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Hygroscopy

Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules via either absorption or adsorption from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. If water molecules become suspended among the substance's molecules, adsorbing substances can become physically changed, e.g. changing in volume, boiling point, viscosity or some other physical characteristic or property of the substance. For example, a finely dispersed hygroscopic powder, such as a salt, may become clumpy over time due to collection of moisture from the surrounding environment.

Deliquescent materials are sufficiently hygroscopic that they dissolve in the water they absorb, forming an aqueous solution.

Hygroscopy is essential for many plant and animal species' attainment of hydration, nutrition, reproduction and/or seed dispersal. Biological evolution created hygroscopic solutions for water harvesting, filament tensile strength, bonding and passive motion – natural solutions being considered in future biomimetics.

Etymology and pronunciation
The word hygroscopy uses combining forms of hygro- and -scopy. Unlike any other -scopy word, it no longer refers to a viewing or imaging mode. It did begin that way, with the word hygroscope referring in the 1790s to measuring devices for humidity level. These hygroscopes used materials, such as certain animal hairs, that appreciably changed shape and size when they became damp. Such materials were then said to be hygroscopic because they were suitable for making a hygroscope. Eventually, the word hygroscope ceased to be used for any such instrument in modern usage, but the word hygroscopic (tending to retain moisture) lived on, and thus also hygroscopy (the ability to do so). Nowadays an instrument for measuring humidity is called a hygrometer (hygro- + -meter).

History
Early hygroscopy literature began circa 1880. Studies by Victor Jodin (Annales Agronomiques, October 1897) focused on the biological properties of hygroscopicity. He noted pea seeds, both living and dead (without germinative capacity), responded similarly to atmospheric humidity, their weight increasing or decreasing in relation to hygrometric variation.

Marcellin Berthelot viewed hygroscopicity from the physical side, a physico-chemical process. Berthelot's principle of reversibility, briefly- that water dried from plant tissue could be restored hygroscopically, was published in "Recherches sur la desiccation des plantes et des tissues végétaux; conditions d'équilibre et de réversibilité," (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, April 1903).

Léo Errera viewed hygroscopicity from perspectives of the physicist and the chemist. His memoir "Sur l'Hygroscopicité comme cause de l'action physiologique à distance" (Recueil de l'lnstitut Botanique Léo Errera, Université de Bruxelles, tome vi., 1906) provided a hygroscopy definition that remains valid to this day. Hygroscopy is "exhibited in the most comprehensive sense, as displayed

1. in the condensation of the water-vapour of the air on the cold surface of a glass;

2. in the capillarity of hair, wool, cotton, wood shavings, etc.;

3. in the imbibition of water from the air by gelatine;

4. in the deliquescence of common salt;

5. in the absorption of water from the air by concentrated sulphuric acid;

6. in the behaviour of quicklime".

Overview
Hygroscopic substances include cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, wood, methanol, sulfuric acid, many fertilizer chemicals, many salts (like calcium chloride, bases like sodium hydroxide etc.), and a wide variety of other substances.

If a compound dissolves in water, then it is considered to be hydrophilic.

Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide (and many different salts), are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb: this property is called deliquescence. Not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10% v/v or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to become damp and cakey when exposed to moist air (such as the salt inside salt shakers during humid weather).

Because of their affinity for atmospheric moisture, desirable hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. Some hygroscopic materials, e.g., sea salt and sulfates, occur naturally in the atmosphere and serve as cloud seeds, cloud condensation nuclei (CCNs). Being hygroscopic, their microscopic particles provide an attractive surface for moisture vapour to condense and form droplets. Modern-day human cloud seeding efforts began in 1946.

When added to foods or other materials for the express purpose of maintaining moisture content, hygroscopic materials are known as humectants.

Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, such as stress concentration in composite materials. The volume of a particular material or compound is affected by ambient moisture and may be considered its coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE) (also referred to as CME, or coefficient of moisture expansion) or the coefficient of hygroscopic contraction (CHC)—the difference between the two terms being a difference in sign convention.

Differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the laminated side and increases in area, causing a stress that curls the cover toward the laminated side. This is similar to the function of a thermostat's bimetallic strip. Inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence is the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution. Deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air.

While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, but are not changed in the process (e.g., water molecules do not become suspended between the glass molecules).

Deliquescence
Deliquescence, like hygroscopy, is also characterized by a strong affinity for water and tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere if exposed to it. Unlike hygroscopy, however, deliquescence involves absorbing sufficient water to form an aqueous solution. Most deliquescent materials are salts, including calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, ferric chloride, carnallite, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, ferric ammonium citrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide. Owing to their very high affinity for water, these substances are often used as desiccants, which is also an application for concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Some deliquescent compounds are used in the chemical industry to remove water produced by chemical reactions (see drying tube).

Biology
Hygroscopy appears in both plant and animal kingdoms, the latter benefiting via hydration and nutrition. Some amphibian species secrete a hygroscopic mucus that harvests moisture from the air. Orb web building spiders produce hygroscopic secretions that preserve the stickiness and adhesion force of their webs. One aquatic reptile species is able to travel beyond aquatic limitations, onto land, due to its hygroscopic integument.

Plants benefit from hygroscopy via hydration and reproduction – demonstrated by convergent evolution examples. Hygroscopic movement (hygrometrically activated movement) is integral in fertilization, seed/spore release, dispersal and germination. The phrase "hygroscopic movement" originated in 1904's "Vorlesungen Über Pflanzenphysiologie", translated in 1907 as "Lectures on Plant Physiology" (Ludwig Jost and R.J. Harvey Gibson, Oxford, 1907). When movement becomes larger scale, affected plant tissues are colloquially termed hygromorphs. Hygromorphy is a common mechanism of seed dispersal as the movement of dead tissues respond to hygrometric variation, e.g. spore release from the fertile margins of Onoclea sensibilis. Movement occurs when plant tissue matures, dies and desiccates, cell walls drying, shrinking; and also when humidity re-hydrates plant tissue, cell walls enlarging, expanding. The direction of the resulting force depends upon the architecture of the tissue and is capable of producing bending, twisting or coiling movements.

Hygroscopic hydration examples
 File:Air Plant (Tillandsia bulbosa) (8307461501).jpg|Air plant (Tillandsia bulbosa) File:File snake (Acrochordus granulatus).jpg|The aquatic file snake (A. granulatus) with hygroscopic skin, shown out of water File:Herbstspinne445.JPG|An orb-weaver spider (Larinioides cornutus) with hygroscopic coated capture threads File:Makifrosch-59.jpg|Waxy monkey tree frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii)
 * Air plants, a Tillandsia species, are epiphytes that use their degenerated, non-nutritive roots to anchor upon rocks or other plants. Hygroscopic leaves absorb their necessary moisture from humidity in the air. The collected water molecules are transported from leaf surfaces to an internal storage network via osmotic pressure with capacity sufficient for the plant's growing requirements.
 * The file snake (Acrochordus granulatus), from a family known as completely aquatic, has hygroscopic skin that serves as a water reservoir, retarding desiccation, allowing it to travel out of water.
 * Another example is the sticky capture silk found in spider webs, e.g. from the orb-weaver spider (Larinioides cornutus). This spider, as typical, coats its threads with a self-made hydrogel, an aggregate blend of glycoproteins, low molecular mass organic and inorganic compounds (LMMCs), and water. The LMMCs are hygroscopic, thus is the glue, its moisture absorbing properties using environmental humidity to keep the capture silk soft and tacky.
 * The waxy monkey tree frog (Phyllomedusa sauvagii) and the Australian green tree frog (Litoria caerulea) benefit from two hygroscopically-enabled hydration processes; transcutaneous uptake of condensation on their skin and reduced evaporative water loss due to the condensed water film barrier covering their skin. Condensation volume is enhanced by the hygroscopic secretions they wipe across their granular skin.
 * Some toads use hygroscopic secretions to reduce evaporative water loss, Anaxyrus sp. being an example. The venomous secretion from its parotoid gland also includes hygroscopic glycosaminoglycans. When the toad wipes this protective secretion on its body its skin becomes moistened by the surrounding environmental humidity, considered an aid in water balance. Trifolium pratense seeds.JPG
 * Red and white clover (Trifolium pratense) and (Trifolium repens), yellow bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus) and several members of the legume family have a hygroscopic hilar valve (hilum) that controls seed embryo moisture levels. The saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea), another eudicots species, also has hygroscopic seeds shown to imbibe up to 20% atmospheric moisture, by weight. Functionally, the hilar valve allows water vapor to enter or exit to ensure viability, while blocking liquid water. If however, humidity levels gradually rise to a high enough level, the hilar valve remains open, allowing liquid water passage for germination. Physiologically, the inner and outer epidermides have independent hilar valve control. The outer epidermis has columnar-shaped cells, annularly arranged about the hilum.  These counter palisade cells, being hygroscopic, respond to external humidity by swelling and closing the hilar valve during high humidity, preventing water absorption into the seed. Reversibly, they shrivel, opening the valve during low humidity, allowing the seed to expel excess moisture. The inner epidermis, inside the seed's impermeable integument, has palisade epidermis cells, a second annularly arranged hygroscopic layer attuned to the embryo's moisture level. There exists a moisture tension between inner and outer palisade cells. For the hilum to close, this moisture needs to exceed some minimum level (14–25% for these species). While the hilar valve is open (i.e., low outer humidity) if the humidity suddenly increases, the moisture tension reaches that protective threshold and the hilum closes, preventing moisture (liquid water) from entering. If, however, the outer humidity rises gradually, implying suitable growing conditions, the moisture tension level doesn't immediately exceed the threshold, keeping the hilum open and enabling the gradual moisture entry necessary for imbibition.

Hygroscopic-assisted propagation examples
Typical of hygroscopic movement are plant tissues with "closely packed long (columnar) parallel thick-walled cells (that) respond by expanding longitudinally when exposed to humidity and shrinking when dried (Reyssat et al., 2009)". Cell orientation, pattern structure (annular, planar, bi-layered or tri-layered) and the effects of the opposite-surface's cell orientation control the hygroscopic reaction. Moisture responsive seed encapsulations rely on valves opening when exposed to wetting or drying; discontinuous tissue structures provide such predetermined breaking points (sutures), often implemented via reduced cell wall thickness or seams within bi- or tri-layered structures. Graded distributions varying in density and/or cell orientation focus hygroscopic movement, frequently observed as biological actuators (a hinge function); e.g. pinecones (Pinus spp.), the ice plant (Aizoaceae spp.) and the wheat awn (Triticum spp.), described below.

 * Hygroscopic bi-layered cell arrays act as a capitulum hinge in some plants, Xerochrysum bracteatum and Syngonanthus elegans being examples. The hygroscopic bending of involucral bracts surrounding a capitulum contributes to flower protection and pollination and assists dispersion by protecting delicate pappi filaments from entanglement or destruction by precipitation, e.g. Taraxacum (dandelions). In nature these involucral bracts have a diurnal rhythm. The whorl of hygroscopic bracts bend outward exposing the capitulum (see illustration) during the day, then inward, closing it at night, as the relative humidity shifts in response to the daily temperature change. Bracts are scarious, the hinge and blade composed exclusively of dead cells (Nishikawa et al., 2008), allowing the hygroscopically activated bracts to function from flowering through achene dispersal. Physiologically, the bract's lower section is source to the hinge-like function, consisting of sclerenchyma-like abaxial (inner petal) tissue, parenchyma and adaxial epidermis (outer petal tissue). Bract cell wall composition is rather uniform but its cells gradually change in orientation. The bract's hygroscopic bending is due to the differing cell orientations of its inner and outer epidermides, causing adaxial–abaxial force gradients between opposing sides that change with moisture; thus, the aggregate hygrometric force, in whorl unison, controls the capitulum's repetitive opening and closing.
 * Some trees and shrubs in fire-prone regions evolved a dual-stage hygroscopic dispersal; an initial thermo-sensitive enabling (extreme heat or fire), then a serotinous hygroresponsive seed release. Examples are the woody fruits of Myrtaceae (e.g. Eucalyptus species plurimae, Melaleuca spp.) and Proteaceae (e.g. Hakea spp., Banksia spp., Xylomelum spp.) and the woody cones of Pinaceae (e.g. Pinus spp.) and the cypress family (Cupressaceae), e.g. the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum)). Typical in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), Eucalyptus, and Banksia are resin-sealed seed encapsulations that require the heat of fire to physically melt the resin, enabling serotinous seed release. Such seed encapsulations may "reduce seed loss or damage from granivores, desiccation, and fire (Moya et al., 2008; Talluto & Benkman, 2014; Lamont et al., 2016, 2020)." The similarity of dual-stage dispersal techniques between different clades, angiosperms and gymnosperms, can be interpreted as a result of convergent evolution (e.g. Clarke et al., 2013). [[File:2018-01-31 171405 Banksia Attenuata, Nambung National Park, West Australia anagoria.JPG|thumb|Banksia Attenuata cone with open follicles]]
 * Banksia attenuata, typical of Banksia spp., has a seed bearing follicle composed of a bi-layer hygroscopic cell network. The woody follicle is thermo-sensitive, then hygroresponsive; serotinous humidity opening the ventral suture and exposing seed when germination conditions are favorable. Physiologically, the heat-sensitive follicle valves of Banksia spp. are sealed by a wax (resin) layer, released by high ambient temperatures (fire), "thereby facilitating opening (e.g. Huss et al., 2018)." The follicle mesocarp consists of high density branched fiber bundles; the endocarp, low density parallel fibers. A suture is caused by differential hygroscopic movements between layers, their microfibril structures having a large angle disparity (microfibril angle (MFA) γ = 75–90°).
 * Pine cone scales (pinaceae spp.) employ a hygromorphic hinge for their seed release. Physiology involves a bi-layered structure of closely packed long parallel thick-walled cells. Fiber alignments within layers are non-uniform, varying longitudinally, producing different microfibril angles (MFAs) of 30° and 74° between layers over the span of the scale. The region of greatest MFA, the hinge knuckle, is a small region near the scale and midrib (central stem) union. In mature pine cones the outer scale layer is the controlling tissue, its long thick-walled cells responding longitudinally to environmental humidity. Distortion occurs in the knuckle region as movement of the outer layer overtakes that of the more passive inner scale layer, forcing the scale to bend or flex. The remainder of the scale is hygroscopically passive, though amplifies apex displacement via length and geometrically; e.g. bending the scale closed with hydration or flexing it open with dehydration- releasing seed.Taraxacum officinale kz05.jpg]
 * Flowering plants of the Asteraceae family have hygroscopically-influenced dispersion, coordinating anemochory (wind dispersal) with favorable environmental conditions, common in A. genera Erigeron, Leontodon, Senecio, Sonchus and Taraxacum. As example, the flight-enabling pappus of the common dandelion achene undergoes binary morphing (opened or closed) of its whisker-like filaments, in unison with chorused responses of the remaining achenes. Pappus movement is controlled via a hygroscopic actuator in the apical plate, at the beak's top, the locus for all the achene's filaments. High humidity causes each pappus to close, contracting its radially patterned structure, reducing its area and the likelihood of wind current dispersal. For any achene that become released, flight dynamics of the reduced pappus dramatically limit dispersal range. The hygroscopic actuator's responsiveness to changes in relative humidity (RH) is predictable, repeatable; e.g. the pappi of centaurea imperialis remain closed at ≥ 78% RH and open completely at ≤ 75% RH. During more favorable lower humidity conditions, pappi fully expand and wind current allochory is re-enabled. Bauhinia variegata MHNT.BOT.2011.3.22.jpg'') seed pods]]
 * The orchid tree (Bauhinia variegata) depends upon hygro-responsive twisting for its dispersal. Its seed pod contains two hygroscopic sclerenchyma fibre layers, nearly orthogonal, joining at the valves. During dehiscence the large 90° microfibril angle between endocarp layers, combined with dual sided shrinkage, results in opposing helical torques that force a suture at the weakest point, the seed case valves; their opening releases seed. Ruschia sp. (Aizoaceae) (36689680823).jpg (Aizoaceae'') flowers and multi-stage seed capsules]]
 * Some plants synchronize the opening of their mature seed capsule with active rainfall- hygrochasy. This dispersal technique is frequently observed in the arid regions of southern and eastern Africa, the Israeli desert, parts of North America and Somalia, and believed evolved to offer higher survival rates in arid environs. Hygrochasy is commonly associated with family Aizoaceae spp., the ice plant, as > 98% of its species utilize post-wetting dehiscence; such dispersal is also observed in family Plantaginaceae with the alpine Veronica of New Zealand, evolving in the last 9Myr. Common to all seed capsules are triangular circumferentially-arranged hygroscopic keels (valves) covering its seeds. These protective valves mechanically open only when hydrated with liquid water. Each keel (five for Delosperma nakurense (Engl.) Herre) is composed of cellulosic lattice tissue that swells with hydration, opening within minutes. The enlarged cells force straightening of an inherent desiccated fold in the keel, the hygroscopic hinge, near the keel's union with the capsule perimeter. Fully opened, the keel pivots over 150°, upward then backward, exposing seed compartments, one beneath each valve, separated by septa, all resting upon the capsule floor. Seeds are visible, but restrained by the cup-like ring created by the encircling keels. The final requirement for dispersal is rainfall, or sufficient moisture, to flush seed from this barrier, colloquially termed the splash cup. Seed that overflows or splashes from the cup is dispersed to the nearby ground. Any  remaining seed will be preserved when keels desiccate, hygroscopically shrink, and restore to their natural folded, closed state. The hygromorphic process is reversible, repeatable; neglected seed having subsequent dispersal opportunity via future rainfalls.Erodium cicutarium MHNT.jpg) achenes with coiled awns]]2015.06.27 11.30.41 IMG 2780 - Flickr - andrey zharkikh.jpg) seedbuds]]
 * The seeds of some flowering herbs and grasses have hygroscopic appendages (awns) that bend with changes in humidity, enabling them to disperse over the ground, termed herpochory. The awn will thrust (or twist) when the seed is released, its motion dependent upon plant physiology. Subsequent hygrometric changes cause movements to repeat, thrusting (or twisting), pushing the seed into the ground.

Two angiospermae families have similar methods of dispersal, though method of implementation varies within family: Geraniaceae family examples are the common stork's-bill (Erodium cicutarium) and geraniums (Pelargonium sp.); Poaceae family, Needle-and-Thread (Hesperostipa comata) and wheat (Triticum spp.). All rely upon a bi-layered parallel fiber hygroscopic cell physiology to control the awn's movement for dispersal and self-burial of seeds. Alignment of cellulose fibrils in the awn's controlling cell wall determines direction of movement. If fiber alignments are tilted, non-parallel venation, a helix develops and awn movement becomes twisting (coiling) instead of bending; e.g. coiling occurs in awns of Erodium, and Hesperostipa.
 * Some plants use hygroscopic movements for Ballochory (self-dispersal), active ballists forcibly ejecting their seeds; e.g. species of geranium, violet, wood sorrel, witch hazel, touch-me-not (Impatiens), and acanthus. Rupturing of the Bauhinia purpurea seed pod reportedly propels its seed up to 15 metres distance.

Engineering properties
Hygroscopicity is a general term used to describe a material's ability to absorb moisture from the environment. There is no standard quantitative definition of hygroscopicity, so generally the qualification of hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic is determined on a case-by-case basis. For example, pharmaceuticals that pick up more than 5% by mass, between 40 and 90% relative humidity at 25 °C, are described as hygroscopic, while materials that pick up less than 1%, under the same conditions are regarded as non-hygroscopic.

The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is usually proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in many engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals.

Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials. Some plastics, e. g. nylon, are hygroscopic while others are not.

Polymers
Many engineering polymers are hygroscopic, including nylon, ABS, polycarbonate, cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA, plexiglas, perspex).

Other polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene, do not normally absorb much moisture, but are able to carry significant moisture on their surface when exposed to liquid water.

Type-6 nylon (a polyamide) can absorb up to 9.5% of its weight in moisture.

Applications in baking
The use of different substances' hygroscopic properties in baking are often used to achieve differences in moisture content and, hence, crispiness. Different varieties of sugars are used in different quantities to produce a crunchy, crisp cookie (British English: biscuit) versus a soft, chewy cake. Sugars such as honey, brown sugar, and molasses are examples of sweeteners used to create moister and chewier cakes.

Research
Several hygroscopic approaches to harvest atmospheric moisture have been demonstrated and require further development to assess their potentials as a viable water source.
 * Experiments with fog collection, in select environs, duplicated the hydrophilic surfaces and hygroscopic surface wetting observed in tree frog hydration (biomimicry). Subsequent material optimizations developed artificial hydrophilic surfaces with collection rates of 25 mg H2O/(cm2 h), more than twice the collection rate of tree frogs under comparable conditions, i.e. 100% RH (relative humidity).
 * Another approach performs at lower 15–30% RHs but also has environs limitations; a sustainable biomass source is necessary. Super hygroscopic polymer films composed of biomass and hygroscopic salts are able to condense moisture from atmospheric humidity. By implementing rapid sorption-desorption kinetics and operating 14–24 cycles per day, this technique produced an equivalent water yield of 5.8–13.3 L kg−1 of sustainable raw materials, demonstrating the potential for low-cost, scalable atmospheric water harvesting.

Hygroscopic glues are candidates for commercial development. The most common cause of synthetic glue failure at high humidity is attributed to water lubricating the contact area, impacting bond quality. Hygroscopic glues may allow more durable adhesive bonds by absorbing (pulling) inter-facial environmental moisture away from the glue-substrate boundary.

Integrating hygroscopic movement into smart building designs and systems is frequently mentioned, e.g. self-opening windows. Such movement is appealing, an adaptive, self-shaping response that requires no external force or energy. However, capabilities of current material choices are limited. Biomimetic design of hygromorphic wood composites and hygro-actuated building systems have been modeled and evaluated.
 * Hygrometric response time, precise shape changes and durability are lacking. Most currently available hygro-actuated composites are inferior and exhibit fatigue failure well before that seen in nature, e.g. in pine cone scales, indicating that a better understanding of the plants' biological structures is needed. Materials composed of fluid-responsive active bilayer systems that can direct planned conformational hygromorphing are necessary.
 * Current composites require undesirable trade-offs between hygromorphic response time and mechanical stability that must also be balanced with changing environmental stimuli.

title: Hygroscopy


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Agawam, Massachusetts

Agawam is a city in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 28,692 at the 2020 census. Agawam sits on the western side of the Connecticut River, directly across from Springfield. It is considered part of the Springfield Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is contiguous with the Knowledge Corridor area, the second-largest metropolitan area in New England. Agawam contains a subsection, Feeding Hills. The Six Flags New England amusement park is located in Agawam, on the banks of the Connecticut River.

Agawam's ZIP code, 01001, is the lowest in the contiguous United States.

Etymology
The Native American village originally sited on the west bank of the Connecticut River was known as Agawam, or Agawanus, Aggawom, Agawom, Onkowam, Igwam, and Auguam. It is variously speculated to mean "unloading place" and "fishcuring place", perhaps in reference to fish at Agawam Falls being unloaded from canoes for curing on the flats at the mouth of the Westfield River.

Ipswich, Massachusetts, was also known as Agawam during much of the 17th century, after the English name for the Agawam tribe of Massachusetts, who were indigenous inhabitants of the area.

History
On May 15, 1636, William Pynchon purchased land on both sides of the Connecticut River from the local Pocomtuc Indians known as Agawam, which included present-day Springfield, Chicopee, Longmeadow, and West Springfield, Massachusetts. The purchase price for the Agawam portion was 10 coats, 10 hoes, 10 hatchets, 10 knives, and 10 fathoms of wampum. Agawam and West Springfield separated from Springfield to become the parish of West Springfield in 1757; Agawam and West Springfield split in 1800. Agawam incorporated as a town on May 17, 1855.

In 1771, John Porter moved to Agawam and founded a gin distillery nine years later. After he died, his grandson, Harry, continued to work the business as the H. Porter Distilling Company. The plant was sold in 1917, and during Prohibition, the main products produced in the building were potato chips and cider. After the Volstead Act was repealed, the mill began producing gin again but closed permanently in 1938. The building, on Main Street near River Road, served as Agawam's Department of Public Works garage until it fell into disrepair.

Agawam furnished 172 men who fought in the American Civil War, 22 of whom died in battle or of disease.

The original town hall, built in 1874 at the corner of Main and School Streets, housed the town government divisions as the current one does today, as well as the original town library located in the building's Tower Room. A small school building was located near the premises and held grades one through three. The building was demolished in 1938, and the property is now the site of Benjamin Phelps Elementary School.

The Feeding Hills town hall, built in 1906, was almost identical to the Agawam town hall and was located at the corner of Springfield and South Westfield Streets. The building was demolished in 1950, and the Clifford M. Granger Elementary School opened in 1946 now occupies that land.

May 29, 1930, and June 1, 1931, saw "grand openings" of Bowles Agawam Airport with the latter date including a visit from 100 biplanes of the United States Army Air Corps Eastern Air Arm. A scheduled air service operated out of Bowles for approximately one year, before ending. The airport continued to operate as a civil airport until 1982. A pari-mutuel horse racing track, including grandstand and stables, was built adjacent to Bowles Airport. Seabiscuit won the Springfield Handicap at Agawam in track record time in October 1935. The racetrack operated until pari-mutuel betting was outlawed by referendum in Hampden County in November 1938. The airport also had plans in the early 1960s to become a commercial airport and host airlines for the city of Springfield, but plans were shelved. The airport and racetrack were demolished in the late 1980s and the area is now an industrial park.

Geography
Agawam is located at 42.07194°N, -72.64417°W (42.071961, –72.644097). The city borders West Springfield, Massachusetts, to the north, Southwick, Massachusetts, to the west, Longmeadow, Massachusetts, to the east, Springfield, Massachusetts, to the northeast, and Suffield, Connecticut, to the south. Westfield, Massachusetts, also borders to the northwest.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.2 mi2 of which 23.2 mi2 is land and 1 mi2 (4.09%) is water.

The highest point in Agawam is the 640 ft-tall Provin Mountain, a ridge that, along with the southern part of East Mountain, forms the western boundary of the city. Both are traversed by the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail and are part of the Metacomet Ridge, a mountainous trap rock ridgeline that stretches from Long Island Sound to nearly the Vermont border.

Agawam has a subsection known as Feeding Hills that runs along the border of Southwick and Westfield, Massachusetts, and Suffield, Connecticut. Its border with Agawam was mainly determined by Line Street, and its ZIP code is 01030.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 28,144 people, 11,260 households, and 7,462 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,210.9 PD/sqmi. There were 11,659 housing units at an average density of 501.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.71% White, 0.91% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.98% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.83% of the population.

There were 11,260 households, out of which 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.7% were non-families. 28.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.01.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 25.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $49,390, and the median income for a family was $59,088. Males had a median income of $40,924 versus $30,428 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,562. About 4.3% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.7% of those under age 18 and 7.5% of those age 65 or over.

Government
Agawam is one of thirteen Massachusetts municipalities that have applied for, and been granted, city forms of government but wish to retain "The town of" in their official names. Agawam adopted a city form of government effective January 1, 1973, comprising a 15-member city council and a town manager. Since May 1989 a mayor is the elected leader of the city. The current city council consists of eleven members elected at large by the voters and is the legislative branch of the town government.

The current mayor of Agawam is Christopher Johnson.

On the state level, Agawam is represented in the Massachusetts Senate by John Velis, and in the Massachusetts House of Representatives by Nicholas Boldyga. Agawam is located in the Eighth Massachusetts Governor's Council district and is represented by Tara Jacobs. On the federal level, Agawam is part of Massachusetts's 1st congressional district, represented by Richard Neal; it is represented in the United States Senate by Ed Markey and Elizabeth Warren.

Law enforcement
The Agawam Police Department has about fifty full-time sworn law enforcement officers and about eight support personnel. The department is responsible for law enforcement at the Six Flags New England amusement park and the Feeding Hills district.

On May 5, 2012, an Agawam officer shot a woman in the face when she answered her door. The city settled with her for $20,000.

In early January 2017, the head of the Agawam Police Patrolman's Association was indicted on charges relating to stealing from the group.

In mid-January 2017, three police officers were fired for beating a prisoner. The attack was caught on video which was released to the public. The officers are appealing their termination. Two of the officers returned to work following two years on paid administrative leave.

FBI crime statistics show the city enjoys a lower-than-average crime rate.

Historical commercial operations
1801 – E. Porter Peppermint distillery, later to become the "Agawam Gin" distillery.

1810 – A cotton mill was erected on the site of present-day Six Flags New England.

1812 – Agawam Woolen Mill was established on Elm Street. After a fire, the building was rebuilt in brick in 1889 and still exists. The Agawam Woolen Company folded in 1949.

Six Flags New England, formerly Riverside Amusement Park, began as a picnic grove as early as 1840. It became a full-fledged amusement park in 1940. Riverside Park Speedway, a NASCAR racing track, was part of Riverside park from 1948 to 2000. Riverside was sold to Six Flags in 1996.

1952 – Stacy Machine Co, came to a new plant located on Main St, is best known for producing specialized printing presses. Later known as Kidder-Stacy, the plant closed in the 1990s, but the Main St plant still stands.

1953 – WWLP an NBC affiliate television station began operation with studios and transmitting facilities on Provin Mountain in Feeding Hills.

Library
The Agawam Free Public Library was established in 1891. The first libraries were rooms in the Agawam and Feeding Hills town halls and the Mittenague School in North Agawam. After a 1904 fire destroyed the Mittenague School and all the books in it, Fred P. Halladay donated land and buildings in North Agawam to use as a library. In 1925, Minerva Porter Davis donated a building in Agawam Center to serve as the library in that section of town, replacing the Agawam Town Hall rooms. The Feeding Hills branch moved to a building across the street from the Feeding Hills town hall when that structure was removed to make way for Granger school. In 1978 the libraries were consolidated in a new building adjacent to the High School on Cooper St.

In fiscal year 2008, the city of Agawam spent 1.39% ($923,113) of its budget on its public library—some $32 per person.

Education

 * Benjamin J. Phelps Elementary School: (K–4)
 * Clifford M. Granger Elementary School: (K–4)
 * James Clark Elementary School: (K–4)
 * Robinson Park Elementary School: (K–4)
 * Roberta G. Doering Middle School: (5–6)
 * Agawam Junior High School: (7–8)
 * Agawam High School: (9–12)

Points of interest

 * The Agawam Historical Association operates the Agawam Historical and Fire House Museum at 35 Elm Street and the historic Thomas Smith House at 251 North West Street in Feeding Hills.
 * Anne Sullivan Memorial – marker and statue dedicated to Helen Keller's tutor, born in Feeding Hills. The memorial is on the corner of Springfield and South Westfield Streets.
 * The Massachusetts Veteran's Memorial Cemetery is located off Main Street.
 * A series of plaques with the names of Agawam citizens who died in the Vietnam War, World War II, World War I, the Revolutionary War, or the Spanish–American War is displayed at Benjamin J. Phelps Elementary School.
 * The 110 mile Metacomet-Monadnock Trail (a hiking trail) traverses the ridgeline of Provin Mountain in western Agawam.
 * Robinson State Park, a narrow, urban 852 acre park, has its entrance on North St.
 * Six Flags New England, the largest amusement park in New England, is located in Agawam.

Notable people

 * Creighton Abrams, who commanded military operations in Vietnam War
 * Carl Beane, voice of the Boston Red Sox
 * Scott Daniels, Canadian Native hockey player that played in the NHL for Hartford Whalers, Philadelphia Flyers, and New Jersey Devils
 * Roger LeClerc, football player for the Chicago Bears
 * Mike Martin, basketball head coach, Brown University
 * Phil McGeoghan, football player for the Denver Broncos, assistant coach Los Angeles Chargers
 * Earl Seibert, hockey player, Hockey Hall of Famer, former Springfield Indians coach
 * Eddie Shore, hockey player, Hockey Hall of Famer, owner of the Springfield Indians
 * Anne Sullivan, tutor of Helen Keller
 * Tom Wlaschiha, German actor, known for Game of Thrones and Stranger Things

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Agawam, Massachusetts


text:
Blandford, Massachusetts

Blandford is a town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 1,215 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. It was the home of the Blandford Ski Area.

History
Blandford was first settled in 1735 primarily by Scots-Irish settlers and was officially incorporated on November 10, 1741. Because of these Scots-Irish families, Blandford was originally called "New Glasgow" after Glasgow, Scotland, but was renamed "Blandford" at the time of incorporation. While the petition of incorporation from the settlers asked that the town be named "Glascow" (as misspelled in source document), William Shirley, the newly appointed governor of the province of Massachusetts, ignored their request and named the town "Blandford" after the ship that brought him from England.

The name change came at a cost to the townspeople. The people of Glasgow, Scotland, had promised the settlers a gift of a church bell if they named the town after their city. With the town now named Blandford, the bell was never sent. Today, Glasgow Road near the center of Blandford is a silent reminder of these events.

Settlement came to Blandford and other "hilltowns" some 75 years after the more fertile alluvial lowlands along the Connecticut River were cultivated with tobacco and other commodity crops. In contrast, farming in the hilltowns was of a hardscrabble subsistence nature due to thin, rocky soil following Pleistocene glaciation and a slightly cooler climate, although upland fields were sometimes less subject to unseasonal frosts. Initial settlement in the nearby Pioneer Valley was by English Puritans, whereas Blandford's Scots-Irish settlers were Presbyterian, and their English was still somewhat influenced by Gaelic. Thus there were significant ethnic, religious, economic, and linguistic differences between these adjacent regions of settlement.

Hugh Black was the first settler to arrive in the fall of 1735. James Baird came shortly thereafter. After these two arrived, several other families soon followed, including Reed, McClintock, Taggart, Brown, Anderson, Hamilton, Wells, Blair, Stewart, Montgomery, Boies, Ferguson, Campbell, Wilson, Sennett, Young, Knox and Gibbs. Most of these families first settled in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, in 1727 before coming to Blandford.

But not all of these families were Scots-Irish. For example, the Boies was a family of French origin, originally named Du Bois, who were prominent during the reign of Louis XIV. They were driven from France during the Huguenot persecutions to the northern part of Ireland. In Ireland the spelling of their name changed from Du Bois to the Boies before descendants of the family eventually migrated to the United States and settled in Blandford.

The first meeting house (used both as a church and for town government meetings) was erected in 1740, paid for by certain men—Jacob Lawton, Francis Wells, John Faye, and Francis Brindley (referred to as the proprietors)—who owned the land sold to the settlers. The agreement to build it stipulated that it should have glass windows, though those were not supplied until 12 years later. For 13 years the building had no floor except for a few loose boards, the earth and rocks. The seats were blocks, boards and common benches. The pulpit was nothing but a square box. In 1759 it was voted "to make a pulpit for the minister and to build seats". In 1786 the house was first plastered. It was not until 1805, 65 years after it was commenced, that the meeting house was completed.

In keeping with its Scottish heritage, the church was originally Presbyterian, unlike the Congregational churches that were in most new settlements. Its first pastor was William McClenathan, 1744 to 1747. But the roots of the church were said to have dated back to 1735, when in Hopkinton the settlers then preparing to move to Blandford created "the religious organization which flourished contemporaneously with the early settlement in the wilderness."

King George's War (1744–1748; third of the four French & Indian Wars) led to conflict between the settlers and local Native Americans. In 1744 four garrisons were built due to growing tension and fears of the settlers. In 1746, Rev. William McClenathan went to Hartford and Adam Knox went to Northampton to procure soldiers. The tense situation extended into 1749. In spring, the settlers, except for four families, fled to neighboring towns. Upon returning in the fall the townspeople built three new forts. These forts were used through 1750 as a place for common shelter at night, and settlers went armed to their work and church. Fortunately no serious confrontations appear to have occurred between the settlers and the Natives in this period.

The settlers were so poor that they frequently asked for assistance from the men that had sold them their land, and often petitioned the General Court for money grants and remission of taxes. Among the various forms of relief provided, the court once gave 40 bushels of salt to the town.

But the townspeople also found relief in other ways. In 1757, due to a conflict between Rev. Morton and the town, a church council meeting was held. The town agreed to pay the tavern owned by Mr. Root where the meeting was held for "Each Meal of Vittles", lodging and "the strong Drink that the Council drink while they are Hear on our Business."

"Strong drink" was apparently not confined to just church council meetings. At town-meetings those attending frequently took a recess of an hour for the purpose of refreshing themselves at the tavern. Tradition says that in those times the man who could drink the most and walk the straightest was a hero. And family gatherings were noted as typically having a liberal standing supply. Along with other parts of the country, by 1840 drinking alcoholic beverages had fallen out of favor and total abstinence took hold "more or less" in Blandford. While alcohol may have been common, attitudes toward religion were very traditional. The leaders of the Presbyterian church music were chosen at town meetings and were encouraged to conduct it in "the good old way". In 1771 the question was raised whether the singing should be carried on with the beat and was rejected. Caleb Taylor, of Westfield, was the first singing-master, and when he named the tune and sang with the beat, many were so shocked at what they termed the "indecency of the method" that they left the church.

Eventually the community decided to leave behind the suggestive beat of Presbyterian music and converted in 1800 to the more conservative Congregational Church. The reason: "from the inconvenience attending to its first form".

Blandford was actively involved in the American Revolutionary War, providing both men and material throughout to the American cause. When the first alarm came from Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1775, site of the Battle of Lexington, 36 men from Blandford and the neighboring town of Chester set out, under the command of Captain John Ferguson of Blandford, to assist their fellow patriots.

During the Revolutionary War, General Henry Knox led a detachment of troops that hauled cannon from Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain over the Berkshires and through Blandford, eventually on to Boston to bluff the British into withdrawing from the city. His route is now called the Henry Knox Trail.

Blandford was opposed to the War of 1812, and sent Jedediah Smith as a delegate to the Northampton Convention. Approximately 65 men from Blandford served in several regiments in the Civil War, notably the 1st Cavalry and various Massachusetts regiments such as the 27th, 31st, 37th, 46th, among others.

Population density in Blandford and other hilltowns was limited by outmigration by about 1800 as more productive land in western New York and the Northwest Territory became available. However, emigrants were typically young men and women, while the older generation and usually one or two children usually remained in place and farms were not yet abandoned. Then the Industrial Revolution drew additional workers away from hilltown farms, especially after 1850 when steam engines fueled by local wood or by coal began to replace water power. Hilltown farms began to be abandoned about this time and slowly reverted to forest, leaving stone walls and cellar holes behind as farm buildings rotted away. In other cases farming became a part-time way of life and industrial wages enabled buying manufactured goods, whereas previously virtually everything used on subsistence farms was homemade or bartered for.

As a result of these factors, by 1880 the population of Blandford had fallen to 979 from 1,418 only 30 years earlier. But even in 1879 Blandford remained an active, if declining, community.

Blandford Center, the site of the early settlements, in 1879 had a population of about 300 with two churches, one hotel, two stores, a post office, a school, fairgrounds and two cemeteries, with a focus on agriculture. Due to poor soils, production of grain was limited and hay the primary crop. Instead of raising crops, farmers purchased large quantities of grain for stock raising and manufactured butter and cheese. Agriculture was noted as having limited profitability.

Three miles away stood North Blandford, once a substantial manufacturing location due to its excellent water power provided by numerous mountain streams. In the 1850s there were several woolen mills, paper mills, tanneries and other manufacturers. By 1879 that had declined which lead to the Waite & Son cattle-card factory, Diamond Cheese Factory, and two small tanneries. In addition, North Blandford had a church, school, two stores, post office and a population of about 300 as well.

Cheese and butter making were important businesses in Blandford throughout the 19th century. Their introduction was attributed to Amos Collins, a Connecticut merchant, who had settled in Blandford in 1807. He was so successful that by the time he left Blandford in 1816, Collins had gained a comfortable fortune.

By 1879 the town was known to be rich in minerals such as carbonate of lime, chromate of iron, steatite, crystallized actinolite, mamillary chalcedony, kyanite, rose quartz, mica, sulphuret of iron and others. One story was that John Baird discovered lead and silver ore near the north line of town around 1795. Due to a "superstitious belief" he did not pursue his discoveries, did not reveal their location, and the secret died with him. After his death many fruitless efforts were undertaken to try to locate it.

Blandford sits along an important travel corridor. The Eighth Massachusetts Turnpike Association, laid out in 1800, passed through Blandford onto Chester, as did the Eleventh Turnpike Association running from the south line of the state to Becket via the Pittsfield Road. Today the Massachusetts Turnpike, Interstate 90, bisects the town, although there is no exit.

Not just turnpikes passed through Blandford, so did trolleys—though briefly. In 1912 electrified street railways (trolley car lines) covered Massachusetts, connecting towns and densely blanketing urban areas like Boston as in virtually all major American cities. They offered inexpensive, frequent and fast transportation, with some lines that connected urban areas (interurbans) regularly exceeding 50 mph. Thousands and thousands of miles of these lines were built at huge expense over a few decades across the United States but would soon be made obsolete by inexpensive autos, namely the Ford Model T. By the late 1940s few of these lines remained. Tiny remnants of this once huge network still exist as the street-level portions of the T, Boston's subway system.

The last significant line built in Massachusetts, by the Berkshire Street Railway, was from East Lee to Huntington via Blandford, opening August 15, 1917. The Berkshire suspended service on this 24 mi route in October 1918 for the winter months. It was never reopened when a request for operating subsidies from local communities was rejected. Today, the right of way for this line, including the ties for the rails, the bases of the wooden poles that carried the overhead electric lines, viaducts for carrying the trolleys over streams and gullies, and foundations for its buildings, can still be found in the forest—most easily around North Blandford.

Geography
The town is located near the eastern edge of the Berkshire Hills, above an ancient rift zone where the Connecticut River Valley is downfaulted approximately 1000 ft. The town's elevations range from about 400 ft above sea level along streams approaching the Westfield River (a major tributary of the Connecticut) to hilltops as high as 1700 ft. Elevations increase to the west with expansive views eastward across the Connecticut River Valley as far as Mount Monadnock in southern New Hampshire. Local relief is as high as 500 ft near streams flowing into the Westfield River, but away from these streams the town is characterised by rolling uplands.

Abandoned fields and pastures have reverted to forests of beech, birch, maple, hemlock, pine and oak. Land reserved for woodlots and never cleared was repeatedly logged; however, logging has declined in recent decades, so forests are reclaiming some old growth qualities and animal species that have been absent or rare for some 200 years are returning.

Blandford has significant water resources in its streams and ponds. The city of Springfield has reserved the upper watershed of the Little River, a tributary of the Westfield, as the city's main water supply, Cobble Mountain Reservoir.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town of Blandford has a total area of 138.4 sqkm, of which 133.6 sqkm are land and 4.8 sqkm, or 3.48%, are water. All of the town except for its southwest corner is part of the Westfield River watershed, although the river itself passes north and east of the town. The southwestern corner of Blandford drains via Otis Reservoir to the Farmington River, which like the Westfield is a tributary of the Connecticut River.

The Blandford town center is in the east-central part of the town, along Massachusetts Route 23. Via MA 23 and U.S. Route 20, Blandford is 21 mi west of Springfield, the largest city in western Massachusetts. Pittsfield is 27 mi to the northwest via local roads.

Porter Memorial Library (Massachusetts)
The Porter Memorial Library is a public library, established in 1891. In fiscal year 2008, the town of Blandford spent 1.46% ($35,908) of its budget on its public library—approximately $28 per person.

Other points of interest

 * Blandford was home to the Blandford Ski Area, a small ski mountain opened by the Springfield Ski Club in 1936 until it closed on 2020. It was the oldest, continuously operating club-owned ski area in North America.
 * The Blandford Fairgrounds plays host to the annual Labor Day weekend Blandford Fair. Home to old fashioned agricultural exhibits and competitions, a fun filled midway, and many musical acts each year.  This fair is made possible by the hard work of many volunteers each year.
 * South of the fairgrounds is an historic white church building, that has just recently began to host services.
 * The oldest cemetery adjacent to Route 23 includes gravesites for original settlers, some born in Ireland.
 * The Blandford Club, a private nine-hole golf course with tennis facilities, was established in 1909 and recently celebrated 100 years of operation. It is located at 17 North Street, right past the historic White Church of Blandford.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,214 people, 456 households, and 350 families residing in the town. The population density was 23.5 PD/sqmi. There were 526 housing units at an average density of 10.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 98.76% White, 0.49% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.25% Asian, and 0.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.33% of the population.

There were 456 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.4% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. Of all households 19.5% were made up of individuals, and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.03.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.1% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 31.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.1 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $52,935, and the median income for a family was $59,375. Males had a median income of $37,708 versus $32,917 for females. The per capita income for the town was $24,285. About 1.7% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.0% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.

Notable people

 * George Ashmun, born in Blandford, United States congressman from Massachusetts
 * Winifred E. Lefferts (also known as Winifred Lefferts Arms), painter, designer and philanthropist
 * Charles A. Taggart, awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Civil War

title: Blandford, Massachusetts


text:
Brimfield, Massachusetts

Brimfield is a town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 3,694 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area.

History
Brimfield was first settled in 1706 and was officially incorporated in 1731. Until 1812, Brimfield was originally part of Hampshire County. The original Hampshire County included territory that is now in modern-day Hampden County, Franklin County, and Berkshire County as well as small parts of modern-day Worcester County.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 35.2 sqmi, of which 34.7 sqmi is land and 0.5 sqmi (1.45%) is water. Brimfield is located in Western Massachusetts. Brimfield is bordered by Sturbridge on the east, Holland and Wales on the south, Monson and Palmer on the west, and Warren on the north. U.S. Route 20 and Route 19 both run through Brimfield. Interstate 90 cuts through the northern portion of the town in two sections.

Brimfield is located 22 mi away from Springfield, 25 mi away from Worcester, 41 mi away from Hartford, 65 mi away from Boston, 105 mi from Albany, 71 mi away from Pittsfield and 153 mi from New York City.

Education
Brimfield Elementary School, serving grades K–6, has its own school committee, part of School Union 61. Brimfield students attend Tantasqua Regional Junior High School (grades 7–8) and Tantasqua Regional High School in Sturbridge. Union 61 and the Tantasqua district share administrators, including the superintendent, and both include Brimfield, Brookfield, Holland, Sturbridge, and Wales.

Library
The Brimfield Public Library was established by the dog tax. This had been allowed to accumulate in the town treasury until it amounted to $709.19, when, on April 9, 1877, the town voted to devote it to establishing a free public library; and a room was specially fitted up for it in the new town house, which was built in 1879. In fiscal year 2008, the town of Brimfield spent 0.98% ($79,593) of its budget on its public library—some $21 per person.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,339 people, 1,250 households, and 886 families residing in the town. The population density was 96.2 PD/sqmi. There were 1,396 housing units at an average density of 40.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 97.69% White, 0.51% African American, 0.36% Native American, 0.06% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.72% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.29% of the population.

There were 1,250 households, out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.1% were married couples living together, 6.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.1% were non-families. 23.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.3% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 27.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $50,181, and the median income for a family was $59,943. Males had a median income of $44,000 versus $26,695 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,711. About 2.2% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.8% of those under age 18 and 3.8% of those age 65 or over.

Points of interest

 * Brimfield Antique Show – Brimfield is the site of the largest outdoor antiques show in New England. It takes place three times each year, for six days in May, July, and September.
 * The Brimfield Trail is part of a planned trail system running from Palmer to Franklin. Currently a 2-mile section is open for walking and bicycling (fat tire) on the flood control land of the East Brimfield Dam.

Notable people

 * Tabitha Moffatt Brown, mother of Oregon and founder of Tualatin Academy
 * William Eaton, military adventurer during the Barbary Wars
 * Erastus Fairbanks, former governor of Vermont and a founder of the Republican Party
 * John Wells Foster, geologist, paleontologist and Massachusetts politician
 * Richard Nelson Frye, scholar of Iranian and Central Asian Studies
 * Samuel Hitchcock was an attorney and judge in Vermont
 * Charles McEwen Hyde, early missionary in Hawaii, originally ordained in Brimfield
 * Erasmus D. Keyes, military General who led the Army of the Potomac during the Civil War
 * Nathaniel Raymond, human rights investigator and anti-torture advocate
 * Fitz Henry Warren, Iowa State Senator and United States Minister to Guatemala

title: Brimfield, Massachusetts


text:
Chester, Massachusetts

Chester is a town in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States, situated in Western Massachusetts. It is part of the Springfield metropolitan statistical area. The town includes the Chester Factory Village Historic District. The total population was 1,228 in the 2020 census.

History

Most of what is now the towns of Huntington and Chester were sold at auction (along with other parcels) on June 2, 1762, as Plantation Number 9, to William Williams for £1,500. It was incorporated as Murrayfield by the Massachusetts General Court on October 31, 1765. The town’s name was often confused with that of nearby Myrifield, also spelled “Merryfield” (now Rowe, Massachusetts) so the town petitioned the General Court to change its name to “Fairfield”. The General Court chose the name “Chester” instead and passed the act to change its name on February 21, 1783. The Western Railroad (later Boston & Albany Railroad) opened to Chester on May 24, 1841. In 1893 the collapse of a railroad bridge in Chester killed 14 people.

Geography
Set on the eastern edge of the Berkshires, Chester forms the northwestern corner of Hampden County. It is bordered by Huntington on the east, Worthington and Middlefield on the north, Becket on the west, and Blandford on the south. Chester is 21 mi southeast of Pittsfield, 30 mi northwest of Springfield, 115 mi west of Boston, 60 mi southeast of Albany, New York, and 150 mi northeast of New York City.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 96.3 km2, of which 94.8 km2 are land and 1.5 km2, or 1.56%, are water. It is drained by tributaries of the Westfield River. Many brooks flow into the Westfield throughout Chester. The West Branch of the Westfield flows through the western and southern parts of town and passes through the village of Chester, while the Middle Branch flows through the northern and eastern parts of the town, passing through the villages of North Chester and Dayville. The small village of Chester Center occupies high ground between the two river branches. U.S. Route 20 follows the West Branch from the southeastern corner of the town to Chester village, then turns west up the valley of Walker Brook on its way to the town of Becket.

Temperature records
On August 2, 1975, the temperature in Chester rose to 107 F. This remains the hottest temperature ever recorded in the state of Massachusetts, along with a similar reading in New Bedford on the same day. On January 12, 1981, the temperature at Chester fell to -35 F, the coldest temperature ever recorded in Massachusetts. Thus, Chester is only one of three places in the United States which has recorded both of its state's extreme temperatures, the others being Millsboro, Delaware, and Warsaw, Missouri.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,308 people, 500 households, and 360 families residing in the town. The population density was 35.6 PD/sqmi. There were 580 housing units at an average density of 15.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 98.24% White, 0.15% African American, 0.46% Native American, 0.08% Asian, 0.31% from other races, and 0.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.30% of the population.

There were 500 households, out of which 35.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.0% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.8% were non-families. 21.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.06.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.0% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $43,816, and the median income for a family was $51,932. Males had a median income of $38,083 versus $25,789 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,098. About 2.9% of families and 5.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.0% of those under age 18 and 7.8% of those age 65 or over.

Library
The Chester public library was established in 1894. In fiscal year 2008, the town of Chester spent 1.04% ($28,512) of its budget on its public library—some $22 per person.

Theater
Chester is home to Chester Theatre Company, a professional summer theater founded in 1990.

Notable people

 * Rowland Day, congressman
 * Capt. David Shepard, American doctor and soldier; an early proponent of inoculation to prevent smallpox

title: Chester, Massachusetts


text:
Chicopee, Massachusetts

Chicopee is a city located on the Connecticut River in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States. At the 2020 census, the city had a population of 55,560, making it the second-largest city in western Massachusetts after Springfield. Chicopee is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts Metropolitan Statistical Area. The communities of Chicopee Center (Cabotville), Chicopee Falls, Willimansett, Fairview, Aldenville, Burnett Road, Smith Highlands and Westover are located within the city.

One of the ventures of the Boston Associates, Chicopee is a city built around several smaller former mill communities on its namesake, the Chicopee River. During the 19th century, the city was home to the first American producer of friction matches as well as a variety of other industries, including the Ames Manufacturing Company, an early pioneer in machining lathes, building upon the work of Springfield's Thomas Blanchard, and the largest producer of swords and cutlasses for the Union Army during the Civil War. By the start of the 20th century, the city was home to a number of industrial plants, including those of the Fisk Tire Company, one of the largest tire makers of that time, and some of the earliest sporting goods factories of A. G. Spalding.

Today the city is home to a variety of specialty manufacturers, as well as Westover Air Reserve Base, the largest Air Force Reserve Base of the United States, built in 1940 with the emergence of World War II. Chicopee today goes by the nickname the "Crossroads of New England" as part of a business-development marketing campaign, one that West Springfield also uses. The name reflects the city's location among a number of metropolitan areas and its transportation network. Four interstate highways run through its boundaries, including I-90, I-91, I-291, and I-391, as well as state routes such as Route 33, 116, and 141.

Etymology
The city is named after the Chicopee River. "Chicopee" is derived from the Nipmuc language. It is likely derived from chekee ("violently") and -pe (root suffix used in water place names) or chikkupee ("of red cedar"), an adjectival form of chikkup ("red cedar").

There have been several variant spellings of the name.

Nayasett (Cabotville and Chicopee Falls)
In 1636, William Pynchon purchased land from the Agawam Indians on the east side of the Connecticut River. He moved from the Town of Roxbury to Springfield to found the first settlement in the area that comprises the territory of today's Chicopee Center (Cabotville). Both Cabotville and the Falls were developed as manufacturing centers (villages).

According to local historian Charles J. Seaver, the area above the falls was first settled in 1660. The land purchased from the Indians was divided into districts. Nayasett (Nipmuc for "at the small point/angle") was the name given to the area of what are now Chicopee Center and Chicopee Falls. The settlement in the upper district was at Skipmuck (possibly based on Nipmuc Skipmaug, meaning "chief fishing place" or Shipmuck, meaning "big watery place"), a place above the falls on the south side of the river.

Colonists built a sawmill as the first industrial site along the river. The mill was built at Skenungonuck (Nipmuc for "green fields") Falls (now Chicopee Falls) in 1678 by Japhet Chapin, John Hitchcock and Nathaniel Foote.

In 1786, what was called Factory Village began to develop when two acres of land was leased to 10 local men, with the understanding that they would build an iron foundry within two years. This was accomplished and the business flourished.

In 1823, Jonathan Dwight purchased the water privilege at Skenungonuck Falls in Chicopee. He built a textile mill and five years later, it operated 14,000 spindles and nearly 500 looms, making it the second-largest operation in the state. It processed cotton from the Deep South, becoming part of the extended slave economy and King Cotton. By 1831, settlers had developed two giant dams, two waterpower canals, and two manufacturing communities on the Chicopee River.

Before and after the partition, eight Chicopee River companies gained product recognition around the globe: Ames, Belcher, Lamb, Dwight, Stevens, Spalding, Fisk, and Duryea. Below the falls, in the bend of the river at a place called Factory Village, an important chapter of the region's industrial history was played out.

Partition from Springfield

In 1716, Upper Chicopee, Lower Chicopee and Skipmunk were divided into Springfield's fourth, fifth and sixth precincts, respectively.

In the late 1740s, a discussion took place among members of the First Church of Springfield over whether the town should build a new meetinghouse out of brick, which would be more expensive yet durable, or timber, which would be relatively inexpensive. Residents of what is now Chicopee tended to support a timber meetinghouse, due to the time-consuming four to eight mile journey that visiting the meetinghouse would require. In 1749, residents in Springfield's fourth, fifth and sixth precincts petitioned the Massachusetts General Court to form their own parish, with their own church and meetinghouse. Facing opposition from Springfield, the petition was rejected by the General Court. In 1750, the petition was filed again by Japhet Chapin, signed by 49 residents of what are now Chicopee and Holyoke, and was approved by the General Court. This created Springfield's Fifth Parish. The boundaries of the new parish were laid out on June 11, 1751. The first service took place on July 21, 1751. This marked the earliest move toward political separation by Chicopee and Holyoke from Springfield.

In 1844, Springfield's Second Parish, now containing only Chicopee, petitioned the General Court to separate as its own municipality. Once again opposed by Springfield's First Parish, their petition was rejected. In 1848, Springfield began to seek a city charter. Second Parish residents tended to oppose a city charter on the grounds of increased expenditures. In response, 700 residents of Chicopee's neighborhoods of Cabotville, Chicopee Falls, Chicopee Street and Willimansett signed a petition to form their own municipality.

The General Court approved Chicopee's Act of Incorporation on April 25, 1848. Governor George N. Briggs signed the act on April 29, 1848, creating the Town of Chicopee. Chicopee's first municipal elections took place at Chicopee's first town meeting on May 17, 1848 at 1:00 p.m. When electing State Representatives and State Senators, the Town of Chicopee would be treated as a district of Springfield until after the 1850 U.S. census.

Incorporation as a City
On April 18, 1890, the community was granted a charter as a city by the Massachusetts General Court. George Sylvester Taylor (1822–1910) became Chicopee's first mayor on January 5, 1891.

Westover Field was created by a war-readiness appropriation signed by president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939. The site used to be tobacco crop fields east of and part of Fairview, east of Aldenview, and northern Willimansett. It was assigned to the United States Army Air Corps Northeast Air District. It was renamed Westover Air Force Base in 1948 after that Air Force's creation as a separate service. In 1974 SAC leadership turned the base over to the Air Force Reserve.

In 1991, St. Stanislaus Bishop and Martyr Church, located on Front Street, was proclaimed a minor basilica by Pope John Paul II.

Various industries
Chicopee adopted the motto "Industriae Variae", which means "Various Industries". Chicopee's industries included cotton mills, woolen mills, textiles, brass and iron foundries, paper making, footwear factories, for leather boots and shoes, the first friction matches, and ship building. In nearby South Hadley Canal, the firearms company Crescent-Davis specialized in producing double-barrel shotguns.

The Ames Manufacturing Company made many machines and bronze cannons, and more swords than any other American manufacturer at the time. Ames cast a number of bronze statues, including Thomas Ball's monumental equestrian statue of President George Washington, installed in Boston's Public Garden. Ames was a major provider of cannon to the Union army during the Civil War. The Stevens Arms plant (later Savage) was responsible for most of the No. 4 Enfields manufactured for the British under Lend-Lease. Chicopee was home to production of the first gasoline-powered automobile made in the United States, the Duryea.

Bicycles
During the late nineteenth century, Chicopee Falls became a major manufacturing center of bicycles. The town was the site of at least two bicycle factories: The Overman Wheel Company (1882 to about 1899), and the Spalding sporting goods company.

Albert H. Overman moved his bicycle production from Hartford, Connecticut, to Chicopee Falls in 1883. The Overman company benefited from the surging popularity of the safety bicycle during the bicycle boom of the 1890s. At its height in 1894, Overman's factory employed over 1,200 workers. The boom eventually went bust, as overproduction drove the price of bicycles down. By 1901 the Overman firm was out of business.

Library
In 1853, Chicopee became the first Massachusetts municipality west of Worcester County to form a locally funded public library. The Chicopee Public Library was formed by a donation to the city by the Cabotville Institute.

Willimansett
In 1641, Willian Pynchon expanded his 1636 holdings by buying the land from the Chicopee River north to the Willimansett (Nipmuc for "good berries place" or "place of red earth") Brook. Land sales in Chicopee were recorded in 1659, but apparently no homes were built immediately.

Winthrop McKinstry writes that the sons of Deacon Samuel Chapin appear to be the first home builders. Henry Chapin is believed to have constructed his at Exchange and West streets (lower Chicopee) in 1664, and Japhet Chapin north of what is now known as James Ferry Road (upper Chicopee) in 1673. It is apparent from McKinstry's book that the Chapin family dominated the area north of the Chicopee River for the settlement's first 70 years. Chicopee Street was part of the First Parish in Springfield.

By the 1750s, Quabbin Road (now McKinstry Avenue) allowed the farmers to access the meadows and fields on the plains at the top of the hill. The Chapins used the land in common for grazing livestock and built ice houses near several large ponds. The ponds were drained by several brooks which flowed into the Connecticut River.

At the end of the 19th century, the city voted to build the Willimansett Bridge, connecting Willimansett with Holyoke across the Connecticut River. The results were profound. Willimansett and Aldenville would develop close ties to Holyoke; even postal and telephone service were (and still are) tied to the "Paper City." The legislative act ordering the building of the bridge was passed in 1892. L.L. Johnson reports that the completion of the bridge was grandly celebrated.

By the 20th century, Willimansett village had developed into quintessential Americana with a high percentage of French Canadian inhabitants. In total, Chicopee became four distinct commercial and political sub-divisions, each with its own ethnic makeup representing its own special interests and, much too frequently, in conflict with each other.

Located between Fairview and Willimansett, the Smith Highlands section once had its own school (first and second grades), Holyoke Street Railway bus service from Ingham Street across Irene, Factory, and Prospect streets, and two locally owned markets. The former Robert's Pond swimming area was a popular summer attraction, and the fields where the current Bellamy Junior High School is located were a popular sledding and skiing location winters.

Fairview
Fairview is the northernmost neighborhood (village) in Chicopee and originally included the lands that are now part of Westover ARB. Primarily agricultural, Fairview was known for its tobacco farms. After 1939, Westover helped to rapidly develop the village into a residential and commercial district. Memorial Drive (Route 33) flows north–south connecting Chicopee Falls with South Hadley.

Aldenville
On August 18, 1870, Edward Monroe Alden purchased 600 acres of land just east of Willimansett for the sum of $9,000 with the intent to create a "little city on the hill," which would become Aldenville. In 1890, he began laying out streets which he named for family members and divided the land up into 60-by-170 feet lots. French-Canadian factory workers from Chicopee Falls, Cabotville (Chicopee Center), and Holyoke began to build up the community. Sold for a selling price of $150 with $10 down, the first house was bought and built by French-Canadian builder and carpenter Marcellin Croteau.

Geography
Chicopee is located at 42.17028°N, -72.58861°W (42.170159, –72.588630).

The city is made up of several neighborhoods; the result of the city's origin as a collection of four villages in the northernmost part of Springfield, which seceded from it in 1848. Chicopee Falls, Chicopee Center (Cabotville), Fairview, and Willimansett continued to develop. In the early 1900s, Aldenville developed as a distinct community. Since then, the city has filled in most of its open space resulting in a number of new neighborhoods. These neighborhoods include Chicomansett, Ferry Lane, Sandy Hill and the geographically isolated Burnett Road neighborhood.

The city is bordered by Holyoke to the northwest, West Springfield to the southwest, Springfield to the south, Ludlow to the east, Granby to the northeast and South Hadley to the north. Chicopee is located 29 mi away from Hartford, 89 mi away from Boston, 90 mi from Albany and 140 mi from New York City.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 23.9 sqmi, of which 22.9 sqmi is land and 1.0 sqmi (4.31%) is water. The Chicopee River flows through the southern part of the city, emptying into the Connecticut River. Many ponds, lakes, and streams are part of the Chicopee River or Connecticut River watersheds.

Willimansett, and portions of the Center and Falls are on low land, with Aldenville, Fairview, Westover, and the Burnett Road neighborhoods on an elevated plateau. At 288 feet, the highest elevation in the city is on Old Lyman Road, in the Fairview section.

Events

 * The Great New England Air Show is an annual two-day air show held at Westover Air Reserve Base. 300,000 visitors attended in 2008 to a show that featured the USAF Thunderbirds. Approximately 210,000 attended the highly anticipated 2012 show, Although no major jet team headlined the show, military demonstrations by the F/A-18F Super Hornet, F-15C Eagles, V-22 Osprey, B-2 Spirit Stealth Bomber, and a locally based C-5 Galaxy along with civilian aerobatics and warbirds kept spectators entertained; over 60 aircraft were on static display making it the biggest airshow to take place at that location since 1974. The next air show was July 14 and 15, 2015 celebrating the 75th anniversary of Westover ARB with the US Navy's Blue Angels headlining in their first appearance at the base.
 * The Sword Game is an annual football game that began in 1964 after the founding of Chicopee's second high school, Chicopee Comprehensive High School. It is held every fall between Chicopee High School and Chicopee Comprehensive High School. The city's mayor presents the winning team with the Mayor's Sword, a sword that was manufactured in the 1890s by Ames Manufacturing Company in Cabotville.
 * The World Kielbasa Festival is a four-day fair featuring Polish food, polka dancing, games, and rides. The original K-Fest was held by the Chicopee Chamber of Commerce's Fireball Club and ran from 1974 until 1997. It was dormant for years, and then revived and held at Szot Park in May 2015. In May 2016, Chicopee's Kielbasa Festival became part of a larger cultural event when it was moved to the Big E grounds in West Springfield.

Sites

 * Ames Tower in Cabotville, part of the Ames Manufacturing facilities and is now part of the Ames Privilege Apartment complex.
 * Frank J. Szot Memorial Park, a focal point for community events in the city with accommodations for baseball, basketball, and picnicking. The stadium is typically used for local and regional soccer and football games. Features include a pond, one WWII and one Cold War era tank, several war monuments, and a fountain.
 * Chicopee Memorial State Park, located in the Burnett Road neighborhood and used to be known as the Cooley Brook Reservoir and Watershed, the park has been developed into a high use active recreation area. The total area is 575 acre including two 25 acre ponds. Activities include swimming, fishing, picnicking, jogging and biking.
 * The Basilica of Saint Stanislaus, located on Front Street, is a 1908 brownstone, cathedral-like church built in the Baroque Revival Style of architecture. It is regarded as one of the most imposing churches in the area. The interior of the church can accommodate approximately 800 worshipers in the main and two side naves. A pipe organ was installed in the choir loft in 1920. During the parish's 1991 centennial, Pope John Paul II designated it a Minor Basilica.
 * The Cabotville Historic Sycamore Trees, trees that were present when Chicopee became a town in 1848, matured when it became a city in 1890. They were designated Heritage Trees in 1999 by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
 * The Chicopee Canal Walk, dedicated on May 21, 2010, is a 1100 ft pedestrian walkway and mini park that follows the canal from the Cabotville Historic Sycamore Trees to Grape Street. The path follows a portion of a former industrial railway. Plans are to extend the path to the Deady Bridge, creating a bicycle and pedestrian route connecting Cabotville and Chicopee Falls.
 * The Chicopee City Hall, built in 1871 in the Romanesque style. It was added to the National Register of Historic Place on July 30, 1974.
 * The Chicopee War Memorial, located off of the intersection of Bonneville Avenue and Front Street. It is home to several statues and monuments to World War II veterans and Vietnam War veterans.
 * The Edward Bellamy House, a National Historic Landmark at 91–93 Church Street in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. The house was built in 1852 and was the home of journalist Edward Bellamy. The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1971.
 * The Emerson Gaylord Mansion, a historic mansion is located at the north edge of the Elms College campus on the corner of Springfield and Fairview Streets (199 Springfield Street). It is described by Kristin O'Connell ("The Architectural Heritage of Chicopee") as a less pure example of the French Second Empire style, because of its asymmetrical exterior and its unusually high steep roof.
 * The Facemate Tower, a historic tower on the Chicopee River in Chicopee Falls. It used to be a part of the Facemate Industrial Complex.
 * The Polish Center of Discovery and Learning, a local history museum celebrating contributions made to the economy, arts, and sciences by immigrant Poles and their ancestors in Western New England. The museum also sponsors regular workshops, exhibits, concerts, conferences, seminars, films, plays, and lectures regarding the cultural traditions, contributions, and history of Poland, the Polish people, and the Polish diaspora.
 * The Uniroyal Office Building, a historic building in Chicopee Falls that was part of the Uniroyal Industrial Complex.
 * The Willimansett Dike, an elevated, artificial levee in Willimansett, built after the destructive Willimansett flood caused by The Great New England Hurricane of 1938. It stretches from Nash Field, following the Connecticut River south to I-90 bridge adjacent to the Chicopee boat ramp.
 * Westover Air Reserve Base, built here in 1940. Originally an Army Air Corps and later Army Air Forces installation known as Westover Field, it became Westover Air Force Base when the Air Force became an independent service in 1947. From 1955 until 1974, it was a Strategic Air Command (SAC) installation. Transferred to the Air Force Reserve in 1974, it was renamed Westover Air Reserve Base and is now the home of the 439th Airlift Wing, flying the C-5 Galaxy aircraft. Westover has one of the largest runways on the east coast at 11,597 x 301 ft and is the largest Air Force Reserve base in the United States. A joint civil-military facility, it is also home to Westover Metropolitan Airport. Two military-minded youth programs, the Young Marines and the Westover Composite Squadron of the Civil Air Patrol are also located at Westover.

Economy

Chicopee is mostly a service economy with a mixture of small, local businesses and national chains. The city is also home to a number of Polish-American food product manufacturers, reflecting the city's history, and include the Chicopee Provision Company, a major producer of Polish sausage kielbasa under the Blue Seal brand, Millie's Pierogi, a producer of those traditional Polish dumplings, and Domin & Sons, the region's largest producer of horseradish, whose largest market was Polish consumers at Easter.

Despite changes in the global economy, Chicopee does remain home to manufacturers including Callaway Golf which produces more than 5 million golfballs a year at its Willimansett production plant. Since 2013, Chicopee has been home to the headquarters of the Chemex Corporation, makers of the Chemex pour-over coffeemaker, which has been produced with the same design since 1941. Chicopee also hosts the Buxton Company, which "designs, manufactures, and markets personal leather goods, travel kits, and gifts collections for men and women." Founded as L.A.W. Novelty Co. in 1898, the firm changed its name to Buxton Co., LLC in 1921.

Chicopee is home to a handful of financial businesses as well including Alden Credit Union, The Polish National Credit Union and Chicopee Savings Bank. Chicopee Savings Bank is run by Chicopee Bancorp, which operates trades as CBNK on the NASDAQ exchange.

The Chicopee River Business Park and Westover Business Park are within the city's boundaries.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, Chicopee was 3.1% black, 1.6% Asian, 18.5% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 75% white

As of the census of 2000, there were 54,653 people, 23,117 households, and 14,147 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,389.7 PD/sqmi. There were 24,424 housing units at an average density of 1,067.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 89.82% White, 2.28% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, 4.90% from other races, and 1.84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.76% of the population (12.8% Puerto Rican, 0.5% Dominican, 0.4% Mexican, 0.2% Colombian). Chicopee is the second largest municipality in western Massachusetts, after Springfield (defining western Massachusetts as Hampden, Hampshire, Franklin, and Berkshire counties).

There were 23,117 households, out of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.6% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.8% were non-families. 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.96.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.6% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 17.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $35,672, and the median income for a family was $44,136. Males had a median income of $35,585 versus $25,975 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,646. About 9.6% of families and 12.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.5% of those under age 18 and 9.3% of those age 65 or over.

Government and politics
Chicopee has a mayor-council form of government, with a City Council for its legislative branch and a Mayor for its executive branch.

The City Council consists of nine Ward Councilors and four Councilors-at-Large. One Ward Councilor is elected from each ward. The four Councilors-at-Large are elected by all voters in the city. Ward Councilors serve one-year terms, while Councilors-at-Large serve two-year terms. Mayors serve one two-year term. Since 1941, local elections in Chicopee have been non-partisan. From 1890 to 1914, the city had a bicameral legislature consisting of eight wards, with one member of the Board of Aldermen and two members of the Common Council elected from each ward. The city replaced this system by abolishing the Common Council and adding ten aldermen-at-large to the Board of Aldermen. In 2008, the Board of Aldermen approved a home-rule petition to change the legislature's name to the City Council. The name change took effect in 2009.

Chicopee also directly elects the following local offices and bodies:
 * A City Clerk elected to one three-year term
 * City Collector elected to one three-year term
 * A City Treasurer elected to one three-year term
 * Three Assessors elected to one three-year term
 * A School Committee with two Members-at-Large and nine Ward Members, all elected to one three-year term

College of Our Lady of the Elms
The College of Our Lady of the Elms is a four-year liberal arts college offering thirty-three academic majors. It was first founded in 1897 as a girls' preparatory academy in Pittsfield, the Academy of Our Lady of the Elms. In 1899, it moved to Chicopee as St. Joseph's Normal College. A charter for the school to operate as a women's liberal arts college was approved in 1928, and the name was changed to the College of Our Lady of the Elms. It began admitting men in 1998.

Private elementary
Chicopee has a multitude of Catholic schools that are operated under the Diocese of Springfield. These schools include: Saint Joan of Arc School which serves Saint Rose de Lima Church on Grattan Street; and Saint Stanislaus School which serves the St. Stanislaus Bishop & Martyr's Parish Bishop and Martyr on Front Street.

Within the past decade, a number of private elementary schools and their associated parishes have closed. These include Assumption School which served the former Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary parish, Saint Patrick's School which served the former Saint Patrick's parish (closure of this parish is currently in dispute), Holy Name School which served Holy Name of Jesus parish, Mount Carmel School which served the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary parish, and Saint George School which served Saint George's parish that merged with Saint Rose de Lima / Saint Joan of Arc School.

Private secondary
Holyoke Catholic High School was founded in 1963 at the campus of the former Saint Jerome High School in Holyoke. In 2002 it relocated to the campus of Saint Hyacinth Seminary in Granby. It moved to its Holyoke location in September 2008, and 2015 it merged with Cathedral High School to form a new regional Catholic school that was completed in 2016 as Pope Francis High School in Springfield.

In 2019 Paulo Freire Social Justice Charter School moved from Holyoke to occupy the building that was left vacant when Pope Francis moved to its new building a couple years earlier.

Notable people

 * Nathan Peabody Ames, American swordsmith and founder of the Ames Manufacturing Company
 * Scott Barnes, pitcher for Major League Baseball's Cleveland Indians
 * Fred Belcher, American race car driver, ran in the inaugural Indianapolis 500
 * Edward Bellamy, author, most known for 1888's Looking Backward
 * Gail Koziara Boudreaux, CEO of Elevance Health
 * Lilian Jackson Braun, author, best known for The Cat Who... series of novels
 * Rene Charland, racing driver
 * Teddy Charles, musician
 * Arthur Chapin, former Massachusetts Treasurer and Holyoke mayor
 * Duryea brothers, Charles Duryea (1861–1938) and Frank Duryea (1869–1967), were the first to build an automobile in the United States
 * Damien Fahey, television and radio personality, former host of MTV's TRL
 * Ray Fitzgerald, Major League Baseball player
 * Sabina Gadecki, actress
 * George S. Irving, actor and singer
 * Joe Jackson, gridiron football player
 * Philip Labonte, musician, vocalist for All That Remains
 * Arthur MacArthur Jr., Army General
 * Lucius E. Pinkham, served as the fourth Territorial Governor of Hawaii
 * Victoria Principal, attended Chicopee Comprehensive High School through her junior year, 1968
 * George D. Robinson, former Massachusetts Governor and defense counsel of Lizzie Borden
 * Garry St. Jean, former NBA basketball coach for the Sacramento Kings
 * Daniel Webster Whittle, 19th-century American gospel song lyricist
 * Michael Dean Woodford, macroeconomist and monetary theorist at Columbia University

title: Chicopee, Massachusetts