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Allosteric regulation

In the fields of biochemistry and pharmacology an allosteric regulator (or allosteric modulator) is a substance that binds to a site on an enzyme or receptor distinct from the active site, resulting in a conformational change that alters the protein's activity, either enhancing or inhibiting its function. In contrast, substances that bind directly to an enzyme's active site or the binding site of the endogenous ligand of a receptor are called orthosteric regulators or modulators.

The site to which the effector binds is termed the allosteric site or regulatory site. Allosteric sites allow effectors to bind to the protein, often resulting in a conformational change and/or a change in protein dynamics. Effectors that enhance the protein's activity are referred to as allosteric activators, whereas those that decrease the protein's activity are called allosteric inhibitors.

Allosteric regulations are a natural example of control loops, such as feedback from downstream products or feedforward from upstream substrates. Long-range allostery is especially important in cell signaling. Allosteric regulation is also particularly important in the cell's ability to adjust enzyme activity.

The term allostery comes from the Ancient Greek allos, "other", and stereos , "solid (object)". This is in reference to the fact that the regulatory site of an allosteric protein is physically distinct from its active site. Allostery contrasts with substrate presentation which requires no conformational change for an enzyme's activation. The term orthostery comes from the Ancient Greek orthós meaning  “straight”, “upright”, “right” or “correct”.

Orthosteric

 * 1) Binding Site: Orthosteric inhibitors bind directly to the enzyme's active site, where the substrate normally binds.
 * 2) Mechanism of Action: By occupying the active site, these inhibitors prevent the substrate from binding, thereby directly blocking the enzyme's catalytic activity.
 * 3) Competitive Inhibition: Most orthosteric inhibitors compete with the substrate for the active site, which means their effectiveness can be reduced if substrate concentration increases.

Allosteric

 * 1) Binding Site: Allosteric inhibitors bind to a site on the enzyme that is distinct and separate from the active site, known as the allosteric site.
 * 2) Mechanism of Action: Binding to the allosteric site induces a conformational change in the enzyme that can either reduce the affinity of the active site for the substrate or alter the enzyme's catalytic activity. This indirect interference can inhibit the enzyme's function even if the substrate is present.
 * 3) Non-Competitive Inhibition: Allosteric inhibitors often exhibit non-competitive inhibition, meaning their inhibitory effect is not dependent on the substrate concentration.

Models

Many allosteric effects can be explained by the concerted MWC model put forth by Monod, Wyman, and Changeux, or by the sequential model (also known as the KNF model) described by Koshland, Nemethy, and Filmer. Both postulate that protein subunits exist in one of two conformations, tensed (T) or relaxed (R), and that relaxed subunits bind substrate more readily than those in the tense state. The two models differ most in their assumptions about subunit interaction and the preexistence of both states. For proteins in which subunits exist in more than two conformations, the allostery landscape model described by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine, can be used. Allosteric regulation may be facilitated by the evolution of large-scale, low-energy conformational changes, which enables long-range allosteric interaction between distant binding sites.

Concerted model
The concerted model of allostery, also referred to as the symmetry model or MWC model, postulates that enzyme subunits are connected in such a way that a conformational change in one subunit is necessarily conferred to all other subunits. Thus, all subunits must exist in the same conformation. The model further holds that, in the absence of any ligand (substrate or otherwise), the equilibrium favors one of the conformational states, T or R. The equilibrium can be shifted to the R or T state through the binding of one ligand (the allosteric effector or ligand) to a site that is different from the active site

Sequential model
The sequential model of allosteric regulation holds that subunits are not connected in such a way that a conformational change in one induces a similar change in the others. Thus, all enzyme subunits do not necessitate the same conformation. Moreover, the sequential model dictates that molecules of a substrate bind via an induced fit protocol. While such an induced fit converts a subunit from the tensed state to relaxed state, it does not propagate the conformational change to adjacent subunits. Instead, substrate-binding at one subunit only slightly alters the structure of other subunits so that their binding sites are more receptive to substrate. To summarize:

 * subunits need not exist in the same conformation
 * molecules of substrate bind via induced-fit protocol
 * conformational changes are not propagated to all subunits

Morpheein model
The morpheein model of allosteric regulation is a dissociative concerted model.

A morpheein is a homo-oligomeric structure that can exist as an ensemble of physiologically significant and functionally different alternate quaternary assemblies. Transitions between alternate morpheein assemblies involve oligomer dissociation, conformational change in the dissociated state, and reassembly to a different oligomer. The required oligomer disassembly step differentiates the morpheein model for allosteric regulation from the classic MWC and KNF models.

Porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS) is the prototype morpheein.

Ensemble models
Ensemble models of allosteric regulation enumerate an allosteric system's statistical ensemble as a function of its potential energy function, and then relate specific statistical measurements of allostery to specific energy terms in the energy function (such as an intermolecular salt bridge between two domains). Ensemble models like the ensemble allosteric model and allosteric Ising model assume that each domain of the system can adopt two states similar to the MWC model. The allostery landscape model introduced by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine allows for the domains to have any number of states and the contribution of a specific molecular interaction to a given allosteric coupling can be estimated using a rigorous set of rules. Molecular dynamics simulations can be used to estimate a system's statistical ensemble so that it can be analyzed with the allostery landscape model.

Allosteric modulation
Allosteric modulation is used to alter the activity of molecules and enzymes in biochemistry and pharmacology. For comparison, a typical drug is made to bind to the active site of an enzyme which thus prohibits binding of a substrate to that enzyme causing a decrease in enzyme activity. Allosteric modulation occurs when an effector binds to an allosteric site (also known as a regulatory site) of an enzyme and alters the enzyme activity. Allosteric modulators are designed to fit the allosteric site to cause a conformational change of the enzyme, in particular a change in the shape of the active site, which then causes a change in its activity. In contrast to typical drugs, modulators are not competitive inhibitors. They can be positive (activating) causing an increase of the enzyme activity or negative (inhibiting) causing a decrease of the enzyme activity. The use of allosteric modulation allows the control of the effects of specific enzyme activities; as a result, allosteric modulators are very effective in pharmacology. In a biological system, allosteric modulation can be difficult to distinguish from modulation by substrate presentation.

Energy sensing model
An example of this model is seen with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that is perfectly suited to adapt to living in the macrophages of humans. The enzyme's sites serve as a communication between different substrates. Specifically between AMP and G6P. Sites like these also serve as a sensing mechanism for the enzyme's performance.

Positive modulation
Positive allosteric modulation (also known as allosteric activation) occurs when the binding of one ligand enhances the attraction between substrate molecules and other binding sites. An example is the binding of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin, where oxygen is effectively both the substrate and the effector. The allosteric, or "other", site is the active site of an adjoining protein subunit. The binding of oxygen to one subunit induces a conformational change in that subunit that interacts with the remaining active sites to enhance their oxygen affinity. Another example of allosteric activation is seen in cytosolic IMP-GMP specific 5'-nucleotidase II (cN-II), where the affinity for substrate GMP increases upon GTP binding at the dimer interface.

Negative modulation
Negative allosteric modulation (also known as allosteric inhibition) occurs when the binding of one ligand decreases the affinity for substrate at other active sites. For example, when 2,3-BPG binds to an allosteric site on hemoglobin, the affinity for oxygen of all subunits decreases. This is when a regulator is absent from the binding site.

Direct thrombin inhibitors provides an excellent example of negative allosteric modulation. Allosteric inhibitors of thrombin have been discovered that could potentially be used as anticoagulants.

Another example is strychnine, a convulsant poison, which acts as an allosteric inhibitor of the glycine receptor. Glycine is a major post-synaptic inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian spinal cord and brain stem. Strychnine acts at a separate binding site on the glycine receptor in an allosteric manner; i.e., its binding lowers the affinity of the glycine receptor for glycine. Thus, strychnine inhibits the action of an inhibitory transmitter, leading to convulsions.

Another instance in which negative allosteric modulation can be seen is between ATP and the enzyme phosphofructokinase within the negative feedback loop that regulates glycolysis. Phosphofructokinase (generally referred to as PFK) is an enzyme that catalyses the third step of glycolysis: the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. PFK can be allosterically inhibited by high levels of ATP within the cell. When ATP levels are high, ATP will bind to an allosteric site on phosphofructokinase, causing a change in the enzyme's three-dimensional shape. This change causes its affinity for substrate (fructose-6-phosphate and ATP) at the active site to decrease, and the enzyme is deemed inactive. This causes glycolysis to cease when ATP levels are high, thus conserving the body's glucose and maintaining balanced levels of cellular ATP. In this way, ATP serves as a negative allosteric modulator for PFK, despite the fact that it is also a substrate of the enzyme.

Homotropic
A homotropic allosteric modulator is a substrate for its target protein, as well as a regulatory molecule of the protein's activity. It is typically an activator of the protein. For example, O2 and CO are homotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Likewise, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of one GMP molecule to a single subunit of the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for GMP by the subsequent subunits as revealed by sigmoidal substrate versus velocity plots.

Heterotropic
A heterotropic allosteric modulator is a regulatory molecule that is not the enzyme's substrate. It may be either an activator or an inhibitor of the enzyme. For example, H+, CO2, and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate are heterotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Once again, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of GTP molecule at the dimer interface in the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for substrate GMP at the active site indicating towards K-type heterotropic allosteric activation.

As has been amply highlighted above, some allosteric proteins can be regulated by both their substrates and other molecules. Such proteins are capable of both homotropic and heterotropic interactions.

Essential activators
Some allosteric activators are referred to as "essential", or "obligate" activators, in the sense that in their absence, the activity of their target enzyme activity is very low or negligible, as is the case with N-acetylglutamate's activity on carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I, for example.

Non-regulatory allostery
A non-regulatory allosteric site is any non-regulatory component of an enzyme (or any protein), that is not itself an amino acid. For instance, many enzymes require sodium binding to ensure proper function. However, the sodium does not necessarily act as a regulatory subunit; the sodium is always present and there are no known biological processes to add/remove sodium to regulate enzyme activity. Non-regulatory allostery could comprise any other ions besides sodium (calcium, magnesium, zinc), as well as other chemicals and possibly vitamins.

Pharmacology
Allosteric modulation of a receptor results from the binding of allosteric modulators at a different site (a "regulatory site") from that of the endogenous ligand (an "active site") and enhances or inhibits the effects of the endogenous ligand. Under normal circumstances, it acts by causing a conformational change in a receptor molecule, which results in a change in the binding affinity of the ligand. In this way, an allosteric ligand modulates the receptor's activation by its primary orthosteric ligand, and can be thought to act like a dimmer switch in an electrical circuit, adjusting the intensity of the response.

For example, the GABAA receptor has two active sites that the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) binds, but also has benzodiazepine and general anaesthetic agent regulatory binding sites. These regulatory sites can each produce positive allosteric modulation, potentiating the activity of GABA. Diazepam is a positive allosteric modulator at the benzodiazepine regulatory site, and its antidote flumazenil is a receptor antagonist.

More recent examples of drugs that allosterically modulate their targets include the calcium-mimicking cinacalcet and the HIV treatment maraviroc.

Allosteric sites as drug targets
Allosteric proteins are involved in, and are central in many diseases, and allosteric sites may represent a novel drug target. There are a number of advantages in using allosteric modulators as preferred therapeutic agents over classic orthosteric ligands. For example, G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) allosteric binding sites have not faced the same evolutionary pressure as orthosteric sites to accommodate an endogenous ligand, so are more diverse. Therefore, greater GPCR selectivity may be obtained by targeting allosteric sites. This is particularly useful for GPCRs where selective orthosteric therapy has been difficult because of sequence conservation of the orthosteric site across receptor subtypes. Also, these modulators have a decreased potential for toxic effects, since modulators with limited co-operativity will have a ceiling level to their effect, irrespective of the administered dose. Another type of pharmacological selectivity that is unique to allosteric modulators is based on co-operativity. An allosteric modulator may display neutral co-operativity with an orthosteric ligand at all subtypes of a given receptor except the subtype of interest, which is termed "absolute subtype selectivity". If an allosteric modulator does not possess appreciable efficacy, it can provide another powerful therapeutic advantage over orthosteric ligands, namely the ability to selectively tune up or down tissue responses only when the endogenous agonist is present. Oligomer-specific small molecule binding sites are drug targets for medically relevant morpheeins.

Synthetic allosteric systems
There are many synthetic compounds containing several noncovalent binding sites, which exhibit conformational changes upon occupation of one site. Cooperativity between single binding contributions in such supramolecular systems is positive if occupation of one binding site enhances the affinity ΔG at a second site, and negative if the affinity isn't highered. Most synthetic allosteric complexes rely on conformational reorganization upon the binding of one effector ligand which then leads to either enhanced or weakened association of second ligand at another binding site. Conformational coupling between several binding sites is in artificial systems usually much larger than in proteins with their usually larger flexibility. The parameter which determines the efficiency (as measured by the ratio of equilibrium constants Krel = KA(E)/KA in presence and absence of an effector E ) is the conformational energy needed to adopt a closed or strained conformation for the binding of a ligand A.

In many multivalent supramolecular systems direct interaction between bound ligands can occur, which can lead to large cooperativities. Most common is such a direct interaction between ions in receptors for ion-pairs. This cooperativity is often also referred to as allostery, even though conformational changes here are not necessarily triggering binding events.

Allosteric Database
Allostery is a direct and efficient means for regulation of biological macromolecule function, produced by the binding of a ligand at an allosteric site topographically distinct from the orthosteric site. Due to the often high receptor selectivity and lower target-based toxicity, allosteric regulation is also expected to play an increasing role in drug discovery and bioengineering. The AlloSteric Database (ASD) provides a central resource for the display, search and analysis of the structure, function and related annotation for allosteric molecules. Currently, ASD contains allosteric proteins from more than 100 species and modulators in three categories (activators, inhibitors, and regulators). Each protein is annotated with detailed description of allostery, biological process and related diseases, and each modulator with binding affinity, physicochemical properties and therapeutic area. Integrating the information of allosteric proteins in ASD should allow the prediction of allostery for unknown proteins, to be followed with experimental validation. In addition, modulators curated in ASD can be used to investigate potential allosteric targets for a query compound, and can help chemists to implement structure modifications for novel allosteric drug design.

Allosteric residues and their prediction
Not all protein residues play equally important roles in allosteric regulation. The identification of residues that are essential to allostery (so-called “allosteric residues”) has been the focus of many studies, especially within the last decade. In part, this growing interest is a result of their general importance in protein science, but also because allosteric residues may be exploited in biomedical contexts. Pharmacologically important proteins with difficult-to-target sites may yield to approaches in which one alternatively targets easier-to-reach residues that are capable of allosterically regulating the primary site of interest. These residues can broadly be classified as surface- and interior-allosteric amino acids. Allosteric sites at the surface generally play regulatory roles that are fundamentally distinct from those within the interior; surface residues may serve as receptors or effector sites in allosteric signal transmission, whereas those within the interior may act to transmit such signals.

title: Allosteric regulation


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John Murray

John Murray or Murry may refer to:

Literature and music

 * John Murray (publishing house), a British publishing house, founded by John Murray (1745–1793)
 * John Murray (publisher, born 1778) (died 1843), second head of the publishing house
 * John Murray III (1808–1892), third head of the publishing house
 * John Murray (Australian writer) (born 1963), Australian epidemiologist and writer
 * John Murray (novelist) (born 1950), British novelist
 * John Middleton Murry (1889–1957), writer
 * John Middleton Murry Jr. (1926–2002), English writer
 * John Murry (musician) (born 1979), American musician
 * John Murray Graham (1809–1881), Scottish historian, in early life John Murray

Screen, radio and performing arts

 * John Murray (Irish broadcaster) (born 1964), Irish broadcaster and journalist
 * John Murray (playwright) (1906–1984), American playwright, co-author of Room Service
 * John Murray (sports broadcaster) (born 1966), English sports commentator
 * John T. Murray (1886–1957), Australian-born actor
 * Johnny Murray (voice actor) (1904–1956), voice actor known for Bosko, the first star of Warner Brothers cartoons
 * John B. Murray (filmmaker) (1931/1932–2020), Australian filmmaker and author

Association football

 * John Murray (footballer, born 1865) (1865–1922), Scottish international footballer who played club football for Vale of Leven, Sunderland, and Blackburn Rovers
 * John Murray (footballer, born 1874) (c. 1874–1933), Scottish international footballer who played club football for Renton and Dundee
 * John Murray (footballer, born 1927) (1927–1988), England footballer who played club football for Gillingham
 * John Murray (footballer, born 1948) (born 1948), English footballer
 * John Murray (Irish footballer) (fl. 1890s), Irish footballer

Other

 * John Murray (athlete) (1881–?), Irish Olympic athlete who competed for Great Britain at the 1908 Summer Olympics
 * Jack Murray (Australian footballer) (fl. 1935–1949), Australian rules footballer
 * John Murray (boxer) (born 1984), lightweight English boxer
 * John Murray (cricketer, born 1935) (1935–2018), English cricketer
 * John Murray (cricketer, born 1873) (1873–1916), Scottish cricketer and RAF officer
 * John Murray (cricketer, born 1882) (1882–1917), Scottish cricketer and British Army officer
 * John Murray (ice hockey, born 1924) (1924–2017), British ice hockey player
 * John Murray (ice hockey, born 1987), American ice hockey player
 * John Murray (rugby union) (born 1942), Irish rugby union player
 * John Murray (sports broadcaster) (born 1966), English broadcaster for BBC Radio 5 Live
 * Johnny Murray (1898–1954), Irish footballer during the 1920s
 * John A. Murray (jockey) in Singapore Gold Cup

United Kingdom and Britain

 * John Murray, 1st Earl of Tullibardine (died 1609), Scottish courtier and leader of the Clan Murray
 * John Murray, 1st Earl of Annandale (died 1640), Scottish courtier and MP for Guildford
 * John Murray, Lord Bowhill (died 1714), MP in the first Parliament of Great Britain 1707–1708
 * John Murray (died 1753), British MP for the Linlithgow Burghs, 1725–1734, Selkirkshire, 1734–1753
 * Lord John Murray (1711–1787), British General and MP for Perthshire, 1734–1761
 * John Murray of Broughton (c. 1718–1777), Jacobite and secretary to Prince Charles Edward Stuart
 * John Murray (1726–1800), British MP for the Linlithgow Burghs, 1754–1761
 * John Murray, 3rd Duke of Atholl (1729–1774), MP for Perthshire 1761–1764, Lord of the Isle of Man from 1764 to 1765
 * John Murray (colonial administrator) (c. 1739–1824), governor of the Cape Breton colony in today's Nova Scotia
 * John Murray (British diplomat) (c. 1712–1775), Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire 1765–1775
 * Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet (c. 1768–1827), British MP for Wootton Bassett 1807–1811, Weymouth & Melcombe Regis 1811–1818
 * John Murray, 5th Duke of Atholl (1778–1846), British Army officer and landowner in Scotland
 * John Murray, Lord Murray (1779–1859), British MP for the Leith Burghs, 1832–1839
 * Sir Hubert Murray (John Hubert Plunkett Murray, 1861–1940), judge and Lieutenant-Governor of Papua
 * John Murray, 11th Duke of Atholl (1929–2012), British peer

Scotland

 * John Murray, 1st Marquess of Atholl (1631–1703), leading Scottish royalist
 * John Murray, 1st Duke of Atholl (1660–1724), Scottish nobleman and politician
 * John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore (1730–1809), colonial governor of Virginia and later the Bahamas
 * John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl (1755–1830), Scottish peer
 * John Wilson Murray (1840–1906), Scottish-born police detective who worked in the US and Canada during the late 19th/early 20th centuries
 * John Murray (Liberal politician) (1879–1964), Scottish civil servant, university administrator and Liberal Party politician
 * John Murray, Lord Dervaird (1935–2015), Scottish judge

Ireland

 * John Murray (Monaghan MP) (1707–1743), MP for County Monaghan 1741–43
 * John L. Murray (judge) (1943–2023), Irish judge

United States

 * John Murray (Massachusetts politician) (1715?–1794), representative to the Great and General Court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay
 * John Murray (congressman) (1768–1834), United States Representative from Pennsylvania
 * John F. Murray (politician) (1862–1928), second borough president of The Bronx
 * John L. Murray (representative) (1806–1842), U.S. Representative from Kentucky
 * John Porry Murray (1830–1895), Confederate politician
 * John E. Murray Jr. (1932–2015), professor of law and Chancellor of Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * John S. Murray (Iowa politician) (born 1939), American politician from the state of Iowa
 * John S. Murray (Washington politician) (1925–2007), American politician in the state of Washington

Australia

 * John Murray (pastoralist) (1837–1917), member of the Queensland Parliament from 1888 to 1903
 * John Murray (Victorian politician) (1851–1916), Premier of Victoria from 1909 to 1912
 * John Murray (Queensland politician) (1915–2009), member of the Australian House of Representatives from 1958 to 1961
 * John Murray (New South Wales politician) (born 1939), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly from 1982 to 2003

Other

 * John Murray (judge) (1888–1976), Chief Justice of Southern Rhodesia from 1955 to 1961
 * J. R. Murray (John Rose Murray, 1898–1991), Ceylonese accountant and politician in colonial Ceylon

Military

 * John Murray, 2nd Earl of Dunmore (1685–1752), Scottish peer and British Army general
 * Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet (c. 1768–1827), general, led a brigade under the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsular War
 * John Murray (Australian explorer) (c. 1775–c. 1807), Royal Navy officer
 * John B. Murray (general) (1822–1884), American general
 * John Ivor Murray (1824–1903), Scottish surgeon who practised in China, Hong Kong and then in Sebastopol in the Crimean War
 * Sir John Irvine Murray (1826–1902), Scottish general who raised the 14th Murray's Jat Lancers
 * John Murray (native police officer) (1827–1876), Native Police officer in Queensland, Australia
 * John Murray (Irish soldier) (1837–1911), Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * John Murray (Australian Army general) (1892–1951), general in the Australian Army
 * John M. Murray (born 1960), United States Army general
 * John E. Murray (1918–2008), United States Army general
 * Sir John Macgregor Murray, 1st Baronet (1745–1822), Scottish army officer

Religion and theology

 * John Murray (minister) (1741–1815), minister and inspirational figure sometimes called the "founder of American Universalism"
 * John Gardner Murray (1857–1929), Episcopal bishop of Maryland and Presiding Bishop
 * John Owen Farquhar Murray (1858–1944), Anglican clergyman and master of Selwyn College, Cambridge
 * John Gregory Murray (1877–1956), Roman Catholic archbishop of Saint Paul
 * John Murray (theologian) (1898–1975), Scottish-born Calvinist theologian and Presbyterian minister
 * John W. Murray (1913–1996), pastor, evangelist, and president of Shelton College
 * John Murray (provost of St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow) (1901–1973), priest in the Scottish Episcopal Church
 * John Courtney Murray (1904–1967), Jesuit priest and theologian
 * John Murray (archdeacon of Dublin) (1916–2005), priest in the Church of Ireland
 * John Murray (archdeacon of Cashel) (born 1945)
 * John Murray (dean of Killaloe) (died 1790), Anglican priest in Ireland
 * John Walton Murray, Irish Anglican priest and author

Science

 * John Murray (physician) (1778–1820), Scottish geologist and lecturer in various scientific subjects
 * John Murray (science lecturer) (c. 1786–1851), Scottish geologist
 * Sir John Murray (oceanographer) (1841–1914), Scots-Canadian marine biologist credited as the "father of modern oceanography"
 * John O'Kane Murray (1847–1885), Irish physician and author
 * John Murray (geographer) (1883–1940), Scottish educator and author
 * John F. Murray (1927–2020), American pulmonologist and researcher
 * John Murray (professor of robotics) (born 1978)

Others

 * John Murray (abolitionist) (1787–1849), leading light in Glasgow Emancipation Society
 * John Murray (Naperville founder) (1785–1868), one of the original settlers of Naperville, Illinois in 1831
 * John Murray (sheep breeder), father (c. 1812–1886), and son (1841–1908), breeders of merino sheep in South Australia
 * John Lamb Murray (1838–1908), Scottish architect
 * John Bunion Murray (1908–1988), self-taught artist in Glascock County, Georgia
 * John Clark Murray (1836–1917), Scottish philosopher and professor

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Murray


text:
Pedro Montañez

Pedro Montañez (April 24, 1914 – June 26, 1996) was a boxer from Cayey, Puerto Rico. Also known as El Torito De Cayey (The Little Bull of Cayey), he has been considered by many to be one of the best boxers in history never to win a world title. In his career, he was 91–8–4 (51KO).

Career
Montañez was recognized by Ring Magazine as one of history's most prolific knockout winners with 56 knockout wins, and one of the Latinos with the most knockout wins—while only being knocked out twice himself. He also ranks as number 14 in boxing history, also recognized by Ring Magazine, among boxers with most wins in a row, totalling 88 wins in a row.

Montanez began boxing in 1931, and captured the Puerto Rican lightweight title in 1933. A European tour followed, and he registered victories in Spain, France, England, and Italy. He was next showcased in New York, and scored wins over Aldo Spoldi and Frankie Klick among others. That set up a non-title bout with lightweight king Lou Ambers, which Montanez won in a 10-round decision—he was thereafter dubbed the “uncrowned champion.” Impressive wins over formidable foes Eddie Ran, Wesley Ramey, and Freddie “Red” Cochrane set up a title bout with Ambers on the September 23, 1937, “Carnival of Champions” show at the Polo Grounds in New York City. Although he was defeated for the world championship (L 15), observers say he deserved the decision against Ambers. Montanez bounced back to continue his winning ways in bouts with Jackie “Kid” Berg and Young Peter Jackson.

Montañez went for the world title two times, losing to Lou Ambers on points. and then Henry Armstrong by a TKO in round 9.

Montañez reached great popularity in Puerto Rico, New York City, and Latin America, and his collection of photos with celebrities is considered one of the largest in Puerto Rico. He had well over 250 pictures with celebrities such as Celia Cruz, Joe Louis, Jersey Joe Walcott, Cantinflas and some former Puerto Rico Governors and other famous people displayed on his house's walls.

Montañez was elected to the Salon de la Fama del Deporte Cayeyano in July 2004.

Montañez has a stadium named after him, the Pedro Montañez Municipal Stadium in Cayey. It is the home of the Toritos de Cayey Double A baseball team, which was named after him, and it also was the Benigno Fernandez Garcia Jr. High School's field day competitions' site.

Hall of Fame
In December 2006, Montañez was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame and in 2007 he was inducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame located @ 360 N Peterboro St, Canastota, NY 13032

title: Pedro Montañez


text:
What Women Want

What Women Want is a 2000 American romantic fantasy comedy film written by Josh Goldsmith, Cathy Yuspa, and Diane Drake, directed by Nancy Meyers, and starring Mel Gibson and Helen Hunt.

The film earned mixed reviews from critics but was a box office success, with a North American domestic gross of $182 million and a worldwide gross of $374 million against a budget of $70 million, becoming the fourth-highest-grossing film of 2000.

A loose remake, What Men Want, was released in 2019, starring Taraji P. Henson and Aldis Hodge.

Plot
The mother of Nick Marshall, a Chicago advertising executive, was a Las Vegas showgirl. Raised by beautiful women who spoiled the boy as an adored mascot, and with tough casino men as role models, the adult Nick is a chauvinist skilled at selling products to men and seducing women.

Nick expects a promotion at the advertising firm Sloane Curtis, but his manager Dan Wanamaker instead announces that he is hiring top rival Darcy Maguire to broaden the firm's appeal to women. Meanwhile, Nick's estranged 15-year-old daughter, Alex, is staying with him while his remarried former wife, Gigi, is on her honeymoon. Nick embarrasses Alex, who resents his over-protectiveness when he meets her older boyfriend, Cameron.

Darcy tasks the staff, including Nick, to develop advertising ideas for a series of feminine products she distributes at the staff meeting. He falls into his home bathtub while holding an electric hairdryer, shocking himself, and is knocked unconscious.

Awakening to discover that he can hear women's thoughts, Nick at first dislikes the ability after learning that most women, especially at work, dislike him and consider him sleazy. Nick's former therapist Dr. Perkins advises him to use the skill to his advantage, noting that he can answer the question Sigmund Freud died unable to answer: "What do women want?"

Nick telepathically eavesdrops on Darcy's ideas but gradually becomes interested in her. Alex resents Nick's years of neglect, but they start to bond while he takes her shopping for a prom dress. After Nick telepathically finds out that Alex intends to sleep with Cameron the night of the prom, he attempts to give her some advice. He tells her Cameron is not interested in her for who she is, just for what he can do with her in bed. Alex, thinking Nick is being over-protective and trying to sabotage her prom, rejects his advice.

Nick and Darcy spend more time together, becoming romantic. However, he steals Darcy's idea for a new Nike ad campaign aimed at women, though he later regrets his actions, especially as it leads to Dan firing Darcy. Nick persuades him to rehire her, saying the ad was her idea and is eventually successful.

Over time, Nick succeeds in repairing his relationships with female acquaintances, especially those at work. He loses his gift during a severe thunder and lightning storm while on his way to see the company secretary, Erin, who has been contemplating suicide. He offers her a position for which he had previously turned her down; she accepts.

When Cameron dumps Alex at the prom for refusing to have sex, Nick finds and consoles her, cementing their newly repaired relationship. He visits Darcy and explains everything. She fires him but then forgives him, and they share a kiss.

Cast

 * Mel Gibson as Nick Marshall: A Chicago advertising executive, who acquires the gift to hear what women are thinking.
 * Helen Hunt as Darcy Maguire: Nick's co-worker, who later becomes his love interest.
 * Marisa Tomei as Lola: Works in a coffee shop and is trying to become an actress. Nick uses his ability to seduce her.
 * Alan Alda as Dan Wanamaker, Nick's boss.
 * Ashley Johnson as Alex Marshall: Nick's daughter, who comes to stay with him, while her mom Gigi and stepdad Ted go on their honeymoon. She has a boyfriend named Cameron, who will "dump" her, after she declines sleeping with him right away. She at first, has a rocky relationship with her dad, but in the end reconciles with him.
 * Mark Feuerstein as Morgan Farwell
 * Lauren Holly as Gigi: Nick's ex-wife, mother of Alex, and just married to Ted; they leave on their honeymoon in the first scenes.
 * Delta Burke as Eve
 * Valerie Perrine as Margo
 * Judy Greer as Erin: A copy girl at Nick's workplace who is always ignored, had been turned down indirectly by Nick for a promotion, and is contemplating suicide.
 * Sarah Paulson as Annie: Nick's secretary, a job limited to running menial errands for Nick, which she sees as degrading, in light of her Ivy League education. She has a boyfriend who lives in Israel.
 * Ana Gasteyer as Sue Cranston
 * Lisa Edelstein as Dina
 * Loretta Devine as Flo
 * Diana-Maria Riva as Stella
 * Eric Balfour as Cameron: Alexandra's much older boyfriend, who is manipulative and abandons the relationship, after she tells him that she is not ready to sleep with him after the prom.
 * Logan Lerman as Young Nick Marshall
 * Robert Briscoe Evans as Ted: Second husband of Gigi and stepfather of Alexandra. He leaves with Gigi at the beginning of the movie to go on their honeymoon.
 * Alex McKenna as Alexandra's friend
 * Bette Midler as Dr. J. M. Perkins (uncredited)

Box office
What Women Want made $33.6 million during its opening weekend. The film topped the box office upon opening, dethroning How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Additionally, it had the highest December opening weekend of all time, surpassing Scream 2. This record would last until 2001 when Ocean's Eleven took it. For its second weekend, What Women Want was overtaken by Helen Hunt's other film Cast Away. It went on to make $182.8 million domestically and $374.1 million worldwide.

Critical response
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 54% based on 122 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Even though Gibson is a good sport in his role, What Women Want is a rather conventional, fluffy comedy-romance that doesn't make good use of its premise." On Metacritic the film has a score of 47 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

In a lukewarm review, Kimberley Jones of The Austin Chronicle praised Gibson's performance and likened parts of the film to classic screwball comedies, but felt the ending became a "dull, drawn-out morality play". Roger Ebert wrote the movie "doesn't flow so much as leap from one good scene to another over the crevices of flat scenes in between ... it's not boring and is often very funny". Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com was critical: "Although What Women Want is being marketed toward women, it does nothing but condescend to them."

Awards
For his portrayal of Nick Marshall, Gibson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Actor—Comedy/Romance. Hunt won the latter award in the Favorite Actress—Comedy/Romance category, while Mark Feuerstein and Marisa Tomei each received a nomination in the supporting categories. It also garnered Tomei a nod for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture, while Ashley Johnson was nominated at the Young Artist Awards.

For his score, composer Alan Silvestri won the ASCAP Award for Top Box Office Films, it received a Saturn Award nomination for "Best Fantasy Film" from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, US. The film also won the Bogey Award in Platin from the Bogey Awards, Germany. It was also nominated for the Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy from the Casting Society of America, US. It received the Golden Screen Award in Germany.

Sequel/remake
In 2009, the website Pajiba published an article reporting that producer and scriptwriter Peter Chiarelli was working on a sequel, which would re-imagine the concept from the viewpoint of a woman who could hear men's thoughts. Cameron Diaz was courted to star as its lead. The film was released in 2019 as What Men Want with Taraji P. Henson in the lead role.

Foreign market remakes
A Chinese remake directed by Chen Daming starring Andy Lau and Gong Li was released in 2011.

Manmadhudu in 2002 is an Indian Telugu-language romantic comedy film directed by K. Vijaya Bhaskar from a story written by Trivikram Srinivas which is loosely based on What Women Want.

Aga Bai Arrecha! in 2004 is a Marathi film directed by Kedar Shinde from India that is loosely based on What Women Want.

title: What Women Want


text:
User:Erik Zachte/About

About me
I am Dutch, 47 years. I live in Amsterdam.

Interests: science, history, movies, modern art, gaming

I studied biochemistry and history each for several years, visited art school (Rietveld Academy) for two years.

Occupation: I work as software engineer at KLM (Royal Dutch Airlines) for 20+ years now.

title: User:Erik Zachte/About


text:
Talk:Jughead Jones

May 2019: Page protection
There seems to be significant recent vandalism/disruptive editing from a dynamic IP address; have requested page protection. Britishfinance (talk) 16:20, 26 May 2019 (UTC)

Hi
Hi XglacticX (talk) 15:56, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

Debate
Can we please talk about his Archie's Weird Mysteries incarnation on this article?
 * --72.68.0.226 (talk) 12:07, 1 April 2021 (UTC)

Correction needed
In the 1970s cartoon Sabrina the Teenage Witch, it was Hot Dog Jr who had the side kick Chili Dog - HDJr was the pet of Spencer, Harvey Kinkle’s friend and has character similarities to Jughead 2603:8000:F400:C022:70E6:7146:7160:BFB3 (talk) 02:24, 14 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jughead Jones


text:
User:Erik Zachte/Contributions

Wikipedia on the handheld
April 2003 I wrote a lengthy Perl script that converts the Wikipedia to TomeRaider format. TomeRaider files can be browsed on Palm, Pocket PC and EPOC handhelds and on Windows.

See also
 * TomeRaider database.
 * My site, section TomeRaider for more screenshots and detailed info.

Statistics for all Wikipedias

July 2003 I started to work on Perl script to produce extensive statistics for all Wikipedias. These statistics are now available at the Wikipedia server in several languages. They will be refreshed weekly, after a new SQL dump (= backup) of the databases has been produced, which serves as input.

Special Pages
August 2003 I wrote a script to replace several defunct 'special pages' with reports extracted from the SQL dump files:
 * Shortest articles
 * Longest articles
 * Orphaned articles
 * Most referenced articles
 * Most wanted articles

Articles created/modified
N = new or almost new article + = substantial contribution - = modest contribution

Biology

 * N junk DNA
 * + Gene knockout

Airline industry

 * N Airline alliance
 * N Code sharing

Games

 * N Euphrat und Tigris
 * N Halma

Netherlands

 * - List of famous Dutch people
 * + Lijst Pim Fortuyn
 * + Politics of the Netherlands
 * + House of Orange-Nassau
 * + William I of Orange
 * + Claus von Amsberg
 * - Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
 * - Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands
 * + Rijksmuseum
 * - Anglo-Dutch Wars (all four)
 * N Four Days Battle
 * N Michiel de Ruyter
 * N Rembrandt van Rijn
 * N Jan Steen
 * + Johannes Vermeer
 * + Frans Hals
 * + Vincent van Gogh
 * N Karel Doorman
 * N Dutch Golden Age
 * N Dutch Golden Age, List Of People

title: User:Erik Zachte/Contributions


text:
Test tube

A test tube, also known as a culture tube or sample tube, is a common piece of laboratory glassware consisting of a finger-like length of glass or clear plastic tubing, open at the top and closed at the bottom.

Test tubes are usually placed in special-purpose racks.

Chemistry
Test tubes intended for general chemical work are usually made of glass, for its relative resistance to heat. Tubes made from expansion-resistant glasses, mostly borosilicate glass or fused quartz, can withstand high temperatures up to several hundred degrees Celsius.

Chemistry tubes are available in a multitude of lengths and widths, typically from 10 to 20 mm wide and 50 to 200 mm long. The top often features a flared lip to aid pouring out the contents.

A chemistry test tube typically has a flat bottom, a round bottom, or a conical bottom. Some test tubes are made to accept a ground glass stopper or a screw cap. They are often provided with a small ground glass or white glaze area near the top for labelling with a pencil.

Test tubes are widely used by chemists to handle chemicals, especially for qualitative experiments and assays. Their spherical bottom and vertical sides reduce mass loss when pouring, make them easier to wash out, and allow convenient monitoring of the contents. The long, narrow neck of test tube slows down the spreading of gases to the environment.

Test tubes are convenient containers for heating small amounts of liquids or solids with a Bunsen burner or alcohol burner. The tube is usually held by its neck with a clamp or tongs. By tilting the tube, the bottom can be heated to hundreds of degrees in the flame, while the neck remains relatively cool, possibly allowing vapours to condense on its walls. A boiling tube is a large test tube intended specifically for boiling liquids.

A test tube filled with water and upturned into a water-filled beaker is often used to capture gases, e.g. in electrolysis demonstrations.

A test tube with a stopper is often used for temporary storage of chemical or biological samples.

Biosciences
Culture tubes are test tubes used in biology and related sciences for handling and culturing all kinds of live organisms, such as molds, bacteria, seedlings, plant cuttings, etc.. Some racks for culture tubes are designed to hold the tubes in a nearly horizontal position, so as to maximize the surface of the culture medium inside.

Culture tubes for biology are usually made of clear plastic (such as polystyrene or polypropylene) by injection molding and are often discarded after use. Plastic test tubes with a screwtop cap are often called "Falcon tubes" after a line manufactured by Becton Dickinson.

Some sources consider that the presence of a lip is what distinguishes a test tube from a culture tube.

Clinical medicine
In clinical medicine, sterile test tubes with air removed, called vacutainers, are used to collect and hold samples of physiological fluids such as blood, urine, pus, and synovial fluid. These tubes are commonly sealed with a rubber stopper and often have a specific additive placed in the tube with the stopper color indicating the additive. For example, a blue-top tube is a 5 ml test tube containing sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, used to collect blood for coagulation and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase testing. Small vials used in medicine may have a snap-top (also called a hinge cap) molded as part of the vial.

Other uses
Test tubes are sometimes put to casual uses outside of lab environments, e.g. as flower vases, glassware for certain weak shots, or containers for spices. They can also be used for raising queen ants during their first months of development.

Boiling tube
A boiling tube is a small cylindrical vessel used to strongly heat substances in the flame of a Bunsen burner. A boiling tube is essentially a scaled-up test tube, being about 50% larger.

They are designed to be wide enough to allow substances to boil violently as opposed to a test tube, which is too narrow; a boiling liquid can explode out of the end of test tubes when they are heated, as there is no room for bubbles of gas to escape independently of the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called bumping.

Ignition tube

An ignition tube is used in much the same way as a boiling tube, except it is not as large and thick-walled. It is primarily used to hold small quantities of substances which are undergoing direct heating by a Bunsen burner or other heat source. This type of tube is used in the sodium fusion test.

Ignition tubes are often difficult to clean due to the small bore. When used to heat substances strongly, some char may stick to the walls as well. They are usually disposable.

title: Test tube


text:
Plasmolysis

Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse process, deplasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell. Through observation of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis, it is possible to determine the tonicity of the cell's environment as well as the rate solute molecules cross the cellular membrane.

Etymology
The term plasmolysis is derived from the Latin word ‘plasma’ meaning ‘matrix’ and the Greek word ‘lysis’, meaning ‘loosening’.

Turgidity
A plant cell in hypotonic solution will absorb water by endosmosis, so that the increased volume of water in the cell will increase pressure, making the protoplasm push against the cell wall, a condition known as turgor. Turgor makes plant cells push against each other in the same way and is the main line method of support in non-woody plant tissue. Plant cell walls resist further water entry after a certain point, known as full turgor, which stops plant cells from bursting as animal cells do in the same conditions. This is also the reason that plants stand upright. Without the stiffness of the plant cells the plant would fall under its own weight. Turgor pressure allows plants to stay firm and erect, and plants without turgor pressure (known as flaccid) wilt. A cell will begin to decline in turgor pressure only when there is no air spaces surrounding it and eventually leads to a greater osmotic pressure than that of the cell. Vacuoles play a role in turgor pressure when water leaves the cell due to hyperosmotic solutions containing solutes such as mannitol, sorbitol, and sucrose.

Plasmolysis
If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plant cell loses water and hence turgor pressure by plasmolysis: pressure decreases to the point where the protoplasm of the cell peels away from the cell wall, leaving gaps between the cell wall and the membrane and making the plant cell shrink and crumple. A continued decrease in pressure eventually leads to cytorrhysis – the complete collapse of the cell wall. Plants with cells in this condition wilt. After plasmolysis the gap between the cell wall and the cell membrane in a plant cell is filled with hypertonic solution. This is because as the solution surrounding the cell is hypertonic, exosmosis takes place and the space between the cell wall and cytoplasm is filled with solutes, as most of the water drains away and hence the concentration inside the cell becomes more hypertonic. There are some mechanisms in plants to prevent excess water loss in the same way as excess water gain. Plasmolysis can be reversed if the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution. Stomata close to help keep water in the plant so it does not dry out. Wax also keeps water in the plant. The equivalent process in animal cells is called crenation. The liquid content of the cell leaks out due to exosmosis. The cell collapses, and the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall (in plants). Most animal cells consist of only a phospholipid bilayer (plasma membrane) and not a cell wall, therefore shrinking up under such conditions.

Plasmolysis only occurs in extreme conditions and rarely occurs in nature. It is induced in the laboratory by immersing cells in strong saline or sugar (sucrose) solutions to cause exosmosis, often using Elodea plants or onion epidermal cells, which have colored cell sap so that the process is clearly visible. Methylene blue can be used to stain plant cells.

Plasmolysis is mainly known as shrinking of cell membrane in hypertonic solution and great pressure.

Plasmolysis can be of two types, either concave plasmolysis or convex plasmolysis. Convex plasmolysis is always irreversible while concave plasmolysis is usually reversible. During concave plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast partially shrinks from the cell wall due to half-spherical, inwarding curving pockets forming between the plasma membrane and the cell wall. During convex plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast shrinks completely from the cell wall, with the plasma membrane's ends in a symmetrically, spherically curved pattern.

title: Plasmolysis


text:
Talk:Veronica Lodge

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 11 January 2021 and 30 April 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Natneh.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 12:19, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Source for character
In a Boston Globe interview I can not find right now I remember Bob Montana saying that his source for the character was a friend in Massacusetts who was very refined but not exceedingly rich who was the daughter of a Bulgarian immigrant dentist. Agatha Popoff RichardBond (talk) 01:05, 4 July 2009 (UTC)

Veronica smells bad?
I've read a comic wherein the gang says Veronica is the smelliest girl in town. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.47.126.194 (talk) 00:58, 14 October 2018 (UTC)

Peers chosen due to finances?

 * she chooses to hang out with her poorer friends instead, in part to try to conquer Archies love.

The above statement neglects Veronica's on-going relationship with Reggie Mantle, who is clearly of more substantial means than Veronica's other peers. His car makes Archie's look like a jalopy (hmm, Archie's care is a jalopy!). --Ed Poor

I agree. She dangles Reggie and Archie, pretty much. Should be mentioned. Cee 21:04, 4 April 2006 (UTC)

Middle name?
For such a snobbish sophisticate from a family of means, I am surprised that Veronica has no middle name...or does she? -- Jalabi99 06:34, 8 June 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Veronica Lodge


text:
Ray Reyes

Ray Reyes León (March 13, 1970 – April 30, 2021) was a Puerto Rican singer who was a member of the Puerto Rican boy band Menudo.

Career
He was born in New York City and was raised in Levittown, a neighborhood in Toa Baja, Puerto Rico, the son of Ramon Reyes and Carmen Leon. He became a member of Menudo in early 1983. Reyes came to substitute Xavier Serbiá in the band, and joined the band right in the middle of Menudo's golden era.

Reyes amassed great popularity among Menudo fans, although he was known as the chubby one of the band. That nickname was started because, when he joined Menudo, Edgardo Diaz put him on a strict diet. That information was leaked out to all gossip magazines, which published the information immediately.

Ray's first album with Menudo was 1983's A Todo Rock, where he sang lead vocals on "Si Tu No Estas", "Chicle De Amor", and "Zumbador". He continued through the time when Menudo had the number 1 hit Indianapolis from the same album and when Menudo started making it to the covers of Tiger Beat and other major teen magazines, and also when Menudo became famous in Brazil, the Philippines, and Japan.

His next 3 albums recorded as a member of the band were all recorded in 1984. Reaching Out was the first one of '84 and the band's first album in English. Ray sang lead vocals on "That's What You Do". Mania was the second album of '84 and the band's first album in Portuguese. Ray sang lead vocals on "Quero Ser". Evolución was the third album of '84, it was also the last album recorded in 1984. Ray sang lead vocals on "Persecución" and "Yo No Fui". It was also Ray's last album recorded as a member of Menudo.

Ray was forced to leave the band after only 2 years in the group due to a sudden growth spurt. In 1986, the solo album Una Y Otra Vez was released in Spanish and the album Minha Musica in Portuguese. In 1988, he joined former Menudos Rene Farrait and Johnny Lozada in Proyecto M, once again substituting Serbiá. Proyecto M went on to enjoy great success in Puerto Rico and Venezuela.

In 1997 he came up with the idea of doing an ex Menudos' concert and reunited 6 of the golden era with former Menudo bandmates Miguel Cancel, Ricky Melendez, Charlie Massó and Johnny Lozada as well as Farrait for a single concert named El Reencuentro in the Roberto Clemente Coliseum (12,000 capacity) in San Juan. The concert did so well, that they finished doing 7 shows in two weekends and then went on a worldwide tour. They also had the record of most performances in that coliseum with 11 concerts. He produced their gold-certified live album El Reencuentro: 15 Años Después released by Fonovisa Records.

Personal life
Ray Reyes married twice and had a son, Marcos Reyes, and a daughter, Cecilia Reyes. His father, Rey Reyes Sr., ran several successful business ventures. His younger brother Raul Reyes, who was his lifetime musical collaborator, also participated by recording backing vocals, helping the group in several TV Commercials, Menudo TV Specials and the record productions, A Todo Rock, Menudo Mania, Reaching Out, and Evolucion as well with Proyecto M & El Reencuentro productions. He had a career as lead singer of Puerto Rican rock band Radio Pirata.

Death
On April 30, 2021, Ray Reyes died in Puerto Rico. Reyes was the second member of Menudo to die; Anthony Galindo, the first, preceded him by six months. Reyes died of a massive heart attack.

With Menudo

 * A Todo Rock (1983)
 * Reaching Out (1984)
 * Mania (1984)
 * Evolución (1984)

As a solo artist

 * Una Y Otra Vez (1986) (in Spanish)
 * Minha Musica (1986) (in Portuguese)

With Proyecto M

 * Proyecto M 2 (1989)
 * Arde que me quemas (1991)
 * Si No Estás  Conmigo (1993)

title: Ray Reyes


text:
Talk:List of tram and light rail transit systems

Cairo
There was too much of a hurry in giving the Cairo tramway system up for dead: unlike Helwan, whose lines are now gone for good, Heliopolis still (presumably) has some operational service, although it's just a short remnant (one line 3-km long) of the once extensive network. I found some references, dating after the 2014-2015 drastic curtailment which several sources took as the end game of this system, that shows something of it survived; above all (both in German): I also found a some news about a couple of accidents involving the tramway occurred in late 2018 (written in Arabic, I hope Google Translator did is job well): not really “good news”, but at least the fact they happens implies that tramcars are still running. Hence I'm going to put Cairo again in the list, unless someone submit a newest source saying it closed in the meantime. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 16:02, 3 March 2019 (UTC)
 * |a 2017 report about a tram-tour in Egypt,
 * a 2018 article from the July issue of Straßenbahn Magazin.

2020 Update
Ultimately, even the last bit of this system was literally ripped off from Cairo' streets. Ironically, they're going to celebrate the heritage they've just destroyed altogether. Now we'll have to permanently remove it from the list, too. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 20:45, 16 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Trams in Greater Cairo needs to be updated as well, then... --IJBall (contribs • talk) 23:09, 16 February 2020 (UTC)
 * that's why I was searching for the closure date, without much luck indeed. Considering the couple of sources I found, that give us a terminus post quem - this one, dated 1 August 2019, says that "it was announced last month that the tram will be completely removed from the neighborhood" - and one ante quem - this one, at the beginning of this year, refers to the tram as a thing of the past: "(...) regrette qu'un 'moyen de transport durable ait été sacrifié pour plus de voitures'. [(...) regrets that a 'sustainable mean of transport has been sacrificed for more cars'] -, the "last run" should have happened in the second half of 2019. However, after a second thought, they might both refer to the tramway infrastructure, and the operation might have ceased even before, at some time after the 2018 article of Straßenbahn Magazin.
 * Hence I think that it'd be better to update Trams in Greater Cairo using a rather unspecified wording, akin to this: "Only a short section of one line in Heliopolis, between Court Square and the Tivoli Dome, continued to be operated. By the end of 2019, service had ceased definitively, with tracks dismantled in order to widen the neighborhood's roads."

 * So, what do you say? Regards, Yak79 2.0 (talk) 18:59, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * That seems fine to me – it's certainly supported by sources, without offering anything beyond what's in the sources. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 20:34, 18 February 2020 (UTC)

"Refimprove" maintenance tag
There's a change I’ve been considering for some time but, given that it’d be relevant and maybe contentious, I decided to seek consensus here beforehand: in my opinion, the issue flagged by this template has been largely addressed since May 2013, when SJ Morg (talk) placed it, in all but the European table; hence, I intend to remove the “global” template and to place a “local” one only for that section. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 17:47, 3 October 2019 (UTC)
 * I have no objection to this. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 17:53, 3 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes, that's OK with me. SJ Morg (talk) 08:26, 4 October 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅ Yak79 2.0 (talk) 19:56, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

Beijing
Why there is not enlisted the tramway "system" on Qianmen street? I know, it's a parody of tramway system, but they have two cars on normal rails, going back and forth... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.103.124.242 (talk) 21:59, 18 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Because it doesn't provide actual transit service, one of the few criteria for inclusion - the others are "running year-round" and "being currently operational" - clearly specified in the lead section. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 23:34, 18 January 2020 (UTC)

eBART
eBART is classified by the FTA's National Transit Database as hybrid rail (YR), a transit mode that APTA defines ... a mode of transit operated on the routes of intercity railroads and has operating characteristics of commuter rail. This service typically operates diesel multiple-unit vehicles with characteristics of light rail vehicles. and even, more explicitly, ... a subset of commuter rail.... Consistently, it has been listed in the "Commuter Rail" summary table of APTA's ridership reports since first quarter of 2019. Conversely, I checked a bit in the Bart official website and I wasn't able - as far as I digged - to find any instance of them naming it "Light Rail".

On a side note, I observed that, when referring to eBART, the term light rail / LRT is used (rather sparingly, actually) mostly by general press/media, whereas specialized sources tend to either avoid labels or call it (diesel) commuter rail.

on the grounds of both its own technical features and what reliable sources say, eBART is not a light rail system; we should take notice and edit accordingly all the related articles, this one included. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 21:34, 9 March 2020 (UTC)

 * I would say if sources, esp. APTA, are calling it "commuter rail", then we should simply follow their lead. If everyone else is calling eBART "commuter rail", it would WP:OR for us to call it "light rail", even if, practically, it is generally indistinguishable from something like Sprinter (light rail)... Also ping for their opinion as well. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 21:49, 9 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I'd say if an authoritative source like the APTA says commuter rail, then we must follow. oknazevad (talk) 01:00, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Rather than everyone calling it “commuter rail”, the point is that not many call eBART “light rail” and, moreover, the weight of the sources that doesn’t call it “light rail” is far greater. As for how to classify this system once dismissed the “diesel light rail” label, we could closely mirror the APTA approach: we could categorize eBART as commuter rail (e.g. in infoboxes, lists, etc.), but specifying in the text or in side notes the “hybrid rail” thing. IMHO it’d be the most sensible choice, given that most of the sources (including BART itself) avoid to define it altogether and, on the other side, Wikipedia already uses the term commuter rail in a broader sense (including under it also European-style suburban rail services, whose operating features are quite different from their US counterparts and somewhat more akin to those of the hybrid rail).
 * P.S., your opinion is obviously more than welcome; I really thought I included you in the group-pinging but clearly I did not: sorry, my bad. Yak79 2.0 (talk) 17:13, 10 March 2020 (UTC)
 * No offense taken. But I must apologize for reading too quickly. It does seem that the APTA doesn't call it any particular form of rail, using the catch-all "hybrid" term, while other news sources are vague. I don't know when or why "diesel light rail" was dismissed; it's a pretty accurate description of some lines (like New Jersey's River Line, the only one I've ridden). Hard to categorize, this is. oknazevad (talk) 19:08, 14 March 2020 (UTC)
 * For the record, while eBART is weirdly missing from the APTA summary lists of ridership by mode, it is listed as commuter rail when you dig into the breakdown of ridership by agency in the same document. Check out page 14 of the Q3 2019 numbers under "San Francisco Bay Area RTD": you have "AG", "CR", and "HR" (automated guideway, commuter rail, and heavy rail, respectively). --Jfruh (talk) 06:29, 15 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Huh, actually, it's listed in the big commuter rail table on page 5 as well. I swear this wasn't true in earlier reports, but it seems pretty unambiguous. --Jfruh (talk) 06:33, 15 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't have particularly strong opinions about it but following the lead of the APTA categorization sounds sensible. Maybe we should move it when the new APTA Q4 2019 numbers come out (should be in the next few weeks) and we update all the "U.S. [X] rail systems by ridership" articles. --Jfruh (talk) 16:55, 14 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I think that's a good idea. We won't have to wait long for a more updated source, or their updated categories. oknazevad (talk) 19:08, 14 March 2020 (UTC)

List of tram and light rail systems in the world.
Can I list TEŽ ( Tatra Electric Railway ) in this article?! Vladimir Skokan1 (talk) 13:37, 6 January 2021 (UTC)

System length in European section
The numbers given in this section (column) are a bunch of different statistical numbers with a name System length, which means, the length of the network alongside the street axis. But the numbers given are absolutely different for different cities. For one city it is a single track length, with depot and service tracks, for another one is a correct number with real system length, then for another one, it is double track length, and for another one, it is a sum of all the route length.

The column gives wrong information to the user and not the same statistical number to be compared. Either this column needs to be removed or corrected.

Corrected number sources can not be officially found anywhere because tramway system operators do not provide all this information, some of them do, some do not. Because of that each system is measured by hand using the ARC GIS tools on the existing satellite map of the world and provided the same statistical number for every city. This is a work of more than one year then relevant information is slowly uploaded on the German page of Wikipedia of the same name.

If this is not the right and enough "source" then I suggest removing this column, it is better not to provide this information rather than provide a false one which tells you that Riga's tiny tramway network is 182 km long (real number 54 km) and huge Budapest one is 158.8 km long. When in fact Budapest one is the correct number of system length, whereas Rigas number is actually all the routes summed together (the real number of Riga network is 54 km).

Tramway networks are measured normally by three numbers, Singletrack length (with or without service and depot tracks), double-track length, System length,(which is the most important same as with metro) and route length (all the operational lines summed up).

This column should provide only system length and it is not doing so.

Well, I did correct it and provided current real numbers, but if it is not needed to provide corrected info, then let us just delete it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Siachoquero (talk • contribs) 14:06, 15 February 2022 (UTC)

 * Notice that only the European section has those system stats – they were removed from the other sections some time ago. I advocated leaving the European figures in temporarily because I had hopes that the data could be "transferred" to other articles (e.g. Trams in Germany, etc.), and removed from here. But, realistically, I am likely never getting to that myself, and no one else is likely to do that either.
 * Because, as you say, many of the systems' stats cannot be sourced because the stats are not publicly available, I would now support just removing those columns from the 'Europe' section as well.
 * Finally, you said that "each system is measured by hand using the ARC GIS tools on the existing satellite map of the world and provided the same statistical number for every city" – you can't do that: it's what is known as WP:Original research. System stats have to come from reliable sourcing (or they should simply be removed)...
 * I'm not going to do anything right now to see if others comment. But if there is further support for removing the system stats from the 'Europe' section, we should just do that. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 14:41, 15 February 2022 (UTC)

Valencia
@ This is a mixed system and I can understand there may be debate over what is metro and what is not, but the question is whether parts of the network can be classified as tram sections? They're even referred to as "tranvia" see here where there's a photo included. Help me out here because I'm actually genuinely not sure what the difference is between tram and light rail? Valenciano (talk) 12:50, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
 * "Light rail" is a "catch-all" term that encompasses everything from "tram/streetcar" up through probably "light metro". Even if Valencia has a couple of technically "light metro" lines, overall the system is best categorized as simply "light rail". At this article, especially, we don't need to dig into the details... But there have be numerous discussions about this over at Talk:List of metro systems, and I believe the conclusion has always been that Valencia does not qualify as a "metro" system. If for some reason that has changed, then the systems should probably simply be moved from here to List of metro systems. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 12:54, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, but my question specifically refers to the tram sections, since I notice that some in the list on this page have them as both. I'm trying to get what the distinction is, in other words should Valencia be categorised as light rail or light rail/tram? Valenciano (talk) 13:23, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Probably best described (overall) as "light rail". The specific distinction is "modern light rail" would generally be "grade-separated", while "tram/streetcar" includes some "street-running" sections. As Valencia has examples of both (I believe), I would just call it "Light rail", though you could call it "Light rail/tram" if you prefer. --IJBall (contribs • talk) 16:14, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
 * From what it seems to me, the Valencia metro is a regional rail system that is metrolike in the city center. It's like the RER. Rckania (talk) 19:16, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

Tyne and Wear Metro
The Tyne and Wear Metro is a hybrid system using mainline railways, newly built tunnels and also light rail vehicles. For the vehicles being used and the level crossings present, some sources categorise it as a light rail system. @Metrosfan claims: Tyne and Wear Metro is NOT a light rail systems, even if it really isnt a metro system, it is still not considered a light rail right after removing two sources that support that the T&W Metro falls under lightrail.

Wikipedia was created to give different views on reality, therefor this unique and special rail system could potentially be on two list, as an exception. KatVanHuis (talk) 11:41, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

 * how is it a light rail system, the rolling stock is literally heavier than normal light rail rolling stock, it uses metro rail cars, even if it isn't a metro system, it still isnt a light rail system, more of a suburban Rail, considering that its rolling stock is heavier than light rail rolling stock, its new rolling stock is even heavier and look a lor more to metro/suburban rail trains than light rail trains Metrosfan (talk) 13:04, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * pinging @Rckaniaand @OrewaTelas these two argued that its a metro system on the list of metro systems article Metrosfan (talk) 13:06, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * How is it a light rail system? Because it is not fully grade separated. The Metro cars are light rail cars: an adaption of the light rail/Stadtbahn B cars. With the same dimensions, same top speed and same axle-layout. (the same goes for the first DLR cars, but this system is actually fully grade separated.) Once the last of the original Metro cars (light rail) will be phased out during 2025 it will be less of a light rail system and more of a suburban rail system. KatVanHuis (talk) 15:26, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * The sharing track with mainline rail is a relatively recent development. So do we say it used to be a metro but now it isn't? The Athens metro and London underground also use mainline tracks.
 * As for the grade separation, I got news for you: Multiple systems on the list of metro systems also have grade crossings. All of those systems have a note explaining such. Rckania (talk) 19:15, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * So do we say it used to be a metro but now it isn't? Great question. If developments change the nature of a rail system, indeed it can become another type of (similar) transit. I got news for you: the system als has been classified as light rail since before it's birth.
 * Multiple systems have crossings at grade, but then one also needs to look at the history and the type of trainsets. Tyne and Wear Metro will use light rail vehicles till 2025. KatVanHuis (talk) 20:29, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * The rolling stock is literally heavier than light rail cars, even if it isn't a metro, I'd call it a suburban rail than a light rail Metrosfan (talk) 23:15, 19 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Have you read the link I had provided earlier? The Metro cars are technically identical to the Stadtbahn B car which is a classic (even famous) light rail car. KatVanHuis (talk) 08:34, 20 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree with @KatVanHuis that the Tyne and Wear Metro is a Light rail network rather than a heavy rail subway or commuter network, but only until the new rolling stock is implemented.
 * Although many aspects the Metro are shared by subway-like systems, such as full grade separation, level crossings, and the use of UK mainline railway signalling, the system is classed as a light rail system by both the regional government (referred to as a 'light rapid transport system') and by the UK government (who class it as being similar to the Croydon trams and Manchester Metrolink, both light rail and already on this page).
 * One argument that the Tyne and Wear Metro is not a light rail system is due to the size, weight, and speed of the current rolling stock, but again this conflicts with systems already mentioned on this list. For example, the Addis Ababa Light Rail has an average running speed of 70mph which is faster than many subway systems across the world. As for rolling stock, the Sheffield Supertram (which is street running, classed as light rail, and is also interlining with heavy rail of both freight and passenger types) has vehicles that are heavier at 66tn compared to the T&W Metro's 40tn cars. In terms of physical footprint, Japanese trams such as the Fukui Railway F1000 Series LRVs are the exact same width, and trams like the Škoda Artic are about the same length (27.6m for the Finnish trams vs 27.8m for the T&W cars). As stated by @KatVanHuis, the Stadtbahnwagen B light rail cars are what the original metro cars were based off, and these German trams are larger and about the same weight as to the metro cars.
 * One factor to mention, is the new rolling stock that will be introduced later this year. The new British Rail Class 555 stock is a big departure from what is currently on the system, due to its size and weight change. They are based on the Stadler Rail METRO rolling stock, and are more of a full subway oriented design, with systems such as the Berlin U-Bahn using a similar METRO stock version and the Glasgow metro implementing it in the future.
 * What I suggest is that the Tyne and Wear Metro be listed as a Light rail system until these new trains arrive, because the current system resembles more of a interurban Light rail and is classified as such. After these new trains arrive, I agree with @Metrosfan that the system will resemble more of a medium-capacity rail system. SamuraiArmada (talk) 17:28, 20 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your extensive reply, appreciated. Agreeing here largely with your proposal: the new trains will change the nature of the system quite a bit. I'd like to propose the system to be classified from 2025 onwards as a "suburban rail system with metro-like infrastructure in core areas".
 * Note: Light in light rail isn't related to weight. Quote from Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition, chapter 1.2.2: "light rail vehicles may be as massive as transit cars on heavy rail systems". Instead light refers to capacity or infrastructure investments: "light infrastructure investments, with short applications of heavy infrastructure investment in critical areas": from Defining an Alternative Future: Birth of the Light Rail Movement in North America, page 26. KatVanHuis (talk) 19:58, 20 February 2024 (UTC)
 * the rolling stock is
 * it's heavier than literal light these rolling stocks cannot run on roads like what others can rs, you've Metrosfan (talk) 23:52, 20 February 2024 (UTC)
 * @Metrosfan, I’m not exactly sure what you’re trying to say there, but the argument “if a system isn’t road capable it’s not light rail” is fundamentally wrong. A light rail system does not need that capability, that is the reason why a distinction between the term “tram” and “light rail” is used in naming.
 * Additionally, @KatVanHuis is totally right that a light rail system isn’t dependant on weight to be described as such. It is much more dependant on physical infrastructure like turning radii, station lengths, signalling system, and other factors that increase the construction cost of a project. Light rail systems are designed to be scaled back in these regards, and of course having lighter vehicles is just one factor that reduces cost of infrastructure. SamuraiArmada (talk) 00:14, 21 February 2024 (UTC)
 * It probably should also be noted that the term originated in engineering circles as a reference to rail weight, not vehicle weight, as these systems could use lighter rail weights as part of the scaled back designes you mention. oknazevad (talk) 10:41, 21 February 2024 (UTC)
 * It should probably be noted that the etymology of the term "light rail", which was coined by the engineers working on the design of the early modern systems, is a reference to their ability to use a lesser rail weight as part of that infrastructure cost savings. It's not the weight of the rolling stock, per se, that makes them "light". oknazevad (talk) 08:58, 22 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your replies @oknazevad! After many years of searching (albeit not always actively) just last week I found the actual document that coined the term "light rail". Already on page 1 it mentioned: "Light rail mode combines to a considerable extent low investment (and, therefore, better collection-distribution capability) of buses (trams???) with high level of service, capacity and potential for automation of rapid transit mode." Although (and I'm shocked, as many sources written later fight against this) a light weight is actually mentioned: Light rail transit consists of modern light weight urban rail vehicles operating predominantly on private rights-of-way, at surface level or fully grade separated. Luckily the autor retrurns to the cost aspect on page 18: ''The "missing mode" should have a capability to transport 2,000- 15,000 persons per hour per direction; more importantly, it should offer an intermediate level of service/cost combination: a level of service higher than bus at a much lower cost than rail rapid transit".
 * Also interesting to note is that even in the nineteen-seventies the term semi-metro was in use for premetro and stadtbahn networks, but the mentioned term cityrail has vanished... That is, until one YouTuber found it last year (well... calling it CityTrains i.o. CityRail!) and made an interesting video about it. KatVanHuis (talk) 18:23, 22 February 2024 (UTC)


text:
New Orleans Regional Transit Authority

The New Orleans Regional Transit Authority (RTA or NORTA) is a public transportation agency based in New Orleans. The agency was established by the Louisiana State Legislature in 1979, and has operated bus and historic streetcar service throughout the city since 1983. In, the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of , making the Regional Transit Authority the largest public transit agency in the state of Louisiana.

Basic rates for all modes, except ferries, are $1.25 per boarding (or $0.40 for 65 and up, disabled and Medicare, $0.50 for 5–17). 24-hour Jazzy Passes are $3, or $1 for youth and $0.80 for seniors, good for all modes including ferries. There are free transfer cards, good for next 120 minutes of unlimited use (round-trips/stopovers prohibited). Under 5 with a limit of three per paid rider can board for free. Transfers to ferries from busses/streetcars require paying difference in rates.

Hurricane Katrina
City buses were used before Hurricane Katrina hit to transport people to a refuge of last resort, of what's now the Caesars Superdome. Much of the city flooded due to the storm. The NORTA Administration building on Plaza Drive appears to have been in 10 ft of water. Almost eighty-five percent of the fleet was rendered useless and inoperative; 146 city buses were visible outdoors in the flood at the 2817 Canal St. facility, while only 22 were at 3900 Desire Pky. The 8201 Willow St. facility was one block within the flood but was built above street level. The buses at the flooded facilities were mostly written off.

All but one of the streetcars built in the 1990s and 2000s were severely damaged in the flooding resulting from the hurricane. The historic Perley Thomas-built streetcars of the St. Charles line were undamaged in the disaster. The damaged streetcars, which had been built by hand on the property by local workers, were repaired in the same facility with components from Brookville Equipment Co.

Post-disaster recovery
, service had been restored to certain areas as they became habitable again. However, there was no 24-hour service on any bus or streetcar line, except for the St. Charles streetcar line. Streetcars were returned to the full length of Canal St. and the Riverfront, initially using the historic St. Charles Line streetcars, which had not been damaged, as had the red Canal cars. In 2008, the St. Charles streetcar resumed running the entire length of its route. By early 2009, the red Canal streetcars were repaired and had taken over service on the Canal and Riverfront Lines.

The buses that have been restored to operation have returned to several major thoroughfares, including Elysian Fields Avenue, Esplanade Avenue, Claiborne Avenue, St. Claude Avenue, Judge Perez Drive, General Meyer Avenue, Lapalco Boulevard, Robert E. Lee Boulevard, and the Chef Menteur Highway. And just a few express routes, Morrison Express, Lake Forest Express, Read-Crowder Express and Airport Express, serving both Eastern New Orleans, and New Orleans Louis Armstrong International Airport in Kenner, La. have been reinstated so far.

Service enhancements as of October 2, 2016:

Operate the new N. Rampart/St. Claude Avenue streetcar from Elysian Fields to UPT via Rampart St. and Loyola Ave. Loyola/UPT line will no longer operate on Canal St. to the river, nor on Riverfront to the French Quarter stop.

Restore service to Canal Street on the 15-Freret and 28-MLK buses.

Increase service on the Canal and Riverfront streetcar lines.

Continue lines 57-Franklin and 88-St. Claude to Canal St. Operate 57-Franklin via Claiborne Ave. to increase service along N. Claiborne Ave. between Elysian Fields and St. Bernard Ave. Decrease travel times for riders from farther-out neighborhoods by operating Lines 88-St. Claude and 91-Jackson/Esplanade with fewer stops along Rampart to Canal.

Improve reliability of lines 5-Marigny/Bywater and 55-Elysian Fields with new schedules.

Provide earlier daily trips and later weekend trips on line 80-Desire/Louisa.

New Links Bus Routes
In September 2022, the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority announced that they would be almost entirely changing the lines, names, and wait times for the authority starting on September 25, 2022. The changes were made after a survey was conducted containing 3,000 people saying that the old lines had been outdated, and were not convenient for everyday use. For 4 days after the new routes started, RTA offered free boarding on all buses, streetcars, and the Algiers Point Ferry.

The changes were part of the New Links Network, a project designed to upgrade the transit authority to service the people of New Orleans.

Upgrades from the previous lines include more access to jobs and landmarks, reduced wait times, longer service times, and faster transfers/connections.

On July 18, 2022, the authority released Le Pass, a new trip planner and ticket app. It includes tickets and tracking for both RTA and Jefferson Transit buses. On August 29, 2022, RTA shut down ticket buying on the old RTA GoMobile app. Le Pass updated from the old routes on September 25, 2022.

No changes were made to the streetcars or ferries.

Current bus routes
In, the NORTA bus system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of.

List of streetcar routes
In, the streetcar system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of.

Former routes

 * 1 Easy Rider Downtown Shuttle
 * 3 Vieux Carré
 * 5 Marigny-Bywater
 * 10 Tchoupitoulas
 * 13 St. Charles Shuttle
 * 14 Jackson
 * 15 Freret
 * 16 S Claiborne
 * 19 Nashville Express
 * 20 Nashville
 * 22 Broadway
 * 24 Napoleon
 * 28 M L King
 * 30 Airline
 * 34 Carrollton Express
 * 39 Tulane
 * 40 West End Express
 * 41 West End
 * 42 Canal – Cemeteries
 * 43 Canal Boulevard – Lake Vista
 * 44 Canal Boulevard Express – Lake Vista
 * 45 Canal – City Park
 * 46 Orleans (originally 46 City Park)
 * 48 Esplanade
 * 49 Lakeview
 * 50 St. Bernard – Senate
 * 51 St. Bernard – Lake Terrace
 * 52 St. Bernard – L. C. Simon
 * 53 Gentilly
 * 54 Mirabeau (originally 54 Cartier)
 * 56 Elysian Fields Express
 * 58 Franklin Express
 * 59 Congress
 * 60 Hayne
 * 63 New Orleans East Owl
 * 64 Lake Forest Express
 * 65 Six Flags Express (originally 65 Plaza Park-and-Ride)
 * 65 Read-Crowder Express
 * 66 Chef Menteur Highway Express
 * 67 Crowder
 * 69 New Orleans East Owl Loop
 * 70 Read – Hayne
 * 71 Read – Casino
 * 72 Paris Road Express
 * 73 Oak Island Loop
 * 80 Louisa
 * 81 Almonaster
 * 82 Desire
 * 83 Lower Ninth Ward
 * 85 Barracks
 * 88 St. Claude – Barracks
 * 89 St. Claude – Refinery
 * 90 Carrollton
 * 94 Broad
 * 96 Broad Rapid
 * 97 Broad – Oak Island
 * 98 Broad – Village de L'est
 * 99 Broad – NASA
 * 100 Algiers Owl
 * 101 Algiers Point
 * 102 General Meyer
 * 103 General Meyer/Pace
 * 104 Algiers Park-and-Ride
 * 105 Aurora
 * 106 Aurora Express
 * 106 Aurora Local
 * 107 General DeGaulle
 * 108 Algiers Local
 * 114 General DeGaulle-Sullen
 * 115 General DeGaulle-Tullis
 * 202 Kenner Park-and-Ride
 * 408 Algiers Local-L.B. Landry

Governance
The body in charge of making major decisions for the RTA is the Board of Commissioners. The board consists of appointees by the Mayor of New Orleans and of some appointees by the President of Jefferson Parish. The RTA Board has the overall authority for transit in New Orleans including setting fares, overseeing service and operations, developing operating budgets, approving each year's annual transportation development plan, and deciding upon capital purchases and expansions.

Under contract to the RTA Board of Commissioners, Transdev formerly managed all day-to-day aspects of the transit agency on behalf of the RTA Board. Transdev handled operations and service, safety issues, vehicle maintenance, customer care, route design and scheduling, human resources, administration, ridership growth, capital planning, grant administration, communications, purchasing, and other agency functions. Transdev was under contract to and reported to the RTA Board of Commissioners. The company operates public transportation for some 5,000 transit authorities around the world. Transdev (then Veolia Transport) was hired in 2008.

, Transdev no longer manages the RTA. All bus, streetcar, and paratransit operators, and also maintenance personnel, are now employees of RTA. Ferry services continue to be operated for RTA by LabMar Ferry Services.

title: New Orleans Regional Transit Authority


text:
Anti-aircraft missile

Anti-aircraft missiles are guided missiles designed to destroy or damage aircraft. These include

 * air-to-air missile, a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft
 * subsurface-to-air missile, a missile usually launched from below water
 * surface-to-air missile, a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles

title: Anti-aircraft missile


text:
User talk:Amk

Hello there Amk, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

title: User talk:Amk