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Hank Snow

Clarence Eugene "Hank" Snow (May 9, 1914 – December 20, 1999) was a Canadian-American country music guitarist, singer, and songwriter. In the 1950s, he was active for more than 50 years. He recorded 140 albums, and charted more than 85 singles on the Billboard country charts from 1950 until 1980. His number-one hits include the self-penned songs "I'm Moving On", "The Golden Rocket", and "The Rhumba Boogie"; and covers of "I Don't Hurt Anymore", "Let Me Go, Lover!", "I've Been Everywhere", "Hello Love", as well as other top 10 hits.

As a songwriter he wrote on a wide range of topics, including the joys of freedom and travel as well as the anguish of tortured love - often inspired by his personal experiences. His music was rooted in his beginnings in small-town Nova Scotia where he endured extreme poverty, physical and psychological abuse as well as physically punishing labor during the Great Depression. His mother gave him emotional support and encouraged him to follow his dream of becoming an entertainer like his idol, country star Jimmie Rodgers.

Snow won a number of music awards and is a member of the Country Music Hall of Fame, the Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame and the Canadian Music Hall of Fame. The Hank Snow Museum in Liverpool, Nova Scotia celebrates his life and work.

Early life
Hank Snow was the son of George Snow (1886–1966) and Maude Marie Hatt (1889–1953) in the small community of Brooklyn in Queens County, Nova Scotia, Canada. He was born on May 9, 1914. He was the fifth of six children, of whom the two eldest died in infancy. His parents were married on November 10, 1909, in Liverpool, Nova Scotia. After divorcing his father, Hank's mother married Charles Tanner in 1930. In his autobiography, Snow tells how his parents struggled to feed their four remaining children during hard financial times. George Snow worked for low pay as a foreman in sawmills, often far from home, while Marie helped support the family by washing clothes and scrubbing floors in better-off homes. Both parents showed musical talent. Although Snow says his father loved to sing "in an amateurish way", he describes his mother as "an accomplished singer" who played piano during silent films at the local theatre and sometimes performed in minstrel shows. She also enjoyed playing her own pump organ, but refused several offers to join travelling shows because of her dedication to the family.

Snow's parents legally separated when he was eight, and the local Overseer of the Poor decided the children should be taken from their mother because of her inability to support them financially. One sister moved in with an aunt, while the other two were sent to separate foster homes. Snow himself went to live with his paternal grandmother, who ordered him never to mention his mother's name and subjected him to severe beatings, as well as psychological abuse. Gradually, Snow began to sneak away to visit his mother in nearby Liverpool and eventually, after his grandmother failed in her attempt to get him sent to reform school, he was allowed to rejoin his mother.

Musical beginnings
After his mother's remarriage to local fisherman Charles Tanner, she ordered a Hawaiian steel guitar advertised in a magazine along with free lessons and several 78 rpm gramophone records. At first, she ordered her son not to touch the guitar because it was one of her prized possessions, but later, when she finally allowed him to play, she marveled at his play. He was soon invited to play for his neighbors and elsewhere.

Life at sea

In 1926, Snow found work by joining a fishing schooner where he served as a "flunky" or cabin boy. The job did not pay any wages. Snow, however, was allowed to cut out cod tongues and sell them later along with any fish he caught from the deck. After one trip, he sold his tongues and fish for around $58. Feeling rich, he ordered a guitar and chord book for $5.95 from the T. Eaton mail-order catalogue. In 1927 or 1928, Snow remembers hearing radio broadcasts while at sea. The one-hour broadcasts featured recordings by such country artists as Vernon Dalhart and Carson Robison. "I still remember Dalhart singing 'The Prisoner's Song,' and 'The Wreck of the Old 97,'" Snow recalls. "These songs gave me a great lift." He adds that he tried to sing the songs exactly as the artists had, entertaining his fellow crew members by singing and dancing while accompanying himself on a mouth organ.

Snow's fishing trips went well until August 1930, when the schooner he was sailing on got caught in ferocious winds that blew it uncontrollably toward Sable Island, known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic" because the crews of ships wrecked there rarely survived. Snow writes that when they were about 14 miles from the island, "the Good Lord reached out his hand and changed the wind. Saved by the grace of God!" A day later, Snow learned that six other vessels had been lost in the gale and that 132 men had drowned. Once ashore in Canso, Snow vowed he would never return to the open sea again. "I was finished," he wrote. "No more fishing trips for me."

Life after sailing
Snow returned to live with his mother and stepfather, again without holding down steady work. Instead, he attempted to get by just peddling fish door-to-door or landing occasional jobs that included transporting passengers and their luggage by horse-drawn buggy to and from the train station in Lunenburg; unloading salt and coal ships; raking scallops and hauling loads of dried cod into a warehouse for processing and shipping. One winter, after being reunited with his father, he cut pulpwood and firewood on his father's farm in the backwoods at Pleasantville.

On September 2, 1935, he married Minnie Blanche Aalders, a young Halifax woman, born in Kentville, Nova Scotia, who worked in a local chocolate factory. She soon became pregnant and gave birth to their only child, Jimmie Rodgers Snow.

Early music career
At one point, Snow spotted a picture of a guitar for $12.95 in Eaton's catalogue. He figured he could sell his old guitar for five dollars, but - since he still wasn't working - wondered how he would raise the additional $7.95. The answer came when a storeowner in the village of Blue Rocks, hired him to paint yellow pinstripes on the wooden spokes of his brand new car. He offered to pay Snow two dollars per wheel. After the new guitar arrived, Snow experimented by playing runs and chord progressions in the style of Jimmie Rodgers. He also sang and played in an old fishhouse where local men stored their gear. Soon, Snow was invited to perform in a minstrel show in Bridgewater to help raise money for charity. "Someone blackened my face with black polish and put white rings around my eyes and lips," Snow recalls. When his turn came in the show, he played a song called "I Went to See My Gal Last Night." "My debut was a big success," Snow wrote. "I even got a standing ovation."

In March 1933, Snow wrote to Halifax radio station CHNS, asking for an audition. The rejection letter he received only made him more determined. Later that year, he visited the station, was given an audition and hired to do a Saturday evening show that was advertised as Clarence Snow and his Guitar. After a few months, he adopted the name "The Cowboy Blue Yodeler" in homage to his idol Jimmie Rodgers, known as "America's Blue Yodeler." Since Snow's Saturday show had no sponsor, he was not paid for his performances, but he did manage to earn money playing halls and clubs in towns where people had heard him on the radio. He also played in Halifax theatres before the movies started and performed, for $10 a week, on a CHNS musical show sponsored by a company that manufactured a popular laxative. At the urging of the station's chief engineer and announcer, he adopted the name Hank because it went well with cowboy songs and once again, influenced by Jimmie Rodgers, he became "Hank, The Yodeling Ranger." Snow also appeared occasionally on the CBC's regional network.

Canadian years
Snow's audition with the Canadian division of RCA Victor in Montreal, Quebec, on October 29, 1936, led to a recording contract and the release of his first record, with "The Prisoned Cowboy" coupled with "Lonesome Blue Yodel." Snow spent his entire career with RCA Victor, recording for the label until 1981. A weekly CBC radio show brought him national recognition and, he began touring Canada until the late 1940s, when American country music stations began playing his records.

Nashville
Snow moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1949, and "Hank Snow, the Singing Ranger," made his first records in the United States for RCA Victor in 1949. His first US release, "Marriage Vow," climbed to number ten on the country charts in the fall of 1949; However, it was not until he was invited to play at the Grand Ole Opry in 1950 that he gained serious attention in the United States. His second release in early 1950, "I'm Moving On," was the first of seven number-one hits on the country charts. "I'm Moving On" stayed at the top for 21 weeks, setting the all-time record for most weeks at number one.

That same year "The Golden Rocket" and "The Rhumba Boogie" both hit number one, with the latter remaining there for eight weeks.

Along with these hits, his other "signature song" was "I've Been Everywhere," in which he portrayed himself as a hitchhiker bragging about all the towns he had been through. This song was originally written and performed in Australia by Geoff Mack, and its re-write incorporated North American place names. Rattling off a well-rhymed series of city names at an auctioneer's pace has long made the song a challenge for any singer.

While performing in Renfro Valley, Snow worked with a young Hank Williams.

In the February 7, 1953, edition, Billboard magazine reported that Snow's then-17-year-old son, Jimmie Rodgers Snow, had signed with RCA Victor, and that the younger Snow would "record duets with his father," as well as cover his own material.

Rainbow Ranch
Snow bought a ranch home in Madison, Tennessee, shortly after he experienced success with "I've Been Everywhere" and "I'm Movin' On." He named the home 'Rainbow Ranch' after his band, which was known as the "Rainbow Ranch Boys." In recent years the home has been restored by Snow's family. The home was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Davidson County, Tennessee on November 27, 2018.

Elvis Presley
A regular at the Grand Ole Opry, in 1954 Snow persuaded the directors to allow a young Elvis Presley on stage. Snow used Presley as his opening act and introduced him to Colonel Tom Parker. In August 1955, Snow and Parker formed the management team Hank Snow Attractions. This partnership signed a management contract with Presley, but before long, Snow was out and Parker had full control over the rock singer's career. Forty years after leaving Parker, Snow stated, "I have worked with several managers over the years and have had respect for them all except one. Tom Parker [Snow refused to recognize the honorary title "Colonel"] was the most egotistical, obnoxious human being I've ever had dealings with."

Later career
Performing in lavish and colourful sequin-studded suits, Snow had a career covering six decades, during which he sold more than 80 million albums. Although he became a naturalized American citizen in 1958, he still maintained friendships in Canada. He also continued reference Canada in his works, such as with the 1968 album My Nova Scotia Home.

Despite his lack of schooling, Snow was a gifted songwriter and in 1978 was elected to the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. In Canada, he was ten times voted that country's top country music performer. In 1979, he was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame, the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Nova Scotia Music Hall of Fame. He was also inducted into the Canadian Country Music Hall of Fame in 1985.

His autobiography, The Hank Snow Story, was published in 1994, and later The Hank Snow Country Music Centre opened near his ancestral home in Liverpool, Nova Scotia. A victim of child abuse, he established the Hank Snow International Foundation For Prevention Of Child Abuse.

Illness and death
In 1996, Snow began experiencing respiratory problems that forced him to retire from performing. He died three years later on December 20, 1999, aged 85, at his Rainbow Ranch in Madison, Tennessee, and was interred in Nashville's Spring Hill Cemetery. His wife Minnie died on May 12, 2003, in Madison, Tennessee.

Legacy
Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Ray Charles, Ashley MacIsaac, Johnny Cash and Emmylou Harris, among others, have covered his music.

One of his last top hits, "Hello Love", was sung by Garrison Keillor to open each broadcast of his Prairie Home Companion radio show. The song became Snow's seventh and final number 1 hit on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in April 1974. At 59 years and 11 months, Snow became the oldest country artist to have a top song on the chart. It was an accomplishment that Snow held for more than 26 years, until Kenny Rogers's hit record in May 2000 (at 61 years and nine months), "Buy Me a Rose". (Dolly Parton and Willie Nelson subsequently reached the top of the chart at older ages as secondary duet partners on records fronted by other artists.)

In Robert Altman's 1975 film Nashville, Henry Gibson played a self-obsessed country star loosely based on Hank Snow. Snow is played by Australian actor David Wenham in Baz Luhrmann's Elvis.

Snow is referenced in the opening lines of Jimmy Buffett's 1974 song "The Wino and I Know."

The character of Heikki Lunta, a fictitious Finnish snow god in the local culture of Michigan's Upper Peninsula, is named from the Finnish translation of Hank Snow. Heikki Lunta's mythology and songs—to sing, dance, and bring large amounts of snow, or to do the reverse and melt it—were invented and popularized by WMPL DJ David Riutta in Hancock, Michigan in 1970.

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Centrifuge

A centrifuge is a device that uses centrifugal force to subject a specimen to a specified constant force, for example to separate various components of a fluid. This is achieved by spinning the fluid at high speed within a container, thereby separating fluids of different densities (e.g. cream from milk) or liquids from solids. It works by causing denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and moved to the centre. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top. A centrifuge can be a very effective filter that separates contaminants from the main body of fluid.

Industrial scale centrifuges are commonly used in manufacturing and waste processing to sediment suspended solids, or to separate immiscible liquids. An example is the cream separator found in dairies. Very high speed centrifuges and ultracentrifuges able to provide very high accelerations can separate fine particles down to the nano-scale, and molecules of different masses. Large centrifuges are used to simulate high gravity or acceleration environments (for example, high-G training for test pilots). Medium-sized centrifuges are used in washing machines and at some swimming pools to draw water out of fabrics. Gas centrifuges are used for isotope separation, such as to enrich nuclear fuel for fissile isotopes.

History

English military engineer Benjamin Robins (1707–1751) invented a whirling arm apparatus to determine drag. In 1864, Antonin Prandtl proposed the idea of a dairy centrifuge to separate cream from milk. The idea was subsequently put into practice by his brother, Alexander Prandtl, who made improvements to his brother's design, and exhibited a working butterfat extraction machine in 1875.

Types
A centrifuge machine can be described as a machine with a rapidly rotating container that applies centrifugal force to its contents. There are multiple types of centrifuge, which can be classified by intended use or by rotor design:

Types by rotor design:
 * Fixed-angle centrifuges are designed to hold the sample containers at a constant angle relative to the central axis.
 * Swinging head (or swinging bucket) centrifuges, in contrast to fixed-angle centrifuges, have a hinge where the sample containers are attached to the central rotor. This allows all of the samples to swing outwards as the centrifuge is spun.
 * Continuous tubular centrifuges do not have individual sample vessels and are used for high volume applications.

Types by intended use:
 * Laboratory centrifuges, are general-purpose instruments of several types with distinct, but overlapping, capabilities. These include clinical centrifuges, superspeed centrifuges and preparative ultracentrifuges.
 * Analytical ultracentrifuges are designed to perform sedimentation analysis of macromolecules using the principles devised by Theodor Svedberg.
 * Haematocrit centrifuges are used to measure the volume percentage of red blood cells in whole blood.
 * Gas centrifuges, including Zippe-type centrifuges, for isotopic separations in the gas phase.

Industrial centrifuges may otherwise be classified according to the type of separation of the high density fraction from the low density one.

Generally, there are two types of centrifuges: the filtration and sedimentation centrifuges. For the filtration or the so-called screen centrifuge the drum is perforated and is inserted with a filter, for example a filter cloth, wire mesh or lot screen. The suspension flows through the filter and the drum with the perforated wall from the inside to the outside. In this way the solid material is restrained and can be removed. The kind of removing depends on the type of centrifuge, for example manually or periodically. Common types are: In the centrifuges the drum is a solid wall (not perforated). This type of centrifuge is used for the purification of a suspension. For the acceleration of the natural deposition process of suspension the centrifuges use centrifugal force. With so-called overflow centrifuges the suspension is drained off and the liquid is added constantly. Common types are:
 * Screen/scroll centrifuges (Screen centrifuges, where the centrifugal acceleration allows the liquid to pass through a screen of some sort, through which the solids cannot go (due to granulometry larger than the screen gap or due to agglomeration))
 * Pusher centrifuges
 * Peeler centrifuges
 * Inverting filter centrifuges
 * Sliding discharge centrifuges
 * Pendulum centrifuges
 * Sedimentation centrifuges
 * Separator centrifuges (Continuous liquid); common types are:
 * Solid bowl centrifuges
 * Conical plate centrifuges
 * Tubular centrifuges
 * Decanter centrifuges, in which there is no physical separation between the solid and liquid phase, rather an accelerated settling due to centrifugal acceleration.

Though most modern centrifuges are electrically powered, a hand-powered variant inspired by the whirligig has been developed for medical applications in developing countries.

Many designs have been shared for free and open-source centrifuges that can be digitally manufactured. The open-source hardware designs for hand-powered centrifuge for larger volumes of fluids with a radial velocity of over 1750 rpm and over 50 N of relative centrifugal force can be completely 3-D printed for about $25. Other open hardware designs use custom 3-D printed fixtures with inexpensive electric motors to make low-cost centrifuges (e.g. the Dremelfuge that uses a Dremel power tool) or CNC cut out OpenFuge.

Laboratory separations
A wide variety of laboratory-scale centrifuges are used in chemistry, biology, biochemistry and clinical medicine for isolating and separating suspensions and immiscible liquids. They vary widely in speed, capacity, temperature control, and other characteristics. Laboratory centrifuges often can accept a range of different fixed-angle and swinging bucket rotors able to carry different numbers of centrifuge tubes and rated for specific maximum speeds. Controls vary from simple electrical timers to programmable models able to control acceleration and deceleration rates, running speeds, and temperature regimes. Ultracentrifuges spin the rotors under vacuum, eliminating air resistance and enabling exact temperature control. Zonal rotors and continuous flow systems are capable of handing bulk and larger sample volumes, respectively, in a laboratory-scale instrument.

An application in laboratories is blood separation. Blood separates into cells and proteins (RBC, WBC, platelets, etc.) and serum. DNA preparation is another common application for pharmacogenetics and clinical diagnosis. DNA samples are purified and the DNA is prepped for separation by adding buffers and then centrifuging it for a certain amount of time. The blood waste is then removed and another buffer is added and spun inside the centrifuge again. Once the blood waste is removed and another buffer is added the pellet can be suspended and cooled. Proteins can then be removed and the entire thing can be centrifuged again and the DNA can be isolated completely. Specialized cytocentrifuges are used in medical and biological laboratories to concentrate cells for microscopic examination.

Isotope separation
Other centrifuges, the first being the Zippe-type centrifuge, separate isotopes, and these kinds of centrifuges are in use in nuclear power and nuclear weapon programs.

Aeronautics and astronautics
Human centrifuges are exceptionally large centrifuges that test the reactions and tolerance of pilots and astronauts to acceleration above those experienced in the Earth's gravity.

The first centrifuges used for human research were used by Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin. The first large-scale human centrifuge designed for aeronautical training was created in Germany in 1933.

The US Air Force at Brooks City Base, Texas, operates a human centrifuge while awaiting completion of the new human centrifuge in construction at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The centrifuge at Brooks City Base is operated by the United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine for the purpose of training and evaluating prospective fighter pilots for high-g flight in Air Force fighter aircraft.

The use of large centrifuges to simulate a feeling of gravity has been proposed for future long-duration space missions. Exposure to this simulated gravity would prevent or reduce the bone decalcification and muscle atrophy that affect individuals exposed to long periods of freefall.

Non-Human centrifuge

At the European Space Agency (ESA) technology center ESTEC (in Noordwijk, the Netherlands), an 8 m diameter centrifuge is used to expose samples in fields of life sciences as well as physical sciences. This Large Diameter Centrifuge (LDC) began operation in 2007. Samples can be exposed to a maximum of 20 times Earth's gravity. With its four arms and six freely swinging out gondolas it is possible to expose samples with different g-levels at the same time. Gondolas can be fixed at eight different positions. Depending on their locations one could e.g. run an experiment at 5 and 10g in the same run. Each gondola can hold an experiment of a maximum 80 kg. Experiments performed in this facility ranged from zebra fish, metal alloys, plasma, cells, liquids, Planaria, Drosophila or plants.

Industrial centrifugal separator
Industrial centrifugal separator is a coolant filtration system for separating particles from liquid like, grinding machining coolant. It is usually used for non-ferrous particles separation such as, silicon, glass, ceramic, and graphite etc. The filtering process does not require any consumption parts like filter bags, which saves the earth from harm.

Geotechnical centrifuge modeling
Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is used for physical testing of models involving soils. Centrifuge acceleration is applied to scale models to scale the gravitational acceleration and enable prototype scale stresses to be obtained in scale models. Problems such as building and bridge foundations, earth dams, tunnels, and slope stability, including effects such as blast loading and earthquake shaking.

Synthesis of materials
High gravity conditions generated by centrifuge are applied in the chemical industry, casting, and material synthesis. The convection and mass transfer are greatly affected by the gravitational condition. Researchers reported that the high-gravity level can effectively affect the phase composition and morphology of the products.

Commercial applications

 * Standalone centrifuges for drying (hand-washed) clothes – usually with a water outlet.
 * Washing machines are designed to act as centrifuges to get rid of excess water in laundry loads.
 * Centrifuges are used in the attraction Mission: SPACE, located at Epcot in Walt Disney World, which propels riders using a combination of a centrifuge and a motion simulator to simulate the feeling of going into space.
 * In soil mechanics, centrifuges utilize centrifugal acceleration to match soil stresses in a scale model to those found in reality.
 * Large industrial centrifuges are commonly used in water and wastewater treatment to dry sludges. The resulting dry product is often termed cake, and the water leaving a centrifuge after most of the solids have been removed is called centrate.
 * Large industrial centrifuges are also used in the oil industry to remove solids from the drilling fluid.
 * Disc-stack centrifuges used by some companies in the oil sands industry to separate small amounts of water and solids from bitumen
 * Centrifuges are used to separate cream (remove fat) from milk; see Separator (milk).

Mathematical description
Protocols for centrifugation typically specify the amount of acceleration to be applied to the sample, rather than specifying a rotational speed such as revolutions per minute. This distinction is important because two rotors with different diameters running at the same rotational speed will subject samples to different accelerations. During circular motion the acceleration is the product of the radius and the square of the angular velocity $$\omega$$, and the acceleration relative to "g" is traditionally named "relative centrifugal force" (RCF). The acceleration is measured in multiples of "g" (or × "g"), the standard acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface, a dimensionless quantity given by the expression:

 * $$ \text{RCF} = \frac{r \omega^2}{g}$$

where
 * $$\textstyle g $$ is earth's gravitational acceleration,
 * $$\textstyle r $$ is the rotational radius,
 * $$\omega$$ is the angular velocity in radians per unit time

This relationship may be written as
 * $$ \text{RCF} = \frac{10^{-3} r_\text{mm} \, \left(\frac{2 \pi N_\text{RPM}}{60}\right)^2}{g}$$

or

 * $$ \text{RCF} = 1.118(2)\, \times 10^{-6}\, r_\text{mm} \, N_\text{RPM}^2$$

where
 * $$\textstyle r_\text{mm} $$ is the rotational radius measured in millimeters (mm), and
 * $$\textstyle N_\text{RPM} $$ is rotational speed measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).

To avoid having to perform a mathematical calculation every time, one can find nomograms for converting RCF to rpm for a rotor of a given radius. A ruler or other straight edge lined up with the radius on one scale, and the desired RCF on another scale, will point at the correct rpm on the third scale. Based on automatic rotor recognition, modern centrifuges have a button for automatic conversion from RCF to rpm and vice versa.

title: Centrifuge


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Crater Lake

Crater Lake (Klamath: Giiwas) is a volcanic crater lake in south-central Oregon in the Western United States. It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is famous for its deep blue color and water clarity. The lake partly fills a 2148 ft caldera that was formed around 7,700 (± 150) years ago by the collapse of the volcano Mount Mazama. No rivers flow into or out of the lake; the evaporation is compensated for by rain and snowfall at a rate such that the total amount of water is replaced every 250 years. With a depth of 1949 ft, the lake is the deepest in the United States. In the world, it ranks tenth for maximum depth, as well as third for mean (average) depth.

Crater Lake features two small islands. Wizard Island, located near the western shore of the lake, is a cinder cone about 316 acre in size. Phantom Ship, a natural rock pillar, is located near the southern shore.

Since 2002, one of Oregon's regular-issue license-plate designs has featured Crater Lake and a one-time plate surcharge is used to support the operation of Crater Lake National Park. The commemorative Oregon State Quarter, which was released by the United States Mint in 2005, features an image of Crater Lake on its reverse.

The lake and surrounding park areas offer many recreational activities, including hiking, biking, snowshoeing, fishing, and cross-country skiing, and during the summer, campgrounds and lodges at Crater Lake are open to visitors.

Location
Crater Lake is in Klamath County, around 60 mi northwest of the county seat of Klamath Falls, and about 80 mi northeast of the city of Medford.

A Native American connection with this area has been traced back to before the eruption of Mount Mazama. Archaeologists have found sandals and other artifacts buried under layers of ash, dust, and pumice that antedate the eruption roughly 7,700 years ago. Crater Lake remains significant to the Klamath tribes today. The Klamath name for the lake is Giiwas.

In June 1853, Isaac Skeeter, John Wesley Hillman, and another man were the first non-Native Americans to report sighting the lake, while on a mining trip; Skeeter named it "Deep Blue Lake," inspired by Hillman's description of the site. The lake was renamed at least three times, as Blue Lake, Lake Majesty, and finally Crater Lake.

Dimensions and depth
The lake is 5 by across, with a caldera rim ranging in elevation from 7000 to 8000 ft and an average lake depth of 1148 ft. The lake's maximum depth has been measured at 1949 ft, which fluctuates slightly as the weather changes. On the basis of maximum depth, Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States, the second-deepest in North America (after Great Slave Lake in Canada), and the ninth-deepest lake in the world. Crater Lake is often cited as the seventh-deepest lake in the world, but this ranking excludes Lake Vostok in Antarctica, which is beneath about 13000 ft of ice, and the recent depth soundings of O'Higgins/San Martín Lake, which is along the border of Chile and Argentina.

When considering the mean, or average depth of lakes, Crater Lake becomes the deepest lake in the Western Hemisphere and the third-deepest in the world. Crater Lake Institute Director and limnologist Owen Hoffman states that "Crater Lake is the deepest, when compared on the basis of average depth among lakes whose basins are entirely above sea level. The average depths of Lakes Baikal and Tanganyika are deeper than Crater Lake; however, both have basins that extend below sea level."

Geology
Mount Mazama, part of the Cascade Range volcanic arc, was built up mostly of andesite, dacite, and rhyodacite over a period of at least 400,000 years. The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption between 6,000 and 8,000 years ago that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama. About 50 km3 of rhyodacite was erupted in this event. Since that time, all eruptions on Mazama have been confined to the caldera.

Lava eruptions later created a central platform, Wizard Island, Merriam Cone, and other, smaller volcanic features, including a rhyodacite dome that was eventually created atop the central platform. Sediments and landslide debris also covered the caldera floor.

Eventually, the caldera cooled, allowing rain and snow to accumulate and form a lake. Landslides from the caldera rim thereafter formed debris fans and turbidite sediments on the lake bed. Fumaroles and hot springs remained common and active during this period. Also after some time, the slopes of the lake's caldera rim more or less stabilized, streams restored a radial drainage pattern on the mountain, and dense forests began to revegetate the barren landscape. It is estimated that about 720 years was required to fill the lake to its present depth of 594 m. Much of this occurred during a period when the prevailing climate was less moist than at present.

Some hydrothermal activity remains along the lake floor, suggesting that at some time in the future, Mazama may erupt once again.

Climate
Crater Lake features a subalpine climate, with the rare dry-summer type (Köppen classification Dsc) owing to its high elevation and – like all of Oregon – the strong summer influence of the North Pacific High. In the summer, the weather is mild and dry, but in the winter is cold and the powerful influence of the Aleutian Low allows for enormous snowfalls averaging 463.1 in per year and maximum snow cover averaging 139 in. This snow does not usually melt until mid-July, and allows for substantial glaciers on adjacent mountains. In the winter of 1949/1950 as much as 885.1 in of snow fell, while the less complete snow cover records show cover as high as 192 in occurred during another particularly unsettled winter in 1981/1982. The heaviest daily snowfall was 37.0 in, which occurred as recently as February 28, 1971; 20 in or more in one storm has occurred in both June and September. Hard frost is possible even into the summer, and the average window for freezing temperatures is August 20 through July 10, while for measurable (≥0.1 in) snowfall, September 28 through June 11.

Ecology

Since the collapse of Mount Mazama due to a volcanic eruption formed Crater Lake, no fish inhabited the lake until William Gladstone Steel decided to stock it in 1888 to allow for fishing. Regular stocking continued until 1941, when it was evident that the fish could maintain a stable population without outside interference. Six species of fish were originally stocked, but only two species have survived: kokanee salmon and rainbow trout, with the former being the most plentiful. Fishing in Crater Lake is promoted because the fish species are not indigenous to the lake.

Crater Lake is also known for the "Old Man of the Lake", a full-sized tree which is now a log that has been bobbing vertically in the lake for over a century. The low temperature of the water has slowed the decomposition of the wood, hence its longevity.

In 1987, scientists sent a submersible down to the depths of Crater Lake to obtain more information about the geology at the bottom of the lake, and inspect moss samples found in moss beds as deep as 600 ft.

Due to several unique factors, mainly that the lake has no inlets or tributaries, the waters of Crater Lake are some of the purest in the world because of the absence of pollutants. Clarity readings from a Secchi disk have consistently been measured as being 120 ft, which is very clear for any natural body of water. In 1997, scientists recorded a record clarity of 142 ft.

The lake has relatively high levels of dissolved salts, total alkalinity, and conductivity. The average pH has generally ranged between 7 and 8.

Sacred significance
The Klamath tribe of Native Americans, whose oral history describes their ancestors witnessing the collapse of Mount Mazama and the formation of Crater Lake, regard the lake as an "abode to the Great Spirit". Klamath oral history tells of a battle between the sky god Skell and the god of the underworld Llao (a prominent feature at Crater Lake is Llao Rock). Mount Mazama was destroyed in the battle, creating Crater Lake, called giiwas in the Klamath language. The Klamath people used Crater Lake in vision quests, which often involved climbing the caldera walls and other dangerous tasks. Those who were successful in such quests were often regarded as having more spiritual powers. The tribe still holds Crater Lake in high regard as a spiritual site.

Recreation
Located 90 km north of the city of Klamath Falls and 100 km northeast of Medford, Crater Lake can be reached from U.S. Route 97 on the east, on the southwest by Highway 62, and on the northwest by Highway 138. Crater Lake and the remnants of Mount Mazama can be seen from Rim Drive, a 33 mi road that surrounds the caldera, which is the only part within the Crater Lake National Park where vehicles are permitted. The Garfield Peak Trail, which runs 1.5 mi east from the Crater Lake Lodge, offers views from 1900 ft above the lake's surface, with Mount Shasta visible 125 mi southward. Another trail runs for 2.5 mi from Rim Drive's eastern edge to Mount Scott, which offers views of central and southern Oregon such as the Three Sisters located 80 mi north of Mazama and Mount Thielsen, also to the north. The Cleetwood trail leads for 1 mi down the northern flank of the caldera rim, eventually reaching Cleetwood Cove where boat trips run from late June or early July throughout the summer season to Wizard Island. Wizard Island can be climbed, offering views of Crater Lake.

Swimming is permitted in Crater Lake, but the only legal and safe way to get to the shore is by following Cleetwood Cove trail and people can enter the water from there. Other activities include fishing and a 2-hour boat tour around the lake provided by a Park Ranger from Crater Lake National Park.

As the region lies within a national park area, collecting rocks within the vicinity is prohibited unless a permit is obtained. The park's facilities lie at Rim Village, at the southern edge of the caldera. Lodging and camping facilities open during the summer season between May and October. No lodges, gas stations, or camping areas remain open from October through late May. Popular activities within Crater Lake National Park include biking, fishing, cross-country skiing, and snowshoeing.

title: Crater Lake


text:
Classical Latin

Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It formed parallel to Vulgar Latin around 75 BC out of Old Latin, and developed by the 3rd century AD into Late Latin. In some later periods, the former was regarded as good or proper Latin; the latter as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin.

Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic referred to the Latin language, in contrast to other languages such as Greek, as lingua latina or sermo latinus. They distinguished the common vernacular, however, as Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi), in contrast to the higher register that they called latinitas, sometimes translated as "Latinity". Latinitas was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of the good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). Besides the noun Latinitas, it was referred to with the adverb latine ("in (good) Latin", literally "Latinly") or its comparative latinius ("in better Latin", literally "more Latinly").

Latinitas was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like poetry or rhetoric were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers), the rules of politus (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, Latinitas was a form of sermo (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions.

The standards, authors and manuals from the Classical Latin period formed the model for the language taught and used in later periods across Europe and beyond. While the Latin used in different periods deviated from "Classical" Latin, efforts were periodically made to relearn and reapply the models of the Classical period, for instance by Alcuin during the reign of Charlemagne, and later during the Renaissance, producing the highly classicising form of Latin now known as Neo-Latin.

Classical
"Good Latin" in philology is known as "classical" Latin literature. The term refers to the canonical relevance of literary works written in Latin in the late Roman Republic, and early to middle Roman Empire. "[T]hat is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre." The term classicus (masculine plural classici) was devised by the Romans to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες (encrithentes), and "select" which refers to authors who wrote in a form of Greek that was considered model. Before then, the term classis, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class.

Classicus refers to those in the prima classis ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of Latinitas, or sermo urbanus. It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or testis classicus ("reliable witness"). It was under this construct that Marcus Cornelius Fronto (an African-Roman lawyer and language teacher) used scriptores classici ("first-class" or "reliable authors") in the second century AD. Their works were viewed as models of good Latin. This is the first known reference (possibly innovated during this time) to Classical Latin applied by authors, evidenced in the authentic language of their works.

Canonical
Imitating Greek grammarians, Romans such as Quintilian drew up lists termed indices or ordines modeled after the ones created by the Greeks, which were called pinakes. The Greek lists were considered classical, or recepti scriptores ("select writers"). Aulus Gellius includes authors like Plautus, who are considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in the period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris. Each author's work in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek. In example, Ennius was the Latin Homer, Aeneid was the equivalent of Iliad, etc. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology. The topic remained at that point while interest in the classici scriptores declined in the medieval period as the best form of the language yielded to medieval Latin, inferior to classical standards.

The Renaissance saw a revival in Roman culture, and with it, the return of Classic ("the best") Latin. Thomas Sébillet's Art Poétique (1548), "les bons et classiques poètes françois", refers to Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier, who the first modern application of the words. According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, the term classical (from classicus) entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction to the continent. In Governor William Bradford's Dialogue (1648), he referred to synods of a separatist church as "classical meetings", defined by meetings between "young men" from New England and "ancient men" from Holland and England. In 1715, Laurence Echard's Classical Geographical Dictionary was published. In 1736, Robert Ainsworth's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into "proper and classical Latin." In 1768, David Ruhnken's Critical History of the Greek Orators recast the molded view of the classical by applying the word "canon" to the pinakes of orators after the Biblical canon, or list of authentic books of the Bible. In doing so, Ruhnken had secular catechism in mind.

Ages of Latin
In 1870, Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel's Geschichte der Römischen Literatur (A History of Roman Literature) defined the philological notion of classical Latin through a typology similar to the Ages of Man, setting out the Golden and Silver Ages of classical Latin. Wilhem Wagner, who published Teuffel's work in German, also produced an English translation which he published in 1873. Teuffel's classification, still in use today (with modifications), groups classical Latin authors into periods defined by political events rather than by style.

Teuffel went on to publish other editions, but the English translation of A History of Roman Literature gained immediate success.

In 1877, Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced a similar work in English. In his preface, Cruttwell notes "Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness." He also credits Wagner.

Cruttwell adopts the time periods found in Teuffel's work, but he presents a detailed analysis of style, whereas Teuffel was more concerned with history. Like Teuffel, Cruttwell encountered issues while attempting to condense the voluminous details of time periods in an effort to capture the meaning of phases found in their various writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current Old Latin phase), calling it "from Livius to Sulla." He says the language "is marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength..." These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits "The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between Ennius, Pacuvius, and Accius, but it may be questioned whether the advance would be perceptible by us."

In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says "In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language... Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased... In a certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living."

Also problematic in Teuffel's scheme is its appropriateness to the concept of classical Latin. Cruttwell addresses the issue by altering the concept of the classical. The "best" Latin is defined as "golden" Latin, the second of the three periods. The other two periods (considered "classical") are left hanging. By assigning the term "pre-classical" to Old Latin and implicating it to post-classical (or post-Augustan) and silver Latin, Cruttwell realized that his construct was not accordance with ancient usage and assertions: "[T]he epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude Terence on the one hand or Tacitus and Pliny on the other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification." The contradiction remains—Terence is, and is not a classical author, depending on the context.

Authors of the Golden Age
Teuffel's definition of the "First Period" of Latin was based on inscriptions, fragments, and the literary works of the earliest known authors. Though he does use the term "Old Roman" at one point, most of these findings remain unnamed. Teuffel presents the Second Period in his major work, das goldene Zeitalter der römischen Literatur (Golden Age of Roman Literature), dated 671–767 AUC (83 BC – AD 14), according to his own recollection. The timeframe is marked by the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the death of the emperor Augustus. Wagner's translation of Teuffel's writing is as follows:

"The golden age of the Roman literature is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age."

The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83–43 BC), ending just after the death of Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD) ends with the death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC (63 BC) into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements.

The Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology, but in a less systematic way. In a translation of Bielfeld's Elements of universal erudition (1770):"The Second Age of Latin began about the time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection... and of Tacitus, his conceits and sententious style is not that of the golden age..."Evidently, Teuffel received ideas about golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best.

In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – AD 14 (from Cicero to Ovid), which corresponds to Teuffel's findings. Of the "Second Period", Cruttwell paraphrases Teuffel by saying it "represents the highest excellence in prose and poetry." The Ciceronian Age (known today as the "Republican Period") is dated 80–42 BC, marked by the Battle of Philippi. Cruttwell omits the first half of Teuffel's Ciceronian, and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship in 63 BC—an error perpetuated in Cruttwell's second edition. He likely meant 80 BC, as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch (42 BC – 14 AD).

Republican
The literary histories list includes all authors from Canonical to the Ciceronian Age—even those whose works are fragmented or missing altogether. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Virgil and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature praise jurists and orators whose writings, and analyses of various styles of language cannot be verified because there are no surviving records. The reputations of Aquilius Gallus, Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, and many others who gained notoriety without readable works, are presumed by their association within the Golden Age. A list of canonical authors of the period whose works survived in whole or in part is shown here:
 * Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC), highly influential grammarian
 * Titus Pomponius Atticus (112/109 – 35/32), publisher and correspondent of Cicero
 * Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC), orator, philosopher, essayist, whose works define golden Latin prose and are used in Latin curricula beyond the elementary level
 * Servius Sulpicius Rufus (106–43 BC), jurist, poet
 * Decimus Laberius (105–43 BC), writer of mimes
 * Marcus Furius Bibaculus (1st century BC), writer of ludicra
 * Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), general, statesman, historian
 * Gaius Oppius (1st century BC), secretary to Julius Caesar, probable author under Caesar's name
 * Gaius Matius (1st century BC), public figure, correspondent with Cicero
 * Cornelius Nepos (100–24 BC), biographer
 * Publilius Syrus (1st century BC), writer of mimes and maxims
 * Quintus Cornificius (1st century BC), public figure and writer on rhetoric
 * Titus Lucretius Carus (Lucretius; 94–50 BC), poet, philosopher
 * Publius Nigidius Figulus (98–45 BC), public officer, grammarian
 * Aulus Hirtius (90–43 BC), public officer, military historian
 * Gaius Helvius Cinna (1st century BC), poet
 * Marcus Caelius Rufus (87–48 BC), orator, correspondent with Cicero
 * Gaius Sallustius Crispus (86–34 BC), historian
 * Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (Cato the Younger; 95–46 BC), orator
 * Publius Valerius Cato (1st century BC), poet, grammarian
 * Gaius Valerius Catullus (Catullus; 84–54 BC), poet
 * Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus (82–47 BC), orator, poet

Augustan
The Golden Age is divided by the assassination of Julius Caesar. In the wars that followed, a generation of Republican literary figures was lost. Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formative years under the old constructs, and forced to make their mark under the watchful eye of a new emperor. The demand for great orators had ceased, shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian Livy, the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Augustan writers include:
 * Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil, spelled also as Vergil; 70 – 19 BC),
 * Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 – 8 BC), known for lyric poetry and satires
 * Sextus Aurelius Propertius (50 – 15 BC), poet
 * Albius Tibullus (54–19 BC), elegiac poet
 * Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 18), poet
 * Titus Livius (64 BC – AD 12), historian
 * Grattius Faliscus (a contemporary of Ovid), poet
 * Marcus Manilius (1st century BC and AD), astrologer, poet
 * Gaius Julius Hyginus (64 BC – AD 17), librarian, poet, mythographer
 * Marcus Verrius Flaccus (55 BC – AD 20), grammarian, philologist, calendarist
 * Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80–70 BC — after 15 BC), engineer, architect
 * Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10 or 11), jurist, philologist
 * Lucius Cestius Pius (1st century BC & AD), Latin educator
 * Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (1st century BC), historian, naturalist
 * Marcus Porcius Latro (late 1st century BC – early 1st century AD), rhetorician
 * Gaius Valgius Rufus (consul 12 BC), poet

Authors of the Silver Age

In his second volume, Imperial Period, Teuffel initiated a slight alteration in approach, making it clear that his terms applied to Latin and not just to the period. He also changed his dating scheme from AUC to modern BC/AD. Though he introduces das silberne Zeitalter der römischen Literatur, (The Silver Age of Roman Literature) from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan (14–117 AD), he also mentions parts of a work by Seneca the Elder, a wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinität (a slight influence of silver Latin). It is clear that his mindset had shifted from Golden and Silver Ages to Golden and Silver Latin, also to include Latinitas, which at this point must be interpreted as Classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis, which includes Silver Latinity. Though Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to Old Latin and his Second Period was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period die römische Kaiserheit encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed Late Latin, in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely. That is, men of literature were confounded about the meaning of "good Latin." The last iteration of Classical Latin is known as Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of the Imperial Period, and is divided into die Zeit der julischen Dynastie (14–68); die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie (69–96), and die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan (96–117). Subsequently, Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came about towards the end of the 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: 1st century (Silver Age), 2nd century (the Hadrian and the Antonines), and the 3rd through 6th centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, Teuffel points out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with Tiberius:

"...the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility... Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant... Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms...  Mannerism supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took the place of quiet power."

The content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor, who exiled or executed existing authors and played the role of literary man, himself (typically badly). Artists therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls "utter unreality." Cruttwell picks up this theme:

"The foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from the extinction of freedom... Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hysterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram... owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank..."

In Cruttwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin was a "rank, weed-grown garden," a "decline." Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. Teuffel regarded the Silver Age as a loss of natural language, and therefore of spontaneity, implying that it was last seen in the Golden Age. Instead, Tiberius brought about a "sudden collapse of letters." The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: "The Natural History of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest." The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline. Moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors who were as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell extended the period through the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). The philosophic prose of a good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language, or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them. Apparently, in the worst implication of their views, there was no such thing as Classical Latin by the ancient definition, and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was deemed stilted, degenerate, unnatural language.

The Silver Age furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon.

Writers of the Silver Age include:

From Tiberius to Trajan

 * Aulus Cremutius Cordus (died AD 25), historian
 * Marcus Velleius Paterculus (19 BC – AD 31), military officer, historian
 * Valerius Maximus (20 BC – AD 50), rhetorician
 * Masurius Sabinus (1st century AD), jurist
 * Phaedrus (15 BC – AD 50), fabulist
 * Germanicus Julius Caesar (15 BC – AD 19), royal family, imperial officer, translator
 * Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BC – AD 50), physician, encyclopedist
 * Quintus Curtius Rufus (1st century AD), historian
 * Cornelius Bocchus (1st century AD), natural historian
 * Pomponius Mela (d. AD 45), geographer
 * Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC – AD 65), educator, imperial advisor, philosopher, man of letters
 * Titus Calpurnius Siculus (1st century AD or possibly later), poet
 * Marcus Valerius Probus (1st century AD), literary critic
 * Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (10 BC – AD 54), emperor, man of letters, public officer
 * Gaius Suetonius Paulinus (1st century AD), general, natural historian
 * Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (AD 4 – 70), military officer, agriculturalist
 * Quintus Asconius Pedianus (9 BC – 76 AD), historian, Latinist
 * Gaius Musonius Rufus (AD 20 – 101), stoic philosopher
 * Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus (1st century AD), imperial officer and public man
 * Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23 – 79), imperial officer and encyclopedist
 * Gaius Valerius Flaccus (1st century AD), epic poet
 * Tiberius Catius Silius Italicus (AD 28 – 103), epic poet
 * Gaius Licinius Mucianus (d. AD 76), general, man of letters
 * Lucilius Junior (1st century AD), poet
 * Aulus Persius Flaccus (34–62 AD), poet and satirist
 * Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (35–100 AD), rhetorician
 * Sextus Julius Frontinus (AD 40 – 103), engineer, writer
 * Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39 – 65), poet, historian
 * Publius Juventius Celsus Titus Aufidius Hoenius Severianus (1st and early 2nd centuries AD), imperial officer, jurist
 * Aemilius Asper (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic
 * Marcus Valerius Martialis (AD 40 – 104), poet, epigrammatist
 * Publius Papinius Statius (AD 45 – 96), poet
 * Decimus Junius Juvenalis (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, satirist
 * Publius Annaeus Florus (1st and 2nd centuries AD), poet, rhetorician and probable author of the epitome of Livy
 * Velius Longus (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian, literary critic
 * Flavius Caper (1st and 2nd centuries AD), grammarian
 * Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56 − 120), imperial officer, historian and in Teuffel's view "the last classic of Roman literature."
 * Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (AD 62 – 114), historian, imperial officer and correspondent

Through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD

Of the additional century granted by Cruttwell to Silver Latin, Teuffel says: "The second century was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire... But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable... its forte is in imitation." Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other "exceptions", recasting Teuffels's view.

 * Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (70/75 – after 130 AD), biographer
 * Marcus Junianus Justinus (2nd century AD), historian
 * Lucius Octavius Cornelius Publius Salvius Julianus Aemilianus (AD 110–170), imperial officer, jurist
 * Sextus Pomponius (2nd century AD), jurist
 * Quintus Terentius Scaurus (2nd century AD), grammarian, literary critic
 * Aulus Gellius (AD 125 – after 180), grammarian, polymath
 * Lucius Apuleius Platonicus (123/125–180 AD), novelist
 * Marcus Cornelius Fronto (AD 100–170), advocate, grammarian
 * Gaius Sulpicius Apollinaris (2nd century AD), educator, literary commentator
 * Granius Licinianus (2nd century AD), writer
 * Lucius Ampelius (2nd century AD), educator
 * Gaius (AD 130–180), jurist
 * Lucius Volusius Maecianus (2nd century AD), educator, jurist
 * Marcus Minucius Felix (d. AD 250), apologist of Christianity, "the first Christian work in Latin" (Teuffel)
 * Sextus Julius Africanus (2nd century AD), Christian historian
 * Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121–180 AD), stoic philosopher, Emperor in Latin, essayist in ancient Greek, role model of the last generation of classicists (Cruttwell)

Stylistic shifts
Style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than the fundamental characteristics of a language. The latter provides unity, allowing it to be referred to by a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin, etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referred to by the term, Latin. This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of the language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad, ex, de, for "to", "from" and "of" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. Problems in comparative literature have risen out of group styles finding similarity by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or a phase of styles.

The ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo, or "speech". By valuing Classical Latin as "first class", it was better to write with Latinitas selected by authors who were attuned to literary and upper-class languages of the city as a standardized style. All sermo that differed from it was a different style. Thus, in rhetoric, Cicero was able to define sublime, intermediate, and low styles within Classical Latin. St. Augustine recommended low style for sermons. Style was to be defined by deviation in speech from a standard. Teuffel termed this standard "Golden Latin".

John Edwin Sandys, who was an authority in Latin style for several decades, summarizes the differences between Golden and Silver Latin as follows:

Silver Latin is to be distinguished by:

 * "an exaggerated conciseness and point"
 * "occasional archaic words and phrases derived from poetry"
 * "increase in the number of Greek words in ordinary use" (the Emperor Claudius in Suetonius refers to "both our languages," Latin and Greek )
 * "literary reminiscences"
 * "The literary use of words from the common dialect" (dictare and dictitare as well as classical dicere, "to say")

title: Classical Latin


text:
Talk:Squeeze play (bridge)

Link to main page contract bridge
This page should be linked from somewhere on the main Bridge page.

There should be a page for play of the hand, with squeezes as a specialty.

Who is Audience
Hi all. I would like to add two thoughts. It is great fun to write this and I appreciate all the help and ideas. But I do have the feeling that this might as well not belong into wikipedia. I think that Andre Engles' point is crucial. It still is almost ununderstandably for non bridge players. On the other hand if a non mathematicien looks something up about Fourier Transformation or Gaulois fields is he supposed to understand the stuff??? [unsigned]

 * Yes I intended to write this for Bridge Players. But I will defenitely try to work more on the basic stuff. Cheers. Robert_Dober 18:01 Oct 21, 2002 (UTC)

 * I agree with the above comment. I think that the problem is that the page starts with a discussion of the Laws, which is one of the last things a beginner needs to know. Most of the expert-level stuff should be moved to a separate page. [unsigned]
 * I come to this thread some 10 years later and have often pondered the same question in my editing of bridge articles. Would it be wrong to have material in articles presented explicitly as directed to one of three audience groups:
 * For newcomers and beginners players (and non-players)
 * For intermediate and advancing players
 * For expert and world class players
 * Newwhist (talk) 18:59, 23 December 2012 (UTC)

 * I came to this talk page to ask whether it is sensible to follow an example of a simple positional squeeze with examples of strip squeezes. (I don't believe that it makes sense to do so.) And I encounter Newwhist's query. Serendipity, I suppose.

 * It would surely not be wrong to tag articles according to their apparent difficulty level. I do think, though, that we all tend to find our own present skill level. Thus, when I was starting out I spent my reading time with Five Weeks to Winning Bridge, not with How to Win at Duplicate Bridge. I had no basis as yet for the special approaches required by pairs play, I didn't understand the rationales, and I left the book on the shelf for a couple of years.

 * With particular reference to squeeze play, it might be useful to add a column to the classification table. One column might indicate the difficulty level associated with a particular type of squeeze -- with a simple squeeze shown as (relatively) straightforward and a compound squeeze shown as (relatively) complex. That leaves us with the task of deciding which squeezes are in between.

 * That said, I'd appreciate opinions regarding the presence of strip squeeze examples in this article. I think it makes sense to have the first example (simple squeeze) as an illustration of the basic mechanism. The strip squeezes should be moved to the existing article.

 * I do think that further discussion of the conditions for squeezes is needed -- for example, the three major types of entry conditions in simple squeezes, and how entries in the pivot suit in a double squeeze often dictate the order of play. But again, these belong in articles other than the main Squeeze Play article.

 * Comments? TurnerHodges (talk) 21:26, 23 December 2012 (UTC)
 * In general, it is my view that articles should be as focussed as possible; wide ranging, rambling articles do not serve encyclopedic objectives well. Accordingly, the article on Squeeze play should be introductory in nature, cover the simple squeeze thoroughly and exclusively and provide navigation to articles on other squeeze plays. So I agree that the strip squeeze material should be relocated.

 * With respect to editors categorizing articles by difficulty level, I believe this a noble but impossible task. It is fundamental to Wikipedia that content be verifiable by a reliable source; to me this means that it is not the opinion of the editor that matters but what the bridge community has documented in its written literature and its other recorded media. Furthermore, difficuly level is relative not absolute. What is a simple mathematical concept for one person to understand would be incomprehensible to another.

 * Combining the foregoing, a focussed article is more likely to enable self-identification by a reader as to its relevance to that person's knowledge base, skill level, interests and intellectual capacity.

 * The Wikipedia scheme for article importance ratings is a tool which may implications for difficulty rating. See Wiki's Contract Bridge Project for a preliminary attempt at applying this rating scheme to contract bridge articles.   Newwhist (talk) 20:02, 24 December 2012 (UTC)

I don't play bridge myself, but I have read several introductory books and I read my newspaper's bridge column every day. I found this article clear, demystifying, and helpful. I think of myself as a curious non-specialist, so I feel you have hit the appropriate mark. I find tightly focused articles with abundant links to other tightly focused articles work very well, and I am looking forward to exploring many more of the bridge articles. Jackaroodave (talk) 17:35, 2 February 2016 (UTC)

As a new bridge player I found this article relatively understandable but there is still some terminology that might be confusing to other newcomers. I suggest that maybe all the expert level stuff be shifted or removed as per WP:NOT and focus on the basic techniques and not expert level guides. - 1.02 editor (talk) 02:51, 13 November 2017 (UTC)

Squeeze preparation
We reckon the following should go in here somewhere:

Should someone (eg me) put in transferring the menace in here? It comes up to set up a simple positional squeeze so I reckon it should go here but I'm concerned it will complicate things. bwt transferring the menace is something like leading the Q from QT (dummy) opposite Ax if you are sure RHO has the K and need to put LHO under pressure (you hope he has the J). Obviously if RHO doesn't cover you let it run. Cambion 15:18, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

 * If not in a separate article, I'd say that it belongs to Squeeze play (bridge). Menace transfer is a common motive for all types of squeezes (much like count rectification). If you have time (I don't), you could append something like the following to Squeeze play (bridge):
 * Rectifying the count
 * Preserving entries
 * Menace transfer

 * etc. Duja 17:55, 26 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Cambion 15:45, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Isn't "The defender being squeezed has no idle cards" redundant? If "the defense's guards in the threat suits must be held by one defender only" AND "declarer has enough winners to take all the remaining tricks but one, which is to be gained from the squeeze" THEN the defender being squeezed MUST have no idle cards? DaleLaceyNZ (talk) 23:18, 13 September 2013 (UTC)

Article title
I'm not keen on putting this to WP:RM, but ain't the more common and simpler name just "Squeeze" rather than "Squeeze play"? I don't recall ever having heard about it with "play" qualifier attached (or extremely rarely). I think this should be moved to Squeeze (bridge) (and will do it in few days unless anyone objects). Duja 08:09, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

Squeeze play seems a reasonable title to me. 'Squeeze' imo is more specific (eg. I executed a squeeze). 'Squeeze play' is to me a more general description encompassing the techniques and viriants of individual squeezes - in short a better name for the article. ;-) Cambion 13:00, 14 July 2006 (UTC) BTW this artcile has come along nicely, gj guys :-) I'd never even heard of a clash squeeze / vice squeeze...

I changed the title Canibal squezze in the list to suiciced squezze because is the most common name — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tord Grejder (talk • contribs) 15:40, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

Example #2 Incorrect
The purpose of Example #2 is to show that for a squeeze to be successful, at least one threat card must be in the hand that plays after the squeezed defender.

The example is unfortunately wrong though.

Trick #1:

South Plays Ace of Clubs, North discards King of Hearts

If East discards Ace of Hearts, south wins 2 of Hearts and Ace of Spades. If East discards a Spade, North wins 2 spades. The mistake here is that there is a threat card in the hand playing after the squeezed defender (2 of hearts). Changing South's 2 of Hearts to a 2 of Diamonds preserves the original intent, but that requires West to have Diamonds. Eqieoqiepq (talk) 02:48, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I have removed the deficient material; IMHO details on the various types of squeezes is best dealt with in their individual articles - links to the various types are listed in the table in the Classification section of this article. Unfortunately the deficient material is also used in the article simple squeeze.  Newwhist (talk) 15:08, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

Let's not be in quite so much of a hurry here. User Eqieoqiepq's comment assumes, not without reason, that the A, K and 2 are the only hearts as yet unplayed. If, in Example 2, West holds even one heart after following to South's lead of the club A, then South's deuce cannot become a winner, and the statement that "south wins 2 of Hearts and Ace of Spades" is incorrect. In that case the squeeze does indeed fail, assuming that East isn't playing nullo.

I believe (I'm not certain and I'm not about to search the article's history to find out) that I'm the one responsible for the layout of Example 2. In that case, I would have chosen to show only three hands in Examples 1 and 2 in order to focus on the relative position of the threats and guards. I thought that would keep things simpler for squeeze neophytes.

That seems to have backfired, though, and to have created confusion instead of preventing it. Therefore I'm reverting the deletion of Example 2 and will add West's holding to both Example 1 and Example 2, to help make it clear (or so I hope) that the heart 2 is not a potential winner. I'll make the same adjustment if needed to the "simple squeeze" article.

While I concur with Newwhist that "details on the various types of squeezes [are] best dealt with in their individual articles," the issue of the relative position of threats and guards does not define a type of squeeze. Position is a requirement for any type of squeeze, just as it is a requirement for any type of finesse: in both cases it stems from what Kelsey called "premature commitment," the necessity that West play before North, and North before East. As such, I believe that introductory material to distinguish positional from "automatic" squeezes belongs in this article. It also belongs in articles that detail different types of squeezes: for example, non-simultaneous double squeezes are particularly characterized by how the basic issue of positionality evolves as the squeeze matures. TurnerHodges (talk) 16:46, 15 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your clarification TurnerHodges. In my defence, the possibility that West held a higher heart than the 2 did occur to me as the intent of the author of the original hand diagram. But my standard assumption is that when a hand in a deal is not disclosed, its holdings are immaterial, i.e. it may hold any cards the reader chooses to imagine - the original Example 2 did not pass that test. Your most recent edits remove the need for that assumption and keep the examples whole. However, having said that, is it not better to have examples that do not require additional conditions to be imposed on the hand of the partner of the squeezed player? And would not a change of the 2 to the 2 in the original hand diagrams accomplish this? Newwhist (talk) 13:37, 16 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Oh, nuts. Your use of the words "in my defense" suggests that I sounded as though I was on the offense, and that was not my intent. That said:

 * I took another look at an old Encyclopedia of Bridge and find that the article there on the simple squeeze uses precisely the same cards as in this article's Examples 1 and 2. So it was surely lifted from that source. Interestingly, in view of your most recent reply, the author of the Encyclopedia's article (Monroe Ingberman, who died far too young) termed the cards in the un-squeezed hand as "Immaterial." At least in a pedagogical sense, we have seen that they're all too material.

 * I concur, once again, that the more spare the example the better. And I believe you're correct, that replacing South's heart 2 with the spade 2 renders East's holding (Ex. 1) and West's holding (Ex. 2) genuinely immaterial (alas, the use of a diamond 2 as originally suggested would not have the same effect).

 * However, while I was visualizing the layout with the spade 2 in place of the heart 2, it struck me that the replacement raises a different concern. The layout then begins to resemble the split two-card menace in the Simple Squeeze article. Beefing up South's spade holding from 3-2 to J-2 changes the entry situation and converts what Love called E1 to E2. That's a subtlety that I don't think the article needs to visit upon someone who's new to squeeze play.

 * But that's a different article. In sum, it seems to me that it's a close choice. If you think it better to omit one of the hands to make the example more crisp, I'm okay with changing South's deuce from a heart to a spade. But I think that would necessitate some added verbiage to distinguish the entry layout from the split menace situation in the Simple Squeeze article. TurnerHodges (talk) 19:24, 16 June 2013 (UTC)
 * My "in my defense" was not an implication that you were on the offense; on the contrary, I enjoy your penchant for precison in the language. Back to the debate at hand, I have examined the various editions of the Encylopedia (I have them all) and find that in the first edition, the example hand for the Positional Squeeze under the SIMPLE SQUEEZE entry uses 'x' to denote the spot cards and shows the East hand as 'Immaterial'; otherwise the honour cards are as in our Example 1. Also in the first edition under the POSITIONAL SQUEEZE entry, Ingberman presents essentially the same deal using "x" for the spot cards and displaying all four hands; the hand diagram used to illustrate when the Positional Squeeze if inoperative shows the West hand holding a spot card in each of diamonds, hearts and spades.  In all subsequent editions, the spot cards for the POSITIONAL SQUEEZE entry are given rank with West's spots outranking South's.  However, all subsequent Encyclopedia editions for the SIMPLE SQUEEZE entry remain unchanged, i.e. spots are 'x' and the East/West hand is 'Immaterial'. I have also reviewed the hand diagram treatment in Kelsey on Squeeze Play and in reference to the Simple Squeeze (page 10) and the Positional Squeeze (page 12) we again find essentially the same deal we know as Example 1 - small world! Kelsy display all four hands and gives the opponents spot cards higher in rank than declarer in each of the side suits (but different than those used by Ingberman).

 * My conclusion from the foregoing is that it seems best to (1) show all four hands in a deal and (2) assign rank to spot cards. This leaves nothing to the imagination - we do not want minds to wander unnecessarily when making the basic points about the simple squeeze play and the positional squeeze. This is afterall an introuction to squeezes.

 * I suggest that we follow the lead of Ingberman/Kelsy and give East/West spot cards in the side suits other than the squeeze card denomination and show all four hands.  For your consideration.  Newwhist (talk) 14:45, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Replacing the heart to a spade would render the West hand immaterial on Example #2. I would support making this change, but I'm not experienced enough with Wikipedia to bring it out.

Neverneverland2 (talk) 20:04, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Classification
It seems to me that another significant dimension for classification is the existence of trump. Most squeezes are "no trump" squeezes (even when the contract was a trump contract, most squeezes operate when the trumps are run and there are no trumps left (other than perhaps the last -- the squeeze card itself).

However, other squeezes including the "trump squeeze" and the "backwash squeeze" rely on the existence of a trump as an entry.Beowulf (talk) 20:19, 12 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Squeeze play (bridge)