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South African Airways

South African Airways (SAA) is the flag carrier of South Africa. Founded in 1934, the airline is headquartered in Airways Park at O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg and operates a hub-and-spoke network, serving ten destinations in Africa. The carrier joined Star Alliance in April 2006, making it the first African carrier to sign with one of the three major airline alliances.

The airline entered voluntary business rescue in December 2019 as a result of many years of financial losses, and suspended all operations the following year. In June 2021, the government announced that in an attempt to revive the airline, it had entered into a partnership with the Takatso Consortium, which would hold a 51% controlling stake. The South African Civil Aviation Authority confirmed on 4 August 2021 that SAA's air operator's certificate had been reissued with an approved fleet of eight aircraft.

The airline restarted operations on 23 September 2021, despite not having concluded the investment agreement with the proposed private partners. Nonetheless, SAA was recognised as the second best airline in Africa by Skytrax in 2021, despite not having flown a single scheduled flight for 18 months.

History
South African Airways was founded in 1934 after the acquisition of Union Airways by the South African government. The airline was initially overseen and controlled by South African Railways and Harbours Administration. Anti-apartheid sanctions by African countries deprived the airline of stopover airports during apartheid, forcing it to bypass the continent with long-range aircraft. During this time, it was also known by its Afrikaans name, Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens (SAL, lit. '"South African Air Service"'), which has since been dropped by the airline. In 1997 SAA changed its name, image and aircraft livery and introduced online ticketing services. In 2006, SAA was split from Transnet, its parent company, to operate as an independent airline. It remains one of the largest of South Africa's state-owned enterprises. SAA owned Mango, a low-cost domestic airline, and established links with Airlink and South African Express. It is a member of the Star Alliance.

In 1986, the South African Airways Museum Society opened its doors to the public at Jan Smuts International Airport (which was renamed O. R. Tambo International Airport in 2006). The organisation was formed by South African Airways employees and outside parties with the mission of preserving South African aviation history, especially that of SAA itself. Based at Transvaal Aviation Club, Rand Airport, Germiston, it was founded after the restoration of the CASA 352L. Since then, many aircraft have joined SAA Museum Society's collection relating to South African aviation.

Formation and early years

South African Airways was formed on 1 February 1934 following the acquisition of Union Airways by the South African government. Forty staff members, along with one de Havilland DH.60 Gypsy Moth, one de Havilland DH.80A Puss Moth, three Junkers F.13s and a leased Junkers F13 and Junkers A50 were among the acquired aircraft. Upon acquisition, the government changed the airline's name to South African Airways. It then came under control of the South African Railways and Harbours Administration (now Transnet). Charter operations started that year. On 1 February the following year, the carrier acquired Suidwes Lugdiens / South West Airways (now Air Namibia), which had since 1932 been providing a weekly air-mail service between Windhoek and Kimberley. During this time, SAA ordered three Junkers Ju 52/3m aircraft, which were delivered in October 1934 and entered service 10 days later. These aircraft were configured to carry 14 passengers, along with four crew. They enabled thrice-weekly Durban–Johannesburg services, with weekly services on the Durban–East London–Port Elizabeth–George/Mossel Bay–Cape Town route. On 1 July 1935, SAA moved its operations to Rand Airport as it became increasingly obvious that Johannesburg would become the country's aviation hub, which coincided with the launching of Rand–Durban–East London–Port Elizabeth–Cape Town services. From July the following year a weekly Rand–Kimberley–Beaufort West–Cape Town service commenced; in April 1936, all Rand–Cape Town services were taken over from Imperial Airways. A fourth Ju 52/3m soon joined the fleet.

Orders for a further ten Ju 52/3m aircraft, along with eighteen Junkers Ju 86s and seven Airspeed Envoys (four for the airline and three for the South African Air Force) were placed. This raised the number of Ju 52s to fourteen, although three older models were sold when deliveries of the newer Ju 52s began. The airline experienced a rapid expansion during this time, but also suffered its first accident; one of the newly delivered Ju 52s crashed after takeoff from Rand Airport in July 1937, with one reported fatality. From 1 February 1934 until the start of World War II, SAA carried 118,822 passengers, 3,278 tonnes of airmail and 248 tonnes of cargo, which were served by 418 employees. On 24 May 1940, all operations were suspended.

Following World War II, frequencies were increased and more routes were opened, which necessitated the conversion of three South African Air Force Envoys to passenger layout. These aircraft would prove to be unsuitable for passenger and cargo services and were returned to the SAAF after the arrival of the Junkers Ju 86s. The main aircraft of SAA in the 1930s was the Junkers Ju 52. Other types used in the 1930s included eighteen Junkers Ju 86s, which served from 1937 onwards.

The slow growth continued during the 1940s, though the airline was effectively closed for the duration of World War II. In 1944, SAA began operating 28 Lockheed Lodestars to restart domestic services and by 1948 SAA operating nineteen examples. These were withdrawn in 1955.

On 10 November 1945, SAA achieved a longtime company goal by operating a route to Europe when an Avro York landed in Bournemouth, England, after the long flight from Palmietfontein Airport near Johannesburg. These were replaced by the Douglas DC-4 from 1946 onwards, which in turn was replaced by the Lockheed Constellation on international routes in 1950. Also of note in the postwar era was the DC-3 Dakota, of which eight served with SAA, the last example being withdrawn as late as 1970.

Growth: 1946–1952
On 10 November 1945, the airline introduced its first intercontinental service, the 3-day Springbok Service, operated by the Avro York, which was routed Palmietfontein–Nairobi–Khartoum–Cairo–Castel Benito–Hurn Bournemouth. A weekly service was initially flown, but this later increased to 6 times weekly due to high passenger demand. The Douglas DC-4 Skymaster debuted with SAA in May 1946 between Johannesburg and Cape Town, which coincided with the introduction of the Douglas DC-3 on the Johannesburg–Durban route.

From 1946, passengers and cargo carried increased, along with the size of SAA's fleet and staff. As the Skymasters arrived, out went the Avro Yorks, back to BOAC. Air hostesses were introduced in September 1946: at first on domestic routes, then on Springbok Services. The two de Havilland Doves were introduced at the end of the year; these aircraft were utilised on internal services for a short time and were sold within a few years. The 28-seat Vickers Viking served the airline briefly, before being sold to British European Airways.

Palmietfontein Airport replaced Rand Airport as SAA's hub in 1948. In June 1948, SAA began to show films onboard its Skymaster aircraft. SAA received four Lockheed Constellations, its first pressurised aircraft, in August 1950. They provided scheduled service to London's Heathrow airport. Initially, the route from Johannesburg was flown via Nairobi, Khartoum and Rome. The Constellation's higher speed and longer range enabled fewer stops and greatly reduced the flying time to London.

The Jet Age: 1953–1973
The jet age arrived in South Africa on 3 May 1952 when a BOAC de Havilland Comet arrived in Palmietfontein after a 24-hour journey from England with five refuelling stops en route. SAA chartered two Comets from the British airline on 4 October 1953, when Comet G-ANAV left London for Johannesburg. On the same day, Tourist Class was introduced on the 58-seat Lockheed Constellation used on the Springbok Service. The two chartered aircraft sported both BOAC and SAA titles and logos, but were operated by SAA crews.

In 1956 Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens introduced the Douglas DC-7B, capable of long-range operations and then probably the fastest piston-engine airliner in the world. SAA exploited the aircraft's performance by introducing it between Johannesburg and London with only one fuelling stop at Khartoum. This was known as the East Coast express, taking 21 hours to complete, versus BOAC's inaugural Comet flight between the two cities of 24 hours. This later became the West Coast express when the technical stop at Khartoum was transferred to Kano, Nigeria, resulting in a shortened flying of 18 hours. The fortnightly Wallaby Route, routed Johannesburg–Mauritius–Cocos Islands–Perth, Australia, started in November 1957.

After a host of accidents involving SAA's and other airlines' Comets, the airline ordered three Boeing 707-320 Intercontinentals on 21 February 1958, with the first delivered on 1 July 1960. Three months after arrival, on 1 October 1960, the Boeing 707 was deployed on the airline's flagship Springbok Service, trimming the flying time to London to 13 hours. Other changes brought about by the 707 were a livery change, to an orange tail with blue and white markings, as well as improved comfort, range and speed. A 707 replaced the DC-7B on the Wallaby Route in 1967; Cocos Islands was dropped, while Sydney became the terminus. Flights to New York, via Rio de Janeiro, started on 23 February 1969 using a 707. The first 707 of SAA landed in Europe in October 1961 with a nine-hour flight to Athens.

The jets arrived during a period when most African countries, except SA's neighbours, denied South African airlines the use of their airspace, necessitating long detours. In 1967 the Skymasters, Constellations and DC-7Bs were being retired, replaced by the Boeing 727 trijet the following year to complement the Boeing 707. The choice of 727 was based on the geography of the destinations to which it would fly; for example Johannesburg is 1694 m high and hot, where the 727's wings and other technical capabilities enable it to operate out of such airports.

On 13 March 1968, SAA ordered five Boeing 747-200Bs. The first, Lebombo (registered as ZS-SAN), was delivered on 22 October 1971 after a 3-stop flight from Seattle. It was placed into service in December and proved very popular. SAA eventually operated 23 brand-new "Jumbo Jets", including the −200M (first delivered in 1980), −300 (1983), −400, and the long-range Boeing 747SP, first delivered on 18–19 March 1976, with a nonstop delivery flight of ZS-SPA from Everett, Washington, USA to Cape Town. The 747SP, especially, was acquired to overcome the refusal of many countries to allow SAA to use their airspace by exploiting its long-range capabilities, as well as to serve lower-density routes which were unsuited to the 747-200. Six were delivered starting 19 March 1976. As above, to demonstrate the 747SP's performance, the first one was delivered from Seattle to Cape Town non-stop, an airliner distance record that stood until 1989. The first 747SP arrived in South Africa on 19 March 1976. As the 747 entered service, its smaller siblings, the 707s, were converted to combi (passenger/cargo) configurations and high-density seating. All of SAA's Vickers Viscounts were sold by March 1972 after being replaced by Boeing 737s.

Expansion: 1974–1983
SAA opened a route to Asia, with Boeing 707 flights to Hong Kong via an intermediate stop at the Seychelles Islands in June 1974. In 1980, SAA began nonstop flights to Taipei using a Boeing 747SP; Mauritius had earlier replaced the Seychelles for the Hong Kong service. South Africa became one of the few countries in the world to recognize the government of the Republic of China on Taiwan.

Because some African countries denied SAA the use of their airspace, SAA bypassed the 'bulge' of Africa, usually via Ilha do Sal - a detour of almost 3000 km. Another bypass was via Tel Aviv, which doubled the distance and flying time involved. European airlines were allowed to fly over Africa when flying to South Africa, usually via Nairobi and later nonstop.

On 26 December 1980, the last South African Airways Boeing 707 service was operated between Paris and Johannesburg. Its touchdown ended the 20-year career of the 707. The quadjet was replaced by the world's first wide-body twinjet, the Airbus A300, which had entered revenue service in 1976. The 727s were eliminated by 1983, replaced by the more economical Boeing 737. When countries withdrew landing rights for SAA, the airline leased its aircraft and crews to Canada, Mauritius, Brazil, Morocco and Luxembourg.

Effect of apartheid: 1985–1990
Due to international opposition to apartheid during the 1980s, SAA's offices were attacked. In Harare, Zimbabwe, its offices were badly damaged after protesters went on a rampage.

The US Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 banned all flights by South African–owned carriers, including SAA. In 1987, SAA's services to Perth and Sydney in Australia were ended, in light of the Australian Government's opposition to apartheid.

In January 1992, the journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) reported that the SAA had allegedly confirmed that its passenger jets had carried cargo for Armscor, a South African arms manufacturer, in an attempt to circumvent a UN arms embargo placed on apartheid South Africa. On 28 November 1987, South African Airways Flight 295, a Boeing 747-200 Combi en route from Taipei to Johannesburg with a stopover in Mauritrius experienced a catastrophic in-flight fire in the cargo area, broke up in mid-air, and crashed into the Indian Ocean east of Mauritius, killing all 159 people on board. Ignition of an ammonium perchlorate cargo, a chemical used as a missile propellant, is theorized by forensic scientists to have caused the fire.

With the demise of apartheid in 1990, SAA started services to former and new destinations in Africa and Asia. On 1 June 1990, South African companies signed a domestic air travel deregulation act. Flights to New York City's JFK International Airport resumed in November 1991 and SAA's planes were able to fly for the first time over Egypt and Sudan, on 8 September. The airline launched flights to Milan on 1 June during the year, and services to Athens were re-introduced. Also, an interline with Aeroflot was established.

The first of SAA's eight Boeing 747-400s, named Durban, arrived in South Africa on 19 January 1991. The airplane was unusual in that two different turbofan engines were operated. Six Rolls-Royce RB211-524H-powered examples were ordered; the other two, part of an unfulfilled Philippine Airlines order, had General Electric CF6-80C2B5Fs. Winglets, structural changes and fuel-efficient engines enabled these aircraft to fly non-stop from South Africa to the east coast of the United States. The arrival of Boeing's newest jumbo jet perhaps overshadowed the acquisition by SAA of the world's first commercial fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, to assist and enhance services within the country and on regional services. Boeing 767s arrived in August, 1993 and flew on African, Southern European and Middle Eastern routes. They were retired within ten years.

During 1992, SAA began flights to Miami with a Cape Town to Miami International Airport nonstop Boeing 747-400 route, and re-entered Australia, flying nonstop to Perth with a same-day return "shuttle" service to Sydney. This year also saw codesharing agreements with American Airlines and Air Tanzania. There were nonstop flights to Bangkok and Singapore; the latter were discontinued by 1996. The airline Alliance, a partnership between SAA, Uganda Airlines and Air Tanzania, also began. SAA greeted its passengers in four different languages during domestic flights: English, Zulu, Afrikaans and Sotho, while passengers on international flights were also greeted in the destination's language.

On 24 April 1994, South African Express (SA Express), a feeder airline service of South African, began operating after a 3-year preparation process begun in 1991, when the regional airline was granted its operating license. SAA initially held a 20% stake in SA Express (Alliance Airline Holdings held 51%, SA Enterprises, 24.9% and Abyss Investments, 4.1%). SA Express took over some of SAA's low-density domestic routes.

In 1995, Lufthansa started a codesharing agreement with SAA, and SAA commissioned Diefenbach Elkins and Herdbuoys to lead its change of image. SAA's Voyager and American Airlines' AAdvantage frequent flier clubs joined.

As of April 1996, South African employed 11,100 people, of whom 3,100 were engineers. It owned and operated 48 aircraft, and served 34 destinations from its hubs at Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg.

Rebranding: 1997–2005
In 1997, SAA replaced the Springbok emblem and the old national colours of orange, white and blue with a new livery based upon the new national flag, with a sun motif. The airline's name on its aircraft retained the Afrikaans name Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens. As a symbol of the new rainbow nation following the release of Nelson Mandela, one of SAA's 747-300s, named Ndizani (registration ZS-SAJ), was painted in bright colours. This special-liveried 747-300 transported South African athletes to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. The airline started online ticket sales and formed an alliance with SA Airlink and SA Express.

In 1998, services to Copenhagen Airport were stopped. A new airline president and CEO, Coleman Andrews, was appointed. The arrival of the American saw a comprehensive and controversial overhaul of the airline, changing the management of SAA. Mr Andrews was hired by Transnet, the state-owned parent company, to remedy the problem of dwindling passengers, which Transnet's market research had revealed was caused by "failure to fly on time, unfriendly and minimally-trained staff, poor food and SAA fares being 12–25% above its competitors". He was credited with rescuing World Airways from the brink of bankruptcy earlier in the decade. During his first 18 months as CEO, South African Airways' market value increased fivefold.

In June 1999, Transnet entered into a sale agreement with Swissair in which Transnet sold 20% of its shareholding in SAA to Swissair for R1.4 billion and also included an option to sell and transfer a further 10% to Swissair, thereby increasing its stake to 30%. In 2002, the South African government repurchased the shares.

Swissair's costly purchases of SAA's and many other large international airlines' shares led directly to its own shocking bankruptcy filing, on 1 April 2002.

In 2000, SAA ordered 21 Boeing 737-800s, reportedly worth US$680 million. Five CFM 56-7B27-powered examples were requested outright from Boeing, the rest from other parties. The 737s were to be deployed on short-haul routes, replacing Airbus A300s and A320s.

The 737 order was followed by an Airbus order in 2002. Under CEO Andre Viljoen, South African Airways requested Airbus to overhaul its fleet at a cost of US$3.5 billion in March 2002, taking advantage of a slump in the order books of both Boeing and Airbus. The airline industry was still staggering after the September 11 attacks in the US, which led to new aircraft orders either being deferred, or cancelled altogether. SAA was in a buyers' market and the demise of Swissair, which had A340-600s about to be delivered, effected Airbus clinching the SAA deal. This was part of a bigger order that covered 11 A319s, 15 A320s, nine A340-600s and six A340-300s. Three of the A340-600 aircraft came from International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC). The new Airbus A319s replaced the aging Boeing 737-200 fleet, but the Boeing 737-800s continued in service because SAA cancelled its A320 order before any aircraft were delivered.

Later that year, South African Airways made a successful bid for a 49% stake in Air Tanzania. The move highlighted SAA's wish to gain a foothold in eastern Africa. The bid was worth $20 million, and was SAA's first acquisition of a foreign airline. The merger failed in 2006, when new SAA management felt that the arrangement was fruitless.

On 1 February 2000, South African Airways and Delta Air Lines started to codeshare on SAA-operated nonstop Boeing 747-400 flights from Atlanta to Johannesburg, with return flights operated via Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, Florida due to range limitations caused by the 5,557-foot altitude at Johannesburg OR Tambo International Airport.

In 2001, South African Airways won the Best Cargo Airline to Africa award from Air Cargo News – (even though South African is mainly a passenger airline) – and South African Airways signed a codesharing agreement with Nigeria Airways to provide service from the United States to Lagos using South African Airways 747s (this codeshare agreement is no longer in effect, and SAA's flights to/from the United States no longer stop in Nigeria). The airline earned a spot on the Zagat Survey's top-ten international airlines list, opened a new website and named Andre Viljoen as chief executive officer (CEO).

In March 2004, South African Airways announced its application to join Star Alliance. The airline alliance accepted its application in June, with SAA joining as a full member in April 2006.

In July 2004, Andre Viljoen resigned as CEO of SAA. In August 2004, Khaya Ngqula was appointed as CEO of SAA. A new chairman, Professor Jakes Gerwel, was appointed in the same month.

In 2005, SAA became the first non-Saudi airline to fly a direct Hadj service to Medina in Saudi Arabia.

In July 2005, SAA started a four times weekly Johannesburg-Accra-Washington, D.C. service with a Boeing 747-400. Service was increased to daily flights in July 2006, and the 747-400 was replaced by an Airbus A340-600. Because SAA could not obtain rights to fly passengers between Ghana and the US, Dakar replaced Accra as the intermediate stop. In 2010, SAA retired the last of its 747-400 fleet.

On 6 June 2006, the codeshare agreement between South African Airways and Delta Air Lines was terminated because of the airlines' memberships in rival alliances (Star Alliance and SkyTeam respectively).

Restructuring and Star Alliance: 2006–2011
The South African government's plans called for the separation of South African Airways and its parent company Transnet. The deadline was moved from 2005 to 31 March 2006.

SAA joined Star Alliance on 10 April 2006, becoming the first African airline to join Star Alliance. To celebrate the occasion, and as a condition of entry, one Airbus A340-600 (registration ZS-SNC) and one Boeing 737-800 (registration ZS-SJV) were repainted in Star Alliance livery. South African Airways fulfilled 53 requirements during the accession process.

In May 2007, SAA launched an 18-month comprehensive restructuring programme which aimed to make the airline profitable. According to then-CEO Khaya Ngqula, this came largely after "uncompetitive ownership and aircraft lease costs, excessive head count and fuel price volatility". The programme involved: the spin-off of businesses into seven subsidiaries, thereby allowing SAA to concentrate on its core business of passenger and cargo transport; grounding SAA's Boeing 747-400 fleet; rationalising international routes (Paris was dropped altogether); the axing of 30% of the airline's managers; among other reductions. This was expected to save the airline R2.7 billion (US$378.2 million). By June 2009, R2.5 billion had been saved.

Two retired 747-400s were reactivated in 2008 for flights to Lagos, and by 2010 Luanda as well.

On 20 June 2008, the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) agreed to extend South African Airways' sponsorship of the organisation another 3 and a half years. This extension succeeded two years of co-operation that "have seen a successful partnership blossom between SAA and the ATP". The deal was worth $20 million, and ran until the end of 2012. On the same day it was announced that a new ATP World Tour tournament would be held in South Africa in 2009. In 2010, the company sought to recover $4 million from then-CEO Khaya Ngqula, for allegedly spending the money on his friends and awarding business deals with organisations and individuals in which he had an interest. Among them are ATP and professional golfer Ángel Cabrera.

In February 2010, the airline appointed Siza Mzimela as its first female CEO. She replaced Khaya Ngqula, who was accused of mismanagement and therefore quit. Mzimela was previously CEO of SAA's domestic partner airline, South African Express (SA Express). On 1 April 2010 she took over the position from Chris Smyth, the acting CEO since Khaya Ngqula left in March 2009.

At the end of 2010, SAA permanently retired the two Boeing 747-400s which were temporarily re-introduced in late 2008. This was expected to save it $60 million during the fiscal year ending March 2009. SAA leased two second hand Airbus A340-300s from Airbus Financial Services (AFS) to replace the 747's.

Financial difficulties and bankruptcy: 2012–2020
On 24 February 2012 SAA's new Airbus A320-200, registration ZS-SZZ, made its first revenue flight between Johannesburg and Durban. There were twelve A320s in the fleet as of December 2016. On 16 August 2012, SAA ended its Cape Town-London route after 20 years, due to declining passenger numbers and increasing airport taxes.

SAA began flights to Beijing, China on 31 January 2012. Buenos Aires flights ended in 2013 and, in January 2015, SAA announced plans to end its non-stop services to Beijing and Mumbai. Services to China were replaced by Star Alliance partner Air China with a flight to Beijing. In June 2015, the acting CEO stated that London, New York City, Hong Kong, Munich, Frankfurt and Perth were the only profitable long-haul routes; all others were loss-making.

In September 2017, SAA began reducing its fleet and expected to cut 23% of its flights. Standard Chartered Bank was the first bank in June 2017 to call in its SAA loan. The South African government provided R2.2 billion to settle the debt. Citibank was the second bank to refuse extending the loan facility. Together with some others, another R7.7 billion became payable at the end of September 2017. The South African treasury asked the Public Investment Corporation, which controls government pension funds, for R100 billion to help bail out state-owned enterprises, including SAA.

On 5 December 2019, the government of South Africa announced that SAA would enter into bankruptcy protection, as the airline had not turned a profit since 2011 and had run out of money. In January 2020, South African Airways announced that it would suspend several routes, e.g. to Munich in order to reduce its financial struggle. In February 2020, the airline introduced its first of four newly leased Airbus A350-900s in an attempt to modernize its loss-making long-haul fleet.

On 5 December 2019, SAA was placed under business rescue. Les Matuson and Siviwe Dongwana were appointed as the Business Rescue Practitioners of SAA in December 2019. A Business Recovery Plan was expected by the end of February 2020, extended, then postponed. A final plan is yet to be presented.

In February 2020, ex-Secretary General of the ANC, Ace Magashule, stated that should the Business Rescue Practitioners take decisions not to the ANC's liking, it would intervene. Economist Jacques Jonker, then at the Free Market Foundation, criticised Magashule, pointing out that the Business Rescue Practitioners are officers of the court in terms of the Companies Act of 2008, and that it would be illegal for the ANC to intervene in the business rescue process. When Minister of Public Enterprises Pravin Gordhan later tried to justify the notion that the business rescue practitioners are accountable to him and not to the courts, Jonker pointed out that such a state of affairs would be unconstitutional.

In April 2020, following a request for further emergency financing due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the South African government announced that it would stop funding the airline with immediate effect. The airline then announced plans to lay off all remaining staff by the end of the month, sparking fears that SAA was on the brink of liquidation.

As of 1 May 2020, all SAA staff members were on unpaid leave of absence, including those who are reporting for duty, with no pay for the 4,708 remaining workforce. Unaudited financial statements presented in a draft report show SAA made losses of almost R16 billion in the previous 3 years. SAA received R50 billion of government assistance between 2004 and 2020.

On 2 May 2020, the government of South Africa announced that South African Airways would be ceasing operations after 86 years of service, and that a new flagship carrier would be created for South Africa out of the ashes of the former airline. The liquidation process was set to begin on 8 May; however, a legal battle between the liquidators and the workforce delayed the proceedings indefinitely. In July, the creditors voted to accept the restructuring plan, allowing the airline to avoid liquidation. A full domestic network was to be reinstated by December 2020.

On 21 August 2020, The Department of Public Enterprises (DPE) appointed Rand Merchant Bank to help with negotiations with private entities interested in buying into the country's insolvent national carrier, which needed at least R10 billion to resume operations. On 30 September the airline announced that it was suspending all operations until critical funding could be agreed.

In September 2020, SAA suspended all flight operations as the Business Rescue Practitioners placed the airline under "care and maintenance" until further funding could be sourced.

In October 2020, the South African government said it was looking for partners in its efforts to bail out the airline. On 28 October 2020, the South African government bailed SAA out with R10.5 billion in order to implement the turnaround strategy. During 2020, the airline returned 4 Airbus A319s, all of its 10 A320s, all of its 6 A330-200s, 4 A330-300s, 3 A340-300s, 3 A340-600s, and all 4 new A350-900s to their respective lessors. Both Boeing 737 Freighters also left the fleet in early 2020, ending a long history of dedicated freighter operations at the airline.

As of February 2021, the South African government was in talks with three potential investors to revive the airline and resume operations, with a massively-reduced workforce. The South African treasury reported that the airline had incurred a total loss of R32 billion (US$2.1 billion) between 2008 and 2020. The Mail and Guardian estimated that the airline had received a total of R60 billion (US$4 billion) in government guarantees.

Relaunch: 2021–present
In June 2021, the South African government relinquished its controlling stake in the airline. After extensive talks with potential investors, they selected the Takatso Consortium. The consortium will own 51% of the airline, while the government maintains a 49% stake. The consortium involves Harith General Partners and Global Airways. Harith General Partners is chaired by South Africa's former deputy finance minister, Jabulani Moleketi. In the address in which he announced the takeover, Pravin Gordhan, the Minister of Public Enterprises, revealed that SAA would receive a R3 billion boost in investment from the new partners.

In an interview on 26 November 2021, Gordhan reiterated that the South African government still expects to complete the transaction with the Takatso Consortium in early 2022, despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

In October 2022, SAA expanded its fleet with the addition of 2 Airbus A320-200 and added new routes from Johannesburg to Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Windhoek, Namibia.

On 31 October 2023, SAA resumed services to São Paulo in Brazil, the first inter-continental route to be flown by the airline since the start of the pandemic. SAA also resumed flights to Perth in April 2024.

Head office

South African Airways is headquartered in Airways Park on the grounds of O. R. Tambo International Airport in Kempton Park, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng. The building was developed by Stauch Vorster Architects. Completed in March 1997 for R70 million, the 27000 sqm current head-office building links to three older buildings.

South African Airways moved its head office from Durban to Rand Airport in Germiston on 1 July 1935. Before the head office moved to its current location, the airline's head office was in the Airways Towers in Johannesburg.

Business trends
The business trends shown below are for the South African Airways group (including SAA, Mango, SAA Technical and Air Chefs), based mainly on the published annual reports; there are gaps and some inconsistencies, largely because the reports vary year by year in the information given and because figures are frequently restated in subsequent years. No figures appear to have been made public since SAA went into bankruptcy protection in December 2019.

The available trends are (for years ending 31 March):

Emblems
South African Airways' "Flying Springbok" logo was the symbol of the carrier from its formation in 1934 to 1997. The logo was discontinued in 1997 in favour of a new aircraft livery, but the word "Springbok" remains the airline's radio callsign.

Anti-competitive practices
On 5 June 2007, it was announced that SAA paid R55 million to the Competition Commission of South Africa because of anti-competitive behaviour such as price fixing. This fine was in addition to a R45 million fine paid by SAA on 31 May 2006 as a penalty for SAA's attempts to prevent travel agents from dealing with rival air carriers.

"Kulula has once again called on government to call it a day and keep its promise...that South African taxpayers will stop filling the begging bowl for ailing state-owned businesses". Many other companies like Flitestar, SunAir and Nationwide had failed because they could not compete with state-funded SAA. "State re-nationalisation of the industry will continue to be destructive to free and fair competition". The company said it was "bizarre" that the proceeds of its income tax, fuel taxes, VAT, import duties and other government levies then were paid over to a state-owned competitor.

Racism controversy
SAA has been accused of racism for rejecting white cadet pilots on the grounds of race, who met the educational and physical criteria. By filling out several dummy applications, journalists from the newspaper Beeld established that the online form had been programmed to reject any white applicants. The South African trade union Solidarity instituted legal action against SAA, resulting in the policy being revoked.

"SAA's normal recruitment process allows for the employment of white male pilots as and when vacancies exist; particularly when no candidate is available from a previously-disadvantaged background. Like all other South African companies, the airline is also required to meet statutory transformation targets. This means that, in recruiting, the airline has to ensure that the demographics of its employees match closely those of the country as a whole. This is in line with the employment equity definition which includes white females."

Corruption controversy
During the administration of Jacob Zuma the SAA board was implicated in a number of corruption-related controversies. Most notable were allegations of corrupt or irregular activities by then SAA Non-Executive Director and Zuma appointee Dudu Myeni, which were widely blamed for placing SAA in serious financial difficulty.

2019 Industrial strike action
South African Airways was hit by strike action by unions starting 15 November 2019 with an agreement in principle being reached on 22 November 2019. The strike action reportedly cost the airline R50 million per day.

Delinquent Director Judgement - Dudu Myeni
In March 2017, Organisation Undoing Tax Abuse and the South African Airways Pilots' Association (SAAPA) brought an application in the Pretoria High Court for an order to declare Dudu Myeni a delinquent director in terms of section 162(5) of the South African Companies Act 71 of 2008. The application was based on Myeni's conduct whilst chair of the SAA board. During those five years (2012–2013 to 2016–2017), SAA ran up losses of R16.844bn‚ although it had previously been profitable. Organisation Undoing Tax Abuse and the South African Airways Pilots' Association (SAAPA) called six witnesses against Myeni, including four former SAA executives. Myeni was the only witness in her own defence. In closing argument, the counsel for the plaintiffs, Advocate Carol Steinberg, said during her time at SAA, Ms Myeni blocked, delayed and obstructed important initiatives to turn the airline around. She broke the law and flouted basic governance principles. The evidence in court showed a pattern of repeated misconduct: dishonesty, obstruction and interference, improperly inserting middlemen, and governance failures. Accused of bringing the embattled SAA to its knees, and based on her actions during her five-year tenure as chairperson of the SAA board, Myeni was declared a delinquent director and banned from holding any directorship position for life by Judge Ronel Tolmay at the Pretoria High Court on 27 May 2020. The judgement and evidence now goes to the National Prosecuting Authority so a criminal case can be pursued.

Destinations
South African Airways flies to 17 destinations in 12 countries within Africa, Australia and South America as of January 2024. Within South Africa, SAA operates to only three cities however, the airline previously had an extensive domestic and regional network through its affiliate partners such as its LCC Mango Airlines, Airlink, and South African Express.

Codeshare agreements
South African Airways codeshares with the following airlines:

 * Africa World Airlines
 * Air Canada
 * Air China
 * Airlink
 * Air Mauritius
 * Air New Zealand
 * Air Seychelles
 * All Nippon Airways
 * Asiana Airlines
 * Brussels Airlines
 * Egyptair
 * Ethiopian Airlines
 * Gol Airlines
 * JetBlue
 * Kenya Airways
 * LAM Mozambique Airlines
 * Lufthansa
 * RwandAir
 * Scandinavian Airlines
 * Singapore Airlines
 * Swiss International Air Lines
 * TAAG Angola Airlines
 * TAP Air Portugal
 * United Airlines
 * Virgin Australia

Interline agreement
South African Airways interlines with the following airlines:
 * Hawaiian Airlines

Current fleet
, South African Airways operates an all-Airbus fleet composed of the following aircraft:

Historical fleet
South African Airways has previously operated the following aircraft:

In-flight services
South African Airways' Airbus A330-300 business-class seats have a pitch of 75" whilst those in the A340-300s are pitched at 73" respectively; in a 2-2-2 configuration in both types. Passengers receive a welcome pack, a duvet & full-size pillow and a personal touchscreen monitor with audio/video on demand. South African Airways operates the Airbus A320-200 on its domestic and regional routes. South African Airways' A320 business-class seats have a 39" pitch in a 2-2 configuration.
 * Business class

SAA Airbus A330 and A340 economy-class seats have a pitch of 32" in a 2-4-2 configuration. Passengers receive a welcome pack, a blanket & full-size pillow and a personal touchscreen monitor with audio/video on demand. The Airbus A320 economy-class seats have a pitch of 31".
 * Economy

Frequent-flyer program
Voyager is the frequent-flyer program of South African Airways. Apart from South African Airlink and South African Express, which have an alliance with SAA, the program also partners 32 other airlines, along with many more businesses. Voyager consists of five tiers – Blue, Silver, Gold, Platinum and Lifetime Platinum. To reach a higher tier, members must fly on selected flights to allocate "Tier Miles". This differs from "Base Miles", which members can only use to receive awards.

Airport Lounges
SAA hosts Domestic and International Lounges around the world accessible through SAA Business and First Class Passengers, Discovery Bank Platinum and above and Investec Black Card Customers.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 16 June 1937, a Junkers Ju 52/3m (registration ZS-AKY) was destroyed by fire after it crashed on take-off at Port Elizabeth Airport following engine failure in two engines. All on board escaped. This was the airline's first accident in which passengers were injured.
 * On 16 October 1937, a Junkers W34 fi (registration ZS-AEC), named Sir George Grey, crashed during a mail flight. The aeroplane was damaged beyond repair.
 * On 28 March 1941, a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar (registration ZS-AST) crashed at Elands Bay, South Africa. All on board were killed on impact and in the post-crash fire.
 * On 5 January 1948, a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar (registration ZS-ASW) touched down at Palmietfontein too far along the runway for it to stop before running off the end. The undercarriage was ripped off and the hull damaged beyond repair. There were light injuries to passengers but no fatalities.
 * On 15 October 1951, a Douglas DC-3 (registration ZS-AVJ), named Pardeberg, flying in instrument meteorological conditions en route on a domestic flight from Port Elizabeth to Durban, flew into Mount Ingeli near Kokstad, Western KwaZulu-Natal. Seventeen people were killed. The board of inquiry determined that the unserviceability of ground-based radio navigational aids along the route was a major contributing factor.
 * On 15 September 1952, a Douglas DC-3 (registration ZS-AVI) was damaged beyond repair while attempting to land at an unlit country airport at Carolina, South Africa after the crew became lost on a flight to Johannesburg from Livingstone, Zambia. After attempting to hold for thunderstorms to clear near their destination, the crew initiated a landing when their fuel ran low. The elevation of the airfield was mis-judged and the aircraft hit a rocky outcrop on final approach to the runway. No passengers or crew were killed or injured.
 * On 8 April 1954, a de Havilland Comet I (registration G-ALYY), Flight 201, departed Rome for Cairo and Johannesburg. The aircraft crashed off the coast of Italy following a in-flight breakup, killing all 21 people on board. The wreckage was never recovered, but all known evidence pointed to a repeat of the recent accident to BOAC Flight 781. The aircraft was leased on charter from BOAC with an SAA crew.
 * On 29 October 1960, a Boeing 707-344A (registration ZS-CKC), operating as Flight 218, executed a wheels-up landing at Nairobi airport after damaging the undercarriage during an impact with the ground on its initial approach. No passengers or crew were killed or injured but the aircraft remained out of operation for many months until it was repaired and re-introduced into service.
 * On 6 March 1962, a Douglas DC-3 (registration ZS-DJC) operating as Flight 512 crashed into a mountainside in the vicinity of Seymour, Eastern Cape, South Africa, after the pilot insisted on conducting the flight under visual flight rules (VFR) while flying below low cloud above rising ground. The pilot and first officer were killed but the passengers and cabin staff survived.
 * On 30 June 1962, a Douglas DC-4 (registration ZS-BMH) was involved in a mid-air collision with a military Harvard training aircraft near Durban airport. The military aircraft crashed but the crew managed to land the airliner without injury to passengers or crew despite losing a large part of the vertical stabiliser. The aircraft was the last DC-4 manufactured and was repaired and returned to service. It is currently owned by the South African Airways Museum Society and still flies.
 * On 13 March 1967, a Vickers Viscount 818 (registration ZS-CVA), christened Rietbok, operating as Flight 406, crashed into the sea near Kayser's Beach during bad weather while on approach to East London, Eastern Cape. All twenty-five persons on board were killed. The accident investigation board stated 'The available data is not sufficient for the originating cause of the accident to be determined with any degree of probability'. However the board could not rule out the possibility that the pilot suffered a heart attack resulting in a loss of control.
 * On 20 April 1968, a six-week-old Boeing 707-344C (registration ZS-EUW), named Pretoria, operating Flight SA228, was lost near Windhoek, South West Africa (now Namibia). The crew used a flap-retraction sequence from the 707-B series which removed flaps in larger increments than desirable for that stage of the flight, leading to a loss of lift at 600 ft above ground level. The subsequent descent went undetected by the crew, leading to impact with the ground. 123 people died.
 * On 24 May 1972, the only successful hijacking of a SAA flight took place; a Boeing 727-100 (registration ZS-SBE) was en route from Salisbury, Rhodesia (now known as Harare, Zimbabwe) to Johannesburg. Two Lebanese, Kamil and Yagi, took control of the aircraft by packing dynamite sticks on the hat-racks. They were armed with a pistol. They forced the pilot, Captain Blake Flemington, to return to Salisbury, where they landed and re-fuelled with 12 hostages remaining on board. The captain tricked them into thinking that they were en route to the Seychelles, while he was in fact heading for Blantyre, Malawi. After landing, the passengers used nightfall to enter the cockpit, where they climbed down the emergency escape rope. By the time the hijackers realised this, only the captain, one passenger, and a flight steward, Dirk Nel, remained on the aircraft. The two hijackers started fighting with each other for possession of the dynamite fuse. In the ensuing chaos, the three captives escaped, leaving the two hijackers on board. Members of the Malawi security forces started shooting and the two surrendered. They were jailed for two years on a charge of being in possession of an undeclared firearm on board an aircraft. After serving one year of their sentence, they were released.
 * On 28 November 1987, a Boeing 747-200B Combi (registration ZS-SAS and named Helderberg), operating as Flight 295, crashed in the Indian Ocean en route from Taipei, Taiwan to Johannesburg via Mauritius, after a fire in the main cargo hold. The cause of the fire is undetermined, and a number of conspiracy theories (mostly pertaining to the nuclear armaments being produced by the South African government at the time) are in circulation surrounding the crash. Ignition of an ammonium perchlorate cargo, a chemical used as a missile propellant, is theorized by forensic scientists to have caused the fire. At the time, passenger jets of SAA were suspected to have illegally carried weapons cargo for Armscor, in an attempt to circumvent UN sanctions placed on apartheid-era South Africa. All 159 people on board were killed.
 * On 17 June 2006, on South African Airways Flight 322, a Boeing 737-800 en route from Cape Town to Johannesburg, a 21-year-old Zimbabwean took a flight attendant hostage in an attempt to enter the aircraft's cockpit and divert the aircraft to Maputo, Mozambique. He was subdued while still in the cabin. The pilots had been monitoring the incident via CCTV and the aircraft returned to Cape Town where a police task force stormed the aircraft and arrested the suspect.
 * On 6 November 2018, an Airbus A340-600 (ZS-SNF) operating Flight SA260 over Switzerland, encountered an overspeed warning due to the aircraft entering a wind convergence zone. The aircraft was en route at FL380 over Switzerland about 40 nm south-southeast of Zurich (Switzerland) when the aircraft reached a speed of Mach 0.89. The pilot in command deactivated the autopilot and initiated a climb to FL400 in order to reduce the aircraft speed. The acceleration caused an Angle of Attack warning, which the flight crew misinterpreted as being a malfunction. Subsequently, two of the three AIRDUs were deactivated. This also deactivated the auto throttle and deactivated some protection, causing the aircraft to enter a near stall state. The situation was recovered at FL340, with the pilots saying that they temporarily lost control of the aircraft. The investigation revealed that the checklists were not followed and the pilots were not properly trained on handling overspeed events. The pilots were not informed, that a bulletin addressing the Angle of Attack warning system was already implemented. They also found out, that one of the copilots did hold a CPL instead of the ATPL required by the airline. The flight continued to Frankfurt for a safe landing, where the crew were interviewed by the German authorities. Germany's BFU, which led the investigation, reported the aircraft event as a serious incident.
 * On 24 February 2021, an Airbus A340-600 operating as Flight SA4272 sent from Johannesburg to Brussels to fetch COVID-19 vaccines encountered an "alpha floor event" sent by the ACARS unit of the plane. This was activated when the Airbus A340-600's envelope protection system activated to override the pilots to prevent the plane from stalling on take-off.
 * On 12 November 2022, an SAA Airbus A320 (ZS-SZJ) being towed collided into a parked FlySafair Boeing 737-8BG (ZS-SJH) at O. R. Tambo International Airport. No passengers were onboard either aircraft at the time. The FlySafair’s empennage section and SAA wing tip were damaged. As a result, both aircraft were rendered inoperable.

title: South African Airways


text:
Benacre National Nature Reserve

Benacre National Nature Reserve is a national nature reserve in the English county of Suffolk. It is located on the North Sea coast in the parishes of Benacre, Covehithe, Reydon and South Cove. It lies between the towns of Lowestoft and Southwold and covers 393 ha.

Benacre NNR consists of areas of open water lagoons and reed beds along the Suffolk coast including Benacre Broad, Covehithe Broad and Easton Broad and extending as far south as Reydon. The reserve features extensive reedbeds, woodland and heathland, as well as pits created by gravel extraction. There are over 100 species of breeding birds, including marsh harrier, bearded reedling, water rail, and occasionally bittern. The flora includes seakale, sea holly, and yellow-horned poppy. Reed is farmed commercially for the thatching industry, whilst enabling the bearded reedling to find a habitat.

The coastline has eroded rapidly over time and the reserve is threatened by both erosion and sea level rise. Some of the ongoing work at the reserve is stopping the encroaching sea by digging new lagoons and establishing more sea defences, and replacing the woodland lost to the sea.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Benacre National Nature Reserve


text:
Talk:Lost Girls (graphic novel)

Completion of series
Moved from page:
 * I have only seen issues 1 & 2 of this 3-part series, and am not sure if it was ever completed. If anyone knows whether it was, please post a note or update this info. --User:PatrickSalsbury

 * As far as I know the company producing it pulled the plug because of financial problems and Moore & Gebbie finished it but never found an outlet for it. If anyone finds out anything to the contrary please also let me know! user:sjc -Undated
 * A hardback edition is available from Waterstones... I'm not sure but it seems to be a collected set of the 3 volumes? Can't likn to it sorry, something odd about the site Bottlegreen roses 01:08, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

 * There's some updated info from Top Shelf which I have added to the article. I also fixed it up - it was VERY badly written in many respects. One change I made was removing the quote "The series is an attempt to reinvent pornography as something exquisite, thoughtful and human," not because it doesn't belong but because in one of the previous article's many shortcomings, there was no indication of who said this! Was it Moore? Gebbie? One of the publishers? Some fan? If someone knows, they should feel free to add it back in. -Unsigned
 * I don't know where this was placed initially in order to add it back in, but those words are on this page, accredited to Chris Staros. Curiousbadger 14:24, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

The Oz/Wonderland Chronicles?
A first time editor drops in the mention on the page and I am wodnering at the relevance. It reads as though it is an extension of the story but it is a separate storyline and I'm unsure if it is needed here (there is a big list of things on the pages for the characters). If it is worth including on the page then how about sticking it in a trivia section and making clear it has nothing to do with Lost Girls or Alan Moore (its by Ben Avery and Casey Heying)? (Emperor 14:16, 2 June 2006 (UTC))
 * I don't see how it is relevant for Lost Girls... I'd say it should be removed. --Fritz S. (Talk) 15:31, 2 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I did not intend to have it appear as an "extension" of 'Lost Girls'...merely a note to say that the three stars of 'Lost Girls' reunite [or is it that Fate does the reuniting?] on what they themselves might decide to be a permanent basis. It shouldn't be removed...that's drastic.  Just...seen as the proper intention of it's inclusion, and not how you've accidentally interpreted it.  And my name is Stripey, by the way. -Unsigned

Copyright status
The exact wording:
 * 301. The provisions of Schedule 6 have effect for conferring on trustees for the benefit of the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, London, a right to a royalty in respect of the public performance, commercial publication, broadcasting or inclusion in a cable programme service of the play 'Peter Pan' by Sir James Matthew Barrie, or of any adaptation of that work, notwithstanding that copyright in the work expired on 31 December 1987. ([1])

I got rid of the dead link to a BBC article. Barring other information, I think it's best to have Moore's take on the copyright status along with the most literal reading possible. Whether or not "adaption" covers this sort of thing is the $64000 question, but for the time being, it's probably best not to throw around absolute statements (unless someone who knows more about copyright law than me can definitively say whether or not this is allowable). Stilgar135 03:27, 3 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I would like whoever found the statement from Moore that "the hospital only holds the rights to performances of the work, not to the individual characters" be better documented, as neither of the links in that part cite this. I don't doubt it, as Moore is one of the greatest copyright and fair use experts of whom I'm aware, but verifications IS necessary. Icarus 23 17:45, 16 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Is this wording sufficient? "But both the book and the play are still in copyright in the UK. There could be an argument that this could infringe on our copyright." There's also this  but the wording isn't much clearer, particularly regarding dates. Curiousbadger 22:32, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

 * It looks good from here. I can't agree with Moore's contention that the UK copyright transfer only covers the play -- 'Peter and Wendy', published in 1911, appeared AFTER the play, first presented in 1904, and a derivative work of the then-unpublished script. Selling the 'Lost Girls' book in the U.K. would therefore violate its copyright.
 * However, there's nothing to stop individuals in the U.K from ordering it fronm the U.S. for their own personal collections (but that's kind of outside Wikipedia's scope...).
 * IIRC, an act of Parliament provided an eternal copyright on teh work in the U.K. because of the charitable nature of Barrie's bequest. I'll try and cite references if anyone wants, later. Icarus 23 07:34, 24 October 2006 (UTC)
 * FWIW, Top Shelf's catalog says that they won't accept orders from UK or EU until 1/1/08. Fitfatfighter 09:52, 14 November 2007 (UTC)
 * BTW, Citation #2 up there leads to an article that appears, to me, to be riddled with inaccurate information RE: US Copyright Law. Icarus 23 07:38, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

Add to the synopsis
What is to be added and what is to be left out?--Brown Shoes22 02:28, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Tom Lehrer connection?
Has any reliable source made the connection between Lost Girls and the Tom Lehrer song "Smut", which contains the lyrics
 * "When correctly viewed,
 * Everything is lewd.
 * I could tell you things about Peter Pan,
 * And the Wizard of Oz — there's a dirty old man!"

The coincidence seems notable to me, but has any reviewer mentioned it, or asked Moore about it in an interview? (Translation: I'd like to put it in the article, but realize it's original research unless someone else has noted the connection.) —Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 17:02, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

Removed POV
I removed these two paragraphs from the Style and references to the "original" girls section due to POV and them verging on being a review, but there's possibly something salvageable from them so I've posted them here.Peteashton 11:41, 4 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Charles Dodgson (though it is only extremely strongly suggested and never stated) even appears in "Looking-Glass House". However, the Charles Dodgson we all now was genuinely in love with Alice, but never got involved with her romantically, let alone sexually. Sadly and shockingly, the "suggested Charles Dodgson" who appears in Lost Girls is depicted as a child raper !
 * Astonishingly, the Cheshire Cat is never mentionned in Lost Girls! (Only one picture of it can be found - with no line of text and no dialogue that hints to it throughout the three books). This is hard to understand, considering most characters are depicted and/or mentioned - even "minor" ones (such as the dormoouse and the dutchesse's son or even Toto - while Tinkerbell, though never called that way, is clearly suggested to be Annabelle).
 * Makes sense - the abundance of exclamation marks is a clear sign it has overstepped the mark. The "Style and references to the "original" girls" section seems OK now although it could be bordering on original research if not too careful. Would it be wise to move controversy to below this section? (Emperor 16:39, 4 November 2006 (UTC))

Why remove the section about it being more than porn?
Can anyone tell me why the section was removed that explained that 'the work was more than mere porn: it was about the girls reclaiming their sexuality,' removed. No one mentioned why they were removing it as it is the only section in the article explaining what the book is really about. If no one can explain this I'm going to re-add it. The "porn" thing is imo just marketing and explaining that this particular description is only partly true is certainly within the scope of an encylcopedia entry.
 * The paragraph was original research. —Ashley Y 07:30, 2 June 2007 (UTC)
 * If it was at the time, I doubt you'd consider it that any longer, since many reviewers such as Gaiman reflect this idea that it is more than porn and explain this exact concept very indepthly. Tyciol (talk) 16:49, 17 May 2009 (UTC)

Harry Potter connection?
Since Wendy's husband is named Harold Potter, I wonder if there is a connection to the "famous" Harry Potter? I haven't been able to come up with any data to support the connection. However, I'm curious to know where the various "non-famous" characters come from. Do they all have models in literature? -User:jcorneli
 * The series was actually created before Rowling's. There is an interview (I can't quite remember where) in which Moore jokes that he could probably sue Rowling, but is unlikely to bother. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Format/publisher/date
While it's important to note that the first part of the work was published in serial form, I don't think it's correct to identify the work as a "series" "published by Taboo" "in 1991" as the infobox now states. Both attempts at serializing it in the 1990s were cut short, with very little of it released (or even created at the time), and - by the creators' choice - the work was not published as a whole until 2006, when it was done in the form of a graphic novel. - JasonAQuest (talk) 02:06, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
 * As it stood it was misleading as it is closer to a trade paperback than a graphic novel. Granted they finished the series and included it all in the final volume but the key is that it was started in 1991 as a series (Oddly Alan Moore seems to be the victim of this a lot). However, it is a complex situation, which is why we have a publication history, and there is nothing against being more specific in the infobox. In fact there are extra bit to that allow for more information - I'll give it a tweak as it might be a step in the direction of making everyone happy. (Emperor (talk) 03:10, 20 May 2008 (UTC))
 * A slipcased hardcover is not a "paperback", at least not how the term is understood in common English. Calling Lost Girls a "series" is rather misleading, since most of it was never published serially and the creators deliberately withheld the bulk of it from publication until it could be published in total, which was their ultimate intention for the work, even in 1991.  A "series" is something like Detective Comics, which is intended for regular serial publication, and any collected edition is an afterthought.  This work is a graphic novel, a small part of which was previously published in chapters.  (Does anyone consider Oliver Twist something other than a novel just because it was once serialized?)  The most accurate way to describe it is as a GN published in 2006, with the previous publication of the opening chapters mentioned as a historical note.  And the publisher is a small art-comics publisher known as Top Shelf, not the lowbrow tits-and-muscles studio of Top Cow. - JasonAQuest (talk) 14:32, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Trades can come in softcover and hardcover editions. Also yes I think it is important that serialised stories are mentioned as such in the infobox - see e.g. The Hound of the Baskervilles and A Study in Scarlet (we should obviously take our precedents from examples that get it right after all). The fact that most people think of some older serialised stories as novels doesn't mean they shouldn't be noted as having been serialised - part of the point of an encyclopaedia: presenting the reality and not the general public perception. ;) :::The best way to present it is as what it is: originally serialised with the story being completed in the collected volume. (Emperor (talk) 18:32, 20 May 2008 (UTC))

WikiProject Comics B-Class Assesment required
This article needs the B-Class checklist filled in to remain a B-Class article for the Comics WikiProject. If the checklist is not filled in by 7th August this article will be re-assessed as C-Class. The checklist should be filled out referencing the guidance given at Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment/B-Class criteria. For further details please contact the Comics WikiProject. Comics-awb (talk) 17:00, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

Request to remove this article
The article has no connection with Oz or the real story of Alice and should therefore be removed from wikipedia. --Fancy.kira (talk) 14:14, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * That conclusion seems to fly in the face of the source material and all relevant discussion and knowledge surrounding Lost Girls, including the first sentence of the Wikipedia article. The notion that this is a version of "Alice" is supported throughout numerous interviews already cited in the article, including the Suicide Girls interview where Alan Moore states "... we’re talking about a pornographic book that involves Dorothy, Alice and Wendy".   Even if one were to ignore this and conclude that there is "no connection with Oz or the real story of Alice", the work by noted author Alan Moore would still exist and be of potential interest. In fact, Fancy.kira's objection makes the article potentially more notable, as Lost Girls stands as an example that popular characters that enter the public domain may be written or characterized in ways that sticklers for the original work may find unsettling or undesirable. Preppy (talk) 14:51, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Fancy.kira, this is not a legitimate reason for removing an article. This is a notable book that exists in the real world, and that's the standard that Wikipedia uses.  Please read WP:CENSOR. Furthermore, you are misusing these templates.  If you really want to pursue this campaign to censor Wikipedia (despite the assurance that it will not be successful), I suggest you read Articles for deletion to learn the proper procedure. - Jason A. Quest (talk) 14:54, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * This person obviously does not understand the criteria for inclusion and exclusion in Wikipedia. Anybody who tries to delete this article's going to have a tough time of it. Tyciol (talk) 16:49, 17 May 2009 (UTC)

C-Class rated for Comics Project
As this B-Class article has yet to receive a review, it has been rated as C-Class. If you disagree and would like to request an assesment, please visit WikiProject_Comics/Assessment and list the article. Hiding T 15:05, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

Graphic?
One thing this article does not address is just how graphic this graphic novel is. Does it contain the kind of explicit pictures that would warrant an X-rating were this a film? Or is it more in the words and topics discussed that it is a "pornography"? LordAmeth (talk) 06:22, 19 November 2009 (UTC)
 * It's sexually explicit, and I've added that phrase to the lead. - Jason A. Quest (talk) 12:23, 19 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks much. I ended up reading it a few days ago, and while it was definitely much more graphic than I might have preferred, the fact that it's drawn makes it a very different thing. An interesting read. LordAmeth (talk) 19:52, 21 November 2009 (UTC)

reviews

 * www.salon.com/2006/08/30/moore_26/
 * “Lost Girls” Aug 30, 2006; by Douglas Wolk
 * Alan Moore and Melinda Gebbie's shocking X-rated masterpiece takes three childhood heroines and plunges them into sex-soaked adulthood.
 * "The curious — or curiousest — thing about “Lost Girls” is that while it’s enormously powerful and gorgeously executed, it’s not actually all that sexy ... though, it’s a victory as art, which is not a bad condolence prize. Like any number of boundary-pushing, button-pushing works before it, it may well require some kind of scandal, or at least a high-placed moralist’s denunciation, to find the audience it deserves. It’s spoiling for a fight, and it’s worth fighting for."

 * www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v3_1/reviews/sandifer.shtml
 * Review of Lost Girls by Alan Moore and Melinda Gebbie
 * 2006 Philip Sandifer, Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
 * "If I've one fear on the subject, then, it is that, despite the controversy and ensuing conversation that Lost Girls is going to engender, it will be rendered to the same dust pedestal to which we exile Maus and Sandman – works so self-evidently great that we seem never to get around to discussing them."

-71.174.175.150 (talk) 17:13, 17 December 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 22:27, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Lost Girls (graphic novel)


text:
Benacre Broad

Benacre Broad is an isolated coastal lagoon on the North Sea coast of the English county of Suffolk. It is located in the parish of Benacre around 1/2 mi north of the village of Covehithe. It is about 2 mi east of Wrentham, 4+1/2 mi north of Southwold and 6+1/4 mi south of Lowestoft.

The broad is part of Benacre National Nature Reserve, a reserve managed by Natural England. It forms part of the area of the Pakefield to Easton Bavents Site of Special Scientific Interest and the Benacre and Easton Barents Lagoons Special Area of Conservation.

The main broad area has traditionally been made up of a number of smaller bodies of water and in 1996 a number of small pools were created to combat the impact of coastal erosion and increasing water salinity on habitats. At a 1997 survey, had an area of 5 ha. At the end of November 2011 a high tidal surge broke through the narrow beach separating the Broad from the sea, inundating the area and increasing the salinity markedly. A survey in February 2012 found that the area of the broad had increased to 43 ha and that the salinity of the water had increased to 22 parts per thousand. The water depth had also increased, although some separate pools within the lagoon area had remained as fresh water.

In 2020, the beach was again breached and currently (December 2020) a channel allows salt water to enter the broad at high tide, and the dresh water to drain from the broad as the tide drops.

title: Benacre Broad


text:
Thatching

Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge (Cladium mariscus), rushes, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of the vegetation stays dry and is densely packed—trapping air—thatching also functions as insulation. It is a very old roofing method and has been used in both tropical and temperate climates. Thatch is still employed by builders in developing countries, usually with low-cost local vegetation. By contrast, in some developed countries it is the choice of some affluent people who desire a rustic look for their home, would like a more ecologically friendly roof, or who have purchased an originally thatched abode.

History
Thatching methods have traditionally been passed down from generation to generation and numerous descriptions of the materials and methods used in Europe over the past three centuries survive in archives and early publications.

In some equatorial countries, thatch is the prevalent local material for roofs, and often walls. There are diverse building techniques from the ancient Hawaiian hale shelter made from the local ti leaves (Cordyline fruticosa), lauhala (Pandanus tectorius) or pili grass (Heteropogon contortus). Palm leaves are also often used. For example, in Na Bure, Fiji, thatchers combine fan palm leaf roofs with layered reed walls. Feathered palm leaf roofs are used in Dominica. Alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica) thatched roofs are used in Hawaii and Bali. In Southeast Asia, mangrove nipa palm leaves are used as thatched roof material known as attap dwelling. In Bali, Indonesia, the black fibres of the sugar palm, called ijuk, is also used as thatching material, usually in temple roofs and meru towers. Sugar cane leaf roofs are used in Kikuyu tribal homes in Kenya.

Wild vegetation such as water reed (Phragmites australis), bulrush/cat tail (Typha spp.), broom (Cytisus scoparius), heather (Calluna vulgaris), and rushes (Juncus spp. and Schoenoplectus lacustris) was probably used to cover shelters and primitive dwellings in Europe in the late Palaeolithic period, but so far no direct archaeological evidence for this has been recovered. People probably began to use straw in the Neolithic period when they first grew cereals—but once again, no direct archaeological evidence of straw for thatching in Europe prior to the early medieval period survives.

Many indigenous people of the Americas, such as the former Maya civilization, Mesoamerica, the Inca empire, and the Triple Alliance (Aztec), lived in thatched buildings. It is common to spot thatched buildings in rural areas of the Yucatán Peninsula as well as many settlements in other parts of Latin America, which closely resemble the method of construction from distant ancestors. The first Americans encountered by Europeans lived in structures roofed with bark or skin set in panels that could be added or removed for ventilation, heating, and cooling. Evidence of the many complex buildings with fiber-based roofing material was not rediscovered until the early 2000s. French and British settlers built temporary thatched dwellings with local vegetation as soon as they arrived in New France and New England, but covered more permanent houses with wooden shingles.

In most of England, thatch remained the only roofing material available to the bulk of the population in the countryside, in many towns and villages, until the late 1800s. Commercial distribution of Welsh slate began in 1820, and the mobility provided by canals and then railways made other materials readily available. Still, the number of thatched properties actually increased in the UK during the mid-1800s as agriculture expanded, but then declined again at the end of the 19th century because of agricultural recession and rural depopulation. A 2013 report estimated that there were 60,000 properties in the UK with a thatched roof; they are usually made of long straw, combed wheat reed or water reed.

Gradually, thatch became a mark of poverty, and the number of thatched properties gradually declined, as did the number of professional thatchers. Thatch has become much more popular in the UK over the past 30 years, and is now a symbol of wealth rather than poverty. There are approximately 1,000 full-time thatchers at work in the UK, and thatching is becoming popular again because of the renewed interest in preserving historic buildings and using more sustainable building materials.

Material

Thatch is popular in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, parts of France, Sicily, Belgium and Ireland. There are more than 60,000 thatched roofs in the United Kingdom and over 150,000 in the Netherlands. Good quality straw thatch can last for more than 50 years when applied by a skilled thatcher. Traditionally, a new layer of straw was simply applied over the weathered surface, and this "spar coating" tradition has created accumulations of thatch over 7’ (2.1 m) thick on very old buildings. The straw is bundled into "yelms" before it is taken up to the roof and then is attached using staples, known as "spars", made from twisted hazel sticks. Over 250 roofs in Southern England have base coats of thatch that were applied over 500 years ago, providing direct evidence of the types of materials that were used for thatching in the medieval period. Almost all of these roofs are thatched with wheat, rye, or a "maslin" mixture of both. Medieval wheat grew to almost 6 ft tall in very poor soils and produced durable straw for the roof and grain for baking bread.

Technological change in the farming industry significantly affected the popularity of thatching. The availability of good quality thatching straw declined in England after the introduction of the combine harvester in the late 1930s and 1940s, and the release of short-stemmed wheat varieties. Increasing use of nitrogen fertiliser in the 1960s–70s also weakened straw and reduced its longevity. Since the 1980s, however, there has been a big increase in straw quality as specialist growers have returned to growing older, tall-stemmed, "heritage" varieties of wheat such as Squareheads Master (1880), N59 (1959), Rampton Rivet (1937), Victor (1910) and April Bearded (early 1800s) in low input/organic conditions.

In the UK it is illegal under the Plant Variety and Seeds Act 1964 (with many amendments) for an individual or organisation to give, trade or sell seed of an older variety of wheat (or any other agricultural crop) to a third party for growing purposes, subject to a significant fine. Because of this legislation, thatchers in the UK can no longer obtain top quality thatching straw grown from traditional, tall-stemmed varieties of wheat.

All evidence indicates that water reed was rarely used for thatching outside of East Anglia. It has traditionally been a "one coat" material applied in a similar way to how it is used in continental Europe. Weathered reed is usually stripped and replaced by a new layer. It takes 4–5 acres of well-managed reed bed to produce enough reed to thatch an average house, and large reed beds have been uncommon in most of England since the Anglo-Saxon period. Over 80% of the water reed used in the UK is now imported from Turkey, Eastern Europe, China and South Africa. Water reed might last for 50 years or more on a steep roof in a dry climate, modern imported water reed on an average roof in England, when thatched by a proficient craftsman, is more likely to last roughly 40 years. The lifespan of a thatched roof also depends on the skill of the thatcher, but other factors must be considered—such as climate, quality of materials, and the roof pitch.

In areas where palms are abundant, palm leaves are used to thatch walls and roofs. Many species of palm trees are called "thatch palm", or have "thatch" as part of their common names. In the southeastern United States, Native and pioneer houses were often constructed of palmetto-leaf thatch. The chickees of the Seminole and Miccosukee are still thatched with palmetto leaves. Makuti thatching in East Africa uses Cocos nucifera.

Maintenance in temperate climates
Unlike conventional roof coverings, thatch has a maintenance cycle in the UK of 12–15 years. At this time, the ridge will need to be replaced and any other works to the main body of a roof can be undertaken. Rethatching takes place when the coat work has eroded to such an extent that fixings which hold the thatch material in place become visible on the surface of a roof. Each roof is subject to its own specific conditions and will weather according to many outside influences - the skill of the thatcher being an important aspect affecting longevity.

Moss can be a problem if very thick, but is not usually detrimental, and many species of moss are actually protective. , remains the most widely used reference book on the techniques used for thatching. The thickness of a layer of thatch decreases over time as the surface gradually turns to compost and is blown off the roof by wind and rain. Thatched roofs generally need replacement when the horizontal wooden 'sways' and hair-pin 'spars', also known as 'gads' (twisted hazel staples) that fix each course become visible near the surface. It is not total depth of the thatch within a new layer applied to a new roof that determines its longevity, but rather how much thatch covers the fixings of each overlapping course. “A roof is as good as the amount of correctly laid thatch covering the fixings.”

Flammability
Thatch is not as flammable as many people believe. It burns slowly, "like a closed book," thatchers say. The vast majority of fires are linked to the use of wood burners and faulty chimneys with degraded or poorly installed or maintained flues. Sparks from paper or burned rubbish can ignite dry thatch on the surface around a chimney. Fires can also begin when sparks or flames work their way through a degraded chimney and ignite the surrounding semi-charred thatch. This can be avoided by ensuring that the chimney is in good condition, which may involve stripping thatch immediately surrounding the chimney to the full depth of the stack. This can easily be done without stripping thatch over the entire roof. Insurance premiums on thatched houses are higher than average in part because of the perception that thatched roofs are a fire hazard, but also because a thatch fire can cause extensive smoke damage and a thatched roof is more expensive to replace than a standard tiled or slate roof. Workmen should never use open flame near thatch, and nothing should be burnt that could fly up the chimney and ignite the surface of the thatch. Spark arrestors usually cause more harm than good, as they are easily blocked and reduce air flow. All thatched roofs should have smoke detectors in the roof space. Spray-on fire retardant or pressure impregnated fire retardants can reduce the spread of flame and radiated heat output.

On new buildings, a solid fire retardant barrier over the rafters can make the thatch sacrificial in case of fire. If fireboards are used, they require a ventilation gap between boarding and thatch so that the roof can breathe, as condensation can be a significant problem in thin, single layer thatch. Condensation is much less of a problem on thick straw roofs, which also provide much better insulation since they do not need to be ventilated.

Performance
The performance of thatch depends on roof shape and design, pitch of roof, position—its geography and topography—the quality of material and the expertise of the thatcher.

Advantages
Thatch has some natural properties that are advantageous to its performance. It is naturally weather-resistant, and when properly maintained does not absorb a lot of water. There should not be a significant increase to roof weight due to water retention. A roof pitch of at least 50 degrees allows precipitation to travel quickly down slope so that it runs off the roof before it can penetrate the structure.

Thatch is also a natural insulator, and air pockets within straw thatch insulate a building in both warm and cold weather. A thatched roof ensures that a building is cool in summer and warm in winter.

Thatch also has very good resistance to wind damage when applied correctly.

Thatching materials range from plains grasses to waterproof leaves found in equatorial regions. It is the most common roofing material in the world, because the materials are readily available. Because thatch is lighter, less timber is required in the roof that supports it.

Thatch is a versatile material when it comes to covering irregular roof structures. This fact lends itself to the use of second-hand, recycled and natural materials that are not only more sustainable, but need not fit exact standard dimensions to perform well.

Disadvantages
Thatched houses are harder to insure because of the perceived fire risk. In the UK, 50–80 thatched roofs are destroyed in house fires yearly. Because thatching is labor-intensive, it is much more expensive to thatch a roof than to cover it with slate or tiles. Birds can damage a roof while they are foraging for grubs, and rodents are attracted by residual grain in straw.

New thatched roofs were forbidden in London in 1212 following a major fire, and existing roofs had to have their surfaces plastered to reduce the risk of fire. The modern Globe Theatre is one of the few thatched buildings in London, but the Globe's modern, water reed thatch is purely for decorative purpose and actually lies over a fully waterproofed roof built with modern materials. The Globe Theatre, opened in 1997, was modelled on the original Globe, which was destroyed by a fire on a dry June night in 1613 when a burning wad of cloth ejected from a special effects cannon during a performance set light to the surface of the thatch. The nearby Rose Theatre was actually thatched with cereal straw, a sample of which was recovered by Museum of London archaeologists during the excavation of the site in the 1980s.

Some claim thatch cannot cope with regular snowfall but, as with all roofing materials, this depends on the strength of the underlying roof structure and the pitch of the surface. A law passed in 1640 in Massachusetts outlawed the use of thatched roofs in the colony for this reason. Thatch is lighter than most other roofing materials, typically around 7 lb/sqft, so the roof supporting it does not need to be so heavily constructed, but if snow accumulates on a lightly constructed thatched roof, it could collapse. A thatched roof is usually pitched between 45 and 55 degrees and under normal circumstances this is sufficient to shed snow and water. In areas of extreme snowfall, such as parts of Japan, the pitch is increased further.

Archaeology
Some thatched roofs in the UK are extremely old and preserve evidence of traditional materials and methods that had long been lost. In northern Britain this evidence is often preserved beneath corrugated sheet materials and frequently comes to light during the development of smaller rural properties. Historic Scotland have funded several research projects into thatching techniques and these have revealed a wide range of materials including broom, heather, rushes, cereals, bracken, turf and clay and highlighted significant regional variation.

More recent examples include the Moirlanich Longhouse, Killin owned by the National Trust for Scotland (rye, bracken & turf) and Sunnybrae Cottage, Pitlochry owned by Historic Scotland (rye, broom & turf).

Examples

 * Attap dwelling, Southeast Asia
 * Blackhouse, Scotland, Ireland
 * Chickee, Seminole
 * Palapa, Mexico
 * Roundhouse (dwelling), Iron Age European
 * Teitos e pallozas, Asturias and Galicia, Spain
 * Historic Villages of Shirakawa-gō and Gokayama
 * Shinmei-zukuri
 * Normandy, Brittany, France

title: Thatching