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String quintet

A string quintet is a musical composition for five string players. As an extension to the string quartet (two violins, a viola, and a cello), a string quintet includes a fifth string instrument, usually a second viola (a so-called "viola quintet") or a second cello (a "cello quintet"), or occasionally a double bass.

Notable examples of classic "viola quintets", in four movement form include those of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Other examples were written by composers including Johannes Brahms and Felix Mendelssohn.

A famous "cello quintet" is Franz Schubert's Quintet in C major. Antonín Dvořák's Quintet Op. 77 uses a double bass, and Mozart's famous Eine kleine Nachtmusik may be performed with this instrumentation (the double bass being optional).

Alternative additions include clarinet or piano (see clarinet quintet, piano quintet); and other closely related chamber music genres include the string quartet (much more common), the string trio, and the string sextet. A more unusual form of string quintet is the violin quintet composed of 3 violins, a viola and a cello (thus a string quartet with an additional violin).

The term string quintet may refer to a group of five players that performs such works. The ensemble was standard in 17th century Italy and can be seen as early as 1607 in Claudio Monteverdi's opera, L'Orfeo.

List of viola quintets

 * Johann Georg Albrechtsberger – 19 String Quintets called "Sonatas" (1782–1803)
 * Franz Joseph Aumann – String Quintet "Divertimento" in C major (c.1760)
 * Arnold Bax – Quintet (1933)
 * Frank Bridge – Quintet in E minor (H15, 1901)
 * Ludwig van Beethoven – Quintet, Op. 29, sometimes called the Storm Quintet; a Fugue in D major for viola quintet, Op. 137; an arrangement of his Octet for Viola Quintet, Op. 4 (the original Octet was later published as Op.103); an arrangement of his Piano Trio Op. 1 No. 3 for Viola Quintet, Op. 104
 * Luigi Boccherini – twelve original Quintets, arrangements of all twelve of his Piano Quintets (Op.56 and Op.57) for Viola Quintet.
 * Johannes Brahms – two Quintets, Op. 88 and Op. 111; the first edition of the Clarinet Quintet Op. 115 included an alternate part for viola substituting for the clarinet
 * Max Bruch – Quintet in A minor
 * Anton Bruckner – String Quintet in F major (1879); Intermezzo in D minor (substitute for the scherzo)
 * Carson Cooman – Quintet (Unquiet Parables, 2009), Op 856
 * Brett Dean – Epitaph for string quintet (2010)
 * Antonín Dvořák – two Quintets, No. 1 in A minor and No. 3 in E♭ (the American Quintet)
 * Victor Ewald – a Quintet Op. 4 in A major
 * Eduard Franck – two Quintets, Op. 15 in E minor and Op. 51 in C Major
 * Florian Leopold Gassmann – Op. 2 six String Quintets H 501–506 (1772)
 * Friedrich Gernsheim – Quintet Op. 9 in D
 * Roy Harris – Quintet (1940)
 * Franz Joseph Haydn – Hob.II:2 Divertimento in G major (c.1754)
 * Heinrich von Herzogenberg – Quintet in C minor, Op.77 (1892)
 * Franz Anton Hoffmeister Op. 2 six Quintets (c.1782)
 * Klaus Huber – Ecce homines (1998)
 * Heinrich Kaminski – Quintet in F♯ minor (two versions, first 1916)
 * Franz Krommer – fifteen String Quintets
 * Johann Michael Malzat six String Quintets in F,G,B,A,E♭,C major
 * Bohuslav Martinů – Quintet (1927)
 * Felix Mendelssohn – two Quintets: No. 1 in A major, Op. 18 (1826, revised 1832) and No. 2 in B-flat major, Op.87 (1845)
 * Ernst Mielck – Quintet in F major (1897)
 * Darius Milhaud – Quintet Op. 325 (1953–1954)
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – six Quintets: K174, K406/516b, K515, K516, K593, K614
 * Carl Nielsen – Quintet in G major (1888)
 * George Onslow – five out of his thirty-four Quintets are with two violas; four are with double bass and the rest with two cellos (see below)
 * Hubert Parry – Quintet in E flat (1909 )
 * George Perle – Quintet (1958)
 * Josef Rheinberger – Quintet in A minor, Op. 82 (1874) (Carus-Verlag)
 * Ferdinand Ries – Seven Quintets, Op. 37 in C, Op. 68 in D minor, Op. 167 in A minor, Op. 171 in G, Op. 183 in E-flat, and two published without opus in A major and F minor (published in a series "Samtliche Streichquintette" edited by Jürgen Schmidt between 2003-5 for Accolade Musikverlag.)
 * Franz Schubert – "Quintet-Overture" for Quintet, D 8
 * Roger Sessions – Quintet (1958)
 * Robert Simpson – Quintet (1987)
 * Louis Spohr – seven Quintets
 * Charles Villiers Stanford – Two Quintets, Op. 85 & Op.86
 * Johan Svendsen – Quintet in C, Op. 5 (1868)
 * Sergei Taneyev – Quintet in C, Op. 16
 * Johann Baptist Wanhal – Six String Quintets (1774)
 * Ralph Vaughan Williams – Quintet (the Phantasy Quintet – 1912) and Nocturne and Scherzo (1904–1906)
 * Felix Weingartner – Quintet, his Op. 40
 * Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari - Quintet in C, Op. 24 (1939)
 * John Woolrich – The Death of King Renaud (1991)
 * Alexander von Zemlinsky – Quintet (1894–1896): 2 movements are lost

List of cello quintets

 * Arnold Bax – Quintet in G major (1908), the second movement of which was rescored by the composer for Viola Quintet and published as the Lyrical Interlude (1923);
 * Wilhelm Berger – Quintet in E minor, Op. 75 (1911)
 * Luigi Boccherini – one hundred and ten Quintets. The third movement Minuet of the Cello Quintet Op.11 No.5 is extremely well known.
 * Alexander Borodin – Quintet in F minor (1859–1860)
 * Luigi Cherubini – Quintet in E minor (1837)
 * Felix Otto Dessoff – Quintet, Op. 10
 * Friedrich Dotzauer – Quintet in D minor, Op. 134 (1835)
 * Felix Draeseke – Quintet in F, Op. 77 (1901)
 * Friedrich Gernsheim – Quintet Op. 89 in E♭
 * Alexander Glazunov – Quintet in A, Op. 39 (1892)
 * Karl Goldmark – Quintet in A minor, Op. 9 (1862)
 * Theodore Gouvy – Quintet in G, op 55 is on IMSLP
 * August Klughardt – Quintet in G minor, Op. 62 (1902)
 * Frank Martin – Pavane couleur du temps (Colour of weather Pavane), 1920, 7', For quintet.
 * Darius Milhaud – Quintet Op. 350 (1956)
 * George Onslow – twenty-five of his thirty-four string quintets are Cello Quintets; five are with two violas and four are with double bass
 * Einojuhani Rautavaara – Quintet "Les Cieux Inconnues" (Unknown Heavens, 1997)
 * Ottorino Respighi – Quintet in G minor (1901, incomplete)
 * Wolfgang Rihm – Epilog (2013)
 * George Rochberg – Quintet for Two Violins, Viola and Two Cellos (1982)
 * Franz Schubert – Cello Quintet, Op. post. 163, D 956
 * Peter Seabourne – Quintet for Two Violins, Viola and Two Cellos (2012)
 * Robert Simpson – Quintet (1995)
 * Ethel Smyth – Quintet in E major, Op. 1
 * Sergei Taneyev – Quintet in G, Op. 14 (1900–1901)
 * Ferdinand Thieriot – Streich-Quintett G-Dur, 1914; others with wind instruments
 * Carl Vine – String Quintet (2009)

String quintets for 3 violins, viola and cello

 * Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, String Quintet (1798)
 * Franz Clement, Introduction and Polonaise in E major (Polonaise für die Violine mit Begleitung von 2 Violinen, Viola und Violonzello)
 * Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, Polonaise, Op.17
 * Morton Feldman, Violin and String Quartet (1985)

 * Charles Martin Loeffler – one Violin Quintet (three violins, viola and cello)
 * Joseph Mayseder, Polonaise No.1, Op.10; Polonaise No.3, Op.12

 * Alessandro Rolla, Divertimento for Violin and String Quartet, BI 429
 * Franz Schubert, Rondo in A major for Violin and Strings, D 438
 * Louis Spohr, Potpourri No.2 in B♭ major (Potpourri on themes by Mozart for violin and string quartet (with bass ad libitum))

List of double bass quintets

 * Leslie Bassett – Quintet (1957)
 * Luigi Boccherini – three Quintets.
 * Antonín Dvořák – Quintet Op. 77 in G (1875)
 * Brian Ferneyhough – Christus Resurgens (2017)
 * Alistair Hinton – String Quintet (1969–77)
 * Vagn Holmboe – Quintet, Op. 165/M.326 (1986)
 * Darius Milhaud – Quintet Op. 316
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Serenade No. 13, K. 525, "Eine kleine Nachtmusik"
 * George Onslow – four out of his thirty-four String Quintets are with double bass; five with two violas and the rest with two cellos
 * Robert Paterson – I See You (2015) (for string quintet with double bass and recording)

String quintets for other combinations

 * Felix Draeseke – one Quintet in A for Two Violins, Viola, Violotta, and Cello (the Stelzner-Quintett; 1897); Draeseke also composed one Cello Quintet- in F, Op. 77 (1901)

Works making use of a string quintet

 * Nigel Keay – one Double Bass Quintet with Contralto, Tango Suite (2002)

title: String quintet


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Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Wilhelmina (Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 until her abdication in 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, making her the longest-reigning monarch in Dutch history, as well as the longest-reigning female monarch outside the United Kingdom. Her reign saw World War I, the Dutch economic crisis of 1933 and World War II.

The only surviving child of King William III of the Netherlands and Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, Wilhelmina ascended the throne at the age of 10 after her father's death in 1890, under her mother's regency. After taking charge of government, Wilhelmina became generally popular for maintaining Dutch neutrality during the First World War and solving many of her country's industrial problems. By that time, her business ventures had made her the world's first female billionaire in dollars.

Following the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940, Wilhelmina fled to Britain and took charge of the Dutch government-in-exile. She frequently spoke to the nation over radio and came to be regarded as a symbol of the resistance. By 1948, she had returned to the liberated Netherlands and was the only survivor of the 17 European monarchs who were sitting on their thrones at the time of her inauguration. Increasingly beset by poor health, Wilhelmina abdicated in favour of her daughter Juliana in September 1948 and retired to Het Loo Palace, where she died in 1962.

She remains reasonably popular in the Netherlands, even among the Dutch Republican movement. This is due to her being seen as a symbol of Dutch Resistance during World War II.

Youth

Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria of the Netherlands of Orange-Nassau was born on 31 August 1880, in Noordeinde Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. She was the only child of King William III and Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont. Her childhood was characterised by a close relationship with her parents, especially with her father, who was 63 years old when she was born. In her memoir, Lonely But Not Alone, Wilhelmina wrote that she recalled her father riding horses.

Under the Semi-Salic system of inheritance that was in place in the Netherlands until 1887, Wilhelmina was third in line to the throne from birth. Her father had had three sons with his first wife Sophie of Württemberg, but two of them had died before Wilhelmina's birth. The only other surviving male relatives from the House of Orange were his uncle Frederick, who died in 1881 when his daughter was one year old, and his third son Alexander, who died before she turned four. By 1887, the 70-year-old King finally abandoned the 'hope of a son' with his young wife and made the pragmatic decision to settle the throne upon his only surviving child.

King William III died on 23 November 1890 and 10-year-old Wilhelmina became Queen of the Netherlands, though her mother was named regent. In 1895, Wilhelmina visited Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who penned an evaluation in her diary: "The young Queen ... still has her hair hanging loose. She is very slight & graceful, has fine features, & seems to be very intelligent & a charming child. She speaks English extremely well & has very pretty manners."

On 6 September 1898, Wilhelmina was sworn-in at the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. She was well aware what was expected by the elected representatives, but was a strong-willed, forceful woman who spoke and acted her mind. She "hated" politicians and instead stated a love for the people. Reflecting popular opinion in the Netherlands at the time, Wilhelmina expressed a level of disdain towards the British for their annexations of the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State in the Boer War. The Boers were descended from Dutch colonists who migrated to the region while it was a Dutch colony, and the Dutch people, Wilhelmina included, felt a close level of affinity towards them. In one conversation with her former governess, the Briton Elisabeth Saxton Winter, Wilhelmina referred to the Boer commandos as "excellent shots." During the war, Wilhelmina ordered the Dutch cruiser HNLMS Gelderland to Portuguese East Africa with the order to evacuate Paul Kruger, the president of the South African Republic.

Marriage
On 7 February 1901 in The Hague, Queen Wilhelmina married Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Although she was devoted to her spouse at the time of their wedding, it proved in the long run to be an unhappy marriage that did little more than meet its obligation by producing an heir. Prince Henry was known to have had numerous extra-marital affairs, at least one of which resulted in illegitimate offspring. On 9 November, nine months after her marriage, Wilhelmina suffered a miscarriage. On 4 May 1902, she gave birth to a premature stillborn son. This may have been an abortion, needed to save her life after a typhoid infection. Her next pregnancy ended in another miscarriage on 23 July 1906. During this time Wilhelmina's heir presumptive was her first cousin once removed William Ernest, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Next in line was her cousin Marie Alexandrine of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

As it was assumed that the former would renounce his claim to the Dutch throne and that the latter was too elderly to become queen, Marie Alexandrine's eldest son, German Prince Heinrich XXXII Reuss of Köstritz, stood in line to succeed Wilhelmina if she had no surviving children. Prince Heinrich had close associations with the German Imperial family and military, so there were fears that were the Queen to remain childless, the Dutch Crown "was bound to pass into the possession of a German prince, whose birth, training, and affiliations would naturally have led him to bring Holland [sic] within the sphere of the German Empire, at the expense of its independence, both national and economic", according to one contemporary publication. The birth of Princess Juliana, on 30 April 1909, was met with great relief after eight years of her childless marriage. Wilhelmina, who formed a close relationship with her daughter, suffered two further miscarriages on 23 January and 20 October 1912.

World War I

Before the First World War began, Wilhelmina visited the powerful German Emperor Wilhelm II. The emperor thought he could impress the ruler of a relatively small country by telling her, "My guards are seven feet tall and yours are only shoulder-high to them." The queen smiled politely and replied, "Quite true, Your Majesty, your guards are seven feet tall. But when we open our dikes, the water is ten feet deep!" She was very wary of a German attack, especially in the beginning. Partly due to her political influence, the Netherlands remained neutral during World War I. However, the Allies included the Netherlands in their blockade of Germany, intercepting all Dutch ships and severely restricting Dutch imports to ensure that goods could not be passed on to Germany. Furthermore, the Russian Revolution by the Bolsheviks in 1917 cost the queen almost 20% of her financial assets.

Being a woman, Wilhelmina could not be the supreme commander, but still used every opportunity she had to inspect the Crown forces. She appeared without prior notice on many occasions to see reality instead of a prepared show. She wanted a small but well-trained and equipped army and was very unhappy with most of her governments, which were always eager to cut the military budget. In June 1917, Wilhelmina returned from a two-day visit to Zaltbommel on the train that derailed at Houten, but remained unharmed and helped to take care of the injured.

Civil unrest gripped the Netherlands after the war, spurred by the end of the Russian Empire. Instead of a violent revolution, Socialist leader Pieter Jelles Troelstra wanted to abolish the existing government and the monarchy by winning control of Parliament in an election with the support of the working class. However, Wilhelmina's popularity helped restore confidence in the government. She brought about a mass show of support by riding alongside her daughter through the crowds in an open carriage.

At the end of World War I, Kaiser Wilhelm fled to the Netherlands, where he was granted political asylum, partly owing to his familial links with the royal family. In response to Allied efforts to get their hands on the deposed Kaiser, Wilhelmina called the Allies' ambassadors to her presence and lectured them on the rights of asylum.

Interwar period

Wilhelmina had a keen understanding of business matters. She used her personal wealth inherited from her family to make several investments in the United States, which eventually made her the world's richest woman and first female billionaire in dollars. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Netherlands began to emerge as an industrial power with the help of the Queen's funds. Engineers reclaimed vast amounts of land that had been under water by building the Zuiderzee Works, the largest hydraulic engineering project undertaken by the Netherlands during the 20th century. Its main purposes were to improve flood protection and create additional land for agriculture.

In 1939, the government proposed a refugee camp near the city of Apeldoorn for German Jews fleeing the Nazi regime. However, Wilhelmina intervened because she felt the planned location was "too close" to the royal family's summer residence. Indeed if spies were to be among the fugitives, they would be within walking distance of Het Loo Palace. After long discussions, the camp was finally erected about 10 km from the village of Westerbork.

Aside from economical and security matters, Queen Wilhelmina used most of the 1930s to find a suitable husband for Juliana. This was a difficult task since she was very religious and insisted that her daughter's husband would be a Protestant of royal birth. Many prospects from the United Kingdom and Sweden either declined or were turned down by Juliana. Finally, mother and daughter found a suitable match in German Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Wilhelmina had her lawyers draft a very detailed prenuptial agreement that specified exactly what her future son-in-law could and could not do.

World War II
On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands. Despite her hostility towards the British, the almost sixty-year-old Queen Wilhelmina and her family fled The Hague and boarded HMS Hereward, a British destroyer sent by King George VI to take them across the North Sea. There is an ongoing debate about the royal family's departure. Some say that an evacuation to the United Kingdom had been planned some time in advance, since at least the end of 1939. Others say the queen boarded the destroyer with the intent of going to the Dutch province of Zeeland, which had not yet been conquered. However, along the journey, it became clear that due to advancing German forces, Zeeland was not safe either, forcing the destroyer to sail for the United Kingdom. In any case, she arrived in the United Kingdom on 13 May, planning to return to the Netherlands as soon as possible. The Dutch armed forces in the Netherlands, apart from those in Zeeland, surrendered on 15 May.

In Britain, Queen Wilhelmina took charge of the Dutch government in exile, setting up a chain of command and immediately communicating a message to her people. Relations between the new Dutch government and the queen were tense, with mutual dislike growing as the war progressed. She went on to be the most prominent figure, owing to her experience and knowledge, which earned her respect and support among the other leaders of the world. On the other hand, the new Dutch government did not have a parliament to back them and had few employees to assist them. The Dutch prime minister, Dirk Jan de Geer, believed the Allies would not win and intended to open negotiations with Germany for a separate peace. Therefore, Wilhelmina sought to remove De Geer from power. With the aid of minister Pieter Gerbrandy, she succeeded.

During the war, Queen Wilhelmina's photograph was a sign of resistance against the Germans. Like Winston Churchill, Wilhelmina broadcast messages to the Dutch people over Radio Oranje. She called Adolf Hitler "the arch-enemy of mankind". Her late-night broadcasts were eagerly awaited by her people, who had to hide to listen to them illegally. An anecdote published in her New York Times obituary illustrates how she was valued by her subjects during this period:

"Although celebration of the Queen's birthday was forbidden by the Germans, it was commemorated nevertheless. When churchgoers in the small fishing town of Huizen rose and sang one verse of the Dutch national anthem, Wilhelmus van Nassauwe, on the Queen's birthday, the town paid a fine of 60,000 guilders."

Queen Wilhelmina visited the United States from 24 June to 11 August 1942 as a guest of the U.S. government. She vacationed in Lee, Massachusetts and visited New York City, Boston, and Albany, New York. In the latter city, she attended the 300th anniversary celebration of the First Church in Albany, established by Dutch settlers in the 17th century. She addressed the U.S. Congress on 5 August 1942 and was the first queen to do so. Shortly afterwards, Wilhelmina went to Canada in 1943 to attend the christening of her new granddaughter Margriet on 29 June 1943 in Ottawa and stayed a while with her family before returning to the United Kingdom.

During Operation Steinbock, Queen Wilhelmina was almost killed by a bomb that took the lives of several of her guards and severely damaged her residence near South Mimms in England. In 1944, Wilhelmina became the first woman since the 15th century, other than queens of the United Kingdom, to be inducted into the Order of the Garter. Churchill described her as "the only real man among the governments-in-exile" in London.

In England, Queen Wilhelmina developed ideas about a new political and social life for the Dutch after the liberation, wanting to create a strong cabinet formed by people active in the resistance. She dismissed De Geer and installed a new prime minister with the approval of other Dutch politicians. When the Netherlands was liberated in 1945, the queen was disappointed to see the same political factions taking power as before the war. In mid-March 1945, she travelled to the liberated areas of the southern Netherlands, visiting the region of Walcheren and the city of Eindhoven where she received a rapturous welcome from the local population. On 2 May 1945, she went to stay in a small country estate called Anneville located just south of Breda with Juliana and adjuncts Peter Tazelaar, Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema and fellow Engelandvaarder Rie Stokvis. Anneville was the scene of a number of processions where the residents of Breda and the surrounding communities came to greet their Queen. She remained there for a little over six weeks.

Shortly after the war, Queen Wilhelmina wanted to give an award to the Polish Parachute Brigade for their actions during Operation Market Garden and wrote the government a request. The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Eelco van Kleffens, opposed the idea because he thought an award for the Poles would upset relations with the 'Big Three' and harm national interests. Eventually the Polish Parachute Brigade were awarded the Military Order of William on 31 May 2006, 61 years after Operation Market Garden.

Later years

Following the end of World War II, Queen Wilhelmina made the decision not to return to her palace but to move into a mansion in The Hague, where she lived for eight months. She travelled through the countryside to motivate people, sometimes using a bicycle instead of a car. However, in 1947, while the country was still recovering, the nationalist rebellion in the oil-rich Dutch East Indies saw the sharp criticism of the queen by the Dutch economic elite.

Around the same time, Queen Wilhelmina's health started failing, forcing her to cede her monarchial duties to Princess Juliana temporarily towards the end of 1947 (14 October – 1 December). She considered abdication, but her daughter pressed her to stay on for the stability of the nation. Wilhelmina had every intention of doing so, but exhaustion forced her to relinquish monarchial duties to Juliana again on 12 May 1948, which left the princess to deal with the early elections caused by the ceding of the Indonesian colonies.

Dismayed by the return to pre-war politics and the pending loss of Indonesia, Wilhelmina abdicated on 4 September 1948 after a reign of 57 years and 286 days due to advancing age and illness. She passed the crown to Juliana and was hence forward styled "Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina of the Netherlands". Since then, the influence of the Dutch monarchy continued to decline but the country's love for its royal family continued.

No longer queen, Wilhelmina retreated to Het Loo Palace, making few public appearances until the country was devastated by the North Sea flood of 1953. Once again, she travelled around the country to encourage and motivate the Dutch people. During her last years, she wrote her autobiography, entitled Eenzaam, maar niet alleen (Lonely but Not Alone), in which she gave her account of the events in her life and revealed her strong religious feelings.

Wilhelmina died of cardiac arrest in Het Loo Palace at the age of 82 on 28 November 1962. She was buried in the Dutch royal family crypt in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft, on 8 December. At her request and contrary to protocol, the funeral was completely in white to give expression to her belief that earthly death was the beginning of eternal life.

In addition to being the last male-line descendant of the House of Orange-Nassau, she was also the last great-grandchild of Emperor Paul I of Russia.

In popular culture

 * Queen Wilhelmina appears in two videogames: as the leader in Sid Meier's Civilization VI in the Rise and Fall expansion, and as leader of the Netherlands in Hearts of Iron IV if the Monarchist path is chosen.
 * She was portrayed by Andrea Domburg in Paul Verhoeven's 1977 film Soldier of Orange.

Titles and styles

 * 31 August 1880 – 21 June 1884: Her Royal Highness Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau
 * 21 June 1884 – 23 November 1890: Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina of Orange-Nassau
 * 23 November 1890 – 4 September 1948: Her Majesty Queen Wilhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau
 * 4 September 1948 – 28 November 1962: Her Royal Highness Princess Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Wilhelmina's full regnal title from her accession to her marriage was: "Wilhelmina, by the Grace of God, Queen of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Duchess of Limburg, etc." She adopted her husband's ducal title upon marriage as customary, becoming also a duchess of Mecklenburg.

Honours

 * Netherlands:
 * Grand Master of the Military William Order, 1890; Grand Cross, 4 September 1948
 * Grand Master of the Order of the Netherlands Lion, 1890
 * Grand Master of the Order of Orange-Nassau, 1890
 * Joint Grand Master of the Order of the Gold Lion of Nassau, 1890
 * Grand Master of the Order of the House of Orange, 1890
 * Founder of the Johanniter Order, 1909

Since Wilhelmina received no Dutch honours before ascending the throne aged ten and resigned the position of grand master when she abdicated in 1948, she was in the unusual position of being a Dutch princess and former queen who did not hold a Dutch honour. Her daughter and successor therefore appointed her Grand Cross of the Military William Order in her first act as Queen. This was the only Dutch honour she ever held in her life in a personal capacity.

Foreign
• Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Family: Grand Cross of the Order of Elizabeth, 1901

• Belgium:

• * Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (civil), August 1898

• * Croix de Guerre Medal

• Brazil: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross

• Czechoslovakia: Collar of the White Lion, 1929

• Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 5 September 1922

• Ethiopian Imperial Family: Collar of the Order of Solomon

• Finland: Collar of the White Rose, with Star, 1932

• France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, April 1898

• German Imperial and Royal Family: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 30 May 1901

• * Mecklenburg Grand Ducal Family: Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Bronze Crown, 7 February 1901

• * Oldenburg Grand Ducal Family: Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig

• Greek Royal Family: Grand Cross of the Redeemer

• Guatemala: Grand Cross of the Quetzal

• Japan: Grand Cordon of the Precious Crown, 8 August 1899

• Luxembourg:

• * Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau

• * Grand Cross of the Oak Crown

• Military Order of Malta: Dame of Honour and Devotion

• Norway: Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 15 September 1922

• Persian Imperial Family: Order of the Sun, 1st Class

• Peru: Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru, in Diamonds, 1922

• Poland: Knight of the White Eagle

• Portuguese Royal Family:

• * Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel

• * Grand Cross of the Sash of the Three Orders, 7 February 1901

• Romanian Royal Family:

• * Grand Cross of the Star of Romania

• * Grand Collar of the Order of Carol I

• Russian Imperial Family: Grand Cross of St. Catherine

• Siam: Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 7 September 1897

• Spanish Royal Family:

• * Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 22 December 1890

• * Dame of the Collar of the Order of Charles III

• * Dame of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic

• Sweden: Member of the Order of the Seraphim, 9 September 1922

• Turkish Imperial Family: Grand Cross of the Order of Charity

• United Kingdom:

• * Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 1st Class, 1898

• * Associate Dame Grand Cross of St. John, 19 June 1941

• * Stranger Lady Companion of the Garter, 24 September 1944

• Yugoslavian Royal Family: Grand Cross of the White Eagle

Eponyms

 * Queen Wilhelmina State Park in Arkansas, and Wilhelmina Bay in Antarctica are named for Queen Wilhelmina.
 * In 1892, the company Fortuin celebrated its 50th anniversary by producing peppermint candy with the image of the 12-year-old Princess Wilhelmina, which have continued in production since then. Among Dutch sweets, these mints have become the "most Dutch of all".

Ancestry
After Wilhelmina had taken office in 1890, rumours were spread by Socialist satirical magazine De Roode Duivel ("The Red Devil") that William III was not her real father, but Emma's confidant, Sebastiaan Mattheus Sigismund de Ranitz (1846-1916). This would undermine the legitimacy of the Queen's reign. Although no hard evidence exists for the allegations and the consensus amongst historians is that they are false, the rumours were stubborn and still feature in conspiracy theories circulating in republican circles. The author of the rumour, the later parliamentarian and senator Louis Maximiliaan Hermans, was sentenced to six months imprisonment for lèse-majesté in 1895 for a different article and cartoon in De Roode Duivel, mocking the two queens.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wilhelmina of the Netherlands


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Thomas Eakins

Thomas Cowperthwait Eakins (July 25, 1844 – June 25, 1916) was an American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and fine arts educator. He is widely acknowledged to be one of the most important American artists.

For the length of his professional career, from the early 1870s until his health began to fail some 40 years later, Eakins worked exactingly from life, choosing as his subject the people of his hometown of Philadelphia. He painted several hundred portraits, usually of friends, family members, or prominent people in the arts, sciences, medicine, and clergy. Taken en masse, the portraits offer an overview of the intellectual life of contemporary Philadelphia of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In addition, Eakins produced a number of large paintings that brought the portrait out of the drawing room and into the offices, streets, parks, rivers, arenas, and surgical amphitheaters of his city. These active outdoor venues allowed him to paint the subject that most inspired him: the nude or lightly clad figure in motion. In the process, he could model the forms of the body in full sunlight, and create images of deep space utilizing his studies in perspective. Eakins took keen interest in new motion photography, a field in which he is now seen as an innovator.

Eakins was also an educator, and his instruction was a highly influential presence in American art. The difficulties he encountered as an artist were seeking to paint portraits and figures realistically as behavioral and sexual scandals truncated his success and challenged his reputation.

Eakins was a controversial figure whose work received little recognition during his lifetime. Since his death, he has been celebrated by American art historians as "the strongest, most profound realist in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century American art".

Early life and education
Eakins was born and lived most of his life in Philadelphia. He was the first child of Caroline Cowperthwait Eakins, a woman of English and Dutch descent, and Benjamin Eakins, a writing master and calligraphy teacher of Scottish and Irish ancestry. His father grew up on a farm in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the son of a weaver. He was successful in his chosen profession, and moved to Philadelphia in the early 1840s, to raise his family. Thomas Eakins observed his father at work and by twelve demonstrated skill in precise line drawing, perspective, and the use of a grid to lay out a careful design, all skills he later applied to his art.

Eakins was an athletic child who enjoyed rowing, ice skating, swimming, wrestling, sailing, and gymnastics; he later used these as subjects in his painting and encouraged them in his students. Eakins attended Central High School in Philadelphia, the premier public school for applied science and arts in the city, where he excelled in mechanical drawing. Thomas met fellow artist and lifelong friend Charles Lewis Fussell in high school, and they reunited at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, where Thomas enrolled in 1861. At Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Eakins enrolled in courses in anatomy and dissection at Jefferson Medical College from 1864 to 1865. For a while, he followed his father's profession and was listed in city directories as a writing teacher. His scientific interest in the human body led him to consider becoming a surgeon.

Eakins then studied art in Europe from 1866 to 1870, including with Jean-Léon Gérôme in Paris; he was only the second American pupil of the French realist painter, who was known as a master of Orientalism. Eakins also attended the atelier of Léon Bonnat, a realist painter who emphasized anatomical preciseness, a method adapted by Eakins. While studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, he seems to have taken scant interest in the new Impressionist movement, nor was he impressed by what he perceived as the classical pretensions of the French Academy. A letter home to his father in 1868 made his aesthetic clear:

"She [the female nude] is the most beautiful thing there is in the world except a naked man, but I never yet saw a study of one exhibited... It would be a godsend to see a fine man model painted in the studio with the bare walls, alongside of the smiling smirking goddesses of waxy complexion amidst the delicious arsenic green trees and gentle wax flowers & purling streams running melodious up & down the hills especially up. I hate affectation."

Already at age 24, "nudity and verity were linked with an unusual closeness in his mind." Yet his desire for truthfulness was more expansive, and the letters home to Philadelphia reveal a passion for realism that included, but was not limited to, the study of the figure.

A trip to Spain for six months confirmed his admiration for the realism of artists such as Diego Velázquez and Jusepe de Ribera. In Seville in 1869, he painted Carmelita Requeña (image link), a portrait of a seven-year-old Romani dancer more freely and colorfully painted than his Paris studies. That same year he attempted his first large oil painting, A Street Scene in Seville (image link), wherein he first dealt with the complications of a scene observed outside the studio. Although he failed to matriculate in a formal degree program and had showed no works in the European salons, Eakins succeeded in absorbing the techniques and methods of French and Spanish masters, and he began to formulate his artistic vision which he demonstrated in his first major painting upon his return to America. "I shall seek to achieve my broad effect from the very beginning", he declared.

Career
Eakins' first works upon his return from Europe included a large group of rowing scenes, eleven oils and watercolors in all, of which the first and most famous is Max Schmitt in a Single Scull (1871; also known as The Champion Single Sculling). Both his subject and his technique drew attention. His selection of a contemporary sport was "a shock to the artistic conventionalities of the city". Eakins placed himself in the painting, in a scull behind Schmitt, his name inscribed on the boat.

Typically, the work entailed critical observation of the painting's subject, and preparatory drawings of the figure and perspective plans of the scull in the water. Its preparation and composition indicates the importance of Eakins' academic training in Paris. It was a completely original conception, true to Eakins' firsthand experience, and an almost startlingly successful image for the artist, who had struggled with his first outdoor composition less than a year before. His first known sale was the watercolor The Sculler (1874). Most critics judged the rowing pictures successful and auspicious, but after the initial flourish, Eakins never revisited the subject of rowing and went on to other sports themes.

At the same time that he made these initial ventures into outdoor themes, Eakins produced a series of domestic Victorian interiors, often with his father, his sisters or friends as the subjects. Home Scene (1871; image link), Elizabeth at the Piano (1875; image link), The Chess Players (1876), and Elizabeth Crowell and her Dog (1874; image link), each dark in tonality, focus on the unsentimental characterization of individuals adopting natural attitudes in their homes.

It was in this vein that in 1872 he painted his first large scale portrait, Kathrin (image link), in which the subject, Kathrin Crowell, is seen in dim light, playing with a kitten. In 1874, Eakins and Crowell became engaged; they were still engaged five years later, when Crowell died of meningitis in 1879.

Teaching and forced resignation
Eakins returned to the Pennsylvania Academy to teach in 1876 as a volunteer after the opening of the school's new Frank Furness designed building. He became a salaried professor in 1878, and rose to director in 1882. His teaching methods were controversial: there was no drawing from antique casts, and students received only a short study in charcoal, followed quickly by their introduction to painting, in order to grasp subjects in true color as soon as practical. He encouraged students to use photography as an aid to understanding anatomy and the study of motion, and disallowed prize competitions. Although there was no specialized vocational instruction, students with aspirations for using their school training for applied arts, such as illustration, lithography, and decoration, were as welcome as students interested in becoming portrait artists.

Most notable was his interest in the instruction of all aspects of the human figure, including anatomical study of the human and animal body, and surgical dissection; there were also rigorous courses in the fundamentals of form, and studies in perspective which involved mathematics. As an aid to the study of anatomy, plaster casts were made from dissections, duplicates of which were furnished to students. A similar study was made of the anatomy of horses; acknowledging Eakins' expertise, in 1891 his friend, the sculptor William Rudolf O'Donovan, asked him to collaborate on the commission to create bronze equestrian reliefs of Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant, for the Soldiers' and Sailors' Arch in Grand Army Plaza in Brooklyn.

Owing to Eakins' devotion to working from life, the academy's course of study was by the early 1880s the most "liberal and advanced in the world". Eakins believed in teaching by example and letting the students find their own way with only terse guidance. His students included painters, cartoonists, and illustrators such as Henry Ossawa Tanner, Thomas Pollock Anshutz, Edward Willis Redfield, Colin Campbell Cooper, Alice Barber Stephens, Frederick Judd Waugh, T. S. Sullivant and A. B. Frost.

He stated his teaching philosophy bluntly, "A teacher can do very little for a pupil & should only be thankful if he don't hinder him ... and the greater the master, mostly the less he can say." He believed that women should "assume professional privileges" as would men. Life classes and dissection were segregated but women had access to male models (who were nude but wore loincloths).

The line between impartiality and questionable behavior was a thin one. When a female student, Amelia Van Buren, asked about the movement of the pelvis, Eakins invited her to his studio, where he undressed and "gave her the explanation as I could not have done by words only". Such incidents, coupled with the ambitions of his younger associates to oust him and take over the school themselves, created tensions between him and the academy's board of directors. He was ultimately forced to resign in 1886, for removing the loincloth of a male model in a class where female students were present.

The forced resignation was a major setback for Eakins. His family was split, with his in-laws siding against him in public dispute. He struggled to protect his name against rumors and false charges, had bouts of ill health, and suffered a humiliation which he felt for the rest of his life. A drawing manual he had written and prepared illustrations for remained unfinished and unpublished during his lifetime. Eakins' popularity among the students was such that a number of them broke with the academy and formed the Art Students' League of Philadelphia (1886–1893), where Eakins subsequently instructed. It was there that he met the student Samuel Murray, who would become his protege and lifelong friend. He also lectured and taught at a number of other schools, including the Art Students League of New York, the National Academy of Design, Cooper Union, and the Art Students' Guild in Washington DC. Dismissed in March 1895 by the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia for again using a fully nude male model, he gradually withdrew from teaching by 1898.

Photography
Eakins has been credited with having "introduced the camera to the American art studio". During his study abroad, he was exposed to the use of photography by the French realists, though the use of photography was still frowned upon as a shortcut by traditionalists. In the late 1870s, Eakins was introduced to the photographic motion studies of Eadweard Muybridge, particularly the equine studies, and became interested in using the camera to study sequential movement. In 1883, Muybridge gave a lecture at the academy, arranged by Eakins and University of Pennsylvania (Penn) trustee Fairman Rogers. A group of Philadelphians, including Penn Provost William Pepper and the publisher J. B. Lippincott recruited Muybridge to work at Penn under their sponsorship. In 1884, Eakins worked briefly alongside Muybridge in the latter's photographic studio at the northeast corner of 36th and Pine streets in Philadelphia.

Eakins soon performed his own independent motion studies, also usually involving the nude figure, and even developed his own technique for capturing movement on film. Whereas Muybridge's system relied on a series of cameras triggered to produce a sequence of individual photographs, Eakins preferred to use a single camera to produce a series of exposures superimposed on one negative. Eakins was more interested in precision measurements on a single image to aid in translating a motion into a painting, while Muybridge preferred separate images that could also be displayed by his primitive movie projector.

After Eakins obtained a camera in 1880, several paintings, such as Mending the Net (1881; image link) and Arcadia (1883; image link), are known to have been derived at least in part from his photographs. Some figures appear to be detailed transcriptions and tracings from the photographs by some device like a magic lantern, which Eakins then took pains to cover up with oil paint. Eakins' methods appear to be meticulously applied, and rather than shortcuts, were likely used in a quest for accuracy and realism.

An excellent example of Eakins' use of this new technology is his painting A May Morning in the Park, which relied heavily on photographic motion studies to depict the true gait of the four horses pulling the coach of patron Rogers. But in typical fashion, Eakins also employed wax figures and oil sketches to get the final effect he desired.

The so-called "Naked Series", which began in 1883, were nude photos of students and professional models which were taken to show real human anatomy from several specific angles, and were often hung and displayed for study at the school. Later, less regimented poses were taken indoors and out, of men, women, and children, including his wife. The most provocative, and the only ones combining males and females, were nude photos of Eakins and a female model (see below). Although witnesses and chaperones were usually on site, and the poses were mostly traditional in nature, the sheer quantity of the photos and Eakins' overt display of them may have undermined his standing at the academy. In all, about eight hundred photographs are now attributed to Eakins and his circle, most of which are figure studies, both clothed and nude, and portraits. No other American artist of his time matched Eakins' interest in photography, nor produced a comparable body of photographic works.

Eakins used photography for his own private ends as well. Aside from nude men, and women, he also photographed nude children. While the photographs of the nude adults are more artistically composed, the younger children and infants are posed less formally. These photographs, that are "charged with sexual overtones", as Susan Danly and Cheryl Leibold write, are of unidentified children. In the catalog of Eakins' collection at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, photograph number 308 is of an African American child reclining on a couch and posed as Venus. Both Saidiya Hartman and Fred Moten write, respectively, about the photograph, and the child that it arrests.

Portraits
According to one reviewer in 1876: "This portrait of Dr. Gross is a great work—we know of nothing greater that has ever been executed in America".

"I will never have to give up painting, for even now I could paint heads good enough to make a living anywhere in America."

For Eakins, portraiture held little interest as a means of fashionable idealization or even simple verisimilitude. Instead, it provided the opportunity to reveal the character of an individual through the modeling of solid anatomical form. This meant that, notwithstanding his youthful optimism, Eakins would never be a commercially successful portrait painter, as few paid commissions came his way. But his total output of some two hundred and fifty portraits is characterized by "an uncompromising search for the unique human being".

Often this search for individuality required that the subject be painted in his own daily working environment. Eakins' Portrait of Professor Benjamin H. Rand (1874) was a prelude to what many consider his most important work.

In The Gross Clinic (1875), a renowned Philadelphia surgeon, Dr. Samuel D. Gross, is seen presiding over an operation to remove part of a diseased bone from a patient's thigh. Gross lectures in an amphitheater crowded with students at Jefferson Medical College. Eakins spent nearly a year on the painting, again choosing a novel subject, the discipline of modern surgery, in which Philadelphia was in the forefront. He initiated the project and may have had the goal of a grand work befitting a showing at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. Though rejected for the Art Gallery, the painting was shown on the centennial grounds at an exhibit of a U.S. Army Post Hospital. In sharp contrast, another Eakins submission, The Chess Players, was accepted by the committee and was much admired at the Centennial Exhibition, and critically praised.

At 96 by 78 inches (240 × 200 cm), The Gross Clinic is one of the artist's largest works, and considered by some to be his greatest. Eakins' high expectations at the start of the project were recorded in a letter, "What elates me more is that I have just got a new picture blocked in and it is very far better than anything I have ever done. As I spoil things less and less in finishing I have the greatest hopes of this one" But if Eakins hoped to impress his home town with the picture, he was to be disappointed; public reaction to the painting of a realistic surgical incision and the resultant blood was ambivalent at best, and it was finally purchased by the college for the unimpressive sum of $200. Eakins borrowed it for subsequent exhibitions, where it drew strong reactions, such as that of the New York Daily Tribune, which both acknowledged and damned its powerful image, "but the more one praises it, the more one must condemn its admission to a gallery where men and women of weak nerves must be compelled to look at it. For not to look it is impossible...No purpose is gained by this morbid exhibition, no lesson taught—the painter shows his skill and the spectators' gorge rises at it—that is all." The college now describes it thus: "Today the once maligned picture is celebrated as a great nineteenth-century medical history painting, featuring one of the most superb portraits in American art".

In 1876, Eakins completed a portrait of Dr. John Brinton, surgeon of the Philadelphia Hospital, and famed for his Civil War service. Done in a more informal setting than The Gross Clinic, it was a personal favorite of Eakins, and The Art Journal proclaimed "it is in every respect a more favorable example of this artist's abilities than his much-talked-of composition representing a dissecting room."

Other outstanding examples of his portraits include The Agnew Clinic (1889), Eakins' most important commission and largest painting, which depicted another eminent American surgeon, Dr. David Hayes Agnew, performing a mastectomy; The Dean's Roll Call (1899; image link), featuring Dr. James W. Holland, and Professor Leslie W. Miller (1901; image link), portraits of educators standing as if addressing an audience; a portrait of Frank Hamilton Cushing (c. 1895), in which the prominent ethnologist is seen performing an incantation at the Zuñi pueblo; Professor Henry A. Rowland (1897; image link), a brilliant scientist whose study of spectroscopy revolutionized his field; Antiquated Music (1900), in which Mrs. William D. Frishmuth is shown seated amidst her collection of musical instruments; and The Concert Singer (1890–1892), for which Eakins asked Weda Cook to sing "O rest in the Lord", so that he could study the muscles of her throat and mouth. To replicate the proper deployment of a baton, Eakins enlisted an orchestral conductor to pose for the hand seen in the lower left-hand corner of the painting.

Of Eakins' later portraits, many took as their subjects women who were friends or students. Unlike most portrayals of women at the time, they are devoid of glamor and idealization. For Portrait of Letitia Wilson Jordan (1888; image link), Eakins painted the sitter wearing the same evening dress in which he had seen her at a party. She is a substantial presence, a vision quite different from the era's fashionable portraiture. So, too, his Portrait of Maud Cook (1895), where the obvious beauty of the subject is noted with "a stark objectivity".

The portrait of Miss Amelia Van Buren (c. 1890), a friend and former pupil, suggests the melancholy of a complex personality, and has been called "the finest of all American portraits". Even Susan Macdowell Eakins, a strong painter and former student who married Eakins in 1884, was not sentimentalized: despite its richness of color, The Artist's Wife and His Setter Dog (c. 1884–1889) is a penetratingly candid portrait.

Some of his most vivid portraits resulted from a late series done for the Catholic clergy, which included paintings of a cardinal, archbishops, bishops, and monsignors. As usual, most of the sitters were engaged at Eakins' request, and were given the portraits when Eakins had completed them. In portraits of His Eminence Sebastiano Cardinal Martinelli (1902; image link), Archbishop William Henry Elder (1903), and Monsignor James P. Turner (c. 1906; image link), Eakins took advantage of the brilliant vestments of the offices to animate the compositions in a way not possible in his other male portraits.

Deeply affected by his dismissal from the academy, Eakins focused his later career on portraiture, such as his 1905 Portrait of Professor William S. Forbes. His steadfast insistence on his own vision of realism, in addition to his notoriety from his school scandals, combined to hurt his income in later years. Even as he approached these portraits with the skill of a highly trained anatomist, what is most noteworthy is the intense psychological presence of his sitters. However, it was precisely for this reason that his portraits were often rejected by the sitters or their families. As a result, Eakins came to rely on his friends and family members to model for portraits. His portrait of Walt Whitman (1887–1888) was the poet's favorite.

The figure
Eakins' lifelong interest in the figure, nude or nearly so, took several thematic forms. The rowing paintings of the early 1870s constitute the first series of figure studies. In Eakins' largest picture on the subject, The Biglin Brothers Turning the Stake (1873; image link), the muscular dynamism of the body is given its fullest treatment.

In the 1877 painting William Rush and His Model, he painted the female nude as integral to a historical subject, even though there is no evidence that the model who posed for Rush did so in the nude. The Centennial Exhibition of 1876 helped foster a revival in interest in Colonial America and Eakins participated with an ambitious project employing oil studies, wax and wood models, and finally the portrait in 1877. William Rush was a celebrated Colonial sculptor and ship carver, a revered example of an artist-citizen who figured prominently in Philadelphia civic life, and a founder of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where Eakins started teaching.

Despite his sincerely depicted reverence for Rush, Eakins' treatment of the human body once again drew criticism. This time it was the nude model and her heaped-up clothes depicted front and center, with Rush relegated to the deep shadows in the left background, that stirred dissatisfaction. Nonetheless, Eakins found a subject that referenced his native city and an earlier Philadelphia artist, and allowed for an assay on the female nude seen from behind.

When he returned to the subject many years later, the narrative became more personal: In William Rush and His Model (1908), gone are the chaperon and detailed interior of the earlier work. The professional distance between sculptor and model has been eliminated, and the relationship has become intimate. In one version of the painting from that year, the nude is seen from the front, being helped down from the model stand by an artist who bears a strong resemblance to Eakins.

The Swimming Hole (1884–85) features Eakins' finest studies of the nude, in his most successfully constructed outdoor picture. The figures are those of his friends and students, and include a self-portrait. Although there are photographs by Eakins which relate to the painting, the picture's powerful pyramidal composition and sculptural conception of the individual bodies are completely distinctive pictorial resolutions. The work was painted on commission, but was refused.

In the late 1890s Eakins returned to the male figure, this time in a more urban setting. Taking the Count (1896), a painting of a prizefight, was his second largest canvas, but not his most successful composition. The same may be said of Wrestlers (1899). More successful was Between Rounds (1899), for which boxer Billy Smith posed seated in his corner at Philadelphia's Arena; in fact, all the principal figures were posed by models re-enacting what had been an actual fight. Salutat (1898), a frieze-like composition in which the main figure is isolated, "is one of Eakins' finest achievements in figure-painting."

Although Eakins was agnostic, he painted The Crucifixion in 1880. (image link) Art historian Akela Reason says:

"Eakins's selection of this subject has puzzled some art historians who, unable to reconcile what appears to be an anomalous religious image by a reputedly agnostic artist, have related it solely to Eakins's desire for realism, thus divesting the painting of its religious content. Lloyd Goodrich, for example, considered this illustration of Christ's suffering completely devoid of 'religious sentiment' and suggested that Eakins intended it simply as a realist study of the male nude body. As a result, art historians have frequently associated 'Crucifixion' (like Swimming) with Eakins's strong interest in anatomy and the nude."

In his later years Eakins persistently asked his female portrait models to pose in the nude, a practice which would have been all but prohibited in conventional Philadelphia society. Inevitably, his desires were frustrated.

Personal life and marriage
The nature of Eakins' sexuality and its impact on his art is a matter of intense scholarly debate. Strong circumstantial evidence points to discussion during Eakins's lifetime that he had homosexual tendencies, and there is little doubt that he was attracted to men, as evidenced in his photography, and three major paintings where male buttocks are a focal point: The Gross Clinic, Salutat, and The Swimming Hole. The last, in which Eakins appears, is increasingly seen as sensuous and autobiographical.

Until recently, major Eakins scholars persistently denied he was homosexual, and such discussion was marginalized. While there is still no consensus, today discussion of homoerotic desire plays a large role in Eakins scholarship. The discovery of a large trove of Eakins' personal papers in 1984 has also driven reassessment of his life.

Eakins met Emily Sartain, daughter of John Sartain, while studying at the academy. Their romance floundered after Eakins moved to Paris to study, and she accused him of immorality. It is likely Eakins had told her of frequenting places where prostitutes assembled. The son of Eakins' physician also reported that Eakins had been "very loose sexually—went to France, where there are no morals, and the French morality suited him to a T".

In 1884, at age 40, Eakins married Susan Hannah Macdowell, the daughter of a Philadelphia engraver. Two years earlier Eakins' sister Margaret, who had acted as his secretary and personal servant, had died of typhoid. It has been suggested that Eakins married to replace her. Macdowell was 25 when Eakins met her at the Hazeltine Gallery where The Gross Clinic was being exhibited in 1875. Unlike many, she was impressed by the controversial painting and she decided to study with him at the academy, which she attended for six years, adopting a sober, realistic style similar to her teacher's. Macdowell was an outstanding student and winner of the Mary Smith Prize for the best painting by a matriculating woman artist.

During their childless marriage, she painted only sporadically and spent most of her time supporting her husband's career, entertaining guests and students, and faithfully backing him in his difficult times with the academy, even when some members of her family aligned against Eakins. She and Eakins both shared a passion for photography, both as photographers and subjects, and employed it as a tool for their art. She also posed nude for many of his photos and took images of him. Both had separate studios in their home. After Eakins' death in 1916, she returned to painting, adding considerably to her output right up to the 1930s, in a style that became warmer, looser, and brighter in tone. She died in 1938. Thirty-five years after her death, in 1973, she had her first one-woman exhibition at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.

In the latter years of his life, Eakins' constant companion was the handsome sculptor Samuel Murray, who shared his interest in boxing and bicycling. The evidence suggests the relationship was more emotionally important to Eakins than that with his wife.

Throughout his life, Eakins appears to have been drawn to those who were mentally vulnerable and then preyed upon those weaknesses. Several of his students ended their lives in insanity.

Death and legacy

Eakins died on June 25, 1916, at the age of 71 and is buried at The Woodlands, which is located near the University of Pennsylvania in West Philadelphia.

Late in life Eakins did experience some recognition. In 1902, he was made a National Academician. In 1914, the sale of a portrait study of D. Hayes Agnew for The Agnew Clinic to Dr. Albert C. Barnes precipitated much publicity when rumors circulated that the selling price was fifty thousand dollars. In fact, Barnes bought the painting for four thousand dollars.

In the year after his death, Eakins was honored with a memorial retrospective at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and in 1917–18 the Pennsylvania Academy followed suit. Susan Macdowell Eakins did much to preserve his reputation, including giving the Philadelphia Museum of Art more than fifty of her husband's oil paintings. After her death in 1938, other works were sold off, and eventually another large collection of art and personal material was purchased by Joseph Hirshhorn, and now is part of the Hirshhorn Museum's collection. Since then, Eakins' home in North Philadelphia was put on the National Register of Historic Places list in 1966, and Eakins Oval, across from the Philadelphia Museum of Art on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, was named for the artist. In 1967 The Biglin Brothers Racing (1872) was reproduced on a United States postage stamp. His work was also part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

Eakins' attitude toward realism in painting, and his desire to explore the heart of American life proved influential. He taught hundreds of students, among them his future wife Susan Macdowell, African-American painter Henry Ossawa Tanner, and Thomas Anshutz, who taught, in turn, Robert Henri, George Luks, John Sloan, and Everett Shinn, future members of the Ashcan School, and other realists and artistic heirs to Eakins' philosophy. Though his is not a household name, and though during his lifetime Eakins struggled to make a living from his work, today he is regarded as one of the most important American artists of any period.

Since the 1990s, Eakins has emerged as a major figure in sexuality studies in art history, for both the homoeroticism of his male nudes and for the complexity of his attitudes toward women. Controversy shaped much of his career as a teacher and as an artist. He insisted on teaching men and women "the same", used nude male models in female classes and vice versa, and was accused of abusing female students.

Recent scholarship suggests that these scandals were grounded in more than the "puritanical prudery" of his contemporaries—as had once been assumed—and that Eakins' progressive academic principles may have protected unconscious and dubious agendas. These controversies may have been caused by a combination of factors such as the bohemianism of Eakins and his circle (in which students, for example, sometimes modeled in the nude for each other), the intensity and authority of his teaching style, and Eakins' inclination toward unorthodox or provocative behavior.

Disposition of estate
Eakins was unable to sell many of his works during his lifetime, so when he died in 1916, a large body of artwork passed to his widow, Susan Macdowell Eakins. She carefully preserved it, donating some of the strongest pieces to various museums. When she in turn died in 1938, much of the remaining artistic estate was destroyed or damaged by executors, and the remainders were belatedly salvaged by a former Eakins student. For more details, see the article "List of works by Thomas Eakins".

On November 11, 2006, the board of trustees at Thomas Jefferson University agreed to sell The Gross Clinic to the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC, and the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville, Arkansas, for a record $68 million, the highest price for an Eakins painting as well as a record price for an individual American-made portrait. On December 21, 2006, a group of donors agreed to match the price to keep the painting in Philadelphia. It is displayed alternately at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.

Assessment
On October 29, 1917, Robert Henri wrote an open letter to the Art Students League about Eakins:

"Thomas Eakins was a man of great character. He was a man of iron will and his will to paint and to carry out his life as he thought it should go. This he did. It cost him heavily but in his works we have the precious result of his independence, his generous heart and his big mind. Eakins was a deep student of life, and with a great love he studied humanity frankly. He was not afraid of what his study revealed to him. In the matter of ways and means of expression, the science of technique, he studied most profoundly, as only a great master would have the will to study. His vision was not touched by fashion. He struggled to apprehend the constructive force in nature and to employ in his works the principles found. His quality was honesty. 'Integrity' is the word which seems best to fit him. Personally I consider him the greatest portrait painter America has produced."

In 1982, in his two-volume Eakins biography, art historian Lloyd Goodrich wrote:

"In spite of limitations—and what artist is free of them?—Eakins' achievement was monumental. He was our first major painter to accept completely the realities of contemporary urban America, and from them to create powerful, profound art... In portraiture alone Eakins was the strongest American painter since Copley, with equal substance and power, and added penetration, depth, and subtlety."

John Canaday, art critic for The New York Times, wrote in 1964:

"As a supreme realist, Eakins appeared heavy and vulgar to a public that thought of art, and culture in general, largely in terms of a graceful sentimentality. Today he seems to us to have recorded his fellow Americans with a perception that was often as tender as it was vigorous, and to have preserved for us the essence of an American life which, indeed, he did not idealize—because it seemed to him beautiful beyond the necessity of idealization."

In 2010, the American painter Philip Pearlstein published an article in ARTnews suggesting the strong influences Eadweard Muybridge's work and public lectures had on 20th-century artists, including Degas, Rodin, Seurat, Duchamp, and Eakins, either directly or through the contemporaneous work of their fellow photographic pioneer, Étienne-Jules Marey. He concluded:

"I believe that both Muybridge and Eakins—as a photographer—should be recognized as among the most influential artists on the ideas of 20th-century art, along with Cézanne, whose lessons in fractured vision provided the technical basis for putting those ideas together."

title: Thomas Eakins


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Foreplay

Foreplay is a set of emotionally and physically intimate acts between one or more people meant to create sexual arousal and desire for sexual activity. Although foreplay is typically understood as physical sexual activity, nonphysical activities, such as mental or verbal acts, may in some contexts be foreplay. This is typically the reason why foreplay tends to be an ambiguous term and means different things to different people. It can consist of various sexual practices such as kissing, sexual touching, removing clothes, oral sex, manual sex, sexual games, and role playing.

Foreplay is not only about initiating sexual activity but is fundamentally centered on enhancing pleasure for all participants. It serves as a critical phase in sexual encounters that heightens emotional intimacy and physical pleasure, making the sexual experience more fulfilling and satisfying.

Role
Foreplay has important physical and psychological effects.

Physically, the sexual organs for both partners receive more blood flow and become aroused. For male partners this leads to an erection and for female partners this results in a clitoral erection. When partners experience sexual arousal from the acts of foreplay, their organs that are susceptible to pleasure become highly sensitive to external stimuli all while at the same time releasing bodily fluids that lubricate the organs to prepare for intercourse. These physical events aforementioned are more easily reached by the male partner as compared to the female partner which is possibly due to the potential consequences of pregnancy and motherhood. It is for this reason foreplay has been found to play a critical role for the female partner, as noted by sexologist Dr. William Robinson. Robinson suggests that male partners are able to perform sexual intercourse without the requirement of foreplay, whereas female partners require longer acts of foreplay to become sufficiently stimulated and pleasured.

Psychologically, foreplay lowers inhibitions and increases emotional intimacy between partners. Both partners, while performing foreplay, are able to have a mutual experience of understanding and emotions. This mutuality leads to an enhanced sexual experience for both partners.

From a biological perspective, foreplay may be seen as an act that is costly in regards to reproduction (male animal perspective). Nonetheless, the costliness of foreplay becomes insufficient when it has been noted through biological research that it is a worthwhile strategy to increase fertility rates in both the animal and human kingdom. The increased rates of fertility are due to physical and psychological effects aforementioned which also play a role in the effects of the neurohypophysial hormone. This hormone is capable of increasing the rate production of sperm count within the male during the acts of extensive foreplay and therefore results with the female partner having higher chances of becoming impregnated.

Research
According to a survey on heterosexual couples about duration of sexual intercourse and foreplay, neither partner in these relationships was satisfied with the duration of foreplay in their relationships. This survey sampled 152 couples who were mainly university educated and satisfied with their sexual life. In this study, and when compared to some larger studies, men were better at perceiving desired sexual intercourse and foreplay duration for their partner. The average times spent on intercourse were 7 minutes and 12 minutes on foreplay for the couples in this survey. Another result of this survey was that the length of desired foreplay for men and women was about the same.

In a global study of about 12,000 individuals from 27 countries in 6 continents, physical foreplay was rated as "very important" for 63% of men and 60% of women.

According to a study of individuals in committed romantic relationships, pornography and sexual media usage does not play a role in satisfaction with time spent on foreplay, although other aspects of sexual satisfaction can be impacted by this type of sexual media. This means that foreplay is an important part of the sexual script, and social influences on the sexual script such as pornography and provocative sexual media do not impact foreplay. Time spent on foreplay is an important part of becoming sexually aroused and unique to each individual, and individuals still need the same amount of foreplay in order to become sexually aroused despite what they learn from porn.

Games
Sexual role-playing or sex games can create sexual interest. These games can be played in a variety of situations, and have been enhanced by technology. This type of extended foreplay can involve SMS messaging (sexting), phone calls, online chat, or other forms of distance communication, which are intended to stimulate fantasizing about the forthcoming encounter. This tantalization builds up sexual tension.

A card or board game can be played for foreplay. The objective of the game is for the partners to indulge their fantasies. The loser can, for example, be required to remove clothing or give the winner a sensual foot massage or any other thing that the winner wants to try. A sensuous atmosphere can also be enhanced by candles, drinks, sensual food or suggestive clothing. Even a suggestion of the use of sex toys or the playing of games involving fetish, sexual bondage, blindfolding or sploshing is an indication of sexual interest.

Some couples create sexual interest by watching erotic and pornographic videos. Role playing may involve the partners wearing costumes, to create and maintain a sexual fantasy. For variety, the partners can make up a (sexual) story together. One of them starts with a sentence and then the other continues until the story becomes sexually explicit, and it provides an opportunity for the partners to express their sexual fantasies. "Strangers for a day" is a role-playing game which consists of the couple playing roles of the first meeting between them. In a public meeting place, the partners pretend to be strangers meeting for the first time. The objective is for them to flirt and seduce the other, without doing or saying anything that they normally would not do or say at a first meeting.

Tantric
Tantric foreplay is the first step in the lovemaking session, according to the tantra principles. Tantric sex is against rushing things for the purpose of reaching an orgasm, so tantric foreplay is a way to prepare the body and the mind for the union between the two bodies. The tantric rules say that foreplay must be focused on the preparation before sexual intercourse. Tantric foreplay may include sensual baths between the two partners in a relaxing atmosphere. Fragrance oil and candles may also be used to set up the mood.

Tantric foreplay is only about giving each other time to connect spiritually and bind. Staring at each other while in a cross-legged position and touching the other's hand palms is a usual foreplay tactic used by tantra practitioners. Tantric foreplay may also include Tantra massages. The massage that is applied, according to the tantric philosophy, is not for reaching orgasms but for giving each other pleasure and connecting at a spiritual level.

History
There are many historical references to foreplay, with many artistic depictions. The Ancient Indian work Kama Sutra mentions different types of embracing, kissing, and marking with nails and teeth. It also mentions BDSM activities such as slapping and moaning as "play". There are also examples of the use of foreplay in marital advice literature that dates back to the early 1900s.

title: Foreplay


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Saint Bernard

Saint Bernard refers primarily to Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), a Christian saint, mystic, and reformer of the Cistercian order.

Another prominent meaning is St. Bernard (dog), a breed of dog.

St. Bernard, St Bernard or San Bernard may also refer to:

People

 * Bernard degli Uberti (d. 1133), Catholic saint, Italian abbot, bishop, papal legate, and cardinal
 * Bernard of Corleone (1605–1667), Sicilian friar, Franciscan Blessed
 * Bernard of Menthon (c. 1020–1081 or 1086), Catholic saint, Frankish founder of the hostel at Great St Bernard Pass, and namesake of the famous dog breed
 * Bernard of Thiron (1046–1117), Catholic saint, French founder of the Tironensian Order
 * Bernardo Tolomei (1272–1348), Catholic saint, Italian theologian and founder of the Olivetans
 * Bernard of Vienne (778–842), Catholic saint, French bishop of Vienne 810–842.

Brazil

 * São Bernardo do Campo, São Paulo, municipality in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo
 * São Bernardo, Maranhão, municipality in the Northeast region of Brazil

Canada

 * Saint-Bernard-de-Lacolle, Quebec, municipality in Montérégie region
 * Saint-Bernard, Quebec, municipality in Chaudière-Appalaches region
 * Saint-Bernard-de-Michaudville, Quebec, municipality in Les Maskoutains Regional County Municipality, Montérégie region
 * Saint-Bernard-sur-Mer, community in the municipality of L'Isle-aux-Coudres, Quebec
 * St. Bernard, Nova Scotia, community in the District of Clare, Digby County

France

 * Saint-Bernard, Ain, commune in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region
 * Saint-Bernard, Côte-d'Or, commune in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region
 * Saint-Bernard, Haut-Rhin, commune in Alsace, Grand Est region
 * Saint-Bernard, Isère, commune in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region

Philippines

 * Saint Bernard, Southern Leyte, fourth-class municipality, Eastern Visayas region

Switzerland

 * (Col du) Grand Saint-Bernard, French name for Great St Bernard Pass, road pass in south-western Switzerland, to Italy
 * Great St Bernard Tunnel, tunnel circumventing Great St Bernard Pass
 * English for San Bernardino Pass, a Swiss Alpine pass connecting Thusis (Graubünden) and Bellinzona (Ticino) in south-eastern Switzerland.

United States

 * St. Bernard, Ohio, village in Hamilton County
 * St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, in the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area
 * Saint Bernard, Louisiana, unincorporated community in St. Bernard Parish
 * Saint Bernard, Nebraska, unincorporated community in Platte County
 * St. Bernard Township, Platte County, Nebraska, township in Platte County
 * San Bernard River, in Texas
 * San Bernard National Wildlife Refuge, wildlife conservation area along the Texas coast

Other

 * St. Bernard, a brand formerly used by Dunnes Stores
 * Texan schooner San Bernard, two-masted ship of the Second Texas Navy
 * Saint Bernard, a song made by the rock band Lincoln

title: Saint Bernard


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Wilhelmina

Wilhelmina may refer to:
 * Wilhelmina (given name), a given name and list of people with the name

People

 * Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962), Queen of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1890 to 1948
 * Wilhelmine Amalie of Brunswick (1673–1742), empress consort of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, Queen of the Germans
 * Wilhelmine of Bayreuth (1709–1758), German princess (the older sister of Frederick the Great) and composer
 * Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange (1750–1820), German princess
 * Princess Wilhelmina of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, (1751–1780), Princess of Nassau-Saarbrücken
 * Wilhelmine of Prussia (1774–1837), German princess and later queen of the Netherlands
 * Princess Wilhelmine of Baden (1788–1836), German Grand Duchess of Hess and the Rhine
 * Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt (1755–1776), German princess and Tsarevna of Russia

Places

 * Wilhelmina Bay, Antarctica
 * Wilhelmina Mountains, Suriname
 * Wilhelmina, Missouri, a community in the United States

Other uses

 * 392 Wilhelmina, a large main-belt asteroid
 * USS Wilhelmina (ID-2168), a transport for the United States Navy during World War I
 * SS Wilhelmina (1888), a US-owned cargo vessel seized by the British during World War I
 * Wilhelmina Models, modeling agency founded by supermodel Wilhelmina Cooper
 * Wilhelmina SC, a soccer club from Melbourne (now called Ringwood City SC)

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Bernard

Bernard (Bernhard) is a French and West Germanic masculine given name. It has West Germanic origin and is also a surname.

The name is attested from at least the 9th century. West Germanic Bernhard is composed from the two elements bern "bear" and hard "brave, hardy". Its native Old English cognate was Beornheard, which was replaced or merged with the French form Bernard that was brought to England after the Norman Conquest. The name Bernhard was notably popular among Old Frisian speakers. Its wider use was popularized due to Saint Bernhard of Clairvaux (canonized in 1174).

Geographical distribution
Bernard is the second most common surname in France.

As of 2014, 42.2% of all known bearers of the surname Bernard were residents of France (frequency 1:392), 12.5% of the United States (1:7,203), 7.0% of Haiti (1:382), 6.6% of Tanzania (1:1,961), 4.8% of Canada (1:1,896), 3.6% of Nigeria (1:12,221), 2.7% of Burundi (1:894), 1.9% of Belgium (1:1,500), 1.6% of Rwanda (1:1,745), 1.2% of Germany (1:16,397), 1.2% of Jamaica (1:595), 1.1% of Ghana (1:6,179), 1.0% of England (1:13,691) and 1.0% of Madagascar (1:6,098).

In France, the frequency of the surname was higher than national average (1:392) in the following regions:
 * 1. Collectivity of Saint Martin (1:60)
 * 2. Saint Barthélemy (1:189)
 * 3. Bourgogne-Franche-Comté (1:260)
 * 4. Nouvelle-Aquitaine (1:283)
 * 5. Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes (1:296)
 * 6. Brittany (1:333)
 * 7. Pays de la Loire (1:336)
 * 8. Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (1:348)
 * 9. Hauts-de-France (1:391)

List of people with the name
The following people and items share the name Bernard:

Catholic saints

 * Saint Bernard: see Saint Bernard (disambiguation)

Medieval

 * Bernard, son of Charles Martel (c. 720 – 787), Abbot of St. Quentin
 * Bernard (bishop of Carlisle) (died 1214), 13th-century Catholic bishop
 * Bernard (bishop of Gaeta) (died 1047)
 * Bernard (bishop of St Davids) (1115–1148)
 * Bernard (son of Charles the Fat) (died 891 or 892), Duke of Alemannia
 * Bernard Gui (c. 1260 – 1331), 14th century inquisitor
 * Bernard of Calvo (Bernat Calbó), 13th-century saint and Bishop of Vich
 * Bernard of Carinola (died 1109), 12th-century saint and Bishop of Carinola
 * Bernard of Cluny, 12th-century Benedictine monk
 * Bernard of Kilwinning (died c. 1331), Scottish abbot and chancellor
 * Bernard of Quintavalle (died 1241), companion of St. Francis of Assisi
 * Bernard of Verdun, author of the Tractatus super totam astrologiam

Modern

 * Bernard (footballer) (Bernard Anício Caldeira Duarte), Brazilian footballer
 * Bernard Aluwihare (1902–1961), Sri Lankan politician
 * Bernard Alvarez, NASCAR racing driver
 * Bernard Anício Caldeira Duarte, known as "Bernard", Brazilian footballer
 * Bernard Baruch (1870–1965), American financier and political adviser
 * Bernard Berrian (born 1980), American football player
 * Bernard Blaut (1940–2007), Polish football player
 * Bernard Bober (born 1950), Slovak Catholic Prelate, Archbishop of Košice
 * Bernard Bonnejean (born 1950), French author
 * Bernard Boursicot (born 1944), on whom the play M. Butterfly was based
 * Bernard Bresslaw (1934–1993), British actor, Carry On films
 * Bernard Butler (born 1970), English musician
 * Bernard Caprasse (born 1949), Belgian politician
 * Bernard Cerquiglini (born 1947), French linguist
 * Bernard Charvin (born 1947), French alpine skier
 * Bernard Cottret (1951–2020), French historian
 * Bernard Coyne (giant) (1897–1921), American who is one of only 20 individuals in medical history to have stood 8 feet (240 cm) or more
 * Bernard Cribbins (1928–2022), English children's TV personality, actor and voice artist
 * Bernard Dowiyogo (1946–2003), President of Nauru
 * Bernard Ebbers (1941–2020), engineered an accounting fraud at WorldCom while he was its CEO
 * Bernie Ecclestone (born 1930), British business magnate and primary authority in Formula One
 * Bernard Edwards (American football) (born 1969), American football player
 * Bernard Fanning (born 1969), Australian singer, Powderfinger
 * Bernard Finnigan (born 1972), Australian politician and sex offender
 * Bernard T. Feld (1919–1993), 20th century physicist and anti-nuclear activist
 * Bernard Fox (Irish republican) (born 1951), Provisional Irish Republican Army member
 * Bernard Freeman, birth name of American rapper Bun B
 * Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg, New Zealand's most famous soldier and General of World War II
 * Bernard Guignedoux (1947–2021), French football player
 * Bernard Hall (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Bernard Henry (born 1960), American football player
 * Bernard Herrmann (1911–1975), American film composer
 * Bernard Hill (1944–2024), English actor
 * Bernard Hinault (born 1954), French cyclist, five-time winner of the Tour de France
 * Bernard Hopkins (born 1965), boxer
 * Bernard Jayamanna (1908–1965), Sri Lankan Sinhala playwright, director, producer, actor
 * Bernard Jayasuriya, Sri Lankan businessman and politician
 * Bernard Kalb (1922–2023), American broadcast journalist
 * Bernard Koura (1923–2018), French painter
 * Bernard Ładysz (1922–2020), Polish singer and actor
 * Bernard Lagat (born 1974), Kenyan-American distance runner
 * Bernard Lee (1908–1981), English actor
 * Bernard Lepkofker, American competitive judoka
 * Bernard Looney (born 1969/1970), Irish businessman, CEO of BP
 * Bernie Mac (born Bernard McCullough, 1957–2008), comedian and actor
 * Bernard Madoff (1938–2021), American stockbroker who engineered a $65 billion Ponzi scheme
 * Bernard Malamud (1914–1986), American writer
 * Bernard Manning (1930–2007), British stand-up comedian
 * Bernard Matthews, English turkey farmer, founder of Bernard Matthews Limited
 * Bernard McGinley, American judge
 * Bernard Ménétrel (1906–1947), French physician and advisor to Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II
 * Bernard Mohlalisi (1933–2020), Mosotho Roman Catholic bishop
 * Bernard Montgomery (1887–1976), English military officer
 * Bernard of Offida (1604–1694), Italian Roman Catholic professed religious from the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin
 * Bernard Opper (1915–2000), American basketball player
 * Bernard Orcel (born 1945), French alpine skier
 * Bernard Parrish (1919–1999), American politician
 * Bernard Peiris (1908–1977), Sri Lankan lawyer
 * Bernard Perera (1956–2012), Sri Lankan cricketer
 * Bernard Rajzman (born 1957), Brazilian volleyball player
 * Bernard H. "Johnny" Rogers (1905–1977), American politician
 * Bernard Sachs (1858–1944), American neurologist
 * Bernie Sanders (born 1941), US Senator from Vermont
 * Bernard Satenstein (1906–1959), American football player
 * Bernard Schuiteman (born 1973), Dutch football player
 * George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), usually referred to as "Bernard Shaw", Irish playwright, critic, and essayist
 * Bernard Shaw (1940–2022), American broadcast journalist
 * Bernard Shir-Cliff (1924–2017), American editor
 * Bernard Spilsbury (1877–1947), English pathologist
 * Bernard Soysa (1914–1997), Sri Lankan Trotskyist
 * Bernard Stoeser (born 1930), American politician
 * Bernard Sumner (born 1956), British musician
 * Bernard Tapie (1943–2021), French businessman and politician
 * Bernie Taupin (born 1950), British songwriter and collaborator with Elton John
 * Bernard Tilakaratna (1927–2004), Sri Lankan diplomat
 * Bernard Tomic (born 1992), Australian tennis player
 * Bernard Vogler (1935–2020), French historian and academic
 * Bernard Whitman, Democratic strategist and pollster
 * Bernard "Bernie" Wolfe (born 1951), Canadian hockey player
 * Bernard Wolfman (1924–2011), American dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School, and law professor
 * Bernard Zehrfuss (1911–1996), French architect
 * Bernard Welsh (1959)

Surname

 * Agnes Bernard (1842–1932), British Roman Catholic nun
 * Alain Bernard (born 1983), French swimmer
 * Alfred Aloysous Bernard (1888–1949) American vaudeville singer
 * Antoine Bernard d'Attanoux (1853–1954), French journalist and explorer
 * Armand Bernard (1893–1968), French comic actor and composer
 * Brandon Bernard (1980–2020), American convicted murderer
 * Carlos Bernard (born 1962), American actor
 * Catherine Bernard (1662–1712), French novelist
 * Cheryl Bernard (born 1966), Canadian curler
 * Claude Bernard (1813–1878), French physiologist
 * Crystal Bernard (born 1961), American actress
 * Daniel Bernard (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Dave Bernard (American football) (1912–1973), American football player
 * David Bernard (cricketer) (born 1981), West Indian cricketer
 * David Bernard (orchestra conductor) (born 1964), American conductor, pianist and clarinetist
 * Dwight Bernard (born 1952), American baseball player
 * Ed Bernard (born 1939), American actor
 * Edward Bernard (1638–1697), English scholar
 * Émile Bernard (composer) (1843–1902), French composer and organist
 * Émile Bernard (painter) (1868–1941), French painter
 * Francis Bernard (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Giovani Bernard, American football player
 * Henri Bernard (1899–1986), French judge
 * Henri Bernard (1900–1967), French hurdler
 * Henry Boyle Bernard (1812–1895), Irish Conservative Party politician, MP for Bandon 1863–68
 * Henry Bernard, designer of the Palace of Europe, the seat of the Council of Europe
 * Hilda Bernard (1920–2022), Argentine actress
 * Jacques Bernard (born 1929), French actor
 * Jay Bernard FRSL (born 1988), British writer.
 * Jean-David Bernard (born 1977), French rower
 * Jean-Pierre Bernard (1933–2017), French actor
 * Jeffrey Bernard (1932–1997), English journalist
 * John Henry Bernard (1860–1927) Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin
 * Joseph E. Bernard (1880–1958), American character actor
 * Joseph Karl Bernard (c. 1781 – 1850), Austrian journalist and librettist
 * Jules Bernard (born 2000), American basketball player
 * Laurent Bernard (born 1971), French basketball player
 * Lawrence G. Bernard (1914–1997), rear admiral in the U.S. Navy
 * Léonce Bernard (1943–2013), Canadian politician
 * Lucas M. Bernard, American financial economist
 * Marvin Bernard, American rapper, better known by his stage name Tony Yayo
 * Michel Bernard (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Nikhil Bernard, Indian footballer
 * Oliver Bernard (1925–2013), English poet and translator
 * Oliver Percy Bernard (1881–1939), English architect and scenic designer
 * Raymond Bernard (1891–1977), French film director and screenwriter
 * Raymond W. Bernard (1903–1965), early 20th-century American alternative health, esoteric writer, author, and mystic
 * Rod Bernard (1940–2020), American singer
 * Samuel Bernard (1615–1687), French miniature painter
 * Sherman A. Bernard (1925–2012), Louisiana politician
 * Susan Bernard (1948–2019), American actress and author
 * Suzanne Bernard (1892–1910), French aviator
 * Terrel Bernard (born 1999), American football player
 * Tom Bernard American film distributor
 * Tristan Bernard (1866–1947), French playwright and novelist
 * Turner Bernard (born 1998), American football player
 * Valère Bernard (1860–1936), French artist and writer
 * William Bernard (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Wynton Bernard (born 1990), American baseball player

Given name

 * Bernard (TV shorts), the curious polar bear from the animation series Bernard
 * Bernard, a character from Blackadder II, who is usually only called by her title: Nursie
 * Bernard, a character from Megamind
 * Bernard, the titular character in the 1980 picture book Not Now, Bernard by David McKee
 * Bernard, a character from The Waves
 * Bernard, a mouse from The Rescuers books and films
 * Bernard, the Sea Hag's pet vulture in the Popeye comics/cartoons
 * Bernarda Alba, the mother in Federico García Lorca's drama, La casa de Bernarda Alba
 * Bernard Beasley, a character from the children's programme Bernard's Watch
 * Bernard Bernoulli, a character from Maniac Mansion
 * Bernard Black, a character from Black Books
 * Bernard "Barney" Fife, deputy sheriff of Mayberry from The Andy Griffith Show
 * Bernard Lowe, a character from Westworld
 * Bernard Marx from Brave New World
 * Bernard Nadler, a character from the television show Lost
 * Bernard the Arch-elf, The Head elf from Disney's Santa Clause Movies
 * Bernard the Bee Boy, a boy raised by bees seen in two commercials for Honey Comb cereal
 * Bernard Wiseman, a character from Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket
 * Bernard Woolley, a character from Yes Minister
 * Bernard Mickey Wrangle, an explosive character from Still Life with Woodpecker by Tom Robbins
 * Bernardo, Zorro's companion
 * Giant Bernard, wrestling name of Matt Bloom
 * Bernie Lomax The Boss who dies in the 80s comedy film Weekend at Bernie's

Surname

 * Andy Bernard, character on the United States television series The Office

title: Bernard


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Carol Cleveland

Carol Cleveland (born 13 January 1942) is a British-American actress and comedian, particularly known for her work with Monty Python.

Early life
Born in East Sheen, London, she moved to the United States with her mother and U.S. Air Force stepfather at an early age. She was brought up in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Lubbock, Texas; and later Pasadena, California, where she attended John Marshall Junior High School and Pasadena High School. She is a former Miss California Navy and appeared as Miss Teen Queen in MAD Magazine at age 15. Cleveland was Miss Teen in the August 1958 issue of Dig magazine.

Cleveland returned with her family to London in 1960, and studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.

Career
A stage actress and model, Carol Cleveland appeared in The Persuaders!, in The Saint as a secretary, as a lover of Peter Wyngarde's character in The Avengers TV series episode "A Touch of Brimstone" (1966), and in other TV shows and films. She then started to appear in BBC comedy productions, including The Two Ronnies, Morecambe and Wise, and various works of Spike Milligan.

Monty Python
Her comedy acting skills brought her to the attention of the production team of Monty Python's Flying Circus. She appeared in 30 of the 45 episodes in the series, plus all four Monty Python movies. Cleveland has contributed to many post-Python projects including the Concert for George and Not the Messiah (He's a Very Naughty Boy). She has also appeared in many documentaries about the group's history, including Monty Python: Almost the Truth (Lawyers Cut).

Other work
In 1972, Cleveland was voted number three in Splendor magazine's "100 Most Beautiful Entertainers" list.

In 1986, Cleveland played an American television journalist in Only Fools and Horses, in the episode "The Miracle of Peckham"; then in 1995, she had a small cameo in a sketch within Fist of Fun, a BBC comedy show featuring Stewart Lee and Richard Herring. In 2022, she appeared in an episode of First Dates.

title: Carol Cleveland


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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Military history/Arab-Israeli conflict general remarks

Take for example the article on UN Security Council Resolution 242. The facts are: there is an UN-resolution who calls for end of occupation and Israel decided to ignore it.
 * Israel didn't ignore it. The resolution called for negotiation and "territories for peace" principle. Eventually that's exactly the sort of stuff that led to Camp David accords and the peace treaty with Jordan. By no all means Resolution 242 reads "Israel should unilaterally retreat from all territories" - as Elian might have been implying

 * first, I imply nothing. Everything I say in general remarks is to be taken cum grano salis ;-) But you already formulated in an excellent way the principles of UN-resolution 242, from which there is nothing to be found in the article. What I wanted to say: formulations are to some point irrelevant, but instead we have to work the essence out. Is this okay with you?

These are the important facts. The unimportant part is what Israel said to justify its decision.
 * In diplomacy, every little punctuation mark matters. Read about the Camp David negotiation process in Moris's book, Righteous Victims, if you don't believe me.

 * yes, I believe you. It matters in diplomacy, i.e. a whole congress can debate for weeks over a simple semicolon. But it doesn't matter in an encyclopedia which is interested in the outcome and the consequences, not in the process.

 * True, but the process is directly influenced by the document that motivated it :-)

 * It is interesting to note that the resolution spoke about Israel as much as the Arab nations - because obviously it takes 2 sides for a peace treaty. Yet I find it biased and even basically impolite to mention Israel as the only violator and declare anything else irrelevant. That's exactly the wrong sort of reasoning in my opinion. --Uri

 * Uri, please. In this sort of general debate you will find me taking examples from both sides and I will often simplify to illustrate a point I want to make. It's about identifying where something is "wrong" (not in facts but in writing) - and don't you agree there is something "wrong" in the article about 242? This was my try to identify what is wrong. Of course reality is more complex. If I was impolite, I apologize. --Elian

 * I'm sorry for jumping at the point, but the example was really problematic. You could have brought the example of e.g. settlements, where it is indeed much closer to the position you claimed. I agree with you that deeds should receive more attention than words, particularly in this region.
 * As to the article about 242, it did explain the "land for peace" principle. I've never actually heard an Israeli claiming the position you attribute to them ("Sinai was enough"). May I update the page according to my notes at Talk:UN Security Council Resolution 242? --Uri

 * Let's also try to separate (or at least distinguish) between (A) facts about what happened in history or current events; (B) what various sides say is "right" ethically, morally, legally, etc.; and (C) what various people and organizations propose as resolutions to the conflict. I think it's easier to describe A than B, and also I note that C often gets left out. --Ed Poor

 * Well, what I said was essentially that Res. 242 is in C, rather than B :-) --Uri