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Cohoes, New York

Cohoes is an incorporated city located in the northeast corner of Albany County in the U.S. state of New York. It is called the "Spindle City" because of the importance of textile manufacturing to its growth in the 19th century. The city's factories processed cotton from the Deep South.

As of the 2020 census, the city population was 18,174. The name Cohoes is believed to be derived from a Mohawk term, Ga-ha-oose, referring to the Cohoes Falls and meaning "Place of the Falling Canoe," an interpretation noted by Horatio Gates Spafford in his 1823 publication "A Gazetteer of the State of New York". Later historians posited that the name is derived from the Algonquian Cohoes, a place name based on a word meaning 'pine tree'.

History
In the early years of Dutch colonial settlement, the majority of the city's territory was once part of the area of Manor of Rensselaerswyck, a feudal-style manor or patroonship. The land north of a line crossing the Cohoes Falls (today Manor Avenue) was outside the Manor and was owned by the Van Olohde family between 1725 and 1750. Rensselaerswyck was established by Killiaen Van Rensselaer, the patroon and a Dutch merchant. In 1632, he had an agent pace off an enormous triangle-shaped area around the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers, from the Peebles Island northwest to the Cohoes Falls and south to today's Watervliet; this area was the core of the future city of Cohoes. Starting in the 1690s the Patroon began to issue leases for the area of Cohoes, reserving for himself a strip below the Cohoes Falls for the future site of mills powered by water.

Though the area was not much settled for a time, it was known for the Cohoes Falls. One of the earliest descriptions of the falls was in 1642 by Johannes Megapolensis, the first dominie (Dutch Reformed pastor) of Beverwyck. Another early description was in 1656 by Adriaen van der Donck in his Description of New Netherland. In the early-to-mid 17th century, a whale swam upriver in the Hudson, becoming stranded in the Mohawk River on an island just below the Cohoes Falls. The Dutch settlers could not easily get to the large carcass to remove it. As it rotted, the river became slick for three weeks. A settler commented that "the air was infected with its stench... perceptible for two miles to leeward." Beginning about 1646, settlers called this land Whale Island.

During the various French and Indian Wars of the mid-18th century, Van Schaick Island was developed as part of a military road that came from Albany north along the islands at the mouth of the Mohawk River. These islands allowed for easier fords across the various mouths of the Mohawk and access to Waterford and points north. The islands were used for numerous military encampments during both the French and Indian Wars and the American Revolutionary War.

The Van Schaick Mansion on Van Schaick Island was built in the 1730s; it was one of the sites used as a military headquarters during the Revolution by the Americans under Major Generals Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates. Van Schaick Island was the first part of Cohoes to be settled and farmed; it was formerly known as Cohoes Island and Anthony's Island.

Growth
Until after the Revolutionary War, Cohoes was a small quiet hamlet with isolated farms. After the Mohawk and other Iroquois allies of the British were forced to cede their territory, New York encouraged new settlement. Thousands of Yankee settlers came from New England. Cohoes was linked to the larger settlements of Lansingburg and Albany. In 1795 the first bridge across the Mohawk River was constructed at Cohoes. It was 900 feet long, 24 feet wide, 15 feet high, and was based on 13 stone piers. It cost $12,000 to build and was a toll bridge. This bridge provided access to Cohoes as one of the main routes north. The bridge was rebuilt in 1806 by the Cohoes Bridge Company, which raised the tolls to cover the cost.

Another major transportation improvement, construction of the Erie and Champlain canals were begun in 1817. The section in Cohoes was finished in 1823, stimulating trade for the city. Cohoes was known as Juncta because of being served by the two canals, which improved water traffic north to Lake Champlain and west through the Mohawk Valley. One or both of the canals crossed every farm in Cohoes. Even with the canals and the bridge bringing easier access to larger markets, Cohoes was a sleepy place prior to 1831. The nearest post office was at Waterford; fresh meat and produce were available mostly by residents raising their own. A United States post office was built in Cohoes in 1831.

Industrial age
In 1811 the Cohoes Manufacturing Company, owned entirely by men from Lansingburg, was incorporated and began a factory for making screws. This was the first large industry in Cohoes to use the power of the Mohawk River and Cohoes Falls.

In 1831, a new Cohoes Company constructed a dam on the Mohawk River above the city's waterfall in order to better regulate water flow for industrial use. It was soon swept away by ice at the break-up in spring, and a new dam was built the following year. Two canals extended from the dam to provide water power for industry. Ironworks were the first main industry in Cohoes, as it was in Troy, Menands, and West Troy. Daniel Simmons' Simmons Axe Company was famous throughout the United States, and the Cohoes Iron Foundry was a large business enterprise in the 1830s.

Textile industry
In the 1820s, the first cotton mill in Albany County was built in Cohoes. Egberts and Bailey was the first factory to use knitting machinery run by power, based on the Cohoes Company's power canals.

The community became a center of textile manufacturing; in 1836 the Harmony Manufacturing Company was founded, later famous as Harmony Mills. Cohoes became a mill town, and to an extent a company town. During the 1870s the mills were enormously profitable because of the Erie Canal, which flowed past them at that time. Mill #3, at over 1000 ft long, has been considered the longest continuous textile mill in the country at the time. Cotton textiles were shipped to New York City, England and Europe, where demand was high.

In 1848, Cohoes was incorporated as a village within the town of Watervliet. In 1869 it was chartered as a city.

Mastodon discovery
In 1866, during excavation work for construction of Mill #3 of the Harmony Mills, the bones of a mastodon were unearthed over a period of several weeks. This mammal ranged in this territory when humans were first settling here.

The Cohoes Mastodon skeleton was long on display in the lobby of the New York State Museum in Albany, New York. Since the early 21st century, the skeleton has been moved to a new location away from the windows, where temperature and humidity fluctuations risked damaging the skeleton. A replica complete with fur is on display at the Cohoes Public Library.

Upon their completion, in 1872, the Harmony Mills were the largest cotton mill complex in the world. The Harmony Mills are an excellent example of 19th-century mill architecture. During the 19th century, numerous immigrants came to Cohoes to work in the mills, particularly French Canadians from Quebec and Irish, who first arrived as refugees in the 1840s from the Great Famine. The Harmony Mills Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the late 20th century.

Around the start of the 20th century, daredevil Bobby Leach practiced going over the Cohoes Falls in a barrel before he performed the same stunt at Niagara. Cohoes residents watched this feat from the lawn or the porch of The Cataract House, the Victorian hotel at the corner of North Mohawk and School streets. This site was later developed as the present School Street Power Station.

21st Century
From 2005 to 2013, the Harmony Mills were redeveloped and restored by real estate developer Uri Kaufman. Kaufman converted the Mills to luxury loft apartments, sparking a revival in the heart of the city.

On November 30, 2017, there was a massive fire that destroyed and damaged 21 buildings that caught the attention of national media. An amateur blacksmith, attempting to mimic the show Forged in Fire, started a barrel fire to forge with before losing control of it. High winds stoked the flames which spread over the course of six hours. At one point smoke and fire collectively consumed three blocks of the downtown district, and a plume of smoke rose over the city large enough to be detected by weather radar. Twenty-one buildings were heavily damaged or destroyed, with two businesses and a garage being completely leveled.

Improvements
Starting around 2020 to 2023, Cohoes embarked on a citywide revitalization project focused on improving infrastructure, restoring historic buildings, and environmental sustainability. The city invested $35 million in infrastructure improvements, including improving sidewalks, planting street trees, redesigning city parks, installing public charging stations for electric vehicles, and creating a new waterfront park.

In 2017, West End Park was redesigned to become a memorial park honoring veterans. In 2020, historic Canal Square Park in downtown Cohoes was redesigned to host Farmer’s Markets, outdoor concerts, and receptions and other events.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.2 sqmi, of which 3.7 sqmi is land and 0.5 sqmi (11.79%) is water.

Cohoes is situated at the confluence of the Mohawk with the Hudson River, where the Mohawk forms several channels and islands. Cohoes is named for its most famous landmark, the Cohoes Falls, a majestic waterfall first seen by the area's successive generations of indigenous peoples. In the historic era, these were the Mohawk Nation. The city includes Van Schaick Island, where the historic Van Schaick Mansion is located, and Simmons Island.

Within Albany County, the city has the town of Colonie to its northwest, west, and south; with the town and village of Green Island to the south of Van Schaick Island. To the north across the Mohawk River is Saratoga County and the town of Waterford's hamlet of Northside. A bridge connects Cohoes to Waterford. To the east of Van Schaick Island across the Hudson River is Rensselaer County and the city of Troy's Lansingburg neighborhood. The 112th Street Bridge connects Van Schaick Island to Troy.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 16,168. people (677 more than the 2000 census), 7,001 households, and 3,902 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,145.8 PD/sqmi. There were 7,689 housing units at an average density of 2,053.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 84.14% White, 12.16% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.68% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.59% from other races, and 1.23% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.03% of the population.

There were 6,932 households, out of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.4% were married couples living together, 15.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.3% were non-families. 38.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.91.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.4% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 17.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $32,856, and the median income for a family was $42,054. Males had a median income of $31,972 versus $25,845 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,416. About 11.2% of families and 13.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.9% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.

Historic sites
A number of sites in Cohoes are included on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, including -
 * Cohoes Music Hall
 * Delaware and Hudson Railroad Freight House
 * William J. Dickey House
 * Downtown Cohoes Historic District
 * Enlarged Erie Canal Historic District (Discontiguous)
 * Fonda House
 * Godfrey Farmhouse
 * Harmony Mill No. 3
 * Harmony Mills Historic District
 * J. Leonard Lackman House
 * Lock 18 of Enlarged Erie Canal
 * Matton Shipyard
 * Olmstead Street Historic District
 * Silliman Memorial Presbyterian Church
 * Van Schaick House

Transportation
New York State Route 787 has its northern terminus in Cohoes. New York State Route 32 runs north–south through Cohoes. New York State Route 470 crosses east–west through the city and goes over the Hudson River to the northern parts of Troy.

Until the mid-1950s, the Delaware and Hudson Railroad ran the Laurentian train (New York - Montreal), making a stop at its station in Cohoes. Until the early 1960s, the D&H ran trains from Albany to Saratoga Springs that made stops in Cohoes.

Notable people

 * Charles H. Adams served as mayor from 1870 to 1872 and as US Congressman from 1877 to 1879.
 * Ron Canestrari served as mayor from 1976 to 1988 and as Assemblyman from 1988 to 2013, becoming Majority Leader in 2007.
 * George Davis was a 1906 World Series-winning shortstop and a New York Giants manager during the early 20th Century who was inducted in the National Baseball Hall of Fame.
 * James Lafferty (1837–1872), Wisconsin politician
 * Zach Remillard is a Major League Baseball player currently with the Chicago White Sox
 * Harold E. Rosecrans was a Brigadier General in the Marine Corps during World War II.
 * Chester Arthur, the U.S. President, moved to Cohoes in 1852 to become the principal of a school at which his sister, Malvina, was a teacher. His sister Regina's husband, William G. Caw, was a grocer, banker, and community leader of Cohoes and served as town supervisor and village trustee. His sister Almeda's husband, James H. Masten, served as postmaster of Cohoes and publisher of the Cohoes Cataract newspaper.

In popular culture
Author Kurt Vonnegut's character, writer Kilgore Trout, was said to have been a resident of Cohoes in his story, "Requiem for a Dreamer".

title: Cohoes, New York


text:
Delmar, New York

Delmar is a hamlet in the Town of Bethlehem, in Albany County, New York, United States. It is a suburb of the neighboring city of Albany. The community is bisected by NY Route 443 (Delaware Avenue), a major thoroughfare, main street, and route to Albany.

A census-designated place (CDP) has been established since 1980 by the U.S. Census Bureau for tabulating the population of what the census has defined as the boundaries of the urbanized area in and around Delmar. The population was 8,292 at the 2000 census, but it was not included as a CDP in the 2010 census.

In 2005, CNN/Money Magazine named the Delmar ZIP Code (an area larger than the Delmar hamlet or CDP) as one of the "Best Places to Live" in America, rating it the 22nd best place to live among what it called "Great American Towns."

History
Nathaniel Adams moved to the area in 1836 and, two years later, built a large hotel and made other improvements. When the first post office was built in 1840, he became the first post master. The Adams Hotel was Bethlehem's Town Hall from 1950-1980. In 1841, Nathaniel donated an acre of land for a chapel to be built so that those of the Dutch Reformed Church did not have to travel to Unionville to attend worship though this new church continued to be under the Union Reformed Church. In 1847, the members of the Reformed Church at Adams Station petitioned for their own organization separate from Union, and in 1848 this was granted by both the Union Reformed Church and the Classis of Albany. For Nathaniel Adams, Delmar received its early name of Adamsville.

After Adamsville received its post office, mail began to get confused with the town of Adams, New York, which also had an Adams Village. The name of the post office was changed to Adams Station in an attempt to relieve that confusion. The Albany and Susquehanna Railroad, which had a station on Adams Street north of Kenwood Avenue, however, had chosen to change from Adamsville to Delmar. In 1892, a petition by area residents to change the post office to match Delmar was accepted.

The Patterson Farmhouse, United States Post Office, and Van Derheyden House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
As a hamlet, the borders of Delmar are indeterminate, though generally the unincorporated village is considered to be centered on the intersection of Kenwood and Delaware avenues. According to the 2000 United States Census, the CDP has a total area of 4.382 sqmi, all land. A CDP's borders can, however, change from census to census. As of 2000, the border followed the Normans Kill to the north, and then for the western border it travels south on McCormack Road North to Cherry Ave Extension (New York Route 140) where it turns left and then right on to McCormack Road. At Bridge Avenue, in the neighboring hamlet of Slingerlands, the CDP's border turns left, and then right onto Albany County Route 52 (Cherry Ave/Elm Ave). The border then turns east (left) onto the Delmar Bypass (New York Route 32) to Elsmere Avenue (New York Route 335), where it then travels north. At the intersection of Elsmere Ave with Delaware Avenue, the border turns east onto the latter. At Salisbury Road, the Delmar CDP border carves a small enclave by turning left onto said road and then right onto Normanside Avenue, then by turning onto Euclid Avenue it travels back southeast to Delaware Avenue once again. After another small jog on Delaware Ave, the border turns left for Normanskill Boulevard opposite the Delaware Plaza. After turning right onto Bethlehem Court, the border then travels in a straight northeastern line to intersect again at the Normanskill.

Several small creeks and streams flow through Delmar; generally north of Delaware Avenue they flow north to the Normans Kill; south of Delaware Avenue is Dowers Kill which is a south-flowing tributary of the Vloman Kill.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,292 people, 3,420 households, and 2,373 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,892.4 PD/sqmi. There were 3,501 housing units at an average density of 799.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.61% White, 1.24% Asian, 1.18% African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.25% from other races, and 0.58% from two or more races. 1.23% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 3,420 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.0% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.94.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 4.5% from 18 to 24, 24.3% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $64,438, and the median income for a family was $83,219. Males had a median income of $57,038 versus $37,133 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $35,363. 2.4% of the population and 1.7% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 3.0% of those under the age of 18 and 0.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Notable people

 * Edward Burton Hughes (1905-6 June 1987) — transportation commissioner; longtime resident
 * Megyn Kelly — American journalist and media personality
 * Christopher Porco — convicted of the attempted murder of his mother and murder of his father
 * Eva Marie Saint — film actress

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Delmar, New York


text:
Guilderland, New York

Guilderland is a town in Albany County, New York, United States. In the 2020 census, the town had a population of 36,848. The town is named for the Gelderland province in the Netherlands. The town of Guilderland is on the central-northwest border of the county. It is just west of Albany, the capital of the U.S. state of New York.

History
Guilderland was originally a part of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck that Patroon Kiliaen van Rensselaer began in 1629 as part of the New Netherland colony. By the end of the 17th century, Dutch settlers from Albany and Schenectady began to establish farms in the area, beginning first along the banks of the Normans Kill. In 1712, a group of emigrants from the Rhine Valley in present-day Germany passed through the town on their way to Schoharie. They were the first to record and name the Helderberg Escarpment, originally Hellebergh meaning "bright or clear mountain". This name would also be used for all the land between the Normans Kill and the escarpment. In 1734, the first known religious service was held by a Lutheran dominie from Athens, New York to the "Normanskill Folk", and the first religious structure was a Dutch Reformed Church in 1750.

Guilderland was, from its beginning, a location amenable to early industry due to its many streams for waterwheels, large forests for wood fuel, and the fine sand for glass works. In 1795, Jan and Leonard de Neufville (father and son) established a large glass factory mostly for the manufacture of windows but also for bottles of various shapes, sizes, and uses. Around this factory would spring up the hamlet of Hamilton (today called Guilderland). The factory could not compete with cheap British imports after the War of 1812, and with its collapse, the glass industry would never return to Guilderland. A hat factory and a foundry would both occupy the site over the next 200 years. French's Mills, another hamlet founded on industry, was home to many textile mills, due to the power harnessed from the falls on the Normans Kill near Guilderland Center.

During the US Revolutionary War, many families in Guilderland were split in their loyalties. In New York, tenant farmers generally opposed their landlords, the Patroons, who sided with the rebellious independentists (Patriots), making New York one of the colonies where the war of Independence became a vicious civil war. The patroon of Rensselaerswyck and the local clergy, however, rallied the support of most of the local settlers in opposing the Loyalists. Those who remained loyal to the established government operated, among other places, from the caves of the Helderbergs, raiding settlements with the help of Native Americans. A battle between Loyalists and rebel Schenectady Militia with help from Rhode Island Continental Troops was fought just east of Guilderland Center. It was later alleged the local Loyalists were about to burn Schenectady and Albany, which is not entirely trustworthy as these would have been their own neighbors. In any case, the victory of the American forces allowed the Rhode Island contingent to travel to Saratoga for the Battle of Saratoga that occurred five weeks later, the turning point of the US Revolution.

From 1799 until its formation in 1803, Guilderland was a part of the town of Watervliet. The name Guilderland (spelled Guilderlandt in the original law) was the suggestion of resident Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, who happened to be Lieutenant-Governor of the state at the time, and as such was President of the Senate. His family (that of the original patroon) and many of the original settlers came from Gelderland, a province of the Netherlands. In 1871 the northwestern part of Albany, west from Magazine Street, was annexed to Guilderland, after the town of Watervliet refused the annexation of the same territory. Parts of this territory would be annexed back to Albany in 1910, setting up more or less the current border.

At the start of the town's founding, the Schoolcraft family was prominent. Congressman John L. Schoolcraft was born in Guilderland in September 1806. When his father, Captain John Schoolcraft, died in December of the same year, he was raised by his grandfather, John Schoolcraft. Wealthy grandfather Schoolcraft, who owned much property in Guilderland hamlet and ran an inn and tavern, was the first Justice of the Peace in the hamlet, an elder and trustee of the Hamilton Union Church, and a member of the first Guilderland School Board. He was also the uncle of the famed Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. John L. Schoolcraft started a profitable mercantile business, became president of Albany Commercial Bank (later part of today's Key Bank), and was groomed for politics by Thurlow Weed, editor of the Albany Evening Journal, winning his first Congressional election in 1848.

In the 1840s, Schoolcraft built the early Gothic Schoolcraft mansion John Schoolcraft House upon his return from a European journey. He used it mostly as a summer residence. Schoolcraft was a close friend and confidant of Governor William Seward and married Seward's niece, Carolyn Canfield, in 1853.

Historic sites
There are 37 entries on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places located in Guilderland. • Albany Glassworks Site

• Altamont Historic District

• Apple Tavern

• Aumic House

• Chapel House

• Coppola House

• Frederick Crouse House

• Jacob Crouse Inn

• John and Henry Crouse Farm Complex

• Freeman House

• Fuller's Tavern

• Gardner House

• Gifford Grange Hall

• Gillespie House

• Guilderland Cemetery Vault

• Hamilton Union Church Rectory

• Hamilton Union Presbyterian Church

• Helderberg Reformed Dutch Church

• Adam Hilton House

• Houck Farmhouse

• Knower House

• McNiven Farm Complex

• Mynderse-Frederick House

• Norman Vale

• Stephen Pangburn House

• Charles Parker House

• Prospect Hill Cemetery Building

• Rose Hill

• John Schoolcraft House

• Schoolhouse No. 6

• Sharp Brothers House

• Sharp Farmhouse

• St. Mark's Lutheran Church

• Van Patten Barn Complex

• Vanderpool Farm Complex

• Veeder Farmhouse No. 1

• Veeder Farmhouse No. 2 Guilderland was home to the New York Power Pool and its control center after the Power Pool's formation in 1966 in response to the 1965 blackout. Most of its operations were transferred over to the NYISO after the NYISO's formation in 1999. The NYISO built a new control center in 2014 in Rensselaer, New York.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 58.7 sqmi, of which 57.9 sqmi is land and 0.8 sqmi  (1.31%) is water.

The town borders Schenectady County, New York, including the towns of Princetown and Rotterdam on the northern and western edges. It also borders the towns of Berne, Colonie, Bethlehem, and New Scotland and the city of Albany.

There are several ZIP codes in Guilderland, including 12084 (Guilderland), 12085 (Guilderland Center), 12203 (Albany), 12009 (Altamont), 12303 and 12306 (Schenectady), 12159 (Slingerlands), and 12186 (Voorheesville).

Two interstate highways, I-87 and I-90 run through Guilderland, meeting in the city of Albany, north of Crossgates Mall a large mall on the edge of Guilderland. US 20 also runs through the town.

Demographics
As of the 2010 census, there were 35,303 people and 14,205 households residing in the town. The racial makeup of the town was 86.21% White, 3.41% African American, 0.14% Native American, 7.49% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.01% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.93% from other races, and 1.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population.

There were 13,422 households, out of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.2% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present and 34.7% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.00.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.1% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 30.9% from 25 to 44, 25.9% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $58,669 and the median income for a family was $68,472. Males had a median income of $48,742 versus $34,796 for females. The per capita income for the town was $29,508. About 2.4% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.8% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over. 64.9% of workers are employed in the private-sector, and 29.1% are government employees.

Education
In 1812 the town was divided into eight school districts, mostly rural one room school houses. In 1901 the first high school in the town would be established at Altamont, this would be the only high school between Albany and Schoharie at the time. In 1953 the Guilderland Central School District would be formed on the consolidation of the eight smaller districts.

Guilderland is served by the Guilderland Central School District. It has one high school, Guilderland High School, one middle school, Farnsworth Middle School, and five elementary schools. These include Guilderland Elementary School, Pine Bush Elementary School, Lynnwood Elementary School, Altamont Elementary School, and Westmere Elementary School. Some portions of the town are served by other school districts, including Voorheesville Central School District, based in the town of New Scotland; as well as Schalmont Central School District and Mohonasen Central School District, both of which are based in the town of Rotterdam.

Politics
The current town supervisor is Peter G. Barber (since 2016).

The current councilmen and councilwomen are Patricia Slavick (2000), Paul Pastore (2006), Lee Carman (2016), and Rosemary Centi (2016).

Jean J. Cataldo is the current town clerk.

Lynne Buchanan is the current Receiver of Taxes.

The current town attorney is James Melita.

The seat of Guilderland's government is the Guilderland Town Hall.

The Town of Guilderland website is www.townofguilderland.org.

Like most of Albany County, Guilderland generally votes for Democrats for state and federal offices. Barack Obama received 60 percent of the vote in Guilderland in 2008, and 59 percent in 2012. Senators Schumer and Gillibrand and Representative Tonko all easily won Guilderland in their most recent elections.

In June 2018, Richard Sherwood, a former town judge, pleaded guilty to federal money laundering and tax evasion charges as well as a state grand larceny charge. Sherwood stole $11 million from estate trust funds he was charged with managing in his private practice. He also transferred property to his own name. He faces 3.5 years to 10 years in prison.

Emergency medical services
Emergency Medical Services for the town of Guilderland are provided by three separate medical entities. Guilderland EMS, which was a division of the Guilderland Police Department but now operates on their own, provide the Advanced Life Support (career paramedics) for the town as well as other surrounding areas. Western Turnpike Rescue Squad served the local community from 1939 to 2018, before Guilderland EMS purchased an ambulance and assumed operations. Altamont Rescue Squad, established in 1937 provides Basic Life Support care as well as medical transport for the town in their designated zones. During college semesters BLS care and transport for the University at Albany is provided by Five Quad, an all volunteer EMS agency consisting of University of Albany students and alumni.

Fire departments
There are eight main fire departments that also provide rescue; including Guilderland Fire Department, Westmere Fire Department Guilderland Center Fire Department, Fort Hunter Fire Department, Altamont Fire Department, North Bethlehem Fire Department, McKownville Fire Department and Pine Grove Fire Department.

Police department
The Guilderland Police Department is staffed by 36 sworn members along with 10 telecommunicators, three administrative office staff members, three animal services members and 20 full time and part time, paramedics operating under the EMS division. The police department is organized into the Patrol Division, Criminal Investigations Unit, Traffic Safety Unit, Community Services Unit, K-9 Unit, Communications Division, and Animal Control Unit. The Guilderland Police Department is headquartered in Guilderland Town Hall, with a sub-station located at Crossgates Mall.

Communities

 * Altamont – A village in the western part of Guilderland, west of Guilderland Center
 * Dunnsville – A hamlet in the northwestern part of the town
 * Fort Hunter – A hamlet in the northern part of the town
 * Fullers – A hamlet northwest of Hartmans Corners on Route 20
 * Guilderland – A hamlet with the same name as the town; located on Route 20, established in 1796
 * Guilderland Center – A hamlet west of Guilderland hamlet
 * Hartmans Corners – A hamlet northwest of Guilderland hamlet on Route 20
 * McCormacks Corners – A location northwest of Guilderland hamlet on Route 20
 * McKownville – A hamlet near the eastern town line and Albany
 * Meadowdale – A hamlet by the southern town line
 * Parkers Corners – A hamlet in the northwestern part of the town
 * Watervliet Reservoir – A reservoir north of Guilderland Center
 * Westmere – A hamlet in the eastern part of the town on Route 20 and a suburb of Albany; a census-designated place (CDP) of the same name is designated over this area.

Library
There are actually two libraries located in the Town of Guilderland: The Guilderland Public Library, and the Altamont Free Library. Both are members of the Upper Hudson Library System. The Guilderland Public Library, located at 2228 Western Avenue (US Route 20) serves as a cultural center for the town and the surrounding area. Some 59% of town residents hold library cards. Library use has grown with the population of the town. Since 1992, when the Guilderland Public Library moved into its current location, patron visits have almost doubled, from 177,996 to 343,144 annually, and circulation has more than doubled, from 214,446 to 519,426 items every year.

The Altamont Free Library, located in and serving the Village of Altamont, is a free association library. The Village of Altmont is a political entity within the borders of the Town of Guilderland.

Notable people

 * Evert Bancker (1665–1734), fur trader and mayor of Albany
 * Jon Busch, soccer player
 * Ze Frank, artist and public speaker
 * Johnny Grabowski (1900–1946), baseball player and umpire
 * Victoria A. Graffeo, judge
 * Magdalene Isadora La Grange (1864–1935), poet
 * David Paterson, while his primary residence is located downstate in Harlem, the former Governor of New York maintained a residence in Guilderland as a state senator and later Lieutenant Governor of New York prior to assuming the governorship. Paterson resided in the New York State Executive Mansion while in Albany, but kept his Guilderland and Harlem residences.
 * Joseph E. Persico, author and speechwriter
 * Henry Ramsay (1808–1886), prominent civil engineer
 * Henry Schoolcraft (1793–1864), geologist, geographer, and ethnologist
 * William D. Veeder (1835–1910), politician
 * The Chen family, a Chinese immigrant family of four killed in their Westmere house in 2014; the case remains open.

title: Guilderland, New York


text:
Knox, New York

Knox is a town in Albany County, New York, United States. The population was 2,635 at the 2020 census.

The town is in the northwestern part of Albany County and is west of Albany, the state capital.

History
The Town of Knox was established in 1822 from part of the Town of Berne. During the American Revolution, loyalties of the inhabitants were split, but the issue was resolved when Tories moved away.

The Knox District School No. 5 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 41.9 sqmi, of which 41.8 sqmi is land and 0.1 sqmi  (0.33%) is water.

The western town line is the border of Schoharie County, and the northern town boundary is the border of Schenectady County.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,647 people, 953 households, and 743 families residing in the town. The population density was 63.4 PD/sqmi. There were 1,041 housing units at an average density of 24.9 per square mile (9.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.43% White, 0.76% African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.49% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.08% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.30% of the population.

There were 953 households, out of which 39.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.2% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.0% were non-families. 16.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.8% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.1 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $55,658, and the median income for a family was $63,697. Males had a median income of $39,112 versus $30,054 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,670. About 3.8% of families and 5.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.6% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Communities and locations in Knox

 * East Township – A hamlet in the northeastern part of the town on Route 146.
 * Knox (formerly "Knoxville") – The hamlet of Knox is in the southern part of the town, located at the junction of State Route 156 (Berne-Altamont Road) and County Road 252 (Knox Cave Road). Beaverdam Creek flows past the hamlet.
 * Peoria – A former community on the southern town boundary.
 * Thompson Lake – A lake partly in the southeastern part of the town.
 * West Berne – A hamlet at the town line in the southwestern part of the town.
 * West Township – A hamlet in the northwestern part of the town on Route 146.

title: Knox, New York


text:
Medusa, New York

Medusa is a hamlet in the Town of Rensselaerville, in Albany County, New York, United States. The population was 376 at the 2000 census, which listed the community as a census-designated place (CDP), but it was not included as a CDP in the 2010 census.

History
First settled in 1786 by Uriah Hall and his son Joshua, Medusa's first name was Hall's Mills after those first settlers. In 1850, the name of the village was changed to Medusa, at that time the village contained a Methodist Episcopal and a "Christian" Church, a hotel, two stores, two mills for grain, turning works, an evaporator, paper mill, carpenter's shop, and two Blacksmith's shops.

Geography
Medusa is located at 42.43667°N, -74.13°W (42.4367469, -74.1301365) and its elevation is 804 ft.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 6.86 sqmi, of which 6.79 sqmi is land and 0.07 sqmi  (1.02%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 376 people, 147 households, and 104 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 55.4 PD/sqmi. There were 183 housing units at an average density of 27.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 99.20% White, 0.27% Native American, 0.27% Asian, and 0.27% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.27% of the population.

There were 147 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.9% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.6% were non-families. 21.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.04.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 25.5% under the age of 18, 5.6% from 18 to 24, 25.8% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.9 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $44,688, and the median income for a family was $50,000. Males had a median income of $35,833 versus $28,750 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,716. About 4.6% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.4% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.

title: Medusa, New York


text:
Menands, New York

Menands is a village in Albany County, New York, United States. The population was 4,554 at the 2020 census. The village is named after Louis Menand. The village lies inside the town of Colonie and borders the northern city line of Albany.

History
Menands would have been first spotted by Europeans circa 1609, when Henry Hudson dropped anchor somewhere near Cuyler or Pleasure Island during his voyage on the river later to be named after him. This would be the furthest north on the river that Hudson would go in the Half Moon. Today, those islands are connected to the mainland, and are the site of Interstate 787 exits 6 and 7, which includes the cloverleaf interchange with NY 378 and the Troy-Menands Bridge.

When the Erie Canal was constructed in the 1820s, it passed through what would become Menands. Bridges spanned the canal to allow access to the land between the canal and the Hudson. From north to south they were Richardson, Mix, Leary, Keyes, Kanes, Lundergans, Island Park, Delaware and Hudson Railroad, and Garbarance. Most of the names of the bridges were those of the neighboring farm owners.

Louis Menand settled in the village in 1842 and established an important horticultural business. He at first rented land that later became the Home for Aged Men, then in 1847 bought 11 acres of land where the Albany-Watervliet Turnpike (today Broadway) met the road going to Ireland's Corners (today Loudonville); that road is today called New York State Route 378. When the Albany and Northern Railroad was built in 1856, it established a stop in present-day Menands and named the stop "Menand's Crossing", since Menand was the only landowner in that area at the time. When the Albany and Northern became part of the Delaware and Hudson, a station was built at that stop and called "Menand's Station". In the early 1920s, rumors circulated that the city of Albany was going to annex the area, so on August 23, 1924, a vote was taken and the village of Menands was incorporated by a vote of 167 for and 47 against, the population of the new village at that time being 1,272 people. The boundaries of the new village were those of the 15th School District of the town of Colonie. The original boundaries did not include what are now the Sage Hill Lane, Sky Hollow, and Roost Country Estates; those were annexed later and continue to be in the North Colonie Central School District.

In 1938, the first large scale Federal Housing Administration (FHA) multiple housing project in Upstate New York was conceived by Harry D. Yates on 13 acre of land in Menands. The land was purchased for $20,000, from the Van Rensselaer family, which had owned it since 1639. Original plans called for 30 buildings, but cost overruns trimmed it to 13. All thirteen were named for historic people and locations in the Capital District; subsequent additions have kept to that tradition with the exception of Tremaine House, named for a former New York State Comptroller and Yates House for a former manager of Dutch Village.

In 1940, the now-defunct New York Herald Tribune declared Dutch Village to be "one of the most interesting scale housing developments in the East". The steeped roofs and brick construction were designed to reflect early Dutch architecture. Wards Lane at the time was small and unpaved on a steep slope, but by using money from a federal program designed to pave "farm to market" roads, the project was able to improve the road to Dutch Village without any cost to the village of Menands.

One of the largest printing plants in the eastern USA existed in Menands in the forties and fifties. Williams Press (aka: J. B. Lyons Co.) at its prime employed more than 1,000 people. Built on Broadway with rail tracks behind, Williams printed many of today's magazines such as Business Week, Sports Illustrated and many others, plus most of the New England telephone directories. They were forced to close because of labor issues, location constraints and outdated equipment.

The village's current motto, "Urban-Suburban Village", and its official seal, came into being as part of the village's 50th anniversary celebrations in 1974. The motto and seal were chosen based on contest entries submitted by local school children at Menands Elementary school. Two boys came up with the design for the seal, and the motto was chosen from an entry by a girl in the school's seventh grade class.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 3.4 sqmi, of which 3.2 sqmi is land and 0.2 sqmi  (6.45%) is water.

Menands is along the Hudson River on the west bank. The village is within the town of Colonie, which is also to the north and west, with the city of Albany to the south. The village is mostly flat with a gentle slope to the west.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,910 people, 1,906 households, and 968 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,225.1 PD/sqmi. There were 2,073 housing units at an average density of 649.5 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the village was 83.76% White, 9.10% African American, 0.13% Native American, 4.35% Asian, 0.95% from other races, and 1.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.71% of the population.

There were 1,906 households, out of which 20.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.5% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.2% were non-families. 43.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.79.

In the village, the age distribution of the population shows 18.5% under the age of 18, 5.1% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 26.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $48,456, and the median income for a family was $62,083. Males had a median income of $42,905 versus $31,745 for females. The per capita income for the village was $36,288. About 1.6% of families and 5.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Amusement
In the mid-late 19th and early 20th centuries, Menands was a popular destination for entertainment and amusement. Pleasure Island and Park Island (constructed in 1866) had trotting tracks and various entertainment venues. In 1884, the Island Park Association leased the race course, Island Park, directly north of Pleasure Island. It was considered one of the fastest and safest in the nation.

Among the festivities and activities at Pleasure Island were a two-mile (3 km) bicycle race, a sack race, barrel race, swimming exhibition, trotter race, and fireworks. In 1907 Al-Tro Island Park renovated Pleasure Island, Al-Tro was named for being halfway between Albany and Troy, and the park's manager boasted of surpassing Coney Island. The park had a 900 ft and 40 ft boardwalk, with amusements on each side. About halfway down the boardwalk was an amphitheater that could seat 4000, it was one of the largest in the state. At the time Al-Tro Park was considered the finest pleasure resort in northern New York. In the early 1920s Al-Tro closed and the concept was used in the late 1920s by nearby Mid-City Park, an amusement park along Broadway on the other side away from the river, it had a roller coaster, merry-go-round, roller skating rink, and swimming pool; it too would close after a few decades. It was replaced by the current Mid-City Shopping Center.

Baseball was also a popular entertainment venue in Menands bringing in spectators from across the region. Chadwick Park was home to the Albany Senators who played in the New York State League, Eastern League, International League, New York–Pennsylvania League, and the modern Eastern League. On May 30, 1924, the Senators played a double header at home against the Pittsfield Hillies, the first game lasted 9 innings but the second game went for 20, it is still one of the longest double headers by number of innings in professional baseball. In 1928 Chadwick Park was rebuilt, in 1929 it was renamed Hawkins Stadium, and in 1930 General Electric installed lights for night games.

It was at Hawkins Stadium that the New York Yankees played the Albany Senators in 1931 before a crowd of 6,300; Babe Ruth hit two home runs. The Senators folded in 1959. It too was demolished to make way for the Mid-City Shopping Center and a department type store, which would eventually close and be replaced by the New York State Office of Workers Compensation Board. From June 12, 1947, to September 2, 1963, Empire Raceways was a popular entertainment venue. It was a quarter mile paved oval track and was located close enough to the Hudson River that spectators would sit on the Troy-Menands Bridge and watch the races for free. The location would later become the site of a Two Guys Department Store and Interstate 787.

Two Guys was just one of the retail locations in Menands that made Menands a shopping destination for the surrounding area. In addition to Two Guys there was a Woolworth, Montgomery Wards, several grocery stores, and various other shops along Broadway. The Two Guys location on Broadway, located next to the Troy-Menands Bridge, was one of only two in the area, the other being in downtown Schenectady. Another retail landmark in Menands was the Montgomery Ward Retail Store and Warehouse built in 1929, it was one of nine similar buildings built in the 1920s, and one of four that still remain. The building had its own railroad spur that allowed boxcars to be unloaded inside, making delivery of goods to the building easier. Montgomery Wards left the building in the early 1980s. Today the building is office space, mostly geared towards state agencies. Woolworth was located at the Mid-City Shopping Center, it closed in 1997.

Important locations

 * Albany Rural Cemetery- though most of the cemetery is outside the village, a portion along Cemetery Drive purchased by the cemetery in 1920 is within the village
 * Troy-Menands Bridge- crosses the Hudson River and connects the village to the city of Troy
 * Riverview Center- former Montgomery Ward store and distribution center, today this Art Deco office building houses video game developers Vicarious Visions and state workers, and has 1000000 sqft of space. It also is the tallest building in the town of Colonie
 * Capital District Farmers Market- The Capital District Cooperative, Inc., created in 1933, is one of the largest farmers markets in the region
 * The Albany Felt Company Complex, Menand Park Historic District, Henry M. Sage Estate, and St. Agnes Cemetery are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Fire department
Menands has a local volunteer fire department. Menands Fire Co.#1 was founded March 3, 1923, and was incorporated in February 1931. In 1936, the Hudson Mohawk Volunteer Firefighters Association was founded at the Menands Fire Co. In 1983, Menands Fire Co.#1 moved into the new Fire House, adjacent to old Fire House. The old Fire House was renovated for use as the Menands Police Department and Village Court.

Police department
The first constable in Menands served in a part-time position. The first police chief was appointed by the Village Trustees in 1924, when the village was incorporated.

Notable people

 * George Deukmejian (1928-2018), 35th Governor of California, was born in Menands.

title: Menands, New York


text:
New Scotland, New York

New Scotland is a town in Albany County, New York, United States. The population was 9,096 at the 2020 census.

The town is southwest of Albany, New York, the state capital. New Scotland is centrally located in the county.

History
The town was settled around 1660. New Scotland was founded in 1832 from the west part of the town of Bethlehem.

The Bennett Hill Farm, Presbyterian Church in New Scotland and the New Scotland Cemetery, and Onesquethaw Valley Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 58.4 sqmi, of which 58.1 sqmi is land and 0.3 sqmi  (0.57%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,626 people, 3,341 households, and 2,509 families residing in the town. The population density was 148.6 PD/sqmi. There were 3,470 housing units at an average density of 59.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 98.17% White, 0.28% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.50% Asian, 0.20% from other races, and 0.66% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.87% of the population.

There were 3,341 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.6% were married couples living together, 9.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.9% were non-families. 20.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 2.98.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.9% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 29.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.4 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $58,956, and the median income for a family was $65,753. Males had a median income of $44,138 versus $33,941 for females. The per capita income for the town was $29,231. About 2.5% of families and 4.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.6% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over.

Communities and locations in New Scotland

 * Camp Pinnacle – A location in the northwestern part of the town.
 * Clarksville – A hamlet in the southwestern part of the town on Route 443.
 * Feura Bush – A hamlet in the southeastern section of the town, south of Unionville on County Rt. 32.
 * Meads Corner – A location southeast of Clarksville.
 * New Salem – A hamlet west of New Scotland village.
 * New Scotland – The hamlet of New Scotland is south of Voorheesville.
 * Tarrytown (also "Onesquethaw") – A hamlet south of Clarksville.
 * Unionville – A hamlet by the eastern town line with Bethlehem
 * Vly Creek Reservoir – A reservoir south of New Salem, now owned by the Town of Bethlehem.
 * Voorheesville – An incorporated village in the northern part of the town.
 * Wolf Hill – A hamlet at the western town line.

Town Board

 * Supervisor, Douglas LaGrange, Term to: December 31, 2021
 * Councilperson, Daniel Leinung, Term to: December 31, 2021
 * Councilperson, Adam Greenberg, Term to: December 31, 2021
 * Councilperson, Bridget Burke, Term to: December 31, 2023
 * Councilperson, William Hennessy, Jr., Term to: December 31, 2023

title: New Scotland, New York


text:
Lincoln Battalion

The Lincoln Battalion (Batallón Abraham Lincoln) was the 17th (later the 58th) battalion of the XV International Brigade, a mixed brigade of the International Brigades also known as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. It was organized by the Communist International and named after US President Abraham Lincoln who led the US during the American Civil War.

The Lincoln Battalion was formed by a group of volunteers from the United States who served in the Spanish Civil War as soldiers, technicians, medical personnel, and aviators fighting for Spanish Republican forces against the Nazi-supported forces of General Francisco Franco and his Nationalist faction. The Lincoln Battalion integrated white and black volunteers on an equal basis. Of the approximately 3,015 volunteers from the US, 681 were killed in action or died of wounds or sickness.

Creation

The Spanish Civil War was fought from July 17, 1936, to April 1, 1939, between the Republicans, who were loyal to the Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a rebel movement led by General Francisco Franco.

On July 26, just eight days after the revolt had started, an international communist conference was held in Prague to arrange plans to help the Republican Government. It decided to raise an international brigade of 5,000 men and a fund of 1 billion francs. At the same time, communist parties worldwide quickly launched a full-scale propaganda campaign supporting the Popular Front. The Communist International immediately reinforced its activity, sending to Spain its leader Georgi Dimitrov, and Palmiro Togliatti the chief of the Communist Party of Italy. From August onward, aid started to be sent from Russia, and over one ship per day arrived at Spain's Mediterranean ports carrying munitions, rifles, machine guns, hand grenades, artillery, and trucks. With the cargo came Soviet agents, technicians, instructors, and propagandists.

The Communist International immediately started to organize the International Brigades with great care to conceal or minimize the communist character of the enterprise, in the line of the Popular Front, and make clear the campaign was on behalf of progressive democracy. In keeping with Popular Front culture, the Americans named their units the Abraham Lincoln Battalion, the George Washington Battalion, and the John Brown Battery. Other countries used names like  "Garibaldi" in Italy. One hundred twenty-five American men and women also served with the American Medical Bureau as nurses, doctors, technicians, and ambulance drivers.

1937
Seeking assistance in combating the armed rebellion, the Republicans asked for volunteer fighters worldwide. Americans volunteered and arrived in Spain in 1937. Utilizing the name of Abraham Lincoln, the communist supporting men from the US formed the Lincoln Battalion, which was organized in January 1937 as part of the XV International Brigade. The Lincoln Battalion initially fielded three companies: two infantry and one machine gun. Sections of Latin American and Irish volunteers were included, organized as the Centuria Guttieras and the Connolly Column, respectively. After less than two months of training, the Lincolns took action in February 1937. Many of the volunteers recalled that training as "They give me a gun, and they give me 100 bullets, and they send me to fight."

The International Brigade was usually deployed as shock troops, resulting in high casualties. By the war's end, the Lincoln Battalion had lost 22.5% of its strength.

The Lincolns suffered heavy losses during the Battle of Jarama. On February 27, 1937, the unit lost two-thirds of its strength, including their commander, Robert Hale Merriman (who was badly wounded), in a futile assault on Nationalist positions. Merriman had begged Lieutenant Colonel Vladimir Ćopić (described as "rather inept") not to launch the attack, fearing slaughter. Ćopić insisted it proceed and promised air and armored support, which never came. Merriman was almost immediately wounded, and the Battalion suffered 136 deaths. The battalion remained in combat and was slowly rebuilt while maintaining its front-line positions. The unit was finally pulled out of the lines for a brief rest before the offensive at Brunete.

Joined by the newly trained George Washington Battalion, the XVth Brigade took action at Villanueva de la Cañada on the second day of the Brunete Offensive and secured the town after hard fighting. The Washingtons attacked the north end of the village, while the British and Dimitrov battalions attacked from the south.

The XVth Brigade then deployed against "Mosquito Ridge", but despite repeated assaults, they could not dislodge the Nationalist troops holding that critical piece of terrain. The Battalion's commander, Oliver Law, was killed during this action. The XVth Brigade again sustained heavy losses, and due to the high rate of casualties, the Lincoln and Washington Battalions were merged. Thereafter, the unit was officially known as the Lincoln-Washington Battalion, though it was more commonly referred to as the Lincoln Battalion.

During August, September, and October, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion fought in a series of battles in the Aragon Offensive. It fought well at both Quinto and Belchite. The engagement at Quinto was a combined arms action as the Lincoln-Washington Battalion was led into their second assault on the town by Soviet tanks, T-26 tanks, and Soviet crews. Belchite was a hard battle with house-to-house fighting that produced heavy casualties.

After Belchite, the XVth Brigade was again reorganized. The newly formed Canadian MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion joined the brigade, and the veteran Dimitrov Battalion departed. A majority of the volunteers in the "Mac-Paps" were Americans. On October 13, 1937, the XVth Brigade fought at Fuentes de Ebro. Men from the brigade's 24th (Spanish) Battalion rode Russian tanks into the attack. The remaining battalions were supposed to follow the tanks, but the attack fell apart because they did not coordinate their advance with the infantry. Casualties were especially heavy in the 24th and MacKenzie-Papineau Battalions. After Fuentes, the XVth Brigade was pulled back to a reserve position, receiving its first extended period of rest and relaxation since going into combat at Jarama.

In late December, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion was alerted for service at Teruel. The XVth Brigade was deployed to hold the recently captured city of Teruel against the expected Nationalist counterattack. The winter of 1937/38 was among the coldest on record, and many troops suffered frostbite during the campaign. The Lincoln-Washington's initially held positions overlooking Teruel that they called the North Pole. Later, they moved down into the city. During January, the Nationalists launched coordinated attacks against the Republican defenses. The XVth Brigade's British Battalion and MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion both lost an entire company attempting to hold the territory. Nationalist superiority in both numbers and materiel eventually pushed the XVth Brigade out of Teruel. The XV BDE, including the Lincoln-Washington Battalion, were pulled out of the line for rest after three weeks in the lines. But before the units could get to the rest areas, their trains and trucks were stopped, and they were redeployed to the front, where they participated in an offensive that was expected to relieve some of the pressure on Teruel. In a dawn attack, the XVth Brigade attacked a series of Nationalist fortifications at Segura de los Baños. While the attack succeeded, the Nationalist forces did not transfer any forces away from Teruel.

1938-1939

March found the Lincoln-Washington in reserve positions in Aragon. Their rest proved short-lived as the XVth Brigade was swept up in the disaster known as The Retreats. Nationalist forces punched through the Republican lines and drove to the sea, cutting the Republic in two. The Lincoln-Washington Battalion was dispersed, reformed, and dispersed again in a confused series of holding actions and retreats in which it lost most of its personnel killed, captured, or missing. Robert Merriman and Dave Doran, two of the highest-ranking American officers in the XVth Brigade, were presumed captured and executed as Nationalist forces normally executed all international prisoners. The remnants of the Battalion gathered on the far side of the Ebro River, where they were slowly reconstituted with a limited number of international volunteers from the hospitals and rear areas.

Spanish troops, many young conscripts, were drafted into the XVth Brigade's battalions to bring them fully up to strength. Spaniards were integrated into the Lincoln Battalion as early as Jarama. Spanish companies were added to the international battalions as the flow of volunteers from North America decreased. After the Retreats, Spanish troops were integrated across all battalions and comprised most of the XVth Brigade's strength in its last action.

In July 1938, the rebuilt Lincoln-Washington Battalion participated in the Ebro offensive. The XVth Brigade crossed the Ebro and rapidly advanced across the territory they had retreated through in March and April. However, the Nationalist forces quickly rallied, and the offensive stalled. The Republican troops returned to the defensive, contesting the area captured in the offensive.

On September 21, 1938, Juan Negrín, the Spanish prime minister, announced to the League of Nations the unilateral withdrawal of the International Brigades from battle. Juan Negrín was trying to negotiate peace as his only hope. He had been informed that the International Brigades were no longer of military value, and he had the vain hope that the Nationalists would withdraw their German and Italian troops. Franco would keep his Italian and German forces until the war's end.

On November 1, 1938, International Brigadists received a warm farewell from the people in Barcelona, where 250,000 people gathered to say goodbye to the international brigades for freedom. In a famous farewell speech, Dolores Ibárruri Pasionària declared, "You are history, you are legend, you are the heroic example of solidarity and the universality of democracy".

Surviving Americans from across Spain were sent to Ripoll, where the International Red Cross and the US government verified their nationality before repatriating them. Many were able to participate in the farewell activities, including a parade in Barcelona where the International Brigades were officially disbanded. Most American volunteers returned to the US between December 1938 and January 1939. American POWs were released after the fall of the Republican government, although the last POWs did not arrive in the United States until September 1939.

Composition
3,015 Americans manned the Lincoln Battalion and its successor, the Lincoln-Washington Battalion. While several of these volunteers also held citizenship in other countries, they identified primarily as Americans. Approximately 1,681 of these men also served in the Mackenzie-Papineau ("Mac-Pap") Battalion as heavy losses in both battalions led to mergers and transfers of men.

Many of the volunteers were either first or second-generation immigrants, and the battalion was overwhelmingly white. The average age of Americans who served in the Lincoln brigade was 27. Still, there were soldiers who arrived at the age of 16. Volunteers came from 46 out of 48 states in the United States, with New York City providing the single largest number of recruits, with 1/5th to 1/3rd being of or formerly from the city before going to Spain. Most of the volunteers who could speak Spanish were from either New York City or Ybor City located in Tampa, Florida.

Americans who applied were screened by the Communist Party USA with an in-person interview by a special committee. They would try to eliminate those who they believed "...lacked a political understanding of the anti-fascist struggle." and adventurers. In the Communist Party, joining the brigade was never mandatory. Secrecy was a high priority, and volunteers were only given minimal information by party leaders and only got information regarding their passports when they had passed their examination. The committee recommended volunteers provide false information about where they were traveling.

Americans usually entered Spain by first emigrating to France because the United States Government was not issuing visas to Spain as part of its non-intervention policy. Few American volunteers arrived after September 1937.

Battalion members fought for many different reasons. For the 85 African-American members of the battalion, the National forces represented some of the injustices they faced back in the US. The Nationalist army primarily consisted of colonial troops from Spain's African colonies or of conscripted blacks who were desperate to escape poverty. Furthermore, Franco was supported by the Italian army and air force, which had only recently conquered the African nation of Ethiopia. Several leaders characterized the war as a crusade against the "Africanization" of Spain, although it was the Nationalists who relied on African fighters. Langston Hughes, a journalist for the Baltimore Afro-American at the time, wrote, "Give Franco a hood, and he would be a member of the Ku Klux Klan." Though the Lincoln Battalion was predominantly white, it was integrated.

Most of the original volunteers in the battalion were communists or Soviet sympathizers. It is difficult to list exactly how many members of the battalion were communists because political ideology was not a litmus test for serving in the war. Historians and veterans of the battalion estimate that between 50 and 80% of the battalion were actively communist. It is certain, though, that the vast majority of the commanding officers were communists. Unlike most of their European counterparts, the Americans in the International Brigade were much more likely to be students and not to have ever seen military service before the war.

Not all combatants were motivated by ideological or political concerns. As Mo Fishman, a veteran of the battalion, recalled in 2006, "Some men were running away from bad marital or love situations, but what united all of us was that we hated fascism." Anti-fascism, more than any other single factor, is what motivated and united the volunteers of the Lincoln Battalion.

20th Battalion, 86th Brigade
An American company served in the 20th International Battalion that was attached to the 86th Mixed Brigade. This unit fought on the Cordoba Front. Most of the American volunteers were transferred from the unit to the XVth Brigade before the Brunete Offensive.

The George Washington Battalion
The Washington Battalion was the second American battalion. The unit was merged with the Lincoln Battalion during the Brunete Campaign. It was commanded by Mirko Marković, and its commissar was Dave Mates.

The MacKenzie-Papineau Battalion
Two-thirds of the nominally Canadian unit were Americans. Its first commander was Robert Thompson, an American veteran of the Lincoln Battalion. Joseph Dallet, also American, was the first Commissar.

2nd Squadron, First Regiment de Tren
The Regiment de Tren was a transportation unit supporting the Republican forces. The Second Squadron was predominately American. The commander was Durward Clark.

The John Brown Battery
This unit's official title was the 14th Battery, 2nd Group, 11th Regiment. It was a heavy artillery unit operating 155mm guns. The battery commander was Arthur Timpson, with Jack Waters as Commissar.

4th Group, 35th Battery
Initially, this unit operated 155mm guns but was later equipped with 45mm anti-tank guns, which were included in the 129th International Brigade. The battery commander was Nathan Budish, and his Commissar was Sid Kaufman.

American Medical Bureau
Organized by Dr. Edward K. Barsky, the American Medical Bureau (AMB) recruited doctors, dentists, nurses, administrators, and ambulance drivers to support the Spanish Republic. In its fundraising events, the names 'American Medical Bureau to Save Spanish Democracy' and 'Medical Bureau & North American Committee to Aid Spanish Democracy' were also used.

In the United States, the AMB staged events to shift public opinion away from supporting the aid boycott to the Spanish Republic imposed by the American government following the agreements of the Non-intervention Committee. In Spain, the AMB was assigned to hospitals and medical centers of the Spanish Military Medical Services (Cuerpo de Sanidad), such as the Gómez Ulla Military Hospital in Madrid, and also to front-line locations. AMB members, who also included women, treated both international as well as Spanish combatants.

By the end of the war, a majority of both the Spanish aid committees and the leadership councils of the AMB were women. Many women leaders in the aid movement were wives of prominent American leftists or soldiers in the Lincoln Battalion. Katherine Duncan, wife to Governor La Follette's secretary, and Peggy Dennis, a communist party leader, were leaders in the active Madison, Wisconsin chapter. Marion Merriman, wife to Abraham Lincoln Battalion commander Robert Merriman (the supposed inspiration of Hemingway's hero in For Whom the Bell Tolls), was the chairwoman of the extensive San Francisco branch of the organization. She and another woman, Fredericka Martin, are the only women to receive officer commissions from the Spanish Republic. Evelyn Hutchins, an active member of the AMB, agitated for years to be a hospital driver on the front-lines. Still, Spanish Republican policies prevented women from serving on the front-line until 1938, when Hutchins won the right to serve on the front-line as a driver. <!--==Internal conflict==

Volunteers in the Lincoln Battalion faced scrutiny and persecution from the very beginning from the U.S. Government, their commanding officers, Spaniards wary of foreigners, and the Comintern, which believed most of them to be Trotskyists.

Soldiers in the battalion went to Spain because they believed in overthrowing hierarchy and tyranny, and because of this, very few were supportive of the top-down command structure that the Spanish Republic imposed on them. Like other Republican units in the war, the Lincoln Battalion often required that most soldiers vote for orders before they were carried out. As a result, the Republic, guided by the Comintern, appointed political commissars or "comic stars" as the soldiers called them to instill discipline and morale. The commissars were infamous for leading forced chants of "professionalism, follow orders and faith in triumph". Volunteers often believed these commissars were secret informants seeking to purge disloyal soldiers.

As the war dragged on and defeat became more imminent, the battalion faced the same crisis of morale and desertion that the Republican forces as a whole did. One commanding officer in Aragon had to call for reinforcements to execute deserters because too few of his remaining men would cooperate. Republican commanders feared the possibility of the battalion disbanding or, worse, giving support to the Nationalists. The Republic began to incorporate new Spanish recruits into international units until the loyalty of the battalion could be ensured. By the war's end, more Spanish soldiers were serving in the Lincoln Battalion than Americans. There was much friction between the veteran Americans and the new Spanish recruits. Americans routinely mocked the untrained Spaniards.

Before the battalion even formed, the Comintern was suspicious of American Communists. Bertram Wolfe, a founder of the American Communist movement and eventual CO in the Lincoln Battalion, supported the POUM, a Spanish Communist Party critical of Moscow. As a result, the Soviet Union spied on Wolfe and all other American commanders during the Civil War. Throughout the war, the Comintern would purge at least 500 international combatants.

Once the Spanish Civil War ended in 1939, the veterans of the Lincoln Battalion were divided by the official Comintern policy of non-intervention in the war against Hitler. Until Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, Moscow ordered all communists to oppose joining the war in Europe between the Anglo-French alliance and Nazi Germany. Many veterans who had risked their lives fighting fascism believed that Hitler needed to be stopped immediately and not later. Milton Wolff, the leader of the communist-aligned veterans' organization of Americans, claimed that those who now supported war with Hitler had "[stabbed] Republican Spain in the back" by supporting countries like Britain and France. He and other American communists would assert that veterans who supported war had deserted the Republic, causing her defeat to the Nationalists. -->

Aftermath
During and after the Spanish Civil War, members of the brigade were generally viewed as supporters of the Soviet Union. After returning to the United States, many joined the Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade (VALB). However, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact caused a division among the Lincoln Brigade veterans. Some of them, adopting the official Communist line, joined with the American Peace Mobilization in protesting American support for Britain and France against Nazi Germany. Others, however, persisted with the anti-Fascist line which they had followed to Spain. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the VALB changed its stance and fully backed the war. Former Lincoln-Washington commander Milton Wolff volunteered in 1940 for the British Special Operations Executive and arranged the provision of arms for the European resistance organizations.

During the Second World War, the U.S. government considered former members of the brigade to be security risks. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover requested that President Roosevelt ensure that former ALB members fighting in U.S. Forces in World War II not be considered for commissioning as officers or to have any positive distinction conferred upon them. In 1947, the veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade were placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations. The veterans would be one of only five groups that would stay intact to at least 1970 after receiving this designation.

Once the US entered World War II, the Federal Bureau of Investigation recommended that all veterans of the Lincoln Battalion be denied military promotion to prevent communists from rising in the armed forces. After World War II ended, veterans of the Lincoln Battalion were denied military enlistment and government jobs. The House Un-American Activities Committee blacklisted the names of all veterans of the Lincoln Battalion. The Brigade was also included in the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations on April 29, 1953. Veterans were fired, spied upon, harassed, labeled communists to employers, denied housing, and refused passports for decades. The FBI has denied that it maintained any files on the veterans of the Lincoln Battalion, but veterans groups claim that the federal government is merely covering up its crimes.

In 1985, in an interview with Scripps-Howard editors, President Ronald Reagan said that most Americans believed that their fellow Americans who fought with the Loyalist forces were on the wrong side.

The last known surviving member of the Lincoln Battalion, Delmer Berg, died on February 28, 2016, at the age of 100.

Anthem: "Valley of Jarama"
Members of the XV International Brigade adapted a song by Alex McDade to reflect the losses at the Battle of Jarama. Sung to the tune of the traditional country song Red River Valley, it became their anthem.

Lincoln Battalion commanding officers

 * James Harris
 * Robert Hale Merriman
 * Martin Hourihan
 * Oliver Law
 * Mirko Markovics
 * Steve Nelson
 * Hans Amlie
 * Leonard Lamb
 * Phil Detro
 * David Morris Reiss
 * Aaron Lopoff
 * Milton Wolff

Lincoln Battalion commissars

 * Phil Bard
 * George Brodsky
 * Archie Brown
 * Dave Doran
 * Carl Geiser
 * David E. Jones
 * Fred Keller
 * Fred Lutz
 * Steve Nelson
 * Harry Haywood (Regimental Commissar)
 * John Q. Robinson
 * Sam Stember
 * George Watt

Other notable members

 * James Walker Benét – Author and journalist (San Francisco Chronicle).
 * Alvah Bessie – Hollywood screenwriter who was one of the Hollywood Ten.
 * Delmer Berg – Union organizer.
 * Herman Bottcher – Earned two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War II.
 * Edward A. Carter, Jr. – Earned the Medal of Honor in World War II.
 * Carmelo Delgado Delgado – Puerto Rican nationalist, among the first U.S. citizens to die in the war.
 * Leo Eloesser – Noted US thoracic surgeon.
 * Moe Fishman – Co-founder and executive secretary/treasurer of the Veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade.
 * John Gates – Political commissar of the battalion, later editor of The Daily Worker.
 * Robert Klonsky – One of the defendants in the Smith Act trial of the mid-1950s.
 * Conlon Nancarrow – Composer.
 * George Sossenko – Also fought in the Durruti Column.
 * Robert G. Thompson – Awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in World War II; among the 1950s Smith Act trial defendants.
 * Rolando Masferrer – Cuban politician and guerrilla leader
 * Harry Wayland Randall – Chief photographer of the Photographic Unit of the 15th International Brigade.
 * Walter Benjamin Garland – US Army veteran and radio producer, commanded a machine gun battalion.
 * William Herrick – Novelist.
 * William Lindsay Gresham – Novelist and non-fiction author particularly well-regarded among noir readers.
 * Eddie Balchowsky – Artist, poet, & pianist, and inspiration for Jimmy Buffett song "He Went to Paris".

Memorials and awards

 * Currently, four memorials are dedicated to the Abraham Lincoln Brigade veterans.
 * The first is located on the University of Washington campus in Seattle.
 * The second is in James Madison Park in Madison, Wisconsin.
 * A third memorial to the veterans of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade was dedicated on the Embarcadero in San Francisco, California on March 30, 2008. Among the speakers were San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom and a few of the several ALB veterans still living.
 * The fourth memorial commemorates the students and faculty of The City College of New York (CCNY) who fought in the Spanish Civil War, including the thirteen alums who died in that war. The memorial is located in the North Academic Center of CCNY.

In museums
In 2007, the exhibit Facing Fascism: New York and the Spanish Civil War at the Museum of the City of New York examined the role that New Yorkers played in the conflict, as well as the political and social ideologies that motivated them to participate in activities ranging from rallying support, fundraising, and relief aid, to fighting—and sometimes dying—on the front lines in Spain.

Suggested listening

 * Songs of the Spanish Civil War Vol. 2: Songs of the Lincoln Brigade (Folkways) (1962)
 * Songs of the Lincoln and International Brigades (Stinson) (1962)

title: Lincoln Battalion