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Royal Society for the Protection of Birds

The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) is a charitable organisation registered in England and Wales and in Scotland. It was founded in 1889. It works to promote conservation and protection of birds and the wider environment through public awareness campaigns, petitions and through the operation of nature reserves throughout the United Kingdom.

In 2021/22 the RSPB had revenue of £157 million, 2,200 employees, 10,500 volunteers and 1.1 million members (including 195,000 youth members), making it one of the world's largest wildlife conservation organisations. The RSPB has many local groups and maintains 222 nature reserves.

History

The origins of the RSPB lie with two groups of women, both formed in 1889:
 * The Plumage League was founded by Emily Williamson at her house in Didsbury, Manchester, as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing. The house is now in Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden.
 * The Fin, Fur and Feather Folk was founded in Croydon by Eliza Phillips, Etta Lemon, Catherine Hall, Hannah Poland and others.

The groups gained in popularity and amalgamated in 1891 to form the Society for the Protection of Birds in London. The Society gained its Royal Charter in 1904.

The original members of the SPB were all women who campaigned against the fashion of the time for women to wear exotic feathers in hats, and the consequent encouragement of "plume hunting". To this end the Society had two simple rules:

"* That Members shall discourage the wanton destruction of Birds, and interest themselves generally in their protection
 * That Lady-Members shall refrain from wearing the feathers of any bird not killed for purposes of food, the ostrich only excepted."

At the time of founding, the trade in plumage for use in hats was very large: in the first quarter of 1884, almost 7,000 bird-of-paradise skins were being imported to Britain, along with 400,000 birds from West India and Brazil, and 360,000 birds from East India.

In 1890, the society published its first leaflet, entitled Destruction of Ornamental-Plumaged Birds, aimed at saving the egret population by informing wealthy women of the environmental damage wrought by the use of feathers in fashion. A later 1897 publication, Bird Food in Winter, aimed to address the use of berries as winter decoration and encouraged the use of synthetic berries to preserve the birds food source. In 1897 the SPB distributed over 16,000 letters and 50,000 leaflets and by 1898 had 20,000 members.

The Society attracted support from some women of high social standing who belonged to the social classes that popularised the wearing of feathered hats, including the Duchess of Portland (who became the Society's first President) and the Ranee of Sarawak. As the organisation began to attract the support of many other influential figures, both male and female, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton, it gained in popularity and attracted many new members. The society received a Royal Charter in 1904 from Edward VII, just 15 years after its founding, and was instrumental in petitioning the Parliament of the United Kingdom to introduce laws banning the use of plumage in clothing.

At the time that the Society was founded in Britain, similar societies were also founded in other European countries. In 1961, the society acquired The Lodge in Sandy, Bedfordshire, as its new headquarters. The RSPB's logo depicts an avocet. The first version was designed by Robert Gillmor.

Activities

Today, the RSPB works with both the civil service and the Government to advise Government policies on conservation and environmentalism. It is one of several organisations that determine the official conservation status list for all birds found in the UK.

The RSPB does not run bird hospitals nor offer animal rescue services.

The RSPB entered into a partnership with UK housebuilder Barratt Developments in 2014.

Reserves

The RSPB maintains over 200 reserves throughout the United Kingdom, covering a wide range of habitats, from estuaries and mudflats to forests and urban habitats. The reserves often have bird hides provided for birdwatchers and many provide visitor centres, which include information about the wildlife that can be seen there.

Awards
The RSPB confers awards, including the President's Award, for volunteers who make a notable contribution to the work of the society.

RSPB Medal
According to the RSPB:

"The RSPB Medal is the Society's most prestigious award. It is presented to an individual in recognition of wild bird protection and countryside conservation. It is usually awarded annually to one or occasionally two people."

Magazines
The RSPB has published a members-only magazine for over a century.

Bird Notes

Bird Notes and News was first published in April 1903.

The title changed to Bird Notes in 1947. In the 1950s, there were four copies per year (one for each season, published on the 1st of each third month, March, June, September and December). Each volume covered two years, spread over three calendar years. For example, volume XXV (25), number one was dated Winter 1951, and number eight in the same volume was dated Autumn 1953.

From the mid-1950s, many of the covers were by Charles Tunnicliffe. Two of the originals are on long-term loan to the Tunnicliffe gallery at Oriel Ynys Môn, but in 1995 the RSPB sold 114 at a Sotheby's auction, raising £210,000, the most expensive being a picture of a partridge which sold for £6,440.

From January 1964 (vol. 31, no. 1), publication increased to six per year, (issued in the odd-numbered months, January, March and so on, but dated "January–February", "March–April", etc.). Volumes again covered two years, so vol. 30, covering 1962–63, therefore included nine issues, ending with the "Winter 1963–64" edition instead of eight. The final edition, vol. 31 no. 12, was published in late 1965.

Editors

 * Miss M. G. Davies, BA, MBOU (for many years, until vol. 30 no. 9)
 * John Clegg (from vol. 31 No. 1 – vol. 31 no. 3)
 * Jeremy Boswell (from vol. 31 no. 4 – vol. 31 no. 12)

Birds
Bird Notes' successor Birds replaced it immediately, with volume 1, number 1 being the January–February 1966 edition. Issues were published quarterly, numbered so that a new volume started every other year.

The Autumn 2013 edition, dated August–October 2013, being vol. 25 no. 7, was the last.

Nature's Home
In Winter 2013 Birds was replaced by a new magazine, Nature's Home. The editor was Mark Ward. The magazine had an ABC-certified circulation of 600,885.

The RSPB Magazine
With the Summer/Autumn 2022 issue, the magazine has been re-titled.

Junior divisions
The RSPB has two separate groups for children and teenagers: Wildlife Explorers (founded in 1943 as the Junior Bird Recorders' Club; from 1965 to 2000 the Young Ornithologists' Club or YOC ) and RSPB Phoenix. Wildlife Explorers is targeted at children aged between 8 and 12, although it also has some younger members, and has two different magazines: Wild Times for 0–7-year-olds, and Wild Explorer for 8–12-year-olds. RSPB Phoenix is aimed at teenagers, and produces Wingbeat magazine, which is primarily written by young people for young people. The RSPB is a member of The National Council for Voluntary Youth Services.

Big Garden Birdwatch
RSPB organises bird record data collection in annual collective birdwatching days in Britain. The RSPB describes this as the "world's biggest wildlife survey" and helps inform conservationists to gain a better knowledge on bird population trends in gardens in Britain. The Big Garden Birdwatch was launched as a children's activity in 1979, but from 2001 it encouraged adults to partake as well. In 2011, over 600,000 people took part, only 37% of whom were RSPB members. This event usually takes place in the last weekend of January. From the start of this annual survey records for house sparrows showed a decline of 60%, while starling populations declined by about 80% from 1979 to 2012.

In 2022, nearly 700,000 people took part in the Big Garden Birdwatch, counting more than 11 billion birds.

BirdTrack
BirdTrack is an online citizen science website, operated by the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) on behalf of a partnership of the BTO, the RSPB, BirdWatch Ireland, the Scottish Ornithologists' Club and the Welsh Ornithological Society (Cymdeithas Adaryddol Cymru).

Finances
The RSPB is funded primarily by its members; in 2006, over 50% of the society's £88 million income came from subscriptions, donations and legacies, worth a total of £53.669 million. As a registered charity, the organisation is entitled to gift aid worth an extra £0.25 on every £1.00 donated by income tax payers. The bulk of the income (£63.757 million in 2006) is spent on conservation projects, maintenance of the reserves and on education projects, with the rest going on fundraising efforts and reducing the pension deficit, worth £19.8 million in 2006.

Advertising
It was reported in an article in The Daily Mail on 2 November 2014 that claims that the charity "was spending 90 per cent of its income on conservation" by the UK Advertising Standards Authority were incorrect. The article claimed that the true figure was closer to 26%. The Charity Commission investigated the claims, and contacted the RSPB to get it to clarify its web statement. The RSPB complied, with the clarification that 90% of its net income (after expenses, not gross income as received) was spent on conservation, and that conservation activities were diverse, not limited to spending on its own nature reserves. This was accepted by the Charity Commission.

Presidents

 * Winifred Cavendish-Bentinck, Duchess of Portland 1891–1954
 * Cyril Hurcomb
 * Colonel Sir Tufton Beamish
 * Derek Barber, Baron Barber of Tewkesbury
 * Robert Dougall
 * Max Nicholson 1980–1985
 * Magnus Magnusson 1985–1990
 * Sir Derek Barber 1990–1991
 * Ian Prestt 1991–1994
 * Julian Pettifer 1994–?
 * Jonathan Dimbleby 2001–?
 * Julian Pettifer 2004–2009
 * Kate Humble 2009 –2013
 * Miranda Krestovnikoff 2013–2022
 * Dr Amir Khan 2022–(incumbent)

Chief officers
Over time, the organisation's chief officers have been given different titles.

 * William Henry Hudson – Chairman of Committee 1894
 * Sir Montagu Sharpe, KBE DL – Chairman of Committee 1895–1942
 * Phillip Brown
 * Peter Conder OBE – Secretary 1963. Director 1964–1975
 * Ian Prestt CBE – Director General 1975–1991
 * Barbara Young – CEO 1991–1998
 * Sir Graham Wynne – CEO 1998–2010
 * Mike Clarke – Chief Executive 2010–2019
 * Beccy Speight - Chief Executive 2019–

Associate organisations
The RSPB is a member of Wildlife and Countryside Link. The RSPB is the UK Partner of BirdLife International and manages the South Atlantic Invasive Species Project on behalf of the partner governments.


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Halvergate Marshes

The Halvergate Marshes are an area of grazing marsh in the east of the English county of Norfolk. They form part of the area of The Broads and lie between the River Bure and the River Yare, bordering Breydon Water on the east. The marshes cover an area of around 2642 ha An area of 1,432.7 ha is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest. Some areas are also in the Breydon Water Local Nature Reserve, the Broadland and Breydon Water Ramsar sites, The Broads Special Area of Conservation, and The Broads and Breydon Water Special Protection Areas.

History
Halvergate Marshes were an estuary in Roman times and remained a tidal creek into the Medieval period. By the time of Domesday Book the land was already being used for grazing sheep, with Halvergate being recorded as having 960 sheep at the time, a larger amount than any other part of the marshes. Some evidence of possible salt workings also remains. Around 400 years ago the land was drained and converted to grazing marsh using a series of windpumps or windmills and drainage ditches. It was used mainly to graze sheep and cattle, although was occasionally farmed as arable land until coastal flooding in the 1780s.

Arable ploughing in the 1960s and 70s damaged the ditch landscape and ecology and in the 1980s further draining was undertaken. This led to the loss of wildlife habitat and in 1981 an area 1430 ha in size was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest. In 1985 the Broads Authority, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and Countryside Commission developed the Broads Grazing Marsh Conservation Scheme, a series of financial incentives to persuade farmers to adopt more environmentally friendly methods on Halvergate Marshes. This led to the creation of the UK's first Environmentally Sensitive Area on Halvergate Marshes in 1987 and was the prototype for ESAs nationally.

The marshes are dotted with windpumps, many without sails or even caps. These structures were used for draining the marshes before the introduction of motor or diesel pumps. Among the best preserved are Stracey Arms Mill on the River Bure, Lockgate Mill, Mutton's Mill and the Berney Arms Windmill, a Scheduled Ancient Monument on the River Yare.

Geography
Halvergate Marshes is the largest area of traditionally managed grazing marsh in the Broadland area. The area is extremely flat and low lying with much of the area at or below sea level. Breydon Water forms the eastern edge of the marshes with the River Yare dividing the area from similar areas of marshland to the south. The villages of Reedham, Wickhampton and Halvergate and the higher ground they occupy forms the western edge of the marshes, with the market town of Acle at the extreme north-west. The River Bure and the Acle Straight road form the northern edge. The area of the Site of Special Scientific Interest forms part of the wider marshland area and is mainly located to the south of the Halvergate Fleet waterway and the village of Halvergate. Areas of marshland extend outside of the Halvergate Marshes both to the north and the south.

The area is sparsely populated with a scattering of isolated farms across the marshes, although it may have been more populated in the Medieval period. Berney Arms is the site of Berney Arms railway station, one of the most isolated railway stations in England, and at one point had up to 11 inhabited houses. The RSPB Berney Marshes reserve forms part of the area. The area is crossed by the Weavers' Way and Wherryman's Way footpaths.

Flora and fauna
Halvergate Marshes support a range of habitats besides grazing marsh, including areas of unimproved pasture, wet fen meadow, reed bed and alder carr. A band of woodland lies along the western edge of the marshes. The drainage ditches which cross the marshes are deemed to be of "outstanding importance for nature conservation" and support a range of freshwater and brackish communities of plants and invertebrates.

Freshwater ditch communities, which lie mainly along the western side of the SSSI area, are recognised as being of "being of international importance" and support species such as broad-leaved pondweed Potamogeton natans, water violet Hottonia palustris and the nationally scarce whorled water milfoil Myriophyllum verticillatum. Other areas of ditches support species such as the nationally scarce water soldier Stratiotes alludes, fen pondweed Potamogeton coloratus, hairlike pondweed Potamogeton trichoides and water parsnip Sium latifolium. The area of ditch close to Breydon Water are more brackish in nature and feature species such as soft hornwort Ceratophyllum submersum and the nationally scarce stiff saltmarsh grass Puccinellia rupestris.

Invertebrate species associated with the drainage ditches include the nationally rare species Norfolk hawker dragonfly Aeshna isosceles, the great silver water-beetle Hydrophilus piceus and a large hoverfly Lejops vittatus.

Birds typically found on Halvergate Marshes include both wintering species such as Bewick's swan, golden plover and lapwing as well as breeding species such as ruff, gadwall and shoveler. The Bewick's swan population is considered to be internationally important. The marshes and nearby Breydon Water are an important migration point for a range of bird species in the autumn.

Management
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds takes a leading role in management on the marshes, working alongside other environmental bodies such as Natural England, Norfolk Wildlife Trust and the Broads Authority. Farmers work in collaboration with environmental management agencies, for example to reinstate drainage ditches and dykes to support biodiversity on the marshes.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Halvergate Marshes


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Berney Marshes & Breydon Water RSPB reserve

Berney Marshes and Breydon Water RSPB reserve is a nature reserve managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Berney Marshes is situated south of the River Bure while Breydon water is the combined estuary of the River Waveney and the River Yare inland from Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, England.

Berney Marshes is part of the larger area of the Halvergate Marshes. The Berney Marshes and Breydon Water habitats are being managed by the RSPB to benefit all of the wildlife in the area but in particular the breeding and wintering birds. The area managed by the RSPB extends to 550 ha of improved wet grassland and in winter the total numbers of wildfowl and waders can reach 85,000. Species the reserve is important for include pink-footed goose, Eurasian wigeon and black-tailed godwit. The water levels are kept high into the Spring so that the grasslands are in a good condition for breeding common redshank and Northern lapwing, this being helped by the grazing of cattle which helps to make the grassland sward more suitable for breeding waders. The ditches are amanged on a 7-10 year cycle to optimise the diversity of insects and other aquatic invertebrates within them. In addition, the RSPB manage 375 ha of intertidal mud flats as a sanctuary for the wintering birds.

The reserve cannot be accessed by car, it can be reached by foot from Great Yarmouth or by taking a train from either Norwich or Great Yarmouth and requesting it to stopat Berney Arms Station.


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Talk:English Civil War/Archive 1

Introduction
The new introduction by Isis is interesting. I'm not sure how many people are likely to be confused into thinking that the term English Civil War could mean the Wars of the Roses or the war between Stephen and Matilda (which is usually called "the Anarchy" - is there already an article on that?) Anyone else got an opinion? Deb

 * That information in the first paragraph is unnecessary and clutters up the article. A person who comes looking for information on the English Civil War should not have to wade through a bunch of references to wars that took place centuries earlier.

Christopher Hill
I was thinking of writing an article at English Revolution, which would discuss the English Civil War of 1640 from a revolutionary perspective, drawing on Christopher Hill's work, for example. I don't know where that fits in with the above question, but I thought I'd mention it here anyway! -- Sam

 * That sounds interesting, too. I assume you would do something to differentiate it from the Glorious Revolution of 1688.  Deb

It seems conspicious that the only modern historian mentioned by name in this article is Christopher Hill. It seems like a stretch to draw Marxist allusions into the English Civil War, especially considering that it's given more than twice the real estate and more credence here than the Puritan theory or any other theories.

I don't like this artice, as it's got plenty of serious deficancies. I'm probably going to rewrite the article sometime this week. Just so you know. Alun Ephraim 13:31, 26 Oct 2003 (UTC)

 * Sounds good to me. While Christopher Hill was a brilliant historian, he was, well, mostly wrong about everything (In fact, the most brilliant historians usually tend to be mostly wrong about everything - odd how that works out).  Bringing in other (less discredited) views is certainly to be welcomed. john 18:46, 26 Oct 2003 (UTC)hi loser

Religious tensions
What needs to be added to it is more stuff on the Religious tensions of the period, and also putting it into the context of the Thirty Years War. I might do a seperate article on the English Revolution though Alun Ephraim 14:44, 27 Oct 2003 (UTC)

English Civil War?
I know that "English Civil War" is a common name for this conflict, but I think it's misleading because properly speaking there were two English Civil wars (1642-1645 and 1648-1650) during the conflict and simultaneous connected wars in Scotland and Ireland. Is there a better overall title for the whole conflict? [Yes, see below] If so, we should think about moving this article there. (Note: Google gives 52,900 for "civil+war cromwell" but only 15,300 for "english+civil+war cromwell" so I don't think I'm alone in this unease about the name.) Gdr 09:51, 2004 Jul 23 (UTC)

 * I've never heard any other term used. People in England are likely to say just "Civil War" unqualified, just as Americans do for their ACW, and you can see that from looking at some of the pages Google finds. To actually have 1/3 of the hits be qualified with "English" is actually a ringing endorsement. Some people will pluralize, but I think that looks like a blanket term covering previous conflicts. Stan 12:57, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I'd say English Civil War is fine. Of course, there were various specific conflicts which can have their own articles - First English Civil War, Second English Civil War, and the various Scottish and Irish conflicts that were associated. But I think this is fine for a general article. john k 15:16, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree. Anything else would cause more confusion than it resolved. Deb 17:03, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Royalists call it the 'Interregnum' - Latin for 'between rules'

 * You may be slightly confused. The war itself was not "between rules" - the interregnum was the period between the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660, also known as the Commonwealth. Deb 18:20, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

There have been very significant developments on this in recent years. The English civil war is now often seen as just one conflict in a series of conflicts accross the whole of the British Isles (see my comment on the 'History of Scotland' discussion page) These series of interelated conflicts are now often referred to as the 'British Civil Wars' or even 'The Wars of the three kingdoms'. These theories on the civil war argue that the civil war in England cannot be understood in isolation to events in other parts of Britain and Ireland. The role of King Charles I is still crucial, but not just as the king of England. The causes of the civil wars have been suggested as being a consequence of the problems of one king ruling over multiple kingdoms. For eg. trying to impose a uniform religion on all his kingdoms (which caused the Scottish covenanters to rebel), and then having to deal with rebellion in Ireland from the Confederates. Also events in one kingdom had a knock on effect in another, (eg. having to raise taxes in England to quell the rebellion in Scotland) leading to an escalation of the conflict which became increasingly difficult to control. This is not to say that there were not specific reasons for conflict in each country, just that the king had to juggle all these different conflicts at the same time. see http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/commentary/civil-wars-of-three-kingdoms-ht.asp --Cap 15:10, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC) I've now added some of this information onto the "theories relating to the civil war" section which previously said that revisionist historians had not come up with any new theories. --Cap 23:56, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Here's a proposal for how the articles about these conflicts should be structured: an overview article somewhere like Wars of the Three Kingdoms and then detailed articles on the individual wars. The detailed history of the conflict of 1642–1645 should stay here at English Civil War as it is the most well-known of the conflicts, with First English Civil War redirecting here. (I'm not keen on Wars of the Three Kingdoms because of the more famous Three Kingdoms of ancient China. But I don't like British Civil Wars either because some of them weren't British.) Gdr 12:08, 2004 Aug 30 (UTC)

 * I've now created a page called Wars of the Three Kingdoms and have produced a time-line of the conflicts (1639-51) although this needs more work after 1642. I was basing it on the section in Norman Davies' Book The Isles: A History which has a good overview aswell as the timeline which is linked to on the webpage quoted above. This includes the Bishops' Wars and Covenanters in Scotland and the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and the subsequent conflicts in Confederate Ireland 1642-9 and Cromwells conquest of Ireland in 1649 as well as the 2 (or 3?) English civil wars. There does seem to be some confusion about the labelling of the non-English conflicts. they are not given simple overall titles like the English Civil War is, there does seem to be somthing called the Scottish Civil War (1644-5) although on James Graham, 1st_Marquess_of_Montrose this is referred to as part of the English Civil War. Also there appear to be no wikipedia entries on any of the Irish conflicts. --Cap 12:03, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I've always thought that the Scottish fighting that occurred between 1642 and 1645 was so closely tied to the fighting in England as to be considered essentially the same war. Obviously, in addition to this war (or wars), you have the 2nd English Civil War, the two bishops' wars, the various wars going on in Ireland, and some later Scottish action (Notably the 1650-1651 rebellion where Charles II got crowned). But yeah, a lot of it doesn't really have clear names. I do wonder about the faddish nature of the name Wars of the Three Kingdoms. This is something of a neologism, and I'm not sure it's appropriate to discuss the idea as though it is fact - I would imagine that there are still at least a few historians who would dispute such a designation on the merits, and certainly there are many who would dispute the use of such a designation as the generic term for the conflict. (That is to say, for aesthetic, or traditionalistic reasons, rather than out of a sense that there was not actually a series of conflict occurring in the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland). Anyway, I think we ought to be careful about this, and not dismantle the current English Civil War article. john k 22:35, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

British Civil Wars
User:Philip Baird Shearer cut the phrase "these conflicts are also known as the British Civil Wars" with the comment "Britain did not exist at the time of the English Civil war". I restored the comment as (1) Britain did exist: "Britain" is not identical with the Kingdom of Great Britain and (2) the conflicts are commonly known as the British Civil Wars: a Google search for "british civil wars" returns more than 3,000 hits, the top hits clearly referring to the 1638-1651 conflicts. Gdr 12:14, 2004 Oct 18 (UTC)

 * Many Irish people would dispute that Ireland is part of the British Isles geographically. They would argue that the term implies political connections because it is used exclusively for those islands ruled by the British monarchy and Ireland (which used to be). Why include the Shetland islands and exclude the Faroe islands; or the Channel islands and ignore French controlled islands; if it is not a geographical representation of a political creation?

 * As Britain was not a political entity to use the term is misleading. There can not have been a "British Civil War" at that time any more that "World War I" was a "European Civil War". Once you go down that line you will have to include all the wars between England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland since at least 1066 as British Civil wars and that would be silly. If you were to start arguing that 1715 and 1745, and the Anglo-Irish War of 1919-1921 were British Civil wars you would be technically correct by they are never referred to as that. Philip Baird Shearer 12:48, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The term may be misleading but it is in common use so I think the article should reflect that. I adjusted the lead section to explain why the term is misleading. How is it now? Gdr 13:04, 2004 Oct 18 (UTC)

They were British civil wars in the sense that there were civil wars in Scotland (between Covenanters and royalists) in England (between parliamentarians and royalists) and in Ireland (between Catholics, Protestant royalists, and Protestant supporters of the (English) parliament). john k 21:53, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * See British Isles and British Isles. Many Irish people would argue that wars in Ireland were (are) not British civil wars (they were (are) Irish civil wars). With the wars in Scotland and the Wars in England by the logic you are using, one could also call them European Civil wars. Britain did not come into existence as a political entity until the Act of Union 1707, it is disengenious to use the term, and just like  calling them European Civil wars it does not bring clarity to the subject. Philip Baird Shearer 22:19, 18 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The Irish problem with the term "British" is modern, the civil wars all took place in the geographical area of the British Isles - misleading is a fair description, "incorrect" projects modern politics backwards. dave souza 00:24, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC)

The lead section looks fine now. Gdr 23:25, 2004 Oct 18 (UTC)

The introduction now defines the term "English Civil War" as a synonym for the term "Wars of the three kingdoms", the series of conflicts in Scotland and Ireland aswell as England. Is this article about the Civil War in England or throughout the British Isles? I know it is difficult to separate the two as they are so related and that the term English Civil War has been used to include conflicts in Scotland and Ireland; but this does need clarifying. This article should focus on the Civil War in England only, and only include events in Scotland and Ireland in terms of how they affect the English Civil War. There should be separarate articles on the Civil War in Scotland and Ireland, and Wars of the Three Kingdoms should look at the overall view, looking at the interrelation between all three of Charles' Kingdoms. What does everyone else think? --81.153.61.200 12:21, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

That sounds about right to me, although the Scottish war, in particular, is tied in very closely with the English conflict. john k 18:57, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * The evidence from British Isles and IONA is that the term "British Isles" was used as a geographical term for the isles including Ireland in the 17th century, but in the 20th century became politically unacceptable to Irish nationalists. Thus "British Civil Wars" is geographically accurate, but in addition to treading on current sensibilities it has the misleading suggestion of a British state at the time and civil wars could be held to exclude the Bishops Wars, so the Wars of the Three Kingdoms is much preferred. The "English Civil War" title is well established in English histories, but is obviously a daft term for Montrose, for example, when all his fights were in Scotland. Keeping this article with an English focus makes sense provided there are suitable links to fuller descriptions of the intertwining conflicts elsewhere. dave souza 21:51, 15 Nov 2004 (UTC)

How about C17 Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland, C17 Civil Wars in Britain, C17 Civil Wars in Scotland, C17 Civil Wars in Ireland, C17 Civil Wars in Wales, C17 Civil Wars in England and Wales, C17 Civil Wars in Worcestershire, or C17 Civil Wars in England, depending on what is being discussed? RP

RP: Why not Create account? What is C17? BTW Worcestershire never had a civil war, but it often beats Warwickshire at cricket ;-) --Philip Baird Shearer 15:32, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

C17 means seventeenth century. The wars were prosecuted in Worcestershire as elsewhere. e.g. the Battle of Worcester. If what you are writing relates to one country, one county or one village, then there is no need to drag others into the title. However, making clear, the period dealt with, is usually helpful.

 * you are obviously not from Warwickshire... The question is not where the war was fought but what makes it a civil war. For example if an English army fights a Scottish army is that a civil war? I suggest we do not go there again as it has already been discussed. As for putting in the century that makes no more sense than changing the "American Civil War" to "19th Century American Civil War" as there has by common name usage only been one "English Civil War". Philip Baird Shearer 22:55, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Important People.
hi i'm cool_girl_needs_info, i think that this site needs the most important people of the civil war on it, like Oliver Crommwell, and Prince Rupert. Becdause when people like me are trying to do homwork we cn't find the info i need

Dates

 * The term is often used In Anglo-centric history to cover the linked series of conflicts between 1639 and 1651 in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, which at that time shared a monarch but were distinct countries in political organisation. Recent historians have used the term the Wars of the Three Kingdoms to more accurately cover these linked conflicts which included the English Civil War.

I am not comfortable with the new dates which have been added to the article. The English civil wars cover the period from the raising of the Royal banner in 1642 and the Battle of Worcester (which despite the structure of the current article did include some English Royalists fighting for the King) in 1651. That the conflicts between 1639 and 1651 can be grouped under the term Wars of the Three Kingdoms does not mean that the Bishops wars or the Irish Rebellion of 1641 have ever been included as part of the English civil war. As precursors yes, but not part of the war. Philip Baird Shearer 13:02, 31 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * up to the edit before mine, the intro read "The English Civil War is the period of conflict in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland between 1639 and 1651, and also refers specifically to the two wars". and I took the dates from that: your comment is interesting, and I'll give it consideration. dave souza 22:14, 31 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Major Battles and Sieges
After the 1st civil war which manages to mention most of the major battles this article runs out of steam when describing the battles and sieges.

This article ought to include an overview of all the significant military actions which took place during the civil war. At the very least it needs a bullet point list of major battles and sieges in which took place during the war. The best place to put these would be at the end of the relevent section in chronological order. Along the lines of this link: http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/1648.htm The bullet points can then be copy-edited into text at some later date. Philip Baird Shearer 16:54, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Since the new articles on First, Second, and Third wars, I think the need to do this is now redundent in this article, as those articles cover most of the major battle and sieges. But many of those now need writing :-( --Philip Baird Shearer 08:23, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

the battle of worcester page is inconsistant with the main page... the main page says it ended the 3rd war, the battle page says it ended the 2nd... just a heads-up =) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 70.88.192.101 (talk • contribs) 19:51, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks. Fixed. BTW you could have done it yourself. If you are interested in the pages why not create an account and help fix them? Philip Baird Shearer 08:23, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford
I'm going to edit a few things about Wentworth (Earl of Strafford) and Ireland, so I want to explain myself first before I do. Wentworth was in Ireland to raise money for Charles I, he did this by equally taxing both Protestant and Catholic landowners, and therefore upset both sides - who actually joined forces briefly to have him executed. However, he certainly did not make an alliance with the Catholics against the Protestants. On the contrary, he was wholeheartedly committed to colonisation and anglicisation of Ireland. In fact he was constantly confiscating small amounts of catholic owned land and was planning a major new plantation in Connacht. This was one of the main reasons why so many Irish Catholic gentry joined the rebellion of 1641. Raising an Irish Catholic army against the scots in 1639-40 was not actually an alliance with them. The Irish gentry agreed to raise and supply this force at their own expense in return for guarentees against land confiscation, so Wentworth essentially had a gun to their heads. The fact that he was also greatly disliked by the Protestant settlers in Ireland is because unlike previous Lord Deputies, he governed according to Charles' wishes and not those of the local protestant community. Jdorney 19:40, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * It seems funny to see him called Wentworth rather than Strafford, so I hope you will pardon my small edit. Philip Baird Shearer 22:07, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Put not your trust in princes, nor in the sons of men, for in them is no salvation
I was confused by this paragraph on Thomas Wentworth: ''The case could not be proven, so the House of Commons, led by John Pym and Henry Vane, resorted to a Bill of Attainder. Unlike treason, attainder required not only the burden of proof, but also the king's signature. Charles, still incensed over the Common's handling of Buckingham, refused. Wentworth himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was executed on May 12, 1641.'' -- If attainder required the king's signature, and king Charles refused, why was Wentworth executed? Also, the whole point of attainder seems to be to declare someone guilty without having to prove it -- i.e. it shouldn't 'require the burden of proof'. I have the feeling 'required' is not what's meant here, rather the opposite, but I have no knowledge of this subject. Could someone please clarify this paragraph? --Jochietoch 09:16, 31 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The Bill of Attainder does not require a burden of proof, just Parliaments displeasure (which is why it is banned in the US Constitution ( Article I, Section 9; Clause 3)). --Philip Baird Shearer 17:46, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Moreover, why would Wentworth write to the king asking him to reconsider his refusal? I have a feeling that the king didn't really refuse.  Quote: "Charles, still incensed over the Commons's handling of Buckingham, refused. Wentworth himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider." -- timc | Talk 17:00, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

"Put not your trust in princes" (Psalm 146:3). See this reference DOWNFALL OF STRAFFORD AND LAUD from Charles I by Jacob Abbott. It gives a detailed account of what happened and a possible explanation of why Strafford quoted Psalm 146 after writing his letter to the King. --Philip Baird Shearer 17:46, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

 * The current version of the article is much clearer, thanks. Now it is also clear that Strafford in effect requested his own execution. Jochietoch 12:47, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

North America
Does the American Revolution deserve mention as an English Civil War? (Or do civil wars where the secessionists win not count?)

 * Interesting point. But America was a colony, no? Not part of England itself, really. Otherwise we would call all the rebellions in colonies "civil wars" -- no I don't think it does count. Not because of who won, but the fact that it didn't happen in England. -- Sam
 * Read The Cousins’ Wars: Religion, Politics, Civil Warfare, and the Triumph of Anglo–America, by Kevin Phillips. His thesis is that the English Civil War, the American Revoultion, and the American Civil War are all one long drawn-out war with the same combatants.  -- Zoe

Does anyone know how much study has been given to the effect of the English Civil War on the history of the British colonies in North America? Massachusetts was a Puritan stronghold and, I believe, sent young men to serve in the New Model Army. Virginia was a royalist stronghold and received its current nickname, the "Old Dominion," during the Restoration in recognition of the fact that the colony of Virginia had remained loyal to the monarchy throughout the civil war period. When Pennsylvania was established under Charles II, one policy justification was that the establishment of a Quaker colony in that location would provide a buffer zone between Massachusetts and Virginia, whose residents were widely thought to be hostile to each other. Differences between Massachusetts (and New England) and Virginia (and the South) continued during the formation of the American Constitution and the early Federal period, ultimately leading to the American Civil War. Thus, there may be some basis for viewing the American Civil War as, in part, caused by unresolved issues left over from the English Civil War. If so, an argument could be made that the so-called "red state/blue state" dichotomy of American politics today shares the same root. This would especially be the case to the extent one views Southern Republicanism as having has its roots in (a) the defection of so-called "Dixiecrats" from the Democratic to the Republican Party and (b) the later defection of Southern Democrats to the Republican Party as a result of dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party's Civil Rights policies under Lyndon Johnson. (It is, however, generally accepted that both U.S. political parties have their roots in Whiggism.)

-- Bob (Bob99 14:54, 19 September 2005 (UTC)Bob99)

Bob, I was just wondering the same thing about connections between the English and American civil wars, after hearing someone quote the line from "1066 and All That" about how the Cavaliers were "wrong but wromantic" and the Roundheads were "right but repulsive." That suddently resonated for me with the romance often attached to the Confederate cause, and the more I thought about it, the more the war seemed like a continuation of the same conversation, at least in some cultural ways.

--Mark

I wouldn't put it in the article, but I can see what Mark is getting at in some ways. The English Parliamentarians were consciously cruesading Protestants - believing themselves to be doing Gods work. The same can be said for American Abolitionists. The Parliamentarians (some of them anyway) believed in equality and merit over hierarchy - so did the Unionists in America. Both of them were also backed by the most highly developed industrial/commercial areas of their respective countries, which gave them huge advantages in financing war.Finally, they were both committed to the unity of their respective countries. Recent research on the English Parliamentarians has emphasised thier sense of "Englishness" as opposed to the Royalists, who were supported by Cornish and Welsh people and who were allied with the IRish and Scots. Under the Commonwealth, England, Ireland and Scotland were unified for the first time, with England at the centre. The Royalists and southern Confederates also had some things in common, they believed in hierarchy and tradition and the traditional order. They drew their support form the more rural, less developed areas and they lost.I could also add, facetiously, the the English Royalists were also allied to "Confederates" (Confederate Ireland). Jdorney

 * At a tangent to the above. There was a Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse who fought at the Battle of Worcester. On doing a search for more on this man. I came across a American Civil War regiment 100th Pennsylvania, who were known as the Roundheads, because it is said many of the men who joined the regiment were from Mercer county which was settled by Roundheads after the English Civil War. --Philip Baird Shearer 16:15, 18 December 2005 (UTC)

 * As a footnote to a tangent, those Roundheads appear to have been associated with the Puritan Yankees of Connecticut and not with the Quakers of Pennsylvania. The part of Pennsylvania in which Mercer county is located was originally granted to Connecticut and was first settled by New Englanders rather than Pennsylvanians.  (By contrast, early settlement of Virginia's Shenandoah Valley was by those who came from Pennsylvania, because the geography of the Appalachian mountains favors that route.)  It turns out, however, that the land was subsequently regranted to William Penn as part of Pennsylvania.  This ultimately led to Connecticut's 1794 cession of the land to Pennsylvania, in exchange for recognition of the ownership rights of those who purchased it under Connecticut law.  (There had earlier been a brief period of violence in the Yankee-Pennamite Wars).  The part of the original Connecticut grant which lay west of Pennsylvania was retained by Connecticut but later became part of Ohio's Western Reserve.

 * (This factoid confirms the connection of the Roundheads to the settlers of Massachusetts, since Connecticut was founded by Puritans who split off from Massachusetts.)

 * -- Bob Bob99

It also goes back to the Wars of the Roses (royalist Lancaster vs populist York); even the First Barons' War. I don't think one can connect them to the Revolt of 1173-1174 or The Anarchy and the Saxon vs Norman conflict, but it probably was infighting as a result of Crusade failures. I know and you know, that Americans trace their Constitution to the Magna Carta. IP Address 04:59, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Essay
An anonymous user added an essay to the article which I removed:. A more familiar user may wish to take a look at this version (the essay is in the middle) and see if anything is salvagable. Christopher Parham (talk) 19:20, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Kapitalism
I recently revered some vandalism but to do it I had to remove an external link to www.kapitalism.net; aparently it has been black listed. -- HarrisX 20:58, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

hi

Some questions
Hello,

I was reading this article and I came across a couple of things that confused me or didn't seem to make sense. I thought I'd point them out here so that more knowledgable people could clarify:

 * Charles also wanted to join in on the conflicts being fought in Europe. This alone might not have caused a problem, except that Charles had placed George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, in command.

What was wrong with George Villiers?

Also:

 * Into this atmosphere General George Monck, governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. On April 4, 1660, in the Declaration of Breda, Charles II made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England.

It's unclear to me how these two things relate. The sentence after this makes it seem as though Monck was marching south in order to help reinstate Charles, but if he was governor under the Cromwells, wouldn't he be a Parliamentarian, not a Royalist?

Hbackman 03:55, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Read the Wikipedia biography page on Villiers for an answer to what was wrong with him. A better question is what qualified him as an expaditionary leader?
 * Monck started out as a Royalist and switched allegiance. The most common explanation for his support for Charles II was that he perceived that the Republic was descending into anarchy and that the restoration of Charles was the best option available. Personally I think that the analysis of the last year of the interregnum has not been completed and the story is more human and more complicated than this traditional analysis. On 12 October 1659 Parliament appointed Seven Army Commissioners the interplay of these men (of which Monck was one), along with Thomas Fairfax joining in, has a lot to do with why the republic fell and the restoration took place. For example why did Fairfax support Monck and why did Robert Overton not support Lambert and rally to the Good Old Cause, given that he seems to have supported the Good Old Cause at every other conceivable opportunity both before and after the restoration? There is also the relationship of the Regicides to the restoration why did men like Thomas Harrison not support John Lambert? But at least the Regicide Richard Ingoldsby's motives for capturing Lambert in 1660 are transparant --Philip Baird Shearer 02:03, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

Cavaliers (royalists) to Cavalier
Please see the proposed page move from Cavaliers (royalists) to Cavalier on Talk:Cavaliers (royalists) --Philip Baird Shearer 01:21, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

Charles, Scots and Bishops.
I've repeatedly had to correct a serious of elementary-and highly irratating-misconceptions about Scotland and the Scottish Church prior to the outbreak of the Civil Wars, echoed in a whole series of Wikipedia articles covering the period. Well, here they are, once again, and here are a list of my corrections and amendments;

1. The Church of Scotland had NOT been 'Presbyterian for a century', but had a full panel of bishops and archbishops, in just the same Episcopalian fashion as its English counterpart. it only became Presbyterian AFTER the Glasgow General Assembly of November, 1638.

2. The Prayer Book-the Scottish version thereof-was introduced in the summer of 1637, not 1638, which sparked off the Edinburgh riots. Although these were said to have been led by Jenny Geddes, it is uncertain if such an individual ever existed.

3. The National Covenant was drawn up in the winter of 1637/38 and subscribed in February 1638. It was ratified, not drawn up, by the Glasgow Assembly in November. The National Covenant says nothing at all about the office of bishop. The aim of the document was to persuade the king not to attempt innovations in religious practice-like the Prayer Book-that had not first been subject to the examination of Parliament and the Church. By the time the Glasgow Assembly met, the king's intransigence had so radicalised the debate that the bishops were excommunicated and outlawed.

4. The last part of this section ('The Eleven Years' Tyranny...) is a muddle. I've corrected some factual errors and tidied it up slightly to make it clear that there were two periods of conflict. Charles came to terms only after his northern forces were defeated in the Second Bishops' War in 1640.

Please, please, if you intend to touch on aspects of Scottish history, try to aquire a grasp of the basic facts.
 * Don't let the title of the article fool you, I would be very surprised if the "you" did not include some Scots! As you have now made some edits you are one of us! --Philip Baird Shearer 07:05, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Finally, on a point of information, I would like to know which 'invasion from Scotland' was Essex's Parliamentary army intended to defeat in 1642? I've removed this section because it makes no historical sense, unless you can prove to me that their are some additional facts to which I am totally blind. Rcpaterson 00:25, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Going through the edits you have made there are a couple I would like to discuss:
 * Original:Scotland had been Presbyterian for a century, and moreover they jealously guarded their independence from England. New " The Church of Scotland, although Episcopalian in structure, had long enjoyed its own independent traditions. "
 * The Church of Scotand was Episcopalian but was (Lowland) Scotland? What was the legacyJohn Knox and others?
 * Original:This army had a twofold purpose: to defeat an invasion from Scotland and also to prevent attempts by the King and his supporters to restore the monarchy's power." New "his army was intended to defend Parliament against the King and his supporters."
 * Although it is not worded very well, I think the wording is meant to explain that the army was raised with a dual purpose: Either to defend the English Parliament against the King but also it had a secondary purpose which started out as the primary one: if Parliament was able to come to an accommodation with the King, (and remember that many Parliamentarians were royalists), that the army could be used in one of the traditional roles of an English army, to make sure that the Scots returned to Scotland and did not come back over the border for yet more cash (Danegeld). The emphasis on the two functions for the of the army, before the Civil War became inevitable, depended where on the spectrum the English Member of Parliament's loyalties lay. In part this comes down to an understanding that most members of the English Parliament was English first and (presbyterian or whatever) second, and that a traditional use of an English army to try to give the Scots a good kicking and that that was preferable to an English civil war. It is possible that if there had been no perceived Scots threat that the initial formation of an army under the control of the English Parliament would not have happened. --Philip Baird Shearer 09:08, 18 May 2006 (UTC)
 * As a mere dabbler in history, I note that my old concise history by Fitzroy MacLean is clear that the Calvinist Scottish reformation of 1550 replaced bishops by Kirk Sessions, and later district Presbyteries, under a General Assembly meeting once or twice a year. In 1584 James VI induced Parliament to pass statutes confirming the appointment of bishops and forbidding the meeting of Convocations of ministers without his permission: the latter was rescinded, but the bishops remained, resulting in Calvinist and Episcopalian factions opposing each other in the Kirk. After 1603 the General Assembly was not allowed to meet for some years, in 1606 he imprisoned his leading opponent and increased the numbers of bishops without interfering with the prevailing form of congregational worship. In 1618 he pushed through "Five Articles" which imposed forms of worship including confirmation by bishops and not ministers: there was widespread opposition and boycotting of these institutions. The dispute was still on the go when he died in 1625. Perhaps the book's wrong, or I've misinterpreted something, but that seems to differ a bit from the statement that the Kirk "had a full panel of bishops and archbishops, in just the same Episcopalian fashion as its English counterpart" ...dave souza, talk 10:05, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Hello, gentlemen, and thank you both for responding to my observations and amendments. I've already touched on this subject in the talk page of the article on the Bishops Wars as well as elsewhere. I'm drawing on the research I carried out some years ago for a book I wrote on the Covenanter Wars. This is a complex issue, but I will try to be as concise as possible.

First, let me deal with the bishop question.

The Scottish Reformation left a number of unanswered questions, particularly over the structure of the church and its relationship to the state. John Knox himself had no definite views on the office of bishops. His preference was for 'superintendants', men, in other words, who would have authority over other ministers; bishops if you prefer by any other name.

It is also important to understand that there is no conflict between Calvinism-a theological doctrine-and Episcopacy-a form of church government. The Church of Scotland both before 1638 and after 1661 was both Calvinist and Episcopalian; quite, quite different from High Anglicanism. The real debate was political rather than doctrinal in nature. It was Andrew Melville, the author of the Second Book of Discipline, who first specifically defended a Presbyterian over and Episcopal polity. He had seen the office of bishop gain a gradual ascendency in the church, first under the Regent Morton and then under King James himself. His fear was that this was little more than an attempt to subordinate the church to the state, a view he made all to plain in his exchanges with the king. Melville's frankness was too much for James, and he was forced to spend the final years of his life in exile.

There was, in short, a kind of tug-of-war from the 1580s onwards between Presbyterianism and Episcopacy; but by the early years of the seventeenth century Episcopacy was in clear ascendancy. James, by skilful manipulation of church and state, had introduced bishops at a parliamentary and then a diocesan level. General Assemblies, when they were allowed to meet at all, only gathered in the more conservative parts of northern Scotland. James, ever the pragmatist, would push matters only so far. Opposition to the more doctrinal Five Articles of Perth-including confirmation by bishops (not Bishops as such)-showed the limits of his policy, and he allowed matters to go by default. It was to be different with his literal minded son and successor.

By the time James died in 1625 all of the ancient diocese of Scotland-not just those in the north-were being run by bishops, including the archdiocese of Glasgow and St. Andrews. Charles was to add to this panel by creating a bishopric of Edinburgh. Indeed, the famous Prayer Book, often wrongly thought of as that already in use in England, was compiled by a panel of Scottish bishops, including Archbishop Spottiswood of St. Andrews, and intended to take account of Scottish circumstances. On the insistance of the king, the whole exercise was conducted in secret, leading to exaggerated fears that it would be even more 'papist' than its English counterpart. In the crisis that followed its introduction in 1637 the bishops were steadily outmanovered by those who saw them as nothing more than the creatures of the King. At the Glasgow Assembly in November 1638 they were named one-by-one, and excommunicated, and the office of bishop was held to be unlawful. From this point, and only from this point, is it proper to speak of a Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which was to last, in its first phase, until 1661.

I hope this clarifies the point, but I would be happy to deal with any further questions you may have.

Mr. Shearer, your point about the parliamentary army of 1642 being raised also against a perceived Scottish threat left me completly baffled. I'm not saying its wrong, but I think you should cite an identifiable source for this statement. Charles himself had tried to raise the spectre of ancient Anglo-Scots rivalries in his appeal to the Short Parliament in 1640, with no success. What was the preceived threat from the Scots in 1642? Under the terms of the Treaty of Ripon, the Scots' army left northern England the previous year. As King and Parliament moved closer towards open conflict in the autumn of 1642 the Scots government made it plain that it had no intention of taking sides, prefering to see itself as an arbiter between the contending parties. They eventually had to be persuaded that it was in their best interests to intervene on behalf of Parliament. Besides, for Parliament to make enemies of both the King and the Scots in 1642 hardly makes much political or strategic sense. However, as I say, I'm open to persuasion. Best wishes to you both. Rcpaterson 21:50, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for an interesting response. I've been browsing Prebble's Lion in the North, and in general he seems to support the points you make about the kirk. However, he does indicate an early opposition to bishops: the Book of Discipline drafted by Knox and his fellow ministers, and sanctioned by the General Assembly of the Kirk in December 1560, stated that there were to be no bishops, only superintendents not like "yon idle Bishops heretofore". They were to be chosen by election "by consent of as many of the people as possible". However when Parliament accepted the Confession of Faith it declined the Book of Discipline. It's not clear which year, but around 1565 Mary restored Archbishop John Hamilton to his consistorial jurisdictions at St Andrews, so presumably if bishops had been removed, they had returned to some extent by then. The more this can be clarified the better, though in some ways the main point is that the Scottish religious situation was a lot more volatile and less under the King's control than it was in England. ..dave souza, talk 23:55, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Header
Err, it appears somebody deleted the synopsis. The "introduction" starts off in the middle of a idea. The terrible thing is that its been edited since then apparently with nobody noticing. --Brentt 10:44, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Thank you for pointing that out. But you are allowed to fix such vandalism if you notice it. --Philip Baird Shearer 11:42, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:English Civil War/Archive 1


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Breydon Water

Breydon Water is a 514.4 ha biological Site of Special Scientific Interest at Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. It is a Local Nature Reserve, a Ramsar site and a Special Protection Area. It is part of the Berney Marshes and Breydon Water nature reserve, which is managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB).

It is a large stretch of sheltered estuary. It is at the gateway to The Broads river system on the eastern edge of Halvergate Marshes. It is the UK's largest protected wetland. It is 5 km long and more than 1.5 km wide in places.

Breydon Water is overlooked at the southern end by the remains of the Roman Saxon Shore fort at Burgh Castle. Centuries ago, Breydon Water would have been one large estuary facing the sea. At the western end the water may be considered to start at the confluence of the River Yare and River Waveney; smaller sources including The Fleet flow in from the surrounding marshland. Safe passage for boats is indicated by red and green marker posts. Unlike most of the navigable waterways in the Norfolk Broads, Breydon Water is not subject to a speed limit.

At the east end of Breydon Water the river returns to a narrow channel, passing under Breydon Bridge after which it is joined by the River Bure then under Haven Bridge from where it is 4.4 km through the harbour into the North Sea.

Features
At low tide there are vast areas of mudflats and saltings, all teeming with birds. Since the mid-80s, Breydon Water has been a nature reserve in the care of the RSPB. It has been a popular shooting area for centuries, and the shooting continues, but on a very much reduced scale.

In the winter, large numbers of wading birds and wildfowl use it to overwinter, including 12,000 golden plovers, 12,000 wigeons, 32,000 lapwings and tens of thousands of Bewick's swans. Other species that have been noted there include dunlin, sanderling, Eurasian whimbrel, several (escaped) flamingos, pied avocets and on one occasion a glossy ibis.

There is a bird observation hide at the east end of Breydon Water, on the north shore, looking out towards a breeding platform used mainly by common terns. Other breeding species include common shelducks, northern shovelers, Eurasian oystercatchers and yellow wagtails.

Naturalist Arthur Henry Patterson (1857–1935), who published under the pseudonym "John Knowlittle", extensively documented the wildlife of Breydon and the disappearing lifestyles of the boatmen, wildfowlers and fishermen who made a living from the estuary.

Short sections of the Wherryman's Way and Weavers' Way long-distance paths follow the northern bank of the estuary from Yarmouth to Berney Arms, a distance of about 5 miles. Breydon Water is the site of events in Arthur Ransome's popular Swallows and Amazons series book, Coot Club.

title: Breydon Water


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Berney Arms

Berney Arms is a settlement on the north bank of the River Yare, close to Breydon Water in the English county of Norfolk. It is part of the civil parish of Reedham, in the district of Broadland, and lies within The Broads. It comprises a railway station, a windmill, a farmhouse and a pub which closed in late 2015 (though permission for conversion to a dwelling was refused; campaigners are seeking to reopen it as a pub). In 2020, an adjacent property opened as a bistro. The area is not accessible by public road.

History
Berney Arms takes its name from the Berney Arms public house, which is situated by the staithe on the north bank of the River Yare and served walkers and boaters who pass through the area. It was closed in 2015 and the owner proposed to turn the pub into a private house, but planning permission was refused.

The public house was named after the landowner Thomas Trench Berney who owned the Reedham Cement Works centred on the Berney Arms Windmill. The mill was built in 1865 and is the tallest windmill in Norfolk at 21.5 m tall. It was used to grind cement clinker and was later converted into a drainage mill. It closed in 1948 and is now a Scheduled Monument in the care of English Heritage. At one point the mill supported a small settlement of 11 domestic dwellings and a chapel. Berney sold the land on which the railway was built, on the condition that a stopping place was built to serve the settlement in perpetuity.

Geography
Berney Arms is in an area of marshland, much of which is at or below sea level. It lies on the River Yare just to the west of Breydon Water. The area is part of Berney Marshes RSPB reserve and within the Halvergate Marshes Site of Special Scientific Interest. These provide important habitats for a range of plant and invertebrate species as well as providing important wintering grounds for bird species such as Bewick's swan.

The area is also a Ramsar Site and part of the Broadland Special Protection Area. Ashtree Farm is used by the RSPB as a series of dwellings and as its base for the marshes.

Transport
Berney Arms can be reached only by train, by boat or on foot; it has no public road access, with only a private track running to it.

Berney Arms railway station is a request stop on the Wherry Lines between Norwich and Great Yarmouth, via Reedham. Greater Anglia operate a limited number of services each day, with more frequent trains on Sundays. In 2019, it was the least used station in Britain.

The settlement is on both the Weavers' Way and Wherryman's Way footpaths.

In popular culture
Berney Arms was mentioned in Arthur Ransome's children's book Coot Club, which is in the Swallows and Amazon series.

In 1960, BBC reporter Fyfe Robertson made a short black and white documentary covering Berney Arms station and interviewed two residents.

title: Berney Arms


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Grebe

Grebes are aquatic diving birds in the order Podicipediformes. Grebes are widely distributed freshwater birds, with some species also found in marine habitats during migration and winter. Most grebes fly, although some flightless species exist, most notably in stable lakes. The order contains a single family, the Podicipedidae, which includes 22 species in six extant genera.

Although, superficially, they resemble other diving birds such as loons and coots, they are most closely related to flamingos, as supported by morphological, molecular and paleontological data. Many species are monogamous and are known for their courtship displays, with the pair performing synchronized dances across the water's surface. The birds build floating vegetative nests where they lay several eggs. About a third of the world's grebes are listed at various levels of conservation concerns—the biggest threats including habitat loss, the introduction of invasive predatory fish and human poaching. As such, three species have gone extinct.

Etymology
The word "grebe" comes from the French grèbe, which is of unknown origin and dating to 1766. It is possibly from the Breton "krib" meaning 'comb', this referring to the crests of many of the European species. However, grèbe was used to refer to gulls. The appearance of "grebe" in the English language was introduced in 1768 by the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant when he adopted the word for the family. Some of the smaller species are often referred to as "dabchick", which originated in the mid 16th century English as they were said to be chick-like birds that dive. The clade names "Podicipediformes" and "Podicipedidae" is based on the genus Podiceps which is a combination of Latin of podicis ("rear-end" or "anus") and pes ("foot"), a reference to the placement of a grebe's legs towards the rear of its body.

Field characteristics
Grebes are small to medium-large in size ranging from the least grebe (Tachybaptus dominicus), at 120 g and 23.5 cm, to the great grebe (Podiceps major), at 1.7 kg and 71 cm. Despite these size differences grebes are a homogenous family of waterbirds with very few or slight differences among the genera.

Anatomy and physiology

On the surface of the water they swim low with just the head and neck exposed. All species have lobed toes, and are excellent swimmers and divers. The feet are always large, with broad lobes on the toes and small webs connecting the front three toes. The hind toe also has a small lobe as well. The claws are similar to nails and are flat. These lobate feet act as an oar, as when moving forward they provide minimum resistance and moving backwards they provide a coverage of maximum surface.

The leg bones (femur and tarsometatarsus) are equal in length, with the femur having a large head and the presence of long cnemial crests in the tarsometatarsus. The patella is separate and supports the tarsometatarsus posteriorly which greatly helps with the contraction in the muscles. They swim by simultaneously spreading out the feet and bringing them inward, with the webbing expanded to produce the forward thrust in much the same way as frogs. However, due to the anatomy of the legs, grebes are not as mobile on land as they are on the water. Although they can run for a short distance, they are prone to falling over, since they have their feet placed far back on the body.

The wing shape varies depending on the species, ranging from moderately long to incredibly short and rounded in shape. The wing anatomy in grebes has a relatively short and thin carpometacarpus-phalanges component which supports their primary feathers, while the ulna is long and fairly weak, supporting secondary feathers. There are 11 primaries and 17 to 22 secondaries, with the inner secondaries being longer than the primaries. As such grebes are generally not strong or rapid fliers. Some species are reluctant to fly. Indeed, two South American species are completely flightless. Since grebes generally dive more than fly, the sternum can be as small or even smaller than the pelvic girdle. When they do fly, they often launch themselves off from the water and must run along the surface as they flap their wings to provide a lift. Bills vary from short and thick to long and pointed depending on the diet, and are slightly larger in males than in females (though the sizes can overlap between younger males and females).

Feathers
Grebes have unusual plumage. On average grebes have 20,000 feathers, the highest among birds. The feathers are very dense and strongly curved. In the larger species feathers are more dense but shorter, while the opposite is true in smaller species where the feathers are longer but less dense.

The density and length of feathers is correlated exponentially with heat-loss in cold water. For this reason grebes invest plumage maintenance the most in birds in terms of duration of time and energy. The uropygial glands secrete a high concentration of paraffin. The secretion provides a dual purpose of protecting the feathers from external parasites and fungi, as well as waterproofing them. When preening, grebes eat their own feathers and feed them to their young. The function of this behaviour is uncertain, but it is believed to assist with pellet formation, excreting out internal parasites and protecting their insides from sharp bone material during digestion. The ventral plumage is the most dense, described as very fur-like. By pressing their feathers against the body, grebes can adjust their buoyancy. In the nonbreeding season, grebes are plain-coloured in dark browns and whites. However, most have ornate and distinctive breeding plumages, often developing chestnut markings on the head area, and perform elaborate display rituals. The young, particularly those of the genus Podiceps, are often striped and retain some of their juvenile plumage even after reaching full size.

Systematics
The grebes are a radically distinct group of birds as regards their anatomy. Accordingly, they were at first believed to be related to the loons, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both families were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as early as the 1930s, this was determined to be an example of convergent evolution caused by the strong selective forces encountered by unrelated birds sharing the same lifestyle at different times and in different habitat. Grebes and loons are now separately classified orders of Podicipediformes and Gaviiformes, respectively.

Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with flamingos  while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least eleven morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified in flamingos, but not in grebes. For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.

Fossil record
The fossil record of grebes is incomplete as there are no transitional forms between more conventional birds and grebes known from fossils. The enigmatic waterbird genus Juncitarsus, however, may be close to a common ancestor of flamingos and grebes. The extinct stem-flamingo family Palaelodidae have been suggested to be the transitional linkage between the filter-feeding flamingos and the foot-propelled diving grebes. The evidence for this comes from the overall similarity between the foot and limb structure of grebes and palaeloids, suggesting the latter family of waterbirds were able to swim and dive better than flamingos. Some early grebes share similar characteristics to the coracoid and humerus seen in palaeloids.

True grebes suddenly appear in the fossil record in the Late Oligocene or Early Miocene, around 23–25 mya. There are a few prehistoric genera that are now completely extinct. Thiornis and Pliolymbus date from a time when most if not all extant genera were already present. Because grebes are evolutionarily isolated and they only started to appear in the Northern Hemisphere fossil record in the Early Miocene, they are likely to have originated in the Southern Hemisphere.

 * Genus Aechmophorus Coues, 1862
 * †Aechmophorus elasson Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian stage of western United States)
 * Genus †Miobaptus Švec, 1982
 * †Miobaptus huzhiricus Zelenkov, 2015 (Burdigalian to the Langhian ages of East Siberia)
 * †Miobaptus walteri Švec, 1982 [Podiceps walteri (Švec, 1984) Mlíkovský, 2000 ] (Aquitanian age of Europe)
 * Genus †Miodytes Dimitreijevich, Gál & Kessler, 2002
 * †Miodytes serbicus Dimitreijevich, Gál & Kessler, 2002 (Langhian age of Serbia)
 * Genus †Pliolymbus Murray, 1967 [Piliolymbus (sic)]
 * †Pliolymbus baryosteus Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian to the Gelasian stages of western United States and Mexico)
 * Genus Podiceps Latham 1787
 * †Podiceps arndti Chandler, 1990 (Piacenzian stage of North America)
 * †Podiceps csarnotanus Kessler, 2009 (Piacenzian stage of Europe)
 * †Podiceps discors Murray, 1967 (Piacenzian stage of North America)
 * †Podiceps dixi Brodkorp, 1963 (Chibanian to the Tarantian stages of Florida, United States)
 * †Podiceps howardae Storer, 2001 (Zanclean age of North Carolina, United States)
 * †Podiceps miocenicus Kessler, 1984 (Tortonian age of Moldova)
 * †Podiceps oligoceanus (Shufeldt, 1915) (Aquitanian age of North America)
 * †Podiceps parvus (Shufeldt, 1913) (Gelasian to the Calabrian stages of North America)
 * †Podiceps pisanus (Portis, 1888) (Piacenzian stage of Italy)
 * †Podiceps solidus Kuročkin, 1985 (Zanclean age of Western Mongolia)
 * †Podiceps subparvus (Miller & Bowman, 1958)
 * Genus Podilymbus Lesson 1831
 * †Podilymbus majusculus Murray 1967 (Piacenzian stage of Idaho, United States)
 * †Podilymbus wetmorei Storer 1976 (Chibanian to the Tarantian stages of Florida, United States)
 * Genus †Thiornis Navás, 1922
 * †Thiornis sociata Navás, 1922 [Podiceps sociatus (Navás, 1922) Olson, 1995 ] (Tortonian age of Spain)

A few more recent grebe fossils could not be assigned to modern or prehistoric genera:
 * Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. (San Diego Late Pliocene of California) – formerly included in Podiceps parvus
 * Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. UMMP 49592, 52261, 51848, 52276, KUVP 4484 (Late Pliocene of WC USA)
 * Podicipedidae gen. et sp. indet. (Glenns Ferry Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Idaho, USA)

Phylogeny
To date there is no complete phylogeny of grebes based on molecular work. However, there are comprehensive morphological works from Bochenski (1994), Fjeldså (2004) and Ksepka et al. (2013) that have been done on the grebe genera.

Bochenski (1994)

Fjeldså (2004)

Ksepka et al. (2013)

Habitat, distribution and migration
Grebes are a nearly cosmopolitan clade of waterbirds, found on every continent except Antarctica. They are absent from the Arctic Circle and arid environments. They have successfully colonized islands such as Madagascar and New Zealand. Some species such as the eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) and great crested grebe (P. cristatus) are found on multiple continents with regional subspecies or populations. A few species like the Junin grebe (P. taczanowskii) and the recently extinct Atitlán grebe (Podilymbus gigas) are lake endemics. During the warmer or breeding seasons, many species of grebes in the northern hemisphere reside in a variety of freshwater habitats like lakes and marshes. Once winter arrives many will migrate to marine environments along the coastlines. Grebes are most prevalent in the New World with almost half of the world's species native there.

Feeding ecology
The feeding ecology of grebes is diverse. Larger species such as those in the genus Aechmophorus have spear-like bills to catch mid-depth fish while smaller species such as those in the genera Tachybaptus and Podilymbus tend to be short and stout with a preference for catching small aquatic invertebrates. The majority of grebes predate on aquatic invertebrates, with only a handful of large-bodied piscivores. The aforementioned Aechmophorus is the most piscivorous of the grebes. Closely related species that overlap in their range often avoid interspecific competition by having prey preferences and adaptations for it. In areas where there is just as a single species, they tend to have more generalized bills with more openness to different prey sources.

Breeding and reproduction
Grebes are perhaps best known for their elaborate courtship displays. Most species perform a duet together and many have their own synchronized rituals. Some, like those species in the genus Podiceps do a "penguin dance" where the male and female stand upright, breast posturing out and run along the water's surface. A similar ritual in other species is the "weed dance" in which both partners hold pieces of aquatic vegetation in their bills and are positioned upright towards each other. There is also the "weed rush" in which partners swim towards each other, necks stretched out with weeds in their bill, and just before colliding position themselves upright and then swim in parallel.

In the smaller and basal genera like Tachybaptus and Podilymbus, there is incorporation of aquatic vegetation in their courtship, but it is not as elaborate as the more derived and larger species. It has been hypothesized that such courtship displays between mates originated from intraspecific aggression that evolved in a way that strengthened pair bonds. Once these courtship rituals are completed, both partners solicit copulation towards each other and mount on floating platforms of vegetation. Females lay two to seven eggs and incubation can last nearly a month. Chicks of the nest hatch asynchronously. Once the whole nest has hatched, the chicks begin to climb on one of their parent's backs. Both parents take care of rearing their young, and the duration of care is longer than those of other waterfowl. This enables a greater survival rate for the chicks. One parent dives for food, while the other watches the young on the surface.

Parasitology

249 species of parasitic worms have been known to parasitize the intestinal region of grebes. The amabiliids are a family of cyclophyllid cestodes that are almost all grebe specialists. The life cycle of these tapeworms begins when eggs are passed through the feces, where they are picked by intermediate hosts, which include corixid bugs and the nymphs of Odonata. These aquatic insects are eventually be consumed by grebes, where the lifecycle begins again. Another grebe specialist family of internal parasites are the Dioecocestidae. Other families such as Echinostomatidae and Hymenolepididae also contain several cestode species that are grebe specialists.

The prominent external parasites of grebes are the lice of the clade Ischnocera. One genus of these lice, Aquanirmus, is the only one that is a grebe specialist. Another major group of parasites are the two mites of the families Rhinonyssidae and Ereynetidae; these infect the nasal passages of grebes. The rhinonyssids move slowly in the mucus membranes, drinking blood, while the ereynetids live on the surface. Various lineages of feather mites of the clade Analgoidea have evolved to occupy different sections of the feather. Theromyzon ("duck leeches") tend to feed in the nasal cavities of waterbirds in general, including grebes.

Conservation
Thirty percent of the total extant species are considered to be threatened species by the IUCN. The handful of critically endangered and extinct species of grebe are lake endemics and nearly all of them are or were flightless. The three recently extinct species consist of the Alaotra grebe, the Atitlán grebe, and the Colombian grebe. These species went extinct due to anthropogenic changes, such as habitat loss, the introduction of invasive predatory fishes, and the use of fishing nets that tangled birds in the lakes they once existed in. Similar issues are befalling the Colombian grebe's closest relatives, the Junin grebe and hooded grebe, along with climate change.

title: Grebe