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Three Principles of the People

The Three Principles of the People (also translated as the Three People's Principles, San-min Doctrine, or Tridemism ) is a political philosophy developed by Sun Yat-sen as part of a philosophy to improve China made during the Republican Era. The three principles are often translated into and summarized as nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people (or welfarism). This philosophy has been claimed as the cornerstone of the nation's policy as carried by the Kuomintang; the principles also appear in the first line of the national anthem of the Republic of China.

Origins

In 1894 when the Revive China Society was formed, Sun only had two principles: nationalism and democracy. He picked up the third idea, welfare, during his three-year trip to Europe from 1896 to 1898. He announced all three ideas in the spring of 1905, during another trip to Europe. Sun made the first speech of his life on the "Three Principles of the People" in Brussels. He was able to organize the Revive China Society in many European cities. There were about 30 members in the Brussels branch at the time, 20 in Berlin, and 10 in Paris. After the Tongmenghui was formed, Sun published an editorial in Min Bao (民報). This was the first time the ideas were expressed in writing. Later on, in the anniversary issue of Min Bao, his long speech of the Three Principles was printed, and the editors of the newspaper discussed the issue of people's livelihood.

The ideology is said to be heavily influenced by Sun's experiences in the United States and contains elements of the American progressive movement and the thought championed by Abraham Lincoln. Sun credited a line from Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, "government of the people, by the people, for the people", as an inspiration for the Three Principles. Dr. Sun's Three Principles of the People are inter-connected as the guideline for China's modernization development as stretched by Hu Hanmin.

Mínzú or Nationalism
Because "Mínzú" or "People" describes a nation rather than a group of persons united by a purpose, the 'Principle of Mínzú' is commonly rendered as "nationalism".

National Independence
Sun saw the Chinese Nation as under threat of annihilation by the imperialist powers. To reverse the trajectory of such decline, China needed to become nationally independent both externally and internally.

Internally, national independence meant independence from the Qing Manchus who ruled China for centuries. Sun thought that the Han Chinese people were a people without their own nation and thus strove for national revolution against Qing authorities.

Externally, national independence meant independence from imperialist foreign powers. Sun believed China to be threatened by imperialism in three ways: by economic oppression, by political aggression, and by slow population growth. Economically, Sun held the mercantilist position that China was being economically exploited by unbalanced trade and tariffs. Politically, he looked toward the unequal treaties signed by China as the reason of China's decline. Sun envisioned a future China that was strong and capable of fighting imperialists and standing on the same stage as western powers.

Five Races Under One Union
Although Sun initially believed in a form of Han nationalism to oppose the rule of the Qing Dynasty, he later came to accept Liang Qichao’s multi-ethnic nationalist idea of a unified Chinese nation. To achieve "national independence", Sun believed that China must first develop a "China-nationalism," Zhonghua Minzu, as opposed to an mono-ethnic nationalism. Sun developed the principles of Five Races Under One Union to unite the five major ethnic groups of China — Han, Mongols, Tibetans, Manchus, and the Muslims (such as the Uyghurs) — under one "Chinese Nation". This principle is symbolized by the Five Color Flag of the First Republic of China (1911–1928). He believed that China must develop a "national consciousness" so as to unite the Chinese people in the face of imperialist aggression. He argued that "minzu", which can be translated as "people", "nationality", or "race", was defined by sharing common blood, livelihood, religion, language, and customs. Sun also believed in a form of interculturalism that assimilated ethnic minorities into the dominant Han culture by a process of naturalization, rather than through brute force.

Cultural conservatism
The Three Principles of the People were partly related to cultural conservatism (文化保守主義) to defend the virtues of Chinese culture against Western imperialism, while embracing some of the modern elements. Sun Yat-sen defended socialism but distanced himself from dogmatic Marxism, who criticized young people's obsession with Western-style Marxism and saw that similar ideas could be found in Chinese classics. Also, Sun embraced modernism, but at the same time highlighted a positive part of Chinese tradition.

Mínquán or Governance Rights
The framing of 'democracy' in the Three Principles of the People differs from the typical Western view democracy, being based in Liang's interpretation of General will, which prioritizes the power of the group over individual freedoms. Sun viewed traditional Chinese society as too individualistic and stated that individual liberty must be broken down so that the Chinese people could pressed together, using the metaphor of adding cement to sand.

Four Rights of the People
The power of politics are the powers of the people to express their political wishes and keep administrative officers in check, similar to those vested in the citizenry or the parliaments in other countries, and is represented by the National Assembly. The power of the people is guaranteed by four constitutional rights: the right to election (選舉), recalling (罷免), initiative (創制), and referendum (複決). These may be equated to "civil rights".

Five Power Constitution
The power of governance are the powers of the administration to govern the people. He criticized the traditional three-branch democratic government for vesting too much power in the legislative branch. He expanded and reworked the European-American three-branch government and the system of checks and balances by incorporating traditional Chinese administrative systems to create a government of five branches (each of which is called a Yuan ) in a system known as the Five Power Constitution. The state is divided into five "Yuan"s: Legislative Yuan, the Executive Yuan, and the Judicial Yuan came from Montesquieuan thought; the Control Yuan and the Examination Yuan came from Chinese tradition. (Note that the Legislative Yuan was first intended as a branch of governance, not strictly equivalent to a national parliament.)

Mínshēng or Welfare Rights
The Principle of Mínshēng is sometimes translated as "[Principle of] Government for the People" or "Socialism". The concept may be understood as social welfare and as a direct criticism of the inadequacies of unregulated capitalism. He divided livelihood into four areas: clothing, food, housing, and mobility; and planned out how an ideal (Chinese) government can take care of these for its people.

Equalization of Land Rights
Sun was influenced by the American thinker Henry George and intended to introduce a Georgist tax reform. The land value tax in Taiwan is a legacy thereof. Sun said that "[land value tax] as the only means of supporting the government is an infinitely just, reasonable, and equitably distributed tax, and on it we will found our new system."

Sun proposed a land reform system known as "equalization of land rights", which involves the implementation of four different acts: regulation of land price, in which each landowner reports the value of their property sans improvement; taxation of land, which involves a land value tax set on all land properties; purchase of land, which sets up a system where government can purchase land for public use by eminent domain; and profit belongs to the public, in which a 100% tax is levied on all profit gained from trading of land (sans improvement). According to Sun, the existence of land purchase and land taxation guarantees that landowner wouldn't over-report (which would lead to high taxation on land) nor under-report (which would lead to their land being cheaply acquired for eminent domain) their land values.

However, the Kuomintang failed to achieve any successful land reform Sun envisioned in Mainland China and only succeeded in Taiwan.

Impact
Sun died before he was able to fully explain his vision of this Principle and it has been the subject of much debate within both the Chinese Nationalist and Communist Parties, with the latter suggesting that Sun supported socialism. Chiang Kai-shek further elaborated the Mínshēng principle of both the importance of social well-being and recreational activities for a modernized China in 1953 in Taiwan.

Canon
The most definite (canonical) exposition of these principles was a book compiled from notes of speeches that Sun gave near Guangzhou (taken by a colleague, Huang Changgu, in consultation with Sun), and therefore is open to interpretation by various parties and interest groups (see below) and may not have been as fully explicated as Sun might have wished. Indeed, Chiang Kai-shek supplied an annex to the Principle of Mínshēng, covering two additional areas of livelihood: education, land, and leisure, and explicitly arguing that Mínshēng was not to be seen as supporting either communism or socialism. The French historian of Chinese history, Marie-Claire Bergère's view is that the book is a work of propaganda. Its purpose is to appeal to action rather than to thought. As Sun Yat-sen declared, a principle is not simply an idea; it is "a faith, a power."

Legacy
The Three Principles of the People were claimed as the basis for the ideologies of the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek, the Reorganized National Government of China under Wang Jingwei, and an inspiration of the Chinese Communist Party under Mao Zedong as the stage of ‘old democracy’. The Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party largely agreed on the meaning of nationalism but differed sharply on the meaning of democracy and people's welfare, which the former saw in Western social democratic terms and the latter interpreted in Marxist and communist terms. The Japanese collaborationist government interpreted nationalism less in terms of anti-imperialism and more in terms of cooperating with Japan to advance theoretically pan-Asian, but in practice, typically Japanese interests.

Republic of China (Taiwan)
There were several higher-education institutes (university departments/faculties and graduate institutes) in Taiwan that used to devote themselves to the 'research and development' of the Three Principles in this aspect. Since the late 1990s, these institutes have re-oriented themselves so that other political theories are also admitted as worthy of consideration, and have changed their names to be more ideologically neutral (such as Democratic Studies Institute).

In addition to this institutional phenomenon, many streets and businesses in Taiwan are named "Sān-mín" or for one of the three principles. In contrast to other politically derived street names, there has been no major renaming of these streets or institutions in the 1990s.

Although the term "Sanmin Zhuyi" (三民主義) has been less explicitly invoked since the mid-1980s, no political party has explicitly attacked its principles with practices under the Martial Law ruling era then except the Tangwai movement groups such as Democratic Progressive Party. The Three Principles of the People remains explicitly part of the platform of the Kuomintang and in the Constitution of the Republic of China.

As for Taiwan independence supporters, some have objections regarding the formal constitutional commitment to a particular set of political principles. Also, they have been against the mandatory indoctrination in schools and universities, which have now been abolished in a piecemeal fashion beginning in the late 1990s. However, there is little fundamental hostility to the substantive principles themselves. In these circles, attitudes toward the Three Principles of the People span the spectrum from indifference to reinterpreting the Three Principles of the People in a local Taiwanese context rather than in a pan-Chinese one.

People's Republic of China
The Three Principles of the People has been reinterpreted by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to argue that communism is a necessary conclusion of the Three Principles of the People and thus provides legitimacy for the communist government. This reinterpretation of the Three Principles of the People is commonly referred to as the New Three Principles of the People (, also translated as Neo-tridemism), a word coined by Mao's 1940 essay On New Democracy, in which he argued that the CCP is a better enforcer of the Three Principles of the People compared to the bourgeois Nationalist Party and that the new three principles are about allying with the communists and the Russians (Soviets), and supporting peasants and the workers. Proponents of the New Three Principles of the People often claim that Sun's book Three Principles of the People acknowledges that the principles of welfare is inherently socialistic and communistic.

In response to a question from a Reuters reporter in 1945, CCP chairman Mao Zedong said: "A free and democratic China will be a country in which all levels of government up to the central government are elected by universal, equal, secret suffrage and are accountable to the people who elected them. It would realize Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, Lincoln's principles of government of the people, by the people, and for the people, and Roosevelt's Four Freedoms. It will guarantee the country's independence, unity, unification and cooperation with the democratic powers."

Vietnam
The Vietnam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro-Chinese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng. The Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng translates directly into Vietnamese Kuomintang (or the Vietnamese Nationalist Party", and it was largely a resemble of the original Chinese Kuomintang party. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, and opposition to Japanese and French imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyễn Hải Thần, who was born in China. General Zhang Fakui blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as his main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces.

The motto of Independence - Freedom - Happiness of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, despite its communist political background, was also taken from the Three Principles of People.

Tibet
The pro-Kuomintang and pro-ROC Khamba revolutionary leader Pandatsang Rapga, who established the Tibet Improvement Party, adopted Dr. Sun's ideology including the Three Principles, incorporating them into his party and using Sun's doctrine as a model for his vision of Tibet after achieving his goal of overthrowing the Tibetan government.

Pandatsang Rapga hailed the Three Principles of Dr. Sun for helping Asian peoples against foreign imperialism and called for the feudal system to be overthrown. Rapga stated that "The Sanmin Zhuyi was intended for all peoples under the domination of foreigners, for all those who had been deprived of the rights of man. But it was conceived especially for the Asians. It is for this reason that I translated it. At that time, a lot of new ideas were spreading in Tibet", during an interview in 1975 with Dr. Heather Stoddard. Dr. Sun's ideology was put into a Tibetan translation by Rapga.

He believed that change in Tibet would only be possible in a manner similar to when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in China. He borrowed the theories and ideas of the Kuomintang as the basis for his model for Tibet. The party was funded by the Kuomintang and by the Pandatsang family.

Singapore
The establishment of the People's Power Party in May 2015 by opposition politician Goh Meng Seng marks the first time in contemporary Singaporean politics that a political party was formed with the Three Principles of the People and its system of having five branches of government as espoused by Sun Yat-Sen as its official guiding ideology.

The People's Power Party has adapted the ideas with a slight modification to the concepts of the Five Powers in order to stay relevant to modern contemporary political and social structures. The emphasis is put on the separation of the Five Powers which naturally means the separation of certain institutions from the Executive's control.

The power of impeachment (originally under the Control Yuan) has been expanded to include various contemporary functional government institutions. Examples include the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, advocacy of the Ombudsman Commission, Equal Opportunity Commission, freedom of the press and freedom of speech.

The power of examination has been adapted and modified to fit the modern concept of selection for both political leaders as well as civil servants. This involves institutions like the Elections Department and Public Service Commission.

The People's Power Party advocates that the institutions included in these two powers, namely the power of impeachment and the power of selection, be put under the supervision of Singapore's elected president.

title: Three Principles of the People


text:
Wang Jingwei

Wang Zhaoming, widely known by his pen name Wang Jingwei (4 May 1883 – 10 November 1944), was a Chinese politician who was president of the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China, a puppet state of Japan. He was initially a member of the left wing of the Kuomintang, leading a government in Wuhan in opposition to the right-wing government in Nanjing, but later became increasingly anti-communist after his efforts to collaborate with the Chinese Communist Party ended in political failure.

Wang was a close associate of Sun Yat-sen for the last twenty years of Sun's life. After Sun's death in 1925 Wang engaged in a political struggle with Chiang Kai-shek for control over the Kuomintang, but lost. Wang remained inside the Kuomintang, but continued to have disagreements with Chiang until the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, after which he accepted an invitation from the Japanese Empire to form a Japanese-supported collaborationist government in Nanjing. Wang served as the head of state for this Japanese puppet government until he died, shortly before the end of World War II. His legacy remains controversial among historians. Although he is still regarded as an important contributor in the Xinhai Revolution, his collaboration with Imperial Japan is a subject of academic debate, and the typical narratives often regard him as a traitor in the War of Resistance with his name becoming synonymous with treason.

Early life and education
Born in Sanshui, Guangdong, but of Zhejiang origin, Wang went to Japan as an international student sponsored by the Qing Dynasty government in 1903, and joined the Tongmenghui in 1905. He also adopted the sobriquet "Wang Jingwei" in 1905.

As a young man, Wang came to blame the Qing dynasty for holding China back, and making it too weak to fight off exploitation by Western imperialist powers. Wang studied in Japan, where he cut off his queue and embraced theories of democracy and liberalism. While in Japan, Wang became a close confidant of Sun Yat-sen, and would later go on to become one of the most important members of the early Kuomintang. He was among the Chinese nationalists in Japan who were influenced by Russian anarchism, and published a number of articles in journals edited by Zhang Renjie, Wu Zhihui, and the group of Chinese anarchists in Paris.

Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War impressed Wang, and influenced his view of nationalism as an ideology that could unite a country around the idea of self-strengthening.

Early career
In the years leading up to the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Wang was active in opposing the Qing government. Wang gained prominence during this period as an excellent public speaker and a staunch advocate of Chinese nationalism.

Wang was part of a Tongmenghui cell which attempted to assassinate the regent, Prince Chun. Wang and Chen Bijun were betrothed and informally married shortly before the assassination attempt. The bomb that Wang and his cell planted was discovered, and Wang and two others who planned the assassination were arrested two weeks later. Wang readily admitted his guilt at trial and was not repentant. Wang was sentenced to life imprisonment.

A number of factors may have contributed to Wang's receiving a life sentence instead of being executed. Shanqi (Prince Su) was believed to have been moved by Wang's confession. In his view, leniency would show the government's magnanimity and its commitment to reform. Additionally, Shanqi's advisor Cheng Jiacheng was an undercover Tongmenghui agent and there were other sympathetic officials. Finally, Tongmenghui leaders threatened reprisals if Wang were executed, and these threats may have had an intimidating effect on government officials.

He remained in jail from 1910 until the Wuchang Uprising the next year, when he was freed as part of a general amnesty for political prisoners, and became something of a national hero upon his release. A book of poems written by Wang during his incarceration was published after his release and became widely popular.

During and after the Xinhai Revolution, Wang's political life was defined by his opposition to Western imperialism.

Wang was a part of the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement.

While Wang was living in France in 1913, the Kuomintang's (KMT) parliamentary leader Song Jiaoren was shot and died two days later. Yuan Shikai was alleged to have been responsible for the assassination. Sun Yat-Sen summoned Wang back to China shortly thereafter.

Wang attended the post-World War I Paris Peace Conference as an observer, having declined to take a formal role with one of the competing Chinese delegations to avoid compromising his impartiality. He was outraged by the diplomatic fiasco that unfolded at the conference and the European powers' treatment of China.

In the early 1920s, he held several posts in Sun Yat-sen's Revolutionary Government in Guangzhou, and was the only member of Sun's inner circle to accompany him on trips outside of KMT-held territory in the months immediately preceding Sun's death. He is believed by many to have drafted Sun's will during the short period before Sun's death, in the winter of 1925. He was considered one of the main contenders to replace Sun as leader of the KMT, but eventually lost control of the party and army to Chiang Kai-shek. At this time, Wang's view was that the KMT should be the lead party in a democratic coalition based on constitutionalism and that it should guide mass movements to change China's social structure.

Wang had clearly lost control of the KMT by 1926, when, following the Zhongshan Warship Incident, Chiang successfully sent Wang and his family to vacation in Europe. It was important for Chiang to have Wang away from Guangdong while Chiang was in the process of expelling communists from the KMT because Wang was then the leader of the left wing of the KMT, notably sympathetic to communists and communism, and may have opposed Chiang if he had remained in China.

Leader of the Wuhan Government
During the Northern Expedition, Wang was the leading figure in the left-leaning faction of the KMT that called for continued cooperation with the Chinese Communist Party. Although Wang collaborated closely with Chinese communists in Wuhan, he was philosophically opposed to communism and regarded the KMT's Comintern advisors with suspicion. He did not believe that Communists could be true patriots or true Chinese nationalists.

In early 1927, shortly before Chiang captured Shanghai and moved the capital to Nanjing, Wang's faction declared the capital of the Republic to be Wuhan. While attempting to direct the government from Wuhan, Wang was notable for his close collaboration with leading communist figures, including Mao Zedong, Chen Duxiu, and Borodin, and for his faction's provocative land reform policies. Wang later blamed the failure of his Wuhan government on its excessive adoption of communist agendas. Wang's regime was opposed by Chiang Kai-shek, who was in the midst of a bloody purge of communists in Shanghai and was calling for a push farther north. The separation between the governments of Wang and Chiang are known as the "Ninghan Separation".

Chiang Kai-shek occupied Shanghai in April 1927, and began a bloody suppression of suspected communists known as the "Shanghai Massacre". Within several weeks of Chiang's suppression of communists in Shanghai, Wang's leftist government was attacked by a KMT-aligned warlord and promptly disintegrated, leaving Chiang as the sole legitimate leader of the Republic. KMT troops occupying territories formerly controlled by Wang conducted massacres of suspected Communists in many areas: around Changsha alone, over ten thousand people were killed in a single twenty-day period. Fearing retribution as a communist sympathizer, Wang publicly claimed allegiance to Chiang before fleeing to Europe.

Political activities in Chiang's government
Between 1929 and 1930, Wang collaborated with Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan to form a central government in opposition to the one headed by Chiang. Wang took part in a conference hosted by Yan to draft a new constitution, and was to serve as the Prime Minister under Yan, who would be president. Wang's attempts to aid Yan's government ended when Chiang defeated the alliance in the Central Plains War.

In 1931, Wang joined another anti-Chiang government in Guangzhou. After Chiang defeated this regime, Wang reconciled with Chiang's Nanjing government and held prominent posts for most of the decade. Wang was appointed premier just as the Battle of Shanghai (1932) began. He had frequent disputes with Chiang and would resign in protest several times only to have his resignation rescinded. As a result of these power struggles within the KMT, Wang was forced to spend much of his time in exile. He traveled to Germany, and maintained some contact with Adolf Hitler. As the leader of the Kuomintang's left-wing faction and a man who had been closely associated with Dr. Sun, Chiang wanted Wang as premier both to protect the "progressive" reputation of his government which was waging a civil war with the Communists and a shield for protecting his government from widespread public criticism of Chiang's policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" (i.e. first defeat the Communists, then confront Japan). Despite the fact that Wang and Chiang disliked and distrusted each other, Chiang was prepared to make compromises to keep Wang on as premier. In regards to Japan, Wang and Chiang differed in that Wang was extremely pessimistic about China's ability to win the coming war with Japan (which almost everyone in 1930s China regarded as inevitable) and was opposed to alliances with any foreign powers should the war come. While being opposed to any effort at this time to subordinate China to Japan, Wang also saw the "white powers" like the Soviet Union, Britain and the United States as equal if not greater dangers to China, insisting that China had to defeat Japan solely by its own efforts if the Chinese were to hope to maintain their independence. But at the same time, Wang's belief that China was too economically backward at present to win a war against a Japan which had been aggressively modernizing since the Meiji Restoration of 1867 made him the advocate of avoiding war with Japan at almost any cost and trying to negotiate some sort of an agreement with Japan which would preserve China's independence. Chiang by contrast believed that if his modernization program was given enough time, China would win the coming war and that if the war came before his modernization plans were complete, he was willing to ally with any foreign power to defeat Japan, even including the Soviet Union, which was supporting the Chinese Communists in the civil war. Chiang was much more of a hardline anti-Communist than was Wang, but Chiang was also a self-proclaimed "realist" who was willing if necessary to have an alliance with the Soviet Union. Though in the short-run, Wang and Chiang agreed on the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance", in the long-run they differed as Wang was more of an appeaser while Chiang just wanted to buy time to modernize China for the coming war. The effectiveness of the KMT was constantly hindered by leadership and personal struggles, such as that between Wang and Chiang. In December 1935, Wang permanently left the premiership after being seriously wounded during an assassination attempt engineered a month earlier by Wang Yaqiao.

In 1936, Wang clashed with Chiang over foreign policy. In an ironic role reversal, the left-wing "progressive" Wang argued for accepting the German-Japanese offer of having China sign the Anti-Comintern Pact while the right-wing "reactionary" Chiang wanted a rapprochement with the Soviet Union. During the 1936 Xi'an Incident, in which Chiang was taken prisoner by his own general, Zhang Xueliang, Wang favored sending a "punitive expedition" to attack Zhang. He was apparently ready to march on Zhang, but Chiang's wife, Soong Mei-ling, and brother-in-law, T. V. Soong, feared that such an action would lead to Chiang's death and his replacement by Wang, so they successfully opposed this action.

Wang accompanied the government on its retreat to Chongqing during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). During this time, he organized some right-wing groups along European fascist lines inside the KMT. Wang was originally part of the pro-war group; but, after the Japanese were successful in occupying large areas of coastal China, Wang became known for his pessimistic view on China's chances in the war against Japan. He often voiced defeatist opinions in KMT staff meetings, and continued to express his view that Western imperialism was the greater danger to China, much to the chagrin of his associates. Wang believed that China needed to reach a negotiated settlement with Japan so that Asia could resist Western Powers.

Rival presidency and alliance with the Axis Powers
In late 1938, Wang left Chongqing for Hanoi, French Indochina, where he stayed for three months and announced his support for a negotiated settlement with the Japanese. During this time, he was wounded in an assassination attempt by KMT agents. Wang then flew to Shanghai, where he entered negotiations with Japanese authorities. The Japanese invasion had given him the opportunity he had long sought to establish a new government outside of Chiang Kai-shek's control.

On 30 March 1940, Wang became the head of state of what came to be known as the Wang Jingwei regime (formally "the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China") based in Nanjing, serving as the President of the Executive Yuan and Chairman of the National Government (行政院長兼國民政府主席). In November 1940, Wang's government signed the "Sino-Japanese Treaty" with the Japanese, a document that has been compared with Japan's Twenty-one Demands for its broad political, military, and economic concessions. In June 1941, Wang gave a public radio address from Tokyo in which he praised Japan and affirmed China's submission to it while criticizing the Kuomintang government, and pledged to work with the Empire of Japan to resist Communism and Western imperialism. Wang continued to orchestrate politics within his regime in concert with Chiang's international relationship with foreign powers, seizing the French Concession and the International Settlement of Shanghai in 1943, after Western nations agreed by consensus to abolish extraterritoriality.

The Government of National Salvation of the collaborationist "Republic of China", which Wang headed, was established on the Three Principles of Pan-Asianism, anti-communism, and opposition to Chiang Kai-shek. Wang continued to maintain his contacts with German Nazis and Italian fascists he had established while in exile.

Administration of the Wang Jingwei regime
Chinese under the regime had greater access to coveted wartime luxuries, and the Japanese enjoyed things like matches, rice, tea, coffee, cigars, foods, and alcoholic drinks, all of which were scarce in Japan proper, but consumer goods became more scarce after Japan entered World War II. In Japan-occupied Chinese territories, the prices of basic necessities rose substantially, as Japan's war effort expanded. In Shanghai in 1941, they increased elevenfold. Daily life was often difficult in the Nanjing Nationalist government-controlled Republic of China, and grew more so as the war turned against Japan (c. 1943). Local residents resorted to the black market to obtain needed items. The Japanese Kempeitai, Tokko, collaborationist Chinese police, and Chinese citizens in the service of the Japanese all worked to censor information, monitor any opposition, and torture enemies and dissenters. A "native" secret agency, the Tewu, was created with the aid of Japanese Army "advisors". The Japanese also established prisoner-of-war detention centers, concentration camps, and kamikaze training centers to indoctrinate pilots.

Since Wang's government held authority only over territories under Japanese military occupation, there was a limited amount that officials loyal to Wang could do to ease the suffering of Chinese under Japanese occupation. Wang himself became a focal point of anti-Japanese resistance. He was demonized and branded as an "arch-traitor" in both KMT and Communist propaganda. Wang and his government were deeply unpopular with the Chinese populace, who regarded them as traitors to both the Chinese state and Han Chinese identity. Wang's rule was constantly undermined by resistance and sabotage.

The strategy of the local education system was to create a workforce suited for employment in factories and mines, and for manual labor in general. The Japanese also attempted to introduce their culture and dress to the Chinese. Complaints and agitation called for more meaningful Chinese educational development. Shinto temples and similar cultural centers were built in order to instill Japanese culture and values. These activities came to a halt at the end of the war.

Death
In March 1944, Wang left for Japan to undergo medical treatment for the wound left by an assassination attempt in 1939. He died in Nagoya on 10 November 1944, less than a year before Japan's surrender to the Allies. Many of his senior followers who lived to see the end of the war were executed. His death was not reported in occupied China until the afternoon of 12 November, after commemorative events for Sun Yat-sen's birth had concluded. Wang was buried in Nanjing near the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, in an elaborately constructed tomb. Soon after Japan's defeat, the Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek moved its capital back to Nanjing, destroyed Wang's tomb, and burned the body. Today, the site is commemorated with a small pavilion that notes Wang as a traitor.

Legacy
For his role in the Pacific War, Wang has been considered a traitor by most post-World War II Chinese historians in both Taiwan and mainland China. His name has become a byword for "traitor" or "treason" in mainland China and Taiwan. In their rhetoric, the communist and nationalist governments would both go on to eviscerate Wang for his collaboration with the Japanese. The Communist Party emphasized his anti-communism while the Kuomintang downplayed it—instead focusing on his personal betrayal of Chiang Kai-shek. Moreover, the communists purported that his high rank within the KMT demonstrated a duplicitous, treasonous nature inherent to the nationalist party. Both sides chose to minimize his earlier association with Sun Yat-sen.

Personal life
Wang was married to Chen Bijun. They were betrothed and had an informal wedding shortly before the assassination attempt on Prince Chun and were formally married in 1912. The couple had six children, five of whom survived into adulthood. Of those who survived into adulthood, Wang's eldest son Ying (later changed to Wenying) was born in France in 1913. Wang's eldest daughter, Wenxing, was born in France in 1915, worked as a teacher in Hong Kong after 1948, retired to the US in 1984 and died in 2015. Wang's second daughter, Wang Wenbin, was born in 1920. Wang's third daughter, Wenxun, was born in Guangzhou in 1922 and died in 2002 in Hong Kong. Wang's second son, Wenti, was born in 1928 and was sentenced in 1946 to 18 months' imprisonment for being a hanjian. After serving his sentence, Wang Wenti settled in Hong Kong and has been involved in many education projects with the mainland since the 1980s.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wang Jingwei


text:
Talk:Mole (unit)

What is wrong with the measurement of the mole?
Well the simple fact is nothing necessarily. This is because a mole, 6.023*10^23, is independent of mass except when it comes to weighing carbon 12 (C12) only. The same can be said for Avogadro's number, 6.022*10^23, when regarding helium 4 (He4) only.

Another thing to consider is that the rest mass of an isolated neutron (i.e. not affected by the nuclear binding energy of the nucleus of an atom) 1.67492749804*10^(-27) kg, is slightly greater than the rest mass of an isolated proton, 1.672621924*10^(-27) kg. Thus the mass of a neutron divided by the mass of a proton is 1.001378419, or about 0.138% more, and herein lies a discrepancy in mass when weighing.

One other thing to consider is that the masses of the isolated neutron and isolated proton are the rest masses. If it were possible to weigh particles travelling at relativistic speeds, the observer would need to take into account the increase in mass due to the speed the particle was travelling at if this increase in mass were of significance. This is one reason why those scientists who study the behaviour of particles in particle accelerators measure the particles in terms of energy imparted to the particle itself as it is accelerated.

Yet another thing to take into account for the sake of weighing mass both precisely and accurately is that the gravitational field strength on Earth, 9.80665 N/Kg is accurate to only 6 significant figures. Much of this fairly low degree of precision is due to the fact that the geography of the Earth varies a great deal from place to place and, for example, mountain ranges and places where weighing mass is done, like buildings have considerable and possibly significant mass, and we all know, thanks to Einstein, that the magnitude of mass affects the magnitude of the gravitational field strength.

Also worth considering is the fact that electrons have mass (at rest it is 9.109383702*10^(-31)Kg) also and are in the range of significance when it comes to weighing substance with precision. This figure makes a neutron about 1,839 times as heavy as an electron and of course this figure is only 4 significant figures.

However, charged entities such as protons or electrons exhibit a charge conserving behaviour so the possible discrepancy exhibited in an inaccurate result will rarely be encountered.

However, what is one to say about the Relative Atomic Mass Unit U? By definition this is simply one twelfth of the mass of a C12 atom. Not only does U not take into account the electron (when measuring the mass of ions), which must first be subtracted from the mass of the atom before acquiring an accurate result for U, but what about the discrepancy between the mass of a neutron and the mass of a proton? Do we just take the average between the two particles? And if so, what of differing isotopes of varying elements, and what about the rate of change in mass number versus atomic number?

Another consideration is that we don't know if the mass of the neutron varies linearly against that of the proton over the full range of atomic numbers. It's just a thought but both particles play different roles inside the nucleus. According to popular theory for example, the neutrons behave like the glue that binds the protons - the deciders of the chemical behaviour of the nucleus - together which would otherwise fly apart from each other due to electrostatic force. But this is an area which I dare say has escaped significant consideration, and the author does admit, this particular area of consideration may escape significance, or does it in fact? A possible future area of study so as to confirm whether or not.

One final thing to consider before summing up is that because there are two distinct rates of change of the curve which relates the negative nuclear enthalpy against the independent variation in atomic number (because at first the curve trends aggressively upwards towards the local maximum, corresponding to manganese (Mn) having atomic number 25, or iron (Fe) having atomic number 26 at which point the curve trends ever so slightly downward towards the heaviest elements such as plutonium and uranium) there is a significant change over the range of atomic numbers in the rate of change in nuclear binding energy and thus there is a significant change, over the range of atomic numbers, in the rate of change in the relative molecular masses of each element. Therefore one cannot straightforwardly assume that by merely taking into account the linear variation in mass number, there is a corresponding linear variation in mass.

In summing up, my point is this: there is nothing wrong with the number that is the SI unit of the mole. Let the mole, for the sake of significant figures beyond 4,5 or 6, be whatever we have found them to be or chosen them to be. However, in realistic terms one cannot expect, in light of the above argument, to gain any degree of accuracy by weighing on a mass balance, atoms beyond say 6 significant figures. In fact, as the elements you are weighing on a mass balance get heavier, the degree of accuracy diminishes until the heaviest elements where one cannot expect to get accurate beyond 3 significant figures.Laoscala27 (talk) 07:26, 23 September 2023 (UTC)
 * For most of chemistry, getting within 1% is close enough. Though the common centigram balance in chemistry labs often allows better than that. To get to 1%, one can ignore the fine details of atomic mass, as give for example on the chart of the nuclides. The atomic weight, that is, the isotopic abundance average of the atomic masses, or maybe just measured. In any case, they can be measured to high accuracy if desired. There was an alternate proposal to redefine the kilogram based on the mass of Si-28 atoms. (See Alternative_approaches_to_redefining_the_kilogram.) That would also have redefined Avogadro's constant. In any case, atomic mass is defined for neutral atoms, including the mass of the electrons. It is easy to add/subtract when needed. Gah4 (talk) 22:24, 23 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree, but isn't it just a little cumbersome to have to refer to a chart and then add or subtract as needed. In any case your argument seems to be correct in that there are ways and means to come to a more precise result if needed. Laoscala27 (talk) 17:28, 24 September 2023 (UTC)
 * The ones that need isotopic values are rare. I suspect most chemists memorize the rounded values of common elements. High school chemistry classes have a giant periodic table on the wall, maybe with four digits or so. Gah4 (talk) 20:37, 24 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Firstly, by current (post 2019) definition one mole contains exactly 6.02214076×10^23 elementary entities.[] This is by definition and never varies. Historically, the mole was empirically determined and thus prone to experimental error and systematic errors of the methods used, including assumptions about isotopic purity and mass defects etc. as discussed, but not today.
 * Secondly, the Avogadro constant is also currently (post 2019) defined to be an exact number, 6.02214076×10^23.[] As with the definition of the mole this constant has a history of being empirically determined and thus has in the past contained errors from various sources. It is important to also understand that the definitions have also changed with time and our understanding of chemistry.
 * The current definitions solve many problems, including much of what is discussed here. There is no longer any ambiguity as to what a mole is or what the value of the Avogadro Constant is. There is no mass dependence on either ever. The downside is that the defined numerical equivalence between Molar Mass (g/mol) and Molecular Mass (Da) is lost, or inexact. This relationship is now to be determined empirically. This inexactness is deep in the decimal places and is not meaningful to most scientists. With respect to accurately weighing out a mole of bulk chemical, other than the accuracy of the balance is that the distribution of isotopes varies across the earth. The masses on the periodic table are averages carefully measured across the earth and the number of significant figures is intentionally limited by this variance, not the precision or accuracy of the measurements. Some elements have four sig figs because its isotopes vary in abundance more than other elements. Lithium is an excellent example of an element that exhibits great variation in isotopic distributions. Its isotopic distributions have even changed with time and varies significantly with respect to proximity to industrial processes.
 * Indeed, the capacity to measure masses accurately far exceeds the limitations discussed above. Weighing individual molecular masses to 9-10 significant figures is not uncommon. In this realm the resolution of isotopes and counting the number of electrons is trivial. Nick Y. (talk) 19:57, 27 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes. For much of chemistry, (except Cl) the integer atomic weights are close enough. And if not, the periodic table averages. For nuclear physics, sometimes the atomic mass of specific nuclides is needed, and use the chart of the nuclides. Otherwise, I think they should have chosen a multiple of 12.  That is, that 1g of C12 should have an integer number of atoms. Gah4 (talk) 04:35, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * The current definitions solve many problems, including much of what is discussed here. There is no longer any ambiguity as to what a mole is or what the value of the Avogadro Constant is. There is no mass dependence on either ever. The downside is that the defined numerical equivalence between Molar Mass (g/mol) and Molecular Mass (Da) is lost, or inexact. This relationship is now to be determined empirically. This inexactness is deep in the decimal places and is not meaningful to most scientists. With respect to accurately weighing out a mole of bulk chemical, other than the accuracy of the balance is that the distribution of isotopes varies across the earth. The masses on the periodic table are averages carefully measured across the earth and the number of significant figures is intentionally limited by this variance, not the precision or accuracy of the measurements. Some elements have four sig figs because its isotopes vary in abundance more than other elements. Lithium is an excellent example of an element that exhibits great variation in isotopic distributions. Its isotopic distributions have even changed with time and varies significantly with respect to proximity to industrial processes.
 * Indeed, the capacity to measure masses accurately far exceeds the limitations discussed above. Weighing individual molecular masses to 9-10 significant figures is not uncommon. In this realm the resolution of isotopes and counting the number of electrons is trivial. Nick Y. (talk) 19:57, 27 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes. For much of chemistry, (except Cl) the integer atomic weights are close enough. And if not, the periodic table averages. For nuclear physics, sometimes the atomic mass of specific nuclides is needed, and use the chart of the nuclides. Otherwise, I think they should have chosen a multiple of 12.  That is, that 1g of C12 should have an integer number of atoms. Gah4 (talk) 04:35, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes. For much of chemistry, (except Cl) the integer atomic weights are close enough. And if not, the periodic table averages. For nuclear physics, sometimes the atomic mass of specific nuclides is needed, and use the chart of the nuclides. Otherwise, I think they should have chosen a multiple of 12.  That is, that 1g of C12 should have an integer number of atoms. Gah4 (talk) 04:35, 28 September 2023 (UTC)

"Mole(unit)" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mole(unit)&redirect=no Mole(unit)] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 17:24, 9 November 2023 (UTC)
 * For the benefit of other editors: the issue is the lack of a space between "Mole" and "(unit)" in the redirect source. Johnjbarton (talk) 17:29, 9 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Some common misspellings of titles are used as redirects for convenience. I don't know that there is a rule about that. In the case of the space, seems to me that either all such articles should have redirects, or none. Gah4 (talk) 01:41, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * In my opinion this is not at all a common misspelling and it should not exist. Normal users won't search for "Mole(unit)" and internal wikilinks that use Mole(unit) will be red and can be fixed. Johnjbarton (talk) 02:30, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Some common misspellings of titles are used as redirects for convenience. I don't know that there is a rule about that. In the case of the space, seems to me that either all such articles should have redirects, or none. Gah4 (talk) 01:41, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * In my opinion this is not at all a common misspelling and it should not exist. Normal users won't search for "Mole(unit)" and internal wikilinks that use Mole(unit) will be red and can be fixed. Johnjbarton (talk) 02:30, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

What is that image trying to say?
Recently this image was added It has some boxes and circles with Fe and Au labels. What is it trying to tell us? @VectorVoyager Johnjbarton (talk) 16:49, 6 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Mass versus moles of iron vs gold.svg

 * I actually made it for Molar mass page which I think is quite fitting there. It tells that 2 samples of 2 different elements for the same amount of mass that differ in molar mass have different number of moles in the same mass (m/M). I can take it off from this page as its not specifically a diagram to make people understand moles but that it can stay in the molar mass page if there is no errors. I am 100% open for suggestions for improvement though. VectorVoyager (talk) 22:43, 6 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @VectorVoyager ok thanks. the image has two cylinders and now I notice that they have different sizes. I suppose this much would be clearer to me if they were side by side with text like "same mass, different volume". but I'm not sure how to connect that to the topic. it's just to imagine a visual that works for numbers and mass without involving density. Johnjbarton (talk) 04:47, 7 March 2024 (UTC)
 * hi, I made a new depiction for this page (Mole carbon-12 diagram.svg). I think something like this is more fitting for the page. Its very important that the visitors understand diagrams used on the Wiki, so I am open for suggestions to improve that previous one that is currently present on molar mass page. How can I make it more understandable in a visual way? Thanks. VectorVoyager (talk) 11:39, 7 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Well you picked a tough assignment ;-)
 * My suggestions for this version:
 * Move the 12 grams of 12C on to the Mole side
 * Remove the Avogadro (too much)
 * Rather than the ambiguous x602 sextillion, just write 602 sextillion Carbon atoms.
 * That much illustrates "Mole" but does not pinpoint "Mole (unit)".
 * For "Mole (unit)" maybe an image with seemingly many items and the amount in Mole? The only thing one need to get a across is that the unit is for counting items and the scale is ridiculously large.
 * HTH Johnjbarton (talk) 16:40, 7 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks! I have implemented the first and third suggestions that you have written, but I think stating that the accepted exact form is Avogadro constant is intuitive for the reader to understand the connection between NA and moles. VectorVoyager (talk) 08:40, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

mol kept me from Chemistry
I found the concept of calling some arbitrary number a 'mol' of something exceedingly confusing when I was confronted with it at school. And as it is a basic concept, I got bad grades in my first test. Turns out, I was right, and there are people sharing my criticism. If anyone out there works in curriculum design: Please just leave out this nonsensical non-unit and get into the interesting stuff. Molar masses can be discussed way later, in advanced studies. Thank you. --2A01:C23:5DB9:4A00:B905:825E:E1B0:1A05 (talk) 2A01:C23:5DB9:4A00:B905:825E:E1B0:1A05 (talk) 21:15, 12 March 2024 (UTC)

 * This is not the place to discuss curriculum design. Pradyung (talk) 00:38, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mole (unit)


text:
Harrison, Montana

Harrison is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Madison County, Montana, United States. The population was 105 at the 2020 census, down from 137 in 2010.

The town began as "Ferguson", a stage stop on the road to Virginia City. The Northern Pacific Railroad constructed a branch line in 1889. Eventually the town was called Harrison after an early settler, Henry C. Harrison.

Geography
Harrison is located in northeastern Madison County at 45.7025°N, -111.78528°W (45.702507, -111.785376). U.S. Route 287 passes through town, leading northeast 20 mi to Three Forks and south 26 mi to Ennis. Willow Creek Reservoir is 4 mi to the east.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the Harrison CDP has an area of 0.18 sqmi, all land. The community sits between North Willow Creek and South Willow Creek, which flow northeast to form Willow Creek, a tributary of the Jefferson River.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 162 people, 64 households, and 44 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 704.9 PD/sqmi. There were 75 housing units at an average density of 326.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.91% White, 1.85% Native American, 0.62% Asian, and 0.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.23% of the population.

There were 64 households, out of which 39.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3% were married couples living together, 9.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.7% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.07.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 32.7% under the age of 18, 3.7% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $36,875, and the median income for a family was $39,167. Males had a median income of $28,750 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,287. About 5.3% of families and 13.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.7% of those under the age of eighteen and 14.8% of those 65 or over.

The median age for residents in Harrison is 44.7

18.1% of Harrison's residents live in poverty.

Education
Harrison Public School educates students from kindergarten through 12th grade. For the 2021-2022 school year, 95 students were enrolled. There are 3 schools in the district.

Harrison High School's team name is the Wildcats.

The school operates radio station KHWC-LP.

title: Harrison, Montana


text:
Classical Chinese

Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from c. the 5th century BCE. For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary Chinese, which was used for almost all formal writing in China until the early 20th century. Each written character corresponds to a single spoken syllable, and almost always to a single independent word. As a result, the characteristic style of the language is comparatively terse.

Starting in the 2nd century CE, use of Literary Chinese spread to the countries surrounding China, including Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands, where it represented the only known form of writing. Literary Chinese was adopted as the language of civil administration in these countries, creating what is known as the Sinosphere. Each additionally developed systems of readings and annotations that enabled non-Chinese speakers to interpret Literary Chinese texts in terms of the local vernacular.

While not static throughout its history, its evolution has traditionally been guided by a conservative impulse: many later changes in the varieties of Chinese are not reflected in the literary form. Due to millennia of this evolution, Literary Chinese is only partially intelligible when read or spoken aloud for someone only familiar with modern vernacular forms. Literary Chinese has largely been replaced by written vernacular Chinese among Chinese speakers; speakers of non-Chinese languages have similarly abandoned Literary Chinese in favour of their own local vernaculars. Although varieties of Chinese have diverged in various directions from the Old Chinese words in the Classical lexicon, many cognates can still be found.

Definition
There is no universal agreement on the definition of "Classical Chinese". At its core, the term refers to the language used by the classics of Chinese literature roughly from the 5th century BCE to the end of the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). The form of Chinese used in works written before the 4th century BCE, like the Five Classics, is distinct from that found in later works. The term "pre-Classical Chinese" is used to distinguish this earlier form from Classical Chinese proper, as it did not inspire later imitation to a comparable degree despite the works' equal importance in the canon.

After the Han dynasty, the divergence of spoken language from the literary form became increasingly apparent. The term "Literary Chinese" has been coined to refer to the later forms of written Chinese in conscious imitation of the classics, with sinologists generally emphasizing distinctions such as the gradual addition of new vocabulary and the erosion of certain points of Classical grammar as their functions were forgotten. Literary Chinese was used in almost all formal and personal writing in China from the end of the Han dynasty until the early 20th century, when it was largely replaced by written vernacular Chinese. A distinct, narrower definition of the Classical period begins with the life of Confucius (551–479 BCE) and ends with the founding of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE.

Function
The adoption of Chinese literary culture in the Sinosphere amid the existence of various regional vernaculars is an example of diglossia. The coexistence of Literary Chinese and native languages throughout China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam can be compared to the historical literary use of Latin in Europe, that of Arabic in Persia, or that of Sanskrit in South and Southeast Asia. However, unlike these examples, written Chinese uses a logography of Chinese characters that are not directly tied to their pronunciation. This lack of a fixed correspondence between writing and reading created a situation where later readings of Classical Chinese texts were able to diverge much further from their originals than occurred in the other literary traditions, adding a unique dimension to the study of Literary Chinese.

Literary Chinese was adopted in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature states that this adoption came mainly from diplomatic and cultural ties with China, while conquest, colonization, and migration played smaller roles. Unlike Latin and Sanskrit, historical Chinese language theory consisted almost exclusively of lexicography, as opposed to the study of grammar and syntax. Such approaches largely arrived with Europeans beginning in the 17th century. Christian missionaries later coined the term to describe Classical Chinese; this term never became widely used among domestic speakers.

Transmission of texts
According to the traditional "burning of books and burying of scholars" account, in 213 BCE Qin Shi Huang ordered the historical records of all non-Qin states to be burned, along with any literature associated with the Hundred Schools of Thought. The imperial library was destroyed upon the dynasty's collapse in 206 BCE, resulting in a potentially greater loss. Even works from the Classical period that have survived are not known to exist in their original forms, and are attested only in manuscripts copied centuries after their original composition. The "Yiwenzhi" section of the Book of Han (111 CE) is the oldest extant bibliography of Classical Chinese, compiled c. 90 CE; only 6% of its 653 listed works are known to exist in a complete form, with another 6% existing only in fragments.

Grammar and lexicon
Compared to written vernacular Chinese, Classical Chinese is terse and compact in its style, and uses some different vocabulary. Classical Chinese rarely uses words two or more characters in length.

Classical Chinese can be described as a pro-drop language: its syntax often allows either subjects or objects to be dropped when their reference is understood. Additionally, words are generally not restricted to use as certain parts of speech: many characters may function as either a noun, verb, or adjective. There is no copula in Classical Chinese: serves this function in modern Standard Chinese, but in Old Chinese it was a near demonstrative ('this').

Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas modern Standard Chinese has one character generally used as a first-person pronoun, Classical Chinese has several—many of which are used as part of a system of honorifics. Many final and interrogative particles are found in Classical Chinese.

Beyond differences in grammar and vocabulary, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by its literary qualities: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm is typical, even in prose works. Works also make extensive use of literary techniques such as allusion, which contributes to the language's brevity.

Modern use

Prior to the literary revolution in China that began with the 1919 May Fourth Movement, prominent examples of vernacular Chinese literature include the 18th-century novel Dream of the Red Chamber. Most government documents in the Republic of China were written in Literary Chinese until reforms spearheaded by President Yen Chia-kan in the 1970s to shift to written vernacular Chinese. However, most of the laws of Taiwan are still written in a subset of Literary Chinese. As a result, it is necessary for modern Taiwanese lawyers to learn at least a subset of the literary language.

Many works of literature in Classical and Literary Chinese have been highly influential in Chinese culture, such as the canon of Tang poetry. However, even with knowledge of its grammar and vocabulary, works in Literary Chinese can be difficult for native vernacular speakers to understand, due to its frequent allusions and references to other historical literature, as well as the extremely laconic style. Presently, pure Literary Chinese is occasionally used in formal or ceremonial contexts. For example, the National Anthem of the Republic of China is in Literary Chinese. Buddhist texts in Literary Chinese are still preserved from the time they were composed or translated from Sanskrit. In practice there is a socially accepted continuum between vernacular and Literary Chinese. For example, most official notices and formal letters use stock literary expressions within vernacular prose.

Personal use of Classical phrases depends on factors such as the subject matter and the level of education of the writer. Excepting professional scholars and enthusiasts, most modern writers cannot easily write in Literary Chinese. Even so, most Chinese people with at least a middle school education are able to basic Literary Chinese, because this ability is part of the Chinese middle school and high school curricula, and is a component of the college entrance examination. Literary Chinese in the school curriculum is taught primarily by presenting a literary work and including a vernacular gloss that explains the meaning of phrases. The examinations usually require the student to read a paragraph in Literary Chinese and then explain its meaning in the vernacular.

Contemporary use of Literary Chinese in Japan is mainly in the field of education and the study of literature. Learning, the Japanese readings of Literary Chinese, is part of the high school curriculum in Japan. Japan is the only country that maintains the tradition of creating Literary Chinese poetry based on Tang-era tone patterns.

Phonology
Chinese characters are not phonetic and rarely reflect later sound changes in words. Efforts to reconstruct Old Chinese pronunciation began relatively recently. Literary Chinese is not read with a reconstructed Old Chinese pronunciation; instead, it is read with the pronunciations as categorized and listed in a rime dictionary originally based upon the Middle Chinese pronunciation in Luoyang between the 2nd and 4th centuries. Over time, each dynasty updated and modified the official rime dictionary: by the time of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, its phonology reflected that of early Mandarin. As the imperial examination system required the candidate to compose poetry in the shi genre, pronunciation in non-Mandarin speaking parts of China such as Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian is either based on everyday speech, such as in Standard Cantonese, or is based on a special set of pronunciations borrowed from Classical Chinese, such as in Southern Min. In practice, all varieties of Chinese combine the two extremes of pronunciation: that according to a prescribed system, versus that based on everyday speech. Mandarin and Cantonese, for example, also have words that are pronounced one way in colloquial usage and another way when used in Literary Chinese or in specialized terms coming from Literary Chinese, though the system is not as extensive as that of Min or Wu.

Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese readers of Literary Chinese each use distinct systems of pronunciation specific to their own languages. Japanese speakers have readings of Chinese origin called for many words, such as for "ginko" (銀行) or "Tokyo" (東京), but use  when the kanji represents a native word such as the reading of 行 in 行く  or the reading of both characters in "Osaka" (大阪), as well as a system that aids Japanese speakers with a Classical word order.

As pronunciation in modern varieties is different from Old Chinese as well as other historical forms such as Middle Chinese, characters that once rhymed may not any longer, or vice versa. Poetry and other rhyme-based writing thus becomes less coherent than the original reading must have been. However, some modern Chinese varieties have certain phonological characteristics that are closer to the older pronunciations than others, as shown by the preservation of certain rhyme structures.

Another particular characteristic of Literary Chinese is its present homophony. Reading Classical texts with character pronunciations from modern languages results in many homophonous characters that originally had distinct Old Chinese pronunciations, but have since merged to varying degrees. This phenomenon is far more common in Chinese languages than in English: for example, each of the following words had a distinct Old Chinese pronunciation, but are now perfectly homophones with a pronunciation of  in Standard Chinese:

The poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den was composed during the 1930s by the linguist Yuen Ren Chao to demonstrate this: it contains only words pronounced  with various tones in modern Standard Chinese. The poem underlines how language had become impractical for modern speakers: when spoken aloud, Literary Chinese is largely incomprehensible. However, the poem is perfectly comprehensible when read, and also uses homophones that were present even in Old Chinese.

Romanizations have been devised to provide distinct spellings for Literary Chinese words, together with pronunciation rules for various modern varieties. The earliest was the Romanisation Interdialectique by French missionaries Henri Lamasse of the Paris Foreign Missions Society and Ernest Jasmin, based on Middle Chinese, followed by linguist Wang Li's based on Old Chinese in 1940, and then by Chao's General Chinese romanization in 1975. However, none of these systems have seen extensive use.

title: Classical Chinese


text:
Adam Again

Adam Again was an American rock band active from 1982 until the death of founder, leader and vocalist Gene Eugene in 2000. Other band members included Riki Michele on vocals, Paul Valadez on bass, Jon Knox on drums, and Greg Lawless on guitar. Dan Michaels often played saxophone.

Thom Jurek of AllMusic described the group as "inventive and artfully canny." Mark Allan Powell maintained that the group "priortized musical excellence and lyrical depth over commercial appeal or even accessibility." The band never achieved commercial viability and disbanded when Eugene was found dead in his recording studio on March 20, 2000 from an undiagnosed brain aneurism. Valadez died on September 20, 2013.

Discography

 * In a New World of Time (1986)
 * Ten Songs by Adam Again (1988)
 * Homeboys (1990)
 * Dig (1992)
 * Perfecta (1995)
 * Worldwide Favourites (1999)
 * A Tribute to Gene Eugene (2000)
 * Adam Again Tribute Boxed Set (2001)

Reissues

 * In a New World of Time (1990) Reissue on CD by An Adam Again Independent Recording AAIR0001
 * Homeboys + Dig (Music Value Pack) (2000) This KMG Records contains two albums on one CD. It is missing "No Regret" from Homeboys and "So Long" from Dig.
 * Ten Songs by Adam Again (2002) Remastered by Lo-Fidelity Records. Only 1000 copies were made.
 * Ten Songs by Adam Again (2013) Remastered by Frontline Records.
 * Dig (2016) Remastered by Lo-Fidelity Records.

title: Adam Again


text:
Guile

Guile or Guilé may refer to:

Fictional characters

 * Guile (Street Fighter), a video game character from the Street Fighter series
 * Guile, a video game character from Chrono Cross

People

 * Daniel Guile (1814–1882), British trade unionist
 * Melanie Guile (born 1949), Australian writer

Other uses

 * Deception, and astuteness
 * GNU Guile, an implementation of the Scheme programming language
 * Guile Island, Antarctica
 * Guilé Foundation, a Swiss organisation for business ethics

title: Guile


text:
Leigh Nash

Leigh Anne Bingham Nash ( born June 27, 1976) is an American singer and songwriter who is the lead vocalist for the Christian alternative rock band Sixpence None the Richer and was also a member of Fauxliage. Her debut solo album, Blue on Blue, was released in August 2006. Nash has released two other solo albums in 2011 and 2015. Nash has two Grammy nominations: "Best Pop Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocal" in 1999 and "Best Rock Gospel Album" in 1998. In July 2023, it was announced that Nash would be joining 10,000 Maniacs as their new lead singer.

Early life
Nash was born Leigh Anne Bingham in New Braunfels, Texas. She started singing country music and learning old country songs on the guitar at the age of 12. She had several years' experience singing in local cafes with a band and performed regularly at a Texan country & western dance hall. She met guitarist and songwriter Matt Slocum at a church retreat in the early 1990s.

Career
Leigh Nash and Matt Slocum formed Sixpence None the Richer (named for a line from the book Mere Christianity by the author C.S. Lewis) soon after and went on to record four full-length albums with the band. Their first album, released when she was age 17, was The Fatherless & the Widow. The album garnered critical acclaim and Slocum and Nash searched for new band members.

Joined by Tess Wiley, Dale Baker, and J.J. Plascencio, the new band recorded This Beautiful Mess, which won a Dove Award for Best Album. Wiley quit the band after their US tour and the band released the Tickets for a Prayer Wheel EP and then signed to the Squint Records label following the demise of R.E.X.

The band's eponymous album was released in 1997 and the single "Kiss Me" in 1999. In 1999 they received numerous Dove Awards, including Best Artist of the Year. The band was also nominated for a Grammy Award. A second single, a cover of the La's "There She Goes", also hit the Billboard Hot 100, followed by a third single, "I Can't Catch You".

In 2000, Nash sang the song "Need to Be Next to You" for the movie Bounce. Written by Diane Warren, it became Nash's first solo single.

After the departure of drummer Dale Baker and bass player J.J. Plascencio, Sixpence None the Richer released Divine Discontent in 2001. Two singles from that album, "Breathe Your Name" and a cover of Crowded House's 1986 hit single "Don't Dream It's Over", charted on the US Adult Top 40 at No. 18 and No. 9, respectively.

In 2003, the band appeared on an episode of the final season of the ABC sitcom Sabrina, The Teenage Witch.

In 2004, Sixpence None the Richer announced their breakup by letter from Matt Slocum to CCM Magazine. After that, the band released The Best of Sixpence None the Richer. Nash and her husband left their Nashville home of 10 years and moved to Los Angeles.

Nash released her first solo record, Blue on Blue, in August 2006 on One Son Records, Nash's own imprint label through Nettwerk Productions. The first single, "My Idea of Heaven", was released to U.S. radio the week of July 14, 2006, and the song "Ocean Size Love" was to be the second single, but it was a promo release only. She has also recorded a song "Mirrors and Smoke" with the band Jars of Clay on their album Good Monsters the same year. She also performed the song "A Place for Us" (written by Bryan Adams) with Tyler James for the 2007 Disney film Bridge to Terabithia.

In 2007, Nash began a new band, Fauxliage, with Canadian band Delerium, which released a self-titled album on August 14, 2007. Nash, Megan Thompson and Kate York also started a Christian band called Thompson, York & Nash. They worked on a few songs that have been put on MySpace. However, none of the songs posted on their MySpace page have been formally released.

In January 2008 Nash traveled to New Zealand for the annual Parachute Music Festival, where she performed acoustic covers of Sixpence None the Richer hits "Kiss Me " and "There She Goes". In late 2008, Nash toured with Delerium.

Nash has since rejoined Sixpence and worked on a new EP My Dear Machine EP, and the Christmas album The Dawn of Grace. Guitarist Tess Wiley returned to the band to support them on a European tour.

Nash joined Open Wings-Broken Strings tour in late 2009, along with Ed Kowalczyk of Live and Art Alexakis of Everclear. In 2011 she released a worship album entitled Hymns and Sacred Songs, and in August 2012, she released Lost in Transition, her sixth studio album with Sixpence None the Richer.

On September 18, 2015, Nash released her album: The State I'm In. She writes for BMG.

In 2018, Nash released a cover of the Pretenders' 1986 single "Don't Get Me Wrong". In an interview, Nash stated that new music will be coming soon and will be crowd-funded. On August 25, 2021, Nash announced The Tide, a six-song project, would be released September 24 and would feature collaborations with Vince Gill, Tanya Tucker, CeCe Winans, Ruby Amanfu, Raul Malo and Stephen Wilson Jr.

In July 2023, it was announced that Nash would be joining 10,000 Maniacs as their new lead singer. In January 2024, it was announced that Nash would be leaving 10,000 Maniacs, with Mary Ramsey returning to the band as lead singer.

Inspiration
Nash has two distinct poles of inspiration: her work with Sixpence in the Christian music sphere and her childhood fascination with older female country artists like Tanya Tucker, Loretta Lynn, and Patsy Cline.

"I started singing country music and learning old country songs on the guitar when I was 12. I was really, really shy but just had this desire to get on stage and started calling clubs myself to ask if I could come down and sing," says Nash, who grew up in the Texas Hill Country town of New Braunfels.

Before long, the adolescent Nash was singing Loretta Lynn and Tanya Tucker songs like "You Ain't Woman Enough to Take My Man" and "Texas When I Die" on alcohol-free, open mic Sunday nights, backed by a middle-aged band of town locals. Later in life her interest in pop acts like the Sundays, Innocence Mission, and the Cranberries provided more formative material for her songwriting and singing.

Personal life
Nash is the younger of two sisters. In May 1996, she married PFR drummer Mark Nash, whom she met while both bands were performing at the Cornerstone Festival in Illinois. They have one child (a son) together, who was born in 2004. The couple divorced in 2007. Nash married musician Stephen Wilson Jr in 2011.

Discography

 * Blue on Blue (2006)
 * Fauxliage (collaboration with Delerium) (2007)
 * Hymns and Sacred Songs (2011)
 * The State I'm In (2015)
 * The Tide (2021)

title: Leigh Nash


text:
Sheridan, Montana

Sheridan is a town in Madison County, Montana, United States named after the Civil War general Philip Sheridan. The population was 694 at the 2020 census. Sheridan is known as the "heart of the Ruby Valley." Seven mountain ranges surround the town: Tobacco Root Mountains, Highland Mountains, McCartney Mountain, The Pioneers, The Ruby Range, The Gravelly Range and the Snowcrest Range. The Ruby River winds through the valley just west of the town.

Sheridan traces its beginnings to the construction of a sawmill on Mill Creek by James Gammell in 1863.

Geography
Sheridan is located at 45.45611°N, -112.19583°W (45.456173, -112.195793). Montana Highway 287 passes through town.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.02 sqmi, all land.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Sheridan has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 642 people, 306 households, and 174 families residing in the town. The population density was 629.4 PD/sqmi. There were 376 housing units at an average density of 368.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 95.3% White, 0.3% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.1% of the population.

There were 306 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.1% were non-families. 40.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.99 and the average family size was 2.66.

The median age in the town was 53.1 years. 19.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 2.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17.3% were from 25 to 44; 32% were from 45 to 64; and 29% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 45.3% male and 54.7% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 659 people, 302 households, and 170 families residing in the town. The population density was 643.4 PD/sqmi. There were 365 housing units at an average density of 356.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 95.14% White, 0.15% African American, 1.06% Native American, 1.67% from other races, and 1.97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.67% of the population.

There were 302 households, out of which 22.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 5.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.7% were non-families. 39.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.07 and the average family size was 2.78.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 20.5% under the age of 18, 3.8% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 26.4% from 45 to 64, and 28.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females there were 85.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $21,118, and the median income for a family was $26,563. Males had a median income of $27,639 versus $15,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,369. About 22.0% of families and 25.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43.2% of those under age 18 and 13.1% of those age 65 or over.

Education
Sheridan Public Schools educates students from kindergarten through 12th grade. Sheridan High School's team name is the Panthers.

Sheridan Public Library serves the area.

Media
The Madisonian is a newspaper serving the Madison and Ruby Valleys, which includes Sheridan. It is printed weekly and offers an e-edition.

title: Sheridan, Montana


text:
Twin Bridges, Montana

Twin Bridges is a town in Madison County, Montana, United States. It lies at the confluence of the Ruby, Beaverhead and Big Hole rivers which form the Jefferson River. Twin Bridges is a well-known fly fishing mecca for trout anglers. The population was 330 at the 2020 census.

History
Four Indian trails came together at a bend of the Beaverhead River north of the present school building in Twin Bridges. These trails were used by early settlers and freight companies, and helped to establish where the community of Twin Bridges would develop. Judge M.H. Lott came to Montana in 1862, and with his brother John T. Lott settled in the Ruby Valley in 1864. In 1865 they built a bridge across the Beaverhead River, and later built another bridge across the Beaverhead at the Point of Rocks. The Lott brothers continued development of roads and promoted settlement of the town, which was incorporated in 1902, with M.H. Lott as the first mayor.

Geography
Twin Bridges is in northwestern Madison County. It is 9 mi northwest of Sheridan, 27 mi south-southwest of Whitehall and Interstate 90, and 28 mi northeast of Dillon. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.01 sqmi, all of it recorded as land. The Beaverhead River passes through the center of the town limits, while the Big Hole River passes 1 mi to the west and joins the Beaverhead a mile north of the town to form the Jefferson River. The Ruby River joins the Beaverhead less than 2 mi south of the town.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Twin Bridges has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 375 people, 172 households, and 94 families living in the town. The population density was 390.6 PD/sqmi. There were 206 housing units at an average density of 214.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 96.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.8% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9% of the population.

There were 172 households, of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.4% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45.3% were non-families. 37.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.91.

The median age in the town was 44.6 years. 22.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.6% were from 25 to 44; 30.7% were from 45 to 64; and 18.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 54.7% male and 45.3% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 400 people, 175 households, and 105 families living in the town. The population density was 419.5 PD/sqmi. There were 216 housing units at an average density of 226.5 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 97.75% White, 0.25% Asian, and 2.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.50% of the population.

There were 175 households, out of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 24.8% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $25,833, and the median income for a family was $34,688. Males had a median income of $25,417 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,171. About 6.2% of families and 8.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.4% of those under age 18 and 10.6% of those age 65 or over.

Economy
Twin Bridges serves as a tourist destination for fly fishers and cyclists. The town sits on two long-distance cycling trails - the TransAmerica Trail, and the Lewis & Clark Bicycle Trail. In 2009, a "bike camp" was built in the town, and local stores started stocking basic cycling supplies.

Arts and culture
The Twin Bridges Historical Association Museum, located in one of the first commercial buildings in town, displays artifacts relating to the area history. Displays include indigenous culture, pioneers, and mining and agriculture information.

The Twin Bridges Public Library has been serving the community since 1897. It was created by the Temperance Society as an alternative to saloons.

The Doncaster Round Barn is a three-story round barn that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The property was used for horse-breeding and produced Spokane, the winner of the 1889 Kentucky Derby.

Education
Twin Bridges Public Schools educate students from kindergarten through 12th grade. The Twin Bridges Public Library serves the area.

Media
The Madisonian is a newspaper serving the Madison and Ruby Valleys, which includes Twin Bridges. It is printed weekly and offers an e-edition.

Infrastructure
Ruby Valley Field is a public use airport located 2 mi southeast of town.

Montana Highway 287 and Montana Highway 41 intersect in town.

Notable people

 * Angela McLean, lieutenant governor of Montana
 * Hamilton James, Co-Chair of the Board of Trustees of the Metropolitan Museum in New York
 * Benny Reynolds, rodeo champion
 * Donald Rumsfeld, American political figure and businessman
 * Spokane, winner of the 1889 Kentucky Derby
 * Kenneth Walsh, member of the Montana House of Representatives

title: Twin Bridges, Montana


text:
Virginia City, Montana

Virginia City is a town in and the county seat of Madison County, Montana, United States. In 1961 the town and the surrounding area were designated a National Historic Landmark District, the Virginia City Historic District. The population was 219 at the 2020 census.

Founding
In May 1863, a group of prospectors were headed toward the Yellowstone River and instead came upon a party of the Crow people and were forced to return to Bannack. On May 26, 1863, Bill Fairweather and Henry Edgar discovered gold near Alder Creek. The prospectors could not keep the site a secret and were followed on their return to the gold-bearing site. A mining district was set up in order to formulate rules about individual gold claims. On June 16, 1863, the township was formed under the name of "Verina" a mile south of the gold fields. The name was intended to honor Varina Howell Davis, the first and only First Lady of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. Verina, although in Union territory, was founded by men whose loyalties were thoroughly Confederate. Upon registration of the name, a Connecticut judge, G. G. Bissell, objected to their choice and recorded it as Virginia City.

Within weeks Virginia City was a boomtown of thousands of prospectors and fortune seekers in the midst of a gold rush. The remote region of the Idaho Territory was without law enforcement or justice system, with the exception of miners' courts. In late 1863, the great wealth in the region, lack of a justice system and the insecure means of travel gave rise to serious criminal activity, especially robbery and murder along the trails and roads of the region. "Road agents", as they became known, were ultimately responsible for up to 100 deaths in the region in 1863 and 1864. This resulted in the formation of the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch and the infamous Montana Vigilantes. Up to 15 road agents were hanged by the vigilantes in December 1863 and January 1864, including the sheriff of Bannack and alleged leader of the road agent gang, Henry Plummer. The Montana Territory was organized out of the existing Idaho Territory by Act of Congress and signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on May 26, 1864. Although Bannack was the first territorial capital, the territorial legislature moved the capital to Virginia City on February 7, 1865. It remained the capital until April 19, 1875, when it moved to Helena. Thomas Dimsdale began publication of Montana's first newspaper, the Montana Post, in Virginia City on August 27, 1864. Montana's first public school was established in Virginia City in March 1866.

Preservation
Virginia City's population dwindled starting in the 1880s as the easily-extracted placer gold played out and miners moved away. Federal monetary policy in the 1930s reduced the gold content of the U.S. dollar, making gold relatively more valuable, which led to some gold mining revival across the west. However, in 1942, the National War Labor Board's Limitation Order 209 made nearly all gold mining in the United States illegal, practically shuttering the gold mining industry in the United States. By the mid- to late-1940s, the town's gold rush-era buildings were being abandoned or dismantled for their lumber. Charles and Sue Bovey began buying the town, putting much needed maintenance into failing structures. The ghost town of Virginia City began to be restored for tourism in the 1950s. The Boveys operated the town as an open-air museum complete with artifacts and living history enactments. Of the nearly 300 structures in town, almost half were built before 1900. Buildings in their original condition with Old West period displays and information plaques stand next to presently active restaurants, gift shops, and other businesses. The town received National Historic Landmark status in 1962, and many of its buildings have been added to the National Register of Historic Places.

The National Park Service (NPS) considered adding the town to its system, conducting studies in 1937, 1980 and 1995. In the end, the state of Montana bought most of the historic buildings after the legislature authorized the purchase of the Bovey properties. Today, the Historic District of Virginia City and Nevada City is operated by the Montana Heritage Commission, with financial and technical assistance from the NPS. The commission operates gold panning, the Nevada City Music Hall and Museum, and the Alder Gulch Railroad.

Virginia City also has a Boot Hill cemetery, where the graves of Jack Gallagher, Boone Helm, "Clubfoot" George Lane, Hayes Lyons, and Frank Parrish—all road agents killed during Virginia City's vigilante era—are placed in a location neighboring Virginia City's main graveyard. The narrow gauge Alder Gulch Short Line Railroad transports passengers by rail to the nearby ghost town of Nevada City and back.

The backdrop as well as the staged bar photos used in fine art pieces by David Yarrow are located in Virginia City at the Pioneer bar.

Filmography

 * The film The Missouri Breaks (1976) was partly filmed in Virginia City.
 * The bar scenes in Little Big Man (1970) were filmed in the Bale of Hay Saloon, a landmark and watering hole in Virginia City.
 * Steven Seagal's film The Patriot (1998) was partly filmed in Virginia City.

Notable people

 * Sarah Bickford, African American businesswoman, former slave, and first African-American woman owner of a utility company in Montana
 * John Bozeman, prospector, merchant, founder of Bozeman, Montana, and the Bozeman Trail
 * Calamity Jane, resident for some time
 * Helen M. Duncan, geologist and paleontologist; grew up in Virginia City
 * Boone Helm, notorious gunfighter, serial killer and cannibal; hanged in Virginia City on January 14, 1864, and is buried in Boot Hill Cemetery
 * Hezekiah L. Hosmer, first Chief Justice of Montana Territory Supreme Court; held court here
 * Nathaniel P. Langford, prospector, vigilante and first superintendent of Yellowstone National Park
 * Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish nationalist, Civil War general, Secretary of State and acting governor of Montana Territory
 * Joseph Millard, later a U.S. senator from Nebraska; lived and opened a bank here
 * Wilbur F. Sanders, founding member of the Vigilance Committee and U.S. senator from Montana
 * George Laird Shoup, governor of Idaho; moved here after the Civil War
 * Jack Slade, Pony Express co-founder and gunfighter; lynched here
 * Sam V. Stewart, governor and Supreme Court justice of Montana; practiced law here
 * Nelson Story, prospector, merchant and cattleman, famous for 1866 cattle drive from Texas to Montana
 * Granville Stuart, prospector, vigilante, merchant; operated a store in Virginia City during the gold boom
 * William Boyce Thompson, founder of Newmont Mining; born here
 * A. A. Townsend, prospector, miner, farmer, captain of the Townsend Wagon Train who arrived in Virginia City on August 25, 1864

Geography
Virginia City is located in central Madison County at 45.29417°N, -111.94111°W (45.294107, -111.941230). Montana Highway 287 passes through town, leading east 14 mi to Ennis and northwest 28 mi to Twin Bridges. The town sits in Alder Gulch, between the Tobacco Root Mountains to the north and the Gravelly Range to the south.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.95 sqmi, all land. Via Alder Gulch, the town is in the watershed of the Ruby River, which flows northwest to the Beaverhead River and the Jefferson River.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Virginia City has a borderline humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) bordering on a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) and a subalpine climate (Dfc). The data below are from the Western Regional Climate Center over the years 1893 to 2016.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 190 people, 102 households, and 55 families residing in the town. The population density was 200.0 PD/sqmi. There were 171 housing units at an average density of 180.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 91.6% White, 0.5% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 7.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population.

There were 102 households, of which 17.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.1% were non-families. 42.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.86 and the average family size was 2.49.

The median age in the town was 51.3 years. 15.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.1% were from 25 to 44; 39.6% were from 45 to 64; and 18.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49.5% male and 50.5% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 130 people, 72 households, and 32 families residing in the town. The population density was 140.4 PD/sqmi. There were 122 housing units at an average density of 131.7 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 94.62% White, 2.31% Native American, 0.77% from other races, and 2.31% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population.

There were 72 households, out of which 18.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.3% were married couples living together, 1.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.2% were non-families. 47.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.81 and the average family size was 2.52.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 14.6% under the age of 18, 0.8% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 46.9% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 117.6 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $30,000, and the median income for a family was $46,250. Males had a median income of $37,500 versus $19,167 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,182. There are 5.7% of the population living below the poverty line, including those under eighteens and over 64.

Education
Thompson-Hickman County Library is a public library located in Virginia City.

title: Virginia City, Montana