 acres - is owned by the Trafford family, who are Lords of the Manor.

History of Belaugh
The Domesday Book of 1086 contains one of the earliest recorded mentions of the village, at the time known as Belaga. Other records from around the time name it as Belihagh, Belaw, Bilhagh or Bilough, names based on combinations of Norse, Danish and Anglo-Saxon words that collectively mean 'a dwelling place by the water'.

Belaugh St Peter
Belaugh St Peter is a Church of England church located at the top of a steep slope above the village. It was built circa 14th century and contains an ornate rood screen decorated with images of the apostles that appears to have been added in the early 16th century. In the 17th century a soldier loyal to Oliver Cromwell (described in a letter to Sheriff Tofts of Norwich as a 'godly trooper') scraped away the faces of the apostles, such images being regarded as idolatrous by many of Cromwell's followers. According to records displayed in the church, the letter writer also added disapprovingly that, "The Steeple house [of Belaugh St Peter] stands high, perked like one of the idolatrous high places of Israel". The font of the church is shaped in the Norman style as a cauldron made of a blue stone.

One unusual feature of the church is the remains of blank arcading on the outside of the south wall of the nave. If original this looks more Saxon than Norman.

The church organ was built between 1886 and 1904 by the Reverend George Buck, who was rector between 1880 and 1907 and son of Dr Zephaniah Buck, organist of Norwich Cathedral. George Buck also built church organs for Edingthorpe and Little Melton.

John Betjeman stated that it was the view of St Peter's from the river that began his lifelong passion for churches.

The Belaugh Ghost
According to information displayed in the church of St Peter Belaugh, in 1695 Richard Slater - a servant at the village's rectory - stole money and jewels from the church and buried them in the rectory garden. When he later returned to dig up the stash, he was discovered by the rector. In the scuffle that followed, the thief drowned in the river. He is supposed to rise up nightly to recover the money, only to be forced down again by the weight of the stolen loot.

Rectors of Belaugh St Peter

 * John de Catfeld
 * 1330 Robert de Hurdeshulle
 * 1349 John de Ludham
 * 1364 William Putyn
 * 1370 William de Swukbrook
 * Henry Rondolph
 * 1397 Thomas Herteshorn
 * 1399 John Williamson
 * 1427 John Joneson
 * 1430 Henry Bettys
 * 1439 Robert Popy
 * 1441 John Hecham
 * 1467 Robert Ippeswell
 * 1478 Robert Kyng
 * 1491 John Felds
 * 1508 William Franklin
 * 1510 Thomas Acton
 * 1518 Thomas Jannys
 * 1536 William Pawe
 * 1552 Thomas Abbot
 * 1554 Gilbert Warren
 * 1555 Edward Fisher
 * 1556 Robert Certayn
 * 1560 John Robinson
 * 1561 Leo Howlet
 * Edward Dunton
 * 1602 Christopher Witton
 * 1607 Rogert Fowkes
 * 1612 Thomas Jermyn
 * 1660 John Philips
 * 1663 john Cutelin
 * 1678 William Newton
 * 1681 Guwin Nush
 * 1691 Bainbridge (Dean)
 * 1711 William Hay
 * 1763 Henry Headley
 * 1768 Lancaster Adkin
 * 1807 John Prowett
 * 1811 William Newcome
 * 1824 Robert Bathurst
 * 1829 Dennis Norris
 * 1830 William Ferguson
 * 1834 John Labbock
 * 1857 John Horatio Nelson
 * 1873 Francis Humphrey
 * 1882 George Buck
 * 1919 Austen Watt
 * 1929 John Priest Miller
 * 1929 Henry James
 * 1932 Alfred Sheffield
 * 1949 David Davies
 * 1950 Harry Skellern
 * 1956 Albert Carling
 * 1976 Henry Stapleton
 * 1981 Cedric Bradbury
 * 1993 Andrew Parsons

War memorial
Belaugh's war memorial takes the form of a carved wooden plaque in St. Peter's Church. It holds the following names for the First World War:
 * Second-Lieutenant C. Laurence Richmond (1890–1915), 5th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers
 * Private Robert Chapman (d.1917), 4th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment

And, the following for the Second World War:
 * Corporal George C. Cutting (1913–1944), 2nd Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * Private Charles W. T. Watts (1919–1943), 6th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Frank J. Cottin
 * Ernest Jeffrey

Environmental incidents
In 2023, raw sewage was pumped into the River Bure at Belaugh for around 2000 hours, or the equivalent of 84 consecutive days. This was caused by a storm overflow, designed to prevent blockages in sewer systems by releasing sewage into bodies of water during periods of heavy rainfall. The surge in sewage outflows at Belaugh nearly tripled compared to the preceding year, marking it as the most severely impacted locale in the region.

title: Belaugh


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Aditi

Aditi (Sanskrit: अदिति, lit. 'boundless' or 'limitless' or 'innocence' ) is an important Vedic goddess in Hinduism. She is the personification of the sprawling, infinite and vast cosmos. She is the goddess of motherhood, consciousness, unconsciousness, the past, the future, and fertility. She is the mother of the celestial deities known as the Adityas, and is referred to as the mother of many deities. As celestial mother of numerous beings, the synthesis of all things, she is associated with space (akasha) and with mystic speech (Vāc). She may be seen as a feminine form of Brahma and associated with the primal substance (mulaprakriti) in the Vedanta.

Family
Aditi is the daughter of Daksha and Asikni (Panchajani). The Puranas, such as the Shiva Purana and the Bhagavata Purana, suggest that Daksha married all of his daughters off to different people, including Aditi and 12 others to Sage Kashyapa. When Kashyapa was living with Aditi and Diti in his ashrama, he was really pleased with Aditi's services, and told her to ask for a boon. Aditi prayed for one ideal son. Accordingly, Indra was born. Later, Aditi gave birth to the twelve adityas, namely Varuna, Parjanya, Mitra, Amsha, Pushan, Dhatri, Aryaman, Surya, Bhaga, Savitr, Vamana, and Viṣṇu. Her 16 younger sisters were also married to Sage Kashyapa.

Origin
The first mention of Aditi is found in Rigveda, which is dated by mainstream consensus to have been composed between 1800 and 1200 BC. She is portrayed as the mother of the Adityas, a group of societal Rigvedic deities, including Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Daksha, Bhaga, Amsha, and sometimes Surya and Savitar. As the mother of the societal deities, she represented the compliance to social behavior. Her motherhood was also an important attribute, and later was expanded so that she became the mother of all deities. according to rigveda 2.27.7 aditi is referred as rajaputra girl in Rigvedas.

According to the Shatapatha Brahmana (a commentary on the Shukla Yajurveda), Aditi is also invoked during ritual sacrificial offerings as being synonymous with the Earth:

"' On the navel of the earth I place thee!' And further, 'In the lap of Aditi (the boundless or inviolable earth)!' for when people guard anything very carefully, they commonly say that 'they, as it were, carried it in their lap;' and this is the reason why he says, 'In the lap of Aditi! '"

Motherhood
Aditi and the sage Kashyapa had 33 sons, out of whom twelve are called Âdityas including Surya, eleven are called Rudras, and eight are called Vasus. Aditi is said to be the mother of the great god Indra, the mother of kings (Mandala 2.27) and the mother of gods (Mandala 1.113.19). In the Vedas, Aditi is Devamata (mother of the celestial gods) as from and in her cosmic matrix all the heavenly bodies were born. She is preeminently the mother of 12 Âdityas, whose names include Vivasvan, Aryaman, Pushan, Tvastar, Savitar, Bhaga, Dhatri, Varuna, Mitra, and Indra.

She is also the mother of the Vamana, avatar of Vishnu. Accordingly, the Vamana avatar, as the son of Aditi was born in the month of Shravana (fifth month of the Hindu Calendar, also called Avani) under the star Shravana. Many auspicious signs appeared in the heavens, foretelling the good fortune of this child.

In the Rigveda, Aditi is one of the most important figures of all. As a mothering presence, Aditi is often asked to guard the one who petitions her (Mandala 1.106.7; Mandala 8.18.6) or to provide him or her with wealth, safety, and abundance (Mandala 10.100; 1.94.15).

Creativity

Aditi is usually mentioned in the Rigveda along with other gods and goddesses. There is no one hymn addressed exclusively to her, unlike other Vedic gods. Since She is perhaps not related to a particular natural phenomenon like other gods. Compared to Ushas and Prithvi, Aditi can be defined as the cosmic creator.

The verse "Daksha sprang from Aditi and Aditi from Daksha" is seen by Theosophists as a reference to "the eternal cyclic re-birth of the same divine Essence" and divine wisdom.

Freedom
The name Aditi includes the root "da" (to bind or fetter) and suggests another attribute of her character. As A-diti, she is an unbound, free soul and it is evident in the hymns to her that she is often called to free the petitioner from different hindrances, especially sin and sickness. (Mandala 2.27.14). In one hymn, she is asked to free a petitioner who has been tied up like a thief (Mandala 8.67.14). As one who unbinds, her role is similar to her son Varuna's as guardian of Rta, cosmic moral order. She is called the supporter of creatures (Mandala 1.136).

Might
Aditi was attributed the status of first deity by the Vedic culture, although she is not the only one attributed this status in the Vedas. She is addressed in the Rigveda as "mighty" and revered as the eternal mother of all creation.

Others
Like many other Hindu gods and goddesses, Aditi has a vahana (a mount). Aditi flies across the boundless sky on a phoenix. The phoenix symbolizes strength, honour, but most importantly, reflects Aditi's nature of cyclical rebirth and infinite creation.

Her weapons include the famous trishula, and a sword.

Aditi is described to possess a pair of earrings, which are stolen from her by the asura named Naraka. Krishna returns the earrings to her after slaying the asura with his consort, Satyabhama.

Worship
A well known old temple of Aditi is located near rock cut cave in Vizhinjam, Kerala.

title: Aditi


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Woodbastwick

Woodbastwick is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. It is located on the River Bure between Cockshoot Broad and Salhouse Broad, within The Broads and close to Bure Marshes NNR (national nature reserve). The city of Norwich lies 10 km to the south-west.

The village name relates to bast, a pliable substance found under the bark of the lime tree. Danish and Saxon invaders used bast as a form of binding to tie leggings and other items. As a consequence, Woodbastwick's village sign shows two invaders tying their leggings.

The village contains thatched houses set around a village green, and the church of St Fabian & St Sebastian, also thatched. The Woodforde Broadland Brewery is located in the village and produces cask ales such as Wherry Bitter, Nelson's Revenge, Norfolk Nog and Headcracker.

The civil parish has an area of 19.04 km2 and in the 2001 census had a population of 362 in 157 households, increasing to a population of 399 in 168 households at the 2011 Census. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of Broadland. Woodbastwick Hall is the seat of the Cator family.

title: Woodbastwick