text:
Cunard Line

The Cunard Line is a British shipping and cruise line based at Carnival House at Southampton, England, operated by Carnival UK and owned by Carnival Corporation & plc. Since 2011, Cunard and its four ships have been registered in Hamilton, Bermuda.

In 1839, Samuel Cunard was awarded the first British transatlantic steamship mail contract, and the next year formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company in Glasgow with shipowner Sir George Burns together with Robert Napier, the famous Scottish steamship engine designer and builder, to operate the line's four pioneer paddle steamers on the Liverpool–Halifax–Boston route. For most of the next 30 years, Cunard held the Blue Riband for the fastest Atlantic voyage. However, in the 1870s Cunard fell behind its rivals, the White Star Line and the Inman Line. To meet this competition, in 1879 the firm was reorganised as the Cunard Steamship Company Ltd, to raise capital.

In 1902, White Star joined the American-owned International Mercantile Marine Co. In response, the British Government provided Cunard with substantial loans and a subsidy to build two superliners needed to retain Britain's competitive position. Mauretania held the Blue Riband from 1909 to 1929. Her sister ship, Lusitania, was torpedoed in 1915 during the First World War.

In 1919, Cunard relocated its British homeport from Liverpool to Southampton, better to cater for travellers from London. In the late 1920s, Cunard faced new competition when the Germans, Italians and French built large prestige liners. Cunard was forced to suspend construction on its own new superliner because of the Great Depression. In 1934, the British Government offered Cunard loans to finish Queen Mary and to build a second ship, Queen Elizabeth, on the condition that Cunard merged with the then-ailing White Star Line to form Cunard-White Star Line. Cunard owned two-thirds of the new company. Cunard purchased White Star's share in 1947; the name reverted to the Cunard Line in 1950.

Upon the end of the Second World War, Cunard regained its position as the largest Atlantic passenger line. By the mid-1950s, it operated 12 ships to the United States and Canada. After 1958, transatlantic passenger ships became increasingly unprofitable because of the introduction of jet airliners. Cunard undertook a brief foray into air travel via the "Cunard Eagle" and "BOAC Cunard" airlines, but withdrew from the airline market in 1966. Cunard withdrew from its year-round service in 1968 to concentrate on cruising and summer transatlantic voyages for holiday makers. The Queens were replaced by Queen Elizabeth 2 (QE2), which was designed for the dual role.

In 1998, Cunard was acquired by the Carnival Corporation, and accounted for 8.7% of that company's revenue in 2012. In 2004, QE2 was replaced on the transatlantic runs by Queen Mary 2 (QM2). The line also operates Queen Victoria (QV) and Queen Elizabeth (QE). As of 2022, Cunard is the only shipping company to still operate a scheduled passenger service between Europe and North America.

In 2017, Cunard announced a fourth ship would join its fleet. This was initially scheduled for 2022 but delayed until 2024 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The ship has since been named MS Queen Anne.

Early years: 1840–1850
The British Government started operating monthly mail brigs from Falmouth, Cornwall, to New York in 1756. These ships carried few non-governmental passengers and no cargo. In 1818, the Black Ball Line opened a regularly scheduled New York–Liverpool service with clipper ships, beginning an era when American sailing packets dominated the North Atlantic saloon-passenger trade that lasted until the introduction of steamships. A Committee of Parliament decided in 1836 that to become more competitive, the mail packets operated by the Post Office should be replaced by private shipping companies. The Admiralty assumed responsibility for managing the contracts. The famed Arctic explorer Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed as Comptroller of Steam Machinery and Packet Service in April 1837. Nova Scotians led by their young Assembly Speaker, Joseph Howe, lobbied for steam service to Halifax. On his arrival in London in May 1838, Howe discussed the enterprise with his fellow Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard (1787–1865), a shipowner who was also visiting London on business. Cunard and Howe were associates and Howe also owed Cunard £300. Cunard returned to Halifax to raise capital, and Howe continued to lobby the British government. The Rebellions of 1837–1838 were ongoing and London realised that the proposed Halifax service was also important for the military.

That November, Parry released a tender for North Atlantic monthly mail service to Halifax beginning in April 1839 using steamships with 300 horsepower. The Great Western Steamship Company, which had opened its pioneer Bristol–New York service earlier that year, bid £45,000 for a monthly Bristol–Halifax–New York service using three ships of 450 horsepower. While British American, the other pioneer transatlantic steamship company, did not submit a tender, the St George Steam Packet Company, owner of Sirius, bid £45,000 for a monthly Cork–Halifax service and £65,000 for a monthly Cork–Halifax–New York service. The Admiralty rejected both tenders because neither bid offered to begin services early enough.

Cunard, who was back in Halifax, unfortunately did not know of the tender until after the deadline. He returned to London and started negotiations with Admiral Parry, who was Cunard's good friend from when Parry was a young officer stationed in Halifax 20 years earlier. Cunard offered Parry a fortnightly service beginning in May 1840. While Cunard did not then own a steamship, he had been an investor in an earlier steamship venture, Royal William, and owned coal mines in Nova Scotia. Cunard's major backer was Robert Napier whose Robert Napier and Sons was the Royal Navy's supplier of steam engines. He also had the strong backing of Nova Scotian political leaders at the time when London needed to rebuild support in British North America after the rebellion.

Over Great Western's protests, in May 1839 Parry accepted Cunard's tender of £55,000 for a three-ship Liverpool–Halifax service with an extension to Boston and a supplementary service to Montreal. The annual subsidy was later raised £81,000 to add a fourth ship and departures from Liverpool were to be monthly during the winter and fortnightly for the rest of the year. Parliament investigated Great Western's complaints, and upheld the Admiralty's decision. Napier and Cunard recruited other investors including businessmen James Donaldson, Sir George Burns, and David MacIver. In May 1840, just before the first ship was ready, they formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company with initial capital of £270,000, later increased to £300,000 (£0 in ). Cunard supplied £55,000. Burns supervised ship construction, MacIver was responsible for day-to-day operations, and Cunard was the "first among equals" in the management structure. When MacIver died in 1845, his younger brother Charles assumed his responsibilities for the next 35 years. (For more detail of the first investors in the Cunard Line and also the early life of Charles MacIver, see Liverpool Nautical Research Society's Second Merseyside Maritime History, pp. 33–37 1991.)

In May 1840 the coastal paddle steamer Unicorn made the company's first voyage to Halifax to begin the supplementary service to Montreal. Two months later the first of the four ocean-going steamers of the Britannia Class, departed Liverpool. By coincidence, the steamer's departure had patriotic significance on both sides of the Atlantic: she was named Britannia, and sailed on 4 July. Even on her maiden voyage, however, her performance indicated that the new era she heralded would be much more beneficial for Britain than the US. At a time when the typical packet ship might take several weeks to cross the Atlantic, Britannia reached Halifax in 12 days and 10 hours, averaging 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h), before proceeding to Boston. Such relatively brisk crossings quickly became the norm for the Cunard Line: during 1840–41, mean Liverpool–Halifax times for the quartet were 13 days 6 hours to Halifax and 11 days 4 hours homeward. Two larger ships were quickly ordered, one to replace the Columbia, which sank at Seal Island, Nova Scotia, in 1843 without loss of life. By 1845, steamship lines led by Cunard carried more saloon passengers than the sailing packets. Three years later, the British Government increased the annual subsidy to £156,000 so that Cunard could double its frequency. Four additional wooden paddlers were ordered and alternate sailings were direct to New York instead of the Halifax–Boston route. The sailing packet lines were now reduced to the immigrant trade.

From the beginning Cunard's ships used the line's distinctive red funnel with two or three narrow black bands and black top. It appears that Robert Napier was responsible for this feature. His shipyard in Glasgow used this combination previously in 1830 on Thomas Assheton Smith's private steam yacht "Menai". The renovation of her model by Glasgow Museum of Transport revealed that she had vermilion funnels with black bands and black top. The line also adopted a naming convention that utilised words ending in "IA".

Cunard's reputation for safety was one of the significant factors in the firm's early success. Both of the first transatlantic lines failed after major accidents: the British and American line collapsed after the President foundered in a gale, and the Great Western Steamship Company failed after Great Britain stranded because of a navigation error. Cunard's orders to his masters were, "Your ship is loaded, take her; speed is nothing, follow your own road, deliver her safe, bring her back safe – safety is all that is required." In particular, Charles MacIver's constant inspections were responsible for the firm's safety discipline.

New Competition: 1850–1879
In 1850 the American Collins Line and the British Inman Line started new Atlantic steamship services. The American Government supplied Collins with a large annual subsidy to operate four wooden paddlers that were superior to Cunard's best, as they demonstrated with three Blue Riband-winning voyages between 1850 and 1854. Meanwhile, Inman showed that iron-hulled, screw propelled steamers of modest speed could be profitable without subsidy. Inman also became the first steamship line to carry steerage passengers. Both of the newcomers suffered major disasters in 1854. The next year, Cunard put pressure on Collins by commissioning its first iron-hulled paddler, Persia. That pressure may well have been a factor in a second major disaster suffered by the Collins Line, the loss of its steamer Pacific. Pacific sailed out of Liverpool just a few days before Persia was due to depart on her maiden voyage, and was never seen again; it was widely assumed at the time that the captain had pushed his ship to the limit to stay ahead of the new Cunarder, and had likely collided with an iceberg during what was a particularly severe winter in the North Atlantic. A few months later Persia inflicted a further blow to the Collins Line, regaining the Blue Riband with a Liverpool–New York voyage of 9 days 16 hours, averaging 13.11 kn.

During the Crimean War Cunard supplied 11 ships for war service. Every British North Atlantic route was suspended until 1856 except Cunard's Liverpool–Halifax–Boston service. While Collins' fortunes improved because of the lack of competition during the war, it collapsed in 1858 after its subsidy for carrying mail across the Atlantic was reduced by the US Congress. Cunard emerged as the leading carrier of saloon passengers and in 1862 commissioned Scotia, the last paddle steamer to win the Blue Riband. Inman carried more passengers because of its success in the immigrant trade. To compete, in May 1863 Cunard started a secondary Liverpool–New York service with iron-hulled screw steamers that catered for steerage passengers. Beginning with China, the line also replaced the last three wooden paddlers on the New York mail service with iron screw steamers that only carried saloon passengers.

When Cunard died in 1865, the equally conservative Charles MacIver assumed Cunard's role. The firm retained its reluctance about change and was overtaken by competitors that more quickly adopted new technology. In 1866 Inman started to build screw propelled express liners that matched Cunard's premier unit, Scotia. Cunard responded with its first high speed screw propellered steamer, Russia which was followed by two larger editions. In 1871 both companies faced a new rival when the White Star Line commissioned the Oceanic and her five sisters. The new White Star record-breakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines. White Star also set new standards for comfort by placing the dining saloon midships and doubling the size of cabins. Inman rebuilt its express fleet to the new standard, but Cunard lagged behind both of its rivals. Throughout the 1870s Cunard passage times were longer than either White Star or Inman.

In 1867 responsibility for mail contracts was transferred back to the Post Office and opened for bid. Cunard, Inman and the German Norddeutscher Lloyd were each awarded one of the three weekly New York mail services. The fortnightly route to Halifax formerly held by Cunard went to Inman. Cunard continued to receive an £80,000 subsidy (equivalent to £0 in ), while NDL and Inman were paid sea postage. Two years later the service was rebid and Cunard was awarded a seven-year contract for two weekly New York mail services at £70,000 per annum. Inman was awarded a seven-year contract for the third weekly New York service at £35,000 per year.

The Panic of 1873 started a five-year shipping depression that strained the finances of all of the Atlantic competitors. In 1876 the mail contracts expired and the Post Office ended both Cunard's and Inman's subsidies. The new contracts were paid on the basis of weight, at a rate substantially higher than paid by the United States Post Office. Cunard's weekly New York mail sailings were reduced to one and White Star was awarded the third mail sailing. Every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday a liner from one of the three firms departed Liverpool with the mail for New York.

Cunard Steamship Company Ltd: 1879–1934
To raise additional capital, in 1879 the privately held British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company was reorganised as a public stock corporation, the Cunard Steamship Company, Ltd. Under Cunard's new chairman, John Burns (1839–1900), son of one of the firm's original founders, Cunard commissioned four steel-hulled express liners beginning with SS Servia of 1881, the first passenger liner with electric lighting throughout. In 1884, Cunard purchased the almost new Blue Riband winner SS Oregon (1883) from the Guion Line when that firm defaulted on payments to the shipyard. That year, Cunard also commissioned the record-breakers RMS Umbria and RMS Etruria capable of 19.5 kn. Starting in 1887, Cunard's newly won leadership on the North Atlantic was threatened when Inman and then White Star responded with twin screw record-breakers. In 1893 Cunard countered with two even faster Blue Riband winners, RMS Campania and RMS Lucania, capable of 21.8 kn. No sooner had Cunard re-established its supremacy than new rivals emerged. Beginning in the late 1860s several German firms commissioned liners that were almost as fast as the British mail steamers from Liverpool. In 1897 SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse of Norddeutscher Lloyd raised the Blue Riband to 22.3 kn, and was followed by a succession of German record-breakers. Rather than match the new German speedsters, White Star – a rival which Cunard line would merge with – commissioned four very profitable Big Four ocean liners of more moderate speed for its secondary Liverpool–New York service. In 1902 White Star joined the well-capitalized American combine, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), which owned the American Line, including the old Inman Line, and other lines. IMM also had trade agreements with Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Negotiators approached Cunard's management in late 1901 and early 1902, but did not succeed in drawing the Cunard Line into IMM, then being formed with support of financier J. P. Morgan.

British prestige was at stake. The British Government provided Cunard with an annual subsidy of £150,000 plus a low interest loan of £2.5 million (equivalent to £ in ), to pay for the construction of the two superliners, the Blue Riband winners RMS Lusitania and RMS Mauretania (1906), capable of 26.0 kn. In 1903 the firm started a Fiume–New York service with calls at Italian ports and Gibraltar. The next year Cunard commissioned two ships to compete directly with the Celtic-class liners on the secondary Liverpool–New York route. In 1911 Cunard entered the St Lawrence trade by purchasing the Thompson line, and absorbed the Royal line five years later. Not to be outdone, both White Star and Hamburg–America each ordered a trio of superliners. The White Star 'Olympic-class ocean liner liners at 21.5 kn and the Hapag 'Imperator-class ocean liner liners at 22.5 kn were larger and more luxurious than the Cunarders, but not as fast. Cunard also ordered a new ship, RMS Aquitania, capable of 24.0 kn, to complete the Liverpool mail fleet. Events prevented the expected competition between the three sets of superliners. White Star's Titanic sank on its maiden voyage, both White Star's  and Cunard's Lusitania were war losses, and the three Hapag super-liners were handed over to the Allied powers as war reparations.

In 1916 Cunard Line completed its European headquarters in Liverpool, moving in on 12 June of that year. The grand neo-Classical Cunard Building was the third of Liverpool's Three Graces. The headquarters were used by Cunard until the 1960s. In 1917, Cunard's facilities were co-opted by the War Office to build aircraft for the expanding Royal Flying Corps, later the RAF.

Due to First World War losses, Cunard began a post-war rebuilding programme including eleven intermediate liners. It acquired the former Hapag SS Imperator (renamed Berengaria) to replace the lost Lusitania as the running mate for Mauretania and Aquitania, and Southampton replaced Liverpool as the British destination for the three-ship express service. By 1926 Cunard's fleet was larger than before the war, and White Star was in decline, having been sold by IMM.

Despite the dramatic reduction in North Atlantic passengers caused by the shipping depression beginning in 1929, the Germans, Italians and the French commissioned new "ships of state" prestige liners. The German SS Bremen (1928) took the Blue Riband at 27.8 kn in 1933, the Italian SS Rex recorded 28.9 kn on a westbound voyage the same year, and the French SS Normandie crossed the Atlantic in just under four days at 30.58 kn in 1937. In 1930 Cunard ordered an 80,000-ton liner that was to be the first of two record-breakers fast enough to fit into a two-ship weekly Southampton–New York service. Work on "Hull Number 534" was halted in 1931 because of the economic conditions.

Cunard-White Star Ltd: 1934–1949
In 1934, both the Cunard Line and the White Star Line were experiencing financial difficulties. David Kirkwood, MP for Clydebank where the unfinished Hull Number 534 had been sitting idle for two and a half years, made a passionate plea in the House of Commons for funding to finish the ship and restart the dormant British economy. The government offered Cunard a loan of £3 million to complete Hull Number 534 and an additional £5 million to build a second ship, if Cunard merged with White Star.

The merger took place on 10 May 1934, creating Cunard-White Star Limited. The merger was accomplished with Cunard owning about two-thirds of the capital. Due to the surplus tonnage of the new combined Cunard White Star fleet many of the older liners were sent to the scrapyard; these included the ex-Cunard liner Mauretania and the ex-White Star liners RMS Olympic and RMS Homeric (1913). In 1936 the ex-White Star RMS Majestic (1914) was sold when Hull Number 534, now named RMS Queen Mary, replaced her in the express mail service. Queen Mary reached 30.99 kn on her 1938 Blue Riband voyage. Cunard-White Star started construction on RMS Queen Elizabeth, and a smaller ship, the second RMS Mauretania (1938), joined the fleet and could also be used on the Atlantic run when one of the Queens was in drydock. The ex-Cunard liner Berengaria was sold for scrap in 1938 after a series of fires.

During the Second World War the Queens carried over two million servicemen and were credited by Churchill as helping to shorten the war by a year. All four of the large Cunard-White Star express liners, the two Queens, Aquitania and Mauretania survived, but many of the secondary ships were lost. Both RMS Lancastria and RMS Laconia (1921) were sunk with heavy loss of life.

In 1947 Cunard purchased White Star's interest, and by 1949 the company had dropped the White Star name and was renamed "Cunard Line". Also in 1947 the company commissioned five freighters and two cargo liners. RMS Caronia (1947), was completed in 1949 as a permanent cruise liner and Aquitania was retired the next year.

Disruption by airliners, Cunard Eagle and BOAC-Cunard: (1950–1968)
Cunard was in an especially good position to take advantage of the increase in North Atlantic travel during the 1950s and the Queens were a major generator of US currency for Great Britain. Cunard's slogan, "Getting there is half the fun", was specifically aimed at the tourist trade. Beginning in 1954, Cunard took delivery of four new 22,000-GRT intermediate liners for the Canadian route and the Liverpool–New York route. The last White Star motor ship, MV Britannic (1929) of 1930, remained in service until 1960.

The introduction of jet airliners in 1958 heralded major change for the ocean liner industry. In 1960 a government-appointed committee recommended the construction of project Q3, a conventional 75,000 GRT liner to replace Queen Mary. Under the plan, the government would lend Cunard the majority of the liner's cost. However, some Cunard stockholders questioned the plan at the June 1961 board meeting because transatlantic flights were gaining in popularity. By 1963 the plan had been changed to a dual-purpose 55,000 GRT ship designed to cruise in the off-season. The new vessel design was known as Q4. Ultimately, this ship came into service in 1969 as the 70,300 GRT undefined.

Cunard attempted to address the challenge presented by jet airliners by diversifying its business into air travel. In March 1960, Cunard bought a 60% shareholding in British Eagle, an independent (non-government owned) airline, for £30 million, and changed its name to Cunard Eagle Airways. The support from this new shareholder enabled Cunard Eagle to become the first British independent airline to operate pure jet airliners, as a result of a £6 million order for two new Boeing 707–420 passenger aircraft. The order had been placed (including an option on a third aircraft) in expectation of being granted traffic rights for transatlantic scheduled services. The airline took delivery of its first Bristol Britannia aircraft on 5 April 1960 (on lease from Cubana). Cunard hoped to capture a significant share of the 1 million people that crossed the Atlantic by air in 1960. This was the first time more passengers chose to make their transatlantic crossing by air than sea. In June 1961, Cunard Eagle became the first independent airline in the UK to be awarded a licence by the newly constituted Air Transport Licensing Board (ATLB) to operate a scheduled service on the prime Heathrow – New York JFK route, but the licence was revoked in November 1961 after main competitor, state-owned BOAC, appealed to Aviation Minister Peter Thorneycroft. On 5 May 1962, the airline's first 707 inaugurated scheduled jet services from London Heathrow to Bermuda and Nassau. The new jet service – marketed as the Cunarder Jet in the UK and as the Londoner in the western hemisphere – replaced the earlier Britannia operation on this route. Cunard Eagle succeeded in extending this service to Miami despite the loss of its original transatlantic scheduled licence and BOAC's claim that there was insufficient traffic to warrant a direct service from the UK. A load factor of 56% was achieved at the outset. Inauguration of the first British through-plane service between London and Miami also helped Cunard Eagle increase utilisation of its 707s.

BOAC countered Eagle's move to establish itself as a full-fledged scheduled transatlantic competitor on its Heathrow–JFK flagship route by forming BOAC-Cunard as a new £30 million joint venture with Cunard. BOAC contributed 70% of the new company's capital and eight Boeing 707s. Cunard Eagle's long-haul scheduled operation – including the two new 707s – was absorbed into BOAC-Cunard before delivery of the second 707, in June 1962. BOAC-Cunard leased any spare aircraft capacity to BOAC to augment the BOAC mainline fleet at peak times. As part of this deal, BOAC-Cunard also bought flying hours from BOAC for using the latter's aircraft in the event of capacity shortfalls. This maximised combined fleet use. The joint fleet use agreement did not cover Cunard Eagle's European scheduled, trooping and charter operations. However, the joint venture was not successful for Cunard and lasted only until 1966, when BOAC bought out Cunard's share. Cunard also sold a majority holding in the remainder of Cunard Eagle back to its founder in 1963.

Within ten years of the introduction of jet airliners in 1958, most of the conventional Atlantic liners were gone. Mauretania was retired in 1965, Queen Mary and Caronia in 1967, and Queen Elizabeth in 1968. Two of the new intermediate liners were sold by 1970 and the other two were converted to cruise ships. All Cunard ships flew both the Cunard and White Star Line house flags until 4 November 1968, when the last White Star ship, Nomadic was withdrawn from service. After this, the White Star flag was no longer flown and all remnants of both White Star Line and Cunard-White Star Line were retired.

Trafalgar House years: 1971–1998

In 1971, when the line was purchased by the conglomerate Trafalgar House, Cunard operated cargo and passenger ships, hotels and resorts. Its cargo fleet consisted of 42 ships in service, with 20 on order. The flagship of the passenger fleet was the two-year-old Queen Elizabeth 2. The fleet also included the remaining two intermediate liners from the 1950s, plus two purpose-built cruise ships on order. Trafalgar acquired two additional cruise ships and disposed of the intermediate liners and most of the cargo fleet. During the Falklands War, QE2 and Cunard Countess were chartered as troopships while Cunard's container ship Atlantic Conveyor was sunk by an Exocet missile.

Cunard acquired the Norwegian America Line in 1983, with two classic ocean liner/cruise ships. Also in 1983, the Trafalgar attempted a hostile takeover of P&O, another large passenger and cargo shipping line, which was founded three years before Cunard. P&O objected and forced the issue to the British Monopolies and Mergers Commission. In their filing, P&O was critical of Trafalgar's management of Cunard and their failure to correct Queen Elizabeth 2's mechanical problems. In 1984, the Commission ruled in favour of the merger, but Trafalgar decided against proceeding. In 1988, Cunard acquired Ellerman Lines and its small fleet of cargo vessels, organising the business as Cunard-Ellerman, however, only a few years later, Cunard decided to abandon the cargo business and focus solely on cruise ships. Cunard's cargo fleet was sold off between 1989 and 1991, with a single container ship, the second Atlantic Conveyor, remaining under Cunard ownership until 1996. In 1993, Cunard entered into a 10-year agreement to handle marketing, sales and reservations for the Crown Cruise Line, and its three vessels joined the Cunard fleet under the Cunard Crown banner. In 1994 Cunard purchased the rights to the name of the Royal Viking Line and its Royal Viking Sun. The rest of Royal Viking Line's fleet stayed with the line's owner, Norwegian Cruise Line.

By the mid-1990s Cunard was ailing. The company was embarrassed in late 1994 when Queen Elizabeth 2 experienced numerous defects during the first voyage of the season because of unfinished renovation work. Claims from passengers cost the company US$13 million. After Cunard reported a US$25 million loss in 1995, Trafalgar assigned a new CEO to the line, who concluded that the company had management issues.

In 1996 the Norwegian conglomerate Kværner acquired Trafalgar House, and attempted to sell Cunard. When there were no takers, Kværner made substantial investments to turn around the company's tarnished reputation.

Carnival: from 1998–Present
In 1998, the cruise line conglomerate Carnival Corporation acquired 62% of Cunard for US$425 million. Coincidently, it was the same percentage that Cunard owned in Cunard-White Star Line and the company historian later stated the acquisition was in-part due to the success of James Cameron’s blockbuster 1997 film, Titanic. The next year Carnival acquired the remaining 38% and stock for US$205 million. Ultimately, Carnival sued Kværner claiming that the ships were in worse condition than represented and Kværner agreed to refund US$50 million to Carnival. Each of Carnival's cruise lines is designed to appeal to a different market, and Carnival was interested in rebuilding Cunard as a luxury brand trading on its British traditions. Under the slogan "Advancing Civilization Since 1840", Cunard's advertising campaign sought to emphasise the elegance and mystique of ocean travel. Only Queen Elizabeth 2 and Caronia continued under the Cunard brand and the company began Project Queen Mary to build a new ocean liner/cruise ship for the transatlantic route.

Following the Carnival acquisition, Cunard Line introduced White Star Service to Queen Elizabeth 2 and Caronia, as a reference to the high standards of customer service expected of the company. The term is still today onboard its newer vessels. The company has also created the White Star Academy, an in-house programme for preparing new crew members for the service standards expected on Cunard ships.

By 2001, Carnival was the largest cruise company, followed by Royal Caribbean and P&O Princess Cruises, which had recently separated from its parent, P&O. When Royal Caribbean and P&O Princess agreed to merge, Carnival countered with a hostile takeover bid for P&O Princess. Carnival rejected the idea of selling Cunard to resolve antitrust issues with the acquisition. European and US regulators approved the merger without requiring Cunard's sale. After the merger was completed, Carnival moved Cunard's headquarters to the offices of Princess Cruises in Santa Clarita, California, so that administrative, financial and technology services could be combined.

Carnival House opened in Southampton in 2009, and executive control of Cunard Line transferred from Carnival Corporation in the United States, to Carnival UK, the primary operating company of Carnival plc. As the UK-listed holding company of the group, Carnival plc had executive control of all Carnival Group activities in the UK, with the headquarters of all UK-based brands, including Cunard, in offices at Carnival House.

In 2004, the 36-year-old QE2 was replaced on the North Atlantic by the cruise ship RMS Queen Mary 2. Caronia was sold and Queen Elizabeth 2 continued to cruise until she was retired in 2008. In 2007 Cunard added Queen Victoria, a cruise ship of the Vista class originally designed for Holland America Line. To reinforce Cunard traditions, Queen Victoria has a small museum on board. Cunard commissioned a second Vista class cruise ship, Queen Elizabeth, in 2010.

In 2010, Cunard appointed its first female commander, Captain Inger Klein Olsen. In 2011, Cunard changed the vessel registry of all three of its ships in service to Hamilton, Bermuda, the first time in the 171-year history of the company that it had no ships registered in the United Kingdom. The captains of ships registered in Bermuda can marry couples at sea, whereas those of UK-registered ships cannot, and weddings at sea are a lucrative market.

On 25 May 2015, the three Cunard ships – Queen Mary 2, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria – sailed up the Mersey into Liverpool to commemorate the 175th anniversary of Cunard. The ships performed manoeuvres, including 180-degree turns, as the Red Arrows performed a fly-past. Just over a year later Queen Elizabeth returned to Liverpool under Captain Olsen to take part in the celebrations of the centenary of the Cunard Building on 2 June 2016.

In September 2017, Cunard announced a fourth ship was ordered for the fleet. It would be a modified hull platform of Holland America's Pinnacle class Koningsdam. The ship was original supposed to be delivered in 2022, but would eventually be pushed back 2 years.

At the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, Cunard cut short three world-cruises, with the passengers being flown home.

The White Star Line flag is raised on all current Cunard ships and the Nomadic every 15 April in memory of the Titanic disaster.

The new ship Queen Anne was delivered to Cunard on 19 April 2024, the first new ship for the line in over 14 years. She arrived in Southampton on 30 April 2024. The ship departed on her maiden cruise from Southampton to the Canary Islands on 3 May 2024, and she will be officially named in Liverpool in June.

Former fleet
The Cunard line has operated numerous ships during its long history.

Cunard Hotels
After Trafalgar House bought the company in 1971, Cunard operated the former company's existing hotels as Cunard-Trafalgar Hotels. In the 1980s, the chain was restyled as Cunard Hotels & Resorts, before folding in 1995.

title: Cunard Line


text:
National Security Strategy (United States)

The National Security Strategy (NSS) is a document prepared periodically by the executive branch of the United States that lists the national security concerns and how the administration plans to deal with them. The legal foundation for the document is spelled out in the Goldwater–Nichols Act. The document is purposely general in content, and its implementation relies on elaborating guidance provided in supporting documents such as the National Military Strategy.

Purpose
"The stated intent of the Goldwater–Nichols legislation is broadly accepted as valid for effective political discourse on issues affecting the nation's security—the Congress and the Executive need a common understanding of the strategic environment and the administration's intent as a starting point for future dialogue. That said, however, it is understood that in the adversarial environment that prevails, this report can only provide a beginning point for the dialogue necessary to reach such a 'common' understanding."

The requirement of producing this report along with the budget request leads to an iterative, interagency process involving high level meetings that helps to resolve internal differences in foreign policy agendas. However, "this report was not to be a neutral planning document, as many academics and even some in uniform think it to be. Rather it was ... intended to serve five primary purposes."

 * 1) Communicate the Executive's strategic vision to Congress, and thus legitimize its requests for resources.
 * 2) Communicate the Executive's strategic vision to foreign constituencies, especially governments not on the US's summit agenda.
 * 3) Communicate with select domestic audiences, such as political supporters seeking Presidential recognition of their issues, and those who hope to see a coherent and farsighted strategy they could support.
 * 4) Create internal consensus on foreign and defense policy within the executive branch.
 * 5) Contribute to the overall agenda of the President, both in terms of substance and messaging.

Where the incoming executive team has not formulated a national security strategy, such as an after an election in which foreign policy and defense were not important campaign issues, the process of writing the report can be of immense importance: "Few things educate new political appointees faster as to their own strategic sensings, or to the qualities and competencies of the 'permanent' government they lead within executive bureaucracies, than to have to commit in writing to the President their plans for the future and how they can be integrated, coordinated and otherwise shared with other agencies and departments. The ability to forge consensus among these competing views on direction, priorities and pace, and getting 'on board' important players three political levels down from the president is recognized as an invaluable, if not totally daunting, opportunity for a new administration."

2002 NSS
The National Security Strategy issued on September 17, 2002, contained the controversial Bush doctrine of pre-emptive war. It also contained the notion of military pre-eminence that was reflected in a 1992 Department of Defense paper, "Defense Policy Guidance", prepared by two principal authors (Paul Wolfowitz and I. Lewis Libby) working under Defense Secretary Dick Cheney. The NSS 2002 repeated and re-emphasized efforts to provide foreign aid to countries moving towards Western-style democracy, with the "ambitious and specific target" of "doubl[ing] the size of the world's poorest economies within a decade."

The Bush doctrine reflected an effort to move from the Cold War doctrine of deterrence to one that could deal with terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda as well as nation-states such as Iraq or Iran.

The document also treated AIDS as a threat to national security, promising efforts to reduce its spread and devastating effects.

2006 NSS
Published in March 2006, the final Bush White House NSS said it was based on two "pillars": "promoting freedom, justice, and human dignity" and "leading a growing community of democracies."

2010 NSS
On May 26, 2010, President Barack Obama. issued a new Strategy which was called by United Nations ambassador Susan Rice a "dramatic departure" from its predecessor. The Strategy advocated increased engagement with Russia, China and India. The Strategy also identified nuclear non-proliferation and climate change as priorities, while noting that the United States's security depended on reviving its economy. The drafters of the new Strategy made a conscious decision to remove terms such as "Islamic radicalism", instead speaking of terrorism generally.

The 2010 NSS said that in order to defeat al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan, the United States needs to engage in a large amount of interagency cooperation and communication with the Muslim population in Afghanistan and throughout the world. The objective of the National Security Strategy is to create a stable situation for the world, including those countries struggling with insurgencies. "The most effective long-term measure for conflict and resolution is the promotion of democracy and economic development." In order to promote democracy and economic development communication with the civilian population of the host-nation is essential. The Stability Operations Field Manual states that success depends on a U.S. ability to build local institutions and in the establishment of a legitimate permanent government, which builds trust between the citizens and the counterinsurgency personnel." The National Security Strategy establishes the interagency coordination in order to conduct useful public diplomacy to secure the population in the countries of Afghanistan and Iraq.

2015 NSS
On February 6, 2015, Obama issued a new NSS to provide "a vision and strategy for advancing the nation's interests, universal values, and a rules-based international order through strong and sustainable American leadership."

2017 NSS
The primary author of the 2017 National Security Strategy (NSS) was Nadia Schadlow, then-deputy national security adviser. Her work on the document and the inter-agency process that preceded it were well-received by foreign policy experts across the political spectrum. Delivered by President Donald Trump on December 18, 2017, the new document named China and Russia as "revisionist powers" while removing "climate change" as a national threat. It also characterized the world as a competitive arena rather than a "community of nations" or "international community" as previous documents had. NSS-2017 represents a break with past foreign policy doctrine. Brad Patty, an author for the conservative think tank Security Studies Group writes that, "My guess is that members of the Foreign Policy elite will encounter these first pages as a kind of boilerplate, even trite. Notice, though, that those two pages lead directly to a third page that repudiates the whole living body of American foreign policy thought."

About a year later, Schadlow would comment that the NSS had "achieved the state of mattering".

2021 NSS
In March 2021, President Joe Biden published the 2021 Interim National Security Strategy (NSS), which recommitted the United States to the NATO alliance and outlined the country's global priorities, concluding that the United States "must demonstrate that democracies can still deliver for our people. It will not happen by accident – we have to defend our democracy, strengthen it and renew it.."

2022 NSS
On October 12, 2022, the Biden Administration sent its classified National Security Strategy to Congress. According to an unclassified fact sheet released to the public, the strategy said the U.S. faced two strategic challenges: a post-cold war competition between superpowers and transnational challenges that range from climate change to global health issues. The document said that “the most pressing strategic challenge facing our vision is from powers that layer authoritarian governance with a revisionist foreign policy,” singling out China and Russia as presenting particular but different challenges.

The 2022 National Security Strategy is organized around three points:

 * 1) Invest ambitiously and rapidly in the sources of our national strength.
 * 2) Mobilize the broadest coalition of nations to enhance our collective influence.
 * 3) Shape the rules of the road of the 21st century economy, from technology, to cyber to trade and economics.

In the media

 * April 16, 2007, The CNA Corporation: National Security and the Threat of Climate Change

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:National Security Strategy (United States)

Expansion necessary
The present article does not at all do justice to the subject. Please feel free to draft an article which reflects (concisely please) the entire document. The Bush Doctrine is only a small part of the National Security Stategy, it deserves a brief mention, but it has its own article. User:Fredbauder — Preceding undated comment added 08:52, 29 September 2002

Trivia
The Obama team has purged the NSC page and the 2006 strategy is no longer there. Use Wayback! 212.188.108.32 (talk) 07:35, 13 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Likewise, coverage of the 2006 NSS has been removed from this article... as has any coverage of National Security Strategies before 2002, if there ever was any. Is anyone willing to find this information and add it? Robofish (talk) 23:03, 27 May 2010 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on National Security Strategy (United States). Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070417040832/http://securityandclimate.cna.org/ to http://securityandclimate.cna.org/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 07:50, 14 February 2018 (UTC)


text:
Bardanes

Bardanes (Βαρδάνης) may refer to:

 * Philippikos Bardanes (died 713), Byzantine emperor in 711–713
 * Bardanes Tourkos (died 803), Byzantine general and rebel
 * George Bardanes (died c. 1240), Byzantine bishop and theologian
 * Bardanes (moth), a genus of moths

title: Bardanes


text:
London Borough of Hillingdon

The London Borough of Hillingdon is a London borough in Greater London, England. It forms part of outer London and West London, being the westernmost London borough. It was formed in 1965 from the districts of Hayes and Harlington, Ruislip-Northwood, Uxbridge, and Yiewsley and West Drayton. The borough includes most of Heathrow Airport and Brunel University, and is the second largest of the 32 London boroughs by area.

The main towns in the borough are Hayes, Ruislip, Northwood, West Drayton and Uxbridge. Hillingdon is the second least densely populated of the London boroughs, due to a combination of rural land in the north, RAF Northolt Aerodrome, and Heathrow Airport.

History
The borough was created in 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, covering the combined area of the former Municipal Borough of Uxbridge, Hayes and Harlington Urban District, Ruislip-Northwood Urban District and Yiewsley and West Drayton Urban District. The area was transferred from Middlesex to Greater London to become one of the 32 London Boroughs. The councils involved were initially unable to decide upon a name, with Keith Joseph suggesting "Uxbridge" in October 1963, later revised to Hillingdon.

Governance
The local authority is Hillingdon Council, based at Hillingdon Civic Centre in Uxbridge.

The borough is divided into 21 wards: • Belmore

• Charville

• Colham and Cowley

• Eastcote

• Harefield Village

• Hayes Town

• Heathrow Villages (including Harmondsworth, Sipson and Harlington)

• Hillingdon East

• Hillingdon West

• Ickenham and South Harefield

• Northwood

• Northwood Hills

• Pinkwell

• Ruislip

• Ruislip Manor

• South Ruislip

• Uxbridge

• West Drayton

• Wood End

• Yeading

• Yiewsley

Greater London representation
Since 2000, for elections to the London Assembly, the borough forms part of the Ealing and Hillingdon constituency. The Conservative candidate Richard Barnes won the 2000, 2004 and 2008 elections, and since the 2012 election the Labour candidate Onkar Sahota has served as the Ealing and Hillingdon London Assembly member. At the same election in 2012 Conservative candidate Boris Johnson won the largest share of Hillingdon's votes, becoming elected Mayor of London for a second term.

Population
From 2001 to 2011 the borough's population grew by 11.5% (4.4% above the England and Wales mean of 7.1%). By comparison Merton and Bromley grew by 4.5% and Tower Hamlets grew by 26.4%. The number of households increased from 2001 to 2011 by 3.3%, and the average number of people per household was 2.7.

Ethnicity
37.1% of the borough's population identified themselves as White British in the 2021 census. In the south-east of the borough, in particular Hayes, there is a large population of South Asian residents.

The wards where Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Residents comprise the largest racial groups are:
 * Barnhill (partly covering eastern Hayes, south of Yeading),
 * Pinkwell (mostly the area around the railway station in southern Hayes),
 * Townfield (Part of eastern Hayes and west of Southall),
 * Yeading (Eastern Hayes)

Whites as a whole form 48.2% of the borough, Asian residents 33.3%, and Black residents 7.8%. In addition, the most common main language, English (77.9%), is followed by Punjabi (4.7%), Polish (1.7%), Tamil (1.6%) and Urdu (1.1%).

Parks and recreation
The borough maintains over 200 green spaces, totalling around 1800 acre. As much of the area is within the Metropolitan Green Belt it was, in 2008, one of the least densely populated of all the London boroughs; open spaces range in size from the Colne Valley Regional Park by the River Colne in the north of the borough, to smaller gardens and parks such as the Norman Leddy Memorial Gardens and Lake Farm Country Park in the south of the borough.

Council leader Raymond Puddifoot had given a promise that green-belt land in Hillingdon would be safe on his watch: 'I can give a categoric assurance that under this administration we will never see a threat to the green belt.' In August 2012, however, Mr Puddifoot announced plans to build on green-belt (and longtime common land) site Lake Farm in the south of the borough. Dismissing the discontent of residents in the south of the borough, the Conservative majority of the council's planning committee peremptorily rubber-stamped the plans in March 2013.

Harmondsworth Moor, a park owned by the borough, is administered by British Airways on behalf of the borough. After British Airways planned to create a new headquarters in 1992, the airline agreed to convert a former landfill site into Harmondsworth Moor.

The Grand Union Canal passes through Hayes, Yiewsley, Cowley and Uxbridge in the borough. Ruislip Lido was built as a feeder reservoir for the canal, but was eventually disconnected and changed to become a recreational lido. Two Sites of Special Scientific Interest next to the canal, Frays Farm Meadows and Denham Lock Wood, are managed by the London Wildlife Trust.

The borough also operates children's centres, recreational areas for children of under five years of age and their families. The centres include: Barra Hall, Belmore, Cherry Lane, Colham Manor, Cornerstone, Cowley St. Laurence, Harefield, Hillside, McMillan Early Childhood Centre, Nestles Avenue, Oak Farm, and Uxbridge College (Hayes Campus).

The borough owns four theatres: the Beck Theatre in Hayes (which is operated on behalf of the borough by Trafalgar Entertainment ), the Compass Theatre in Ickenham, the Winston Churchill Theatre and Hall (part of the Manor Farm site) and the Open Air Theatre in Barra Hall Park in Hayes.

Sport and leisure
The borough has seven Non-League football clubs: The borough is also home to Hillingdon Outdoor Activity Centre (HOAC), a water sports and activity centre. The centre is home to a number of independently run sports clubs:
 * A.F.C. Hayes, who play at Farm Park, Hayes.
 * Harefield United F.C., who play at Preston Park, Harefield.
 * Hayes & Yeading United F.C., who play at Skyex Community Stadium, Hayes.
 * Hillingdon Borough F.C. who play at the Middlesex Stadium, Ruislip.
 * Northwood F.C. who play at the Northwood Park Stadium, Northwood.
 * Uxbridge F.C. who play at Honeycroft, Yiewsley.
 * Wealdstone F.C. who play at Grosvenor Vale, Ruislip.
 * Queensmead Sailing Club
 * Hillingdon Rowing Club
 * Hillingdon Junior Canoe Club
 * Harrow Angling Club

Economic history
The south's former strong connection with industry has diminished since the 1980s to be replaced by a preponderantly residential suburban population; the north has remained a consistently residential suburban area, although with significant swathes of rural land. The borough's residential areas expanded with the extension of the Metropolitan Railway from Harrow on the Hill to Uxbridge in the early 20th century and the gradual establishment of stops along the line, becoming known as "Metro-land".

Contemporary economy
Hillingdon has a large economy by national standards, ranked 14th out of 408 local area districts in Britain, and ranked fifth out of the London boroughs.

British Airways is headquartered in Waterside, Harmondsworth, in Hillingdon. The building officially opened in 1998. Prior to the opening of Waterside, the airline's head office was the Speedbird House at London Heathrow Airport. An office of American Airlines is located at the Orient House (HAA3) within Waterside.

In 2007 Cadbury Schweppes announced it would be moving to Uxbridge from Mayfair to cut costs. The company later split and Cadbury plc moved to its new head office in Cadbury House in the Uxbridge Business Park in June 2008.

Guoman Hotel Management (UK) Limited has its head office in the Thistle London Heathrow in West Drayton.

British Midland International had its training centre in Stockley Close, West Drayton. Hellenic Imperial Airways had its United Kingdom offices in the Axis House in Harlington. China Airlines had its UK office in the Hyde Park Hayes 3 (HPH3) in Hayes.

One of the predecessor organisations of British Airways, British Overseas Airways Corporation, had its head office in Speedbird House. The other predecessor, British European Airways, had its headquarters in South Ruislip, as did BEA Helicopters. During its existence the airline British Eagle had its head office on the grounds of Heathrow Airport.

A 2017 study by Trust for London and New Policy Institute found that there is a 22% poverty rate in Hillingdon, slightly below the London-wide figure of 27%. It also found that 24% of Hillingdon's local employees are low-paid, narrowly above the London average of 21%.

Government facilities
London Heathrow airport is located in the borough and is one of the busiest airports in the world. It was originally used by the Royal Air Force. The British Government's UK Visas and Immigration has two immigration removal centres: Colnbrook Immigration Removal Centre and Harmondsworth Immigration Removal Centre in Harmondsworth.

The borough includes RAF Northolt and the former sites of RAF Eastcote, RAF South Ruislip, RAF West Drayton, RAF Ruislip 4MU, RAF West Ruislip and RAF Uxbridge.

Education
The borough maintains 17 libraries: Charville, Eastcote, Harefield, Harlington, Hayes End, Hayes, Ickenham, Manor Farm, Northwood Hills, Northwood, Oak Farm, Ruislip Manor, South Ruislip, Uxbridge, West Drayton, Yeading, and Yiewsley.

Hillingdon has undertaken the largest school expansion programme in London, ensuring that all children within the borough can go to a school close to where they live.

In May 2011, Hillingdon Council received the Library Innovation of the Year award at the 2011 Bookseller Industry Awards.

Also within the borough are Brunel University and Uxbridge College's Uxbridge and Hayes campuses, as well as the Douay Martyrs Catholic Secondary School and St Bernadette Catholic Primary School.

The London Borough of Hillingdon also offers music lessons as part of the Hillingdon Music Service.

Transport

National Rail and London Underground stations in the borough are:
 * Eastcote tube station
 * Hatton Cross tube station
 * Hayes and Harlington railway station
 * Heathrow Central railway station
 * Heathrow Terminals 1, 2, 3 tube station
 * Heathrow Terminal 4 railway station
 * Heathrow Terminal 4 tube station
 * Heathrow Terminal 5 station
 * Hillingdon tube station
 * Ickenham tube station
 * Northwood Hills tube station
 * Northwood tube station
 * Ruislip Gardens tube station
 * Ruislip Manor tube station
 * Ruislip tube station
 * South Ruislip station
 * Uxbridge tube station
 * West Ruislip station
 * West Drayton railway station

In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: driving a car or van, 34.5% of all residents aged 16–74; Underground, metro, light rail, tram, 7.9%; bus, minibus or coach, 7.9%; on foot, 4.6%; train, 2.8%; work mainly at or from home, 2.6%; passenger in a car or van, 2.0%.

The Royal Air Force station RAF Northolt is situated in South Ruislip near the A40 and the tube station. Most early RAF airfields were named after the nearest railway station; in this case Northolt Junction, the original name of South Ruislip station. The station has been redeveloped in recent years to house a number of additional military capabilities besides the RAF operations, and is popular with business people and politicians for private flights.

Town twinning
Hillingdon is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Mantes-la-Jolie, France
 * 🇩🇪 Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

The borough has been twinned with the French town of Mantes-la-Jolie and the German town of Schleswig since the Hayes & Harlington Urban District created the link in 1958. The twinning programme was reviewed in 2011 and it was suggested that the link with Schleswig be ended owing to a lack of contact between the towns. In December 2011, the borough decided instead to end the link with a second German town, Emden, citing administrative problems.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms for the London Borough of Hillingdon was granted on 22 March 1965. Between 1973 and 1978, the borough's civic centre was built in Uxbridge.

Notes and references

 * Notes

 * References

 * Bibliography
 * Cotton, Carolynne. (1994) Uxbridge Past. London: Historical Publications ISBN 0-948667-30-3

title: London Borough of Hillingdon


text:
London Borough of Newham

The London Borough of Newham is a London borough created in 1965 by the London Government Act 1963. It covers an area previously administered by the Essex county boroughs of West Ham and East Ham, authorities that were both abolished by the same act. The name Newham reflects its creation and combines the compass points of the old borough names. Situated in the Inner London part of East London, Newham has a population of 387,576, which is the fourth highest of the London boroughs and also makes it the 26th most populous district in England. The local authority is Newham London Borough Council.

It is 5 mi east of the City of London, north of the River Thames (the Woolwich Ferry and Woolwich foot tunnel providing the only crossings to the south), bounded by the River Lea to its west and the North Circular Road to its east. Newham was one of the six host boroughs for the 2012 Summer Olympics and contains most of the Olympic Park including the London Stadium, and also contains the London City Airport. Major districts include East Ham, West Ham, Stratford, Plaistow, Forest Gate, Beckton and Canning Town.

History
The borough was formed on 1 April 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, as a borough of the newly formed Greater London. It broadly covered the areas of the county borough of East Ham and the county borough of West Ham that were abolished by the same act. These in turn were successors to the ancient civil and ecclesiastical parishes of East Ham and West Ham. Green Street and Boundary Road mark the former boundary between the two.

North Woolwich also became part of the borough (previously part of the Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich, the majority of which lay south of the River Thames), as did a small area around Gallions Reach west of the River Roding which had previously been part of the Municipal Borough of Barking. East Ham, West Ham and Barking had all historically been part of the county of Essex, whilst Woolwich had been part of Kent prior to becoming part of the County of London in 1889. Newham was devised for the borough as an entirely new name.

Manor of Ham
The area of the modern borough was at one time occupied by a manor (an estate or landholding with certain legal responsibilities) called 'Ham'. The name comes from Old English 'hamm' and means 'a dry area of land between rivers or marshland', referring to the location of the settlement within boundaries formed by the rivers Lea, Thames and Roding and their marshes.

The first known written use of the term, as 'Hamme', is in an Anglo-Saxon charter of 958, in which King Edgar granted the area to Ealdorman Athelstan. The territory was undivided at that time. A subsequent charter of 1037 describes a transfer of land which has been identified with East Ham, indicating that the division of the territory occurred between 958 and 1037.

The Domesday Book shows landholdings divided further, and by the end of the 12th century these manors were being served, singly or in groups of manors, by the familiar ancient parishes of West Ham, East Ham and Little Ilford (now also known as Manor Park), with some areas by the Roding a part of Barking, and the area now known as North Woolwich attached to Woolwich. The earliest recorded use of the name West Ham, Westhamma, comes in 1186, and East Ham, Estham, is recorded in 1204.

The boundary between West and East Ham was drawn from the now lost Hamfrith Waste and Hamfrith Wood in the north (then the southernmost parts of Epping Forest which extended as far south as the Romford Road at that time), along Green Street down to the small, also lost, natural harbour known as Ham Creek. Ham Creek was filled-in in the nineteenth century, but the small residual head of the creek still formed the boundary between the two areas into the late 20th century, when what remained was also filled in.

The formation of the modern borough in 1965 saw the merger of West and East Ham, together with North Woolwich and Barking west of the River Roding. Little Ilford had become part of East Ham as part of earlier local government reorganisations.

Medieval period
The prosperity of the area increased due to the construction of Bow Bridge, the only bridge over the Lea, and the creation of Stratford Langthorne Abbey.

Governance
The local authority is Newham Council, which meets at Newham Town Hall in East Ham and has its main offices at 1000 Dockside Road, overlooking the Royal Albert Dock. Since 2002 the council has been led by a directly elected Mayor of Newham.

Greater London representation
Since 2000, for elections to the London Assembly, the borough forms part of the City and East constituency.

Population figures
Newham has, after Barnet and Croydon, the third highest population of the London boroughs, with a population numbering 382,984 as of 2021. Despite growing since the 1980s, it is still drastically lower than its pre-war peak. In the period between 1951 and 1981, Newham's population shrunk by 28.87% owing to factors such as the war bombings and the increasingly high unemployment. The redevelopment of the Docklands as well as development related to the 2012 Olympics have contributed to reversing its declining trend.

Ethnicities
Newham has the youngest overall population and one of the lowest White British populations in the country according to the 2011 UK Census. The borough has the second-highest percentage of Muslims in the UK, after the neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets, at 32%. A 2017 report from Trust for London and the New Policy Institute found that 36% of local employees in Newham are in low paid work; the highest percentage of any London borough. Newham also has a 37% poverty rate, which is the second-highest rate in London.

Newham is very ethnically diverse. When using Simpson's Diversity Index on 10 aggregated ethnic groups, the 2001 UK Census identified Newham as the most ethnically diverse district in England and Wales, with 9 wards in the top 15. However, when using the 16 ethnic categories in the Census so that White Irish and White Other ethnic minorities are also included in the analysis, Newham becomes the second-most ethnically diverse borough with six out of the top 15 wards, behind Brent with 7 out of the top 15 wards.

Newham has the lowest percentage of both total White and White British residents of all of London's boroughs. The joint-lowest wards with White British population are Green Street East and Green Street West, each having 4.8% – the third-lowest behind Southall Broadway and Southall Green in Ealing. East Ham North follows closely, at 4.9%.

As of the 2021 UK census, people of "Bangladeshi" ethnicity are the largest single group in the borough at 15.9%. "White British" are the second largest group at 14.8%, with "White Other" third largest at 14.6%, "African" fourth largest at 11.6%, "Indian" next largest at 11% and then "Pakistani" at 8.9%. Newham has had a large Asian community for many decades; more than half of Newham's Upton and Kensington wards were of ethnic minority origin in 1981. The nationality to increase the most in number since 1991 is the Bangladeshi community. Newham has the largest total population of Asian origin in London; it is notably a borough with high populations of all three largest British Asian nationalities, having the 5th highest Indian population in London and the 2nd highest each for both Pakistani and Bangladeshi.

Newham has 1,340 residents who were born in Ukraine, the highest population of Ukrainians in the UK.

Health
In 2018, Newham had the lowest life expectancy and the highest rate of heart disease of all London boroughs together with the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.

In 2019, the BBC reported that Newham had the highest rate of tuberculosis in the UK at 107 per $100,000$ population, which was higher than Rwanda (69) and Iraq (45) according to WHO figures from 2013. More than 80% of TB cases in London occur in people born abroad. The UK average was 13.

Religion

The following table shows the religious identity of residents residing in Newham according to the 2001, 2011 and the 2021 censuses.

Education
A 2017 report by Trust for London and the New Policy Institute finds that the GCSE attainment gap between advantaged and disadvantaged pupils in Newham is the 4th best out of 32 London boroughs.

Schools and colleges
The Borough is the education authority for the district providing education in a mix of Foundation, community and voluntary aided schools. The borough also owns and operates Debden House, a residential adult education college in Loughton, Essex, and is home to the Rosetta Art Centre, a dedicated visual art organisation which delivers courses at its base in Stratford and produces participatory art projects, programmes and initiatives. The Essex Primary School in Sheridan Road with over 900 pupils is one of the biggest primary schools in London.

University
The University of East London has two campuses in Newham:
 * the Stratford Campus, at Stratford
 * the Docklands Campus, next to the regenerated Royal Albert Dock

Birkbeck Stratford is a collaboration between Birkbeck, University of London and UEL to increase participation in adult learning. This is based on the UEL/Birkbeck shared campus, USS (University Square Stratford), in the centre of Stratford.

The University of East London had formed a partnership with the United States Olympic Committee which resulted in the United States Olympic Team using University of East London campuses as training bases during the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games.

Community

 * The Hub, a community resource centre built by the local community, in Star Lane, E16, featuring up to the minute "green" features
 * Grassroots, another innovative green resource centre built by the community. Grassroots is in Memorial Recreation Ground, E15
 * Rosetta Art Centre, situated in walking distance to Grassroots, also in E15

Libraries
Newham has ten libraries (Beckton, Canning Town, Custom House, East Ham, Green Street, Manor Park, North Woolwich, Plaistow, Stratford and Forest Gate).

Museums

 * North Woolwich Old Station Museum. Closed in 2008.
 * Three Mills, a mill complex on the east bank of the River Lea. A trading site for nearly a thousand years, the House Mill was built in 1776 and was (and remains) the country's largest tide mill. It has been restored and contains much of its original machinery including four large waterwheels, millstones and grain chutes.

Markets
There are a number of local markets in the Borough, including Queens Market, which the council was controversially seeking to redevelop. The proposal was successfully opposed by Friends of Queens Market.

Parks and open spaces
80 hectares within the borough are designated as part of the Metropolitan Green Belt.

Performance

 * Stratford Circus Arts Centre, a community arts venue which presents theatre, dance, music, circus and comedy from around the world for communities in Newham and East London. The organisation works with schools and local groups in Newham to provide classes, workshops and outreach opportunities. Stratford Circus Arts Centre partners with Newham Council for Every Child a Theatre Goer which invites every year 6 child to a performance at the venue
 * Theatre Royal Stratford East
 * St Mark's Church, Silvertown The church was designed by Samuel Saunders Teulon. It was built between 1861 and 1862 after a cholera epidemic swept the district and local clergy appealed through the columns of The Times for funds to provide an architectural, as well as spiritual, beacon for the area. It is now the home of the Brick Lane Music Hall.

Shopping and exhibitions

 * Queen's Market – an historic street market
 * ICC London – ExCeL – International Conference Centre
 * Gallions Reach Shopping Park
 * East Shopping Centre – Europe's first purpose-built boutique Asian shopping centre
 * Green Street – a shopping street mostly catering for the Asian community
 * Stratford Centre
 * Westfield Shopping Centre, Stratford – The largest Westfield Shopping Centre in Europe.

Sport

 * Newham was one of the six host boroughs for the 2012 Summer Olympics
 * West Ham United F.C. plays its home matches at the London Stadium (formerly the Olympic Stadium) in Stratford
 * The Newham and Essex Beagles Athletics Club has its headquarters at the London Marathon Community Track in Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park adjacent to the London Stadium.
 * Clapton F.C., a non-league football club, plays at the Terence McMillan Stadium in Plaistow
 * Clapton Community F.C., a fan-owned non-league football team in Forest Gate, playing at The Old Spotted Dog Ground
 * Athletic Newham F.C., a non-league football club, plays at the Terence McMillan Stadium in Plaistow
 * London APSA F.C., a non-league football club, plays at the Flanders Playing Fields in Napier Road, East Ham
 * London Regatta Centre, a charitable organisation promoting water sports such as rowing and dragon boats, is in Beckton

Newspapers
The local newspaper is the Newham Recorder.

Districts
See List of districts in the London Borough of Newham for the full list, including neighbourhoods or localities which form part of the areas listed below.

 * Beckton
 * Canning Town
 * Custom House
 * East Ham
 * Forest Gate
 * Manor Park
 * North Woolwich
 * Plaistow
 * Silvertown
 * Stratford
 * Upton Park
 * West Ham

Parishes
The borough is covered by the following ecclesiastical parishes of the Church of England:

 * Parish of the Divine Compassion, Plaistow and North Canning Town
 * St Martin's Church, Plaistow
 * St Mary's Church, Plaistow
 * St Philip and St James Church, Plaistow
 * St Matthias' Church, Canning Town
 * St Luke's Church, Canning Town
 * Church of the Ascension, Victoria Docks
 * St John's Church, North Woolwich
 * St Mark's Church, Beckton
 * Parish of East Ham, Holy Trinity
 * St Bartholomew's Church, East Ham
 * St Mary Magdalene's Church, East Ham
 * St Alban's Church, Upton Park
 * St Edmund's Church, Forest Gate
 * St George's and St Ethelbert's Church, East Ham
 * St Paul's Church, East Ham
 * Little Ilford
 * St Mary's Church, Little Ilford
 * St Michael's Church, Romford Road
 * St Barnabas, Little Ilford
 * Emmanuel Forest Gate, with St Peter's, Upton Cross
 * St Mark's Church, Forest Gate
 * St Saviour and St James, Forest Gate
 * St Margaret with St Columba, Leytonstone
 * St Paul and St James, Stratford
 * St John with Christchurch, Stratford
 * All Saints Church, West Ham

Transport
Since the 1980s, public transport in Newham has undergone many upgrades and improvements are still continuing to this day.

The Docklands Light Railway (DLR) first opened in 1987, and was extended from Tower Hamlets through to Beckton in 1994. The network has undergone many extensions since, including to serve London City Airport, as well as Stratford International station in 2011 after its High Speed 1 link opened in late 2009. The Jubilee Line Extension was completed in 1999, including new or improved stations at Canning Town, West Ham and Stratford. The DLR network compensates for Newham's lack of tube stations, of which there are only 6, in comparison with other London boroughs. The Crossrail scheme - opening as the Elizabeth line in 2022 - also delivered improved rail connections to several stations as it heads through the borough on an east west axis. Of the 28 stations in Newham, only 4 stations lack step free access - thanks to the recent age of many of the stations in the borough.

As a result of all the recent developments, the borough contains one of only two airports located within the Greater London boundary and currently the only railway station outside of central London that is served by high speed rail.

List of stations

 * Abbey Road DLR station
 * Beckton DLR station
 * Beckton Park DLR station
 * Cyprus DLR station
 * Canning Town station – Jubilee line and DLR
 * Custom House station - Elizabeth line and DLR
 * East Ham tube station – District and Hammersmith & City lines
 * Forest Gate railway station – Elizabeth line
 * Gallions Reach DLR station
 * King George V DLR station
 * London City Airport DLR station
 * Manor Park railway station – Elizabeth line
 * Maryland railway station – Elizabeth line
 * Plaistow tube station – District and Hammersmith & City lines
 * Pontoon Dock DLR station
 * Prince Regent DLR station
 * Royal Albert DLR station
 * Royal Victoria DLR station
 * Star Lane DLR station
 * Stratford station – Abellio Greater Anglia, c2c, Elizabeth line, Jubilee and Central lines, London Overground and DLR
 * Stratford High Street DLR station
 * Stratford International station – Southeastern, DLR
 * Pudding Mill Lane DLR station
 * Upton Park tube station – District and Hammersmith & City lines
 * Wanstead Park railway station – London Overground
 * West Ham station – c2c, Jubilee, District and Hammersmith & City lines, and DLR
 * West Silvertown DLR station
 * Woodgrange Park railway station – London Overground

Travel to work
In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: underground, metro, light rail, tram, 23.0% of all residents aged 16–74; driving a car or van, 7.6%; bus, minibus or coach, 7.6%; train, 7.2%; on foot, 4.1%; work mainly at or from home, 1.4%; bicycle, 1.0%.

River services

 * Woolwich Ferry
 * Royal Wharf

Cable car

 * London Cable Car

International services

 * Dutchflyer rail-sea service via Stratford station to the Netherlands
 * London City Airport
 * Stratford International station (No Eurostar trains stop) Bus Route 304 in Newham, London.jpg

Bus routes
Over 30 London Buses bus routes serve the London Borough of Newham, with main interchanges at Stratford, Stratford City and Beckton bus stations, with large bus interchanges also available at East Ham and Upton Park.

Town twinning
Newham is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Kaiserslautern, Germany

Coat of arms
The borough adopted West Ham's coat of arms, but with a motto adapted from that of East Ham.

The arms include the following elements:
 * The crosier signified the Cistercian Stratford Langthorne Abbey.
 * The sword and the red and yellow chevronells are taken from the arms of William de Montfitchet, a major local landowner and founder of the abbey.
 * The crossed hammers represent the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company, once a major local employer.
 * The ship in full sail represents the maritime trades and the area's links to the sea.
 * The arms also include a sun rising in the east.

The borough's motto, "Progress with the People" is an English translation of East Ham's Latin "Progressio cum Populo".

Freedom of the Borough
The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Newham.

Individuals

 * Sir Jack Petchey: 27 May 2010.
 * Mark Noble: 15 December 2016.

Military Units

 * G Company 7th Battalion The Rifles: 23 June 2012.

title: London Borough of Newham


text:
Plaistow, Newham

Plaistow ( or  )  is a suburban area of East London, England, within the London Borough of Newham. It adjoins Upton Park to the north, East Ham to the east, Beckton to the south, Canning Town to the south-west and West Ham to the west.

It was originally a ward in the parish of West Ham, hundred of Becontree, and part of the historic county of Essex. Since 1965, Plaistow has been part of the London Borough of Newham, a local government district of Greater London. The area forms the majority of the London E13 postcode district. Plaistow North and Plaistow South are two of the ten electoral wards making up the UK parliamentary constituency of West Ham.

The main roads are the A112; Prince Regent Lane, Greengate Street, The Broadway, High Street and Plaistow Road, which is a former Roman road; and the A124 (Barking Road), which passes south west/ north east through Plaistow and past the former West Ham United football ground. Commercial and retail premises are on the A112 at Greengate Street leading north and Prince Regent Lane south, leading 0.3 mi to Newham Sixth Form College and along the A124.

Toponymy
The name Plaistow is believed by some to come from Sir Hugh de Plaiz or Plaitz who, in 1065, married Philippa de Montfitchet, of the Mountfitchet Castle family, who owned the district. It is she who is reputed to have named it the Manor of Plaiz.

However, in his book What's in a Name?, first published in 1977, author Cyril M. Harris states that c. 1200 Plaistow was recorded as Plagestoue, derived from the Old English pleg, meaning 'sport' or 'playing', and stowe 'place'. It was a place where miracle plays were performed so it was a 'playing place'. While the book concentrates on the names of London railway stations, Harris could have confused Plaistow in Essex (and later London) with the Plaistow near Crich in Derbyshire, which is recorded as Plagestoue in the Darley Charters of 1200. Nevertheless, the derivation from pleg + stowe could apply equally to all places named Plaistow, Plaister, etc.

Plaistow in Essex is reported as appearing as Playstowe in the county's Patent Rolls of 1414. This is also quoted by James Kemble, another who cites the derivation from pleg + stowe – a 'place for playing'.

The book Fifty Years a Borough, 1886-1936, The Story of West Ham, compiled by Donald McDougall on behalf of West Ham County Borough Council, leans towards the derivation from Hugh de Plaiz, as Lord of the Manor, and that Plaistow was the Stow or village of the de Plaiz family.

Medieval and Tudor
Hugh de Balun was a property-owner in the area in the 12th century and belonged to the same family as Hamelin de Balun. Known as Balostret in the 1371 Calendar of Inquisitions Miscellaneous, Balaam Street is one of the oldest roads in Plaistow and is probably named after de Balun, though some argue its namesake is in fact a Walter Balame.

In 1353, Sir Richard de Playz gave the manor of Plaistow to the abbot of Stratford-Langthorne. When this abbey was dissolved the manor was appropriated by the Crown, and granted to Sir Roger Cholmeley in 1553.

18th century
Daniel Defoe's 1724 work, "Tour of the Eastern Counties" (part of his A Tour Thro’ the Whole Island of Great Britain), mentions Plaistow as a town in which there had been much new building as well as repairs to existing houses since the Glorious Revolution. Plaistow is connected with the legend of notorious highwayman Dick Turpin (born 1705; executed 1739). Several stories state that among Turpin’s first crimes was the theft of two oxen from his employer, a Mr Giles of Plaistow, in 1730. Turpin is alleged to also have run a smuggling gang which operated between Plaistow and Southend.

In Aaron Hill's time there (1738–1750) Plaistow was a rural village described as a day's coach journey from Westminster, despite it being a distance of only some 8 mi. The Black Lion public house in the High Street is one of the oldest landmarks in Plaistow and is reputed to date back to at least 1742.

19th century
Newly-appointed as pastor to a Congregationalist church in Plaistow, John Curwen opened the Plaistow Public School in 1844. That year also saw Plaistow become a chapelry as well as an Anglican parish in its own right, split off from All Saints Church, West Ham; Plaistow's chapel of ease St Mary's became the new parish's church. Curwen also started a printing business in Plaistow in 1863.

In the 1870s, John Marius Wilson described it in his Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales as a village, a chapelry and a ward in the Parish of West Ham in Essex. The population of the chapelry was recorded as 11,214 in 1861. James Thorne, in his 1876 work "Handbook to the Environs of London", mentions Plaistow, Essex, as a village and ecclesiastical district of West Ham parish with a population of 6,699. Thorne recounts the changes to the old village of Plaistow, with the gentry, merchants and others of renown having gone and the occupations of the residents changed from agricultural and pastoral to manufacturing. In 1886 Plaistow became part of the new County Borough of West Ham.

The area gained several new Anglican churches in the second half of the 19th century – St Philip's in 1860, St Andrew's in 1868, St Katherine's in 1891, St Martin's in 1894 and St Thomas's in 1898. Only St Martin's and St Andrew's survive – though now used as offices, St Andrew's is mentioned in Thorne's work and like its adjoining vicarage (1871) is a grade II listed building. John Curwen's son, John Spencer Curwen (who founded the Stratford & East London Music Festival – the oldest English music festival – in 1882), published a paper called “Old Plaistow” in 1891 describing houses of the area.

1900–1995
It was not until 1905 that Plaistow was connected to the telephone network, though it became its own UK Parliamentary constituency in 1918, consisting of the Plaistow and Hudsons wards of the County Borough of West Ham, plus part of the Canning Town ward. That constituency was subsumed into the West Ham constituency in 1950.

The Memorial Baptist Church was built in 1921 as a monument to the dead of the First World War. Opened in 1922, it is now a grade II listed building. Its ten Memorial Bells bear the names of more than 150 men who died in the fighting (the largest number of names on any set of bells in the world). The bells were cleaned and restored using a National Heritage Lottery grant between February and August 2011 as part of a larger restoration project.

In 1921, the YMCA opened Greengate House on Greengate Street. Now a grade II listed building, it was once used as an Art college by the University of East London and students included Jake and Dinos Chapman. In 2010 the building was demolished but the grand and ornate façade was retained and modernised and a new block of flats built behind it.

The area was heavily damaged during the Blitz in the Second World War. The Plaistow North area is largely made up of a local authority housing estate constructed in the 1960s on a bomb-damaged site. The estate used to include five 14-storey 1960s tower blocks but much has changed and the area has undergone a major redevelopment programme. The Black Lion public house was frequented by West Ham United football players especially such as Bobby Moore in the 1960s and '70s with several West Ham footballers spotted in the area since.

In 1965 Plaistow became part of the new London Borough of Newham, formed when West Ham joined with the County Borough of East Ham and small parts of Barking and Woolwich.

1995–present
Just before the end of the 1990s a £92 million regeneration programme known as the Forest Gate and Plaistow SRB5 got under way, with the aim of renewing and revitalising neighbourhoods, creating jobs, building new homes and improving many existing ones. West Ham and Plaistow New Deal for Communities ("NDC"), part of a government programme designed to tackle social exclusion, community safety, unemployment and low educational attainment in areas of severe need throughout the country, was awarded £54.6 million to bring about improvements to the local area over a 10-year period to 2010, with the intention of improving the quality of life and providing more opportunities for residents in the West Ham and Plaistow area.

In March 2010, the NDC set up Newham New Deal Partnership ("Newham NDP"), a Not-for-Profit organisation, to continue providing community benefit to the NDC area and beyond, and continue the work carried out over the 10 years of the NDC Programme. Newham NDP works in partnership with the East London Business Alliance, East Thames Group, London Borough of Newham and One Housing Group to provide community benefits to the area either directly or in partnership with other stakeholders. In March 2011 the Memorial Community Church was awarded money by the Big Lottery Fund Reaching Communities programme, to improve community facilities there.

On 10 December 2012, Plaistow South was named as one of fifty areas of England to share in a Big Lottery Scheme grant of £200 million. Plaistow South received £1 million to fund locally-designed projects to improve the area. In January 2013, councillors approved a new housing development of both private and affordable homes on the site of the old Plaistow Hospital. Construction began in March 2013 with completion of Phase 1 in 2015 and Phase 2 in 2016.

Amenities
Places of interest in the area include the 9.5 acre Plaistow Park (known as Balaam Street Recreation Ground from its opening in 1894 to its renaming in 1999 ), and the 10 acre Memorial Park which merges into the East London Cemetery. There are several small parks in the area, with the large West Ham Park 1 mi north.

In Plaistow are Newham Leisure Centre, Balaam Street Leisure Centre and Newham University Hospital. Newham Sixth Form College's main campus is in the south-east, near the hospital.

The Terence McMillan Stadium, named for the first mayor of Newham, Terence McMillan, who occupied the position 1965 to 1966, is located in Plaistow, close to the hospital and the college. It is the former home of the Newham and Essex Beagles track and field athletics club and part of the Newham Leisure Centre. East End Road Runners is a running club based at the Newham Leisure Centre and was the recipient of England Athletics' award for London Development Club of the Year in 2011. Non-league football teams Athletic Newham (formerly Lopes Tavares) and Fire United Christian play at the Terence McMillan Stadium, which also became the home ground of Clapton, rivals of Athletic Newham in the Essex Senior League, in 2020.

The West Ham Boys' Amateur Boxing Club is located at the rear of the Black Lion public house in High Street.

The 59 Club, a charitable motorcycle club, is based in Plaistow and located in the Swift Centre in Barking Road.

Education
Nathan Kemp, assistant headteacher at Tollgate Primary School in Plaistow, won Teacher of the Year in the 2012 annual national Teaching Awards, the first ever overall Teacher of the Year instead of there being separate awards for primary and secondary schools.

Michael Patient of Tollgate was one of the winners of a Pearson teaching award in 2014, winning a silver award for outstanding new teacher of the year.

Popular culture
The location for the video shoot of "(Keep Feeling) Fascination" by the Human League was a house, painted entirely in orange and surrounding terraced streets at the corner of First Avenue and Third Avenue in Plaistow. The area has since been redeveloped.

Radio
Voice of Africa Radio (VOAR) was a multilanguage internet and local radio station broadcasting from Plaistow. It was set up on 1 January 2000 and began as an unlicensed broadcaster, not obtaining a broadcast licence until 16 February 2006. It was the first licensed African radio station in the UK but had its licence revoked by Ofcom on 4 March 2016 for persistent failure to broadcast.

Arts and entertainment
Aaron Hill, writer and dramatist, lived at Hyde House during his retirement and until his death in 1750. William Holl the Younger, noted portrait and figure engraver, was born in Plaistow in 1807.

Singers David Essex, Ronnie Lane, Sandra Kerr, Jade Ewen, Mumzy Stranger and Alison Hinds were born in Plaistow, as was comedian and folk singer Richard Digance. Singer and entertainer Joe Brown was born in Lincolnshire but lived in Plaistow from the age of two. Record producer Norman Newell was born in Plaistow.

A number of grime MCs and DJs have origins in Plaistow, including Ghetts, Durrty Goodz and Crazy Titch. Rapper 21 Savage was born in Plaistow and moved as a youth to Atlanta in the United States.

Actor Terence Stamp attended Tollgate Primary School and Plaistow Grammar School. Actor Honor Blackman was born in Plaistow, as were actors Jimmy Akingbola, Ron Pember and Roberta Taylor and comedian, actor and playwright Andi Osho.

Sports
Multi-times Olympic athlete Fred Alsop was born in Plaistow in 1938.

England international footballers Sol Campbell, Tony Cottee, Rob Lee and Martin Peters were born in Plaistow.

England international speedway rider Reg Fearman was from Plaistow. He managed England and Great Britain national teams, and was also Chairman of the British Speedway Promoters' Association.

Edward Temme, born in Plaistow, was a member of the British Olympic Water Polo teams of 1928 and 1936 and was the first man to swim the English Channel in both directions. He is reputed to have swum non-stop in both directions and to have achieved this feat twice.

Other
Other famous residents have included:

 * William Clowes, one of England's early surgeons whose books were the leading surgical writings of the Elizabethan age, who spent his retirement in Plaistow until his death in 1604.
 * Sir Thomas Foot, Lord Mayor of London, who used Hyde House in High Street as his seat in the 17th century.
 * Edmund Burke PC, Irish statesman and author who moved to England and became a Whig Member of Parliament (MP), who lived in Plaistow c. 1759–1761 on Balaam Street.
 * William Dodd, clergyman who was hanged for forgery, lived on Balaam Street.
 * George Edwards, sometimes referred to as the father of British ornithology, who retired to Plaistow in 1763 until his death in 1773.
 * Luke Howard, who in 1802 devised the naming and classification of clouds and cloud formations still in popular use today, and who operated a business in pharmaceuticals in Plaistow from 1796 until 1803 when he moved the business to nearby Stratford. He continued to reside in Plaistow until 1812, when he moved to Tottenham. The family's pharmaceutical business was instrumental in the development of quinine and both Howard and his son, quinologist John Eliot Howard (who was born in Plaistow), were elected Fellows of the Royal Society.
 * Roderic Gregory, biologist and professor of physiology who isolated gastrin (the stimulator of gastric acid), born in Plaistow in 1913 and awarded the CBE in 1971.
 * Sir David Amess, who was born in Plaistow, was a Conservative MP, representing Basildon from 1983 to 1997 and Southend West from 1997 until he was murdered in 2021. Amess was knighted in the 2015 New Year Honours.

Rail
Plaistow and Upton Park tube stations are in the district. Both are served by the London Underground District and Hammersmith & City lines, which link the area directly to destinations in Central London, including the City, King's Cross, St. Pancras International, Westminster, and Paddington. Both stations are in London fare zone 3. Eastbound trains run towards Barking, Dagenham, and Upminster.

West Ham station is less than one mile from High Street Plaistow, in London fare zones 2 and 3. The station is on the Jubilee line and Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which links the area directly to several key destinations and interchanges, including Stratford International, London City Airport, London Bridge, and Waterloo.

Stratford station is also nearby, to the north of the district, which is served by the Central and Jubilee lines, DLR, and National Rail trains. This links the area to destinations across North East London, Essex, and East Anglia. Canning Town station is to Plaistow's south-west on the Jubilee line and the DLR.

Since 2022, the area has also been linked directly to London Heathrow Airport and Reading via the Elizabeth line from the nearby Custom House station.

Bus
Plaistow is on the London Buses network, served by routes: 5, 69, 115, 147, 241, 262, 276, 300, 325, 330, 473, 678, N15. Routes 69 and night bus N15 run overnight through Plaistow.

Cycling
The Greenway, a shared-use path, runs through Plastow. The route runs unbroken from Hackney Wick to Plaistow via the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, Stratford, and West Ham. Eastbound, the route runs towards Newham University Hospital, East Ham, Beckton, and Cycle Superhighway 3 towards Barking. The Greenway runs atop Joseph Bazalgette's Northern Outfall Sewer. It is a part of Transport for London (TfL)'s cycle network, numbered Cycleway 22.

Cycle Superhighway 2 (CS2) runs along the northern edge of Plaistow, through Stratford. The route runs non-stop and mostly traffic-free westbound towards the City, via Bow, Mile End, and Whitechapel.

Cycle Superhighway 3 (CS3) runs along the southern edge of Plaistow. The route runs non-stop and mostly traffic-free towards the City, via Canning Town, Poplar, and Limehouse. The route continues beyond the City traffic-free to Lancaster Gate (Hyde Park), via Westminster and Buckingham Palace, providing Plaistow with a direct, continuous cycle link to destinations in the West End. Eastbound, CS3 runs to Barking.

Road
Plaistow is linked to other areas of London and South East England by road. Roads which run through Plaistow include:

 * High Street | Greengate Street | Prince Regent Lane - Southbound to the, London City Airport , and North Woolwich | Northbound to Stratford, Leyton, and Waltham Abbey.
 * Stopford Road – Northbound to Upton, Leytonstone, and Whipps Cross.
 * Barking Road – South-west to Canning Town and the | North-east towards East Ham, Barking, and Upminster.

The runs along the southernmost edge of Plaistow. The road runs westbound towards the City of London, passing Canning Town, Poplar, and Canary Wharf en route. Eastbound, the road carries traffic towards Barking, Dagenham, the, Tilbury, and Southend-on-Sea.

Nearest places

 * Canning Town
 * Custom House
 * East Ham
 * Forest Gate
 * Stratford
 * Upton Park, which, like Plaistow, forms part of the E13 postcode district
 * West Ham

title: Plaistow, Newham


text:
Cenani–Lenz syndactylism

Cenani–Lenz syndactylism, also known as Cenani–Lenz syndrome or Cenani–syndactylism, is an autosomal recessive congenital malformation syndrome involving both upper and lower extremities.

Presentation
It is characterized by a nearly symmetrical presence of a spoon hand (classical type) or, more frequently, an oligodactylous hand. Individuals with this syndrome present the following symptoms: carpal, metacarpal and digital synostoses, disorganization of carpal bones, numeric reduction of digital rays and toe syndactyly. Additionally, other symptoms may include radioulnar synostosis, brachymesomelia, radius head dislocation, metatarsal synostoses and numeric reduction of rays.

Cause
Cenani–Lenz syndactylism is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. This means the defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disorder. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder.

In a test of the theory that the locus associated with the disorder was at 15q13-q14, FMN1 and GREM1 were eliminated as candidates. It is associated with LRP4.

Eponym
The syndrome is named after Turkish (Asim Cenani) and German (Widukind Lenz) medical geneticists.

title: Cenani–Lenz syndactylism