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Pubic Wars

The Pubic Wars, a pun on the Punic Wars, was a rivalry between the American pornographic magazines Playboy and Penthouse during the 1960s and 1970s. Each magazine strove to show just a little bit more nudity on their female models than the other, without getting too crude. The term was coined by Playboy owner Hugh Hefner. In 1950s and 1960s United States, it was generally agreed that nude photographs were not pornographic unless they showed pubic hair or genitals. Mainstream mass-market photography was careful to come close to this line without stepping over it. Consequently, the depiction of pubic hair was de facto forbidden in U.S. pornographic magazines of the era.

History
Penthouse originated in 1965 in Britain and was initially distributed in Europe. In September 1969 it was launched in the U.S., bringing new competition to Playboy which had dominated the niche since its 1953 debut. Due to more liberal European attitudes to nudity, Penthouse was already displaying pubic hair at the time of its U.S. launch. According to Penthouse magazine's owner Bob Guccione, "We began to show pubic hair, which was a big breakthrough."

In order to retain its market share, Playboy followed suit, risking obscenity charges, and launching the "Pubic Wars". Playboy started showing wisps of pubic hair about nine months after Penthouse (June 1970). As competition between the two magazines escalated, their photo shoots became increasingly explicit. Playboy, however, had actually first showed a very slight glimpse of any pubic hair on Melodye Prentiss' centerfold (Miss July 1968), some 15 years after the magazine's introduction. With Playboy Playmates, it was usually the case that the pubic area would be obscured by an item of clothing, a leg, or a piece of furniture. The first appearance of real pubic hair in Playboy actually occurred in August 1969 in a pictorial featuring dancer/actress Paula Kelly. A few more glimpses of pubic hair appeared in some later pictorials and centerfolds, but it was not until January 1971 when Liv Lindeland showed clearly visible pubic hair in her pictorial. The first Playmate to clearly have the first full frontal nude centerfold was Miss January 1972, Marilyn Cole. Both went on to become Playmate of the Year, respectively 1972 and 1973. When Hustler was launched in 1974, it outdid both Playboy and Penthouse in explicitness by showing more graphic photos of the female sex organs.

Eventually, the two magazines moved their content in opposite directions. Playboy positioned itself as the less explicit softcore alternative to be "read for the articles". Penthouse gravitated towards raunchier images, ultimately arriving at hardcore pornography and photographs of women urinating, in the mid-1990s. Under new ownership since 2004, Penthouse began to steer toward a more softcore direction as well.

title: Pubic Wars


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SCO

SCO or sco may refer to:

Businesses and organizations

 * Santa Cruz Operation, a company founded in 1979 that existed under that name until 2001
 * SCO Group, a software company formerly called Caldera International and Caldera Systems
 * SCO OpenServer (formerly SCO Unix), an operating system made by the above companies
 * Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, a Eurasian inter-governmental political, economic, and security organization
 * Society of Canadian Ornithologists
 * Southern College of Optometry in Memphis, Tennessee
 * Special Communications Organization, a Pakistani telecommunication company
 * The ICAO airline code for Scoot

Orchestras

 * Scottish Chamber Orchestra
 * Singapore Chinese Orchestra

Science and technology

 * Scorpius, abbreviation for the constellation
 * Self-checkout machines, automated alternatives to traditional cashier-staffed checkout at retailers
 * Single cell oil, a type of oil produced by a microbe
 * Synchronous Connection Oriented protocol, used for audio devices in the Bluetooth protocol stack
 * Synthetic crude oil, a type of crude oil

Other uses

 * .sco, a formerly proposed top-level domain for Scotland
 * Aktau Airport in Kazakhstan (IATA code SCO)
 * Angers SCO, a French football club
 * Scots language (ISO 639-2 & -3 alpha-3 code: sco)
 * Selected Characteristics of Occupations, a companion volume to the U.S. Department of Labor's Dictionary of Occupational Titles
 * Single Cell Orchestra, stage name of musician Miguel Fierro
 * Sports teams representing Scotland, by country code
 * Railway service code for South Coast Line, New South Wales, Australia
 * Syllabus, or Standard Course Outline
 * United States Office of Special Counsel (disambiguation), various government offices referred to as the "Special Counsel's Office"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: SCO


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Syngman Rhee

Syngman Rhee (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a South Korean politician who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960. Rhee is also known by his art name Unam. Rhee was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea from 1919 to his impeachment in 1925 and from 1947 to 1948. As president of South Korea, Rhee's government was characterised by authoritarianism, limited economic development, and in the late 1950s growing political instability and public opposition.

Born in Hwanghae Province, Joseon, Rhee attended an American Methodist school, where he converted to Christianity. He became a Korean independence activist and was imprisoned for his activities in 1899. After his release in 1904, he moved to the United States, where he obtained degrees from American universities and met President Theodore Roosevelt. After a brief 1910–12 return to Korea, he moved to Hawaii in 1913. In 1919, following the Japanese suppression of the March 1st Movement, Rhee joined the right-leaning Korean Provisional Government in exile in Shanghai. From 1918 to 1924, he served as the first President of the Korean Provisional Government until he was impeached in 1925. He then returned to the United States, where he advocated and fundraised for Korean independence. In 1939, he moved to Washington, DC. In 1945, he was returned to US-controlled Korea by the US military, and on 20 July 1948 he was elected the first president of the Republic of Korea by the National Assembly, ushering in the First Republic of Korea.

As president, Rhee continued his hardline anti-communist and pro-American views that characterized much of his earlier political career. Early on in his presidency, his government put down a communist uprising on Jeju Island, and the Mungyeong and Bodo League massacres were committed against suspected communist sympathisers, leaving at least 100,000 people dead. Rhee was president during the outbreak of the Korean War (1950–1953), in which North Korea invaded South Korea. He refused to sign the armistice agreement that ended the war, wishing to have the peninsula reunited by force.

After the fighting ended, South Korea's economy lagged behind North Korea's and was heavily reliant on US aid. After being re-elected in 1956, he pushed to modify the constitution to remove the two-term limit, despite opposition protests. He was reelected uncontested in March 1960, after his opponent Chough Pyung-ok died from cancer before the election took place. After Rhee's ally Lee Ki-poong won the corresponding vice-presidential election by a wide margin, the opposition rejected the result as rigged, which triggered protests. These escalated into the student-led April Revolution, in which police shot demonstrators in Masan. The resulting scandal caused Rhee to resign on 26 April, ushering in the Second Republic of Korea. Despite this, protesters continued to converge on the presidential palace, leading to the CIA covertly evacuating him on 28 April by helicopter. He spent the rest of his life in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii, and died of a stroke in 1965.

Early life
Syngman Rhee was born on 26 March 1875 in Daegyeong, a village in Pyeongsan County, Hwanghae Province, Joseon. Rhee was the third but only surviving son out of three brothers and two sisters (his two older brothers both died in infancy) in a rural family of modest means. Rhee's family traced its lineage back to King Taejong of Joseon. He was a 16th-generation descendant of Grand Prince Yangnyeong through his second son, Yi Heun who was known as Jangpyeong Dojeong (장평도정;長平都正). This case makes him a distant relative of the mid-Joseon military officer, Yi Sun-sin (not be confused with Admiral Yi Sun-sin). His mother was a member of Gimhae Kim clan.

In 1877, at the age of two, Rhee and his family moved to Seoul, where he had traditional Confucian education in various seodang in Nakdong and Dodong. When Rhee was six years old a smallpox infection rendered him virtually blind until he was treated with western medicine, possibly by a Japanese doctor. Rhee was portrayed as a potential candidate for the gwageo, the traditional Korean civil service examination, but in 1894 reforms abolished the gwageo system, and in April he enrolled in the Paechae School, an American Methodist school, where he converted to Christianity. Rhee studied English and sinhakmun. Near the end of 1895, he joined a Hyeopseong (Mutual Friendship) Club created by Seo Jae-pil, who returned from the United States after his exile following the Gapsin Coup. He worked as the head and the main writer of the newspapers Hyŏpsŏnghoe Hoebo and Maeil Sinmun (Korean Empire), the latter being the first daily newspaper in Korea. During this period, Rhee earned money by teaching the Korean language to Americans. In 1895, Rhee graduated from Pai Chai School.

Independence activities
Rhee became involved in Anti-Japanese circles after the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, which saw Joseon passed from the Chinese sphere of influence to the Japanese. Rhee was implicated in a plot to take revenge for the assassination of Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong who was assassinated by Japanese agents (known in Korean history as the Chunsaengmun incident); however, a female American physician Georgiana E. Whiting helped him avoid the charges by disguising him as her patient and go to his sister's house. Rhee acted as one of the forerunners of the Korean independence movement through grassroots organizations such as the Hyeopseong Club and the Independence Club. Rhee organized several protests against corruption and the influences of the Japan and the Russian Empire. As a result, in November 1898, Rhee attained the rank of Uigwan in the Imperial Legislature, the Jungchuwon.

After entering civil service, Rhee was implicated in a plot to remove King Gojong from power through the recruitment of Park Yeong-hyo. As a result, Rhee was imprisoned in the Gyeongmucheong Prison in January 1899. Other sources place the year arrested as 1897 and 1898. Rhee attempted to escape on the 20th day of imprisonment but was caught and was sentenced to life imprisonment through the Pyeongniwon. He was imprisoned in the Hanseong Prison. In prison, Rhee translated and compiled The Sino–Japanese War Record, wrote The Spirit of Independence , compiled the New English–Korean Dictionary and wrote in the Imperial Newspaper. He was also tortured.

Political activities at home and abroad
In 1904, Rhee was released from prison at the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War with the help of Min Young-hwan. In November 1904, with the help of Min Yeong-hwan and Han Gyu-seol, Rhee moved to the United States. In August 1905, Rhee and Yun Byeong-gu met with the Secretary of State John Hay and US President Theodore Roosevelt at peace talks in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and attempted unsuccessfully to convince the US to help preserve independence for Korea.

Rhee continued to stay in the United States; this move has been described as an "exile". He obtained a Bachelor of Arts from George Washington University in 1907, and a Master of Arts from Harvard University in 1908. In 1910, he obtained a PhD from Princeton University with the thesis "Neutrality as influenced by the United States".

In August 1910, Rhee returned to Japanese-occupied Korea. He served as a YMCA coordinator and missionary. In 1912, Rhee was implicated in the 105-Man Incident, and was shortly arrested. However, he fled to the United States in 1912 with M. C. Harris's rationale that Rhee was going to participate in the general meeting of Methodists in Minneapolis as the Korean representative.

In the United States, Rhee attempted to convince Woodrow Wilson to help the people involved in the 105-Man Incident, but failed to bring any change. Soon afterwards, he met Park Yong-man, who was in Nebraska at the time. In February 1913, as a consequence of the meeting, he moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, and took over the Han-in Jung-ang Academy. In Hawaii, he began to publish the Pacific Ocean Magazine. In 1918, he established the Han-in Christian Church. During this period, he opposed Park Yong-man's stance on foreign relations of Korea and brought about a split in the community. In December 1918, he was chosen, along with Dr. Henry Chung DeYoung, as a Korean representative to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 by the Korean National Association but they failed to obtain permission to travel to Paris. After giving up travelling to Paris, Rhee held the First Korean Congress in Philadelphia with Seo Jae-pil to make plans for future political activism concerning Korean independence.

Following the March 1st Movement in March 1919, Rhee discovered that he was appointed to the positions of foreign minister for the Korean National Assembly (Vladivostok) (a group in Vladivostok), prime minister for the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai, and a position equivalent to president for the Hanseong Provisional Government. In June, in the acting capacity of the President of the Republic of Korea, he notified the prime ministers and the chairmen of peace conferences of Korea's independence. On 25 August, Rhee established the Korean Commission to America and Europe in Washington, DC. On 6 September, Rhee discovered that he had been appointed acting president for the Provisional Government in Shanghai. From December 1920 to May 1921, he moved to Shanghai and was the acting president for the Provisional Government.

However, Rhee failed to efficiently act in the capacity of Acting President due to conflicts inside the provisional government in Shanghai. In October 1920, he returned to the US to participate in the Washington Naval Conference. During the conference, he attempted to set the problem of Korean independence as part of the agenda and campaigned for independence but was unsuccessful. In September 1922, he returned to Hawaii to focus on publication, education, and religion. In November 1924, Rhee was appointed the position of president for life in the Korean Comrade Society.

In March 1925, Rhee was impeached as the president of the Provisional Government in Shanghai over allegations of misuse of power and was removed from office. Nevertheless, he continued to claim the position of president by referring to the Hanseong Provisional Government and continued independence activities through the Korean Commission to America and Europe. In the beginning of 1933, he participated in the League of Nations conference in Geneva to bring up the question of Korean independence.

In November 1939, Rhee and his wife left Hawaii for Washington, DC. He focused on writing the book Japan Inside Out and published it during the summer of 1941. With the attack on Pearl Harbor and the consequent Pacific War, which began in December 1941, Rhee used his position as the chairman of the foreign relations department of the provisional government in Chongqing to convince President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the United States Department of State to approve the existence of the Korean provisional government. As part of this plan, he cooperated with anti-Japan strategies conducted by the US Office of Strategic Services. In 1945, he participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization as the leader of the Korean representatives to request the participation of the Korean provisional government.

Return to Korea and rise to power
After the surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, Rhee was flown to Tokyo aboard a US military aircraft. Over the objections of the Department of State, the US military government allowed Rhee to return to Korea by providing him with a passport in October 1945, despite the refusal of the Department of State to issue Rhee with a passport. The British historian Max Hastings wrote that there was "at least a measure of corruption in the transaction" as the US OSS agent Preston Goodfellow who provided Rhee with the passport that allowed him to return to Korea was apparently promised by Rhee that if he came to power, he would reward Goodfellow with commercial concessions." Following the independence of Korea and a secret meeting with Douglas MacArthur, Rhee was flown in mid-October 1945 to Seoul aboard MacArthur's personal airplane, The Bataan.

After the return to Korea, he assumed the posts of president of the Independence Promotion Central Committee, chairman of the Korean People's Representative Democratic Legislature, and president of the Headquarters for Unification. At this point, he was strongly anti-communist and opposed foreign intervention; he opposed the Soviet Union and the United States' proposal in the 1945 Moscow Conference to establish a trusteeship for Korea and the cooperation between the left-wing (communist) and the right-wing (nationalist) parties. He also refused to join the US-Soviet Joint Commission as well as the negotiations with the north. For decades, the Korean independence movement was torn by factionalism and in-fighting, and most of the leaders of the independence movement hated each other as much as they hated the Japanese. Rhee, who had lived for decades in the United States, was a figure known only from afar in Korea, and therefore regarded as a more or less acceptable compromise candidate for the conservative factions. More importantly, Rhee spoke fluent English, whereas none of his rivals did, and therefore he was the Korean politician most trusted and favored by the American occupation government. The British diplomat Roger Makins later recalled, "the American propensity to go for a man rather than a movement — Giraud among the French in 1942, Chiang Kai-shek in China. Americans have always liked the idea of dealing with a foreign leader who can be identified as 'their man'. They are much less comfortable with movements." Makins further added the same was the case with Rhee, as very few Americans were fluent in Korean in the 1940s or knew much about Korea, and it was simply far easier for the American occupation government to deal with Rhee than to try to understand Korea. Rhee was "acerbic, prickly, uncompromising" and was regarded by the US State Department, which long had dealings with him as "a dangerous mischief-maker", but the American General John R. Hodge decided that Rhee was the best man for the Americans to back because of his fluent English and his ability to talk with authority to American officers about American subjects. Once it became clear from October 1945 onward that Rhee was the Korean politician most favored by the Americans, other conservative leaders fell in behind him. When the first US–Soviet Cooperation Committee meeting was concluded without a result, he began to argue in June 1946 that the government of Korea must be established as an independent entity. In the same month, he created a plan based on this idea and moved to Washington, DC, from December 1946 to April 1947 to lobby support for the plan. During the visit, Harry S. Truman's policies of Containment and the Truman Doctrine, which was announced in March 1947, enforced Rhee's anti-communist ideas.

In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Korea's independence and established the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) through Resolution 112. In May 1948, the South Korean Constitutional Assembly election was held under the oversight of the UNTCOK. He was elected without competition to serve in the South Korean Constitutional Assembly and was consequently selected to be Speaker of the Assembly. Rhee was highly influential in creating the policy stating that the president of South Korea had to be elected by the National Assembly. The 1948 Constitution of the Republic of Korea was adopted on 17 July 1948.

On 20 July 1948, Rhee was elected president of the Republic of Korea  in the 1948 South Korean presidential election with 92.3% of the vote; the second candidate, Kim Ku, received 6.7% of the vote. On 15 August the Republic of Korea was formally established in the south, and Rhee was inaugurated as its first president. The next month, on 9 September, the north also proclaimed statehood as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Rhee himself had been an independence activist, and his relations with the chinilpa Korean elites who had collaborated with the Japanese were, in the words of the South Korean historian Kyung Moon Hwang, often "contentious", but in the end an understanding was reached in which, in exchange for their support, Rhee would not purge the elites. In particular, the Koreans who had served in the colonial-era National Police, whom the Americans had retained after August 1945, were promised by Rhee that their jobs would not be threatened by him. Upon independence in 1948, 53% of South Korean police officers were men who had served in the National Police during the Japanese occupation.

Political repression
Soon after taking office, Rhee enacted laws that severely curtailed political dissent. There was much controversy between Rhee and his leftist opponents. Allegedly, many of the leftist opponents were arrested and in some cases killed. The most controversial issue has been Kim Ku's assassination. On 26 June 1949, Kim Ku was assassinated by Ahn Doo-hee, who confessed that he assassinated Kim Ku by the order of Kim Chang-ryong. The assassin was described by the British historian Max Hastings as one of Rhee's "creatures". It soon became apparent that Rhee's style of government was rigidly authoritarian. He allowed the internal security force (headed by his right-hand man, Kim Chang-ryong) to detain and torture suspected communists and North Korean agents. His government also oversaw several massacres, including the suppression of the Jeju uprising on Jeju Island, of which South Korea's Truth Commission reported 14,373 victims, 86% at the hands of the security forces and 13.9% at the hands of communist rebels, and the Mungyeong Massacre.

By early 1950, Rhee had about 30,000 alleged communists in his jails, and had about 300,000 suspected sympathizers enrolled in an official "re-education" movement called the Bodo League. When the Communist army attacked from the North in June, retreating South Korean forces executed the prisoners, along with several tens of thousands of Bodo League members.

Korean War
Both Rhee and Kim Il Sung wanted to unite the Korean peninsula under their respective governments, but the United States refused to give South Korea any heavy weapons, to ensure that its military could only be used for preserving internal order and self-defense. By contrast, Pyongyang was well equipped with Soviet aircraft, vehicles and tanks. According to John Merrill, "the war was preceded by a major insurgency in the South and serious clashes along the thirty-eighth parallel," and 100,000 people died in "political disturbances, guerrilla warfare, and border clashes".

At the outbreak of war on 25 June 1950, North Korean troops launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea. All South Korean resistance at the 38th parallel was overwhelmed by the North Korean offensive within a few hours. By 26 June, it was apparent that the Korean People's Army (KPA) would occupy Seoul. Rhee stated, "Every Cabinet member, including myself, will protect the government." At midnight on 28 June, the South Korean military destroyed the Han Bridge, preventing thousands of citizens from fleeing. On 28 June, North Korean soldiers occupied Seoul.

During the North Korean occupation of Seoul, Rhee established a temporary government in Busan and created a defensive perimeter along the Naktong Bulge. A series of battles ensued, which would later be known collectively as the Battle of Naktong Bulge. After the Battle of Inchon in September 1950, the North Korean military was routed, and the United Nations (UN)—of whom the largest contingents were the Americans and South Koreans—not only liberated all of South Korea, but overran much of North Korea. In the areas of North Korea taken by the UN forces, elections were supposed to be administered by the United Nations but instead were taken over and administered by the South Koreans. Rhee insisted on Bukjin Tongil – ending war by conquering North Korea, but after the Chinese entered the war in November 1950, the UN forces were thrown into retreat. During this period of crisis, Rhee ordered the December massacres of 1950. Rhee was absolutely committed to reunifying Korea under his leadership and strongly supported MacArthur's call for going all-out against China, even at the risk of provoking a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.

Hastings notes that, during the war, Rhee's official salary was equal to $37.50 per month. Both at the time and since, there has been much speculation about precisely how Rhee managed to live on a salary equivalent to US$37.50 per month. The entire Rhee regime was notorious for its corruption, with everyone in the government from the President downwards stealing as much they possibly could from both the public purse and from United States aid. The Rhee regime engaged in the "worst excesses of corruption", with the soldiers in the Army of the Republic of Korea (ROK) going unpaid for months as their officers embezzled their pay, equipment provided by the United States being sold on the black market, and the size of the ROK army being bloated by hundreds of thousands of "ghost soldiers" who only existed on paper, allowing their officers to steal pay that would have been due had these soldiers actually existed. The problems with low morale experienced by the ROK army were largely due to the corruption of the Rhee regime. The worst scandal during the war—indeed of the entire Rhee government—was the National Defense Corps Incident. Rhee created the National Defense Corps in December 1950, intended to be a paramilitary militia, comprising men not in the military or police who were drafted into the corps for internal security duties. In the months that followed, tens of thousands of National Defense Corps men either starved or froze to death in their unheated barracks, as the men lacked winter uniforms and food. Even Rhee could not ignore the deaths of so many of the National Defense Corps and ordered an investigation. It was revealed that the commander of the National Defense Corps, General Kim Yun Gun, had stolen millions of American dollars that were intended to heat the barracks and feed and clothe the men. General Kim and five other officers were publicly shot at Daegu on 12 August 1951, following their convictions for corruption.

In the spring of 1951, Rhee—who was upset about MacArthur's dismissal by President Truman—lashed out in a press interview against Britain, whom he blamed for MacArthur's sacking. Rhee was absolutely committed to reunifying Korea under his leadership and strongly supported MacArthur's call for going all-out against China, even at the risk of provoking a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. Rhee declared, "The British troops have outlived their welcome in my country." Shortly after, Rhee told an Australian diplomat about the Australian troops fighting for his country, "They are not wanted here any longer. Tell that to your government. The Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British troops all represent a government which is now sabotaging the brave American effort to liberate fully and unify my unhappy nation."

Rhee was strongly against the armistice negotiations the US entered into in 1953. Accordingly, in April of the same year, he demanded of President Eisenhower a total withdrawal of his troops from the peninsula if an armistice were to be signed, declaring that the ROK would rather fight on its own than negotiate a cease-fire. He also deliberately carried out some actions that would deter the armistice and reignite conflicts in the region, the most provocative one being his unilateral release of 25,000 prisoners of war in June 1953. Such actions, which hindered the progress of armistice talks, upset China and the North. Moreover, for such unpredictability in his authoritarian leadership, the Truman and Eisenhower administrations considered him one of the "rogue allies" in East Asia and engaged in "powerplay", or the construction of asymmetric alliances, which helped the US maximize economic and political influence over the ROK and increase ROK's dependency on the United States.

On 27 July 1953, at last, "one of the 20th century's most vicious and frustrating wars" came to an end with no apparent victor. Ultimately, the armistice agreement was signed by military commanders from China, North Korea and the United Nations Command, led by the US. Its signatories did not include the ROK, as Rhee refused to agree to the armistice, and neither was it supposed to be a permanent cease-fire, as a peace treaty was never signed.

Re-election
Because of widespread discontent with Rhee's corruption and political repression, it was considered unlikely that Rhee would be re-elected by the National Assembly. To circumvent this, Rhee attempted to amend the constitution to allow him to hold elections for the presidency by direct popular vote. When the Assembly rejected this amendment, Rhee ordered a mass arrest of opposition politicians and then passed the desired amendment in July 1952. During the following presidential election, he received 74% of the vote.

Resignation and exile
After the war ended in July 1953, South Korea struggled to rebuild following nationwide devastation. The country remained at a Third World level of development and was heavily reliant on US aid. Rhee was easily re-elected for what should have been the final time in 1956, since the 1948 constitution limited the president to two consecutive terms. However, soon after being sworn in, he had the legislature amend the constitution to allow the incumbent president to run for an unlimited number of terms, despite protests from the opposition.

In March 1960, the 84-year-old Rhee won his fourth term in office as president. His victory was assured with 100% of the vote after the main opposition candidate, Cho Byeong-ok, died shortly before the 15 March elections.

Rhee wanted his protégé, Lee Ki-poong, elected as Vice President—a separate office under Korean law at that time. When Lee, who was running against Chang Myon (the ambassador to the United States during the Korean War, a member from the opposition Democratic Party) won the vote with a wide margin, the opposition Democratic Party claimed the election was rigged. This triggered anger among segments of the Korean populace on 19 April. When police shot demonstrators in Masan, the student-led April Revolution forced Rhee to resign on 26 April.

On 28 April 1960, a DC-4 belonging to the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), piloted by Captain Harry B. Cockrell Jr. and operated by Civil Air Transport, covertly flew Rhee out of South Korea as protesters converged on the Blue House. During the flight, Rhee and Francesca Donner, his Austrian wife, went to the cockpit to thank the pilot and crew. Rhee's wife offered the pilot a valuable diamond ring in thanks, which was courteously declined. The former president, his wife, and their adopted son subsequently lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Death
Rhee died of stroke complications in Honolulu on 19 July 1965. A week later, his body was returned to Seoul and buried in the Seoul National Cemetery.

Personal life
Rhee was married to Seungseon Park from 1890 to 1910. Park divorced Rhee shortly after the death of their son Rhee Bong-su in 1908, supposedly because their marriage had no intimacy due to his political activities.

In February 1933, Rhee met Austrian Franziska Donner in Geneva. At the time, Rhee was participating in a League of Nations meeting and Donner was working as an interpreter. In October 1934, they were married in New York City. She also acted as his secretary.

Over the years after the death of Bong-su, Rhee adopted three sons. The first was Rhee Un-soo, however, the elder Rhee ended the adoption in 1949. The second adopted son was Lee Kang-seok, eldest son of Lee Ki-poong, who was a descendant of Prince Hyoryeong and therefore a distant cousin of Rhee; but Lee committed suicide in 1960. After Rhee was exiled, Rhee In-soo, who is a descendant of Prince Yangnyeong just like Rhee, was adopted by him as his heir.

Legacy

Rhee's former Seoul residence, Ihwajang, is currently used for the presidential memorial museum. The Woo-Nam Presidential Preservation Foundation has been set up to honor his legacy. There is also a memorial museum located in Hwajinpo near Kim Il Sung's cottage.

Rhee imbued South Korea with a legacy of authoritarian rule that lasted with only a few short breaks until 1988. One of those breaks came when the country adopted a parliamentary system with a figurehead president in response to Rhee's abuses. This Second Republic would only last a year before being overthrown in a 1961 military coup. In spite of this, however, the ensuing president Park Chung Hee expressed criticism of Rhee's regime, in particular for its lack of focus on economic and industrial development. Beginning with the Park era, the standing of Rhee and his "diplomatic" faction of the Korean independence movement fell in the public consciousness in favor of Kim Ku and Ahn Jung-geun, who embodied the "armed resistance" faction of the right-wing independence movement, who were preferred by Park; Kim's son Kim Shin and Ahn's nephew Ahn Chun-saeng both cooperated with the Park regimes of the Third and Fourth Republic.

Rhee began to be reevaluated after democratization in 1987, and in particular came to be associated with the so-called New Right movement, some members of which have argued that Rhee's achievements have been wrongly undervalued, and that he should be viewed positively as the founding father of the Republic of Korea. An early and prominent example of such literature was Volume 2 of Re-Understanding the History of Pre- and Post-Liberation, published in 2006 by various "New Right" scholars. This academic dispute formed one of the germs behind the later history textbook controversies in the country.

In any event, this view has not spread much beyond the right-wing, with a 2023 Gallup Korea survey finding that only 30% of respondents saying that Rhee "did many good things", versus 40% who thought that he "did many wrong things" and 30% who had no opinion or didn't respond. Moreover, only about half of conservative party supporters, as well as half of self-described conservatives, gave the first response.

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Lee Chang-hwan in the 1991–1992 MBC TV series Eyes of Dawn.
 * Portrayed by Kwon Sung-deok in the 2006 KBS1 TV series Seoul 1945.
 * In the M*A*S*H episode titled "Mail Call, Again", Radar mentions a parade in Seoul due to Syngman Rhee being "elected dictator again."
 * Rhee is referenced in the lyrics to singer Billy Joel's 1989 music single, "We Didn't Start the Fire".
 * Rhee is mentioned in Philip Roth's I Married a Communist.
 * Rhee's new documentary film, The Birth of Korea was released in 2024, to re-establish his legacy and works.
 * Season 3 of the Podcast Blowback released in 2022 includes extensive details about Rhee's rule, particularly his role within U.S. Cold War foreign policy.

Works

 * The Spirit of Independence (1904)
 * Neutrality as Influenced by the United States (1912)
 * Japan Inside and Out (1941)

title: Syngman Rhee


text:
Talk:President of South Korea

Hyphens
Please, don't put hyphen in the name. I think it needs to be discussed, but current official romanization doesn't allow - in name usually. The new romanization isn't yet widespread, and there are many old style romanizations, here and there. But I believe I should insist using the new rules for new entries of Korean names.

 * You have a good point, but it's worth noting that even the official website of Cheong Wa Dae hyphenates the names.    That's more than "here and there."  Aside from which, I think there are sound reasons for hyphenating most Korean multi-syllabic words, since the syllable boundaries are often unclear to non-Korean-speakers.  Cheers!  -- Visviva 09:15, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

U.S.
Let's make a table. The list just looks bad. - 68.72.129.171 21:55, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Table
Let's support the table method! ü

Tables
The tables are a nice idea, but I think there are some problems... For one thing, do we really need the presidents of the Provisional Government in this article? Whatever their status, they certainly weren't the presidents of South Korea, which after all is the subject of the article... I would think a simple link to the PGROK article would suffice... Also, do we need the Korean names of the political parties? Seems like that information is best included in specific articles on the parties (where such exist)... Any thoughts? -- Visviva 02:34, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

 * the provisional gov't is also listed in Rulers of Korea. is the provisional gov't specifically viewed as the predecessor to the south korean gov't, & not north korea? otherwise, i think we can delete here. also, the "rulers" list includes gov't name (or is that administration name), e.g. 3rd republic, participatory government, which should be moved or copied, from there to here, i think, since this is the more specific article. Appleby 03:49, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

i have renamed "Rulers of Korea" into "List of Korean monarchs" to be consistent with other countries' lists, & kept the link to this article at the end of the list. the following was removed from there, in case anyone wants to integrate into this article's table: Appleby 19:37, 23 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) 1948–1960 1st, 2nd, 3rd President 이승만(Rhee Syng-man) (The 1st Republic)
 * 2) 1960–1962 4th President 윤보선(Yun Bo-seon))(The 2nd Republic)
 * 3) 1963–1979 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th President 박정희(Park Chung-hee) (The 3rd/4th Republic)
 * 4) 1979–1980 10th President 최규하(Choi Kyu-ha)
 * 5) 1980–1988 11th, 12th President 전두환(Chun Doo-hwan) (The 5th Republic)
 * 6) 1988–1993 13th President 노태우(Roh Tae-woo) (The 6th Republic)
 * 7) 1993–1998 14th President 김영삼(Kim Young-sam) (The Civil Government)
 * 8) 1998–2003 15th President 김대중(Kim Dae-jung) (The Government of the People)
 * 9) 2003–present 16th president 노무현(Roh Moo-hyun) (The Participatory Government)

The addition of the prime minister spot to the table of presidents might also make for a bit of clutter, since although there have been 9 people that have held the job of president, there have been 37 official prime ministers. It might be more useful to create a table listing prime ministers in a separate article, along with the presidents they served under, and then to link to that table/article here.--Zonath 06:22, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Why are Syngman Rhee and Park Chung-hee counted as multiple, differently numbered presidents, even though they served consecutive terms? This is an odd method of counting the presidents; if we counted U.S. presidents that way, George W. Bush would now be the 64th president. Is this the official way South Koreans number their presidents? Mike1981 22:29, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

National Assembly votes
"If the National Assembly votes against the President's decisions, it will be declared void immediately." This is ambiguous. Does it mean the President's decision will be annulled, or that that National Assembly's vote will be invalid? Riyehn (talk) 00:34, 9 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I understand it to mean the National Assembly annuls presidential decrees. But I wonder if simple majority is enough? CuriousOliver (talk) 16:09, 30 November 2016 (UTC)

Impeachment?
I don't see anything about impeachment. Could anyone add how it works? CuriousOliver (talk) 16:11, 30 November 2016 (UTC)

Infobox
Park is still President of South Korea, until either she resigns or is removed from office. Until then, she should be kept in the infobox. GoodDay (talk) 17:27, 9 December 2016 (UTC)

Ordinal of the Presidencies
I note that at present the ordering of the presidents is such that where an individual served more than one terms without interruptions (i.e. Rhee, Park, Chun) they are counted as having served once. I know this is how the presidencies are counted in the United States, but in Korea the official position appears to be to count the presidential terms rather than the uninterrupted service. Thus, while Moon is currently listed as the 12th President in our list, he is always referred to as the 19th President in Korea. I am not aware of any Korean sources that list Park as the third president, Chun as the fifth president, etc.

Given the current presentation appears to be in contrary to the official position of the Government of South Korea, I am changing the numbering of the Presidents to count the terms rather than the uninterrupted service, of course pending further discussions by other users including any official source supporting the numbering the presidents by uninterrupted service. Let me know if you have any feedback or contrary views. Sydneyphoenix (talk) 00:40, 17 May 2017 (UTC)

The edit I made yesterday has been reversed, without detailed discussion on this page. There aren't much information regarding this matter on the website for the Office of the President, but in this transcript of his speech after the oath assuming the Presidency, Moon introduces himself as the 19th President; one would think he knows better than most what his title is, for such an occasion. (http://www1.president.go.kr/president/intro.php) Also this and several other press releases from the National Electoral Commission refers to the election of May 9 in which Moon was elected as the President as the "19th Presidential Election. Here is the link for one of those press releases: (http://www.nec.go.kr/engvote_2013/04_news/02_02.jsp?num=488&pg=1&col=&sw=). Given these official documents, I think the case for calling him the 19th President is quite strong; it makes no sense to address him as the 12th President in English and the 19th President in Korean. The situation is simply that Korean system of counting Presidential terms is different from the American one. Given these, I will change the orders of the Presidents back to what I organised yesterday, pending contrary evidence from other users. Sydneyphoenix (talk) 13:05, 18 May 2017 (UTC)
 * I've implemented a compromise for those article intros & infoboxes. IMHO, it will best explain the situation to less familiar readers. GoodDay (talk) 13:48, 18 May 2017 (UTC)

 * , . This is a problem we run into time and time again with ordinals in infobox and their various, ridiculously uneven applications across Wikipedia. What is the substantive point in including any of them in the box if they can be so easily misconstrued? The notion of "regional" editing style might sort of work when it comes to the syntax and prose of the article itself, but since the readership is indisputably international, there has to be some baseline consistency to a fact/data infobox. The "list of presidents/PMs/leaders/governors/etc of X" articles can deal with the ordinals but they are so, so, so much more trouble than the meager worth they bring by being included. Therequiembellishere (talk) 18:25, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

 * I've no problem with deleting all numberings (from the infoboxes & intros) from all the South Korean presidents bios. Just make sure it's done for all of them. GoodDay (talk) 18:30, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

 * Obviously this is a larger point to be made at whatever relevant Wikiproject, but I am talking about all articles. Which I know will face the biggest headwind from obstinate American editors who want to preserve the cult of the Presidency, but I really do wish they would all go away. Therequiembellishere (talk) 18:33, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

 * For the sake of consistency and to avoid further edit warring, I'm going to go ahead and remove the ordinals pending further discussion. A discussion regarding all such articles would probably be most appropriate at WT:POLITICS or maybe even the Village Pump. clpo13(talk) 18:37, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

Unarticled acting presidents
I am not very familiar with Korean presidents or politics, but wouldn't acting presidents of a country merit their own pages? I am not informed enough to do so, but with the depth of knowledge I've seen on this site, I am sure it can be done. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:569:74E5:9600:A982:F110:8D32:1A5B (talk) 21:40, 2 October 2017 (UTC)

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File nominated for deletion on commons
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Table of Presidents lacking label
It isn't clear what color represents what Party Bergmanucsd (talk) 01:16, 27 April 2018 (UTC)Bergmanucsd

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New president
Why is old president still here? What this north Korea? Bigloversunitedbigshots (talk) 19:58, 12 March 2022 (UTC)

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Religion
The religion parameter has been depreciated in June 2017 from following this discussion. Should the religion parameter  and   removed? 49.150.0.134 (talk) 15:15, 26 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:President of South Korea


text:
Talk:Punic Wars

Typo
Hi,

I think in the introduction in "The First Punic War officially came to an END in 241 BC.", END is missing.

Thanks.

Punic = Phoenician
Punic = Phoenician in Latin 185.76.176.222 (talk) 08:30, 8 October 2022 (UTC)

 * Indeed it does, or almost, which is why the article includes "The term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry." Gog the Mild (talk) 12:34, 8 October 2022 (UTC)

Amount of detail on the corvus
See FAC discussion.

I have added detail about the corvus to a couple of the events in which it featured: "The Carthaginians superior seamanship was not as effective as they had hoped, while the Romans' corvus gave them an edge as the battle degenerated into a shapeless brawl ... It is possible that the presence of the corvus, making the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy, contributed to this disaster; there is no record of them being used again." (The later referring to the storm off Camarina.)

Which means the article includes:

"To counter this, the Romans introduced the corvus, a bridge 1.2 metres (4 feet) wide and 11 metres (36 feet) long, with a heavy spike on the underside, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck. This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to board enemy ships and capture them, rather than employing the previously traditional tactic of ramming ... The Roman adaptation of the corvus was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the corvus became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it ... The Romans built a navy to challenge Carthage's,[81] and using the corvus inflicted a major defeat at the battle of Mylae in 260 BC ... The Carthaginians superior seamanship was not as effective as they had hoped, while the Romans' corvus gave them an edge as the battle degenerated into a shapeless brawl ... It is possible that the presence of the corvus, making the Roman ships unusually unseaworthy, contributed to this disaster; there is no record of them being used again." Plus an image.

This seems balanced and proportional in an article covering all three wars. Actually, I think it may be a little over the top. What do you think? Gog the Mild (talk) 17:50, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

Incorrect date of signing of peace treaty
The end of the introduction incorrectly states that the official peace treaty was signed April 18th, 2023, which is the day the cited source was retrieved. The correct date, per the source, is February 5th, 1985.

I'm mentioning this here as I do not have permissions to edit the article itself.

For posterity's sake, I'll mention I was brought to the article after seeing https://twitter.com/Trey_Explainer/status/1648177549887799296, which I suspect is what also brought Foxterria (talk) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jbellessa87 (talk • contribs) 04:16, 19 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Good catch; not sure if the main author, Gog the Mild, intends to keep the sentence at all, but I've corrected the date in case he does. Iazyges   Consermonor   Opus meum  05:16, 19 April 2023 (UTC)
 * @Iazyges: Thank you! Jbellessa87 (talk) 10:05, 19 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Aologies, I have not been watchlisting this. It's not in the article, so shouldn't be in the lead. If it were in the article - which I doubt, as it is trivia - it is still not significant enough to warrant a mention in the lead. (Note that it does, just, make the cut in Third Punic War. The article, not the lead.) So I am reverting it and watchlisting for further discussion. Gog the Mild (talk) 10:34, 19 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Punic Wars


text:
Roh Tae-woo

Roh Tae-woo (4 December 1932  – 26 October 2021) was a South Korean politician and army general who served as the 6th (13th election) president of South Korea from 1988 to 1993. He was the first democratically elected president of South Korea.

Roh was a close ally and friend of Chun Doo-hwan, the predecessor leader of the country who ruled as an unelected military dictator from 1980 to 1988, and unofficially since 1979. In 1996, both leaders were sentenced for their roles in orchestrating coups as well as their subsequent human rights abuses such as the Gwangju Massacre, but were pardoned the following year by Kim Young-sam on advice of president-elect Kim Dae-jung.

He was a leader of the Democratic Justice Party from 1987 to 1990 and was known for having passed the June 29 Declaration in 1987 as the leader of the party. Roh died on 26 October 2021, at the age of 88.

Early life and education
Roh was born on 4 December 1932 in Daegu. His ancestry could be traced from Jinan, capital of Shandong, China and is the 16th generation descendant of Noh Sa-sin who was a civil minister and scholar during early Joseon period. Noh Sa-sin is 6th generation descendant of the late Goryeo period bureaucrat Noh Jin. His father, a low-echelon civil officer in the district, died in a car accident when Roh was seven years old. With his uncle's help, Roh first enrolled at the Daegu Technical School but transferred to the local Kyongbuk High School where he was an above-average student. Roh befriended Chun Doo-hwan while in high school in Daegu.

Military service
During the Korean War (1950–1953), Roh joined the South Korean army as an enlisted conscript in an artillery unit, alongside singer Song Hae. He was promoted to Sergeant Cannoneer of an M114 155 mm howitzer gun line.

He later entered the Korean Military Academy, completing it in the first class of the four-year program, he graduated in February 1954 with a Bachelor of Science degree and a commission as an Army 2nd Lieutenant in the 11th class of the Korea Military Academy (KMA).

A commissioned officer in the infantry from 1954, Roh rose steadily through the ranks and fought in the Vietnam War, first in 1968 as a lieutenant colonel and battalion commander, later was promoted to major general and the commander of White Horse Division in 1979. A member of the Hanahoe, a secret military group, he gave critical support to a coup later that year in which Chun became the de facto ruler of South Korea. Roh helped Chun lead troops against the Gwangju Democratization Movement in 1980.

Roh held several key army posts such as Commander of the Capital Security Command in 1979 and Commander of the Defense Security Command in 1980.

When Roh first joined the military, his surname was transcribed in English as "No." He later changed it to "Roh" to avoid the negative connotations of "No" in English.

Cabinet minister
Following his retirement from the Korean Army in July 1981, Roh accepted President Chun's offer of the post of Minister of State for National Security and Foreign Affairs. Later, he served as Sports Minister, Home Affairs Minister, President of the Seoul Olympics Organizing Committee, and in 1985, chairman of the ruling Democratic Justice Party. Most notably, he oversaw preparations for the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, which he officially declared open.

June 29 Declaration and run for presidency
Despite his involvement in the 12 December 1979 coup d'état against then-President Choi Kyu-hah and the bloody military crackdown of dissidents in the Gwangju Uprising of 18–27 May 1980 and with an eye on the Blue House in the upcoming 1987 presidential elections, Roh began working to distance himself from the unpopular Chun government. The reason was that Roh worked to carry out his own agenda for democratic reform. By agreeing to meeting the demands of the political opposition in terms of political reforms with his eight-point proposal including direct election of the President, Roh successfully upstaged Chun and boosted his own image as a reformer.

In June 1987, Chun named Roh as the presidential candidate of the ruling Democratic Justice Party. This was widely perceived as handing Roh the presidency, and triggered large pro-democracy rallies in Seoul and other cities in the 1987 June Democracy Movement.

In response, Roh made a speech on 29 June promising a wide program of reforms. Chief among them were a new, more democratic constitution and popular election of the president. In the election, the two leading opposition figures, Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung (both of whom later became presidents), were unable to overcome their differences and split the vote, in spite of the first female presidential candidate, Hong Sook-ja in South Korean electoral history withdrawing from the race to support Kim Young-sam against Roh. This enabled Roh to win by a narrow margin with 36.6% of the vote and become the country's first cleanly elected president on 16 December 1987.

Presidency (1988–1993)
Roh was inaugurated as president on 25 February 1988. For the first time, the ceremony was held outside the National Assembly. Subsequent presidents have been inaugurated at the same location. In his inauguration speech, Roh pledged to open an era of democracy, bringing into full play the people's potential.

Roh's rule was notable for hosting the Seoul Olympics in 1988 and for his foreign policy of Nordpolitik, which represented a major break from previous administrations. True to his word, he remained committed to democratic reforms and was steadfast in the push toward political and socio-economic reforms at home. Democratization of politics, economic "growth with equity," and national reunification were the three policy goals publicly stated by the Roh administration.

However, in 1992, Roh's government sealed up a cave on Mount Halla where the remains of the Jeju uprising massacre victims had been discovered, continuing a series of coverups by successive administrations on the truth of the uprising.

Merging of political parties in 1990
In order to overcome the paralysis of governing due to lack of majority support in the National Assembly, the Roh government sought to attain "a grand compromise" in partisan politics. A party merger was announced on 22 January 1990 in an attempt to accomplish this political objective. The ruling Democratic Justice Party merged with two opposition parties, Kim Young-sam's Reunification and Democracy Party and Kim Jong-pil's New Democratic Republican Party. The new established Democratic Liberal Party, which commanded a more than two-thirds majority in the legislature, sought to establish political stability so as to enable socio-economic progress. However, the merger was fraught with factional infighting, undermining his administration's handling on national affairs.

Foreign policy
He met with President Corazon Aquino for a series of talks between the Philippines and South Korea for economic, social, and cultural ties, supporting the Filipino boxer Leopoldo Serantes in the Olympics, and to discuss unification talks to end North Korea's hostilities after the Korean War.

During his administration, Roh's stance as President was very active in diplomacy. Successfully hosting the 24th Summer Olympics in Seoul in his first year in office was a major accomplishment, followed by his active diplomacy, including his address before the United Nations General Assembly in October 1988, his meeting with U.S. President George H. W. Bush, and delivering a speech before a joint session of the U.S. Congress. He also conducted a five-nation European visit in December 1989.

On 7 July 1988, he launched an aggressive foreign policy initiative called the Northern Diplomacy, or Nordpolitik, which brought about benefits and rewards to his government. In 1989, Seoul established diplomatic relations with Hungary and Poland, followed by diplomatic ties with Yugoslavia, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Mongolia in 1990. South Korea's trade with the People's Republic of China steadily increased, reaching the $3.1 billion mark at the same time South Korea's trade with the Eastern Bloc nations and the Soviet Union increased to $800 million. Seoul and Moscow exchanged full consular general's offices in 1990. Roh's moves left North Korea more isolated and was a dramatic and historic turning point of South Korea’s diplomatic goals.

On 4 June 1990, Roh met with Mikhail Gorbachev, President of the Soviet Union, during a visit to the United States. The meeting ended 42 years of official silence between the two countries and paved the way for improved diplomatic relations. Roh later visited the Soviet Union in 1991.

North Korean relations
The Nordpolitik policy also proposed the interim development of a "Korean Community", which was similar to a North Korean proposal for a confederation.

From 4 to 7 September 1990, high-level talks were held in Seoul, at the same time that the North was protesting about the Soviet Union normalizing relations with the South. In December 1991 both states made an accord, the Agreement on Reconciliation, Non-Aggression, Exchange and Cooperation, pledging non-aggression and cultural and economic exchanges. They also agreed on prior notification of major military movements and established a military hotline, and working on replacing the armistice with a "peace regime". Today, the agreement has been praised for forming a foundation for cross-border exchanges and cooperation.

In January 1992, North and South Korea also signed the Joint Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, although the North subsequently reneged and pursued its own nuclear weapons program. This coincided with the admission of both North and South Korea into the United Nations. Meanwhile, on 25 March 1991, a unified Korean team, for the first time, used the Korean Unification Flag at the World Table Tennis Competition in Japan, and on 6 May 1991, a unified team competed at the World Youth Football Competition in Portugal.

Economy and infrastructure
Roh's emphasis on "economic growth with equity," although well received by the public, led to the dwindling in the annual economic growth rate from the high of 12.3 percent in 1988 to 6.7 percent in 1989. As labor strikes and demands for higher wages intensified, the Roh government imposed an austerity plan to keep South Korea's export-oriented economy more competitive internationally. However, pursuit of higher wages in the wake of the strikes and the appreciation of the South Korean won in value against the U.S. dollar made South Korean products less competitive internationally.

His policies cancelled debt in rural areas, constructed 2 million new houses, and established public land ownership for the public interest. In addition, under his administration, large-scale national projects such as Incheon International Airport opened in 2001 (and is now one of the largest and busiest airports in the world) and the Korea Train Express (KTX) high speed rail system opened in 2004. Both of these began construction under his administration in 1992.

Post-presidency (1993–2021)
Barred from running for a second term in 1992 (the 1987 constitution retained the previous ban on reelection), Roh left office on 24 February 1993.

Trial, jail sentence and pardon
In 1993, Roh's successor Kim Young-sam led an anti-corruption campaign that investigated Roh and Chun Doo-hwan. Kim had previously merged his party with Roh's in a deal that enabled him to win the election. Kim's administration also officially recognised the 12 December incident as a coup.

In October 1995, Roh, in a tearful televised speech, publicly apologized for having illegally amassed hundreds of millions of dollars in secret political donations during his term as president. Roh was arrested in November 1995 on charges of bribery. The two former presidents were also later separately charged with mutiny and treason for their roles in the 1979 coup and the 1980 Gwangju massacre.

The "trial of the century", as described by the media, saw both convicted in August 1996 for treason, mutiny, and corruption; Chun was sentenced to death, later commuted to life imprisonment, while Roh's 22½-year jail sentence was reduced to 17 years on appeal. Both were released from prison in December 1997 and pardoned by Kim Young-sam on advice of president-elect Kim Dae-jung. Both Roh and Chun attended Kim Dae-jung's inauguration on 25 February 1998.

In March 2006, Roh was also stripped of 11 national honours which he previously received.

Roh finished repaying fines from his illegally gained wealth in 2013. In 2013, the remaining W24 billion (USD22 million) of a W262.9 billion fine for corruption in office was paid. He mostly stayed out of politics and maintained a low profile in retirement, and he continued to express remorse over his crimes until his death in 2021. In 2019, two years before Roh's death, his son went to Gwangju and visited the May 18th National Cemetery on behalf of his father. Roh's son visited the cemetery a second time in 2020, and he offered a flower wreath under his father's name. In contrast, his friend and predecessor, Chun Doo-hwan stopped repaying his remaining fine and did not show regret or remorse for his past actions.

Health (2002–2021)
Roh suffered from prostate cancer and received surgery in 2002. He also suffered from cerebellar atrophy and asthma. His son, Roh Jae-heon who is a lawyer based in the United States, said that Roh spent most of his final 10 years of his life in the hospital, while his daughter Roh Soh-yeong, an art museum director, said he was bedridden for the past 10 years and unable to speak or move his body.

Death and state funeral
Roh died in intensive care at the Seoul National University Hospital at 1:45pm KST on 26 October 2021, at the age of 88. His family released his last will and message:

"While I tried my best in my own way, I deeply ask for forgiveness for my shortcomings and mistakes. I was truly grateful and honored to humbly accept the fate of serving the great Republic of Korea and its people. I hope that the peaceful reunification of North and South Korea that was not achieved in my lifetime will be achieved by the next generation."

In view of Roh's mixed and disputed legacy, the government decided to hold a state funeral for Roh following a debate within the national cabinet, in recognition of his "significant contributions to the nation's development". The decision was criticized by some, including survivors and victims' families of the Gwangju crackdown and members of the ruling liberal Democratic Party. The city of Gwangju and several other cities and provincial governments refused to raise flags half-mast or set up memorial altars for Roh in accordance with state funeral procedures. In Seoul, memorial altars saw a low turnout of mourners coming to pay their respects.

The scaled-down state funeral service, held in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic, took place at Olympic Park, Seoul on 30 October, in recognition of the 1988 Summer Olympics which was successfully held there under his presidency. Prime Minister Kim Boo-kyum gave a eulogy. By law, Roh was not eligible for burial at a national cemetery because of his past criminal record and conviction. on 9 December 2021, two months after his death, Roh's ashes were interred at Paju, a border town to North Korea, on Unification Hill.

He died about one month before former President Chun Doo-hwan died on 23 November 2021 from complications of blood cancer.

Honours

 * 🇰🇷 South Korea:
 * Grand Order of Mugunghwa (South Korea) - ribbon bar.gif Recipient of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa

Foreign honours

 * MY Darjah Utama Seri Mahkota Negara (Crown of the Realm) - DMN.svg Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (1988)
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom:
 * UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
 * International Olympic Committee:
 * Olympic Order gold ribbon.svg Olympic Order
 * Olympic Order gold ribbon.svg Olympic Order

In popular culture

 * Roh is portrayed by Seo In-seok in the 2005 MBC TV series 5th Republic.
 * Park Moo-yeol, a fictional character modelled after Roh Tae-woo, is portrayed in a cameo by Kang Moon-kyung in 2021 JTBC drama series Snowdrop
 * Noh Tae-geon, a fictional character modelled after Roh, is also portrayed in the 2023 South Korean film 12.12: The Day.

title: Roh Tae-woo


text:
Talk:Roh Tae-woo

Encoding
Sorry, it seems that the encoding is again incorrect. How can I make always the correct encoding?

 * Your browser ought to automatically use the ISO-8859-1 encoding, since that's what our headers send out. If switched in auto or manually, then depending on the browser and the version, it may or may not be willing to automatically convert the Korean text as typed into Unicode-numbered character references. (Recent versions of Mozilla do.) What I do to fix them is switch the page into EUC-KR encoding (under View/Character encoding), copy the Korean bits, switch it back to Latin-1, go into edit, and paste it in, then hit save. --Brion 11:00 Oct 3, 2002 (UTC)

Place of birth
It says that this person was born in "Daegu, South Korea" in 1932. Shouldn't this be "Daikyū, Keishō Hokudō/North Keishō, Japan" instead? Taegu was part of Japan when he was born. Compare with the article about Slobodan Milošević, where Kingdom of Yugoslavia is given as place of birth (instead of Serbia, where the same geographical location is now situated). (212.247.11.153 22:02, 6 October 2007 (UTC))

No it should not be. No nation should be referred to by its colonial designations. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 160.39.133.69 (talk) 16:32, 10 May 2013 (UTC)

Reference
Is anybody know why the reference 2 has been cited here? It appears that Roh Tae-woo's religion has been referred from the reference 2, however to me, there isn't enough relevancy. Honestly, the reference 2 is a extremely biased propaganda which is almost 'praising' Roh Tae-woo and Chun Do-whan, two trators of the ROK. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Kidhkgg (talk • contribs) 22:27, 22 October 2008 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Roh Tae-woo
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Roh Tae-woo's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "newsweek": From Jeju Uprising:  From Korea under Japanese rule:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 18:24, 29 January 2016 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 04:48, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

Roh's birth year
I checked his Wikipedia profile, which it said 1933. But I researched & it said 1932.

title: Talk:Roh Tae-woo


text:
Peterborough Cathedral

Peterborough Cathedral, properly the Cathedral Church of St Peter, St Paul and St Andrew, and formerly known as Peterborough Abbey or St Peter's Abbey, is a cathedral in Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, in the United Kingdom. The seat of the Anglican Bishop of Peterborough, it is dedicated to the Apostles Saint Peter, Saint Paul, and Saint Andrew, whose statues look down from the three high gables of the famous West Front. Founded in the Anglo-Saxon period as a minster it became one of Englands most important Benedictine abbeys only becoming a cathedral in 1542. Its architecture is mainly Norman, following a rebuilding in the 12th century. With Durham and Ely cathedrals, it is one of the most important 12th cent. buildings in England to have remained largely intact, despite extensions and restoration, and is one the nations best preserved pre-reformation abbeys.

Peterborough Cathedral is known for its imposing Early English Gothic West Front (façade) which, with its three enormous arches, is without architectural precedent and with no direct successor. The appearance is slightly asymmetrical, as one of the two towers that rise from behind the façade was never completed (the tower on the right as one faces the building), but this is only visible from a distance.

Anglo-Saxon origins
The original church, known as "Medeshamstede", was founded in the reign of the Anglo-Saxon King Peada of the Middle Angles in about 655 AD, as one of the first centres of Christianity in central England. The monastic settlement with which the church was associated lasted at least until 870, when it was supposedly destroyed by Vikings. In an alcove of the New Building, an extension of the eastern end, lies an ancient stone carving: the. This medieval carving of 12 monks, six on each side, commemorates the destruction of the Monastery and the death of the Abbot and Monks when the area was sacked by the Vikings in 864. The Hedda Stone was likely carved sometime after the raid, when the monastery slipped into decline.

In the mid-10th century monastic revival (during which churches at Ely and Ramsey were also refounded) a Benedictine Abbey was created and endowed in 966, principally by Athelwold, Bishop of Winchester, from what remained of the earlier church, with "a basilica [church] there furbished with suitable structures of halls, and enriched with surrounding lands" and more extensive buildings which saw the aisle built out to the west with a second tower added. The original central tower was, however, retained. It was dedicated to St Peter and surrounded by a palisade, called a burgh, hence the town surrounding the abbey was eventually named Peter-burgh. The community was further revived in 972 by Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury.

This newer church had as its major focal point a substantial western tower with a "Rhenish helm" and was largely constructed of ashlars. Only a small section of the foundations of the Anglo-Saxon church remain beneath the south transept but there are several significant artefacts, including Anglo-Saxon carvings such as the Hedda Stone, from the earlier building.

In 2008, Anglo-Saxon grave markers were reported to have been found by workmen repairing a wall in the cathedral precincts. The grave markers are said to date to the 11th century, and probably belonged to "townsfolk".

Norman and medieval architectural evolution
Although damaged during the struggle between the Norman invaders and local folk-hero, Hereward the Wake, it was repaired and continued to thrive until destroyed by an accidental fire in 1116. This event necessitated the building of a new church in the Norman style, begun by Abbot John de Sais on 8 March 1118 (Old Style). By 1193, the building was completed to the western end of the Nave, including the central tower and the decorated wooden ceiling of the nave. The ceiling, completed between 1230 and 1250, still survives. It is unique in Britain and one of only four such ceilings in the whole of Europe. It has been over-painted twice, once in 1745, then in 1834, but still retains the character and style of the original. (The painted nave ceiling of Ely Cathedral, by contrast, is entirely a Victorian creation.)

The church was largely built of Barnack limestone from quarries on its own land, and it was paid annually for access to these quarries by the builders of Ely Cathedral and Ramsey Abbey in thousands of eels (e.g. 4,000 each year by Ramsey). Cathedral historians believe that part of the placing of the church in the location it is in is due to the easy ability to transfer quarried stones by river and then to the existing site allowing it to grow without being relocated.

Then, after completing the Western transept and adding the Great West Front Portico in 1237, the medieval masons switched over to the new Gothic style. Apart from changes to the windows, the insertion of a porch to support the free-standing pillars of the portico and the addition of a "new" building at the east end around the beginning of the 16th century, the structure of the building remains essentially as it was on completion almost 800 years ago. The completed building was consecrated in 1238 by Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, within whose diocese it then fell.

The trio of arches forming the Great West Front, the defining image of Peterborough Cathedral, is unrivalled in medieval architecture. The line of spires behind it, topping an unprecedented four towers, evolved for more practical reasons. Chief amongst them was the wish to retain the earlier Norman towers, which became obsolete when the Gothic front was added. Instead of being demolished and replaced with new stretches of wall, these old towers were retained and embellished with cornices and other gothic decor, while two new towers were added to create a continuous frontage.

The Norman tower was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style in about 1350–1380 (its main beams and roof bosses survive) with two tiers of Romanesque windows combined into a single set of Gothic windows, with the turreted cap and pinnacles removed and replaced by battlements. Between 1496 and 1508, the Presbytery roof was replaced and the "New Building", a rectangular building built around the end of the Norman eastern apse, with Perpendicular fan vaulting (probably designed by John Wastell, the architect of King's College Chapel, Cambridge and the Bell Harry Tower at Canterbury Cathedral), was added.

Monastic life
As in all Benedictine abbeys, the monks of Peterborough made vows of stability in the abbey until death. The community was governed by the Rule of St Benedict and was focused chiefly on the daily services of the Conventual Mass and the Liturgy of the Hours in the church. Meals and meetings were also important ritual events, with monks eating in silence while listening to readings from spiritual texts. Outside of this schedule they engaged in scholarship, education, pastoral care for the local community, and other kinds of work with daily time set aside for recreation, an opportunity to socialise with other members of the community and with guests. The duty of welcoming guests and pilgrims is a cornerstone of the Benedictine Rule and at Peterborough this was probably the primary focus of activity.

Pilgrimage to Peterborough was common because of the abbey’s many relics. The existing mid-12th-century records of Hugh Candidus, a monk, list the Abbey's reliquaries as including two pieces of swaddling clothes which wrapped the baby Jesus, pieces of Jesus' manger, a part of the five loaves which fed the 5,000, a piece of the raiment of Mary the mother of Jesus, a piece of Aaron's rod, and relics of St Peter, St Paul and St Andrew – to whom the church is dedicated.

The supposed arm of Oswald of Northumbria disappeared from its chapel, probably during the Reformation, despite a watch-tower having been built for monks to guard its reliquary. Various contact relics of Thomas Becket were brought from Canterbury in a special reliquary by its Prior Benedict (who had witnessed Becket's assassination) when he was "promoted" to Abbot of Peterborough. These items underpinned the importance of what is today Peterborough Cathedral. At the zenith of its wealth just before the Reformation it had the sixth-largest monastic income in the country and was one of the most powerful communities in the English Benedictine Congregation. It had a 120 monks, including all the standard roles of a monastic community such as the almoner, the infirmarian, the sacristan and the cellarer, and many more dependant lay brothers and employees.

Tudor
In 1541, following Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries, the relics were lost. The church survived by being selected as the cathedral of the Anglican Diocese of Peterborough. Henry's former wife, Catherine of Aragon, had been buried there in 1536. Her tomb was damaged in 1643 and restored in the 19th century. To this day, her grave is honoured by visitors who decorate it with flowers and pomegranates (her symbol). The gold letters at the site read "Katharine Queen of England", a title she was denied at the time of her death. A festival to commemorate the Queen is held yearly.

In 1587, the body of Mary, Queen of Scots was initially buried here after her execution at nearby Fotheringhay Castle, but it was later removed to Westminster Abbey on the orders of her son, King James I of England.

Civil War to present

The cathedral was vandalised during the English Civil War in 1643 by Parliamentarian troops. As was common at the time, almost all the stained glass and the medieval choir stalls were destroyed, and the high altar and reredos were demolished, as were the cloisters and Lady Chapel. All the monuments and memorials of the Cathedral were also damaged or destroyed.

Some of the damage was repaired during the 17th and 18th centuries. Extensive restoration work began in 1883, which was initiated after large cracks appeared in the supporting pillars and arches of the main tower. These works included rebuilding of the central tower and its foundations, interior pillars, the choir and re-enforcements of the west front under the supervision of John Loughborough Pearson. New hand-carved choir stalls, cathedra (bishop's throne), choir pulpit and the marble pavement and high altar were added. A stepped level of battlements was removed from the central tower, reducing its height slightly.

The cathedral was hit by a fire on the early evening of 22 November 2001; it is thought to have been started deliberately amongst plastic chairs stored in the North Choir Aisle. Fortunately the fire was spotted by one of the vergers allowing a swift response by emergency services. The timing was particularly unfortunate, for a complete restoration of the painted wooden ceiling was nearing completion. The oily smoke given off by the plastic chairs was particularly damaging, coating much of the building with a sticky black layer. The seat of the fire was close to the organ and the combination of direct damage from the fire, and the water used to extinguish necessitated a full-scale rebuild of the instrument, putting it out of action for several years.

An extensive programme of repairs to the west front began in July 2006 and has cost in excess of half a million pounds. This work is concentrated around the statues located in niches which have been so badly affected by years of pollution and weathering that, in some cases, they have only stayed intact thanks to iron bars inserted through them from the head to the body. The programme of work has sought donors to "adopt a stone".

The sculptor Alan Durst was responsible for some of the work on the statues on the West Front.

Choir
There has been a choir at Peterborough Cathedral since its beginnings as a monastery.

Misericords
The Peterborough Cathedral most probably had a set of over thirty misericords dating from the fourteenth century. However, only three now survive.

Dean and chapter
As of 1 January 2022:
 * Dean – Chris Dalliston (since 20 January 2018 installation)
 * Vice Dean and Canon Pastor – Tim Alban Jones (since 2015; Acting Dean, 2017–2018; Acting Precentor, 2017–2018; Vice Dean since February 2018; Bishop's Chaplain {a Diocesan Canon}, 2015–2021; full-time since 1 January 2022)
 * Canon Precentor – Rowan C. Williams (since 16 September 2018 installation)
 * Canon Missioner and Bishop's Chaplain (Diocesan Canon) – Steve Benoy (1 May 2022 onwards)
 * one Diocesan Canon vacancy – previously held by Ian Black, Vicar of Peterborough until his installation as Dean of Newport, 22 May 2021

Burials

 * Kyneburga, Kyneswide and Tibba: Kyneburga and Kyneswide were sisters (daughters of King Penda of Mercia). Kyneburga (d. c. 680) founded an Abbey for both monks and nuns in Castor, becoming the first Abbess (Kyneswide succeeded her). Kyneburga was buried in her church, but both of their remains were later translated (before 972) to Peterborough Abbey, now Peterborough Cathedral, along with those of their kinswoman, Tibba. Kyneburga became revered as a saint soon after her death. Her remains were moved once more to Thorney Abbey some time later. All three women are considered Saints.
 * Ælfric Puttoc (died 1051), medieval Archbishop of York and Bishop of Worcester
 * Ralph the Timid (died 1057), Earl of Hereford and nephew of Edward the Confessor
 * Cynesige, Archbishop of York (1051–1060)
 * Ralph the Staller (c. 1011–1068), (in the Abbey)
 * Alexander of Holderness, 12th century Abbot of Peterborough
 * Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536), Queen of England, first wife and queen-consort of Henry VIII
 * Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587), following execution at nearby Fotheringhay Castle, was buried in Peterborough between 1587 and 1612, before being disinterred and reinterred in Westminster Abbey
 * John Chambers, first Bishop of Peterborough (1541–1556)
 * Robert Scarlett ("Old Scarlett") (1496–1594), sexton of Peterborough Cathedral, who dug graves for both Catherine of Aragon and Mary, Queen of Scots, during many years of service (just inside the Cathedral)
 * Richard Howland, Bishop of Peterborough (1584–1600)
 * Francis Dee, Bishop of Peterborough (1634–1638)
 * John Towers, Bishop of Peterborough (1639–1649)
 * John Hinchliffe, Bishop of Peterborough (1769–1794)
 * William Connor Magee, Bishop of Peterborough and Archbishop of York (1821–1891)
 * Rev Lewis Clayton
 * Bishop Spencer Madan
 * Bishop John Hinchliffe
 * Richard Cumberland (philosopher)
 * Mandell Creighton (d.1901) Bishop of Peterborough
 * Bishop William Connor Magee, Archbishop of York

Other Memorials

 * George Alcock (1912-2000) astronomer
 * Edith Cavell, nurse executed by the Germans
 * William Clavell Ingram, Dean of Peterborough
 * Francis Jeune (1806-1868) Bishop of Peterborough
 * Bishop Spencer Leeson (window)
 * Arthur Richard Sculthorpe (1903-1974) campaigner for the deaf-blind
 * Bill Westwood (1925-1999), Bishop of Peterborough
 * Sgt Thomas Hunter of Kurri Kurri, New South Wales

Reliquary at Peterborough
A number of saints were interred in the altar at Peterborough Wilfrid, Tatberht, Sicgrid nicknamed Pius Pater, Botwine reverndus sacerdos, Albert praeclarus minister, Wulfgar and Wildegel modestus.

Organ
https://www.peterborough-cathedral.org.uk/home/musichome/worship-and-music/organ.aspx

Organists
The records of organists at Peterborough Cathedral list Richard Storey as organist in 1540. Notable organists of Peterborough Cathedral have included Stanley Vann, Sir Malcolm Sargent and Sir Thomas Armstrong.

Lists of incumbents

 * List of bishops of Peterborough
 * List of deans of Peterborough
 * List of abbots of Peterborough

title: Peterborough Cathedral