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Obelisk

An obelisk (from ὀβελίσκος ; diminutive of ὀβελός obelos, "spit, nail, pointed pillar" ) is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape or pyramidion at the top. Originally constructed by Ancient Egyptians and called tekhenu, the Greeks used the Greek term to describe them, and this word passed into Latin and ultimately English. Though William Thomas used the term correctly in his Historie of Italie of 1549, by the late sixteenth century (after reduced contact with Italy following the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth), Shakespeare failed to distinguish between pyramids and obelisks in his plays and sonnets. Ancient obelisks are monolithic and consist of a single stone; most modern obelisks are made of several stones.

Egyptian
Obelisks were prominent in the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, and played a vital role in their religion placing them in pairs at the entrance of the temples. The word "obelisk" as used in English today is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the Greek traveler, was one of the first classical writers to describe the objects. A number of ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the "unfinished obelisk" found partly hewn from its quarry at Aswan. These obelisks are now dispersed around the world, and fewer than half of them remain in Egypt.

The earliest temple obelisk still in its original position is the 20.7 m 120 MT red granite Obelisk of Senusret I of the Twelfth Dynasty at Al-Matariyyah in modern Heliopolis.

In Egyptian mythology, the obelisk symbolized the sun god Ra, and during the religious reformation of Akhenaten it was said to have been a petrified ray of the Aten, the sundisk. Benben was the mound that arose from the primordial waters Nu upon which the creator god Atum settled in the creation story of the Heliopolitan creation myth form of Ancient Egyptian religion. The Benben stone (also known as a pyramidion) is the top stone of the Egyptian pyramid. It is also related to the obelisk.

It is hypothesized by New York University Egyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary and Astronomy senior editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient Egyptian pyramid and obelisk were derived from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest deity at that time). The pyramid and obelisk's significance have been previously overlooked, especially the astronomical phenomena connected with sunrise and sunset: Zodiacal light and sun pillars respectively.

Nubian
Ancient Nubian kings of the twenty-fifth Dynasty sought to legitimize their rule over Egypt by constructing Egyptianizing monuments in the Middle Nile region. Historical sources mention that king Piye built at least one obelisk. The obelisk was made of local black granite and was found at the site of Kadakol. It had been cut down to make it into a column, presumably for one of the early Christian churches in the area of Old Dongola. Today the obelisk is exhibited in the National Museum in Khartoum. The obelisk is inscribed with the kings official titulary: Strong-bull, Appearing-in-Dominion (Thebes), King-of-Upper-and-Lower-Egypt, Two-ladies, Ruler-of-Egypt, Son-of-Rê, Pi(ankh)y: what he made as his monument for his father Amen-Rê, lord of [...].

An obelisk of King Senkamanisken was found at Gebel Barkal in 1916 by the Harvard University Museum of Fine Arts expedition to Sudan. There are remains of another small obelisk inscribed with the cartouche of King Aktisanes at the site of Gebel Barkal.

Ancient Egyptian obelisks in Ancient Rome

Around 30 BCE, Rome seized control of Egypt and looted the various temple complexes; in one case they destroyed walls at the Temple of Karnak to haul them out. There are now more than twice as many obelisks that were seized and shipped out by Rome as remain in Egypt. The majority were dismantled during the Roman period over 1,700 years ago and the obelisks were sent to different locations.

The largest standing and tallest Egyptian obelisk is the Lateran Obelisk in the square at the west side of the Lateran Basilica in Rome at 105.6 ft tall and a weight of 455 MT. More well known is the iconic 25 m, 331 MT Vatican obelisk at Saint Peter's Square. Brought to Rome by the Emperor Caligula in 37 CE, it has stood at its current site and on the wall of the Circus of Nero, flanking St Peter's Basilica.

"The elder Pliny in his Natural History refers to the obelisk's transportation from Egypt to Rome by order of the Emperor Gaius (Caligula) as an outstanding event. The barge that carried it had a huge mast of fir wood which four men's arms could not encircle. One hundred and twenty bushels of lentils were needed for ballast. Having fulfilled its purpose, the gigantic vessel was no longer wanted. Therefore, filled with stones and cement, it was sunk to form the foundations of the foremost quay of the new harbour at Ostia."

Pope Sixtus V was determined to erect the obelisk in front of St Peter's, of which the nave was yet to be built. He had a full-sized wooden mock-up erected within months of his election. Domenico Fontana, the assistant of Giacomo Della Porta in the Basilica's construction, presented the Pope with a little model crane of wood and a heavy little obelisk of lead, which Sixtus himself was able to raise by turning a little winch with his finger. Fontana was given the project. Half-buried in the debris of the ages, it was first excavated as it stood; then it took from 30 April to 17 May 1586 to move it on rollers to the Piazza: it required nearly 1000 men, 140 carthorses, and 47 cranes. The re-erection, scheduled for 14 September, the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, was watched by a large crowd. It was a famous feat of engineering, which made the reputation of Fontana, who detailed it in a book illustrated with copperplate etchings, Della Trasportatione dell'Obelisco Vaticano et delle Fabriche di Nostro Signore Papa Sisto V (1590), which itself set a new standard in communicating technical information and influenced subsequent architectural publications by its meticulous precision. Before being re-erected the obelisk was exorcised. It is said that Fontana had teams of relay horses to make his getaway if the enterprise failed. When Carlo Maderno came to build the Basilica's nave, he had to put the slightest kink in its axis, to line it precisely with the obelisk.

Three more obelisks were erected in Rome under Sixtus V: at Santa Maria Maggiore, in 1587; at the Lateran Basilica, in 1588; and at the Piazza del Popolo, in 1589. An obelisk stands in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti, at the head of the Spanish Steps. Another obelisk in Rome is sculpted as carried on the back of an elephant. Rome lost one of its obelisks, the Boboli obelisk which had decorated the temple of Isis, where it was uncovered in the 16th century. The Medici claimed it for the Villa Medici, but in 1790 they moved it to the Boboli Gardens attached to the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, and left a replica in its place.

Not all the Egyptian obelisks in the Roman Empire were set up at Rome: Herod the Great imitated his Roman patrons and set up an obelisk, Caesarea obelisk, made out of Egyptian red granite in the hippodrome of his new city Caesarea in northern Judea. This one is about 40 ft tall and weighs about 100 MT. It was discovered by archaeologists and has been re-erected at its former site.

In 357 CE, Emperor Constantius II had two Karnak Temple obelisks removed and transported down the Nile to Alexandria to commemorate his ventennalia, the 20th year of his reign. Afterward, one was sent to Rome and erected on the spina of the Circus Maximus, and is today known as the Lateran Obelisk. The other one, known as the Obelisk of Theodosius, remained in Alexandria until 390 CE, when Emperor Theodosius I had it transported to Constantinople (now Istanbul) and put up on the spina of the Hippodrome of Constantinople (now Sultan Ahmet Square). It once stood 95 ft tall and weighed 380 MT; however, its lower section (which reputedly also once stood in the hippodrome) is now lost, reducing the obelisk's size to 65 ft.

Ancient Egyptian obelisks in modern cities

The Ancient Romans populated their city with 8 large and 42 small Egyptian obelisks. More have been re-erected elsewhere, and the best-known examples outside Rome are the pair of 21 m 187 MT Cleopatra's Needles in London, England (69 ft), and New York City, US (70 ft), and the 75 ft over-250 MT Luxor Obelisk at the Place de la Concorde in Paris, France.

Obelisks were being shipped out of Egypt as late as the nineteenth century when three of them were sent to London, New York and Paris. Their transportation was covered by various newspapers.

Assyrian
Obelisk monuments are also known from the Assyrian civilization, where they were erected as public monuments that commemorated the achievements of the Assyrian king.

The British Museum possesses four Assyrian obelisks:

The White Obelisk of Ashurnasirpal I (named due to its colour), was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853 at Nineveh. The obelisk was erected by either Ashurnasirpal I (1050–1031 BCE) or Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE). The obelisk bears an inscription that refers to the king's seizure of goods, people and herds, which he carried back to the city of Ashur. The reliefs of the Obelisk depict military campaigns, hunting, victory banquets and scenes of tribute bearing.

The Rassam Obelisk, named after its discoverer Hormuzd Rassam, was found on the citadel of Nimrud (ancient Kalhu). It was erected by Ashurnasirpal II, though only survives in fragments. The surviving parts of the reliefs depict scenes of tribute bearing to the king from Syria and the west.

The Black Obelisk was discovered by Sir Austen Henry Layard in 1846 on the citadel of Kalhu. The obelisk was erected by Shalmaneser III and the reliefs depict scenes of tribute bearing as well as the depiction of two subdued rulers, Jehu the Israelite, and Sua the Gilzanean, making gestures of submission to the king. The reliefs on the obelisk have accompanying epigraphs, but besides these the obelisk also possesses a longer inscription that records one of the latest versions of Shalmaneser III's annals, covering the period from his accessional year to his 33rd regnal year.

The Broken Obelisk, that was also discovered by Rassam at Nineveh. Only the top of this monolith has been reconstructed in the British Museum. The obelisk is the oldest recorded obelisk from Assyria, dating to the 11th century BCE.

Ancient Roman
The Romans commissioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples include:
 * Arles, France – Arles Obelisk, in Place de la République, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin
 * Benevento, Italy – Domitian Obelisk
 * Munich, Germany – Obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, at Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst, 1st century CE, 5.8 m
 * Rome – there are five, see List of obelisks in Rome

Byzantine

 * Istanbul, Turkey – Walled Obelisk, at Hippodrome of Constantinople (now Sultan Ahmet Square), built by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905–959) and originally covered with gilded bronze plaques

Pre-Columbian
The prehistoric Tello Obelisk, found in 1919 at Chavín de Huantar in Peru, is a monolith stele with obelisk-like proportions. It is 2.52 metres tall and was carved in a design of low relief with Chavín symbols, such as bands of teeth and animal heads. Long housed in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia del Perú in Lima, it was relocated to the Museo Nacional de Chavín, which opened in July 2008. The obelisk was named for the archeologist Julio C. Tello, who discovered it and was considered the 'father of Peruvian archeology'. He was America's first indigenous archeologist.

As commemorative monuments
Egyptian obelisks remain a source of fascination, serving as a reminder of past glories and a symbol of state power. A majority of modern obelisks are built of masonry or concrete, so not monolithic like their Egyptian counterparts, and are often oversized. Examples from the 19th and 20th centuries include the Obelisk (1800) in Stockholm, Stone of the Empress (1835) in Helsinki, the Wellington Monument (1861) in Dublin, the Washington Monument (1884) in Washington, D.C., the Obelisk of Buenos Aires (1936) in Buenos Aires, the Monument to the People's Heroes (1958) in Tiananmen Square, Beijing and the National Monument (1975) in Jakarta. A few, however, continue the ancient tradition of the monolithic obelisk.

Others usages
In Rome, the Via della Conciliazione, cleared in 1936–1950 to link Saint Peter's Basilica to the centre of the capital is lined with obelisks serving as lampposts.

In France and other European countries, monuments to the dead, such as headstones and grave markers, were very often given a form of obelisks, but they are of more modest size. The practice is also still widespread in the Islamic world.

Modern obelisks have also been used in surveying as boundary markers.

Transportation and erection experiments
In late summer 1999, Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to erect a 25-ton obelisk. This was the third attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk; the first two, in 1994 and 1999, ended in failure. There were also two successful attempts to raise a 2-ton obelisk and a 9-ton obelisk. Finally in August–September 1999, after learning from their experiences, they were able to erect one successfully. First Hopkins and Rais Abdel Aleem organized an experiment to tow a block of stone weighing about 25 tons. They prepared a path by embedding wooden rails into the ground and placing a sledge on them bearing a megalith weighing about 25 tons. Initially they used more than 100 people to try to tow it but were unable to budge it. Finally, with well over 130 people pulling at once and an additional dozen using levers to prod the sledge forward, they moved it. Over the course of a day, the workers towed it 10–20 feet. Despite problems with broken ropes, they proved the monument could be moved this way. Additional experiments were done in Egypt and other locations to tow megalithic stone with ancient technologies, some of which are listed here.

One experiment was to transport a small obelisk on a barge in the Nile River. The barge was built based on ancient Egyptian designs. It had to be very wide to handle the obelisk, with a 2 to 1 ratio length to width, and it was at least twice as long as the obelisk. The obelisk was about 10 ft long and no more than 5 MT. A barge big enough to transport the largest Egyptian obelisks with this ratio would have had to be close to 200 ft and 100 ft. The workers used ropes that were wrapped around a guide that enabled them to pull away from the river while they were towing it onto the barge. The barge was successfully launched into the Nile.

The final and successful erection event was organized by Rick Brown, Hopkins, Lehner and Gregg Mullen in a Massachusetts quarry. The preparation work was done with modern technology, but experiments have proven that with enough time and people, it could have been done with ancient technology. To begin, the obelisk was lying on a gravel and stone ramp. A pit in the middle was filled with dry sand. Previous experiments showed that wet sand would not flow as well. The ramp was secured by stone walls. Men raised the obelisk by slowly removing the sand while three crews of men pulled on ropes to control its descent into the pit. The back wall was designed to guide the obelisk into its proper place. The obelisk had to catch a turning groove which would prevent it from sliding. They used brake ropes to prevent it from going too far. Such turning grooves had been found on the ancient pedestals. Gravity did most of the work until the final 15° had to be completed by pulling the obelisk forward. They used brake ropes again to make sure it did not fall forward. On 12 September they completed the project.

This experiment has been used to explain how the obelisks may have been erected in Luxor and other locations. It seems to have been supported by a 3,000 year-old papyrus scroll in which one scribe taunts another to erect a monument for "thy lord". The scroll reads "Empty the space that has been filled with sand beneath the monument of thy Lord." To erect the obelisks at Luxor with this method would have involved using over a million cubic meters of stone, mud brick and sand for both the ramp and the platform used to lower the obelisk. The largest obelisk successfully erected in ancient times weighed 455 MT. A 520 MT stele was found in Axum, but researchers believe it was broken while attempting to erect it.

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Scottsdale

Scottsdale may refer to:

 * Scottsdale, Arizona, United States
 * Scottsdale, Tasmania, Australia
 * Scottsdale Reserve, New South Wales, Australia
 * A former trim level for the Chevrolet C/K truck used from 1973 to 1998

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Hirsutism

Hirsutism is excessive body hair on parts of the body where hair is normally absent or minimal. The word is from early 17th century: from Latin hirsutus meaning "hairy". It usually refers to a male pattern of hair growth in a female that may be a sign of a more serious medical condition, especially if it develops well after puberty. Cultural stigma against hirsutism can cause much psychological distress and social difficulty. Discrimination based on facial hirsutism often leads to the avoidance of social situations and to symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Hirsutism is usually the result of an underlying endocrine imbalance, which may be adrenal, ovarian, or central. It can be caused by increased levels of androgen hormones. The amount and location of the hair is measured by a Ferriman-Gallwey score. It is different from hypertrichosis, which is excessive hair growth anywhere on the body.

Treatments may include certain birth control pills, antiandrogens, or insulin sensitizers.

Hirsutism affects between 5 and 15% of women across all ethnic backgrounds. Depending on the definition and the underlying data, approximately 40% of women have some degree of facial hair. About 10 to 15% of cases of hirsutism are idiopathic with no known cause.

Causes
The causes of hirsutism can be divided into endocrine imbalances and non-endocrine etiologies. It is important to begin by first determining the distribution of body hair growth. If hair growth follows a male distribution, it could indicate the presence of increased androgens or hyperandrogenism. However, there are other hormones not related to androgens that can lead to hirsutism. A detailed history is taken by a provider in search of possible causes for hyperandrogenism or other non-endocrine-related causes. If the distribution of hair growth occurs throughout the body, this is referred to as hypertrichosis, not hirsutism.

Endocrine causes
Endocrine causes of hirsutism include:

 * Ovarian cysts such as in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), the most common cause in women.
 * Adrenal gland tumors, adrenocortical adenomas, and adrenocortical carcinoma, as well as adrenal hyperplasia due to pituitary adenomas (as in Cushing's disease).
 * Inborn errors of steroid metabolism such as in congenital adrenal hyperplasia, most commonly caused by 21-hydroxylase deficiency.
 * Acromegaly and gigantism (growth hormone and IGF-1 excess), usually due to pituitary tumors.

Non-endocrine causes
Causes of hirsutism not related to hyperandrogenism include:

 * Familial: Family history of hirsutism with normal androgen levels.
 * Drug-induced: medications were used before the onset of hirsutism. The recommendation is to stop the medication and replace it with another.
 * Minoxidil
 * Androgens like testosterone, anabolic steroids, and androgenic progestins
 * Valproic acid and methyldopa
 * Pregnancy: Due to changes in hormone production
 * Idiopathic: When no other cause can be attributed to an individual's hirsutism, the cause is considered idiopathic by exclusion. In these cases, menstrual cycles and levels of conventionally tested androgens (testosterone, androstenedione, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate) are normal. Around 10 to 15% of women with hirsutism have idiopathic hirsutism. Idiopathic hirsutism may be due to increased production of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in hair follicles and hence may actually still be due to hyperandrogenism. It may be detectable by measurement of DHT or DHT metabolites.
 * Rice et al. 2016 propose that idiopathic hirsutism is caused by epigenetic inheritance of discordant epigenetic markers. It is testable with current technology.

Diagnosis
Hirsutism is a clinical diagnosis of excessive androgenic, terminal hair growth. A complete physical evaluation should be done prior to initiating more extensive studies, the examiner should differentiate between widespread body hair increase and male pattern virilization. One method of evaluating hirsutism is the Ferriman-Gallwey Score which gives a score based on the amount and location of hair growth. The Ferriman-Gallwey Score has various cutoffs due to variable expressivity of hair growth based on ethnic background.

Diagnosis of patients with even mild hirsutism should include assessment of ovulation and ovarian ultrasound, due to the high prevalence of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), as well as 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (because of the possibility of finding non-classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency ). People with hirsutism may present with an elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) level, however, additional imaging is required to discriminate between malignant and benign etiologies of adrenal hyperandrogenism. Levels greater than 700 μg/dL are indicative of adrenal gland dysfunction, particularly congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. However, PCOS and idiopathic hirsutism make up 90% of cases.

Treatment
Treatment of hirsutism is indicated when hair growth causes patient distress. The two main approaches to treatment are pharmacologic therapies targeting androgen production/action, and direct hair removal methods including electrolysis and photo-epilation. These may be used independently or in combination.

Pharmacologic therapies
Common medications consist of antiandrogens, insulin sensitizers, and oral contraceptive pills. All three types of therapy have demonstrated efficacy on their own, however insulin sensitizers are shown to be less effective than antiandrogens and oral contraceptive pills. The therapies may be combined, as directed by a physician, in line with the patient's medical goals. Antiandrogens are drugs that block the effects of androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in the body.  They are the most effective pharmacologic treatment for patient-important hirsutism, however they have teratogenic potential, and are therefore not recommended in people who are pregnant or desire pregnancy. Current data does not favor any one type of oral contraceptive over another.

List of medications:

 * Bicalutamide: A pure antiandrogen.  It is effective similarly to flutamide but is much safer as well as better-tolerated.
 * Birth control pills that consist of an estrogen, usually ethinylestradiol, and a progestin are supported by the evidence. They are functional antiandrogens. In addition, certain birth control pills contain a progestin that also has antiandrogenic activity. Examples include birth control pills containing cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate, drospirenone, and dienogest.
 * Cyproterone acetate: A dual antiandrogen and progestogen. In addition to single form, it is also available in some formulations of combined oral contraceptives at a low dosage (see below). It has a risk of liver damage.
 * Eflornithine: Blocks putrescine that is necessary for the growth of hair follicles.
 * Finasteride and dutasteride: 5α-Reductase inhibitors. They inhibit the production of the potent androgen DHT. A meta-analysis showed inconsistent results of finasteride in the treatment of hirsutism.
 * Flutamide: A pure antiandrogen. It has been found to possess equivalent or greater effectiveness than spironolactone, cyproterone acetate, and finasteride in the treatment of hirsutism. However, it has a high risk of liver damage and hence is no longer recommended as a first- or second-line treatment.   Flutamide is safe and effective.
 * GnRH analogues: Suppress androgen production by the gonads and reduce androgen concentrations to castrate levels.
 * Metformin: Insulin sensitizer. Antihyperglycemic drug used for diabetes mellitus and treatment of hirsutism associated with insulin resistance (e.g. polycystic ovary syndrome). Metformin appears ineffective in the treatment of hirsutism, although the evidence was of low quality.
 * Spironolactone: An antimineralocorticoid with additional antiandrogenic activity at high dosages

Other methods

 * Electrology
 * Epilation
 * Laser hair removal
 * Lifestyle change, including reducing excessive weight and addressing insulin resistance, may be beneficial. Insulin resistance can cause excessive testosterone levels in women, resulting in hirsutism.
 * Shaving
 * Waxing

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Troyes

Troyes is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about 140 km south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near to the Orient Forest Regional Natural Park.

Troyes had a population of 61,996 inhabitants in 2018. It is the center of the Communauté d'agglomération Troyes Champagne Métropole, which was home to 170,145 inhabitants.

Troyes developed as early as the Roman era, when it was known as Augustobona Tricassium. It stood at the hub of numerous highways, primarily the Via Agrippa. The city has a rich historical past, from the Tricasses tribe to the liberation of the city on 25 August 1944 during the Second World War, including the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Council of Troyes, the marriage of Henry V and Catherine of France, and the Champagne fairs to which merchants came from all over Christendom. The city has a rich architectural and urban heritage: many buildings are protected as historical monuments, including the half-timbered houses (mainly of the 16th century) that survived in the old town. They have contributed to Troyes being designated as a City of Art and History.

Manufacturing of textiles, developed from the 18th century onwards, was a chief part of Troyes' economy until the 1960s. Today, Troyes is the European capital of factory outlets and trading, and has three brand centers.

History
Prehistoric evidence found in the Troyes area suggests that the settlement may have developed as early as 600 BC. Celtic grave-mounds have been found near the city, and Celtic artifacts have been excavated within the city grounds.

In the Roman era, Troyes was known as Augustobona Tricassium. Numerous highways intersected here, primarily the Via Agrippa, which led north to Reims and south to Langres, and eventually to Milan. Other Roman routes from Troyes led to Poitiers, Autun and Orléans.

It was the civitas of the Tricasses people, whom Augustus separated from the Senones. Of the Gallo-Roman city of the early Roman Empire, some scattered remains have been found, but no public monuments, other than traces of an aqueduct. By the late Empire the settlement had reduced in extent. It was referred to as Tricassium or Tricassae, the origin of French Troyes.

From the fourth century AD, the people had become Christian and the Church made the city the seat of a bishop. The legend of its bishop Lupus (Loup), who allegedly saved the city from Attila in 451 by offering himself as hostage, is hagiographic rather than historical. A disciple of Saint Lupus, Aventinus (Saint Aventin of Troyes, died 537) founded a monastery at Troyes. It was several centuries before Troyes gained importance as a medieval centre of commerce.

The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, also called the Battle of Troyes, took place nearby in 451 AD: the Roman general Flavius Aetius and the Visigothic king Theodoric I fought against Attila.

The early cathedral occupied the site of the current one. Here Louis the Stammerer in 878 received the crown of West Francia from Pope John VIII. At the end of the ninth century, following depredations of the city by Normans, the counts of Champagne chose Troyes as their capital. It remained the capital of the Province of Champagne until the  Revolution of the late eighteenth century. The Abbey of Saint-Loup developed a renowned library and scriptorium.

During the Middle Ages, Troyes functioned as an important international trading town. It was the namesake of troy weight for gold - a standard of measurement developed here. The Champagne cloth fairs and the revival of long-distance trade, together with new extension of coinage and credit, were the drivers of the medieval economy of Troyes.

In 1285, when King Philip the Fair united Champagne to the  French royal domain, the town kept a number of its traditional privileges. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy and ally of the English during the Hundred Years War, in 1417 worked to have Troyes designated as the capital of France. He came to an understanding with Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of King Charles VI of France, for the establishment at Troyes of a court, council, and parlement with comptroller's offices.

On 21 May 1420, the Treaty of Troyes was signed in this city, still under control of the Burgundians, by which King Henry V of England was betrothed to Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. Under the terms of the treaty, Henry V, rather than the Dauphin, was to succeed Charles as King of France. The high-water mark of Plantagenet hegemony in France was reversed in 1429 when the Dauphin (afterwards King Charles VII) and Joan of Arc re-established French control of the town of Troyes by  armed conflict (Siege of Troyes).

The great fire of 1524 destroyed much of the medieval city, although the city had numerous canals separating sections.

Main sights

 * Many half-timbered houses (mainly of the 16th century) survive in the old town.
 * Hôtels particuliers (mansions) of the old town
 * The Hôtel de Ville, Place Alexandre Israël, is an urbane example of the style Louis XIII. On the central corps de logis, which contains the main reception rooms, its cornice is rhythmically broken forward over paired Corinthian columns; these are supported below by strong clustered pilasters. Above the entrance door the statue of Louis XIV was pulled out of its niche and smashed in 1793, during the Reign of Terror at the height of the French Revolution; it was replaced in the nineteenth century with the present Helmeted Minerva and the device in its original form. It is now rare to see "Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité, ou la Mort". In the Salle du Conseil (Council Chamber) a marble medallion of Louis XIV (1690) by François Girardon, born at Troyes, survived the destruction unscathed.

Museums

 * Museum of Modern Art (Musée d'Art Moderne)
 * Maison de l'outil et de la pensée ouvrière
 * Vauluisant Museum :
 * Historical museum of Troyes and Champagne-Ardenne
 * Museum of hosiery
 * Hôtel-Dieu-Lecomte apothecary
 * Saint-Loup Museum (museum of fine arts)
 * Di Marco Museum (Open from 1 April to 1 October, each year)

Churches and synagogues
Not having suffered from the last wars, Troyes has a high density of old religious buildings grouped close to the city centre. They include:
 * Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul Cathedral
 * Saint-Nizier Church, in Gothic and Renaissance style, with remarkable sculptures. Classified as a Monument Historique (French equivalence) in 1840.
 * The Gothic Saint-Urbain Basilica (thirteenth century), with a roofing covered by polished tiles. It was built by Jacques Pantaléon, who was elected pope in 1261, under the name of Urbain IV, on grounds where his father had a workshop. Classified Monument Historique in 1840. It was proclaimed a basilica in 1964.
 * Sainte-Madeleine Church. Very early Gothic, with east end rebuilt around 1500. Remarkably elaborate stone rood screen of 1508–17 in Flamboyant Gothic style, sculpted by Jean Gailde, with a statue of Saint Martha. Fine Renaissance stained glass. Saint Jean district. Classified Monument historique in 1840.
 * Saint-Jean Church, with a Renaissance chancel, tabernacle of the high altar by Giraudon. On the portal, coat of arms of Charles IX. Classified Monument Historique in 1840.
 * Gothic Saint-Nicolas Church, dating to the beginning of the sixteenth century, with a calvary chapel -shaped rostrum reached by a monumental staircase. On the south portal, two sculptures by François Gentil of David and Isaiah.
 * Saint-Pantaléon Church, with extensive statuary from the sixteenth century.
 * Saint Remy Church, with a 14th-century spire rising to a height of 60 m. A 17th-century sundial on its south side bears the Latin inscription sicut umbra dies nostri super terram ("our days on earth pass like a shadow").
 * Church of Saint-Martin-ès-Vignes. It has stained glass windows of the seventeenth century by the local master verrier Linard Gonthier.

Several Troyes churches have sculpture by The Maître de Chaource.

The Rashi Synagogue is a Jewish Synagogue on 5 rue Brunneval.

Population
The inhabitants of the commune are called Troyens.

Economy
Troyes is home to the production headquarters of Lacoste company, a popular clothing brand. It is also home of chocolatier Pascal Caffet.

Education
The University of Technology of Troyes and the business school Groupe École supérieure de commerce de Troyes are located in Troyes.

Transport
The train station Gare de Troyes offers connections to Paris, Dijon, Mulhouse and several regional destinations. Troyes is at the junction of motorways A5 (Paris – Troyes – Langres) and A26 (Calais – Reims – Troyes). Troyes – Barberey Airport is a small regional airport.

Sport
Troyes is the home of association football club Troyes AC, or ESTAC. In the 2020–21 Ligue 2 season, Troyes were promoted back to Ligue 1 as champions of the division.

In popular culture

 * Troyes (2010) is a board game named after the city, published by Pearl Games, UPlay.it edizioni, and Z-Man Games.
 * Chapter 28 of James Rollins' sixth Sigma Force novel, The Doomsday Key (2009), is named "Troyes, France," as the city plays an important role in the plot.

Notable people

 * Jean-Marie Bigard, (born 1954) French stand-up comedian, writer and director
 * Saint Marguerite Bourgeoys, (1620–1700), a founder of Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal and the city of Montreal
 * Gilles Buck (1935–2010), French sailor who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics
 * Émile Coué (1857–1926), pharmacist, hypnotist and creator of La méthode Coué ("Every day, in every way, I'm getting better and better")
 * Hughes de Payens (1070–1136), Knight of the First Crusade and founder of the Knights Templar
 * Chrétien de Troyes, 12th-century trouvère
 * François Girardon (1628–1715), sculptor
 * Linard Gonthier (1565 – after 1642), stained-glass artisan (verrier)
 * François-Pierre Goy (born 1960), musicologist
 * Édouard Herriot (1872–1957), Radical politician of the Third Republic, three-time Prime Minister of France
 * André Lefèvre (1717–1768), contributor to the Encyclopédie
 * Maurice Marinot (1882–1960), glass artist and painter
 * Pierre Mignard (1610–1695), painter
 * Jacques Pantaléon, (c. 1195–1264), Pope Urban IV
 * Patroclus of Troyes (3rd century), martyr
 * Pierre Pithou (1539–1596), Calvinist jurisconsult and scholar, co-editor of the Satire Ménippée
 * Rashi (1040–1105), biblical and Talmudic commentator
 * Rabbeinu Tam (1100–1171), rabbi and Rashi's grandson
 * Maxime Rouyer, (born 1994), CFL linebacker for the Edmonton Eskimos
 * Béatrice Saubin (1959–2007), first foreign national to be sentenced to death in Malaysia for drug smuggling
 * Hervé Schreiner (born 1974), former professional footballer
 * Djibril Sidibé, (born 1992), footballer
 * Nicolas Siret (1663–1754), composer
 * Abdoul Sissoko, (born 1990), footballer
 * Gaëtane Thiney (1985), footballer and team captain of Paris FC (women), current member of France women's national football team, Cyprus Cup winner: 2012, 2014, 2017 SheBelieves Cup champion, UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship: 2003, an all-star team member of the UEFA Women's Championship All-Star Team: 2013, two-time winner player of the year
 * Jean Tirole, (born 1953), Nobel Award in Economics
 * Aldebrandin of Siena, (died 1296/1299?), physician
 * Madame Vaudé-Green (1822-1902), nineteenth century French photographer

Twin towns
Troyes is twinned with:

 * Alkmaar, Netherlands
 * 🏴 Chesterfield, England
 * 🇧🇪 Tournai, Belgium
 * 🇩🇪 Darmstadt, Germany, since 1958
 * 🇵🇱 Zielona Góra, Poland, since 1970
 * 🇮🇹 Brescia, Italy, since 2016

title: Troyes


text:
Albi

Albi (Albi ) is a commune in southern France. It is the prefecture of the Tarn department, on the river Tarn, 85 km northeast of Toulouse. Its inhabitants are called Albigensians (Albigeois, Albigeoise(s), albigés -esa(s)). It is the seat of the Archbishop of Albi.

The episcopal city, around the Cathedral Sainte-Cécile, was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 2010 for its unique architecture. The site includes the Musée Toulouse-Lautrec, dedicated to the artist who was born in Albi.

Administration
Albi is the seat of four cantons, covering 16 communes, with a total population of 72,416 (2019).

History
The first human settlement in Albi was in the Bronze Age (3000–600 BC). After the Roman conquest of Gaul in 51 BC, the town became Civitas Albigensium, the territory of the Albigeois, Albiga. Archaeological digs have not revealed any traces of Roman buildings, which seems to indicate that Albi was a modest Roman settlement.

In 584, Gregory of Tours reports that the majority of the townsfolk died from plague.

In 1040, Albi expanded and constructed the Pont Vieux (Old Bridge). New quarters were built, indicative of considerable urban growth. The city grew rich at this time, thanks to trade and commercial exchanges, and also to the tolls charged to travelers for using the Pont Vieux.

In 1208, the Pope and the French king joined forces to combat the Cathars, who had developed their own version of ascetic Christian dualism, and so a heresy considered dangerous by the dominant Catholic Church. Repression was severe, and many Cathars were burnt at the stake throughout the region. The area, until then virtually independent, was reduced to such a condition that it was subsequently annexed by the French Crown.

After the upheaval of the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, the bishop Bernard de Castanet, in the late 13th century, completed work on the Palais de la Berbie, a Bishops' Palace with the look of a fortress. He ordered the building of the cathedral of Sainte-Cécile starting in 1282. The town enjoyed a period of commercial prosperity largely due to the cultivation of Isatis Tinctoria, commonly known as woad. The fine houses built during the Renaissance bear witness to the vast fortunes amassed by the pastel merchants.

Albi had a small Jewish community during medieval times, until it was annihilated in the 1320s Shepherds' Crusade. Afterwards, Jews were only allowed to transit the town by payment, without living in it. In 1967, approximately 70 Jews lived in Albi, most of them of North-African origin.

Albi has conserved its rich architectural heritage which encapsulates the various brilliant periods of its history. Considerable improvement and restoration work has been done, to embellish the old quarters and to give them a new look, in which brick reigns supreme.

Main sights
Albi was built around the original cathedral and episcopal group of buildings. This historic area covers 63 hectares. Red brick and tiles are the main feature of most of the edifices. Along with Toulouse and Montauban, Albi is one of the main cities built in Languedoc-style red brick.

Among the buildings of the town is the Sainte Cécile cathedral, a masterpiece of the Southern Gothic style, built between the 13th and 15th centuries. It is characterised by a strong contrast between its austere, defensive exterior and its sumptuous interior decoration. Built as a statement of the Christian faith after the upheavals of the Cathar heresy, this gigantic brick structure was embellished over the centuries: the Dominique de Florence Doorway, the 78 m high bell tower, the Baldaquin over the entrance (1515–1540). The rood screen is a filigree work in stone in the Flamboyant Gothic style. It is decorated with a magnificent group of polychrome statuary carved by artists from the Burgundian workshops of Cluny and comprising over 200 statues, which have retained their original colours.

Older than the Palais des Papes in Avignon, the Palais de la Berbie, formerly the Bishops' Palace of Albi, now the Toulouse-Lautrec Museum, is one of the oldest and best-preserved castles in France. This imposing fortress was completed at the end of the 13th century. Its name comes from the Occitan word Bisbia, meaning Bishops' Palace.

The Old Bridge (Pont Vieux) is still in use after almost a millennium. Originally built in stone (in 1035), then clad with brick, it rests on eight arches and is 151 m long. In the 14th century, it was fortified and reinforced with a drawbridge, and houses were built on the piers.

Albi is a city known for its elite Lycée Lapérouse, a high school with 500 students situated inside an old monastery. It has several advanced literature classes. Furthermore, it is one of the few holding a full-scale music section with special high-tech rooms for this section. The Pacific explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse is commemorated in the museum. Located in an ancient mill (41 rue Porta), the Le LAIT Art Centre is a research laboratory dedicated to contemporary art.

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
The Toulouse-Lautrec Museum houses more than 1000 works, including 31 famous posters. This body of work forms the largest public collection in the world devoted to Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who was born in Albi in 1864.

World Heritage Site
UNESCO's World Heritage Centre notes the Old Bridge (Pont-Vieux), the Saint-Salvi quarter, the quarter's church, the fortified cathedral (late 13th century) in unique southern French Gothic style from local brick, the bishop's Palais de la Berbie, and residential quarters, which help the Episcopal City of Albi form a "coherent and homogeneous ensemble of monuments and quarters that has remained largely unchanged over the centuries... a complete built ensemble representative of a type of urban development in Europe from the Middle Ages to the present day."

Transport
Albi is served by two railway stations on the line from Toulouse to Rodez:
 * Gare d'Albi-Ville
 * Gare d'Albi-Madeleine

The A68 motorway connects Albi with Toulouse (and Lyon N 88, future motorway).

Sport

 * SC Albi – The city's rugby union team competing in the second-level Rugby Pro D2.
 * RC Albi – A rugby league team that compete in the Elite One Championship.
 * US Albi – A Union Sports Football Club established in 1912 in Albi playing the Regional 2 Level.
 * Albi held Stage 13 of the 2007 Tour de France. The stage was a 55 km individual time trial which started and finished in the city.
 * Albi was the finish of Stage 10 of the 2019 Tour de France on Mon 15 July. There was a rest day at Albi on the 16th and Albi was the start of stage 11 to Toulouse On Weds 18 July.
 * Albi was the finish of Stage 5 of the 2023 Tour de France Femmes avec Zwift on Thursday, 27 July. The winner of the stage was Ricarda Bauernfeind (Germany) of Team Canyon/Sram Racing. Bauernfeind was riding in her Tour debut.
 * Circuit d'Albi, a motor racing circuit used for national racing surrounding Albi's airport.

Education

 * École des mines d'Albi-Carmaux
 * Jean-François Champollion University Center for Teaching and Research

Climate
Albi experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) bordering oceanic climate (Cfb). Like much of southwestern France, the summers tend to be warmer and the winters milder than most areas of similar classification. Substantial summer rainfall prevents its climate from being classified as Mediterranean.

Twin towns – sister cities
Albi is twinned with:
 * 🇪🇸 Girona, Spain
 * 🇺🇸 Palo Alto, United States
 * 🇦🇺 Randwick, Australia

Notable people

 * Antoinette de Saliès (1639–1730), writer, feminist
 * Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse (1741 – c. 1788), Pacific explorer
 * Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901), painter, caricaturist, illustrator
 * Pierre Benoit (1886–1962), novelist, screenwriter

title: Albi


text:
Duisburg

Duisburg (Duisborg, ) is a city in the Ruhr metropolitan area of the western German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Lying on the confluence of the Rhine (Lower Rhine) and the Ruhr rivers in the center of the Rhine-Ruhr Region, Duisburg is the 5th largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the 15th-largest city in Germany.

In the Middle Ages, it was a city-state and a member of the Hanseatic League, and later became a major centre of the iron, steel, and chemicals industries. For this reason, it was heavily bombed in World War II. Today it boasts the world's largest inland port, with 21 docks and 40 kilometres of wharf.

Status
Duisburg is a city in Germany's Rhineland, the fifth-largest city (after Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund and Essen) in the nation's most populous federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Its 500,000 inhabitants make it Germany's 15th-largest city. Located at the confluence of the Rhine river and its tributary the Ruhr river, it lies in the west of the Ruhr urban area, Germany's largest, of which it is the third-largest city after Dortmund and Essen. The Ruhr itself lies within the larger Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region, one of Europe's largest conurbations. The city lies on both sides of the Rhine, with the city centre and most boroughs on the river's right bank, and is the only city of the Rhine-Ruhr region lying on both the Rhine and Ruhr rivers. Duisburg is one of the largest cities in the Meuse-Rhenish (closely related to Dutch) dialect area and the largest in the Kleverlandish area (north of the Uerdingen Isogloss).

Duisburg has the world's largest inland port, "Duisburg-Ruhrorter Häfen", in Duisburg-Ruhrort. Germany's third-largest and the Rhine-Ruhr region's main airport, Düsseldorf Airport, lies near the city, in Düsseldorf-Lohausen. With 42,747 students, the University of Duisburg-Essen is Germany's ninth-largest university. It has campuses in Essen and Duisburg, and a university hospital in Essen. Duisburg is a result of numerous incorporations of surrounding towns and smaller cities. The city is renowned for its steel industry. All blast furnaces in the Ruhr are now located in Duisburg. In 2000, 49% of all hot metal and 34.4% of all pig iron in Germany were produced here. It also has a large brewery, König. In the early Middle Ages, it was a royal court of the Franks, first mentioned in writing in 883.

Geography
Duisburg is in the Lowland Rhine area at the confluence of the Rhine and Ruhr and near the outskirts of the Bergisches Land. The city spreads along both sides of these rivers.

Adjacent cities
The following cities border Duisburg (clockwise starting from the north-east): Oberhausen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Ratingen, Düsseldorf, Meerbusch, Krefeld, Moers, Rheinberg, and Dinslaken.

Districts
Since 1 January 1975, Duisburg has been divided into seven districts or boroughs (Stadtbezirke) from north to south:

 * Walsum (51,528)
 * Hamborn (71,528)
 * Meiderich/Beeck (73,881)
 * Homberg/Ruhrort/Baerl (41,153)
 * Duisburg-Mitte (center) (105,961)
 * Rheinhausen (77,933)
 * Duisburg-Süd (73,321)

Climate
Duisburg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). On 25 July 2019, Duisburg recorded a temperature of 41.2 C, which is the highest temperature to have ever been recorded in Germany.

Mayor
The current Mayor of Duisburg is Sören Link of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who was elected in 2012 and re-elected in 2017.

The most recent mayoral election was held on 24 September 2017, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 224,687 ! 98.7 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 3,009 ! 1.3 ! colspan=3| Total ! 227,696 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 365,646 ! 62.3
 * align=left| Sören Link
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 127,793
 * 56.7
 * align=left| Gerhard Meyer
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union
 * 57,815
 * 25.7
 * align=left| Erkan Kocalar
 * align=left| The Left
 * 13,306
 * 5.9
 * align=left| Thomas Wolters
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 12,776
 * 5.7
 * align=left| Melanie Händelkes
 * align=left| National Democratic Party
 * 7,519
 * 3.3
 * align=left| Yasar Durmus
 * align=left| Independent
 * 5,478
 * 2.4
 * align=left| Melanie Händelkes
 * align=left| National Democratic Party
 * 7,519
 * 3.3
 * align=left| Yasar Durmus
 * align=left| Independent
 * 5,478
 * 2.4
 * align=left| Yasar Durmus
 * align=left| Independent
 * 5,478
 * 2.4
 * colspan=5| Source: City of Duisburg
 * }
 * }

City council
The Duisburg city council (Duisburger Stadtrat) governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 139,605 ! 98.9 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 1,618 ! 1.1 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 141,223 ! 100.0 ! ! 102 ! 18 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 360,750 ! 39.1 ! 1.4 ! !
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 43,051
 * 30.8
 * 10.1
 * 32
 * 3
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 29,966
 * 21.5
 * 3.3
 * 22
 * 1
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 24,728
 * 17.7
 * 10.3
 * 19
 * 13
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 12,968
 * 9.3
 * 5.7
 * 10
 * 7
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 7,714
 * 5.5
 * 1.0
 * 6
 * ±0
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 4,333
 * 3.1
 * 0.7
 * 3
 * 1
 * align=left| Young Duisburg (JUDU)
 * 4,091
 * 2.9
 * 0.8
 * 3
 * 1
 * align=left| Human Environment Animal Protection (Tierschutz)
 * 2,599
 * 1.9
 * New
 * 2
 * New
 * align=left| Duisburg Alternative List (DAL)
 * 1,709
 * 1.2
 * 0.1
 * 1
 * ±0
 * align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)
 * 1,596
 * 1.1
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * align=left| We Shape Duisburg (WGD)
 * 1,471
 * 1.1
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * align=left| Socially Just Independent (SGU)
 * 1,384
 * 1.0
 * 0.1
 * 1
 * ±0
 * align=left| Solidarity for Duisburg (SfD)
 * 958
 * 0.7
 * New
 * 1
 * New
 * colspan=7 bgcolor=lightgrey|
 * align=left| BIG-Dergah
 * 890
 * 0.6
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Civic Liberals (BL)
 * 608
 * 0.4
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)
 * 550
 * 0.4
 * 1.3
 * 0
 * 1
 * align=left| Alliance Duisburg (Allianz)
 * 377
 * 0.3
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Alliance for Duisburg (BfD)
 * 290
 * 0.2
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Independent Gisela Schiffers
 * 141
 * 0.1
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Digital Ecological Social (DOS)
 * 83
 * 0.1
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Independent Marliese Lenz
 * 57
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Awakening Duisburg (Aufbruch Du)
 * 41
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * 377
 * 0.3
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Alliance for Duisburg (BfD)
 * 290
 * 0.2
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Independent Gisela Schiffers
 * 141
 * 0.1
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Digital Ecological Social (DOS)
 * 83
 * 0.1
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Independent Marliese Lenz
 * 57
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Awakening Duisburg (Aufbruch Du)
 * 41
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * align=left| Awakening Duisburg (Aufbruch Du)
 * 41
 * 0.0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * 0
 * New
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

State Landtag
In the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, Duisburg is divided between three constituencies: 61 Duisburg I (containing Süd district and most of Mitte), 62 Duisburg II (Walsum, Rheinhausen, and most of Homberg/Ruhrort/Baerl), and 63 Duisburg III (Hamborn, Meiderich/Beeck, and parts of Mitte and Homberg/Ruhrort/Baerl). After the 2022 North Rhine-Westphalia state election, all three constituencies were held by the SPD. Duisburg I was represented by Sarah Philipp, Duisburg II by Rainer Bischoff, and Duisburg III by Frank Börner.

Federal parliament
In the Bundestag, Duisburg is divided between two constituencies: 115 Duisburg I (Rheinhausen, Süd, and Mitte) and 116 Duisburg II (Walsum, Hamborn, Meidereich/Beeck, Homberg/Ruhrort/Baerl). In the 20th Bundestag, both are held by the SPD. Duisburg I is represented by President of the Bundestag Bärbel Bas, and Duisburg II by Mahmut Özdemir.

History
The first syllable of the name of the city could go back to the Proto-Indo-European root *dʰeus-, meaning something like "wet area" or "flood plain". Duisburg therefore could mean "fortified place in the floodplain". Another interpretation assumes that the name is derived from the Old German "duis" which means "hill". Duisburg could mean something like "castle on the hill". Thus, a place on a hill overlooking the Rhine, that could refer to the area of the present Town Hall. Duisburggau (Diuspurgau) was also the name of the medieval Gau (country subdivision) on the Lower Rhine.

A legend recorded by Johannes Aventinus (fl. 1525) holds that Duisburg (along with Deutz, Cologne, Duisdorf in Bonn, and Doesburg in the Netherlands, all on the Rhine's right bank) was built by the namesake Tuisto, mythical progenitor of Germans, ca. 2395 BC. There is nothing to establish any historical basis for such an early founding of Duisburg, which would have made it among the earliest cities in Europe.

Roman period
Latest archaeological studies show that the present-day market-place was already in use in the first century. It has been the major central trading place of the city since the 5th century. The city itself was located at the "Hellweg", an important medieval trade route, and at a ford across the Rhine. The Romans already guarded the ford.
 * 420: The Franks usurp the Roman settlement and recolonize the old part of the town.
 * 883: The Normans conquer Duisburg and stay for the winter. First historic document mentioning Duisburg.

Middle Ages
Due to the town's favorable geographic position a palatinate was built and the town was soon granted the royal charter of a free city. Duisburg became a member of the Hanseatic League. Around 1000 the river Rhine moved westward from the city. This put an end to the city's development as a trading town and it soon grew into a quiet rural city. The productions of cartographer Gerardus Mercator and the foundation of a university in 1655 established the city's renown as "Educated Duisburg" ("Duisburgum Doctum").
 * Stadtmauer Duisburg Außenseite 3.JPG: construction of the city wall
 * 1279: "city charter" granted by King Lothar III
 * 1290 Duisburg becomes part of the County (after 1417 Duchy) of Cleves
 * 1445 attack by Archbishop-Elector Dietrich II von Moers (de) of Cologne was thwartedDuisburgVogelschauplan1566.jpg
 * 1566 Johannes Corputius completes his city map of Duisburg.
 * 1666 Duisburg within the Duchy of Cleves becomes a part of Brandenburg-Prussia

Industrial revolution
The rise of tobacco and textile industries in the 18th century made Duisburg an industrial center. Big industrial companies such as iron and steel producing firms (Thyssen and Krupp) influenced the development of the city within the Prussian Rhine Province. Large housing areas near production sites were being built as workers and their families moved in.
 * 1823 a district ("Landkreis") Duisburg is established including the cities of Essen and Mülheim an der Ruhr.
 * 1824 construction of the sulfuric acid factory Fr. W. Curtius; beginning of the industry age in Duisburg.
 * 1828 Franz Haniel builds a dockyard for steamships
 * 1846 railway line to Düsseldorf
 * 1847 railway line via Dortmund to Minden
 * 1873 Duisburg becomes an independent city borough.
 * 1904 Birth of the 100,000th resident (Ernst R. Straube)
 * 1921 French Infantry occupy the city on 8 March to secure war reparation payments incurred during World War I.
 * 1929 The city of Hamborn and Duisburg are joined together. The new city is given the name of Duisburg-Hamborn.
 * 1935 Duisburg-Hamborn is renamed Duisburg.
 * 1938 (November) The Nazis destroy the city's synagogue.

World War II
A major logistical center in the Ruhr and location of chemical, steel and iron industries, Duisburg was a primary target of Allied bombers. As such, it is considered by some historians to be the single most heavily bombed German city by the Allies during World War II, with industrial areas and residential blocks targeted by Allied incendiary bombs.

On the night of 12–13 June 1941, British bombers dropped a total of 445 tons of bombs in and around Duisburg. As part of the Battle of the Ruhr, another British raid of 577 bombers destroyed the old city between 12 and 13 May 1943 with 1,599 tons of bombs. During the bombing raids, 96,000 people were made homeless with countless lives lost.

In 1944 the city was again badly damaged as a total of 2,000 tons of bombs were dropped on 22 May. On 14 October, the tonnage was repeated with 2,018 tons when Halifax, Lancaster, and Mosquito bombers appeared over Duisburg as part of Operation Hurricane. This daylight raid was followed by a night attack; over 24 hours about 9,000 tons of HE and incendiaries had been dropped on Duisburg. Numerous similar attacks followed until the end of 1944.

The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Duisburg in April 1945. The US 17th Airborne Division, acting as regular infantry and not in a parachute role, met only scattered resistance in the vicinity and captured the city on 12 April 1945.

On 8 May 1945 the ADSEC Engineer Group A, led by Col. Helmer Swenholt, commanding officer of the 332nd Engineer General Service Regiment, constructed a railway bridge between Duisburg and Rheinhausen across the Rhine. It was 860 meters long, and constructed in six days, fifteen hours and twenty minutes, a record time. It was named the "Victory Bridge".

Post-World War II period
A total of 299 bombing raids had almost completely destroyed the historic cityscape. 80% of all residential buildings had been destroyed or partly damaged. Almost the whole of the city had to be rebuilt, and most historic landmarks had been lost.

Beginning in the mid-1960s, the decline of Duisburg's steel and mining industry caused a significant loss of residents. While in 1975 approximately 590,000 people were living in Duisburg, the number had shrunk to 518,000 in 1985.

Duisburg celebrated its 1100th anniversary in 1983. The city's population recovered a little in the following years, up to 537,000 in 1992. It declined to 488,000 in 2011. On 19 July 2004, it was hit by a tornado. The municipal theater and parts of the city center were damaged. The city hosted the 7th World Games in 2005. In 2010, 21 people died because of a mass panic at the Love Parade; over 500 people were injured.

Demographics
In 2010, Duisburg had a population of 489,600, a slight decrease since 2006.

Duisburg has one of the highest proportions of Muslims in Germany, with the city's Muslim population at approximately 15%, or 71,000 residents, as of 2011.

Population structure of non-German residents:

Turkish community
Duisburg is home to 85,000 people of Turkish origin. Other estimates suggest that the Turkish population is as large as 100,000. The neighborhood of Marxloh is a majority Muslim neighborhood, with over 54% of residents not having German citizenship as of 2018. Marxloh has experienced significant unemployment, poverty and high crime rates. The Wall Street Journal has referred to Marxloh as "Germany's quintessential Muslim ghetto." The new Merkez Mosque, one of the largest Muslim places of worship in Western Europe, was built with help by the way of contribution of 3.2 million euro from the EU and the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Asiye Nur Fettahoğlu, a Turkish-German actress, was born in Duisburg on 12 November 1980.

Duisburg Port
Duisburg-Ruhrorter Häfen is the city's inland port. It is officially regarded as a seaport because seagoing river vessels go to ports in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Numerous docks are mostly located at the mouth of the Ruhr where it joins the Rhine.

Each year more than 40 million tonnes of various goods are handled with more than 20,000 ships calling at the port. The public harbour facilities stretch across an area of 7.4 km2. There are 21 docks covering an area of 1.8 km2 and 40 km of wharf. The area of the Logport Logistic Center Duisburg stretches across an area of 2.65 km2. With 2.5 million TEU it is also the largest inland container port, based on 2011 figures. A number of companies run their own private docks and 114 million tonnes of goods yearly (2010) are handled in Duisburg in total.

Roads
Duisburg is served by several autobahns, with 3 east–west routes and 2 north–south routes. A3 forms a bypass east of the city and mostly serves through traffic. A59 runs parallel to A3 and serves the city from north to south with 14 interchanges, much more than most other cities in the Ruhr area. The A40 and A42 are two east–west routes that serve central and northern Duisburg. Autobahn A40 also serves major through traffic from the Netherlands to Berlin and points east. A short spur, A524 serves southern Duisburg. Most Autobahns have six lanes or are upgraded to six lanes (A59).

Apart from the autobahns, no Bundesstraßen serve the city directly. B8 runs through the city, but uses A59's alignment. B288 runs in the extreme south of the city, and serves traffic to and from Krefeld. Several bridges span the Rhine, most prominently the A40 and A42 bridges, but also the L287 suspension bridge and the L237 arch bridge, a three-lane bridge with 2 lanes per peak direction with dynamic lane usage.

Public transport
Duisburg Hauptbahnhof is served by the InterCityExpress and InterCity long-distance network of the Deutsche Bahn, in addition line of the S-Bahn line connects Duisburg with other cities of the Rhine-Ruhr area.

The Duisburg Stadtbahn, the Duisburg tramway network, and a bus system, all operated by the Duisburger Verkehrsgesellschaft, provide local services. Stadtbahn line U79, the so-called "D-Bahn" ("D-Line"), connects to the neighbouring city of Düsseldorf and is operated jointly with the Rheinbahn of Düsseldorf. All S-Bahn, Stadtbahn, and bus lines operate under the umbrella of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr.

Media
There are several newspapers reporting on local events and politics, including the Westdeutsche Allgemeine (WAZ), the Neue Ruhr Zeitung (NRZ) and the Rheinische Post (RP). The local radio station "Radio Duisburg" was the first local radio broadcaster in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It started broadcasting in 1990. There is a local television station ("STUDIO 47"), which was the first local station to broadcast in North Rhine-Westphalia. It started broadcasting in 2006. In its Duisburg studios the WDR produces a local programme for the city of Duisburg and the Lower Rhine region north of Düsseldorf. WDR is part of the German television and radio network ARD.

Culture
Duisburg hosts a comprehensive range of cultural facilities and events. A highlight is the annual "Duisburger Akzente", a festival focusing on modern social, political and cultural topics.

Besides Düsseldorf Duisburg is a residence of the Deutsche Oper am Rhein, one of the major opera houses in Germany. The Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra is one of Germany's orchestras with an international reputation.

Due to its history as a harbour city and a trade and industrial center, Duisburg offers a variety of architectural places of interest, such as the German Inland Waterways Museum. Buildings vary from old churches such as St. Johann Baptist in Duisburg-Hamborn, which was built in 900, to modern age buildings such as Micro-Electronic-Centrum in Duisburg-Neudorf, built in 1995. Another subject of interest is the Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord an abandoned industrial complex open to the public and an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage. The city center contains the Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, the municipal theatre and the shopping street known as the "fountain mile".

The city also contains two botanical gardens, the Botanischer Garten Duisburg-Hamborn and the Botanischer Garten Kaiserberg, as well as a number of municipal parks.

On 24 July 2010, 21 people were killed and hundreds injured in the city during the Love Parade disaster. The Love Parade was an electronic dance music festival and technoparade.

Sport
Duisburg is involved in many kinds of sports. Nevertheless, most important for its inhabitants is the local football club MSV Duisburg. Recently, with the new MSV Arena the city received a brand new sports stadium for various kinds of sports such as football and American football. During the summer months of 2005 the World Games took place in Duisburg. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Duisburg was the stage for preparation of the Portuguese team and the residence of the Italian football team, who won the cup in the final match against France. Duisburg is also known for its Rhein-Ruhr-Marathon, its rowing and canoeing regattas and the world championships that take place there regularly. Other popular sports are ice hockey, basketball, American football, water polo, and field hockey.

Notable people

 * Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594), Flemish cartographer, inventor of the Mercator projection
 * Ludwig Susen (1807–1863), elementary teacher
 * Wilhelm Lehmbruck (1881–1919), sculptor
 * August Thyssen (1842–1926), industrialist
 * Oswald Pohl (1892–1951), Nazi SS officer executed for war crimes
 * Paul Bäumer (1896–1927), World War I flying ace
 * Margot Philips (1902–1988), New Zealand painter
 * Ferdinand Simoneit (1925–2010), journalist and author
 * Lüder Lüers (1926–2022), German horticultural architect, engaged in founding Kindernothilfe
 * Dieter Kürten (born 1935), sports journalist
 * Achim Warmbold (born 1941), rally driver
 * Daisy Door (born 1944), Schlager music singer
 * Hans-Werner Gessmann (born 1950), psychologist
 * Ronny van Dyke (born Jörg T. Hartmann in 1956), singer and songwriter
 * Frank Peter Zimmermann (born 1965), violinist
 * Christoph Reuter (born 1968), musicologist
 * Christian Ehring (born 1972), comedian
 * Stefan Gertler (born 1972), singer
 * Ramin Djawadi (born 1974), German-Iranian composer and music producer
 * Nur Fettahoğlu (born 1980), Turkish-German actress
 * André Lotterer (born 1981), Belgian-German racing driver
 * Lance David Arnold (born 1986), racing driver
 * Benjamin Leuchter (born 1987), racing driver
 * Nikolas Breuckmann (born 1988), mathematical physicist
 * Jacob Goll (born 1992), ice hockey player
 * Ena Mahmutovic (born 2003), footballer

Twin towns – sister cities
Duisburg is twinned with:

 * 🏴 Portsmouth, England, UK (1950)
 * 🇫🇷 Calais, France (1964)
 * 🇨🇳 Wuhan, China (1982)
 * 🇱🇹 Vilnius, Lithuania (1985)
 * 🇹🇷 Gaziantep, Turkey (2005)
 * 🇷🇺 Perm, Russia (2007)
 * 🇭🇳 San Pedro Sula, Honduras (2008)
 * 🇹🇬 Lomé, Togo (2010)
 * 🇺🇸 Fort Lauderdale, United States (2011)
 * 🇺🇦 Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine (2023)

title: Duisburg


text:
Tocumen International Airport

Tocumen International Airport (Aeropuerto Internacional de Tocumen) is the primary international airport serving Panama City, the capital of Panama. The airport serves as the homebase for Copa Airlines and is a regional hub to and from the Caribbean, South, North and Central America and additionally features routes to some European cities as well as cargo flights to Qatar.

History
During World War II, Panamanian airports were leased exclusively by the U.S. Armed Forces. The nearest airport to Tocumen was the Paitilla Point Airfield. Several airports were built to protect the Panama Canal from foreign aggression. The 37th Pursuit Group at Albrook Field replaced the P-40 Warhawks of the 28th Pursuit Squadron at the Paitilla Point airbase from 9 December 1941 though 26 March 1942 in the immediate aftermath of the Pearl Harbor attack.

Tocumen International Airport was inaugurated on June 1, 1947, by President Enrique Adolfo Jiménez, and airport operations began before the construction works were completed. The administrative building/passenger terminal was inaugurated seven years later, during the administration of Colonel José Antonio Remón Cantera. The old airport building, which currently is being used as a cargo terminal, was built on an area of 720 ha and was 126 ft above sea level. As time passed, and due to Panama's role as a country of transit, that terminal became too small to attend to the growing demand for air operations. These circumstances compelled the aeronautical authorities at the time to consider expanding the airport. Work on the new buildings began in 1971.

The bed of the Tocumen river was diverted to construct the new terminal building.

The terminal opened on August 15, 1978, and operations began on September 5. The Tocumen International Airport is one of few airports in the region that has two landing runways able to serve the largest commercial aircraft operating today. The name of the airport was changed in 1981 by the military government to Omar Torrijos International Airport, in honor of the Panamanian leader who died on July 31, 1981.

After nine years, the original name was reestablished after the fall of the dictatorship of Panama by the U.S. invasion of 1989, when the airport was seized by 82nd Airborne Division paratroopers. The original runway (03L/21R) is mainly used for cargo and private flights, but also as a supplement to the primary runway during peak traffic periods. The main runway (03R/21L) is 3050 x and is used primarily for commercial flights, the 03R direction is ILS Cat. I enabled. Until May 31, 2003, Tocumen International Airport was managed by the Civil Aeronautics Directorate (which is known today as the Civil Aeronautics Authority). On June 1 of that year, an innovative terminal management platform was created through Law No. 23 of January 29, 2003, which set out a regulatory framework for the management of airports and landing strips in Panama. This law allowed the creation of Aeropuerto Internacional de Tocumen, S.A., also referred to as Tocumen, S.A., which currently manages the terminal. This law is one of a number of laws that restructured the aeronautical sector in Panama to further its improvement and modernization.

In August 2015, it was announced that Emirates would operate flights to Tocumen International Airport from Dubai starting February 2016, at which point it would have become the world's longest non-stop flight. In January 2016, the route was delayed due to a lack of economic opportunities for the flight. It has not yet been announced when the flight will begin regularly scheduled operations. It was planned to make the route between Tocumen International Airport and Dubai the longest flight in the world, until Emirates started flying between Dubai and Auckland.

On 16 March 2023, Aeropuerto metro station of Panama Metro was open in the airport.

First phase
In 2006, Tocumen S.A. started a major expansion and renovation program. The main passenger terminal was expanded 20830 m2 at a cost of approximately US$21 million. New boarding gates were built to allow more flights to and from Panama, and to facilitate the growth of commercial and internal circulation areas.

Tocumen Airport administration acquired 22 new boarding bridges and replaced the oldest 14. This included the addition of 6 remote positions, hence allowing Tocumen Airport to have a total of 28 boarding gates. The new installations were opened in 2006. The airport also has a VIP lounge, Copa Club, operated by the partnership between United Airlines and Copa Airlines that caters to Copa's partner airlines and Star Alliance members. It also had an Admirals Club for American Airlines, which closed on June 30, 2012. The Lounge Panama, a VIP airport lounge operated by Global Lounge Network started operations at Tocumen on January 9, 2019.

The next step of the modernization project was the purchasing of new equipment to provide service and support to the common areas of the airport. New equipment included: modern boarding gates and elevators, luggage conveyor belts, flight information system, and revamping the air conditioning system.

The renovation of the old Tocumen International Airport (originally built in 1947) to be used solely as a cargo terminal, was the last step of the modernization project of Tocumen International Airport. It included the redesign of the central building, the construction of new buildings for cargo companies among other improvements.

Second phase
The second expansion phase of Tocumen International Airport is the Northern Terminal. At a cost of US$60 million, a completely new terminal with 12 additional terminal gates was built. With these 12 new gates plus the existing 22 gates and the six remote aircraft docks, there is a total of 40 gates. The new facilities included the platforms, taxiways and a new road which connect both the cargo terminal and the airport's administration building. The Muelle Norte is linked to the main passenger terminal and have 10 moving walkways for passengers and 1400 m2 commercial areas. The luggage sorting system was expanded to accommodate increased demand. The tender for the design of the second phase was given to Ecuador-based Planman Cia Ltda. Colombia-based Aerotocumen won the tender of the construction of the North Terminal.

Third phase
The South Terminal started a bidding process during the first half of 2012 and the contract was acquired by the Brazilian company Odebrecht. Tocumen S.A. made an investment of US$780 million, which included 20 additional gates. It included the construction of a new terminal, hundreds of parking spots, Tocumen river diversion, and four new direct-access lanes to the airport. The new terminal was officially inaugurated on April 29, 2019 and started operations on June 22, 2022.

Accidents at or near PTY

 * On August 4, 1965, a Rutas Internacionales Peruanes SA (RIPSA), a Douglas DC-4 cargo flight, crashed after takeoff 2.5 mls NE of PTY because of faulty maintenance. All 7 occupants died.
 * On September 28, 1979, a Transporte Aereo Boliviano (TAB) Lockheed C-130 Hercules crashed into the sea shorttly after a night takeoff from PTY. All 4 occupants were killed.
 * On July 2, 2004, a IAI Westwind operated by Air Tek crashed after takeoff and eventually came came to rest inside an empty hangar. All 6 occupants were killed, along with an airport worker on the ground.

title: Tocumen International Airport


text:
Smolensk

Smolensk is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River, 360 km west-southwest of Moscow. First mentioned in 863, it is one of the oldest cities in Russia.

It has a population of

Etymology
The name of the city is derived from the name of the Smolnya River. Smolnya river flows through Karelian and Murmansk areas of north-western Russia. The origin of the river's name is less clear. One possibility is the old Slavic word смоль (smol') for black soil, which might have colored the waters of the Smolnya. An alternative origin could be the Russian word смола (smola), which means resin, tar, or pitch. Pine trees grow in the area, and the city was once a center of resin processing and trade. The Byzantine emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) recorded its name as Μιλινισκα (Miliniska).

Geography
The city is located in European Russia on the banks of the upper Dnieper River, which crosses the city within the Smolensk Upland, which is the western part of the Smolensk–Moscow Upland. The Dnieper River flows through the city from east to west and divides it into two parts: the northern (Zadneprove) and southern (center). Within the city and its surroundings the river takes in several small tributaries.

In the valleys are stretched streets, high ridges, hills, and headlands form the mountain. Smolensk is situated on seven hills (mountains). The old part of the city occupies the high, rugged left (south) bank of the Dnieper River. The area features undulating terrain, with a large number of tributaries, creeks and ravines.

Medieval origins
Smolensk is among the oldest Russian cities of the known Rus' era. The first recorded mention of the city was 863 AD, two years after the founding of Kievan Rus'. According to Russian Primary Chronicle, Smolensk (probably located slightly downstream, at the archaeological site of Gnezdovo) was located on the area settled by the East Slavic Radimichs tribe in 882 when Oleg of Novgorod took it in passing from Novgorod to Kiev. The town was first attested two decades earlier, when the Varangian chieftains Askold and Dir, while on their way to Kiev, decided against challenging Smolensk on account of its large size and population.

The first foreign writer to mention the city was the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. In De Administrando Imperio (c. 950) he described Smolensk as a key station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The Rus' people sailed from the Baltic region up the Western Dvina (Daugava) River as far as they could then they portaged their boats to the upper Dnieper. It was in Smolensk that they supposedly mended any leaks and small holes that might have appeared in their boats from being dragged on the ground and they used tar to do that, hence the city name.

The Principality of Smolensk was founded in 1054. Due to its central position in Kievan Rus', the city developed rapidly. By the end of the 12th century, the princedom was one of the strongest in Eastern Europe, so that Smolensk princes frequently controlled the Kievan throne. Numerous churches were built in the city at that time, including the church of Sts. Peter and Paul (1146, reconstructed to its presumed original appearance after World War II) and the church of St. John the Baptist (1180, also partly rebuilt). The most remarkable church in the city is called Svirskaya (1197, still standing); it was admired by contemporaries as the most beautiful structure east of Kiev.

Smolensk had its own veche since the very beginning of its history. Its power increased after the disintegration of Kievan Rus', and although it was not as strong as the veche in Novgorod, the princes had to take its opinion into consideration; several times in 12th and 13th centuries there was an open conflict between them.

Between Lithuania and Russia
Although spared by the Mongol armies in 1240, Smolensk paid tribute to the Golden Horde, gradually becoming a pawn in the long struggle between Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The last sovereign monarch of Smolensk was Yury of Smolensk; during his reign the city was taken by Vytautas the Great of Lithuania on three occasions: in 1395, 1404, and 1408. After the city's incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, some of Smolensk's boyars (e.g., the Sapiehas) moved to Vilnius; descendants of the ruling princes (e.g., the Tatishchevs, Kropotkins, Mussorgskys, Vyazemskys) fled to Moscow.

Three Lithuanian Smolensk regiments took part in the 1410 Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) against the Teutonic Knights. It was a severe blow to Lithuania when the city was taken by Vasily III of Russia in 1514. To commemorate this event, the Tsar founded the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow and dedicated it to the icon of Our Lady of Smolensk.

In order to repel future Polish–Lithuanian attacks, Boris Godunov made it his priority to heavily fortify the city. The stone kremlin constructed in 1597–1602 is the largest in Russia. It features thick walls and numerous watchtowers. Heavy fortifications did not prevent the fortress from being taken by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1611 after a long twenty-month siege, during the Time of Troubles and Dimitriads. Weakened Muscovy temporarily ceded Smolensk land to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Truce of Deulino. The city was granted Magdeburg rights in 1611 and was the seat of Smolensk Voivodeship for the next forty-three years.

To recapture the city, the Tsardom of Russia launched the so-called "Smolensk War" against the Commonwealth in 1632. After a defeat at the hands of king Wladislaw IV, the city remained in Polish–Lithuanian hands. In 1632, the Uniate bishop Lew Kreuza built his apartments in Smolensk; they were later converted into the Eastern Orthodox Church of Saint Barbara. The hostilities resumed in 1654 when the Commonwealth was being affected by the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish deluge. After another siege, on 23 September 1654, Smolensk was recaptured by Russia. In the 1667 Truce of Andrusovo, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth renounced its claims to Smolensk.

Modern history
Smolensk has been a special place to Russians for many reasons, not least for the fact that the local cathedral housed one of the most venerated Orthodox icons, attributed to St. Luke. Building the new Cathedral of the Assumption was a great project which took more than a century to complete. Despite slowly sinking into an economic backwater, Smolensk was still valued by the Tsars as a key fortress defending the route to Moscow. It was made the seat of Smolensk Governorate in 1708.

In August 1812, two of the largest armies ever assembled clashed in Smolensk. During the hard-fought battle, described by Leo Tolstoy in War and Peace (Book Three Part Two Chapter 4), Napoleon entered the city. Total losses were estimated at 30,000 men. Apart from other military monuments, central Smolensk features the Eagles monument, unveiled in 1912 to mark the centenary of Napoleon's Russian campaign.

At the beginning of World War I, the 56th Smolensk Infantry Division was first assigned to the First Army of the Imperial Russian Army. They fought at the Battle of Tannenberg. It was subsequently transferred to the 10th Army and fought at the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. In March 1918, the Belarusian People's Republic, proclaimed in Minsk under the German occupation, declared Smolensk part of it. In February–December 1918, Smolensk was home to the headquarters of the Western Front, North-West Oblast Bolshevik Committee and Western Oblast Executive Committee. On 1 January 1919, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in Smolensk, but its government moved to Minsk as soon as the German forces had been driven out of the city several days later.

Soviet period
In 1920 a provincial census was held, according to which the Russian population prevailed over the Belarusian one, meaning Smolensk had to be transferred to the Russian SFSR. The Polish section of the city resisted this decision, and in April 1935 the Mieczysław rebellion was held, in which an estimated 176 Polish resistance fighters perished, in contrast to seven wounded Russian soldiers dispatched to control the rioting.

In 1940, 18 km from Smolensk, the Katyn Massacre occurred, in which some 22,000 Polish POWs were murdered by the NKVD. At this time Boris Menshagin was mayor of Smolensk, with his deputy Boris Bazilevsky. Both of them would be key witnesses in the Nuremberg Trials over the massacre.

During World War II, Smolensk once again saw wide-scale fighting during the first Battle of Smolensk when the city was captured by the Germans on 16 July 1941. The first Soviet counteroffensive against the German army was launched in August but failed. However, the limited Soviet victories outside the city halted the German advance for a crucial two months, granting time to Moscow's defenders to prepare in earnest. Over 93% of the city was destroyed during the fighting; the ancient icon of Our Lady of Smolensk was lost. Nevertheless, it escaped total destruction. In late 1943, Hermann Göring had ordered Gotthard Heinrici to destroy Smolensk in accordance with the Nazi "scorched earth" policy. He refused and was punished for it. The city was finally liberated on 25 September 1943, during the second Battle of Smolensk. The rare title of Hero City was bestowed on Smolensk after the war.

After the Germans captured the city in 1941, they found the intact archives of the Smolensk Oblast Committee of the Communist Party, the so-called Smolensk Archive. The archive was moved to Germany, and a significant part of it eventually ended up in the United States, providing Western scholars and intelligence specialists with unique information during the Cold War on the local workings of the Soviet government during its first two decades. The archives were returned to Russia by the United States in 2002.

Recent events
On 10 April 2010, a Tu-154 military jet carrying Polish president Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and many notable political and military figures crashed in a wooded area near Smolensk while approaching the local military airport. All ninety-six passengers died immediately on impact. The purpose of the visit was to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre.

In June 2013, archaeologists of the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered and unearthed ancient temples in Smolensk dated to the middle to second half of the 12th century, built on the left bank of the Dnieper River. At the time the city was the capital of Smolensk principality.

In September 2013, Smolensk widely celebrated its 1,150th anniversary with funds spent on different construction and renovation projects in the city. In celebration the Central Bank of Russia issued commemorative coins made of precious metals.

Attractions
Owing to its long and rich history, Smolensk is home to many examples of Russian architecture ranging from the Kievan Rus period to post-WWII Stalinist style. Although the city was destroyed several times over, many historically and culturally significant buildings remain, including a large number of churches and cathedrals. The most famous of these are the Cathedral of the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception Church, and the Church of St. Michael the Archangel, which is one of the few structures from before the Mongol invasion remaining in Russia.

The Smolensk Kremlin
The Smolensk Kremlin, built at the end of the 16th century during the reign of Tsars Fyodor I Ioannovich and Boris Godunov, under the supervision of the architect Fyodor Kon, is one of the greatest achievements of Russian medieval architecture and military engineering.

Monuments
Being the site of many great battles in Russian history, Smolensk is home to many monuments commemorating its rich military history.

Administrative and municipal status
Smolensk serves as the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Smolensky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Smolensk Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status.

Politics
Chairman of the City Council of the VI convocation (since 24 December 2021) – Anatoly Ovsyankin (United Russia).

The Smolensk City Council of the VI convocation was elected on 13 September 2020. The party composition of the current city council is as follows: United Russia – 23 deputies, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation – 4 deputies, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia – 1 deputy, A Just Russia – 1 deputy, Party of Pensioners – 1 deputy.

Climate
Smolensk has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb). By European standards, the climate is quite cold for its latitude on 54°N. The far inland position warms springs up relatively quickly, with May being quite a bit milder than September.

Economy
Smolensk has several factories including the Smolensk Aviation Plant and several electronics and agricultural machinery factories.

Transportation
Smolensk is located on the M1 main highway and Moscow–Brest Railway. Since 1870, there is a railway connection between Smolensk and Moscow. Local public transport includes buses and trolleybuses. Public transportation network includes buses, trolleybuses, trams, and marshrutkas.

There are two airports located in the outskirts of the city; Smolensk South (civilian) and Smolensk North (military); however, there are no regular flights scheduled to Smolensk South Airport.

Education
Smolensk is home to the Smolensk State University (SMOLGU) and the Smolensk State Medical University (affiliated as university in 2015) (SSMU); together with colleges of further education and other educational institutes.

Twin towns – sister cities
Smolensk is twinned with:

 * 🇺🇸 Colorado Springs, United States (1993– suspended 2022)
 * 🇩🇪 Hagen, Germany (1985)
 * 🇺🇦 Kerch, Ukraine (2000)
 * 🇷🇸 Kragujevac, Serbia (2009)
 * 🇧🇬 Targovishte, Bulgaria (2002)
 * 🇫🇷 Tulle, France (1981)
 * 🇧🇾 Vitebsk, Belarus

Notable people

 * Ivan Ivanovich Baryatinsky (1772–1825), Russian Rurikid Prince; father of Prince Aleksandr Baryatinsky.
 * Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968), cosmonaut
 * Timofey Mikhaylov (1859–1881), revolutionary, one of the assassins of Tsar Alexander II
 * Grigorii Maksimov (1893–1950), politician
 * Fyodor Glinka (1786–1880) a Russian poet and author.
 * Mikhail Glinka (1804 in Novospasskoye – 1857), composer.
 * Sergey Glinka (1774–1847) a minor Russian author of the Romantic period.
 * Anatoly Kharlampiyev (1906–1979), founder of Sambo
 * Eduard Khil (1934–2012), singer
 * Patriarch Kirill of Moscow (born 1946), religious leader
 * Sergey Konenkov (1874–1971), sculptor
 * Semyon Lavochkin (1900–1960), aircraft designer
 * Morris Markin (1893–1970), businessman and founder of Checker Motors Corporation
 * Viktor Nemytskii (1900–1967), mathematician
 * Grigory Potyomkin (1739 at Chizheva – 1791), statesman.
 * Andrey Starovoytov, (1915–1997), IIHF Hall of Fame inductee
 * Aleksandr Tvardovsky (1910–1971), writer

Honors
Smolensk Strait between Livingston Island and Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after the city.

A Soviet post World War II project planned the creation of a light cruiser vessel named Smolensk. It was never constructed.

title: Smolensk


text:
John Crome

John Crome (22 December 1768 – 22 April 1821), once known as Old Crome to distinguish him from his artist son John Berney Crome, was an English landscape painter of the Romantic era, one of the principal artists and founding members of the Norwich School of painters. He lived in the English city of Norwich for all his life. Most of his works are of Norfolk landscapes.

Crome's work is in the collections of public art galleries, including the Tate Gallery and the Royal Academy in London, and the Castle Museum in Norwich. He produced etchings and taught art.

Biography
John Crome was born on 22 December 1768 in Norwich, and baptised on 25 December at St George's Church, Tombland, Norwich. He was the son of John Crome, a weaver (who is also described as either an innkeeper or a lodger at a Norwich inn), and his wife Elizabeth. After a period working as an errand boy for a doctor (from the age of 12), he was apprenticed to Francis Whisler, a house, coach and sign painter. At about this time he formed a friendship with Robert Ladbrooke, then an apprentice printer. They shared a room and went on sketching trips in the fields and lanes around Norwich. They occasionally bought prints to copy.

Crome and Ladbrooke sold some of their work to a local printseller, Smith and Jaggars, and it was probably through the print-seller that Crome met Thomas Harvey of Old Catton, who helped him set to up as a drawing teacher. Crome had access to Harvey's art collection, which allowed him to develop his skills by copying the works of Thomas Gainsborough and Meindert Hobbema. Crome received further instruction and encouragement from the artist John Opie, and the English portraitist William Beechey, whose house in London he frequently visited.

In October 1792 Crome married Phoebe Berney. They produced two daughters and six sons, two of whom, John Berney Crome and William Henry Crome became landscape painters.

In 1803 Crome and Ladbrooke formed the Norwich Society of Artists, a group that also included Robert Dixon, Charles Hodgson, Daniel Coppin, James Stark and George Vincent. Their first exhibition was in 1805; it marked the start of the Norwich School of painters, the first art movement created outside London. Crome contributed 22 works to its first exhibition, held in 1805. He served as President of the Society several times and held the position at the time of his death. With the exception of the times when he made short visits to London, he had little or no communication with the great artists of his own time. He exhibited 13 works at the Royal Academy between 1806 and 1818. He visited Paris in 1814, following the defeat of Napoleon, and later exhibited views of Paris, Boulogne, and Ostend. Most of his subjects were of scenes in Norfolk.

Crome was drawing master at Norwich School for many years. Several members of the Norwich School art movement were educated at the school and were taught by him, including Stark and Edward Thomas Daniell. He also taught privately, his pupils including members of the influential Gurney family, whom he stayed with whilst in the Lake District in 1802.

He died at his house in Gildengate, Norwich, on 22 April 1821, and was buried in St. George's Church. On his death-bed he is said to have gasped, "Oh Hobbema, my dear Hobbema, how I have loved you". A memorial exhibition of more than 100 of his works was held in November that year by the Norwich Society of Artists.

Crome's Broad and nearby Crome's Farm in The Broads National Park are named after him. The area surrounding Heartsease is covered by the Crome ward and division on Norwich City Council and Norfolk County Council respectively.

An incident in Crome's life was the subject of the one-act opera Twice in a Blue Moon by Phyllis Tate, to a libretto by Christopher Hassall: it was first performed in 1969. In the story Crome and his wife split one of his paintings in two to sell each half at the Norwich Fair.

Works
Crome, who is sometimes referred to as "Old Crome", worked in both watercolour and oil, producing more than 300 oil paintings during his career.

Between 1809 and 1813 he made a series of etchings. They were not published in his lifetime, although he issued a prospectus announcing his intention to do so.

His two main influences are considered to be Dutch 17th-century painting and the work of the Welsh landscape painter Richard Wilson. Along with the artist John Constable, Crome was one of the earliest English painters to represent identifiable species of trees, rather than generalised forms. His works, renowned for their originality and vision, were inspired by direct observation of the natural world combined with a comprehensive study of old masters.

The art historian Andrew Hemingway has identified a theme of leisure in Crome's work, citing particularly his works depicting the beach at Great Yarmouth, and the River Wensum in his native Norwich. An example of the latter is the oil painting Boys Bathing on the River Wensum, Norwich, which was painted in 1817. It depicts a scene at New Mills, the location of several of Crome's works.

title: John Crome