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Ipswich

Ipswich is a port town and borough in Suffolk, England. It is the county town, and largest in Suffolk, followed by Lowestoft and Bury St Edmunds, and the second-largest population centre in East Anglia, Norwich being the largest. It is 80 mi northeast of London and in 2011 had a population of 144,957. The Ipswich built-up area is the fourth-largest in the East of England and the 42nd-largest in England and Wales. It includes the towns and villages of Kesgrave, Woodbridge, Bramford and Martlesham Heath.

Ipswich was first recorded during the medieval period as Gippeswic, the town has also been recorded as Gyppewicus and Yppswyche. It has been continuously inhabited since the Saxon period, and is believed to be one of the oldest towns in the United Kingdom. The settlement was of great economic importance to the Kingdom of England throughout its history, particularly in trade, with the town's historical dock, Ipswich Waterfront, known as the largest and most important dock in the Kingdom.

Ipswich is divided into various quarters, with the town centre and the waterfront drawing the most footfall. The town centre features the retail shopping district and the historic town square, known as the Cornhill. The waterfront, south of the town centre on a meander of the River Orwell, offers a picturesque setting with a marina, luxury yachts, high-rise apartment buildings, and a variety of restaurants and cafes. The waterfront is also home to the University of Suffolk campus.

Ipswich is surrounded by two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB): the Suffolk Coast and Heaths and Dedham Vale. The town has a tourist sector, with 3.5 million people reported to have visited the town in 2016. In 2020, Ipswich was ranked as an emerging global tourist destination by TripAdvisor.

History
Ipswich is one of England's oldest towns, and is claimed to be the oldest still continuing town to have been established and developed by the English, with continuous settlement since early Anglo-Saxon times.

Roman settlement
A large Roman fort, part of the coastal defences of Britain, stood at Walton near Felixstowe (13 mi, and the largest Roman villa in Suffolk (possibly an administrative complex) stood at Castle Hill (north-west Ipswich).

Middle Ages
The modern town took shape in Anglo-Saxon times (7th–8th centuries) around the Port of Ipswich. As the coastal states of north-western Europe emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, essential North Sea trade and communication between eastern Britain and the continent (especially to Scandinavia, and through the Rhine) passed through the former Roman ports of London (serving the kingdoms of Mercia, the East Saxons, Kent) and York (Eoforwic) (serving the Kingdom of Northumbria).

Gipeswic (also in other spellings such as Gippeswich) arose as the equivalent to these, serving the Kingdom of East Anglia,    its early imported wares dating to the time of King Rædwald, ruler of the East Angles (616–624). The famous ship-burial and treasure at Sutton Hoo nearby (9 mi) is probably his grave. The Ipswich Museum houses replicas of the Roman Mildenhall and Sutton Hoo treasures. A gallery devoted to the town's origins includes Anglo-Saxon weapons, jewellery and other artefacts.

The seventh-century town was centred near the quay. Around 700 AD, Frisian potters from the Netherlands area settled in Ipswich and set up the first large-scale potteries in England since Roman times. Their wares were traded far across England, and the industry was unique to Ipswich for 200 years. With growing prosperity, in about 720 AD a large new part of the town was laid out in the Buttermarket area. Ipswich was becoming a place of national and international importance. Parts of the ancient road plan still survive in its modern streets.

After the invasion of 869, Ipswich fell under Viking rule. The earth ramparts circling the town centre were probably raised by Vikings in Ipswich around 900 to prevent its recapture by the English. They were unsuccessful. The town operated a mint under royal licence from King Edgar in the 970s, which continued through the Norman Conquest until the time of King John, in about 1215. The abbreviation Gipes appears on the coins.

King John granted the town its first charter in 1200, laying the medieval foundations of its modern civil government. Thenceforth Ipswich strongly maintained its jurisdiction over the Liberty of Ipswich, an administrative area extending over about 35 square kilometres centred on the town.

In the next four centuries it made the most of its wealth. Five large religious houses, including two Augustinian Priories (St Peter and St Paul, and Holy Trinity, both mid-12th century ), and those of the Ipswich Greyfriars (Franciscans, before 1298), Ipswich Whitefriars (Carmelites founded 1278–79) and Ipswich Blackfriars (Dominicans, before 1263), stood in medieval Ipswich. The last Carmelite Prior of Ipswich was the celebrated John Bale, author of the oldest English historical verse-drama (Kynge Johan, c. 1538). There were also several hospitals, including the leper hospital of St Mary Magdalene, founded before 1199.

During the Middle Ages the Marian Shrine of Our Lady of Grace was a famous pilgrimage destination, and attracted many pilgrims including Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon. At the Reformation the statue was taken away to London to be burned, though some claim that it survived and is preserved at Nettuno, Italy.

Around 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer satirised the merchants of Ipswich in The Canterbury Tales. Thomas Wolsey, the future cardinal, was born in Ipswich in 1473 as the son of a wealthy landowner. One of Henry VIII's closest political allies, he founded a college in the town in 1528, which was for its brief duration one of the homes of the Ipswich School. He remains one of the town's most famed figures.

Early-modern era
During the 14th to 17th centuries Ipswich was a kontor for the Hanseatic League, the port being used for imports and exports to the Baltic.

In the time of Queen Mary the Ipswich Martyrs were burnt at the stake on the Cornhill for their Protestant beliefs. A monument commemorating this event now stands in Christchurch Park. Ipswich was a printing, bookseller centre, and an entrepôt for continental books in the 16th century. From 1611 to 1634 Ipswich was a major centre for emigration to New England. This was encouraged by the Town Lecturer, Samuel Ward. His brother Nathaniel Ward was first minister of Ipswich, Massachusetts, where a promontory was named 'Castle Hill' after the place of that name in north-west Ipswich, UK. Ipswich was also one of the main ports of embarkation for puritans leaving other East Anglian towns and villages for the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1630s and what has become known as the Great Migration. The painter Thomas Gainsborough lived and worked in Ipswich. In 1835, Charles Dickens stayed in Ipswich and used it as a setting for scenes in his novel The Pickwick Papers. The hotel where he resided first opened in 1518; it was then known as The Tavern and later became known as the Great White Horse Hotel. Dickens made the hotel famous in chapter XXII of The Pickwick Papers, vividly describing the hotel's meandering corridors and stairs.

19th and 20th centuries
In 1824 Dr George Birkbeck, with support from several local businessmen, founded one of the first Mechanics' Institutes which survives to this day as the independent Ipswich Institute reading room and library. The building is located at 15 Tavern Street.

In the mid-19th century coprolite (fossilised animal dung) was discovered; the material was mined and then dissolved in acid, the resulting mixture forming the basis of Fisons fertiliser business.

The Tolly Cobbold brewery, built in the 18th century and rebuilt in 1894–96, is one of the finest Victorian breweries in the UK. There was a Cobbold brewery in the town from 1746 until 2002 when Ridley's Breweries took Tolly Cobbold over. Felix Thornley Cobbold presented Christchurch Mansion to the town in 1896. Smaller breweries include St Jude's Brewery, situated in an 18th-century coach-house near the town centre.

Ipswich was subject to bombing by German Zeppelins during World War I but the greatest damage by far occurred during the German bombing raids of World War II. The area in and around the docks was especially devastated. Eighty civilians died by enemy action in the Ipswich county borough area during the latter war. The last bombs to fall on Ipswich landed on Seymour Road at 2a.m. on 2 March 1945, killing nine people and destroying six houses.

The Willis Building is a glass-clad building owned by Willis. Designed by Norman Foster, the building dates from 1974, when it was known as the Willis Faber & Dumas building. It became the youngest grade I listed building in Britain in 1991, being at the time one of only two listed buildings to be less than thirty years old.

In September 1993, Ipswich and Arras, Nord Pas-de-Calais, France, became twin towns, and a square in the new Buttermarket development was named Arras Square to mark the relationship.

Ipswich formerly had a municipal airport to the south-east of the town, which was opened in 1929 by the Ipswich Corporation. The airport was controversially closed in 1996. The site was redeveloped for housing as the Ravenswood estate.

21st century
Ipswich has experienced a building boom in the early part of the 21st century. Construction has mainly concentrated around the former industrial dock which is now known as the Ipswich Waterfront. Regeneration to the area has made it a hub of culture in Ipswich, the area boasts fine dining restaurants, a boutique hotel, and the new regional university, the University of Suffolk. The new high rise buildings of the Regatta Quay development has topped the list of the tallest buildings in Ipswich. The mixed-use high rise building, the The Mill, is currently the tallest building in Suffolk.

Ipswich has made several unsuccessful bids for city status. The town does not have a cathedral, so the Bishop of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich is based at Bury St Edmunds, the former county town of West Suffolk.

Localities
The waterfront is now devoted primarily to leisure use and includes extensive recent development of residential apartment blocks and a university campus. Businesses operated from the dock include luxury boats and a timber merchant. Other industries have been established to the south of the wet dock. The area was flooded in 2013 during a tidal surge. In February 2019 a flood gate, which protects the "New Cut", was unveiled. The flood barrier, similar in design to the Thames Barrier, cost £67m. The Ipswich Village Development, begun in 2002 around Russell Road, is home to Suffolk County Council and Ipswich Borough Council. Holywells Ward, Ipswich is the area around Holywells Park, a 67 acre public park situated near the docks, and the subject of a painting by Thomas Gainsborough. Alexandra Park is the nearest park to the waterfront's northern quay, and situated on Back Hamlet, adjacent to University of Suffolk.

Localities outside the town centre include Bixley Farm, Broke Hall, California, Castle Hill, Chantry, The Dales, Gainsborough, Greenwich, Maidenhall, Pinewood, Priory Heath, Racecourse, Ravenswood (built on a former airfield), Rose Hill, Rushmere, Springvale, St Margarets, Stoke, Warren Heath, Westbourne, Whitehouse and Whitton.

To the east of the town is Trinity Park near Bucklesham the home of the annual Suffolk Show, a typical county show. The 'Trinity' is the name given to the three animals native to the county of Suffolk, namely Red Poll cattle, the powerful Suffolk Punch horse and the black-faced Suffolk sheep.

Culture
Ipswich is home to many artists and has a number of galleries, the most prominent of which are at Christchurch Mansion, the Town Hall, Ancient House and the Artists' Gallery in Electric House. The visual arts are further supported with many sculptures at easily accessible sites. The Borough Council promotes the creation of new public works of art and has been known to make this a condition of planning permission. The town has three museums: Ipswich Museum, the Ipswich Transport Museum and Christchurch Mansion.

The New Wolsey Theatre is a 400-seat theatre situated on Civic Drive. Although the Wolsey Theatre was built in 1979, The New Wolsey Company took on the management and running of the Wolsey Theatre in 2000, opening its first production in February 2001.

DanceEast, which has the primary aim of advocating innovation and development of dance in the East of England is now resident in their new premises as part of the waterfront development. They are building new premises as part of the waterfront development. These are the first custom built dance facilities in the east of England at a cost of around £8 million.

Spill Festival of Performance was launched in Ipswich in 2007 and alternates between London and Ipswich yearly. In 2018, Clarion Call is the signature installation in the Festival Installed at the historic town centre and waterfront in Ipswich, Clarion Call is a sonic intervention calls out to the setting sun in daily incantations, its voices reflecting contemporary Britain while exploring the local history of the World War I, using audio technology originally employed in war and emergencies, and the voices and songs of women and girls, to create a soundscape of immense scale.

Eastern Angles Theatre Company is based at the Sir John Mills Theatre in Ipswich, named after the famous actor who lived in Felixstowe as a child. In 2012 it celebrated its 30th anniversary. The group engages in rural tours and seasonal performances.

The Ipswich Arts Festival, known as 'Ip-art' has been the town's annual summer arts festival since 2003 and seen a developing and varied programme of events from visual arts, performing arts, literature, film and music, notably a free music day in Christchurch Park. The Ultrazang monthly live music night began in 2009.

The Ipswich Jazz Festival is a jazz music and arts festival started in 2015 in partnership with the Ipswich Arts Festival and mixes established jazz talent, rising stars and regional players.

Ipswich had a notable punk scene and influential grindcore band Extreme Noise Terror, formed in the town in 1985.

It also features art and photography exhibitions, film screenings and workshops held in venues across the town.

Norwich remains the regional centre for TV broadcasting, but both BBC East and ITV Anglia have presenters and offices in Ipswich. The town has five local radio stations, BBC Radio Suffolk covering the entire county, where the East Anglian Accent can be heard on its many phone-ins, the commercial station Heart East which was founded in 1975 as Radio Orwell covering the A14 corridor in Suffolk, and Ipswich 102 who took over the FM frequency in 2018, until 2020 when it rebranded as Greatest Hits Radio Ipswich & Suffolk. Then in September 2022, the station was rebranded again as Nation Radio Suffolk where it has one local show on weekday afternoons 1pm-4pm, hosted by Rob Chandler (who hosted the local afternoon show prior to the rebrand). The younger audience was catered for with Suffolk-based Kiss 105-108, until September 2023 when its 106.4 frequency flipped over to carrying Greatest Hits Radio Ipswich & Suffolk. Ipswich Community Radio was launched in 2007. The town's daily newspaper is the Ipswich Star a sister title to the county's daily newspaper the East Anglian Daily Times.

Buildings
In addition to the Christchurch Mansion and Ancient House, Ipswich in the 21st century has some important cultural buildings including the New Wolsey Theatre and the Regent Theatre—the largest theatre venue in East Anglia where, in 1964, the Beatles performed when it was still known as the Gaumont. There is also the Corn Exchange in King Street which was completed in 1882.

There are several medieval Ipswich churches but the grandest is St. Mary-le-Tower, rebuilt by the Victorians. Holy Trinity Church by the waterfront is one of the few churches in the country which was built during the reign of William IV and whilst the outside looks plain, the interior is quite spectacular. The world's oldest circle of church bells is housed in St Lawrence Church.

The Ancient House in the Buttermarket is an example of a merchant house which features tudor pargeting and the Ipswich window.

The former East Suffolk County Hall is just east of the centre of Ipswich. It is listed as a building at risk by the Victorian Society. The Town Hall remains in use as an arts centre and events venue; it dates from 1866 (architects: Bellamy & Hardy of Lincoln). The 18th Century Grade II listed Old Post Office, which was built in 1881, has been renovated and is now home to the Botanist bar.

Modern buildings include Endeavour House (headquarters of Suffolk County Council and formerly home of the TXU Corporation), Grafton House (home of Ipswich Borough Council) and Ipswich Crown Court, all located on Russell Road in the area known as the Ipswich Village Development, which includes Portman Road stadium. The stadium has hosted England under-21, under-23, and international soccer matches, as well as rugby union and hockey matches.

In the waterfront area The Mill is the tallest building in East Anglia, reaching 23 storeys.

On the north-west side of Ipswich lies Broomhill Pool, a Grade II listed Olympic-sized lido which opened in 1938 and closed in 2002, since which time a campaign to see it restored and re-opened has been run by the Broomhill Pool Trust. On the southern side of Ipswich is historic Belstead Lodge, now the Belstead Brook Hotel.

Governance
The Municipal Borough of Ipswich was created in 1836 by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It was the form of local government for the ancient borough of Ipswich until the Local Government Act 1888 replaced it with the County Borough of Ipswich in 1889. Both originated from the ancient borough of Ipswich. The local authority was Ipswich Corporation. Following the passage of the Reform Act 1832, the government set up a Royal Commission in July 1833 to investigate how local councils worked. In 1974 it was replaced by the non-metropolitan district of Ipswich and Ipswich Borough Council became the local authority, with county council duties fulfilled by Suffolk County Council.

Following the Local Government Act 1888, the county of Suffolk outside of Ipswich was split into East Suffolk and West Suffolk for administrative purposes and the term administrative county was introduced. There was a level of continuity as Ipswich was still run by the Ipswich Corporation, independently from East Suffolk (which surrounded it), although the county council was based in Ipswich at East Suffolk County Hall.

In 1974 following the Local Government Act 1972 and Ipswich became a non-metropolitan district with borough status in the administrative county of Suffolk with the same boundaries as the abolished county borough.

Ipswich is governed locally by a two-tier council system. Ipswich Borough Council fulfils district council functions such as refuse collection, housing and planning and Suffolk County Council provides the county council services such as transport, education and social services.

The town is covered by two parliamentary constituencies: Ipswich, which is represented by Conservative MP Tom Hunt and covers about 75% of the town, and Central Suffolk & North Ipswich, which covers the remaining 25% and is represented by Conservative MP Dan Poulter.

In April 2006 the borough council initiated public discussions about the idea of turning the borough into a unitary authority; Ipswich had constituted a county borough from 1889 to 1974, independent of the administrative county of East Suffolk, and this status was not restored by the Banham/Cooksey Commission in the 1990s. Ipswich, Norwich, Exeter and Oxford united to campaign for unitary authority status for the four towns, hoping to use the window of opportunity presented by the October 2006 Local Government White Paper. In March 2007, it was announced that Ipswich was one of 16 shortlisted councils and on 25 July 2007, the secretary of state announced that she was minded to implement the unitary proposal for Ipswich, but that there were 'a number of risks relating to the financial case set out in the proposal', on which she invited Ipswich to undertake further work before a final decision was taken. In December 2007 plans were put into doubt as the government announced that it had "delayed" the unitary bids for Ipswich and Exeter. In July 2008 the Boundary Committee announced its preferred option was for a unitary authority covering Ipswich and the south eastern corner of Suffolk, including Felixstowe.

Industry
Being the county town of agricultural Suffolk, industry around Ipswich has had a strong farming bias with Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies Ltd, one of the most famous agricultural manufacturers, located in the town. The world's first commercial motorised lawnmower was built by Ransomes in 1902. Ransomes & Rapier was a major British manufacturer of railway equipment and later cranes, from 1869 to 1987. There was a sugar beet factory at Ipswich for many years; it was closed in 2001 as part of a rationalisation by British Sugar. This agricultural link is preserved in the local football club's nickname "The Tractor Boys". Phillips & Piper Ltd on Old Foundry Road employed many women who sewed equestrian and hunt jackets for Harrods, Pytchley, and other labels for 130 years, finally closing down in June 1982. The British Telecom Research Laboratories were located to the east of the town in 1975 at Martlesham Heath; it is now a science park called Adastral Park. The area was originally RAF Martlesham Heath, a World War II airfield. Part of the old airfield is now the site of Suffolk Constabulary's police headquarters.

A key employment sector is insurance, both wholesale and retail sectors. Some of the major players with a key presence in Ipswich include Axa, Churchill, Legal & General, LV and Willis Towers Watson. Access to a skilled and experienced workforce has also led to the establishment of ancillary businesses serving these companies, including call centres dealing with sales and claims.

Ipswich is one of the Haven ports and is still a working port, handling several million tonnes of cargo each year. Prior to decommissioning, HMS Grafton was a regular visitor to the port and has special links with the town and the county of Suffolk. HMS Orwell, named after the river, is also closely linked with Ipswich.

Transport
Ipswich railway station is on the Great Eastern Main Line from London to Norwich, the East Suffolk Line to Lowestoft and the Felixstowe Branch Line. Trains are run by Greater Anglia, which operates direct services to cities including London, Cambridge, Chelmsford, Norwich and Peterborough. Ipswich engine shed opened in 1846 and closed in 1968. Ipswich is still a signing-on point for locomotive crews and a stabling point. The town has a smaller suburban station at Derby Road east of the town centre, on the Felixstowe branch line.

Ipswich is close to the A12 and the A14 roads. The Orwell Bridge which carries the A14 over the River Orwell connects it to the Port of Felixstowe, a major container port 12 mi to the east.

Bus services in Ipswich are operated by Ipswich Buses, First Eastern Counties, Beestons and several smaller companies. Town services operate mainly from Tower Ramparts bus station and regional services from the Ipswich Old Cattle Market bus station. Ipswich Airport closed in 1996.

Ipswich is on Sustrans's National Cycle Route 1 and National Cycle Route 51.

Sport

Ipswich's sole professional association football club is Ipswich Town, which was established in 1878 and play at the 30,300-capacity Portman Road stadium. They will play in the Premier League from the 2024-25 season, having been promoted from EFL Championship as runners-up in the 2023–24 season. Elected to the Football League in 1938, they have a strong rivalry with Norwich City, and were the previous club of the two most successful England managers; Alf Ramsey, who was buried in the Old Cemetery in the town on his death in 1999, and Bobby Robson. Ipswich won the First Division title in 1961–62 in their first season as a top division club during Ramsey's reign, as well as the 1978 FA Cup and the 1981 UEFA Cup under Robson. The club are also undefeated at home in all European competitions, having won 25 and drawn six of 31 matches.

Ipswich is also home to several non-League football clubs, including Ipswich Wanderers and Whitton United in the Eastern Counties League, and Achilles, Crane Sports, and Ransomes Sports among others in the Suffolk & Ipswich League. The town has representation in both codes of rugby. There are two rugby union teams – Ipswich RFC, who play in London 2 North East League, and Ipswich YM RUFC – and one rugby league side – Ipswich Rhinos, who play in the Rugby League Conference. Ipswich Cardinals are an American football team, playing in the South-East Conference of BAFACL 1; the second tier of the BAFA Community Leagues.

The speedway team, the Ipswich Witches, have ridden at Foxhall Stadium on the outskirts of Ipswich since 1951 and have won the top-tier league title four times, the knock-out cup five times and the second-tier knock-out cup twice. The stadium is also used regularly for Hot Rod, Stock Car and Banger racing events, hosting major events throughout the year on the stadium's outer tarmac oval.

Ipswich Gymnastics Centre is one of only three fully Olympic accredited gymnastics facilities in the UK.

Ipswich has a rich history of public swimming. During the 1830s, there were at least three designated swimming places - one was near St Cement's, the second was next to St Mary-At-The Quay and the third not far from Stoke Bridge. These were all closed in the late 1830s during the building of the wet dock. A designated enclosed area of the River Orwell, called Stoke Bathing Place, was created to cater for the swimmers. It was damaged in the floods of 1953 but maps show the swimming place still in situ as late as 1973. Ipswich Swimming, formed in 1884 as Ipswich Swimming Club, used the Stoke Swimming Place. Fore Street Swimming Pool opened in 1894. The pool is still in use and is the second oldest swimming pool in is in the UK. Pipers Vale Pool opened in 1937 after replacing the West End Bathing Place, which had closed in 1936 due to fears that it was polluting the River Orwell. Broom Hill pool opened, in 1986, which was prompted to serve the western side of the town. It closed in 2002 but is about to be restored with the plan of opening again in 2025/26. St Matthew's Baths was opened in 1924 and closed in 1984 when Crown Pools opened, which is still in use. The Ipswich Swimming Club, is based there although they use the Fore Street swimming pool, too. The most successful Ipswich Swimming Club member is World Championship gold medallist Karen Pickering. There are plans for a new "low carbon aquatics centre" with the intention of opening next to Ipswich Town Football Club in 2027.

Ipswich had a racecourse which ran a mix of flat and National Hunt races.

Schools
State-funded secondary schools include comprehensive schools such as Copleston High School, St Alban's Catholic High School, Holbrook Academy, Holbrook Primary and Northgate High School and academies such as Ipswich Academy and Chantry Academy. Ipswich is also home to several independent schools, including Royal Hospital School, Ipswich School (both are co-educational and members of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference), Ipswich High School (has recently changed from girls only to girls and boys) and St Joseph's College (Catholic, co-educational) which hosts an international summer camp.

Further and higher education
Suffolk New College is a further education college located in Ipswich, serving students from the town and wider area. There is also a sixth form college, One, which serves students from the same area.

Ipswich is the location of the University of Suffolk, Suffolk's first Higher Education Institution (HEI), established in 2007. It was originally University Campus Suffolk, a collaborative venture involving the University of Essex in Colchester, the University of East Anglia in Norwich, various further education colleges and Suffolk County Council. However, the university was granted its own degree awarding powers in November 2015, and in May 2016 it was awarded university status. The university was renamed to the University of Suffolk in August 2016, prior to its former name University Campus Suffolk.

Climate
Ipswich experiences an oceanic climate, like the rest of the British Isles, with a narrow range of temperature and rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. One of the two nearest for which data is available is East Bergholt, about 7 mi south west of the town centre and at a similar elevation, and similar river valley/estuary situation. The average July maximum of 23.2 C is the third-highest for a major settlement in the country, behind London and Colchester, illustrating the relative warmth of the area during the summer part of the year. The record maximum is 35.2 C, set during August 2003. Typically, 24.9 days of the year will record a maximum temperature of 25.1 C or above, and the warmest day of the year should reach 30.0 C, on average.

The absolute minimum is -16.1 C, set in January 1963, although frosts have been recorded in all months except July, August and September. In an average year, 55.33 nights will report an air frost. The lowest temperature to be recorded in recent years was -14.5 C during December 2010.

As with much of East Anglia, rainfall is low, averaging 569.3mm in a typical year, with 103.8 days of the year reporting over 1mm of rain. All averages refer to the period 1971–2000.

The weather station at Levington is even closer than East Bergholt at 9.4 km from the town centre further down the river estuary on the way to Felixstowe. It has a slightly more marine climate than East Bergholt, with slightly lower highs and milder lows throughout the year in the 1981–2010 average period. It is slightly less prone to frosts, averaging 35.5 such occurrences in a calendar year. Sunshine levels at 1,707.7 hours per annum are relatively high for the British Isles, but not abnormal for southern parts of England.

Wattisham is 16 miles from Ipswich, but has a higher altitude of 86 m. As a result, high temperatures there are a little lower than East Bergholt and Levington, but lows are similar. In average year, there are around 43 nights of frost recorded at Wattisham (as well as two days of frost), and one day when the temperature exceeds 30 C.

People
The Tudor Cardinal Thomas Wolsey was born in the town. Sir Samuel Mayart, the judge and political theorist, was born in Ipswich in 1585. The artist Thomas Gainsborough and the cartoonist "Giles" worked here, Horatio, Lord Nelson, became Steward of Ipswich, and Margaret Catchpole began her adventurous career here. Alf Ramsey and Bobby Robson were both successful managers of Ipswich Town. Ipswich was the birthplace in 1741 of Sarah Trimmer, née Kirby, writer and critic of children's literature and among the first to introduce pictorial material and animals and the natural world into it. Also born in Ipswich is Sam Claflin, who appeared in The Hunger Games and Peaky Blinders.

Actor and director Richard Ayoade, best known for his role as Maurice Moss in The IT Crowd, was brought up in Ipswich, as was the ceramic artist Blanche Georgiana Vulliamy, and the musician Nandi Bushell. Hugh Catchpole (OBE, CBE, Hilal-i-Imtiaz), a noted educationist with over 60 years of association with military schools and colleges in India and Pakistan, was born in Ipswich.

Jeremy Wade, an extreme angler known for hosting TV shows such as River Monsters and Dark Waters, was born in Ipswich.

Twin towns
Ipswich is twinned with:

 * 🇫🇷 Arras, France, since 1994

In popular culture

 * In Serena Valentino's Villains novel Poor Unfortunate Soul: A Tale of the Sea Witch, Ursula appears in Ipswich and proceeds to turn the citizens of the town into twisted sea creatures, reminiscent of the horror tales of author HP Lovecraft. She is stopped upon the arrival of King Triton.
 * In the Dead Parrot sketch by Monty Python's Flying Circus, the Customer is sent to Bolton for a replacement but was falsely told he was in Ipswich: "C: This is Bolton, is it? O: (with a fake moustache) No, it's Ipswich."
 * In the 1934 Dennis Wheatley novel Black August the main characters, after a series of adventures, are held prisoners in Ipswich where a local Communist government has been set up; they are sentenced to death as enemies of the State, but are freed when the revolution is overthrown.

title: Ipswich


text:
Talk:Sudbury

Untitled
I didn't know if either Sudbury is overwhelmingly significant enough (compare Ottawa (disambiguation)) to claim the Paris solution. If you disagree, feel free to change it. - Montrealais

Hi Monty,

there's also a Sudbury in Massachusetts! Can you disambiguate a bit more? User:Renata

 * Certainly, but in the future you can also do it yourself. Be bold! - Montrealais

Montrealais, are you going to fix the links to this page so that they point to their intended targets? This should be done whenever a disambiguation page is made. --mav

 * I know. Give me a minute, I made the bloody page five minutes ago and I went to the bathroom and played with the cat in the interim. (Yeesh!) - Montréalais

 * Cool. Sorry for jumping the gun. --mav

 * It appears that there are more than one place in England named Sudbury, so I moved "Sudbury, England" to Sudbury, Suffolk, and made "Sudbury, England" redirect back to the "Sudbury" disambiguation page. - Montréalais

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Sudbury


text:
Cratippus of Athens

Cratippus (Κράτιππος; fl. c. 375 BC) was a Greek historian. There are only three or four references to him in ancient literature, and his importance derives from him being identified by several scholars (e.g. Blass) with the author of the historical fragment discovered by Grenfell and Hunt. The fragment itself was published in Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v, and is known as the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia. It may be regarded as a fairly certain inference from a passage in Plutarch (De Gloria Atheniensium, p. 345 E, ed. Bernardakis, ii. p. 455) that he was an Athenian writer, intermediate in date between Thucydides and Xenophon, and that his work continued the narrative of Thucydides, from the point at which the latter historian stopped (410 BC) down to the Battle of Cnidus.

A recent edition of the surviving papyrus fragments is V. Bartoletti, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (Leipzig, 1959), which includes a bibliography.

title: Cratippus of Athens


text:
Peng Chau

Peng Chau is a small island located off the north-eastern coast of Lantau Island, Hong Kong. It is known locally for its temples, fishing industry and seafood.

Geography
Peng Chau has an area of 0.99 km² and a perimeter of about 5 km. The tallest point of the island is Finger Hill (手指山), which is 95 m in height.

In 2003, the island underwent land degradation restorative work.

Administration
Politically, Peng Chau is part of Peng Chau & Hei Ling Chau constituency of the Islands District Council.

The executive branch of the government of the island included department of the Islands District Office of the Home Affairs Department.

The local police station belongs to the Cheung Chau Division of the Marine Police.

Features
There are several temples on Peng Chau, including:
 * Tin Hau temple, built in 1792
 * Golden Flower Shrine, dedicated to Lady Kam Fa
 * Lung Mo Temple
 * Seven Sisters Temple

The island is also the site of the, now defunct, Peng Chau Theatre.

There are remains of the Sing Lei Hap Gei Lime Kiln Factory, established in the 19th century, and the Great China Match Company Factory, built in 1938.

Transportation
The main mode of transportation on the island is the bicycle, or on foot. Motor vehicles are not permitted on the island except emergency services, construction and village vehicles used for the transport of goods around the island.

Peng Chau is accessible by ferry (Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry) from Central on Hong Kong Island, or by ferry from Cheung Chau via Mui Wo and Chi Ma Wan (Sun Ferry), or by Kai-to ferry from Discovery Bay on Lantau Island.

Helicopters are sometimes used in medical emergencies.

Peng Chau is linked to Tai Lei Island by a bridge. The bridge is part of Peng Lei Road. It is a popular fishing spot.

Education
Peng Chau is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 99, which contains two aided schools: Holy Family School in Peng Chau and SKH Wei Lun Primary School in Discovery Bay; no government primary schools are in this net.

In popular culture
The 2015 Hong Kong film Wong Ka Yan was set in Peng Chau, starring Wong You Nam and Karena Ng.

title: Peng Chau


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User:Montrealais/Non-sexist usage in French

Moved from Talk:Non-sexist language

Hum, side issue

For those of you who know a language that have masculine and feminine grammatical gender, what would be your opinions in terms of naming conventions for these special terms which may deal with man or woman (such as étudiant) ?

Would you rather consider
 * one page only, with the masculine gender only, exemple : avocat
 * add a feminine page avocate with a redirect to the masculine one
 * two pages with basically the same stuff in

With a masculine page only, would you consider
 * only refering to the definition of the masculine term, and be done with it
 * or try to entangle the masculine and feminine terms in the definition (something like, un(e) avocat(e) est un blablabla
 * or only define the masculine one, then put an additional paragraph to give the feminine translation ?

I'd be happy to have a canadian point of view on this for example (mtlais ?)

user:anthere

 * My first instinct would be to put the article under the feminine form, and add (Le féminin est utilisé dans le seul but d'alléger le texte), but then I'm perverted that way. Best of all would probably be to put the article at "Droit" or whatever, and have "avocat" and "avocate" redirect to it. (Well, "avocat" would have to disambiguate to "droit" and "avocat (fruit)", I suppose.) - user:montrealais

True. We should as much as possible use a more generic word to "hide" the issue. Avocat and avocate could exist and redirect to Droit. That's a good point to add on our discussion on the fr.wiki. That's probably the most neutral if we can do it.

This said, we can't always do that. Let me take another example maybe. Say we have an article about Physique. On that article, to avoid cluttering it, we want to add a link to another page to deal more specifically with the people famous in physics (List of physicists).

We first have to deal with do we have a common list of women and men or a separate one. Let's say we agree to have a common one (in physics, I hope we could agree that neutrality is that there is no difference between a woman physicist and a man physicist - but then on the fr.wiki, we have a chanteurs page and a chanteuses page so that is probably not obvious for everyone :)))

If we have a common list, how do we name it : Physiciens et physiciennes célèbres ? or just Physiciens célèbres (providing that official conventions say physicien is not refering to males in that case, but has a neutral meaning ?). For pragmatic reasons mostly, I would favor physiciens célèbres

If we name it Physiciens célèbres, and we want to describe what a physicien is, do we write Un physicien est un scientifique spécialiste de la physique. And then maybe imply physicist are necessarily males ?

I can guess the naming convention that will be decided in the end will be Physiciens célèbres, for respect for official conventions are very strong on the french wiki.

It seems french would agree to say that Un(e) physicien(ne) est un(e) scientifique spécialiste de la physique. But I am not sure. The only people involved in the discussion are french. It seems canadiens are more "advanced" in terms of non-sexist language, so that's why I thought it important to see what your feelings were on the matter. I'd like to know if there are other arguments than those expressed in

I'd like to know what you feel would be the most neutral option. And how other languages such as german solved the issue if it was already raised.

I apologize because I know this is absolutely not a english issue, but I don't know really where to ask for other french speaking not on the fr.wiki what their feelings were on the subject.

Thanks user:anthere

 * (BTW, we could move this discussion to a new page on Meta & leave a link here)
 * I don't think two similar pages is a good idea. We could call the page "Avocat(e)", and have both forms redirect. I wonder, are there any efforts in France & the French language worldwide similar to the trend towards "firefighter" instead of "fireman"? I suppose since instead of an obvious suffix it's the gender division throughout the language it's different. Apparently the Academie Francaise advises against things like "la ministre", where the noun doesn't change. Doe we have any French experts in gender studies? -- Tarquin 13:24 Oct 5, 2002 (UTC)

 * Unfortunately, there's a limit to how far I can go - I'm not a native speaker of French, although I do all my work in a French-language environment so have studied this issue informally a great deal. But I'll see if I could get some opinions; I know at least two people who might want to express themselves (including the linguist who came up with the term professionèles [sic]). - Montrealais

See also User:Anthere/Discussion language non sexiste

Curry, expressing himself in this discussion is a french linguist. I will be happy if your friends can give their point of view on this matter

user:anthere


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Hadleigh, Suffolk

Hadleigh is an ancient market town and civil parish in the Babergh district of Suffolk, England. The town is situated next to the River Brett, between the larger towns of Sudbury and Ipswich. It had a population of 8,253 at the 2011 census. The headquarters of Babergh District Council were located in the town until 2017.

Origin of the name
Skeat, in his 1913 The Place-Names of Suffolk, says this: Spelt Hadlega, R.B.; Hadleigh, Ipm.; Hædleage, in a late chapter, Thorpe, Diplomat, 527; Headlega, Annals of St Neot, quoted in Plummer's ed. of the A.S.Chronicle, ii. 102; Hetlega, D.B., p.184. In D.B. the t stands for th; and the true A.S. form appears in a Worcs. charter, dated 849, as hæðleage(gen.) with reference to Headley Heath (a tautological name) in Birch, C.S. ii. 40; see Duignan, Placenames of Worcs. The sense is 'heath-lea.' In a similar way the A.S. ð has become t in Hatfield (Herts.) which means 'heath-field'.

History
Guthrum, King of the Danes, is said to be buried in the grounds of St Mary's Church in the town. He was defeated by King Alfred at the battle of Edington in 878.

The first documented lord of the manor was ealdorman Byrhtnoth, who was killed at the Battle of Maldon in 991. Hadleigh received its market charter in 1252 and had a grammar school by 1275. The manor of Hadleigh, along with those of Lawling in Essex and Monks Eleigh in Suffolk, were among those given to the Priory Church of Canterbury Cathedral. It made Hadleigh an "archiepiscopal peculiar" – under the direct control of the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Hadleigh was a moderately-sized town, with a reckoned population of about 1,100 or 1,200 in 1306. At that time there were 118 "unfree tenants", who had to pay rent and provide labour services, and 75 "free tenants" who had had fewer obligations and dues. The manor had 2000 acre. The manor was a working farm, with crops and some animals, and had quite an important dairy. Hadleigh Hall was the site of the medieval manor house, in 4 acre.

It has been suggested by Woods (2018) that Wat Tyler and his wife were Hadleigh tenants about 20 years before he was one of the leaders of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt. Records show a Wat Tyler taking over a freeholding in Coram Street in 1358–59 and it is possible he worked as a tiler.

In 1438, administration was passed from manorial control to trustees. The market was eventually sold to Babergh District Council in the late 20th century.

Hadleigh was one of the East Anglian towns that derived its prosperity from its wool and cloth industries. It has a 15th-century timber-framed Guildhall and many fine examples of timber and brick listed buildings, some with highly detailed 17th century plasterwork or "pargeting". Most of these buildings can be found in the High Street, Angel Street, Benton Street and George Street.

The Guildhall buildings are, in fact, formed of three separate structures, all of which lie to the south of the churchyard: the Market House, the Guilds Halls and the New Town Hall (Grand Hall). They are located on land that belonged originally to the manor of Toppesfield Hall. In 1252, king Henry III of England granted a weekly market and an annual fair to Gilbert de Kirkeby, his wife Lauretta and their heirs. By 1438, the Lord of the Manor was William de Clopton, who granted these rights, to fifteen trustees, with an initial annual payment of 6s 8d. In 1438, the Hadleigh Market Feoffment was formed, to manage the market and buildings. The oldest part of the complex, the Market House, fronts the churchyard. Later the Guilds Halls were built and the final addition was the New Town Hall. Abutting the Market House to the west was the 'Long Hall newly built' (1438), which appears to have been the home of the Grammar School, the earliest record of which is dated 7 May 1382. Its last use was as an almshouses and accommodation for the Dean's servants; but it was seriously damaged in a storm in 1884 and was demolished.

The town has a total of 246 listed buildings. Of these, four are Grade I listed: the grouping of St Mary's Church, the Deanery Tower and the Guildhall; and the Coffee Tavern in the High Street. Twenty-seven are II*. Hugh Pigot, curate of Hadleigh, identifies four 'remarkable' houses in his 1866 history of the town: Sun Court; a house in the High St; a house in George St; and Place Farm (demolished). The house in George St has since been identified as a hall house, known as Thorpes in the 1600s, and dated to 1380–1420. It was restored by Mr and Mrs Baines and given a Noel Turner Award by the Hadleigh Society in 2012.

The Georgian East House, on George Street, is designated a Grade II* listed building. In March 2013, plans by Babergh District Council to redevelop the site and build houses on the land behind were withdrawn after strong local protest. The property was once used for community activities and the Kray twins were billeted at the property during the Second World War. Opponents of the plan had argued that the adjacent land had been used as a village green for the previous 20 years. In 2018, the building was renovated into two private homes: East House and West Lodge by period property restorers Richard Abel and Ruth McCabe-Abel. The couple were awarded the Noel Turner Award by the Hadleigh Society in 2019 for their sympathetic restoration of East House and West Lodge.

Originating in the 14th century, the Grade II* listed Toppesfield Bridge, over the River Brett, is the oldest in the county still carrying vehicles. It was widened in 1812. Hadleigh also had its own Corn Exchange, completed in 1813.

Hadleigh was formerly the home of Babergh District Council. In November 2017, the council vacated its offices on Cork Lane.

Religion
The Anglican church of St Mary the Virgin is an active parish church in the archdeaconry of Ipswich in the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich. Its earliest parts date from medieval times. On 26 April 1950, the church was designated a Grade I listed building by English Heritage.

According to the Annals of St Neots, a chronicle compiled in Bury St Edmunds, King Guthrum (later called Æthelstan, died c.890) was buried at Headleage, which is usually identified as Hadleigh. He may have built the original Saxon church at this site, traces of which were revealed in the churchyard to the south of the porch, in 1829 and in 1984. There is no real evidence, however, that Guthrum was the founder of the church. In the Domesday Book, there is mention of a church at "Hetlega" being owned by Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury.

The deanery, with a tall Tudor gatehouse in brick built just before the Reformation, next to the church, is also a Grade I listed building.

Like its near neighbour, East Bergholt, Hadleigh was known during the 16th century for its Protestant radicalism. Rowland Taylor, a preacher from the town, and his curate, Richard Yeoman, were martyred by being burned at the stake during the reign of Queen Mary I. The Oxford Movement was said to have been founded in 1833 following a meeting in the deanery.

Hadleigh United Reformed Church, off Market Place, was originally the town's Congregational Church, founded in 1688. It was rebuilt in the early 19th century and restored in 1890. The Baptist chapel was built in 1830. St Joseph's Roman Catholic Church was built in 1966. In 1814, the Wesleyan Methodists purchased the 14th-century Thorpes hall house in George Street and leased it to the Primitive Methodists, known as Ranters, in 1836. In 1848 the Wesleyans built a chapel on land adjoining Thorpes and enlarged it in 1875. The chapel is now a Grade II listed home. There was also an Episcopal Mission Chapel built on Hadleigh Heath in 1878 and restored in 1891; it was disused by 1912.

Economy
The former Kings Arms on Benton Street is a typical example of timber framing. The building, a pub for over 400 years, has sections that date to the 15th century. It was known unofficially as the "Old Monkey" and is still referred to by that name today. It is now a private residence and bed and breakfast.

Hadleigh is home to several manufacturers, including Jim Lawrence Handcrafted Home Furnishings, and the Hadleigh Maid chocolate company. From November 2009 Hadleigh was the home of the Hellhound microbrewery; it moved to Bramford in June 2014 and ceased trading in June 2018.

The Brett Works site, off Pound Lane, was for some years the home of Brett Valley Joinery and was later allocated by Babergh District Council as a potential site for a new foodstore. Supermarket Tesco made a number of controversial proposals for the building of a store in the town. Their last proposal, for development of the Pound Lane site, was rejected by the council in July 2011. The proposal was rejected again in September 2013.

The Lady Lane Industrial estate is the location of Celotex Saint Gobain, the manufacturer of the insulation component in the cladding used at Grenfell Tower.

Culture
The annual Hadleigh Show, first held in 1840 and also known as 'the May Show', is one of the oldest one-day agricultural shows in East Anglia. Organised by the Hadleigh Farmers' Agricultural Association, the show enjoyed 12,500 visitors in 2013.

Benton End House, a Grade II* listed building on Benton Street, was originally a large medieval farmhouse. From 1940 it was the home of Sir Cedric Morris, artist and plantsman, who formed the East Anglian School of Painting and Drawing there. Students included Lucian Freud and Maggi Hambling.

The Ansell Community Centre was established in 2004 to provide community facilities in the locality. It operates the cinema ("Hollywood in Hadleigh"), organises luncheon clubs and arranges events.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC East and ITV Anglia. Television signals are received the Sudbury TV transmitter.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Suffolk on 103.9 FM, Heart East on 97.1 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Ipswich & Suffolk on 106.4 FM, Nation Radio Suffolk on 102.0 FM and ICR FM, a community based station which broadcasts from Ipswich on 105.7 FM.

Hadleigh has its own community newspaper, Hadleigh Community News but the town is also covered by the regional newspaper, East Anglian Daily Times.

Sport and leisure
Hadleigh has a Non-League football club, Hadleigh United, who play at Millfield. The town is also home to Hadleigh Rugby Club (HRFC). Both the football and rugby club boast thriving youth and senior sections.

The town's bowls and cricket clubs are among the oldest in Suffolk. The bowls club was founded in 1754. The cricket club is over 200 years old and pre-dates the Marylebone Cricket Club.

Other sporting clubs include the Hadleigh Tennis Club, Hadleigh Hares running club and Hadleigh Cycling Club.

At Benton End Farm there is an equestrian centre and a paintball centre.

A swimming pool was built in the 1960s, to which a sports centre was added in 2012; the pool was rebuilt in 2020.

Notable residents

 * Guthrum (c. 835 – c. 890), reigned as Danish King of East Anglia, between c. 879 and c. 890, and was buried at Hadleigh.
 * Nicholas Shaxton (c. 1485–1556), Protestant Reformer and Bishop of Salisbury 1535–1539, curate at Hadleigh in the 1540s
 * Rowland Taylor (1510-1585), Rector of Hadleigh from 1544. Protestant martyr during the Marian Persecutions, he was burnt at the stake at nearby Aldham Common.
 * John Overall (1559-1619), Bishop of Norwich in 1618, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (from 1614), and Dean of St Paul's Cathedral from 1601. He served as a translator of the Book of Genesis to 2 Kings for the 1611 and 1613 printings of the Authorized King James Version of the Bible.
 * Nathan Drake (1766–1836), essayist and physician who lived in Hadleigh from 1792 til his death.
 * Hugh James Rose (1795–1838), president of the Oxford Union in 1817, rector of Hadleigh, hosted the 'Hadleigh Conference' a landmark in the early history of the Tractarian Movement, Principal of King's College, London.
 * Thomas Woolner (1825-1892), born in Hadleigh a sculptor and poet who was one of the founder-members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
 * Howard Henry Tooth (1856-1925), neurologist and one of the discoverers of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.
 * Evelyn Martin (1881-1945), sailor, writer and cricketer
 * Cedric Morris (1889 - 1982) (artist and horticulturist) lived at Benton End and became notable for the Benton irises bred there. He is buried in Hadleigh.
 * Oswald Gayford (1893-1945) (pioneer aviator) was born in Hadleigh and lived at the family home, The Pink House on Angel Street. He became notable for his world record breaking flights, including the 5,340 mile flight from RAF Cranwell to South Africa in 1933 on a Fairey Long-range Monoplane and the even longer flight from Egypt to Australia in 1938 which won the Britannia Challenge Trophy for RAF. He became the Commanding officer at RAF Wattisham at the start of WWII and retired from RAF as an Air Commodore in 1944. Gayford was made Regional Controller for the Ministry of Fuel and Power in 1944.
 * Derek Wragge Morley (1920-1969), academic noted for his study of ants
 * Patrick Newell (1932-1988), the British actor who played spymaster "Mother" in the television series The Avengers, was born in Hadleigh.
 * Pauline Stainer (1941- ), English poet and author lives in the town.
 * Maggi Hambling (1945- ), artist grew up in Hadleigh and has one of her paintings displayed in St Mary's Church.
 * Jonathan Glancey (1954- ), The Guardian's architecture critic, journalist, lives in Hadleigh.
 * Caryn Franklin (1959- ), fashion designer, also lives in Hadleigh.
 * Russell Swallow of folk duo Swallow and the Wolf was born in Hadleigh
 * Ronald and Reginald Kray (The Kray Twins) were evacuated to East House during the Second World War with their mother Violet Kray, and their brother Charles.
 * British extreme metal band Cradle of Filth were formed in Hadleigh.
 * Stewart Whiting, Co-Founder and CTO of British medical technology startup Current Health, which was acquired by Best Buy for $400m in 2021, grew up in Hadleigh.
 * Geoffrey Winters (1928- ), composer, lives nearby in Semer.

title: Hadleigh, Suffolk


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Friedrich Blass

Friedrich Blass (22 January 1843, Osnabrück – 5 March 1907, Halle) was a German classical scholar.

Biography
After studying at Göttingen and Bonn from 1860 to 1863, Blass lectured at several gymnasia and at the University of Königsberg. In 1876 he was appointed extraordinary professor of classical philology at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he accepted a professorship at Halle, where he later died.

He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted with leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree from Dublin University in 1892, and his readiness to place the results of his labours at the disposal of others, together with the courtesy and kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all who knew him.

Blass is chiefly known for his works in connection with the study of Greek oratory: Die Attische Beredsamkeit von Alexander bis auf Augustus (1865); Die attische Beredsamkeit (1868–1880; 2nd ed., 1887–1898), his greatest work; editions for the Teubner series of Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1871, 2nd ed. 1881-1908, also including the surviving orations of Gorgias, Antisthenes, and Alcidamas), Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes (Dindorf's ed., 1885), Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes (Rehdantz ed., 1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, Leocrates (1902); Die Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa (1901); Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa (1905). With Bernhard Gerth, he published an enlarged edition of Kühner's Greek grammar, Ausführliche grammatik der griechischen sprache (1890–1904, four volumes).

Among his other works are editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία (4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchylides (3rd. ed., 1904); Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch (1902; Eng. trans. by H St John Thackeray, 1905); Hermeneutik und Kritik and Paläographie, Buchwesen, und Handschriftenkunde (vol. i. of Müller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, 1891); Über die Aussprache des Griechischen (1888; Eng. trans. by W. J. Purton, 1890); Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee (1904); contributions to Collitz's Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften; editions of the texts of certain portions of the New Testament (Gospels and Acts). His last work was an edition of the Choephori (1906).

See notices in the Academy, 16 March 1907 (JP Mahaffy); Classical Review, May 1907 (JE Sandys), which contains also a review of Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa.

title: Friedrich Blass


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Hunstanton

Hunstanton is a seaside town in Norfolk, England, which had a population of 4,229 at the 2011 Census. It faces west across The Wash. Hunstanton lies 102 miles (164 km) north-north-east of London and 40 miles (64 km) north-west of Norwich.

History
Hunstanton is a 19th-century resort town, initially known as New Hunstanton to distinguish it from the adjacent village of that name. The new town soon exceeded the village in scale and population.

The original settlement, now Old Hunstanton, probably gained its name from the River Hun, which runs to the coast just to the east. It has also been argued that the name originated from "Honeystone", referring to the local red carr stone. The river begins in the grounds of Old Hunstanton Park, which surrounds the moated Hunstanton Hall, the ancestral home of the Le Strange family. Old Hunstanton village is of prehistoric origin and lies near to the head of Peddars Way. In 1970, evidence of Neolithic settlement was found. The quiet character of the village remains distinct from its busy sibling and complements it with clifftop walks past a redundant lighthouse and the ruins of St Edmund's Chapel, built in 1272.

In 1846, Henry L'Estrange Styleman Le Strange (1815–1862), decided to develop the area south of Old Hunstanton as a bathing resort. He brought a group of like-minded investors into building a railway line from King's Lynn. In 1861, Le Strange, as principal landowner, became a director of the railway company. By 1862 the line had been built. Le Strange died that year at the age of 47, leaving his son Hamon to reap the rewards of his efforts. The Lynn and Hunstanton Railway became one of the most consistently profitable in the country.

Le Strange moved the ancient village cross from Old Hunstanton to a new site in 1846. In 1848 the first main building, the Royal Hotel (now the Golden Lion), was built by Victorian architect, William Butterfield, a friend of Le Strange. Overlooking a sloping green and the sea, and for several years standing alone, it earned the nickname "Le Strange's Folly". In 1850 Le Strange, an amateur architect and painter, appointed a land agent to survey the site and prepare a plan. Le Strange drew and painted a map and a perspective of the scheme, showing shops, a station and a church. He consulted William Butterfield on the design. Their shared passion was for an "Old English" style of architecture for domestic buildings, owing much to medieval precedents and the earnest Victorian Gothic Revival. Hunstanton came to exemplify a 19th-century estate seaside town. Most of the fabric and character of that development survives.

In 1915, during the First World War, Hunstanton was the headquarters of the West Norfolk training programme of the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders, as they prepared for active service on the Western Front. Among them were regimental bagpiper Iain Eairdsidh MacAsgaill (1898-1934), and poet Dòmhnall Ruadh Chorùna (1887-1967).

Hunstanton was hit badly by the North Sea flood of 1953. The wall of water on the night of 31 January – 1 February killed 31 people, 16 of them United States military personnel and their families. There were 35 more victims in neighbouring Snettisham and Heacham.

Governance
The Hunstanton electoral ward belongs to the Borough Council of King's Lynn and West Norfolk. Its 2011 population was 5,420. Hunstanton has a mayor and a 17-member town council that meets twice a month at Hunstanton Town Hall. The parish was formed as "New Hunstanton" in 1894 from "Hunstanton". On 1 April 1974 "New Hunstanton" parish was renamed "Hunstanton" and "Hunstanton" parish renamed "Old Hunstanton".

Geology
The coastal cliffs include the type section of the Hunstanton Formation of lower reddish limestone, which was laid down during the Lower Cretaceous. This is topped by a white chalk layer from the Upper Cretaceous period.

Tourism
Hunstanton's summer crowds are smaller than in the 1980s, although its relative popularity with day-trippers and holidaymakers has endured, despite the decline in British seaside holidaying. Businesses in villages south of Hunstanton (Dersingham, Ingoldisthorpe and Snettisham) complained in the 1990s of a loss in trade after being bypassed by the A149 to Hunstanton.

The town has several Victorian squares. Boston Square provides a view across the Wash to Boston, Lincolnshire where both Boston Stump and the seaside town of Skegness is visible on clear days.

Hunstanton has a fairground, aquarium and seal sanctuary, leisure pool, theatre, large caravan parks with amenities (Searle's Holiday Park opened in 1936), some amusement arcades, and a long promenade. The centrepiece remains the large sloping green from one end of High Street to the promenade.

Hunstanton has markets on Wednesdays and Sundays selling fresh fish and fresh fruit and vegetables attract greater visitor numbers in the summer months through to the autumn. The main shopping streets have stone buildings, some with glazed canopies, evoking the Victorian and Edwardian eras of their construction.

In good weather, excursion boats take visitors out to view grey and common seals that have colonised sand bars in the Wash and to the north of Norfolk. The countryside around Hunstanton is hillier than most of Norfolk and sparsely populated, the only large settlement nearby is King's Lynn, 12 mi to the south.

Hunstanton Pier
The town once had a Victorian pleasure pier, with a pavilion and miniature steam railway. The pier pavilion was destroyed by fire in 1939, the pier was damaged by fire again in the 1950s, before almost the entire structure was washed away by a storm in 1978. What remained extended just 15 feet out from the amusement arcade and cafe built on the site of the original entrance. In 2002, the entire building, with the remains of the pier, was destroyed in a fire. The building was too badly damaged for the cause to be determined. Today, the site is occupied by an arcade and bowling alley complex.

The pier featured in the 1957 Ealing Studios comedy film Barnacle Bill (released in the US as All at Sea) starring Alec Guinness.

Transport
The town is linked to King's Lynn by a frequent Lynx bus service. Other services run to Sandringham, Wells-next-the-Sea, Sheringham and Cromer.

Hunstanton railway station offered services to King's Lynn until 1969, when the line was closed as uneconomic.

Education
The Smithdon High School (formerly Hunstanton Secondary Modern School) is an early building designed by the architects Peter and Alison Smithson, built in 1949–1954 in a radical style of international architectural significance. It is a Grade II* listed building.

The school epitomised architectural experiment in post-war Britain and growing acceptance of modernism by public authorities. It was praised for an intelligent layout and formal elegance. The Smithsons deliberately left many of the service elements of the school exposed, making a feature of the water tank by turning it into a tower. The disposition, steel frames and panels of brick and glass echo the work of Mies van der Rohe at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Hunstanton is home to Glebe House School, an independent co-educational preparatory school.

Theatre, cinema and culture
The Princess Theatre is a 472-seat, year-round venue for shows from comedy to drama, music for all tastes, and children's productions. It also has a six-week summer season and an annual Christmas pantomime. Films are screened in the week. Opened as the Capitol Cinema in 1932, it is noted for its Norfolk carr stone construction, of which it contains the largest gable wall in existence. It was designed as a theatre as well as a cinema, but closed in the 1960s and was sold in 1974. It reopened as the Kingsley Centre for summer seasons and films for about two years, but declined into a bingo hall before closing again. The Borough Council of King's Lynn and West Norfolk purchased it in 1981, and in honour of Lady Diana Spencer, who married the Prince of Wales in July 1981, it was renamed the Princess Theatre and officially re-opened on 5 July 1981.

Hunstanton Concert Band plays in and around Hunstanton at a wide variety of venues including churches, fêtes, concerts and the town's bandstand. The Deaf Havana album Fools and Worthless Liars featured a track called "Hunstanton Pier", a nostalgic recollection of the town where James Veck-Gilodi, its lead singer, grew up.

Literary associations
Between the world wars, P. G. Wodehouse often visited his friend Charles Le Strange at Hunstanton Hall. It influenced a number of locations in his comic novels, as Aunt Agatha's country seat Woollam Chersey and the inspiration for the setting for Money for Nothing (1928). The octagon in the garden featured in "Jeeves and the Impending Doom". Norfolk also furnishes names for many of Wodehouse's characters, such as Brancaster, Jack Snettisham and J. Sheringham Adair.

L. P. Hartley knew the Hunstanton neighbourhood from childhood holidays and used it as a setting for The Shrimp and the Anemone (1944), the first novel in his Eustace and Hilda trilogy. It is at Hunstanton Hall, fictionalised as Anchorstone Hall, that Eustace enters the privileged world of the aristocracy and eventually inherits a small fortune. The layered chalk, red chalk and carr-stone cliffs at Hunstanton provide a backdrop for Eustace and Hilda's games among the rock pools.

Patrick Hamilton's novel Hangover Square opens with George Harvey Bone walking on the cliffs in Hunstanton. Hamilton lived for many years at Martincross in Sheringham and spent time in the 1930s in a cottage in Burnham Overy Staithe, with his first wife, Lois.

Media
Regional TV services are provided by BBC Yorkshire and Lincolnshire and ITV Yorkshire. Television signals are received from the Belmont TV transmitter. BBC East and ITV Anglia are also received through cable and satellite television such as Freesat and Sky.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Norfolk, Heart East, Greatest Hits Radio West Norfolk (formerly KL.FM 96.7) Radio West Norfolk and KL1 Radio.

The town is served by these local newspapers:
 * Lynn News
 * Your Local Paper
 * The Eastern Daily Press

Sport
Hunstanton attracts thousands during a week in August, for the ITA Hunstanton Lawn Tennis tournament – the biggest in England after Wimbledon, inaugurated in 1920. All ages can play from the young (Under 8 Round Robin) to senior veterans. It acts also as a big social event.

Hunstanton Golf Club, founded in 1891 by Hamon Le Strange, is an 18-hole championship links along the sandy coast of Old Hunstanton. It has a classic "out and back" design on either side of a central spine or dune ridge. The 12th, 13th and 14th holes play across the ridge.

The town has hosted several international sporting events, including the 2005 World Water Ski Racing Championships.

Notable people
In birth order:
 * Edmund the Martyr (died 869), King of East Anglia, supposedly landed here to claim his kingdom about 855.
 * Sir Roger L'Estrange (1616–1704), Royalist and pamphleteer, was born here.
 * Guy Le Strange (1854–1933), Middle East scholar and linguist, was born here.
 * George Grundy (1859–1945), first-class cricketer, died here.
 * Tiverton Preedy (1863–1928), Anglican cleric and sports promoter, was born here.
 * Clara Dow (1883–1969), operatic soprano and actress, made her stage début here in 1899.
 * Robert Herring MC (1897–1973), an officer in the London Regiment, a flying ace in the Royal Flying Corps, and the Royal Air Force during both World Wars, born here.
 * Reis Leming (1930–2012), US airman, received the UK George Medal for rescuing 27 people from South Beach during the North Sea flood of 1953.
 * Richard Greer (born 1946), motorcycle speedway rider in the 1970s and 1980s, lives here.
 * Bill Alexander (born 1948), theatre director, was born here.

title: Hunstanton


text:
Sudbury, Suffolk

Sudbury is a market town in the south west of Suffolk, England, on the River Stour near the Essex border, 60 mi north-east of London. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 13,063. It is the largest town in the Babergh local government district and part of the South Suffolk constituency.

Sudbury was an Anglo-Saxon settlement from the end of the 8th century, and its market was established in the early 11th century. Its textile industries prospered in the Late Middle Ages, the wealth of which funded many of its buildings and churches. The town became notable for its art in the 18th century, being the birthplace of Thomas Gainsborough, whose landscapes offered inspiration to John Constable, another Suffolk painter of the surrounding Stour Valley area. The 19th century saw the arrival of the railway with the opening of a station on the historic Stour Valley Railway, and Sudbury railway station forms the current terminus of the Gainsborough Line. In World War II, US Army Air Forces bombers operated from RAF Sudbury.

Today, Sudbury retains its status as a market town with a twice-weekly market in the town centre in front of St Peter's Church, which is now a cultural venue for events such as concerts and exhibitions. In sport, the town has a semi-professional football club, A.F.C. Sudbury, which competes at the seventh level of the football pyramid.

It is home to the Gainsborough's House museum, celebrating the work of the artist.

Early history
Sudbury's history dates back into the age of the Saxons. The town's earliest mention is in circa 799, when Ælfhun, Bishop of Dunwich, died in the town. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the town as Suðberie ("south-borough"), presumed to distinguish it from Norwich or Bury St Edmunds, to the north, and c. 995 is recorded as Suðbyrig. The town is also mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, as a market town where the local people came to barter their goods. The market was established in 1009. During this period the town was surrounded by a defensive ditch and a diverted section of the River Stour.

The Church of All Saints was established in the 12th century before being bought by Adam the Monk, who then passed the church and its lands to the Abbey of St Albans. St Bartholemew's Benedictine Priory and the Chapel of Holy Sepulchre were also established in the 12th century.

A community of Dominicans established Sudbury Priory in the mid-13th century and gradually extended the size of their priory, which was one of three Dominican priories in the county of Suffolk. A leper hospital was founded on the outskirts of the town in 1272.

Sudbury was one of the first towns in which Edward III settled the Flemings, allowing the weaving and silk industries to prosper for centuries during the Late Middle Ages. As the main town in the area, Sudbury prospered too, and many great houses and churches were built, giving the town a major historical legacy. The Woolsack in the House of Lords was originally stuffed with wool from the Sudbury area, a sign of both the importance of the wool industry and of the wealth of the donors.

One citizen of Sudbury, Archbishop Simon Sudbury showed that not even the Tower of London guarantees safety. On 14 June 1381 guards opened the Tower's doors and allowed a party of rebellious peasants to enter. Sudbury, inventor of the poll tax, was dragged to Tower Hill and beheaded. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral, but his skull is kept in St Gregory's Church, one of the three medieval churches in Sudbury. Simon's concerns for his native town are reflected in the founding of St Leonard's Hospital in 1372, a place of respite, towards Long Melford, for lepers. For the College of St Gregory, which he founded in 1375 to support eight priests, he used his father's former house and an adjoining plot.

From the 16th to 18th century the weaving industry was less consistently profitable and Sudbury experienced periods of varying prosperity. By means of the borough court, the mayor and corporation directed the affairs of the town. They built a house of correction (1624) for 'rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars' and tried to finance the reconstruction of Ballingdon Bridge, which disappeared during a storm on 4 September 1594. Among theatrical companies that they paid to visit Sudbury were Lord Strange's Men (1592) and the King's Men (1610). Minor infringements, such as not attending church, were punished by fines; for worse offenders there was a stocks or a whipping. During the Civil War a 12-strong band of watchmen was created to prevent the town's enemies, presumed to be Royalists, burning it down.

Sudbury and the surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, was a hotbed of Puritan sentiment during much of the 17th century. Sudbury was among the towns called "notorious wasps' nests of dissent." During the 1630s, many families departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the wave of emigration that occurred during the Great Migration.

In 1706 the River Stour Navigation Act 1705 (4 & 5 Ann. c. 2) was passed in Parliament, and work was undertaken to make the river navigable all the way from Manningtree.

By the 18th century the fees charged to become a freeman, with voting rights, were exorbitant and the borough of Sudbury, along with 177 other English towns, was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.

During the 18th century Sudbury became famous for its local artists. John Constable painted in the area, especially the River Stour. Painter Thomas Gainsborough was born in Sudbury in 1727, and was educated at Sudbury Grammar School. His birthplace, now named Gainsborough's House, is a museum to his work and is open to the public. It houses many valuable pictures and some of his family possessions. A statue of Gainsborough was unveiled in the town centre outside St Peter's Church on Market Hill in 1913.

Victorian times to 1960s
The Reform Act 1832 (2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45) saw the villages of Ballingdon and Brundon appended to the town. In the 1841 general election Sudbury became the first place in the UK to elect a member of an ethnic minority to parliament, with David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, the son of an Indian queen, winning the seat. However, he was not allowed to take his place in parliament as he was subsequently declared insane.

A new workhouse was built in 1836 off Walnut Tree Lane, close to St Gregory's church. From 1946, with the foundation of the National Health Service, it became the local cottage hospital.

Sudbury's Catholic Church, Our Lady Immaculate and St. John the Evangelist, was designed by Leonard Stokes and erected in 1893. The shrine of Our Lady of Sudbury sits within its nave.

During the Second World War an American squadron of B-24 Liberator bombers of the 834th Squadron (H), 486th Bomb Group (H), 8th Air Force was based at RAF Sudbury. This squadron performed many important bombing and photographic missions during the war, but is perhaps best known as the "Zodiac Squadron", as its bombers were decorated with colourful images of the twelve signs of the zodiac painted by a professional artist named Phil Brinkman, who was taken into the squadron by its commander, Capt. Howell, specifically for the purpose of painting the bombers. Now most of the airfield buildings have been demolished, including the control tower. Sections of perimeter track, aircraft hard stand areas, and two narrow crossing lengths of former runways provide footpaths between Chilton, Newmans Green and Great Waldingfield. A number of pillboxes were constructed along the river and by Ballingdon Bridge, many of which are extant.

The Corn Exchange became the local public library after a successful campaign in the mid-1960s by the Corn Exchange Preservation Association to save it.

Governance
Sudbury was a municipal borough in the administrative county of West Suffolk, with its headquarters at Sudbury Town Hall, the district contained the parishes of Sudbury and Ballingdon and until 1935 Sudbury St Bartholomew. In the local government reorganisation of 1974 the district was abolished to form Babergh. in the non-metropolitan county of Suffolk. Sudbury became a successor parish. Being an urban area the parish council and its chair are known as the 'Town Council' and 'Town Mayor' respectively.

From 1559 until 1844 the parliamentary constituency of Sudbury returned two Members of Parliament, before it was disenfranchised for corruption. The Sudbury election of 1835, which Charles Dickens reported for the Morning Chronicle, is thought by many experts to be the inspiration for the famous Eatanswill election in his novel Pickwick Papers. In the previous year's by-election a dead heat of 263 votes each was recorded for the two candidates, Edward Barnes and J. Bagshaw. The mayor of Sudbury gave a casting vote to Barnes despite having already voted, and the decision led to serious riots in the town. A county constituency of the same name was established by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 for the 1885 general election, electing one MP by the first past the post voting system. It was abolished for the 1950 general election when it was merged with the Woodbridge constituency to form Sudbury and Woodbridge. In 1983 this constituency was abolished, and Sudbury formed part of the new South Suffolk constituency. The current MP is James Cartlidge (Conservative Party).

Schools
The town's only secondary school is Ormiston Sudbury Academy. The school was formed, as Sudbury Upper School, in 1972 from an amalgamation of Sudbury Grammar School, the High School for Girls and the Secondary Modern School, following the introduction of comprehensive education. There are several primary schools, including Tudor CEVC Primary School, St. Gregory CEVCP, St Joseph's Roman Catholic Primary School and Woodhall Primary School. Salters Hall School which was partly housed in the town's fifteenth century building of the same name, was closed in 1995.

Media
Sudbury is served by a daily newspaper, the East Anglian Daily Times, owned by the Archant group. There are also two weekly newspapers, both published on a Thursday. The Sudbury Mercury, again owned by Archant, is delivered free to households, and the Suffolk Free Press, owned by Iliffe Media, is sold in shops around south Suffolk and north Essex.

Sports
The town's main football club, A.F.C. Sudbury, was formed on 1 June 1999 by the amalgamation of two existing clubs, Sudbury Town (founded 1885) and Sudbury Wanderers (founded 1958). Three times FA Vase finalists, they are currently members of the Isthmian League Premier Division. The local rugby club, Sudbury R.F.C. have previously played as high as National 3 in English rugby, but are currently in the London 2 North East. The club's ground is in neighbouring village, Great Cornard. The town's oldest sports club is Sudbury Cricket Club, founded in 1787, who currently play in the East Anglian Premier League.

The Kingfisher Leisure Centre, next to the railway station, has a 25 m swimming pool, sauna, fitness centre and a soft play area for children. It is home to Sudbury Storms Swimming Club.

Sudbury Rowing Club, formerly Sudbury Boat Club, was founded in 1874 and has held a regatta in the town every year since, except during the world wars. It has a boathouse and clubhouse in Quay Lane and rows on a 1500 m stretch of the Stour by Friars Meadow.

Other sporting groups include a canoeing club, a hapkido club, a running club and a boxing club.

Culture
Once a busy and important river port the last industrial building on the riverside in Sudbury has been converted into the town's Quay Theatre. The River Stour Trust, formed in 1968, has its headquarters in Sudbury, and a purpose built visitor centre located at Cornard Lock. The trust operates electric-powered boats from the Granary in Quay Lane, to Great Henny, a few miles downstream. Each September, the 24 mi stretch of the River Stour hosts hundreds of canoe and small boat enthusiasts in a weekend event called Sudbury to the Sea, which finishes at Cattawade.

St Peter's Church, Sudbury a former church crowning the top of the Market Hill in the centre of Sudbury is now used as a cultural venue for live music and other performances, art exhibitions, and markets. St Peter's is currently in the delivery phase of a major regeneration project to conserve and refurbish the building, led by The Churches Conservation Trust.

Valley Walk cycle route and footpath, starts at the Sudbury water meadows and continues along the disused railway track, finishing close to Long Melford Country Park, and then connects to Melford Walk.

Commencing in 2006 the town has hosted the charity fundraising pop music festival, Leestock.

Children's author Dodie Smith lived near to Sudbury, and part of her famous novel The Hundred and One Dalmatians, which inspired the Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians, takes place in the town including St Peter's Church. "Just before midnight they came to the market town of Sudbury. Pongo paused as they crossed the bridge over the River Stour. 'Here we enter Suffolk' he said, triumphantly. They ran on through the quiet streets of old houses and into the market square. They had hoped they might meet some dog and hear if any news of the puppies had come at the Twilight Barking, but not so much as a cat was stirring. While they were drinking at the fountain, church clocks began to strike midnight."

Transport
By road, Sudbury is served by the A131 which runs from near Little Waltham, north of Chelmsford in Essex, and the A134 which runs from Colchester in Essex, through Bury St Edmunds, past Thetford in Norfolk to its west, before merging with the A10 south of King's Lynn. There is a taxi rank for Hackney carriages at Old Market Place. The bus station on Hamilton Road in the town centre provides services to neighbouring places, operated by Hedingham & Chambers and other operators.

The railway arrived in Sudbury in 1847 when Sudbury railway station was built on the Stour Valley Railway. The town escaped the Beeching Axe of the 1960s and maintained its rail link with London, although many villages further up the river lost their railway stations. Sudbury railway station now forms the terminus of the branch line which is marketed as the Gainsborough Line, with stops at Bures and Chappel and Wakes Colne railway stations, terminating at Marks Tey railway station. This junction on the Great Eastern Main Line provides connections to London, where trains terminate at Liverpool Street station.

The town was formerly a port; from 1705, horse-drawn lighters transported grain to the numerous water-mills, locally made bricks, coal and even coconuts used for mat-making in Sudbury and Long Melford. Cargos, such as hay and straw, were transhipped in the River Stour estuary at Mistley into Thames barges for transport to London for the horses; they brought back horse-manure for the wheat and barley fields that lie on both sides of the river. During the Great War of 1914–18, and fearing German invasion, the remaining fourteen Stour Lighters were scuttled in Ballingdon Cut. One of these was raised and completely rebuilt by the Pioneer Trust in Brightlingsea. It was delivered, fitted with electric propulsion, to the River Stour Trust in 2012.

International links
The Canadian city of Greater Sudbury, Ontario (formerly known as Sudbury and still referred to as Sudbury in everyday usage) was named after Sudbury, becoming a settlement in 1883 following the discovery of rich nickel and copper ores there during the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The superintendent of the railway construction project James Worthington was married to Caroline Hitchcock, a woman who had been born in Sudbury, Suffolk, and the name was chosen to honour her.

Sudbury has two namesakes in the New England region of the United States: Sudbury, Massachusetts, and Sudbury, Vermont.

Twin towns
Sudbury is twinned with Höxter in Germany, Clermont in France and Fredensborg in Denmark.

Notable people

 * Simon Sudbury (c. 1316–1381), Bishop of London, then Archbishop of Canterbury and later  Lord Chancellor of England
 * Paul Bayning, 1st Viscount Bayning of Sudbury (1588 – 1629), landed gentleman and Sheriff of Essex
 * Thomas Gainsborough (1727–1788), portrait and landscape painter, draughtsman, and printmaker
 * Andrew Phillips, Baron Phillips of Sudbury (1939–2023), solicitor, broadcaster, writer, Liberal Democrat politician, Chancellor of the University of Essex, co-founder of the Legal Action Group charity
 * Maggi Hambling (born 1945), artist
 * Stuart Slater (born 1969), professional footballer
 * Joel Willans (born 1972), author, copywriter and advertising agency proprietor
 * Amanda Ansell (born 1976), artist

The landscape painter John Constable (1776–1837) worked in and near the town. Ruralist journalist and farmer Adrian Bell (1901–1980) wrote the agricultural memoir Corduroy at his parents' rented house in the town. Musician Jack Bruce (1943–2014), lead singer and bassist of the rock band Cream, died in Sudbury.

title: Sudbury, Suffolk


text:
Scherzo

A scherzo (,, ; plural scherzos or scherzi), in western classical music, is a short composition – sometimes a movement from a larger work such as a symphony or a sonata. The precise definition has varied over the years, but scherzo often refers to a movement that replaces the minuet as the third movement in a four-movement work, such as a symphony, sonata, or string quartet. The term can also refer to a fast-moving humorous composition that may or may not be part of a larger work.

Origins
The Italian word scherzo means "joke" or "jest." More rarely, the similar-meaning word badinerie (also spelled battinerie; from French, "jesting") has been used. Sometimes the word scherzando ("joking") is used in musical notation to indicate that a passage should be executed in a playful manner. An early use of the word scherzo in music is in light-hearted madrigals of the early baroque period, which were often called scherzi musicali, for example:
 * Claudio Monteverdi wrote two sets of works with this title, in 1607 and in 1632.
 * Antonio Brunelli wrote Scherzi, Arie, Canzonette e Madrigale for voices and instruments in 1616.
 * Johann Baptist Schenk wrote Scherzi musicale (fourteen suites for gamba and continuo).

Later, composers applied the term scherzo (plural scherzos or scherzi) and sometimes badinerie to certain instrumental works in fast tempos in duple meter time signature, for example:
 * The scherzo of Johann Sebastian Bach's Partita No. 3 for keyboard.

 * The best-known "Badinerie" is the final movement of Bach's Orchestral Suite No. 2 in B minor.
 * Badineries in French ouvertures by Christoph Graupner and Georg Philipp Telemann.

The scherzo, as most commonly known today, developed from the minuet and trio, and gradually came to replace it as the third (sometimes second) movement in symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, and similar works. It traditionally retains the triple meter time signature and ternary form of the minuet, but is considerably quicker. It is often, but not always, of a light-hearted nature.

The main features include a 6 - 8 bar melody with one beat per bar feel.

Form
The scherzo itself is a rounded binary form, but, like the minuet, is usually played with the accompanying trio followed by a repeat of the scherzo, creating the ABA or ternary form. This is sometimes done twice or more (ABABA). The "B" theme is a trio, a contrasting section not necessarily for only three instruments, as was often the case with the second minuet of classical suites (the first Brandenburg Concerto has a famous example). In some cases the scherzo is in sonata form, for example the third movement of Brahms's Fourth Symphony in E Minor.

Appearance/examples in compositions
Scherzos occasionally differ from this traditional structure in various ways.
 * Some examples are not in the customary triple meter—for example, the scherzo of Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, which is in time; or the trio section of the scherzo from his Second Symphony which is in  time. Another example is Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 18. This example is also unusual in being written in orthodox sonata form rather than the usual ternary form for such a movement, and thus it lacks a trio section. This sonata is also unusual in that the scherzo is followed by a minuet and trio movement—whereas most sonatas have either a scherzo movement or a minuet movement, but not both. Some analysts have attempted to account for these irregularities by analyzing the scherzo as the sonata's slow movement, which is rather fast. That would keep the traditional structure for a four-movement sonata that Beethoven usually followed, especially in the first half of his piano sonatas.
 * Joseph Haydn wrote minuets that are close to scherzi in tone — but it was Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert who first used scherzi widely, with Beethoven in particular turning the polite rhythm of the minuet into a much more intense – and sometimes even savage – dance. Although in 1781, Haydn substituted menuets for scherzi in all of his 6 String Quartets, Op. 33.

The scherzo remained a standard movement in the symphony and related forms through the 19th century and beyond. Composers also began to write scherzi as pieces in themselves, stretching the boundaries of the form. In present-day compositions, the scherzo has also made appearances.
 * The first three of Frédéric Chopin's four well-known scherzos for the piano are especially dark, with an intense energy, and hardly come off as jokes. Robert Schumann remarked of them, "How is 'gravity' to clothe itself if 'jest' goes about in dark veils?" Chopin's four scherzos are written as single movements, on an unprecedented large scale going beyond the previous Beethovenian model of classical multi-movement works.
 * In a letter, Brahms referred to the scherzo from his Second Piano Concerto as a "little wisp of a scherzo", in one of his typically sarcastic remarks, as it is a heavyweight movement.
 * Other examples; the second movement of Shostakovich's Symphony No. 10, the second (sometimes third) movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 6, Felix Mendelssohn's composition for A Midsummer Night's Dream between act 1 and 2, and in several of Bruckner's symphonies.
 * Australian composer Julian Cochran wrote extensively for the form, with four scherzi for piano and two grand scherzi for symphony orchestra.
 * The soundtrack release of John Williams' film score for Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) includes a track titled "Scherzo for X-Wings" which follows the typical scherzo rounded binary form and presents itself in a time. Williams had previously composed "Scherzo for Motorcycle and Orchestra" for the film score of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and in 1985 the Scherzo for Today for NBC's The Today Show.

title: Scherzo