text:
Battle of Lützen (1632)

The Battle of Lützen, fought on 6 November 1632, is considered one of the most important battles of the Thirty Years' War. Led by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, an Allied army primarily composed of troops from Sweden, Saxony, and Hesse-Kassel, narrowly defeated an Imperial force under Albrecht von Wallenstein. Both sides suffered heavy casualties, with Gustavus himself among the dead.

Wallenstein had deployed his men in defensive positions, and the battle began with a series of frontal attacks by the Allied infantry. These nearly succeeded in breaking through before being repulsed with severe losses by Imperial cavalry under Pappenheim. Gustavus was killed as they fell back, but re-formed by his subordinates, his infantry overran the Imperial centre just before nightfall, supported by close range artillery fire. Wallenstein withdrew his remaining troops in good order, but was forced to abandon his wounded, many of his guns, and most of his supply train.

Despite the loss of their king, the Swedes continued the war under the direction of Axel Oxenstierna. Backed by French subsidies, in April 1633 Sweden formed the Heilbronn League with their German allies, and shortly afterwards defeated an Imperial army at Oldendorf. In February 1634, rumours that Wallenstein was about to change sides resulted in his assassination by Imperial agents.

Background
Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War began in June 1630 when nearly 18,000 troops under Gustavus Adolphus landed in the Duchy of Pomerania. Backed by French subsidies and supported by Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia, he defeated Imperial armies at Breitenfeld in September 1631, then Rain in April 1632. However, this drew him deep into Southern Germany and Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein established himself at Fürth, threatening to cut his lines of communication to the north. On 3 September, an assault on the Imperial camp outside the town was bloodily repulsed, arguably the greatest blunder committed by Gustavus during his German campaign.

After this success, Wallenstein joined Heinrich Holk in attacking Saxony, hoping to force John George I, Elector of Saxony, out of the war and obliging Gustavus to follow him. Leipzig was captured in early November and on 14th Wallenstein decided to establish winter quarters there. However, next day the Swedes learned Pappenheim's corps of 5,800 men had been detached and sent to Halle, leaving Wallenstein with between 13,000 to 15,000 men. Since this gave Gustavus and his 19,000 men numerical superiority, he decided to attack and quickly advanced from his base at Naumburg. As well as troops in Swedish service, his force included 850 from Hesse-Kassel and some 2,000 Saxons, although their main army was absent.

On the evening of 5 November, the Swedish/German army camped in battle formation two kilometres outside Lützen, ready to attack next day. Advised of their movements by his scouts, Wallenstein ordered Pappenheim to return as quickly as possible. The latter set off with his cavalry just after midnight on 6 November, leaving the infantry to follow, while Wallenstein's troops worked through the night building defensive positions along the main Lützen-Leipzig road, also known as the Via Regia. The ground was mostly flat, except on the Imperial right, which Wallenstein anchored on a low hill next to three windmills, supported by his main artillery battery.

Battle

The Swedish advance was hampered first by morning mist, then having to cross the Flossgraben canal (see Map). As a result, their attack did not begin until 11:00 am, a delay which gave Pappenheim time to reach the battlefield and negated the initial Swedish numerical superiority. Although Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar made little progress against Wallenstein's right, Gustavus overran a line of musketeers holding the ditch along the Lützen-Leipzig road, crossed it, then swung round to outflank the Imperial left. This was the situation around 12:00 pm when Pappenheim arrived on the battlefield with 2,300 cavalry.

He immediately charged and drove the Swedish infantry back across the road, with several elite units effectively wiped out or losing up to 65% of their strength. The Imperial troops also suffered heavy casualties, particularly among their senior officers, including Pappenheim, who was fatally wounded and died while being evacuated in a coach. At the same time, Holk launched a counterattack on the Swedish centre; by 13:00, both armies were losing cohesion and the battle degenerated into a confused series of firefights between opposing units.

By now, officers on both sides were trying to reorganise their troops, the smoke from the burning houses in Lützen blowing across the battlefield and making it almost impossible to see. While trying to rally his shattered infantry, Gustavus and his entourage got lost and ran into an Imperial cavalry unit; he was shot three times and fell dead from his horse, his body not recovered until after the fighting ended that evening. The Swedish reserve under Knyphausen managed to hold the line, providing time for their colleagues to reform and the fighting paused around 15:00.

Although news of Gustavus' death soon spread through the Swedish army, Wallenstein refused to believe it while many of his own troops were in equally bad shape. Much of Pappenheim's cavalry fled and told the infantry coming from Halle the battle was lost, although the latter continued marching towards Lützen. Several units looted their own baggage train, accompanied by camp followers who escaped on the horses needed to transport guns and supply wagons.

There are few reliable eyewitness accounts for the second phase of the battle and events are thus harder to reconstruct. One suggestion is Knyphausen advised retreat but when Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar continued his attack on the Imperial left, he moved his troops forward and crossed the Via Regia once again. As they did so, they captured the small battery in the centre (see Battle Map) and used it to fire on the Imperial left, which slowly withdrew out of range. Around 16:00, Bernard of Saxe-Weimar finally over-ran Lützen, then seized the main Imperial battery next to the windmills which were turned on his retreating opponents.

By 17:00 and with dusk falling, fighting subsided as Wallenstein ordered his troops to retire, leaving the field to the Swedes; he was also forced to abandon his remaining guns and supply wagons due to the loss of his baggage horses. After marching all day, Pappenheim's infantry, about 2,900 strong, arrived on the battlefield after nightfall; they wished to counterattack but instead Wallenstein ordered them to cover his retreat into Leipzig. The Swedes were finally able to recover the body of their king from under a heap of corpses on the Imperial side of the ditch which had been the scene of bitter fighting throughout the day.

Aftermath

While Imperial casualties of 5,160 killed or wounded were lower than Swedish losses of around 6,000, Wallenstein decided he could not hold Leipzig and withdrew into Bohemia, leaving behind over 1,200 wounded, who were taken prisoner. During this retreat, the Imperialists were harassed by Saxon peasantry angry at the destruction of their crops and suffered significant additional casualties. Wallenstein's withdrawal and the capture of his artillery allowed the Swedes to claim Lützen as a victory, while they also achieved their tactical objective of forcing him out of Saxony, but the battle is chiefly significant for the death of Gustavus.

Although his loss was greeted with dismay at home and within the wider European Protestant community, his allies were more ambivalent. French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu, who provided the financial subsidies that supported the Swedish army, had increasingly clashed with Gustavus over strategic objectives. There were even rumours among contemporaries he was involved in his death and while there is no evidence for this, his death re-confirmed French leadership of the anti-Habsburg alliance. Saxony and Brandenburg had grown disillusioned with the Swedish alliance, which led to heavy loss of civilian life from plague and starvation, while the occupation of Swedish Pomerania threatened their own economic interests in the Baltic trade.

Since Gustavus was succeeded by his six year old daughter Christina, direction of policy was taken over by the Privy Council of Sweden, headed by Axel Oxenstierna. Appointed Chancellor in January 1633, he decided Sweden could gain adequate compensation for its investment only by continuing the war. After ensuring control of the army, his next step was to replace the previous loose alliance with a more formal structure; this was driven by a perceived need to stabilise the Swedish state and doubts over the reliability of his allies.

Richelieu resumed payment of subsidies to Sweden on 7 April and on 27th, Sweden and its German Protestant allies formed the Heilbronn League. Oxenstierna was appointed League Director, with an absolute veto over military affairs, supported by a council of ten advisors, three of whom were Swedes. Its members agreed to support an army of 78,000 men, although they provided less than a third of the money needed; the balance was paid by France to Sweden directly, ensuring control over the League. The German states agreed to continue fighting until Sweden obtained "just compensation," while Oxenstierna promised them a return to pre-1618 borders. In July, the coalition defeated an Imperial army under von Gronsfeld at Oldendorf; Wallenstein's alleged refusal to support his colleague and rumours he was contemplating switching sides led to his removal and assassination by Imperial agents in February 1634.

Legacy

The day after the battle, a granite boulder was placed near the spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell, known as the ; in 1832, an iron canopy was erected over the stone, with a chapel built nearby in 1907. The battle was fought on 16 November according to the Gregorian calendar or 6 November according to the Julian calendar, which was then in use in Sweden. Despite adopting the Gregorian calendar in 1753, the Swedes still commemorate Gustavus Adolphus Day on 6 November each year.

In 2011, a mass grave containing the remains of 47 soldiers was found in an area where a Swedish unit known as the Blue Brigade was reportedly overrun by Pappenheim's cavalry. Examination of the remains showed the average age was 28, while evidence of healed injuries indicate they were veterans; more than half had been hit by gunfire, an unusually high number for this period.

title: Battle of Lützen (1632)


text:
The Matchmaker

The Matchmaker is a 1954 Broadway play by Thornton Wilder, a rewritten version of his 1938 play The Merchant of Yonkers.

History
The play has a long and colorful history. John Oxenford's 1835 one-act farce A Day Well Spent had been extended into the full-length play Einen Jux will er sich machen (He'll Have Himself a Good Time) by Austrian playwright Johann Nestroy in 1842. In 1938, Wilder adapted Nestroy's version into the Americanized comedy The Merchant of Yonkers, which attracted the attention of German director Max Reinhardt, who mounted a Broadway production, which ran for 39 performances.

Fifteen years later, director Tyrone Guthrie expressed interest in a new production of the play, which Wilder extensively rewrote and rechristened The Matchmaker. The most significant change was the expansion of a previously minor character named Dolly Gallagher Levi, who became the play's centerpiece. A widow who brokers marriages and other transactions in Yonkers, New York at the turn of the 20th century, she sets her sights on local merchant Horace Vandergelder, who has hired her to find him a wife. After a series of slapstick situations involving mistaken identities, secret rendezvous behind carefully placed screens, separated lovers, and a trip to night court, everyone finds themselves paired with a perfect match.

Productions
The play, starring Ruth Gordon as Dolly and Sam Levene as Horace Vandergelder, debuted at the Edinburgh Festival in Scotland on November 4, 1954; at the Edinburgh Festival, in Berlin—for the troops and at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in London's West End. Due to a salary dispute with Broadway producer David Merrick, Sam Levene left the production after playing the role of Horace Vandergelder for over a year in Europe. Loring Smith replaced Levene as Horace Vandergelder and opened on Broadway December 5, 1955 at the Royale Theatre, later transferring to the Booth to complete its run of 486 performances. Ruth Gordon's performance in the title role earned her a Tony Award nomination as Best Actress; Guthrie won as Best Director.

Characters and original Broadway cast
The characters and original cast of The Matchmaker are recorded at the Internet Broadway Database.
 * Horace Vandergelder, a Merchant of Yonkers – Loring Smith
 * Mrs. Dolly Gallagher Levi, a Friend of Vandergelder's Late Wife – Ruth Gordon
 * Irene Molloy, a Milliner – Eileen Herlie
 * Minnie Fay, Mrs. Molloy's Assistant – Rosamund Greenwood
 * Cornelius Hackl, a Clerk in Vandergelder's Store – Arthur Hill
 * Barnaby Tucker, an Apprentice in Vandergelder's Store – Robert Morse
 * Ermengarde, Mr. Vandergelder's niece, whom Ambrose wants to marry — Prunella Scales
 * Miss Flora Van Husen, a Friend of Vandergelder's Late Wife – Esme Church
 * Malachi Stack – Patrick McAlinney
 * Ambrose Kemper, an Artist – Alexander Davion
 * Gertrude, Vandergelder's Housekeeper – Charity Grace
 * Miss Van Husen's Cook – Christine Thomas
 * Rudolf, a Waiter – William Lanteau
 * Joe Scanlon, a Barber – Philip Leeds
 * August, a Waiter – John Mulligan

Adaptations
The 1958 film version, adapted by John Michael Hayes and directed by Joseph Anthony, starred Shirley Booth as Dolly, Anthony Perkins as Cornelius, Shirley MacLaine as Irene, Paul Ford as Vandergelder, and Robert Morse reprising his Broadway role as Barnaby.

The story enjoyed yet another incarnation in 1964 when David Merrick, who had produced the 1955 Broadway play, partnered with composer Jerry Herman to mount the hugely successful, Tony Award-winning musical Hello, Dolly! starring Carol Channing.

A film version of Hello, Dolly! was released in 1969 starring Barbra Streisand in the lead role.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Matchmaker


text:
Talk:Polymerization

Methods of polymerization
A description of the different methods of polymerization is required. These include the bulk, emulsion, suspension, solution, precipitation and dispersion polymerization methods. Some on these topics alread have article/stubs, and should be linked to. Msmi121 01:44, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Celluloid
Ok, I'm going to be writing a new article on celluloid, and just as an fyi, celluloid is NOT just nitrocellulose. Minimally, it's nitrocellulose (70-80 parts) plus camphor (30 parts or so), plus dyes (0-14 parts), plus ethyl alcohol (1-5 parts), plus all the other extras that get put into plastics. Dwmyers.

previous edit disputed
Last edit removed for the following reasons: Addition polymerization and step-growth polymerization do not refer to the way monomer feed is added to a polymerisation. interfacial and emulsion polymerisation do no represent a means of polymerisation (molecular mechanism) but reflect a set of reaction conditions. radical / cationic / anionic polymerisation belong to the class of addition polymerisation and not step growth. Consult the separate articles addition polymerization and step-growth polymerization. Also, living polymerization can only be archieved with very special reaction conditions. Coordinated polymerization belongs to addition polymerisation. It is always a good idea to include references in an article like ref 1. for this article any book on introduction to polymer chemistry will do.

 * I don't mind that my changes were reverted. If I add these ideas back in, I'll be sure to provide references. HappyCamper 17:58, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Cleanup: Complete Rewrite Required
There was originally a huge chunk of text (apparently copied and pasted), and somewhat incoherent in nature. I have wikified and better organised the information, but it still does not sound like a proper encyclopedia article. This reason, coupled with the apparent fact that the article was copied and pasted, justifies a rewrite (or at least extensive rephrasing).

— 0 6 1 2  (TALK) ; Posted: 11:17, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

 * The last decent version of the article is dated http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polymerization&oldid=61222731 The overview section for some reason completely dissapeard and I suggest to restore it. The DNA polymerization section simply does not belong here and should be removed V8rik 22:07, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I never realised that there was such a nice, long overview! Thank you for pointing it out. I will restore that section. Thanks again.
 * — 0 6 1 2  (TALK) ; Posted: 08:41, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

depolymerization?
How can polymerization be reversed? -lysdexia 00:52, 13 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Anything which provides energy to the structure to cause bonds to be broken; electromagnetic radiation, heat, etc. [[Image:Gaim.svg|27px]] ♥♥ ΜÏΠЄSΓRΘΠ€ ♥♥ slurp me! 19:50, 11 May 2007 (UTC)
 * As a rule, polymers with quaternary carbons (such as PMMA) depolymerize when heated with good yields of the monomer. --Cubbi 18:39, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I think you would use cracking. --Ah2190 12:34, 31 March 2007 (UTC)

syntactic gap in Introduction
In Introduction, the second sentence should be modified. "... alkenes, which are a relatively stable due to bonding ..." requires either deleting the indeinite article before "relatively" OR possibly a noun after "stable". I don't know which of the two possibilities would be more correct. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Svato (talk • contribs) 02:23, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

Polymerisation of alkanes?
I came to this article looking for information on whether it was possible to polymerise methane to form propane or butane (partly to answer a question at talk:butane). The article specifically refers to double bonds and alkenes and seems a little ambiguous about polymerising single bonds. Does this imply that it's not possible to polymerise alkanes, or has it just not been mentioned? --Athol Mullen (talk) 13:37, 11 July 2008 (UTC)

Polymerisation
Since the US is not the centre of the world, I propose that the spelling be changed to the more widely accepted Polymerisation (in conjunction with the UK, Australia, Canada and others).--Welcome to the dark side. (talk) 05:44, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree that all Wikipedia articles should be titled with their most common name, in accordance with WP: COMMONNAME.
 * However, the references we have so far in this article usually use "polymerization" -- including the allegedly "International" IUPAC.
 * If we have a non-representative set of references, would you mind adding more references that use the more common spelling? --DavidCary (talk) 15:06, 21 July 2014 (UTC)

 * A long time ago, the creator of the original article decided on polymerization, that choice is to be respected, see Manual_of_Style V8rik (talk) 16:52, 21 July 2014 (UTC)

Depolymerization
Needs:

 * Explanation of why this occurs.
 * Generation of carcinogenic liquids and gases as a result, including relevance to:

 * the disposal of vinyl siding
 * the health impact of the reuse of plastic bottles by consumers
 * the possible health impact of the interior atmosphere of cars
 * the clouding of windshields of cars.

The chemical breakdown of plastics and other polymers due to time, light, and heat. For a solid polymer, can result in softer (shorter-length) polymers and/or in small molecules that form liquids, gases, or both.

Chain-growth polymerization
Does this edit refer to this sort of thing? Seems a bit obscure to me... but if we are going to mention it I think we need to be clearer.

The edit added the following phrase (in bold here to highlight the new bit):

 * Chain-growth polymerization (or addition polymerization) involves the linking together of molecules incorporating double or triple chemical bonds, however there are exceptions (i.e., poly(beta-amino esters) are formed from a diacrylate backbone and is step-growth).

Yaris678 (talk) 22:32, 15 April 2012 (UTC)
 * This exception should not be presented before the typical examples of chain-growth polymerization such as polyethylene and PVC. We could put it in a final section called Exceptions, to show that it is not always true that C=C link together by chain-growth polymerization. Dirac66 (talk) 13:27, 16 April 2012 (UTC)
 * That makes sense to me. Do you want to make that change?  I am not an expert on chemistry.  I only ended up here by chance when the edit in question was highlighted to me by STiki.  Yaris678 (talk) 08:35, 17 April 2012 (UTC)
 * I have now realized that the polymerization step in the paper you cite does not actually proceed by the linking of two C=C in different molecules, but rather by the linking of one C=C to an amine in the other molecule. So it is not really an exception but another category, and I want to think more about the correct wording before making changes. I will try to do it in the next few days.
 * And for a non-chemistry expert, you did a good job at finding a relevant paper as a source. Dirac66 (talk) 17:06, 17 April 2012 (UTC)
 * OK, I have now moved this discussion to the end of the chain-growth section, added the reference suggested above by Yaris678, and explained why the acrylate esters can participate in both chain and step mechanisms (rather than speak of an exception). Dirac66 (talk) 18:07, 19 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Cool. Thanks for doing that change.  It's beyond my understanding but it seems to make more sense to me than the previous version.  Yaris678 (talk) 22:36, 6 May 2012 (UTC)

Article Layout
I appreciate the way the IUPAC definition is presented in the article. Not sure if it was intended or accidental, but I feel that the style can be utilized elsewhere. Cyan.aqua 09:30, 7 May 2014 (UTC)

photopolymerization
Why does the term photopolymerization currently redirects to this article, when currently this article never describes "photopolymerization"? ( I added a single sentence section that mentions one application of photopolymerization, but it still doesn't describe what photopolymerization is).

Was there maybe once information about photopolymerization in this article, but somehow it was accidentally lost? --DavidCary (talk) 14:19, 21 July 2014 (UTC)
 * I have now added a few lines to your new section, in order to introduce the topic and lead up to its use in printing. Dirac66 (talk) 03:01, 22 July 2014 (UTC)

Unclear sentence
Can someone clarify/rewrite 'While not used to a large extent in industry yet due to stringent reaction conditions such as lack of water and oxygen, these methods provide ways to polymerize some monomers that cannot be polymerized by free radical methods such as polypropylene. ' thanks DGerman (talk) 18:56, 28 November 2016 (UTC)
 * I think there is a comma missing between yet and due. It should be "While not used to a large extent in industry yet, due to stringent reaction conditions such as lack of water and oxygen, these methods ...", or perhaps "While not used to a large extent in industry yet, because of the need for stringent reaction conditions such as absence of water and oxygen, these methods ..." Dirac66 (talk) 02:26, 29 November 2016 (UTC)

water (specifically hydroxide ions) causes polymerization
The article Cyanoacrylate includes the statement: " rapidly polymerises in the presence of water (specifically hydroxide ions) ".

This does't seem to be covered this article, should it be? DGerman (talk) 19:01, 28 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Perhaps we need a new section. Most of the article (except for the very last paragraph) now considers polymerization in the classic sense of a part of manufacture prior to sale and use. We could add a section on polymerization during use, including (1) the last paragraph on photography/printing by polymerization, and (2) cyanoacrylate adhesives as you suggest. Dirac66 (talk) 02:26, 29 November 2016 (UTC)

Alkane polymerization
I removed this statement from the lede since it is obscure (barely true, except in some semantic sense) and has no significance: "Alkanes can also be polymerized, but only with the help of strong acids. "--Smokefoot (talk) 17:06, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Polymerization


text:
Glasgow (disambiguation)

Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland.

Glasgow may also refer to:
 * Greater Glasgow Metropolitan Area
 * Port Glasgow
 * Glasgow (Scottish Parliament electoral region), an electoral region in the Scottish Parliament
 * University of Glasgow
 * Glasgow Airport
 * Glasgow Prestwick Airport

Canada

 * Glasgow, Ontario, a community located in the Regional Municipality of Durham
 * Glasgow, a community in Caledon, Ontario

New Zealand

 * Glasgow Range, a mountain range on the South Island

Suriname

 * Glasgow, Suriname, in Nickerie District

United States

 * Glasgow, Alabama, a place in Alabama
 * Glasgow, California, a place in California
 * Glasgo, Connecticut
 * Glasgow, Delaware
 * Glasgow, Georgia
 * Glasgow, Illinois
 * Glasgow, Kentucky
 * Glasgow Township, Wabasha County, Minnesota
 * Glasgow, Missouri
 * Glasgow Village, Missouri
 * Glasgow, Montana
 * Glasgow, Columbiana County, Ohio
 * Glasgow, Tuscarawas County, Ohio
 * Glasgow, Oregon
 * Glasgow, Pennsylvania
 * Glasgow, Virginia
 * Glasgow, West Virginia

Sports

 * Celtic F.C., professional football team (sometimes referred to as Glasgow Celtic in an international context, although the city is not in the club name)
 * Glasgow City F.C., semi-professional women's football team
 * Glasgow Clan, ice hockey team
 * Glasgow Gladiators, powerchair football team
 * Glasgow Hawks RFC, amateur rugby team
 * Glasgow Rocks, basketball team
 * Glasgow Tigers (American football)
 * Glasgow Tigers (speedway)
 * Glasgow Warriors, professional rugby team
 * Rangers F.C., professional football team (sometimes referred to as Glasgow Rangers in an international context, although the city is not in the club name)

Transportation

 * Glasgow Prestwick Airport, official name of the airport in Ayrshire
 * Glasgow station (disambiguation), several railway stations of the name
 * Glasgow Subway, underground metro system in the Scottish city
 * HMS Glasgow, a name given to eight Royal Navy warships
 * HHS Glasgow, a royal yacht of Zanzibar
 * SS City of Glasgow, a passenger steamship launched in 1850

Other uses

 * Glasgow (surname), including a list of people with the name
 * "Glasgow", a song by They Might Be Giants on the Venue Songs album
 * 5805 Glasgow, a minor planet
 * Glasgow (Cambridge, Maryland), a historic house
 * Glasgow Bailie, a type of salted herring (which is also some times known as a Glasgow Magistrate)
 * Glasgow effect, a term used to refer to poor health conditions in the Scottish city
 * Glasgow Haskell Compiler, a compiler for the functional programming language Haskell
 * Glasgow School, a circle of painters in the 1880s and 1890s
 * Glasgow Coma Scale, medical scale describing the degree of consciousness of brain-damaged patients
 * Glasgow Outcome Scale, a scale for patients with brain injuries
 * Glasgow dialect, the local dialect in the Scottish city
 * Glasgow smile, a facial scar
 * Glasgow, a type of Knightmare Frame in the manga/anime series Code Geass

title: Glasgow (disambiguation)


text:
Martinsburg

Martinsburg may refer to:

Places
In the United States:

 * Martinsburg, Indiana
 * Martinsburg, Iowa
 * Sandy Hook, Kentucky, originally incorporated as Martinsburg
 * Martinsburg, Missouri
 * Martinsburg, Ripley County, Missouri
 * Martinsburg, Nebraska
 * Martinsburg, New York
 * Martinsburg, Ohio
 * Martinsburg, Pennsylvania
 * Martinsburg, West Virginia

In Germany:
 * Martinsburg, Mainz, a fortress which was demolished in 1809 (see Electoral Palace Mainz)

title: Martinsburg


text:
Westland

Westland or Westlands may refer to:

Places

 * Westlands, Nairobi, an affluent neighbourhood in the city of Nairobi, Kenya
 * Westlands, Staffordshire, a suburban area and ward in Newcastle-under-Lyme
 * Westland, a peninsula of the Shetland Mainland near Vaila, Scotland

Netherlands

 * Westland (municipality), Netherlands
 * Westland (region), Netherlands

New Zealand

 * Westland District, a political subdivision on the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island
 * Westland Tai Poutini National Park, a national park
 * Informally, the name often used for the entire West Coast region, of which the Westland District is a part
 * Westland (New Zealand electorate) a former parliamentary electorate in the above area
 * Westland Province, a province of New Zealand from 1873–76

United States

 * Westland, Indiana
 * Westland, Putnam County, Indiana
 * Westland, Michigan
 * Westland, Oregon; see McKay Reservoir
 * Westland, Pennsylvania
 * Westland, Virginia
 * Westland Mall (Hialeah), a shopping mall in Hialeah, Florida
 * Westland Mansion, the retirement home of U.S. president Grover Cleveland
 * Westland Middle School, in Bethesda, Maryland

Aircraft

 * Westland Aircraft, a British aircraft manufacturer, which merged and became:
 * Westland Helicopters, a British helicopter manufacturer, in 1961
 * AgustaWestland, a British/Italian helicopter manufacturer, following a further merger in 2000
 * Leonardo S.p.A., an Italian helicopter manufacturer, following a further merger in 2016
 * Westland affair, a 1986 British political crisis stemming from the government's ownership of Westland Aircraft

Other

 * Westland (Nazi propaganda), the planned Nazi German name for the occupied Netherlands, or the unit of Dutch SS soldiers in Russia
 * Westland School (disambiguation)
 * The Westland, a Western Australian named train service
 * The Westland (periodical), an Australian railway magazine published by Rail Heritage WA
 * Westland Books

title: Westland


text:
Westford

Westford may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Westford, Connecticut
 * Westford, Massachusetts
 * Westford, New York
 * Westford (CDP), New York
 * Westford, Vermont
 * Westford (CDP), Vermont
 * Westmore, Vermont, originally chartered as "Westford"
 * Westford, Wisconsin (disambiguation)

Ships

 * SS Westford, formerly SS Empire Baxter

title: Westford


text:
Robots.txt

robots.txt is the filename used for implementing the Robots Exclusion Protocol, a standard used by websites to indicate to visiting web crawlers and other web robots which portions of the website they are allowed to visit.

The standard, developed in 1994, relies on voluntary compliance. Malicious bots can use the file as a directory of which pages to visit, though standards bodies discourage countering this with security through obscurity. Some archival sites ignore robots.txt. The standard was used in the 1990s to mitigate server overload. In the 2020s many websites began denying bots that collect information for generative artificial intelligence.

The "robots.txt" file can be used in conjunction with sitemaps, another robot inclusion standard for websites.

History
The standard was proposed by Martijn Koster, when working for Nexor in February 1994 on the www-talk mailing list, the main communication channel for WWW-related activities at the time. Charles Stross claims to have provoked Koster to suggest robots.txt, after he wrote a badly behaved web crawler that inadvertently caused a denial-of-service attack on Koster's server.

The standard, initially RobotsNotWanted.txt, allowed web developers to specify which bots should not access their website or which pages bots should not access. The internet was small enough in 1994 to maintain a complete list of all bots; server overload was a primary concern. By June 1994 it had become a de facto standard; most complied, including those operated by search engines such as WebCrawler, Lycos, and AltaVista.

On July 1, 2019, Google announced the proposal of the Robots Exclusion Protocol as an official standard under Internet Engineering Task Force. A proposed standard was published in September 2022 as RFC 9309.

Standard
When a site owner wishes to give instructions to web robots they place a text file called robots.txt in the root of the web site hierarchy (e.g. https://www.example.com/robots.txt). This text file contains the instructions in a specific format (see examples below). Robots that choose to follow the instructions try to fetch this file and read the instructions before fetching any other file from the website. If this file does not exist, web robots assume that the website owner does not wish to place any limitations on crawling the entire site.

A robots.txt file contains instructions for bots indicating which web pages they can and cannot access. Robots.txt files are particularly important for web crawlers from search engines such as Google.

A robots.txt file on a website will function as a request that specified robots ignore specified files or directories when crawling a site. This might be, for example, out of a preference for privacy from search engine results, or the belief that the content of the selected directories might be misleading or irrelevant to the categorization of the site as a whole, or out of a desire that an application only operates on certain data. Links to pages listed in robots.txt can still appear in search results if they are linked to from a page that is crawled.

A robots.txt file covers one origin. For websites with multiple subdomains, each subdomain must have its own robots.txt file. If example.com had a robots.txt file but a.example.com did not, the rules that would apply for example.com would not apply to a.example.com. In addition, each protocol and port needs its own robots.txt file; http://example.com/robots.txt does not apply to pages under http://example.com:8080/ or https://example.com/.

Compliance
A robots.txt has no enforcement mechanism in law or in technical protocol, despite widespread compliance by bot operators.

Search engines
Some major search engines following this standard include Ask, AOL, Baidu, Bing, DuckDuckGo, Google, Yahoo!, and Yandex.

Archival sites
Some web archiving projects ignore robots.txt. Archive Team uses the file to discover more links, such as sitemaps. Co-founder Jason Scott said that "unchecked, and left alone, the robots.txt file ensures no mirroring or reference for items that may have general use and meaning beyond the website's context." In 2017, the Internet Archive announced that it would stop complying with robots.txt directives. According to Digital Trends, this followed widespread use of robots.txt to remove historical sites from search engine results, and contrasted with the nonprofit's aim to archive "snapshots" of the internet as it previously existed.

Artificial intelligence
Starting in the 2020s, web operators began using robots.txt to deny access to bots collecting training data for generative AI. In 2023, Originality.AI found that 306 of the thousand most-visited websites blocked OpenAI's GPTBot in their robots.txt file and 85 blocked Google's Google-Extended. Many robots.txt files named GPTBot as the only bot explicitly disallowed on all pages. Denying access to GPTBot was common among news websites such as the BBC and The New York Times. In 2023, blog host Medium announced it would deny access to all artificial intelligence web crawlers as "AI companies have leached value from writers in order to spam Internet readers".

GPTBot complies with the robots.txt standard and gives advice to web operators about how to disallow it, but The Verge's David Pierce said this only began after "training the underlying models that made it so powerful". Also, some bots are used both for search engines and artificial intelligence, and it may be impossible to block only one of these options.

Security
Despite the use of the terms "allow" and "disallow", the protocol is purely advisory and relies on the compliance of the web robot; it cannot enforce any of what is stated in the file. Malicious web robots are unlikely to honor robots.txt; some may even use the robots.txt as a guide to find disallowed links and go straight to them. While this is sometimes claimed to be a security risk, this sort of security through obscurity is discouraged by standards bodies. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the United States specifically recommends against this practice: "System security should not depend on the secrecy of the implementation or its components." In the context of robots.txt files, security through obscurity is not recommended as a security technique.

Alternatives
Many robots also pass a special user-agent to the web server when fetching content. A web administrator could also configure the server to automatically return failure (or pass alternative content) when it detects a connection using one of the robots.

Some sites, such as Google, host a  file that displays information meant for humans to read. Some sites such as GitHub redirect humans.txt to an About page.

Previously, Google had a joke file hosted at  instructing the Terminator not to kill the company founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin.

Examples
This example tells all robots that they can visit all files because the wildcard  stands for all robots and the   directive has no value, meaning no pages are disallowed.

User-agent: * Disallow:

User-agent: * Allow: /

The same result can be accomplished with an empty or missing robots.txt file.

This example tells all robots to stay out of a website:

User-agent: * Disallow: /

This example tells all robots not to enter three directories:

User-agent: * Disallow: /cgi-bin/ Disallow: /tmp/ Disallow: /junk/

This example tells all robots to stay away from one specific file:

User-agent: * Disallow: /directory/file.html

All other files in the specified directory will be processed.

User-agent: BadBot # replace 'BadBot' with the actual user-agent of the bot Disallow: /

This example tells two specific robots not to enter one specific directory:

User-agent: BadBot # replace 'BadBot' with the actual user-agent of the bot User-agent: Googlebot Disallow: /private/

Example demonstrating how comments can be used:

User-agent: * # match all bots Disallow: / # keep them out
 * 1) Comments appear after the "#" symbol at the start of a line, or after a directive

It is also possible to list multiple robots with their own rules. The actual robot string is defined by the crawler. A few robot operators, such as Google, support several user-agent strings that allow the operator to deny access to a subset of their services by using specific user-agent strings.

Example demonstrating multiple user-agents:

User-agent: googlebot       # all Google services Disallow: /private/         # disallow this directory

User-agent: googlebot-news  # only the news service Disallow: /                 # disallow everything

User-agent: *               # any robot Disallow: /something/       # disallow this directory

Crawl-delay directive
The crawl-delay value is supported by some crawlers to throttle their visits to the host. Since this value is not part of the standard, its interpretation is dependent on the crawler reading it. It is used when the multiple burst of visits from bots is slowing down the host. Yandex interprets the value as the number of seconds to wait between subsequent visits. Bing defines crawl-delay as the size of a time window (from 1 to 30 seconds) during which BingBot will access a web site only once. Google provides an interface in its search console for webmasters, to control the Googlebot's subsequent visits.

User-agent: bingbot Allow: / Crawl-delay: 10

Sitemap
Some crawlers support a  directive, allowing multiple Sitemaps in the same robots.txt in the form  : Sitemap: http://www.example.com/sitemap.xml

Universal "*" match
The Robot Exclusion Standard does not mention the "*" character in the  statement.

Meta tags and headers
In addition to root-level robots.txt files, robots exclusion directives can be applied at a more granular level through the use of Robots meta tags and X-Robots-Tag HTTP headers. The robots meta tag cannot be used for non-HTML files such as images, text files, or PDF documents. On the other hand, the X-Robots-Tag can be added to non-HTML files by using .htaccess and httpd.conf files.

A "noindex" HTTP response header
The X-Robots-Tag is only effective after the page has been requested and the server responds, and the robots meta tag is only effective after the page has loaded, whereas robots.txt is effective before the page is requested. Thus if a page is excluded by a robots.txt file, any robots meta tags or X-Robots-Tag headers are effectively ignored because the robot will not see them in the first place.

Maximum size of a robots.txt file
The Robots Exclusion Protocol requires crawlers to parse at least 500 kibibytes (512000 bytes) of robots.txt files, which Google maintains as a 500 kibibyte file size restriction for robots.txt files.

title: Robots.txt


text:
Margate (disambiguation)

Margate is a coastal resort in the county of Kent, in the United Kingdom.

Margate may also refer to:

Places

 * Margate, Queensland, Australia
 * Margate, Tasmania, Australia
 * Margate, Prince Edward Island, Canada
 * Margate, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
 * Margate, Florida, US
 * Margate City, New Jersey, US

Music

 * Margate (band), a Southern California melodic rock band
 * "Margate" (song), by Chas & Dave, 1982

Other uses

 * Margate, a fish in the family Haemulidae

title: Margate (disambiguation)


text:
VRML

VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language, pronounced vermal or by its initials, originally—before 1995—known as the Virtual Reality Markup Language) is a standard file format for representing 3-dimensional (3D) interactive vector graphics, designed particularly with the World Wide Web in mind. It has been superseded by X3D.

WRL file format
VRML is a text file format where, e.g., vertices and edges for a 3D polygon can be specified along with the surface color, UV-mapped textures, shininess, transparency, and so on. URLs can be associated with graphical components so that a web browser might fetch a webpage or a new VRML file from the Internet when the user clicks on the specific graphical component. Animations, sounds, lighting, and other aspects of the virtual world can interact with the user or may be triggered by external events such as timers. A special Script Node allows the addition of program code (e.g., written in Java or ECMAScript) to a VRML file.

VRML files are commonly called "worlds" and have the .wrl extension (for example, island.wrl). VRML files are in plain text and generally compress well using gzip, useful for transferring over the Internet more quickly (some gzip compressed files use the .wrz extension). Many 3D modeling programs can save objects and scenes in VRML format.

Standardization
The Web3D Consortium has been formed to further the collective development of the format. VRML (and its successor, X3D), have been accepted as international standards by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

The first version of VRML was specified in November 1994. This version was specified from, and very closely resembled, the API and file format of the Open Inventor software component, originally developed by SGI. Version 2.0 development was guided by the ad hoc VRML Architecture Group (VAG). A working draft was published in August 1996. Formal collaboration between the VAG and SC24 of ISO/IEC began in 1996 and VRML 2.0 was submitted to ISO for adoption as an international standard. The current and functionally complete version is VRML97 (ISO/IEC 14772-1:1997). VRML has now been superseded by X3D (ISO/IEC 19775-1).

Emergence, popularity, and rival technical upgrade
The term VRML was coined by Dave Raggett in a paper called "Extending WWW to support Platform Independent Virtual Reality" submitted to the First World Wide Web Conference in 1994, and first discussed at the WWW94 VRML BOF established by Tim Berners-Lee, where Mark Pesce presented the Labyrinth demo he developed with Tony Parisi and Peter Kennard. VRML was introduced to a wider audience in the SIGGRAPH Course, VRML: Using 3D to Surf the Web in August 1995. In October 1995, at Internet World, Template Graphics Software (TGS) demonstrated a 3D/VRML plug-in for the beta release of Netscape 2.0 by Netscape Communications.

In 1997, a new version of the format was finalized, as VRML97 (also known as VRML2 or VRML 2.0), and became an ISO/IEC standard. VRML97 was used on the Internet on some personal homepages and sites such as "CyberTown", which offered 3D chat using Blaxxun Software, as well as Sony's SAPARi program, which was pre-installed on Vaio computers from 1997 to 2001. The format was championed by SGI's Cosmo Software; when SGI restructured in 1998, the division was sold to the VREAM Division of Platinum Technology, which was then taken over by Computer Associates, which did not develop or distribute the software. To fill the void a variety of proprietary Web 3D formats emerged over the next few years, including Microsoft Chrome and Adobe Atmosphere, neither of which is supported today. VRML's capabilities remained largely the same while realtime 3D graphics kept improving. The VRML Consortium changed its name to the Web3D Consortium, and began work on the successor to VRML—X3D.

SGI ran a web site at vrml.sgi.com on which was hosted a string of regular short performances of a character called "Floops" who was a VRML character in a VRML world. Floops was a creation of a company called Protozoa.

H-Anim is a standard for animated Humanoids, which is based around VRML, and later X3D. The initial version 1.0 of the H-Anim standard was scheduled for submission at the end of March 1998.

VRML has never seen much serious widespread use. One reason for this may have been the lack of available bandwidth. At the time of VRML's popularity, a majority of users, both business and personal, were using slow dial-up Internet access.

VRML experimentation was primarily in education and research where an open specification is most valued. It has now been re-engineered as X3D. The MPEG-4 Interactive Profile (ISO/IEC 14496) was based on VRML (now on X3D), and X3D is largely backward-compatible with it. VRML is also widely used as a file format for interchange of 3D models, particularly from CAD systems.

A free cross-platform runtime implementation of VRML is available in OpenVRML. Its libraries can be used to add both VRML and X3D support to applications, and a GTK+ plugin is available to render VRML/X3D worlds in web browsers.

In the 2000s, many companies like Bitmanagement improved the quality level of virtual effects in VRML to the quality level of DirectX 9.0c, but at the expense of using proprietary solutions. All main features like game modeling are already complete. They include multi-pass render with low level setting for Z-buffer, BlendOp, AlphaOp, Stencil, Multi-texture, Shader with HLSL and GLSL support, realtime Render To Texture, Multi Render Target (MRT) and PostProcessing. Many demos shows that VRML already supports lightmap, normalmap, SSAO, CSM and Realtime Environment Reflection along with other virtual effects.

Example
This example shows the same scene as.

Early criticism
In a March 1998 ACM essay, "Playfulness in 3D Spaces -- Why Quake is better than VRML, and what it means for software design", Clay Shirky sharply criticised VRML as a "technology in search of a problem", whereas "Quake does something well instead of many things poorly...The VRML community has failed to come up with anything this compelling -- not despite the community's best intentions, but because of them. Every time VRML practitioners approach the problem of how to represent space on the screen, they have no focused reason to make any particular trade-off of detail versus rendering speed, or making objects versus making spaces, because VRML isn't for anything except itself. Many times, having a particular, near-term need to solve brings a project's virtues into sharp focus, and gives it enough clarity to live on its own."

Alternatives

 * 3DMLW: 3D Markup Language for Web
 * COLLADA: managed by the Khronos Group
 * O3D: developed by Google
 * U3D: Ecma International standard ECMA-363
 * X3D: successor of VRML
 * glTF: created by the Khronos Group, successor of Collada

title: VRML


text:
Rising Sun

Rising sun may refer to sunrise.

Rising Sun or The Rising Sun may also refer to:

Books

 * Rising Sun (Crichton novel), a 1992 Michael Crichton novel
 * The Rising Sun, Pulitzer Prize winning account by John Toland
 * Rising Sun (Conroy novel), a 2012 alternate history war novel by Robert Conroy
 * Rising Sun (manga), a 2012 manga series by Satoshi Fujiwara

Film and television

 * Rising Sun (film), a 1993 film based on the Michael Crichton novel
 * Rising Sun, version of Toonami, a former action cartoon block on Cartoon Network
 * Rising Sun Films, an Indian production company based in Mumbai
 * Rising Sun Pictures, an Australian visual effects company

Games

 * Rising Sun (board game), a miniature wargame
 * Rising Sun (video game), a World War II computer wargame by TalonSoft
 * Medal of Honor: Rising Sun, a 2003 World War II video game by EA Games

Music

 * Rising Sun Rock Festival, an annual festival in Otaru, Japan

Albums

 * Rising Sun (Aly & Fila album) (2010)
 * Rising Sun (Augustus Pablo album) (1986)
 * Rising Sun (Stray from the Path album) (2011)
 * Rising Sun (TVXQ album) (2005)

Songs

 * "Rising Sun", charting single for Medicine Head Number 11 – 1973
 * "Rising Sun" (Fats Domino song)
 * "Rising Sun", a song from the album Brainwashed by George Harrison
 * "Rising Sun", a song from the album East by Cold Chisel

United States

 * Rising Sun-Lebanon, Delaware
 * Rising Sun, Pope County, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 * Rising Sun, White County, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 * Rising Sun, Indiana, a city
 * Rising Sun, Maryland, a town
 * Rising Sun, Mississippi, an unincorporated community
 * Rising Sun (Montana), a wayside area
 * Rising Sun, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Rising Sun Auto Camp, Glacier National Park, Montana, on the National Register of Historic Places

United Kingdom

 * Rising Sun, Cornwall, a hamlet

Australia

 * The Rising Sun, historic pub in Kensington, Adelaide, South Australia
 * Rising Sun Inn, Millfield, a heritage-listed former post office, inn, general store and residence, Millfield, New South Wales

UK

 * Rising Sun, Carter Lane, London, a Grade II listed public house
 * Rising Sun, Cloth Fair, London, a historic pub
 * Rising Sun, Euston, London, a Grade II listed public house
 * Rising Sun, Fitzrovia, London, a Grade II listed public house
 * Rising Sun, Mill Hill, London, a Grade II listed public house

US

 * Rising Sun Inn, Anne Arundel County, Maryland
 * Rising Sun Tavern (North Haven, Connecticut)
 * Rising Sun Tavern (Fredericksburg, Virginia)

Schools

 * Rising Sun High School (Maryland), North East, Maryland
 * Rising Sun High School (Indiana), Rising Sun, Indiana

Other uses

 * Rising Sun (badge), an Australian Army badge
 * Rising Sun (character), a comic book character and Japanese superhero from DC Comics
 * Rising Sun (sculpture), a work by Adolph Alexander Weinman for the 1915 international exposition of San Francisco
 * Rising Sun (yacht), owned by David Geffen
 * Operation Rising Sun, a 1970s Cold War military intelligence program run by the Pakistani Directorate of Inter-Services Intelligence
 * Order of the Rising Sun, a Japanese honor
 * Cagayan Rising Suns, a Philippines Basketball Association Developmental League team

title: Rising Sun