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Russian literature

Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia, its émigrés, and to Russian-language literature. Major contributors to Russian literature, as well as English for instance, are authors of different ethnic origins, including bilingual writers, such as Kyrgyz novelist Chinghiz Aitmatov. At the same time, Russian-language literature does not include works by authors from the Russian Federation who write exclusively or primarily in the native languages of the indigenous non-Russian ethnic groups in Russia, thus the famous Dagestani poet Rasul Gamzatov is omitted.

The roots of Russian literature can be traced to the Early Middle Ages when Old Church Slavonic was introduced as a liturgical language and became used as a literary language. The native Russian vernacular remained the use within oral literature as well as written for decrees, laws, messages, chronicles, military tales, and so on. By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, and from the early 1830s, Russian literature underwent an astounding "Golden Age" in poetry, prose and drama. The Romantic movement contributed to a flowering of literary talent: poet Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Mikhail Lermontov was one of the most important poets and novelists. Nikolai Gogol and Ivan Turgenev wrote masterful short stories and novels. Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy became internationally renowned. Other important figures were Ivan Goncharov, Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin and Nikolai Leskov. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century is sometimes called the Silver Age of Russian poetry. The poets most often associated with the "Silver Age" are Konstantin Balmont, Valery Bryusov, Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Nikolay Gumilyov, Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Marina Tsvetaeva. This era produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin and Nobel Prize winners Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Fyodor Sologub, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Alexander Belyaev, Andrei Bely and Maxim Gorky.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. While the Soviet Union assured universal literacy and a highly developed book printing industry, it also established ideological censorship. In the 1930s Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figures were Nikolay Ostrovsky, Alexander Fadeyev and other writers, who laid the foundations of this style. Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most popular works of Russian Socrealist literature. Some writers, such as Mikhail Bulgakov, Andrei Platonov and Daniil Kharms were criticized and wrote with little or no hope of being published. Various émigré writers, such as poets Vladislav Khodasevich, Georgy Ivanov and Vyacheslav Ivanov; novelists such as Ivan Shmelyov, Gaito Gazdanov, Vladimir Nabokov and Bunin, continued to write in exile. Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, like Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Varlam Shalamov, who wrote about life in the gulag camps. The Khrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to literature and poetry became a mass cultural phenomenon. This "thaw" did not last long; in the 1970s, some of the most prominent authors were banned from publishing and prosecuted for their anti-Soviet sentiments.

The post-Soviet end of the 20th century was a difficult period for Russian literature, with few distinct voices. Among the most discussed authors of this period were novelists Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin, and the poet Dmitri Prigov. In the 21st century, a new generation of Russian authors appeared, differing greatly from the postmodernist Russian prose of the late 20th century, which led critics to speak about "new realism".

Russian authors have significantly contributed to numerous literary genres. Russia has five Nobel Prize in literature laureates. As of 2011, Russia was the fourth largest book producer in the world in terms of published titles. A popular folk saying claims Russians are "the world's most reading nation". As the American scholar Gary Saul Morson notes, "No country has ever valued literature more than Russia."

Medieval and early modern era

Scholars typically use the term Old Russian, in addition to the terms medieval Russian literature and early modern Russian literature, or pre-Petrian literature, to refer to Russian literature until the reforms of Peter the Great, tying literary development to historical periodization. The term is generally used to refer to all forms of literary activity in what is often called Old Russia from the 11th to 17th centuries.

Literary works from this period were often written in the Russian recension of Church Slavonic with varying amounts of the Russian or more broadly East Slavic vernacular. At the same time, the native Old Russian vernacular was not only language of oral literature, such as epic poems (bylina) or folksongs, but it was also perfectly legitimate as written for practical purposes, such as decrees, laws (the Russkaya Pravda, the 11th–12th century, and other codes), letters (for example, the unique pre-paper birch bark manuscripts, the 11th–15th centuries, in Old Novgorod dialect), ambassadorial messages, "in chronicles or military tales whose language is fundamentally the Russian vernacular."

Old Russian "bookish" literature traces its beginnings to the introduction of Old Church Slavonic in Kievan Rus' as a liturgical language in the late 10th century following Christianization. The East Slavs soon developed their own literature, and the oldest dated manuscript of Early Russian as well all-Slavic literature that has survived to this day is the Novgorod Codex or Novgorod Psalter written c. 1000, unearthed in 2000 at Veliky Novgorod, containing four wooden tablet pages filled with wax. Another earliest Russian book is the Ostromir Gospels written in 1056–1057, which belongs to the set of liturgical texts that were translated from other languages.

The main type of Old Russian historical literature were chronicles, most of them anonymous. The oldest one is the Primary Chronicle or Tale of Nestor the Chronicler (c. 1115). The oldest surviving manuscripts include the Laurentian Codex of 1377 and the Hypatian Codex dating to the 1420s. Anonymous works include The Tale of Igor's Campaign (a 12th century prose poem masterpiece) and Praying of Daniel the Immured. Hagiographies (жития святых) formed a popular literary genre in Old Russian literature. The first notable hagiographer was Nestor the Chronicler, who wrote about the lives of Boris and Gleb, the first saints of Kievan Rus', and the abbot Theodosius. The Life of Alexander Nevsky is a well-known example, which combines political realism and hagiographical ideals, and concentrates on the key events of Alexander Nevsky's political career. The earliest account of a pilgrimage is The Pilgrimage of the Abbot Daniel, which records the journey of Daniel the Traveller to the Holy Land. Complex epic works such as The Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan recall the havoc caused by the Mongol invasions. Other notable Russian literary works include Zadonschina, Physiologist, Synopsis and A Journey Beyond the Three Seas. Medieval Russian literature had an overwhelmingly religious character and used an adapted form of the Church Slavonic language with many South Slavic elements.

In the 16th century, reflecting the political centralization and unification of the country under the tsar, chronicles were updated and codified, the Russian Orthodox Church began issuing its decrees in the Stoglav, and a large compilation called the Great Menaion Reader collected both the more modern polemical texts and the hagiographical and patristic legacy of Old Russia. The Book of Royal Degrees codified the cult of the tsar, the Domostroy laid down the rules for family life, and other texts such as the History of Kazan were used to justify the actions of the tsar. The Tale of Peter and Fevronia were among the original tales of this period, and Russian tsar Ivan IV wrote some of most original works of 16th-century Russian literature. The Time of Troubles marked a turning point in Old Russian literature as both the church and state lost control over the written word, which are reflected in the texts of writers such as Avraamy Palitsyn who developed a literary technique for representing complex characters. In the 17th century, when bookmen from the Kiev Academy arrived in Moscow, they brought with them a culture heavily influenced by the educational system of the Polish Jesuits. Simeon of Polotsk created a new style which fused elements of ancient and contemporary Western European literature with traditional Russian rhetoric and the imperial ideology, which marked a key step in the Westernization of Russian literature. Syllabic poetry was also brought to Russia, and the work of Simeon of Polotsk was continued by Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin.

The Life of the Archpriest Avvakum—an outstanding novelty autobiography written by the one of leaders of the 17th-century religious dissidents Old Believers Avvakum—is considered masterpiece of pre-Petrian literature, which blends high Old Church Slavonic with low Russian vernacular and profanity without following literary canons.

18th century
After taking the throne at the end of the 17th century, Peter the Great's influence on the Russian culture would extend far into the 18th century. Peter's reign during the beginning of the 18th century initiated a series of modernizing changes in Russian literature. The reforms he implemented encouraged Russian artists and scientists to make innovations in their crafts and fields with the intention of creating an economy and culture comparable. Peter's example set a precedent for the remainder of the 18th century as Russian writers began to form clear ideas about the proper use and progression of the Russian language. Through their debates regarding versification of the Russian language and tone of Russian literature, the writers in the first half of the 18th century were able to lay foundation for the more poignant, topical work of the late 18th century.

Satirist Antiokh Dmitrievich Kantemir, 1708–1744, was one of the earliest Russian writers not only to praise the ideals of Peter I's reforms but the ideals of the growing Enlightenment movement in Europe. Kantemir's works regularly expressed his admiration for Peter, most notably in his epic dedicated to the emperor entitled Petrida. More often, however, Kantemir indirectly praised Peter's influence through his satiric criticism of Russia's "superficiality and obscurantism", which he saw as manifestations of the backwardness Peter attempted to correct through his reforms. Kantemir honored this tradition of reform not only through his support for Peter, but by initiating a decade-long debate on the proper syllabic versification using the Russian language.

Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, a poet, playwright, essayist, translator and contemporary to Antiokh Kantemir, also found himself deeply entrenched in Enlightenment conventions in his work with the Russian Academy of Sciences and his groundbreaking translations of French and classical works to the Russian language. A turning point in the course of Russian literature, his translation of Paul Tallemant's work Voyage to the Isle of Love, was the first to use the Russian vernacular as opposed the formal and outdated Church-Slavonic. This introduction set a precedent for secular works to be composed in the vernacular, while sacred texts would remain in Church-Slavonic. However, his work was often incredibly theoretical and scholarly, focused on promoting the versification of the language with which he spoke.

While Trediakovsky's approach to writing is often described as highly erudite, the young writer and scholarly rival to Trediakovsky, Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov, 1717–1777, was dedicated to the styles of French classicism. Sumarokov's interest in the form of the 17th-century French literature mirrored his devotion to the westernizing spirit of Peter the Great's age. Although he often disagreed with Trediakovsky, Sumarokov also advocated the use of simple, natural language in order to diversify the audience and make more efficient use of the Russian language. Like his colleagues and counterparts, Sumarokov extolled the legacy of Peter I, writing in his manifesto Epistle on Poetry, "The great Peter hurls his thunder from the Baltic shores, the Russian sword glitters in all corners of the universe". Peter the Great's policies of westernization and displays of military prowess naturally attracted Sumarokov and his contemporaries.

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, in particular, expressed his gratitude for and dedication to Peter's legacy in his unfinished Peter the Great, Lomonosov's works often focused on themes of the awe-inspiring, grandeur nature, and was therefore drawn to Peter because of the magnitude of his military, architectural and cultural feats. In contrast to Sumarokov's devotion to simplicity, Lomonosov favored a belief in a hierarchy of literary styles divided into high, middle and low. This style facilitated Lomonosov's grandiose, high minded writing and use of both vernacular and Church-Slavonic.

The influence of Peter I and debates over the function and form of literature as it related to the Russian language in the first half of the 18th century set a stylistic precedent for the writers during the reign of Catherine the Great in the second half of the century. However, the themes and scopes of the works these writers produced were often more poignant, political and controversial. Ippolit Bogdanovich's narrative poem Dushenka (1778) is rare sample of the Rococo style, erotic light poetry in Russia. Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev, for example, shocked the Russian public with his depictions of the socio-economic condition of the serfs. Empress Catherine II condemned this portrayal, forcing Radishchev into exile in Siberia.

Others, however, picked topics less offensive to the autocrat. the historian and writer Nikolay Karamzin, 1766–1826, the key figure of literary sentimentalism in Russia, for example, is known for his advocacy of Russian writers adopting traits in the poetry and prose like a heightened sense of emotion and physical vanity, considered to be feminine at the time as well as supporting the cause of female Russian writers. Karamzin's call for male writers to write with femininity was not in accordance with the Enlightenment ideals of reason and theory, considered masculine attributes. His works were thus not universally well received; however, they did reflect in some areas of society a growing respect for, or at least ambivalence toward, a female ruler in Catherine the Great. This concept heralded an era of regarding female characteristics in writing as an abstract concept linked with attributes of frivolity, vanity and pathos.

Some writers, on the other hand, were more direct in their praise for Catherine II. Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, famous for his odes, often dedicated his poems to Empress Catherine II. In contrast to most of his contemporaries, Derzhavin was highly devoted to his state; he served in the military, before rising to various roles in Catherine II's government, including secretary to the Empress and Minister of Justice. Unlike those who took after the grand style of Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov, Derzhavin was concerned with the minute details of his subjects.

Denis Fonvizin, an author primarily of comedy, approached the subject of the Russian nobility with an angle of critique. Fonvizin felt the nobility should be held to the standards they were under the reign of Peter the Great, during which the quality of devotion to the state was rewarded. His works criticized the current system for rewarding the nobility without holding them responsible for the duties they once performed. Using satire and comedy, Fonvizin supported a system of nobility in which the elite were rewarded based upon personal merit rather than the hierarchal favoritism that was rampant during Catherine the Great's reign.

Golden Age

The 19th century is traditionally referred to as the "Golden Era" of Russian literature. Romantic literature permitted a flowering of especially poetic talent: the names of Vasily Zhukovsky and later that of his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore. Pushkin is credited with both crystallizing the literary Russian language and introducing a new level of artistry to Russian literature. His best-known work is a pre-realistic novel in verse, Eugene Onegin (1833). For early Romanticism are also important the figures of poets Konstantin Batyushkov, Yevgeny Baratynsky and Fyodor Tyutchev, and novelists Antony Pogorelsky, Alexander Bestuzhev and "Russian Hoffmann" Vladimir Odoyevsky. Tyutchev is best known for the following verse: "Who would grasp Russia with the mind? For her no yardstick was created: Her soul is of a special kind, By faith alone appreciated."

An entire new generation of Romantics followed in Pushkin's steps including poets and prose writers, at first, Mikhail Lermontov, who written narrative poem Demon, 1829–39, described the love of a Byronic Demon for a mortal woman, known for the first Russian psychological novel A Hero of Our Time (1841), and also Aleksey K. Tolstoy and Afanasy Fet.

New realistic prose was flourishing as well. The first great Russian novel was Dead Souls (1842) by Nikolai Gogol. The realistic Natural School of fiction is said to have begun with Ivan Goncharov, mainly remembered for his novel Oblomov (1859), and Ivan Turgenev. Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as F. R. Leavis have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever. Tolstoy's Christian anarchism can be represented by following quote:

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Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin is known for his grotesque satire, and the satirical chronicle The History of a Town (1870) and the family saga The Golovlyov Family (1880) are considered his masterpieces. Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction and for his unique skaz techniques. Late in the century Anton Chekhov emerged as a master of the short story as well as a leading international dramatist.

Other important 19th-century developments included the father of Russian social realism poetry school, known for the sharp epic poem Who Can Be Happy and Free in Russia? Nikolay Nekrasov; the fabulist Ivan Krylov; the precursor of Naturalism Aleksey Pisemsky; non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky and the political reformer Alexander Herzen; playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov, Aleksandr Ostrovsky, Alexander Sukhovo-Kobylin and the satirist Kozma Prutkov (a collective pen name).

Silver Age
The 1890s and the beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian poetry. Well-known poets of the period include: Alexander Blok, Sergei Yesenin, Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, Mikhail Kuzmin, Igor Severyanin, Sasha Chorny, Nikolay Gumilyov, Maximilian Voloshin, Innokenty Annensky, Zinaida Gippius. The poets most often associated with the "Silver Age" are Anna Akhmatova, Marina Tsvetaeva, Osip Mandelstam, and Boris Pasternak.

The Russian symbolism was the first Silver Age development in the 1890s. It arose enough separately from West European symbolism, emphasizing mysticism of Sophiology and defamiliarization. Its most significant figures included philosopher and poet Vladimir Solovyov (1953–1900), poets and writers Valery Bryusov (1973–1924), Fyodor Sologub (1963–1927), Vyacheslav Ivanov (1966–1949), Konstantin Balmont (1967–1942), and figures of the new wave generation Alexander Blok (1980–1921) with Andrei Bely (1980–1934).

The New Peasant Poets was the conditional collective name of a group of peasant origin and country poetry trend (Nikolai Klyuev, Pyotr Oreshin, Alexander Shiryaevets, Sergei Klychkov, Sergei Yesenin).

While the Silver Age is considered to be the development of the 19th-century Russian Golden Age literature tradition, some modernist and avant-garde poets tried to overturn it. Most prominent their movements: the Cubo-Futurism with practice of zaum, the experimental visual and sound poetry (David Burliuk, Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksei Kruchenykh, Nikolai Aseyev, Vladimir Mayakovsky); the Ego-Futurism based on a personality cult (Igor Severyanin and Vasilisk Gnedov); and the Acmeist poetry, a Russian modernist school, which emerged ca. 1911 and to symbols preferred direct expression through exact images (Anna Akhmatova, Nikolay Gumilev, Georgiy Ivanov, Mikhail Kuzmin, Osip Mandelstam).

Though the Silver Age is famous mostly for its poetry, it produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as naturalist Aleksandr Kuprin, realists Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin and Vikenty Veresaev, pioneer of Russian expressionism Leonid Andreyev, symbolists Fedor Sologub, Aleksey Remizov, Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Andrei Bely, Alexander Belyaev, and Yevgeny Zamyatin, though most of them wrote poetry as well as prose.

In 1915/16, the school of Russian Formalism, wary of the futurists and highly influential for the global theory of literary criticism and poetics, appeared; its programmatic article The Resurrection of the Word by the scholar and writer Viktor Shklovsky (1893–1984) was published in 1914, and the peak of activity occurred in the post-revolutionary '20s.

An integral part of the literature of the Silver Age is Russian philosophy, which reached its peak at this time (see works of Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and others).

Early post-Revolutionary era
The first years of the Soviet regime after the October Revolution of 1917, featured a proliferation of Russian avant-garde literary groups, and proletarian literature receive official support. The Imaginists were post-Revolution poetic movement, similar to English-language Imagists, that created poetry based on sequences of arresting and uncommon images. The major figures include Sergei Yesenin, Anatoly Marienhof, and Rurik Ivnev. Another important movement was the Oberiu (1927–1930s), which included the most famous Russian absurdist Daniil Kharms (1905–1942), Konstantin Vaginov (1899–1934), Alexander Vvedensky (1904–1941) and Nikolay Zabolotsky (1903–1958). Other famous authors experimenting with language included the novelists Yuri Olesha (1899–1960), Andrei Platonov (1899–1951) and Boris Pilnyak (1894–1938) and the short-story writers Isaak Babel (1894–1940) and Mikhail Zoshchenko (1894–1958). The OPOJAZ group of literary critics, a part of Russian formalism school, was founded in 1916 in close connection with Russian Futurism. Two of its members also produced influential literary works, namely Viktor Shklovsky, whose numerous books (A Sentimental Journey and Zoo, or Letters Not About Love, both 1923) defy genre in that they present a novel mix of narration, autobiography, and aesthetic as well as social commentary, and Yury Tynyanov (1893–1943), who used his knowledge of Russia's literary history to produce a set of historical novels mainly set in the Pushkin era (e.g., Lieutenant Kijé, Pushkin in three parts, 1935–43, and others).

Following the establishment of Bolshevik rule, Vladimir Mayakovsky worked on interpreting the facts of the new reality. His works, such as "Ode to the Revolution" and "Left March" (both 1918), brought innovations to poetry. In "Left March", Mayakovsky calls for a struggle against the enemies of the Russian Revolution. The poem 150 000 000 (1921) discusses the leading role played by the masses in the revolution. In the poem Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1924), Mayakovsky looks at the life and work at the leader of Russia's revolution and depicts them against a broad historical background. In the poem All Right! (1927), Mayakovsky writes about socialist society as the "springtime of humanity". Mayakovsky was instrumental in producing a new type of poetry in which politics played a major part.

One of most popular Soviet poets during the 1920s was Nikolai Tikhonov (1896–1979), a future important figure of Stalinist era, well-known for his Ballad About Nails, as follows: "Could nails from such people be fashioned, you’d see That no tougher nails in the world would there be."

Émigré writers
Usually, Russian émigré literature is understood as the works of the white émigré, namely the first post-Revolutionary wave, although in the broad sense of the word, it also includes Soviet dissidents of the late years through the 1980s. Meanwhile, émigré writers, such as poets Georgy Ivanov, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Vladislav Khodasevich, and members of the 1920s–50s Paris Note (French: Note parisienne) Russian poetry movement (Georgy Adamovich, Igor Chinnov, George Ivask, Anatoly Shteiger, Lidia Tcherminskaia); novelists such as M. Ageyev, Mark Aldanov, Gaito Gazdanov, Pyotr Krasnov, Aleksandr Kuprin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Aleksey Remizov, Ivan Shmelyov, George Grebenstchikoff, Vladimir Nabokov, and English-speaking Ayn Rand; and short-story Nobel Prize-winning writer and poet Ivan Bunin, continued to write in exile. During his emigration Bunin wrote his most significant works, such as his only autobiographical novel The Life of Arseniev (1927–1939) and short story cycle Dark Avenues (1937–1944). An example of long prose form is Grebenstchikoff's epic novel The Churaevs in six volumes (1922–1937) in which he described life of the Siberians. While the realists Bunin, Shmelyov and Grebenstchikoff wrote about the pre-revolutionary Russia, life of the émigrés was depicted in modernist Nabokov's Mary (1926) and The Gift (1938), Gazdanov's An Evening with Claire (1929) and The Specter of Alexander Wolf (1948) and Georgy Ivanov's novel Disintegration of the Atom (1938).

Stalinist era
In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant official trend in the Soviet Union. Writers like those of the Serapion Brothers group (1921–), who insisted on the right of an author to write independently of political ideology, were forced by authorities to reject their views and accept socialist realist principles. Some 1930s writers, such as Osip Mandelstam, Daniil Kharms, leader of Oberiu, Leonid Dobychin, Mikhail Bulgakov, author of The White Guard (1923) and The Master and Margarita (1928–1940), and Andrei Platonov, author of novels Chevengur (1928) and The Foundation Pit (1930) were attacked by the official critics as "formalists," "naturalists" and ideological enemies and wrote with little or no hope of being published. Such remarkable writers as Isaac Babel, Boris Pilnyak, Nikolai Klyuev, Sergey Klychkov and Pyotr Oreshin, who continued to publish their works but could not get used to the socrealist principles by the end of the 1930s, were executed on fabricated charges, and Osip Mandelstam, Daniil Kharms and Alexander Vvedensky died in prison.

The return from emigration such famous authors as Aleksey Tolstoy, Maxim Gorky, and Ilya Ehrenburg was a major propaganda victory for the Soviets.

After his return to Russia Maxim Gorky was proclaimed by the Soviet authorities as "the founder of Socialist Realism". His novel Mother (1906), which Gorky himself considered one of his biggest failures, inspired proletarian writers to found the socrealist movement. Gorky defined socialist realism as the "realism of people who are rebuilding the world" and pointed out that it looks at the past "from the heights of the future's goals", although he defined it not as a strict style (which is studied in Andrei Sinyavsky's essay On Socialist Realism), but as a label for the "union of writers of styles", who write for one purpose, to help in the development of the new man in socialist society. Gorky became the initiator of creating the Writer's Union, a state organization, intended to unite the socrealist writers. Despite the official reputation, Gorky's post-revolutionary works, such as the novel The Life of Klim Samgin (1925–1936) can't be defined as socrealist, but modernist.

Andrei Bely (1880–1934), author of Petersburg (1913/1922), a well-known modernist writer, also was a member of Writer's Union and tried to become a "true" socrealist by writing a series of articles and making ideological revisions to his memoirs, and he also planned to begin a study of Socialist realism. However, he continued writing with his unique techniques. Although he was actively published during his lifetime, his major works would not be reissued until the end of the 1970s.

Mikhail Sholokhov (1905–1984) was one of the most significant figures in the official Soviet literature. His main socrealist work is Virgin Soil Upturned (1935), a novel in which Sholokhov glorifies the collectivization. However, his best-known and the most significant literary achievement is Quiet Flows the Don (1928–1940), an epic novel which realistically depicts the life of Don Cossacks during the First World War, the Russian Revolution, and Russian Civil War.

Nikolai Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered (1932–1934) has been among the most popular works of literary socrealism, with tens of millions of copies printed in many languages around the world. In China, various versions of the book have sold more than 10 million copies. In Russia more than 35 million copies of the book are in circulation. The book is a fictionalized autobiography of Ostrovsky's life: he had a difficult working-class childhood, became a Komsomol member in July 1919 and volunteered to join the Red Army. The novel's protagonist, Pavel Korchagin, represented the "young hero" of Russian literature: he is dedicated to his political causes, which help him to overcome his tragedies. Alexander Fadeyev (1901–1956) was also a well-known Socialist realism writer, the chairman of the official Writer's Union during Stalinist era. His novel The Rout (1927) deals with the partisan struggle in Russia's Far East during the Russian Revolution and Civil War of 1917–1922. Fadeyev described the theme of this novel as one of a revolution significantly transforming the masses.

In the 1930s, Konstantin Paustovsky (1892–1968), an influenced by neo-Romantic works of Alexander Grin master of landscape prose, a singer of the Meshchera Lowlands, and already in the post-Stalin years a multiple nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature, joined the ranks of leading Soviet writers.fantastic.

Novelist and playwright Leonid Leonov, despite the fact that he was considered by authorities to be one of the pillars of socialist realism, during the Stalin years, created a forbidden novella about emigrats Eugenua Ivanovna (1938), a play about the Chekist purges, The Snowstorm (1940), briefly permitted and then also forbidden, and a novel, The Russian Forest (1953), where ecological issues were perhaps touched upon for the first time in Soviet literature. Over the course of forty years (1940–1994), he wrote a huge philosophical and mystical novel, "The Pyramid", which was finished and published in the year of the author's death.

The cult figures of the literature of the Second World War were the war poets Konstantin Simonov, arguably most famous for his 1941 poem Wait for Me, and Aleksandr Tvardovsky, author of the long poem Vasily Tyorkin (1941–45), chief editor of the literary magazine Novy Mir. Poet Yulia Drunina known for writing about women at war.

Boris Polevoy is the author of the Story About a True Man (1946), based on the life of World War II fighter pilot Aleksey Maresyev, which was an immensely popular.

Late Soviet era
After the end of World War II Nobel Prize-winning Boris Pasternak (1890–1960) wrote a novel Doctor Zhivago (1945–1955). Publication of the novel in Italy caused a scandal, as the Soviet authorities forced Pasternak to renounce his 1958 Nobel Prize and denounced as an internal White emigre and a Fascist fifth columnist. Pasternak was expelled from the Writer's Union.

The majority of members of the Writers' Union (Georgi Markov, Anatoly Rybakov, Aleksandr Chakovsky, Sergey Zalygin, Anatoly Kalinin, Daniil Granin, Yuri Nagibin, Yury Trifonov, Chinghiz Aitmatov, Anatoly Ivanov, Pyotr Proskurin, Boris Yekimov, among many others) continued to work in the mainstream of Socialist Realism, not without criticizing certain phenomena of Soviet reality, such as showiness, mismanagement, nepotism, and widespread poaching. However, even in officially recognized literature, not entirely canonical movements of the poet-sixtiers, Lieutenant and Village Prose appear.

The Khrushchev Thaw (c. 1954) brought some fresh wind to literature (the term was coined after Ilya Ehrenburg's 1954 novel The Thaw). Published in 1956, Vladimir Dudintsev's novel Not by Bread Alone and Yury Dombrovsky's The Keeper of Antiquities in 1964 became two of the main literary events of the Thaw and a milestone in the process of de-Stalinization, but was soon criticized and withdrawn from circulation. The last years of life were fruitful for Nikolay Zabolotsky, who was repressed during the Stalin years. The publication in 1962 of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's debut story One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich about a political prisoner became a national and international sensation. Poetry of the Sixtiers or Russian New Wave became a mass-cultural phenomenon: Bella Akhmadulina, Boris Slutsky, Victor Sosnora, Robert Rozhdestvensky, Andrei Voznesensky, and Yevgeny Yevtushenko, read their poems in stadiums and attracted huge crowds, as follows: "I don’t know about the rest of you, but I feel the cruelest nostalgia — not for the past — but nostalgia for the present." Arseny Tarkovsky, Gleb Gorbovsky, bard Novella Matveyeva, Nikolay Rubtsov, Oleg Chukhontsev and Gleb Semenov's lyrical poetry also stood apart from the socrealist mainstream.

The Village Prose was a movement in Soviet literature beginning during the Khrushchev Thaw, which included works that cultivated nostalgia of rural life. Valentin Ovechkin's story District Routine (1952), expose managerial inefficiency, the self-interest of party functionaries, was the starting point of the movement. Its major members Alexander Yashin, Fyodor Abramov, Boris Mozhayev, Viktor Astafyev, Vladimir Soloukhin, Vasily Shukshin, Vasily Belov, and Valentin Rasputin clustered in the traditionalist and nationalist Nash Sovremennik literary magazine.

Since 1985/86, the Perestroika—a period of great changes in the political and cultural life in the USSR—gave way to a wide diversity of banned previously and new writings. In 1986 there was established the legal non-Realistic literary club "Poetry", among its members were Dmitry Prigov, Igor Irtenyev, Aleksandr Yeryomenko, Sergey Gandlevsky, and Yuri Arabov. Many previously suppressed works were published among first, in 1986–87, anti-Stalinist Alexander Bek's novel The New Appointment (1965) and Anatoly Rybakov's Children of the Arbat trilogy.

Soviet nonconformism
Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, like short-story writer Varlam Shalamov (1907–1982) and Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), who wrote about life in the gulag camps, or Vasily Grossman (1905–1964), with his description of World War II events countering the Soviet official historiography (his epic novel Life and Fate (1959) was not published in the Soviet Union until the perestroika). Such writers, dubbed "dissidents", could not publish their major works until the 1960s.

Modernist and Postmodern dissident literature was related and partially coincided with the Soviet nonconformist art movement. Some poets were both artists or participants and inspirers of art groups, such as Evgenii Kropivnitsky (1893–1979), Igor Kholin, Genrikh Sapgir, Vilen Barskyi (1930–2012), Roald Mandelstam (1932–1961), Vsevolod Nekrasov (1934–2009), Igor Sinyavin (1937–2000), Alexei Khvostenko (1940–2004), Dmitry Prigov (1940–2007), Kari Unksova (1941–1983), Ry Nikonova (1942–2014), Oleg Grigoriev (1943–1992), Valery Kholodenko (1945–1993), Serge Segay (1947–2014), and Vladimir Sorokin (b. 1955).

But the late 1950s thaw did not last long. In the 1970s, some of the most prominent authors were not only banned from publishing but were also prosecuted for their anti-Soviet sentiments, or for parasitism, thus writers Yuli Daniel (1925–1988) and Leonid Borodin (1938–2011) was imprisoned. Solzhenitsyn and Nobel Prize–winning poet Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996) were expelled from the country. Others, such as writers and poets David Dar (1910–1980), Viktor Nekrasov (1911–1987), Lev Kopelev (1912–1997), Aleksandr Galich (1918–1977), Arkadiy Belinkov (1921–1970), Alexander Zinoviev (1922–2006), Naum Korzhavin (1925–2018), Andrei Sinyavsky (1925–1997), Anatoly Kuznetsov (1929–1979), Vilen Barskyi, Georgi Vladimov (1931–2003), Vasily Aksyonov (1932–2009), Vladimir Voinovich (1932–2018), Anatoly Gladilin (1935–2018), Anri Volokhonsky (1936–2017), Andrei Bitov (1937–2018), Igor Sinyavin, Alexei Khvostenko, Sergei Dovlatov (1941–1990), Eduard Limonov (1943–2020), and Sasha Sokolov (b. 1943), had to emigrate to the West, while Oleg Grigoriev and Venedikt Yerofeyev (1938–1990) "emigrated" to alcoholism, and repressed still in Stalinist years poet Yury Aikhenvald (1928–1993) with some others to translations, and Kari Unksova and Yury Dombrovsky (1909–1978) were murdered, Dombrovsky shortly after publishing his novel The Faculty of Useless Knowledge (1975). Their books were not published officially until the perestroika period of the 1980s, although fans continued to reprint them manually in a manner called "samizdat" (self-publishing).

In 1960s arose unofficial Soviet Second Russian Avant-Garde and Russian postmodernism. In 1965–72, at Leningrad existed the avantgardist Absurdist poetic and writing group "Khelenkuts", which included Vladimir Erl and Aleksandr Mironov, among others. Andrei Bitov was Postmodernism first proponent. In 1970, Venedikt Erofeyev's surrealist postmodern prose poem Moscow-Petushki was published via samizdat. The Soviet emigrant Sasha Sokolov wrote in 1980 the completely postmodern novel Between Dog and Wolf. Since 70s there were such postmodern unofficial movements as Moscow Conceptualists with elements of concrete poetry (Vsevolod Nekrasov, Dmitry Prigov, Lev Rubinstein, Timur Kibirov, early Vladimir Sorokin) and Metarealism, namely metaphysical realism, used complex metaphors which they called meta-metaphors (Konstantin Kedrov, Viktor Krivulin, Elena Katsyuba, Ivan Zhdanov, Elena Shvarts, Vladimir Aristov, Aleksandr Yeryomenko, Yuri Arabov, Alexei Parshchikov). Arkadii Dragomoshchenko is considered the foremost representative of the Language Poets in Russian literature. In Yeysk, there was the "Transfurist" group of mixing verbal, sound and visual poetry (Ry Nikonova and Serge Segay, among others). The bunned from publishing Chuvash and Russian poet Gennadiy Aygi had been created experimental surrealist verses as follows:

"And we utter a few words — simply because we’re scared of silence and deem any movement dangerous"

Popular Soviet genres
Children's literature in the Soviet Union counted as a major genre because of its educational role. A large share of early-Soviet children's books were poems: Korney Chukovsky (1882–1969), Samuil Marshak (1887–1964) and Agnia Barto (1906–1981) were among the most read poets. "Adult" poets, such as Mayakovsky and Sergey Mikhalkov (1913–2009), contributed to the genre as well. Some of the early Soviet children's prose consisted of loose adaptations of foreign fairy-tales unknown in contemporary Russia. Alexey N. Tolstoy (1882–1945) wrote Buratino, a light-hearted and shortened adaptation of Carlo Collodi's Pinocchio. Alexander Volkov (1891–1977) introduced fantasy fiction to Soviet children with his loose translation of L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, published as The Wizard of the Emerald City in 1939, and then wrote a series of five sequels, unrelated to Baum. Other notable authors include Nikolay Nosov (1908–1976), Lazar Lagin (1903–1979), Vitaly Bianki (1894–1959) and Vladimir Suteev (1903–1993).

While fairy tales were relatively free from ideological oppression, the realistic children's prose of the Stalinist era was highly ideological and pursued the goal to raise children as patriots and communists. A notable writer in this vein was Arkady Gaydar (1904–1941), himself a Red Army commander (colonel) in Russian Civil War: his stories and plays about Timur describe a team of young pioneer volunteers who help the elderly and resist hooligans. There was a genre of hero-pioneer story that bore some similarities with Christian genre of hagiography. In the times of Khrushchov (First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964) and of Brezhnev (in power 1966–1982), however, the pressure lightened. Mid- and late-Soviet children's books by Eduard Uspensky, Yuri Entin, Viktor Dragunsky bear no signs of propaganda. In the 1970s many of these books, as well as stories by foreign children's writers, were adapted into animation.

The famous and widely popular satirists were Mikhail Zoshchenko and the writing tandem Ilf and Petrov, discribed problems of post-Revolutionary Soviet society.

Soviet Science fiction, inspired by scientistic revolution, industrialisation, and the country's space pioneering, was flourishing, albeit in the limits allowed by censors. Early science fiction authors, such as Alexander Belyaev, Grigory Adamov, Vladimir Obruchev, Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, stuck to hard science fiction and regarded H. G. Wells and Jules Verne as examples to follow. Two notable exceptions to this trend were early Soviet dissidents Yevgeny Zamyatin, author of dystopian novel We, and Mikhail Bulgakov, who used science fiction in Heart of a Dog, The Fatal Eggs and Ivan Vasilyevich to satirize Communist ideology vs. what it is actual practice. Like the dissident writers of the future, Zamyatin and Bulgakov had serious problems with publishing their books due to censorship in the Soviet Union.

Since the Khrushchev thaw in the 1950s, Soviet science fiction began to form its own style. Philosophy, ethics, utopian and dystopian ideas became its core, and Social science fiction was the most popular subgenre. Although the view of Earth's future as that of utopian communist society was the only view that was welcome, the liberties of genre still offered a loophole for free expression. Books of brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, and Kir Bulychev, among others, are reminiscent of social problems and often include satire of contemporary Soviet society. Ivan Yefremov, on the contrary, arose to fame with his utopian views on future as well as on Ancient Greece in his historical novels. The Strugatskies are also credited for the Soviet's first science fantasy, the Monday Begins on Saturday trilogy. Other notable science fiction writers included Vladimir Savchenko, Georgy Gurevich, Alexander Kazantsev, Georgy Martynov, Yeremey Parnov. Space opera was less developed, since both state censors and serious writers watched it unfavorably. Nevertheless, there were moderately successful attempts to adapt space westerns to Soviet soil. The first was Alexander Kolpakov with "Griada", after came Sergey Snegov with "Men Like Gods", among others.

A specific branch of both science fiction and children's books appeared in mid-Soviet era: the children's science fiction. It was meant to educate children while entertaining them. The star of the genre was Bulychov, who, along with his adult books, created children's space adventure series about Alisa Selezneva, a teenage girl from the future. Others include Nikolay Nosov with his books about dwarf Neznayka, Evgeny Veltistov, who wrote about robot boy Electronic, Vitaly Melentyev, Vladislav Krapivin, Vitaly Gubarev.

Mystery was another popular genre. Detectives by Vayner Brothers and spy novels by Yulian Semyonov were best-selling, and many of them were adapted into film or TV in the 1970s and 1980s.

Village Prose is a genre that conveys nostalgic descriptions of rural life. Valentin Rasputin's 1976 novel, Proshchaniye s Matyoroy (Farewell to Matyora) depicted a village faced with destruction to make room for a hydroelectric plant.

Historical fiction in the early Soviet era included a large share of memoirs, fictionalized or not. Valentin Katayev and Lev Kassil wrote semi-autobiographic books about children's life in Tsarist Russia. Vladimir Gilyarovsky wrote Moscow and Muscovites, about life in pre-revolutionary Moscow. There were also attempts to write an epic novel about the Revolution, similar to Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, based on the writers' own experience. Aleksey Tolstoy's The Road to Calvary (1920–1941) and Mikhail Sholokhov's And Quiet Flows the Don (1928–1940) depict Russia from the start of the Revolution to the end of the Civil War. The Road to Calvary demonstrates the victory of socialist ideas, while And Quiet Flows the Don gives a realist and a brutal image. Maxim Gorky's and Andrei Bely's experimental novels The Life of Klim Samgin (1925–1936) and Moscow (1926–1931) trace the relationship of Russian intelligentsia with the revolutionary movement. Mikhail Bulgakov conceived to write a trilogy about the Civil War, but wrote only the first part, The White Guard (1923). Yury Tynyanov focused on fictional biographies of the Golden Age writers: The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar (1928) and Pushkin (1935–1943). The late Soviet historical fiction was dominated by World War II novels and short stories by authors such as the representatives of Lieutenant prose (such as Vasil Bykov), Vasily Grossman, Konstantin Simonov, Boris Vasilyev, Viktor Astafyev, among others, based on the authors' own war experience. Vasily Yan and Konstantin Badygin are best known for their novels on Medieval Rus, and Yury Tynyanov for writing on Russian Empire. Valentin Pikul wrote about many different epochs and countries in an Alexander Dumas-inspired style. In the 1970s there appeared a relatively independent Village Prose, whose most prominent representatives were Viktor Astafyev and Valentin Rasputin.

Any sort of fiction that dealt with the occult, either horror, adult-oriented fantasy or magic realism, was unwelcome in Soviet Russia. Until the 1980s very few books in these genres were written, and even fewer were published, although earlier books, such as by Gogol, were not banned. Of the rare exceptions, Bulgakov in Master and Margarita (not published in author's lifetime) and Strugatskies in Monday Begins on Saturday introduced magic and mystical creatures into contemporary Soviet reality to satirize it. Another exception was early Soviet writer Alexander Grin, who wrote neo-Romantic tales, both realistic and fantastic.

Post-Soviet 1990s
The end of the 20th century, de facto since 1989 in the Soviet Union, proved a difficult period for Russian literature, with relatively few distinct voices. Although the censorship was lifted and writers could now freely express their thoughts, the political and economic chaos of the 1990s affected the book market and literature heavily. The book printing industry descended into crisis, the number of printed book copies dropped several times in comparison to Soviet era, and it took about a decade to revive.

Among the most discussed figures of this period were authors Victor Pelevin (b. 1962), disputably related to postmodernism and the New Sincerity movement, who is author of the Zen-inspired Chapayev and the Void, "the first novel which takes place in an absolute vacuum," postmodernist novelist and playwright Vladimir Sorokin (b. 1955, the novels Their Four Hearts and Blue Lard), who started an underground writing career still in the early 80s, and the conceptualist poet Dmitry Prigov (1940–2007).

The tradition of the classic Russian realistic novel continues with such authors as Vasily Aksyonov (1932–2009, the trilogy Generations of Winter) and Mikhail Shishkin (b. 1961, a novel The Taking of Izmail). A relatively new trend in Russian literature is that female short story writers Tatyana Tolstaya or Lyudmila Petrushevskaya, and novelists Lyudmila Ulitskaya or Dina Rubina have come into prominence. Short stories of Sergei Dovlatov who emigrated to the US in 1979 and died in 1990 became very popular in Russia posthumously.

Detective stories and thrillers have proven a very successful genre of new Russian literature: in the 1990s serial detective novels by Alexandra Marinina, Polina Dashkova and Darya Dontsova were published in millions of copies. In the next decade Boris Akunin who wrote more sophisticated popular fiction, e.g. a series of novels about the 19th century sleuth Erast Fandorin, was eagerly read across the country.

Science fiction was always well selling, albeit second to fantasy, that was relatively new to Russian readers. These genres boomed in the late 1990s, with authors like Sergey Lukyanenko, Nick Perumov, Maria Semenova, Vera Kamsha, Alexey Pekhov, Anton Vilgotsky and Vadim Panov. A good share of modern Russian science fiction and fantasy is written in Ukraine, especially in Kharkiv, home to H. L. Oldie, Alexander Zorich, Yuri Nikitin and Andrey Valentinov. Many others hail from Kyiv, including Marina and Sergey Dyachenko and Vladimir Arenev. Significant contribution to Russian horror literature has been done by Ukrainians Andrey Dashkov and Alexander Vargo.

Russian poetry of that period produced a number of avant-garde greats. The Moscow Conceptualists and followers of Concrete poetry, such as mentioned Dmitry Prigov, Lev Rubinstein, Anna Alchuk and Timur Kibirov, and the members of the Lianosovo group of nonconformist poets, notably Genrikh Sapgir, Igor Kholin and Vsevolod Nekrasov, who previously chose to refrain from publication in Soviet periodicals, became very influential, especially in Moscow, and the same goes for another masterful experimental neo-surrealist Chuvash and Russian poet, Gennadiy Aygi. Also popular were poets following some other poetic trends, e.g. Vladimir Aristov and Ivan Zhdanov from Poetry Club and Konstantin Kedrov and Elena Katsuba from DOOS, Yuri Arabov, Alexei Parshchikov and other representatives of the 1970–80s Metarealism, who all used complex metaphors which they called meta-metaphors; in St. Petersburg, members of New Leningrad Poetry School that included not only the famous Joseph Brodsky but also Viktor Krivulin, Sergey Stratanovsky and Elena Shvarts, were prominent first in the Soviet-times underground—and later in mainstream poetry;  emerged in 1992, the Meloimaginist group related to previous Imaginism and included such poets and novelists as Russian-Irish bilingual Anatoly Kudryavitsky and Ludmila Vaturina; among other names, poet and writer Nikolaĭ Baĭtov, the Russian-German poet and scholar Sergey Biryukov with futurist and surrealist background, Irina Iermakova, Vitaly Kalpidi, Svetlana Kekova, the Russian-American poet and scholar Lev Loseff, and Vera Pavlova. Notable poets of younger generation are the 1980s underground surrealist author Dimitry Grigoriev (b. 1960), Elena Fanailova (b. 1962), Dmitry Kuzmin (b. 1968), Asya Shneiderman (b. 1968), Maxim Amelin (b. 1970), activist Alina Vitukhnovskaya (b. 1973), Inga Kuznetsova (b. 1974), Boris Ryzhy (1974–2001), and Polina Barskova (b. 1976).

21st century

At the beginning of the 21st century, Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin remained the leading and prolific Russian writers. Pelevin became the most extensively translated one into English. Also significant are the new works of Boris Akunin (adventure fiction), Lyudmila Ulitskaya (the Daniel Stein, Interpreter, a novel about the Holocaust and interreligious relations), and Mikhali Shishkin (the novel Maidenhair).

Among the debutants in prose are Eduard Kochergin (b. 1937) with his novels Angel's Doll and Baptized with Crosses, Alexei Ivanov (b. 1969) known for his novel The Heart of Parma, a Russian-Israeli writer and poet in the philosophical-symbolic vein Alexander Ilichevsky (b. 1970), who wrote The Persian and the Newton's Drawing,  the author of novel The Librarian Mikhail Elizarov (b. 1973), and German Sadulaev (b. 1973) with the book I am a Chechen! In the second decade of the century, the following novelists gained fame: Eugene Vodolazkin (b. 1964) for The Laurus (one of ten best world novels about God by The Guardian version), Sofia Sinitskaya (b. 1972), the author of the neutral novel Black Siberia on Russo-Ukrainian War, and Alexei Salnikov (b. 1978) for his hallucinatory The Petrovs in and Around the Flu (regarded as a rare outstanding text). In the form of popular fiction, post-apocalyptic novels of Dmitry Glukhovsky (b. 1979) are successful.

Almost all of the authors named criticized Putinism and left Russia. After 2022, they have been "canceled" and their books have been withdrawn from a number of Russian booksellers. Examples of active supporters of the political regime among eminent writers are poet Yunna Morits (b. 1937) and nationalists Alexander Prokhanov (b. 1938), Yuri Poliakov (b. 1954) Pavel Krusanov (b. 1961) and Zakhar Prilepin (b. 1975).

A new generation of Russian authors appeared, differing greatly from the postmodernist Russian prose of the late 20th century, which led critics to speak about "new realism" as one of several contemporary literary trends (Pavel Basinsky (b. 1961), Aleksey Varlamov (b. 1963), Alexei Ivanov, Oleg Pavlov (1970–2018), Andrei Ivanov (b. 1971), Roman Senchin (b. 1971), German Sadulaev, Zakhar Prilepin, and others).

The treasury of Russian poetry has been replenished with works by both senior masters, like Oleg Chukhontsev (b. 1938), and such debutants as Natalia Azarova (b. 1956), Vsevolod Emelin (b. 1959), Sergei Kruglov (b. 1966), Mikhail Gronas (b. 1970), Vlad Malenko (b. 1971), Kirill Medvedev (b. 1975), Victor Ivaniv (1977–2015), Eugenia Rits (b. 1977), Ekaterina Simonova (b. 1977), Anna Zolotaryova (b. 1978), Vasily Borodin (1982–2021), Vera Polozkova (b. 1986), Galina Rymbu (b. 1990), Daria Serenko (b. 1993), and Maria Malinovskaya (b. 1994).

Two new literary prizes were established and became influential: the Big Book and the National Bestseller.

List of movements
The following is a list of international and regiinal literary movements, those represented in Russian literature. Their notable members ordering is predominantly by precedence.

Russian Nobel laureates in Literature
• # Ivan Bunin (1933)

• # Boris Pasternak (1958)

• # Mikhail Sholokhov (1965)

• # Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1970)

• # Joseph Brodsky (1987)

Anthologies

 * Accursed Poets: Dissident Poetry from Soviet Russia 1960–80. Ed. and trans. by Anatoly Kudryavitsky. Thirsk, UK: Smokestack Books, 2020. ISBN 978-1-9161-3929-9.
 * [ An Anthology of Jewish-Russian Literature: Two Centuries of Dual Identity in Prose and Poetry, 1801–2001]. 2 vols. Ed., selec., and cotrans. with introd. essays by Maxim D. Shrayer. Armonk, NY; London: M.E. Sharpe, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7656-0521-4.
 * Anthology of Russian Short Stories from Classical to Modern. Comp. by Galina Bazhanova. Trans. from the Russian. 2 vols. Moscow: Raduga Pub.; London & Wellingborough: Collets, 1985. ISBN 5-05-000009-2. | Vol. 1 | Vol. 2.
 * A Bilingual Collection of Russian Short Stories. Ed. with introd. by Maurice Friedberg. 2 vols. New York: Random House, 1964–65.
 * The Blue Lagoon Anthology of Modern Russian Poetry, Ed. by Konstantin K. Kuzminsky and Gregory L. Kovalev; Institute of Modern Russian Culture at Blue Lagoon, Texas. [5 vols., 9 books.] Newtonville, Ma: Oriental Research Partners, 1980–1986.
 * A Book of Russian Verse. Trans. by various bands and ed. by C. M. Bowra. London: Macmillan & Co., 1943.
 * A Second Book of Russian Verse. Trans. by various bands and ed. by C. M. Bowra. London: Macmillan & Co., 1948.
 * The Literature of Eighteenth-Century Russia: An Anthology of Russian Literary Materials of the Age of Classicism and the Enlightenment from the Reign of Peter the Great, 1689–1725, to the Reign of Alexander I, 1801–1825. 2 vols. Ed. and trans. by Harold B. Segel. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1967.
 * [ Mass Culture in Soviet Russia: Tales, Poems, Songs, Movies, Plays, and Folklore, 1917–1953]. Ed. by James von Geldern and Richard Stites. Bloomington, In.: Indiana University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-253-20969-2.
 * Masterpieces of the Russian drama. Selec. and ed. with introd. by George Rapall Noyes. 2 vols. New York: Dover Pub., 1960–1961 [1933]. Vol. 1 | Vol. 2.
 * Medieval Russia's Epics, Chronicles, and Tales. Ed., trans. with introd. by Serge A. Zenkovsky. Rev. ed. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1974 [1963].
 * A Night in the Nabokov Hotel: 20 Contemporary Poets from Russia. Introd. and trans. by Anatoly Kudryavitsky. Dublin: Dedalus Press, 2006. ISBN 1-904556-55-8.
 * The Penguin Book of Russian Verse. Introd. and ed. by Dimitri Obolensky. Rev. ed. London: Penguin Books, 1965 [1962].
 * Russian Poetry under the Tsars: An Anthology. Comp. and trans. by Burton Raffel. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0-8739-5070-1.
 * Russian Silver Age Poetry: Texts And Contexts. Ed. by Sibelan E. S. Forrester and Martha M. F. Kelly. Boston, Mi: Academic Studies Press, 2015. ISBN 978-1-6181-1370-2.
 * The Silver Age of Russian Culture: An Anthology. Ed. by Carl and Ellendea Proffer. Ann Arbor, Mi: Ardis, 1975. ISBN 978-0-8823-3171-3.
 * [ Third Wave: The New Russian Poetry]. Ed. by Kent Johnson and Stephen M. Ashby. Introd. by Andrew Wachtel and Alexei Parshchikov. Afterword by Mikhail Epstein. Ann Arbor, Mi: University of Michigan Press, 1992. ISBN 0-472-06415-0.
 * Two Centuries of Russian Verse: An Anthology from Lomonosov to Voznesensky. Ed. with introd. by Avrahm Yarmolinsky. Trans. from Russian by Babette Deutsch. New York: Random House, 1966.
 * Unknown Russian Theater: An Anthology. Ed. and trans. by Michael Green and Jerome Katsell. Vol. 1. Ann Arbor, Mi: Ardis, 1991. ISBN 978-0-8823-3554-4.
 * War & Peace: Contemporary Russian Prose. Glas New Russian Writing, 40. Moscow: Glas, 2006. Ed. by Natasha Perova and Joanne Turnbull. Trans. by Joanne Turnbull. ISBN 978-5-7172-0074-5.
 * [ Worlds Apart: An Anthology of Russian Fantasy and Science Fiction]. Ed. and comm. by Alexander Levitsky. Trans. by Alexander Levitsky and Martha T. Kitchen. New York: Duckworth Overlook, 2007. ISBN 978-1-5856-7819-8.
 * Во Весь Голос [In a Loud Voice]: Soviet Poetry [in Russian with English Notes & Voc]. Ed. by Vladimir Ognev. Moscow: Progress Pub., 1965.

title: Russian literature


text:
Youssou N'Dour

Youssou N'Dour (, Yuusu Nduur; also known as Youssou Madjiguène Ndour; born 1 October 1959) is a Senegalese singer, songwriter, musician, composer, occasional actor, businessman, and politician. In 2004, Rolling Stone described him as, "perhaps the most famous singer alive" in Senegal and much of Africa and in 2023, the same publication ranked him at number 69 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. From April 2012 to September 2013, he was Senegal's Minister of Tourism.

N'Dour helped develop a style of popular Senegalese music known by all Senegambians (including the Wolof) as mbalax, a genre that has sacred origins in the Serer music njuup tradition and ndut initiation ceremonies. He is the subject of the award-winning films Return to Gorée (2007) directed by Pierre-Yves Borgeaud and Youssou N'Dour: I Bring What I Love (2008) directed by Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi, which were released around the world.

In 2006, N'Dour was cast as Olaudah Equiano in the film Amazing Grace.

Early life

Ethnically, N'Dour is Serer, born to a Serer father and a Toucouleur mother. However, culturally, N'Dour is Wolof. He was born in Dakar. He started performing at age 12 and would later perform regularly with the Star Band, Dakar's most popular group during the 1970s.

Despite N'Dour's maternal connection to the traditional griot caste, he was not raised in that tradition, which he learned instead from his sibling. Although patrilineally from the noble N'Dour family, his parents' world-view encouraged a modern outlook, leaving him open to two cultures and thereby inspiring N'Dour's identity as a modern griot. As a Mouride disciple, taalibé in Wolof, a Muslim of the Mouride brotherhood, one of the large four Sufi orders in Senegambia, he often incorporated aspects of Islamic music and chants into his work.

Music career
At the age of 15, Youssou N'Dour joined a band called Diamono and, in 1975, toured with the band in West Africa.

In 1976 when N'Dour was 16 years old, he signed a contract to sing with Ibra Kasse's Star Band at Kasse's Miami club in Dakar where he would become a sensation.

In 1978, N'Dour would follow as several members of the Star Band left to form Étoile de Dakar, a band that made important contributions to Senegal's newly evolving musical style called mbalax which incorporated traditional Senegalese music into the Latin styles that had dominated Senegalese popular music. Although they quickly became one of the city's most popular bands, the group was short-lived due to internal problems. Étoile de Dakar split into two groups: Étoile 2000 and Super Étoile de Dakar. The latter group included N'Dour, guitarist Jimi Mbaye, bassist Habib Faye, and tama (talking drum) player Assane Thiam. Super Étoile de Dakar produced four albums on cassette in just a few months and eventually evolved into N'Dour's backing band.

By 1991, he had opened his own recording studio, and, by 1995, his own record label, Jololi.

N'Dour is one of the most celebrated African musicians in history. His mix of traditional Senegalese mbalax with eclectic influences ranging from Cuban rumba to hip hop, jazz, and soul has won him an international fan base of millions. In the West, N'Dour has collaborated with Peter Gabriel, Axelle Red, Sting, Alan Stivell, Bran Van 3000, Neneh Cherry, Wyclef Jean, Paul Simon, Bruce Springsteen, Tracy Chapman, James Newton Howard, Branford Marsalis, Ryuichi Sakamoto, Dido, Lou Reed, Bruce Cockburn, and others.

The New York Times described his voice as an "arresting tenor, a supple weapon deployed with prophetic authority". N'Dour's work absorbed the entire Senegalese musical spectrum, often filtered through the lens of genre-defying rock or pop music from outside Senegalese culture.

In July 1993, Africa Opera composed by N'Dour premiered at the Opéra Garnier for the French Festival Paris quartier d'été.

In 1994, N'Dour released his biggest international hit single, the trilingual "7 Seconds", a duet sung with Neneh Cherry.

He wrote and performed the official anthem of the 1998 FIFA World Cup with Axelle Red "La Cour des Grands (Do You Mind If I Play)".

Folk Roots magazine described him as the African Artist of the Century. He toured internationally for thirty years. He won his first American Grammy Award (best contemporary world music album) for his CD Egypt in 2005.

He is the proprietor of L'Observateur, one of the widest-circulation newspapers in Senegal, the radio station RFM (Radio Future Medias) and the TV channel TFM.

In 2002, N'Dour was honoured with a Prince Claus Award, under that year's theme "Languages and transcultural forms of expression".

In 2006, N'Dour played the role of the African-British abolitionist Olaudah Equiano in the movie Amazing Grace, which chronicled the efforts of William Wilberforce to end slavery in the British Empire.

In 2008, N'Dour offered one of his compositions, Bébé, for the French singer Cynthia Brown.

In 2011, N'Dour was awarded an honorary doctoral degree in music from Yale University.

In 2013, N'Dour won a share of Sweden's $150,000 Polar music prize for promoting understanding between faiths as well as for his music.

Activism
N'Dour was nominated as Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on 16 October 2000.

In Senegal, N'Dour became a powerful cultural icon, actively involved in social issues. In 1985, he organized a concert for the release of Nelson Mandela. He was a featured performer in the 1988 worldwide Amnesty International Human Rights Now! Tour collaborating with Lou Reed on a version of the Peter Gabriel song "Biko" which was produced by Richard James Burgess and featured on the Amnesty International benefit album The Secret Policeman's Third Ball. He worked with the United Nations and UNICEF, and he started Project Joko to open internet cafés in Africa and to connect Senegalese communities around the world.

In 2003, N'Dour cancelled an upcoming American tour in order to publicly deny support for the upcoming American invasion of Iraq. In a public statement explaining his decision, N'Dour said:"It is my strong conviction that the responsibility for disarming Iraq should rest with the United Nations. As a matter of conscience I question the United States government's apparent intention to commence war in Iraq. I believe that coming to America at this time would be perceived in many parts of the world--rightly or wrongly--as support for this policy, and that, as a consequence, it is inappropriate to perform in the US at this juncture."He performed in three of the Live 8 concerts (in Live 8 concert, London, Live 8 concert, Paris and at the Live 8 concert, Eden Project in Cornwall) on 2 July 2005, with Dido. He covered John Lennon's "Jealous Guy" for the 2007 CD Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur. N'Dour appeared in a joint Spain-Senegal ad campaign to inform the African public about the dramatic consequences of illegal immigration. He participated in the Stock Exchange of Visions project in 2007.

In 2008, he joined the Fondation Chirac's honour committee. The same year, Youssou N'Dour's microfinance organization named Birima ("Birima" is also a song's title) was launched with the collaboration of United Colors of Benetton.

In 2009, he released his song "Wake Up (It's Africa Calling)" under a Creative Commons license to help IntraHealth International in their IntraHealth Open campaign to bring open source health applications to Africa. The song was remixed by a variety of artists including Nas, Peter Buck of R.E.M., and Duncan Sheik to help raise money for the campaign.

N'Dour is a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which advocates for democratic reformation of the United Nations.

N'Dour is a member of the Canadian charity Artists Against Racism.

Political career
At the beginning of 2012, he announced plans to stand as a candidate in the 2012 Senegalese presidential election, competing against President Abdoulaye Wade. However, he was disqualified from running in the election over the legitimacy of the signatures he had collected to endorse his campaign. N'Dour backed the opposition candidate Macky Sall, who defeated Wade in a second round of voting in March 2012. N'Dour was appointed as Minister of Culture and Tourism in April 2012 as part of the cabinet of new Prime Minister Abdoul Mbaye. The story of N'Dour's presidential campaign was filmed for the PBS TV program Sound Tracks: Music Without Borders. Later his portfolio was modified and he was appointed as Minister of Tourism and Leisure. He was dismissed from that post on 2 September 2013, when a new government under Prime Minister Aminata Touré was appointed. N'Dour was instead appointed as Special Adviser to the President, with the rank of minister, and tasked with promoting the country abroad.

Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" ! scope="col" | Award ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Category ! scope="col" | Nominee(s) ! scope="col" | Result ! scope="col" class="unsortable"| Ref. ! scope="row"| Brit Awards ! scope="row"|Danish Music Awards ! scope="row"| Edison Award ! scope="row" rowspan=6|Grammy Awards ! scope="row"|Ivor Novello Awards ! scope="row"| La Mar de Música Awards ! scope="row" | Lunas del Auditorio ! scope="row" rowspan=5|MOBO Awards ! scope="row"| MTV Europe Music Awards ! scope="row"| Montreal International Jazz Festival ! scope="row"|Polar Music Prize ! scope="row"|Praemium Imperiale ! scope="row" rowspan=2|Victoires de la Musique !scope="row"|Urban Music Awards
 * 1995
 * International Male Solo Artist
 * Himself
 * Nominated
 * 1995
 * Best International Song
 * "7 Seconds"
 * Won
 * 1994
 * Best Pop International
 * The Guide (Wommat)
 * Won
 * 1993
 * rowspan=3|Best World Music Album
 * Eyes Open
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=6|
 * 1995
 * The Guide (Wommat)
 * Nominated
 * 2001
 * Joko: The Link
 * Nominated
 * 2004
 * rowspan=3|Best Contemporary World Music Album
 * Nothing's In Vain (Coono du Réér)
 * Nominated
 * 2005
 * Egypt
 * Won
 * 2009
 * Rokku Mi Rokka
 * Nominated
 * Won
 * 2009
 * Rokku Mi Rokka
 * Nominated
 * Nominated
 * 1995
 * International Hit of the Year
 * "7 Seconds"
 * Nominated
 * 2020
 * Festival Award
 * rowspan=7|Himself
 * Won
 * 2004
 * Espectaculo Alternativo
 * Nominated
 * 2000
 * rowspan=4|Best World Music Act
 * Nominated
 * 2001
 * Nominated
 * 2003
 * Nominated
 * 2004
 * Nominated
 * 2005
 * Best African Act
 * Won
 * 2004
 * Nominated
 * 2005
 * Best African Act
 * Won
 * 2005
 * Best African Act
 * Won
 * 1994
 * Best Song
 * "7 Seconds"
 * Won
 * 2011
 * Antonio Carlos Jobim Award
 * rowspan=3|Himself
 * Won
 * 2013
 * Polar Music Prize
 * Won
 * 2017
 * Music
 * Won
 * 2001
 * rowspan=2|World Music Album of the Year
 * Joko
 * Nominated
 * 2011
 * Dakar – Kingston
 * Nominated
 * Dakar – Kingston
 * Nominated
 * 2023
 * Artist of the Year (Africa)
 * Himself
 * Nominated

Early cassettes
This numbered series of cassettes was released in Senegal between 1982 and 1988, and was credited to Youssou N'Dour & Le Super Etoile de Dakar.

 * Vol 1 Tabaski
 * Vol 2 Ndakarou
 * Vol 3 Independence
 * Vol 4 Banjoly N'Diaye
 * Vol 5 Yarou
 * Vol 6 Marguedy
 * Vol 7 Daby
 * Vol 8 Immigres
 * Vol 9 Africa
 * Vol 10 Ndobine
 * Vol 11 Bekoor
 * Vol 12 Jamm
 * Vol 13 Kocc Barma
 * Vol 14 Gainde

Albums

 * Ndiadiane Ndiaye (1982)
 * Mouride (1982)
 * Independance Vol. 3 (1982)
 * Show!!! A Abidjan (1983)
 * Djamil Inédits 84-85 (1985)
 * Immigrés (1985)
 * Nelson Mandela (1985)
 * The Lion (1989)
 * Set (1990)
 * Eyes Open (1992)
 * The Guide (Wommat) (1994)
 * Gainde – Voices from the Heart of Africa (1995)
 * Djamil (1996) – anthology
 * Lii (1996)
 * St. Louis (1997)
 * Special Fin D'annee Plus (1998)
 * Le Grand Bal a Évry (1999)
 * Rewmi (1999)
 * Joko: From Village to Town (2000)
 * Joko: The Link (2000)
 * Le Grand Bal (2000)
 * Ba Tay (2001)
 * Le Grand Bal a Bercy (2001)
 * Nothing's in Vain (Coono Du Réér) (2002)
 * Kirikou Et La Sorciere (2004)
 * Egypt (2004)
 * Jigeen Gni (2005) – single
 * Alsaama Day (2007)
 * Rokku Mi Rokka (2007) – No. 30 in Rolling Stone's Top 50 Albums of 2007.
 * I Bring What I Love (2008) – film soundtrack
 * Special Fin D'annee: Salagne-Salagne (2009)
 * Dakar – Kingston (2010)
 * Mbalakh Dafay Wakh (2011)
 * Fatteliku (2014)
 * #Senegaal Rek (2016)
 * Africa Rekk (2016)
 * Seeni Valeurs (2017)
 * Respect (2018)
 * History (2019)
 * Mbalax (2021)

Compilation albums

 * Diongoma (1983)
 * Special Noël (1993)
 * The Best Of Youssou N'Dour (1995)
 * Euleuk Sibir with Omar Pene (You et Pene) (1996)
 * Immigrés/Bitim Rew (1997)
 * Inedits 84–85 (1997)
 * Best of the 80's (1998)
 * Hey You: The Essential Collection 1988–1990 (1998)
 * Birth Of A Star (2001)
 * Youssou N'Dour and His Friends (2002)
 * The Rough Guide To Youssou N'Dour & Etoile de Dakar (2002)
 * Céy You (2003)
 * Le Grand Bal: Paris-Bercy (2003)
 * 4.4.44 (2004)
 * Bercy 2004 vol. 1 & 2 (2004)
 * 7 Seconds: The Best Of Youssou N'Dour (Remastered) (2004)
 * Bercy 2005 (2005)
 * Le Grand Bal: Bercy 2008 (2008)
 * From Senegal to the world (2012)
 * Le Grand Bal: Bercy 2013 (2013)
 * Africa Rekk (Réédition) (2017)
 * Raxas Bercy 2017 (2017)
 * Le Grand Show (2019)

Collaborations

 * 1986: So by Peter Gabriel – backing vocals on "In Your Eyes".
 * 1989: Passion by Peter Gabriel – backing vocals on "A Different Drum", "Passion".
 * 1990: Shaking the Tree: Sixteen Golden Greats by Peter Gabriel – "Mercy Street" and "Shaking the Tree".
 * 1990: Le mani e l'anima by Italian singer Claudio Baglioni – "Oltre" album.
 * 2000: Album Solidays – song "Qui sait?" for the association Solidarité sida, with Anggun, Patrick Bruel, Stephan Eicher, Faudel, Peter Gabriel, Lââm, Lokua Kanza, Nourith, Axelle Red & Zucchero.
 * 2003: Hit by Peter Gabriel – backing vocals on "In Your Eyes".
 * 2005: Live 8: One Day, One Concert, One World DVD – N'Dour sings "7 Seconds" with Dido.
 * 2005: Live 8 Paris DVD – N'Dour sings at the end of the concert "New Africa/Lima Weesu".
 * 2006: An Other Cup by Yusuf – backing vocals on "The Beloved".
 * 2007: Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign To Save Darfur – N'Dour sings "Jealous Guy".
 * 2008: Bord Ezanga Kombo by Koffi Olomide – N'Dour on "Festival".
 * 2009: Les Amis Du Monde with the Lebanese diva Majida El Roumi for the Francophone Games Opening 2009 in Beirut.
 * 2020: Twice as Tall by Burna Boy – on track 4
 * 2020: L'Ours with Christophe Maé

Films
Amazing Grace (2006)
 * As Olaudah Equiano. "A central figure in the abolitionist movement in Great Britain, Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745–97) wrote an eyewitness account of his life as a slave and of his work in the anti-slavery movement: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano."
 * As a musician on the film's soundtrack.

Retour à Gorée (2007)
 * As himself, journeying from the island of Gorée to the USA and back, exploring the origins of jazz, which go back to the era of slave trade in Africa, through a concert performed by an international group of artists.

Youssou N'Dour: I Bring What I Love (2008)
 * As himself, through the recording of the Egypt album and its repercussions.
 * Released in the US on DVD by Oscilloscope Laboratories.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Youssou N'Dour


text:
KLIA Ekspres

 { "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoline", "ids": "Q1431592", "properties": { "stroke": "#800080", "stroke-width": 6 } } The KLIA Ekspres is an express airport rail link servicing the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) in Malaysia. It runs from KL Sentral, the main railway station of Kuala Lumpur to KLIA's Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 stations. The line is one of the two services on the Express Rail Link (ERL) system, sharing the same tracks as the KLIA Transit. The KLIA Transit stops at all stations along the line, whereas the KLIA Ekspres runs as a direct non-stop express service between KL Sentral and KLIA Terminal 1 and 2. It is operated by Express Rail Link Sdn. Bhd. (ERL).

The line is one of the components of the Klang Valley Integrated Transit System. It is numbered 6 and coloured purple on official transit maps.

Line information
KLIA Ekspres serves three stations. The service runs non-stop from KL Sentral to KLIA's Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 stations, skipping the three KLIA Transit stops in between.

At KL Sentral, the two platforms of the ERL are accessed from different parts of the station building. The KLIA Ekspres side platforms are accessed from the KL City Air Terminal (KL CAT) while the KLIA Transit island platform is accessed from the main Transit Concourse at Level 1. At KLIA T1 and T2, both KLIA Ekspres and KLIA Transit share the same island platform for both north-bound and south-bound trains.

At KLIA T1 station, KLIA Ekspres uses the same platform for Terminal 2- or city-bound trains. Displays are installed at the platform to indicate the travelling direction of the approaching train.

Extension
A 2.14 km extension to the new terminal was completed in 2013. Commercial service began on 1 May 2014, when klia2 opened. Inter-terminal travel time from KLIA Main Terminal to the new terminal is 3 minutes with a fare of RM2.

Rolling stock
Since the opening of the railway in 2002, the fleet consists of 12 4-car electric trainset from Siemens AG, Germany, on which 8 trainsets were allocated to KLIA Ekspres service. The trainset, named Siemens Desiro ET425M, has a top speed of 200 km/h with commercial speed of 160 km/h. This KLIA Ekspres trains has more seating than KLIA Transit trains for passenger comfort, and each train includes luggage racks beside the doors and overhead racks along the coach, along with Wi-Fi onboard. The trainset also includes VIP seatings for VIP service and toilets at the first car of the train. Luggage area for check-in flight luggages at KL City Air Terminal also included at the end cab on KL Sentral direction. To increase frequency of the line, eight new 4-car electric trainset were brought from CRRC Changchun, in which two trainsets were allocated on KLIA Ekspres service. The trainset, nicknamed Equator, has much difference from the first generation train, in which the train lacks of toilets and luggage areas. The trainsets were arrived on October 2016, with commercial operation started in March 2017.

Accidents
On 24 August 2010, Express Rail Link suffered their first reported accident, in which 3 passengers were injured. Two ERL trains collided at Kuala Lumpur Sentral, Of the trains involved one of them was about to depart at 9:45 pm for Kuala Lumpur International Airport while the other train, which was empty, rammed into its rear.

Suspension in 2020 to 2022
On 4 April 2020, due to the Malaysian movement control order, which resulted in a significant reduction in ridership, all ERL rail services were temporarily suspended. Limited ERL services recommenced on 4 May 2020 with KLIA Transit service patterns.

Again in Service
The (full) service was reopened on 3 January 2023. For August of this year, a raise of the frequency on one train every 20 minutes, every day, was announced.

Timetable
The KLIA Ekspres service officially began operations on 14 April 2002 connecting Kuala Lumpur with the Kuala Lumpur International Airport. The non-stop 57-kilometer journey takes around 28 minutes with trains departing at 15-minute intervals (until 2020) during peak hours and 20-minute intervals during off-peak hours.

 * First train: 05:00
 * Last train: 00:55
 * Peak Hours: 05:00 - 09:00 and 16:00 - 22:00
 * Off-Peak Hours: 09:00 - 16:00 and 22:00 - 00:55

Ticketing
Travellers from KL Sentral to KLIA and klia2 can purchase the tickets to board the KLIA Ekspres at the KL City Air Terminal (KL CAT) which is an integral part of the KL Sentral transport hub while travellers from KLIA and klia2 to KL Sentral must purchase their tickets before boarding in order to pass through the automated barriers at KL Sentral.

Ticketing is done either by automated ticketing machines or by ticketing staff at the stations. A one-way trip costs RM55 (increased from RM35 on 1 January 2016) from KL Sentral to KLIA/klia2 and vice versa.

The validity of purchased tickets is as follows:
 * Standard One-Way Ticket: 3 months
 * Standard Two-Way Ticket:
 * First trip - 3 months
 * Second trip - 3 months after the first trip

Electronic Payment

Passengers holding a Visa payWave credit card are able to use their cards at special fare gates when entering or leaving the pay area at all stations applicable to KLIA Ekspres and KLIA Transit.

All fare gates accept Touch 'n Go cards if the card contains sufficient funds. A minimum balance of RM20 is required. The automated fare collection (AFC) systems including high-speed fare gates (ACG), passenger service machine (PSM), MiFare smartcard tickets, Station Software and Central Management System (CMS) are provided by Longbow Technologies based in Malaysia.

Unfortunately, Touch 'n Go card users can no longer access the airline check-in counters at KL Sentral using their Touch 'n Go card, as of June 2015. While the Touch 'n Go card can still be used to board the KLIA Ekspres itself, passengers will need to check-in for their flights at KLIA instead.

Air travel facilities
On 13 July 2007, Express Rail Link Sdn Bhd, the operator of KLIA Ekspres, announced that from 23 July 2007 onwards, all 43 airlines serving KL International Airport may use the check-in facilities at KL CAT.

As of 2024, check-in facilities at Kuala Lumpur Sentral station are available for Malaysia Airlines, Batik Air Malaysia  and Cathay Pacific passengers only.

Passenger service and amenities
Passengers with laptops and smartphones have access to a high-speed internet connection free of charge through WiFi on board all KLIA Ekspres trains as well as on the station platforms. The service is powered by Yes 4G of Yes Communications, a subsidiary of the YTL Corporation which holds a 50% share over the train service.

A disabled-friendly unisex lavatory is available on board all KLIA Ekspres trains (except CRRC Changchun Equator EMUs). Restrooms are also located on the departure platform at KL Sentral. There are no restrooms on the KLIA boarding platform. Passengers waiting there are expected to use the restrooms on the main terminal's upper floor levels.

Connection to Subang Airport
The KLIA Ekspres (and KLIA Transit) interchanges with KTM's KL Sentral–Terminal Skypark Line at KL Sentral, an airport-rail link serving the Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport (Subang Airport). This allows for a rail connection between KLIA, klia2 and Subang Airport.

Ridership
On 19 September 2005, the company celebrated its 10 millionth passenger on the KLIA express. The 10 millionth passenger was Emylia Rosnaida who won a business class return trip to New York City from Kuala Lumpur.

The 20 millionth passenger milestone was achieved on 12 December 2007 by Mr Sockalingam, which won economy class ticket to Dubai.

title: KLIA Ekspres


text:
Computational physics

Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical analysis to solve problems in physics. Historically, computational physics was the first application of modern computers in science, and is now a subset of computational science. It is sometimes regarded as a subdiscipline (or offshoot) of theoretical physics, but others consider it an intermediate branch between theoretical and experimental physics — an area of study which supplements both theory and experiment.

Overview
In physics, different theories based on mathematical models provide very precise predictions on how systems behave. Unfortunately, it is often the case that solving the mathematical model for a particular system in order to produce a useful prediction is not feasible. This can occur, for instance, when the solution does not have a closed-form expression, or is too complicated. In such cases, numerical approximations are required. Computational physics is the subject that deals with these numerical approximations: the approximation of the solution is written as a finite (and typically large) number of simple mathematical operations (algorithm), and a computer is used to perform these operations and compute an approximated solution and respective error.

Status in physics
There is a debate about the status of computation within the scientific method. Sometimes it is regarded as more akin to theoretical physics; some others regard computer simulation as "computer experiments", yet still others consider it an intermediate or different branch between theoretical and experimental physics, a third way that supplements theory and experiment. While computers can be used in experiments for the measurement and recording (and storage) of data, this clearly does not constitute a computational approach.

Challenges in computational physics
Computational physics problems are in general very difficult to solve exactly. This is due to several (mathematical) reasons: lack of algebraic and/or analytic solvability, complexity, and chaos. For example, - even apparently simple problems, such as calculating the wavefunction of an electron orbiting an atom in a strong electric field (Stark effect), may require great effort to formulate a practical algorithm (if one can be found); other cruder or brute-force techniques, such as graphical methods or root finding, may be required. On the more advanced side, mathematical perturbation theory is also sometimes used (a working is shown for this particular example here). In addition, the computational cost and computational complexity for many-body problems (and their classical counterparts) tend to grow quickly. A macroscopic system typically has a size of the order of $$10^{23}$$ constituent particles, so it is somewhat of a problem. Solving quantum mechanical problems is generally of exponential order in the size of the system and for classical N-body it is of order N-squared. Finally, many physical systems are inherently nonlinear at best, and at worst chaotic: this means it can be difficult to ensure any numerical errors do not grow to the point of rendering the 'solution' useless.

Methods and algorithms
Because computational physics uses a broad class of problems, it is generally divided amongst the different mathematical problems it numerically solves, or the methods it applies. Between them, one can consider:

 * root finding (using e.g. Newton-Raphson method)
 * system of linear equations (using e.g. LU decomposition)
 * ordinary differential equations (using e.g. Runge–Kutta methods)
 * integration (using e.g. Romberg method and Monte Carlo integration)
 * partial differential equations (using e.g. finite difference method and relaxation method)
 * matrix eigenvalue problem (using e.g. Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm and power iteration)

All these methods (and several others) are used to calculate physical properties of the modeled systems.

Computational physics also borrows a number of ideas from computational chemistry - for example, the density functional theory used by computational solid state physicists to calculate properties of solids is basically the same as that used by chemists to calculate the properties of molecules.

Furthermore, computational physics encompasses the tuning of the software/hardware structure to solve the problems (as the problems usually can be very large, in processing power need or in memory requests).

Divisions
It is possible to find a corresponding computational branch for every major field in physics:

 * Computational mechanics consists of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), computational solid mechanics and computational contact mechanics.

 * Computational electrodynamics is the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment. One subfield at the confluence between CFD and electromagnetic modelling is computational magnetohydrodynamics.

 * Computational chemistry is a rapidly growing field that was developed due to the quantum many-body problem.

 * Computational solid state physics is a very important division of computational physics dealing directly with material science.

 * Computational statistical mechanics is a field related to computational condensed matter which deals with the simulation of models and theories (such as percolation and spin models) that are difficult to solve otherwise.

 * Computational statistical physics makes heavy use of Monte Carlo-like methods. More broadly, (particularly through the use of agent based modeling and cellular automata) it also concerns itself with (and finds application in, through the use of its techniques) in the social sciences, network theory, and mathematical models for the propagation of disease (most notably, the SIR Model) and the spread of forest fires.

 * Numerical relativity is a (relatively) new field interested in finding numerical solutions to the field equations of both special relativity and general relativity.

 * Computational particle physics deals with problems motivated by particle physics.

 * Computational astrophysics is the application of these techniques and methods to astrophysical problems and phenomena.

 * Computational biophysics is a branch of biophysics and computational biology itself, applying methods of computer science and physics to large complex biological problems.

Applications
Due to the broad class of problems computational physics deals, it is an essential component of modern research in different areas of physics, namely: accelerator physics, astrophysics, general theory of relativity (through numerical relativity), fluid mechanics (computational fluid dynamics), lattice field theory/lattice gauge theory (especially lattice quantum chromodynamics), plasma physics (see plasma modeling), simulating physical systems (using e.g. molecular dynamics), nuclear engineering computer codes, protein structure prediction, weather prediction, solid state physics, soft condensed matter physics, hypervelocity impact physics etc.

Computational solid state physics, for example, uses density functional theory to calculate properties of solids, a method similar to that used by chemists to study molecules. Other quantities of interest in solid state physics, such as the electronic band structure, magnetic properties and charge densities can be calculated by this and several methods, including the Luttinger-Kohn/k.p method and ab-initio methods.

title: Computational physics


text:
Waverly, Alabama

Waverly is a town in Chambers and Lee counties in the U.S. state of Alabama. It is part of the Auburn Metropolitan Area. It was incorporated in 1910. As of 2010, the town population was 145.

Waverly has an operating United States post office; four churches are located in the town.

History
Waverly was settled in the 1830s, but saw little growth until the 1870s. The name of Waverly, Alabama first appeared on Alabama maps in 1853 (see reference below). It was given the nickname, Pea Ridge, but this was never its official name.

Annual Town Bar-B-Q
Beginning October 1990, and the second Saturday of each October since, the Town of Waverly hosts the Annual Waverly BBQ. Both pork and chicken BBQ, home made cakes and other sweets, cols, ice tea and lemonade are served. Town members all pitch in cooking, preparing the food,'stirring' the stew pot (a local tradition), and smoking the BBQ with hickory wood from the Friday night prior to the 'BBQ Day' at approximately 5:00pm, and continue this tradition until all the BBQ and stew is sold. Food is served to all attendees from 10:00am until 3:00pm. The event hosts singers, dancers, artists, arts and crafts, petting zoos, and other such events. This town get together serves as one of Waverly's largest fundraising events.

The Old 280 Boogie
In 2000, the State of Alabama rerouted U.S. Highway 280 south of the town of Waverly instead of routing it through town. This decision meant the town was saved from destruction. To celebrate, residents in 2001 decided to hold an annual "Waverly Boogie" (or "Old 280 Boogie"), a multi-cultural festival typically held on the third Saturday in April. The event, featuring a wide variety of musicians and visual artists, is held in an open-air amphitheater.

The 2014 event was held on April 19, 2014; a Fall Boogie was held on September 13. Additionally, in 2014, Standard Deluxe hosted its first annual Heart of Waverly Bluegrass Festival.

Geography
Waverly is in the southwest corner of Chambers County at 32°44'8.369" North, 85°34'27.736" West (32.735658, −85.574371). The town limits extend south into Lee County. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 7.1 km2, of which 0.05 km2, or 0.68%, is water.

U.S. Route 280 runs southwest of downtown, leading southeast 14 mi (23 km) to Opelika and northwest 13 mi (21 km) to Dadeville.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 184 people, 76 households and 50 families living in the town. The population density was 67.3 PD/sqmi. There were 87 housing units at an average density of 31.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 80.98% White and 19.02% Black or African American.

There were 76 households, out of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.9% were non-families. 32.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.12.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.5% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and older, there were 95.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $32,917, and the median income for a family was $38,750. Males had a median income of $26,625 while it was $16,071 for females. The per-capita income for the town was $18,406. About 3.7% of families and 7.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those younger than 18 or 65 or older.

Notable person

 * Douglas Arant, Birmingham, Alabama lawyer

Works or publications

 * Nunn, Alexander (Ed.) (1983). Lee County and Her Forebears. Opelika, Al: Herff Jones. LCCCN 83-081693

title: Waverly, Alabama


text:
Talk:Conjugacy class

Centralizer is a subgroup
Reverting to previous text, as the centralizer is indeed a subgroup of G; if a,b in CG(g), then:

 * CG is not empty, since (g*g)*g = g*(g*g).
 * b * g = g * b → b-1 * g = g * b-1; thus b-1 is in CG(g)
 * (a*b-1)*g = a*(b-1*g) = a*(g*b-1) = (a*g)*b-1 = (g*a)*b-1 = g*(a*b-1) → a*b-1 in CG(g).

thus by elementary group theory, CG(g) is a subgroup of G.

It is true that CG(g) is not a normal subgroup of G; but that's not what was stated in the article. Maybe this should be added to the article.User:chas_zzz_brown

class equation
there should be written something about general (not only conjugacy) class equation; rather in group action than here, but here class equation redirects… konradek (talk) 15:29, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

Example in conjugacy class equation
I think this example could be spiced a little bit... Let's say, proving that every group of order p2 is abelian is the next logical step, and quite trivial: the class equation for a hypothetical non-abelian group of order p2 is |G| = |Z(G)| + |H|, where H includes all elements of order p that are not in the center (of order p) - but this is absurd, because p (p - 1) does not divide p2 unless p = 2, and in this case there are only two groups of order 4 (both abelian). Albmont (talk) 16:49, 27 May 2009 (UTC)

(I don't know how to start a discussion/edit so here is my go:) I'm just a student but the sentence "Consider a finite p-group G (that is, a group with order p^n, where p is a prime number and n > 0). " is in contradiction with the definition of a p-group on wikipedia ( "p-group is a periodic group in which each element has a power of p as its order" )

so it's not |G| = p^n but for each g belongs to G, exists n belongs to N* such that |g| = p^n with p prime. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.212.8.144 (talk) 16:27, 6 December 2011 (UTC)

Examples
The symmetric group S4, consisting of all 24 permutations of four elements, has five conjugacy classes. And you can compute that there are five conjugacy classes by taking the integer partition of 4. But how can you compute how many elements each conjugacy class has? PJ Geest (talk) 14:56, 1 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Sometimes the function of the partition is called "n!/z". If the partition has a1 1s, a2 2s, a3 3s, and a4 4s, then the conjugacy class has size 4!/( a1! * 1^a1 * a2! * 2^a2 * a3! * 3^a3 * a4! * 4^a4 ).  For instance the partition 4 = 1 + 1 + 2 corresponds to the conjugacy class containing the permutation [1243] = (1)(2)(3,4) whose centralizer is Sym({1,2}) x < (3,4) > of order 2! * 2^1, so the conjugacy class has size 4!/4 = 6 = 4!/( 2! * 1^2 * 1! * 2^1 * 0! * 3^0 * 0! * 4^0 ).  In a larger symmetric group, the partition 7 = 2+2+3 corresponds to the conjugacy class containing [2143675]=(1,2)(3,4)(5,6,7) whose centralizer is < (1,2),(3,4),(1,3)(2,4) > x <(5,6,7)> = <(1,2)> wr Sym( { {1,2}, {3,4} } ) x <(5,6,7)> of order 2^2*2! * 3^1, and so the conjugacy class has size 7!/( 0!* 1^0 * 2! * 2^2 * 1! * 3^1 * 0! * 4^0 * 0! * 5^0 * 0! * 6^0 * 0! * 7^0 ) = 7!/( 2^2*2! * 3^1 ) = 7!/24 = 210. JackSchmidt (talk) 19:53, 1 June 2009 (UTC)

Error in class equation
Consider S_3 has 3 calsses C_1={e}, C_2={(acb),(bac),(cba)} , C_3 = {(cab),(bca)}. Center of S_3 is Z(S_3) = {e}. If we apply the equation exactly as it is written we'll get 6 = 1 + 6/1 + 6/3 + 6/2 and so 6=12 which is false.I think that sum should be a bit smaller. What do you think ? Stefan.petrea (talk) 17:00, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

If you exclude the conjugacy class of the identity element from that sum the identity becomes true(but that's not specified in the formula, is it so obvious ?) Stefan.petrea (talk) 17:06, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I believe it is specified clearly and in a standard way. The sum is over the classes of size bigger than 1.  The sum would be incorrect if it were over all non-identity classes; any abelian group gives a counterexample. JackSchmidt (talk) 17:41, 30 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Ok, then I suggest the formula be changed to $$|G| = |Z(G)| + \sum_{i=1\land [G:H_i]>1}^{i=|S|} [G:H_i] $$, what do you think ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Stefan.petrea (talk • contribs) 20:35, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

Section on motivation?
I think it would be helpful to have a section on the motivation of conjugation. Why is the concept useful? Why was it defined? Zaunlen (talk) 14:54, 10 November 2019 (UTC)
 * A complete answer to your question would need a complete history of the subject. However, I think that the problem is the style of the lead. I have edited it, and I hope that the new version provides a sufficient answer to your questions. D.Lazard (talk) 15:56, 10 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I don't think a complete history is necessary. In order to show that the concept is useful, it suffices to name a few applications. Which text passage is it that now explains the usefulness of the concept? Zaunlen (talk) 19:20, 14 November 2019 (UTC)

Conjugacy of subgroups and general subsets
I suppose that these diagrams could serve as an example for this section. The diagram on the right contains two C2 vertices and two C22 vertices, which illustrates the statement: "Conjugate subgroups are isomorphic, but isomorphic subgroups need not be conjugate." Watchduck (quack) 10:47, 19 November 2022 (UTC)

Extending example of conjugate?
For the worked example for conjugate class, a = ( 2 3 ), Might it be useful to show how to also get the other conjugates in the same class (using the same X value)? That is, the conjugate for a=(1 3) to get b=(1 2), and then also calculate conjugate for a=(1 2) to get b=(2 3). This neatly shows the conjugate class for order 2 in S3 and how they relate. 104.11.89.243 (talk) 19:39, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conjugacy class