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Fernando Vargas

Fernando Javier Vargas (born December 7, 1977) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1997 to 2007. He was a two-time light middleweight world champion, having held the IBF title from 1998 to 2000, and the WBA title from 2001 to 2002. As an amateur he won a bronze medal in the light welterweight division at the 1995 Pan American Games, and reached the second round of the welterweight bracket at the 1996 Olympics.

Vargas is best known for his heated rivalries against Felix Trinidad, Oscar De La Hoya, Shane Mosley, and Ricardo Mayorga.

Amateur career
In his youth Vargas compiled a remarkable amateur record of 100–5. In 1992, he won the 132 lb. championships at the Junior Olympics Box-Offs, and came in second at the Junior Olympics. In 1993, he captured the triple crown of amateur boxing: the Junior Olympics Box-Offs, the Junior Olympics, and the Junior Olympics International tournament. The following year he solidified his position as one of the premier amateur fighters in the world by winning the 132 lb gold medal at the Olympic Festival, seizing the U.S. Junior Championships at 132 lb, and by becoming the youngest fighter ever to win the U.S. Championships. In 1995, he was selected to the 1996 U.S. Olympic Team.

Vargas lost a controversial decision in the second round of the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. He was scheduled to turn pro in November 1996, however, while training for his debut bout he broke his right hand. Eager to turn pro and begin his march toward a world championship, Vargas "ferociously" followed his physical therapy program, and within five months he was ready for his professional debut.

Amateur achievements

 * Won the 132-lb Junior Olympics Box-Offs; came in second at the Junior Olympics (1992)
 * Won the Junior Olympics Box-Offs, the Junior Olympics, and the Junior Olympics International tournament (1993)
 * Won the 132-lb gold medal at the U.S. Olympic Festival (1994), seizing the U.S. Championships at 132 pounds, becoming the youngest boxer ever to win the U.S. Championships (Seniors).
 * Participated at the 1994 World Junior Championships, losing in the quarter-finals.
 * 1995 Pan American Games Bronze Medalist in Mar Del Plata (ARG)
 * Selected to the 1996 U.S. Olympic Team, defeated Tengiz Meskhadze (Georgia) 10–4, but lost to Marian Simion (Romania) 7–8 in the second bout.

Professional career
In his professional debut on March 25, 1997, Vargas crushed Jorge Morales in just 56 seconds. He quickly beat his next five opponents, spending only eight rounds in his first six bouts. By the time of his first world championship he won all his 14 bouts by knockout. He won his first world title in 1998, knocking out Yori Boy Campas in seven rounds for the IBF light middleweight championship. Vargas successfully defended the title throughout 1999, with victories over Howard Clarke (TKO 4), Raúl Márquez (TKO 11), Winky Wright (MD 12), and Ike Quartey (UD 12).

Trinidad vs. Vargas
Vargas lost the title to Félix Trinidad in 2000. Vargas was knocked down twice in the first round, he was able to fight his way back by knocking down Trinidad in the fourth round until finally being knocked out in the 12th and final round.

Legal troubles
In 2001 Vargas was sentenced to 90 days in House Arrest stemming from a 1999 assault charge. Vargas and four friends were originally charged with assault with a deadly weapon and conspiracy to commit a crime stemming from a July 25, 1999, altercation at a Summerland, California home. The defendants were accused of assaulting Doug Rossi, 23, who had broken up a fight between Vargas and a female friend's ex-boyfriend.

De La Hoya vs. Vargas

 * On September 14, 2002, Vargas surrendered his WBA title to Oscar De La Hoya in a historical light middleweight championship unification showdown that filled the Mandalay Bay Events Center to capacity and sold approximately one million pay-per-view buys.
 * In the early rounds Vargas bullied De La Hoya against the ropes and landed right hands to the head and body; however, in the middle and late rounds Vargas fatigued and De La Hoya's hand speed took over. After hurting Vargas at the end of round 10, De La Hoya dropped Vargas in the next round with a left hook to the head, and stopped him moments later with a flurry at the 1:48 mark of the round.
 * During the mandatory drug testing after the de la Hoya fight, Vargas tested positive for the banned steroid stanozolol better known as Winstrol. Vargas said the steroids were given to him without his knowledge, but he accepted full responsibility. The Nevada Athletic Commission announced on November 20, 2002, that it would fine Vargas $100,000 because of his use of steroids. Fernando Vargas was suspended for nine months.

Comeback trail
Despite these problems, Fernando remained an accessible and popular celebrity, known for signing many autographs. After his knockout win over Fitz Vanderpool on July 26, 2003, he stood in a corner and yelled "I love you guys!" to his fans. Vargas continued his comeback, on December 12, with a seventh-round knockout of Tony Marshall that was shown live nationwide from Tucson, on TeleFutura. During that fight, Vargas injured a disc in his back, and his doctor recommended surgery, but Vargas chose to rehabilitate his back himself without having the procedure. This caused him to spend almost two years in inactivity, but, on March 26, 2005, he returned to boxing with a ten-round unanimous decision win over Ray Joval in Corpus Christi, Texas.

On August 20, 2005, he returned to the boxing ring to fight fellow former world light middleweight champion Javier Castillejo of Spain. Vargas dropped Castillejo in the third round, but he apparently broke his right hand and went on to win by a ten-round unanimous decision.

Mosley vs. Vargas I & II
On February 25, 2006, Vargas once again returned to the ring to face fellow Southern California boxer Sugar Shane Mosley. In a tightly contested battle, Vargas' left eye became grotesquely swollen and referee Joe Cortez decided to stop the fight in the 10th round to minimize further damage, granting a technical knockout (TKO) victory to Mosley. The reasoning behind the stoppage, explained Nevada State Athletic Commission czar Marc Ratner, was that the referee and the fight doctor deemed that Vargas was unable to defend himself adequately against Mosley's right-hand shots. At the time of the stoppage, two judges had Mosley winning the fight 86–85. One judge had Vargas winning the fight 86–85. Fightnews.com had the bout scored 86-85 for Mosley. In the post fight press conference, Vargas made it clear that he would resume his boxing career and stated that a rematch with Mosley should be in order because the match was stopped on a technicality. ESPN boxing expert Dan Rafael wrote: "Vargas is so utterly delusional about what actually happened in his first fight with Mosley that we think he might have a concussion. When will he stop lying to himself -- and when will his team stop going along with him? He needs to admit that: (a) The swelling around his eye was caused by a clean punch, not a headbutt; and (b) He was not winning the fight when it was stopped in the 10th round."

In their highly anticipated July 15, 2006, rematch, Vargas was stopped in the 6th round via TKO. When the sixth round began, Mosley landed a huge left hook that sent Vargas crashing to the canvas. Vargas rolled over onto all fours and was unsteady, but after stumbling twice he finally beat referee Kenny Bayless' count. Moments later, Mosley unleashed another flurry as Vargas could only protect his face, and the referee stopped the fight at 2:38 as a beaten and disoriented Vargas staggered back to his corner.

Showdown with Ricardo Mayorga
It was confirmed on May 13, 2007, that Vargas would face Ricardo Mayorga on September 8, 2007, on Showtime PPV for the vacant WBC Continental Americas super middleweight title. However the fight was postponed after it was discovered during a routine blood test that Vargas was suffering from a severe iron deficiency. Doctors ordered Vargas not to participate in the upcoming bout until he received the necessary weeks of treatment to correct the problem. When the bout eventually took place it would be fought at 162 pounds, a weight that neither boxer has ever fought at. Many sources claim that Vargas had complained about fighting at the Jr. Middleweight limit of 154 pounds, stating that it's "too much for his body to take". Vargas has stated that fighting at that weight was the reason he did poorly against Mosley in the second fight.

Vargas claimed that this would be the last fight of his career regardless of the result. He warned Mayorga that he would not tolerate any insults from him like the ones he hurled at Oscar De La Hoya in their press conferences. Vargas stayed true to his promise when at the first official press conference for the fight, Mayorga said some offensive things towards Vargas and attempted to slap him. Vargas immediately jumped up from his seat and retaliated with punches and a brawl broke out between the two fighters' camps, though order was quickly restored. Vargas also recalled the time when Mayorga said Vargas was scared of him when he had defeated Javier Castillejo, then was stripped of his WBC light middleweight title rather than face Mayorga, who then defeated Michele Piccirillo for the vacant title. Ultimately the contestants faced off, and Mayorga defeated Vargas by majority decision on November 23, 2007. The scores were 113-113, 114–112, and 115–111. Crucially, Vargas was knocked down in the 1st round and again in the 11th round. Post-fight Ricardo Mayorga apologized to Vargas and the two forgave each other. Vargas officially declared his retirement soon after.

Cancelled return to boxing in 2011
It was confirmed that after a three-year hiatus, former world champion Fernando Vargas would return to the boxing ring against super middleweight Henry Buchanan on April 16, 2011, at Hard Rock Casino in Las Vegas. However, the fight was canceled for unknown reasons.

Acting career
Vargas had a role in the 2006 crime drama film Alpha Dog, playing the character Tiko "TKO" Martinez. Vargas also played an unnamed guest star on the television show Moesha, in the season two episode "Mama Said Knock You Out."

Reality television series
In 2014, Vargas and his family became the subjects of a reality show on Mun2 television station, Welcome to Los Vargas. He also participated, alongside Judith Grace, Maripily, Pedro Rivera and Sissi Fleitas, among others, in the Telemundo reality contest, ''Top Chef Celebrity. ''

title: Fernando Vargas


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Luna programme

The Luna programme (from the Russian word Луна "Luna" meaning "Moon"), occasionally called Lunik by western media, was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. The programme accomplished many firsts in space exploration, including first flyby of the Moon, first impact of the Moon and first photos of the far side of the Moon. Each mission was designed as either an orbiter or lander. They also performed many experiments, studying the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation.

Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, although more were launched. Those that failed to reach orbit were not publicly acknowledged at the time, and not assigned a Luna number. Those that failed in low Earth orbit were usually given Cosmos designations. The estimated cost of the Luna programme in 1964 was US$6–10 billion (equivalent to US$– billion in ). The Luna 25 mission also continues the Luna designation, although it is considered to be a part of the Luna-Glob exploration programme. The same applies to other planned missions such as Luna 26, Luna 27 and Luna 28.

Mission types
The name Luna was used to designate a variety of spacecraft designs, to achieve several types of missions:

Impactors

Impactor spacecraft had the generic designation of Ye-1 (or E-1 depending on transliteration from Russian) and were designed to hit the near side of the Moon. Luna 1 (January 1959) missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to escape the Earth-Moon system. Luna 2 (September 1959) mission successfully hit the Moon's surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon. This was Luna's only impact success out of six tries from September 1958 to September 1959.

Flybys
A flyby is the simplest lunar spacecraft, requiring neither a propulsion device for slowing, nor a guidance system sensitive enough to hit the Moon. Flyby spacecraft had the generic designations of Ye-2 and Ye-3 (E-2 and E-3 depending on transliteration from Russian). Their function was to transmit photographs back to Earth. Luna 3 (October 1959) rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, which can never be seen from Earth. This was Luna's only successful flyby, out of three tries from October 1959 to April 1960.

Soft landers
Soft landers require rocket propulsion to slow their speed sufficiently to prevent the craft's destruction. They can continue to transmit pictures from the surface, and possibly dig into the lunar soil or return other information about the lunar environment.

Luna program landers had the generic designations of Ye-6 or Ye-6M (E-6 or E-6M depending on transliteration from Russian). Two successful soft landings were achieved out of thirteen attempts from January 1963 to December 1966.

Luna 9 (E-6 No.13) became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body in February 1966. It transmitted five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the lunar surface.

Orbiters
Orbiter spacecraft require less thrust and propellant than landers, but still require enough to achieve lunar orbit insertion. Luna 10 (March 1966) became the first artificial satellite of the Moon. Luna program orbiters had the generic designations of Ye-6LF, Ye-6LS, Ye-6S or Ye-8LS (E-6, E-6LS, E-6S or E-8LS depending on transliteration from Russian). Luna flew six successful orbiters out of eight attempts from March 1966 to May 1974.

Rovers

More sophisticated soft lander craft can deploy wheeled vehicles to explore a wider area of the lunar surface than the immediate landing site. Luna program landers with rovers had the generic designations of Ye-8 (E-8 depending on transliteration from Russian).

The first attempted Lunokhod failed in February 1969. Luna 17 (November 1970) and Luna 21 (January 1973) carried Lunokhod vehicles, which were the first robotic wheeled vehicles to explore the Moon's terrain. Lunokhod 1 travelled 10.5 km in 322 days and returned more than 20,000 television images and 206 high-resolution panoramas. Lunokhod 2 operated for about four months, covered 42 km of terrain, A third Lunokhod was built and intended for launch in 1977, but never flew due to lack of launchers and funding.

Sample return
More complex soft lander craft can robotically scoop up a small amount of lunar material, lift off from the surface, and return the material to Earth. Luna program sample return landers had the generic designations of Ye-8-5 or Ye-8-5M (E-8-5 or E-8-5M depending on transliteration from Russian).

Luna 16 (September 1970), Luna 20 (February 1972) and Luna 24 (August 1976), returned samples of lunar soil to Earth. A total of 301 g of soil sample was returned from the three missions.

Luna 15 (July 1969) flew at the same time as the Apollo 11 mission. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had already performed the first crewed lunar landing when Luna 15 began its descent, and the spacecraft crashed into a mountain minutes later.

Mission success rates
While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to release any details of missions that had failed to achieve orbit. This resulted in Western observers assigning their own designations to the missions. For example, Luna E-1 No.1, the first failure of 1958 which NASA believed was associated with the Luna programme, was known as Luna 1958A.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Luna programme


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Axel Olrik

Axel Olrik (3 July 1864 – 17 February 1917) was a Danish folklorist and scholar of mediaeval historiography, and a pioneer in the methodical study of oral narrative.

Olrik was born in Frederiksberg, the son of the artist Henrik Olrik. Artist Dagmar Olrik, judge Eyvind Olrik, historian Hans Olrik and cultural historian Jørgen Olrik were siblings of his.

Career
Olrik began his studies at the University of Copenhagen in 1881. In 1886, he won the university gold medal for an essay on the age of the Eddic poems; he received his Master of Arts in Nordic Philology in 1887 and his Ph.D. in 1892. The following year, he became a private docent at the university. On 1 April 1896 he was awarded a temporary position in Scandinavian folklore, which on 9 April 1913 was converted into an extraordinary professorship. Apart from a period at Kristiania (now Oslo) in 1892 studying with Moltke Moe, he spent his entire career at the University of Copenhagen.

Folklore
While a student, Olrik soon came under the influence of Svend Grundtvig, and until the latter's death in 1883, was treated almost like a son. His first major scholarly work was therefore a continuation of Grundtvig's work on the Danish ballads; with Danske Ridderviser (1898–1919) he continued the publication of Danmarks gamle Folkeviser, which was in turn continued after his own death by his pupil Hakon Grüner-Nielsen. Olrik was able to draw more than Grundtvig on collected oral material; in 1888–89 he himself did some fieldwork collecting folksongs.

Grundtvig had amalgamated what he considered useful features from various versions of a folksong or ballad to produce a long, complex whole; Olrik, in contrast, sought to trace the history of the oral texts back to simple originals. He published several sample studies in Danske Studier, the journal he co-founded with Marius Kristensen in 1904, and in 1899–1909, with Ida Falbe-Hansen, he published a collection of reconstructed texts, Danske Folkeviser i Udvalg; in 1899–1904, an edition with melodic arrangements by Thomas Laub was published. These were very popular and were translated into German and English.

In addition to Danske Studier, Olrik together with Henning Frederik Feilberg and H. O. Lange founded the Danish folklore archive (Dansk Folkemindesamling), and served as its first president. He was also the first president of Danmarks Folkeminder, an association founded in 1908, and set up its committees for the study of folklore material and of placenames, both of which are now research institutes at the University of Copenhagen. In addition, with Kaarle Krohn and C. W. von Sydow, he co-founded the international organisation of Folklore Fellows in 1907,  and the first issue of Folklore Fellows' Communications, of which he was co-editor from its inception in 1910, consists of an account by him of the Danish folklore archive. Upon his death, his professorship and with it folklore studies at the University of Copenhagen came to an end; the field was only revived in 1961.

Mediaeval historiography and culture
Olrik's Ph.D. dissertation, Forsøg på en tvedeling af kilderne til Sakses oldhistorie ("Attempts at a two-part division of the sources for Saxo's history of the Danes"), was on the sources of Saxo Grammaticus' Latin history of the Danes, Gesta Danorum. Based on the presence or absence of West Norse names and familiarity with West Norse geography and with material in pre-existing Icelandic historical works, he believed it was possible to distinguish passages in which Saxo had drawn on Norwegian and Icelandic sources and those where he had used native Danish traditions. This work led him to the view that the religious, heroic and historical traditions of the different Scandinavian peoples had already diverged by the Viking Age, and he sought to trace the origins, development and regional variation of individual works and concepts. He published many articles on Scandinavian religion, onomastics, and related subjects, including an interpretation of the images on the Golden Horns of Gallehus which was published in 1918, after his death, studies of Ragnarök, and a book on Scandinavian paganism in the Viking Age, Nordisk Åndsliv i Vikingetid og tidlig Middelalder, all of which were revised and completed by his student Hans Ellekilde and published in 1926 and 1951 as Nordens Gudeverden.

Oral narrative
Olrik eventually developed a system for the study of oral narrative (which he called sagn - 'saga'), including principles for the study of sources (developed with Kristian Erslev), a theory of transmission and most influentially, a theory of form which he called "epic laws". This was based on an idea of Moltke Moe's, but Olrik's approach is structural whereas Moe sought to derive rules for the historical development of narratives. His unfinished work on the study of oral narrative was published posthumously in 1921 by Ellekilde as Nogle grundsætninger for sagnforskning.

Private life
In 1893 he married Margrete Sofie Eleonore Hasselquist, who died in November 1911. He died in Øverød on 17 February 1917 from pneumonia following a successful operation on his ear.

Honours
In 1911 Olrik was named the first external member of the Finnish Academy of Sciences. In 1914 he was elected foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Selected publications

 * Kilderne til Sakses oldhistorie: en literaturhistorisk undersøgelse Volume 1 Forsøg pa en tvedeling af kilderne til Sakses oldhistorie. Copenhagen: Wroblewski, 1892 . Volume 2 Sakses oldhistorie, norrøne sagaer og Danske sagn. Copenhagen: Wroblewski, 1894 (based on his dissertation)
 * (with Ida Falbe-Hansen). Danske Folkeviser i Udvalg. 2 vols. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1899, 1909
 * A Book of Danish Ballads. Tr. E. M. Smith-Dampier. 1939. Repr. Granger index reprint series. Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries, 1968. (translation of above)
 * Om Ragnarok. Volume 1 Copenhagen: Gad, 1902, first printed in Årbøger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie 1902, pp. 157–291. . Volume 2 Ragnarokforestillingernes udspring, first printed in Danske Studier 1913. 2 vols. Copenhagen: Gad, 1914.
 * Danmarks heltedigtning: en oldtidsstudie Volume 1 Rolf Krake og den ældre Skjoldungrackke Copenhagen: Gad, 1903 . Volume 2 Starkad den Gamle og den yngre Skjoldungrække. Copenhagen: Gad, 1910 (Remaining 5 volumes not completed; notes held at the Danish folklore archive)
 * "Episke love i folkedigtningen". Danske Studier, 5 (1908): 69-89 (https://web.archive.org/web/20160309204457/http://danskestudier.dk/materiale/1908.pdf). Olrik expressed the same ideas in German in ‘Epische Gesetze der Volksdichtung’, Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Deutsche Literatur, 51 (1909), 1–12, which was translated into English as ‘Epic Laws of Folk Narrative’, in The Study of Folklore, ed. by Alan Dundes (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965), pp. 129–41
 * Nordisk Åndsliv i Vikingetid og tidlig Middelalder. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1907.
 * (completed by Hans Lavrids Ellekilde). Nogle grundsætninger for sagnforskning. Danmarks folkeminder 23. Copenhagen: Schønberg, 1921.
 * Principles for Oral Narrative Research. Tr. Kirsten Wolf and Jody Jensen. Folklore studies in translation. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1992. ISBN 9780253341754 (translation of above)
 * (revised and completed by Hans Ellekilde). Nordens Gudeverden. Volume 1 Vætter og helligdomme Copenhagen: Gad, 1926. Volume 2 Årets ring Copenhagen: Gad, 1951.

title: Axel Olrik


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Talk:Fictional language

(Moved to Talk:Artistic language)

Futurama Alien language 1
Not really a language as such, just a substitution cipher... AnonMoos (talk)
 * Agreed. Switched to Klingon. APL (talk) 17:03, 9 July 2010 (UTC)

this article's erstwhile list
I have deleted the list of fictional languages this article used to have since it duplicated the purpose of List_of_constructed_languages. The information is preserved, though; I have added all of the entries from this list to that one. (Should've made my edit summary clearer.) 4pq1injbok (talk) 12:30, 1 March 2015 (UTC)
 * Cf. CFD Category:Language_creators —Sai ¿? ✍ 14:52, 1 March 2015 (UTC)

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"group involvement" and native speakers
The phrasing here is kinda weird, is this implying that other conlangs may be created by a group but not fictional langs? This sentence seems to be trying to do two things at the same time: compare fictional langs to other conlangs, and compare conlangs (in general) to natlangs, which is confusing.

The first part here seems like it's just copied from something describing conlangs in general, while the comparison with Esperanto implies that fictional langs specifically have no native speakers while other conlangs can have them. As far as I know, just like with Esperanto there was also a case of a native speaker of Klingon (a fictional language).

I think neither a) whether they are created by an individual or a group, nor b) whether they may have native speakers distinguishes fictional langs from other types of conlangs, these traits are not relevant to the distinction. Both of these seem like they were taken out of context and originate from a text comparing conlangs to natlangs. The article should more clearly separate descriptions of what a conlang is in general (compared to natlangs) from descriptions of what a fictional language specifically is (compared to other conlangs). Tajoshu (talk) 13:13, 16 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fictional language


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Luna 5

Luna 5, or E-6 No.10 (Ye-6 series), was an uncrewed Soviet spacecraft intended to land on the Moon as part of the Luna programme. It was intended to become the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, however its retrorockets failed, and the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface.

Launch
Luna 5 was launched by a Molniya-M carrier rocket, flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Liftoff occurred at 07:49:37 UTC on 9 May 1965. The spacecraft and Blok L upper stage entered a low Earth parking orbit, before the Blok L fired to propel Luna 5 towards the Moon.

Luna 5 became the first Soviet probe to be successfully launched towards the Moon in two years. Between it and the previous mission to be launched successfully, Luna 4, there were three launch failures: E-6 No.6 and No.5 in 1964 and Kosmos 60 in 1965.

Failure
Following the mid-course correction on 10 May, the spacecraft began spinning around its main axis due to a problem in a flotation gyroscope in the I-100 guidance system unit. A subsequent attempt to fire the main engine failed because of ground control error, and the engine never fired. As a result of these failures, the soft landing attempt failed, and Luna 5 impacted the Moon. The place of impact was first announced as (coast of Mare Nubium), but later it was estimated as  (near crater Copernicus). It was the second Soviet spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon, following Luna 2 in 1959. The Abastumani Astrophysical Observatory registered television images of the failed landing noted that shown it produced a 220 by plume which was visible for ten minutes. A 2017 analysis of the reprocessed images allowed to refine the impact coordinates, provide an altitude estimate of 3.7−3.9 km for the generated gas cloud and corroborate estimations published for the 2009 LCROSS impact.

title: Luna 5


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Luna 6

Luna 6, or E-6 No.7 (Ye-6 series) was an uncrewed Soviet spacecraft which was intended to perform a landing on the Moon as part of the Luna program. Due to the failure of a mid-course correction manoeuvre, Luna 6 failed to land, instead flying past the Moon at a distance of 160000 km.

Launch
Luna 6 was launched by a Molniya-M carrier rocket flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Liftoff occurred at 07:40 UTC on 8 June 1965, with the spacecraft and Blok L upper stage entering a low Earth parking orbit, before the upper stage propelled the spacecraft into a heliocentric orbit passing the Moon.

Failure
The Luna 6 mission proceeded as planned until a scheduled mid-course correction late on 9 June. Although the spacecraft's S5.5A main engine ignited on time, it failed to cut off and continued to fire until its propellant supply was exhausted. An investigation later determined that the problem had been due to a command which had been mistakenly sent to the timer that ordered the main engine to shut down.

Despite the spacecraft being unable to land on the Moon, controllers used the spacecraft to simulate a landing; a task which was satisfactorily accomplished. Luna 6 flew past the Moon late on 11 June, with a closest approach of 159612.8 km. Contact was maintained to a distance of 600000 km from Earth.

title: Luna 6


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Luna 7

Luna 7 (E-6 or Ye-6 series) was an uncrewed space mission of the Soviet Luna program, also called Lunik 7.

Mission
The Luna 7 spacecraft was intended to achieve a soft landing on the Moon. However, due to premature retrofire and cutoff of the retrorockets, the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface in Oceanus Procellarum. Unlike its predecessors, Luna 7 successfully carried out its mid-course correction on October 5 on the way to the Moon, in anticipation of a soft-landing two days later. However, immediately prior to planned retro-fire during the approach to the lunar surface, the spacecraft suddenly lost attitude control and failed to regain it. Automatic programmed systems then prevented the main engine from firing. As controllers observed helplessly, Luna 7 plummeted to the lunar surface at a very high speed, crashing at 22:08:24 UT on October 7, 1965, west of the Kepler crater, relatively near the actual intended target. Impact coordinates were.

Later investigation indicated that the optical sensor of the astronavigation system had been set at the wrong angle and had lost sight of Earth during the critical attitude-control maneuver. It was the tenth consecutive failure in the Ye-6 program.

title: Luna 7


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Luna 8

Luna 8 (E-6 or Ye-6 series), also known as Lunik 8, was a lunar space probe of the Luna program.

Mission
It was launched in on 3 December 1965 with the objective of achieving a soft landing on the Moon; however, its retrorocket firing occurred too late, and suffered a hard impact on the lunar surface on the Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of Storms). The mission did complete the experimental testing of its stellar-guidance system and the ground-control of its radio telemetry equipment, its flight trajectory, and its other instrumentation.

This, the eleventh Soviet attempt to achieve a lunar soft landing, nearly succeeded. After a successful midcourse correction on 4 December, this spacecraft headed toward the Moon without any apparent problems. Just before the scheduled firing of its retrorocket, a command was sent to inflate cushioning air bags around the landing probe. However, a plastic mounting bracket apparently pierced one of the two air bags. The resulting ejection of the air put the spacecraft into a spin of about 12 degrees per second. The spacecraft momentarily regained its proper attitude, long enough for a nine-second-long retrorocket firing, but Luna 8 became unstable again. Without a retrorocket burn long enough to reduce its velocity sufficiently for a survivable landing, Luna 8 plummeted to the lunar surface and crashed at 21:51:30 UT on 6 December in the west of Oceanus Procellarum. The coordinates of the crash site are.

title: Luna 8


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Luna 9

Luna 9 (Луна-9), internal designation Ye-6 No.13, was an uncrewed space mission of the Soviet Union's Luna programme. On 3 February 1966, the Luna 9 spacecraft became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body and return imagery from its surface.

Spacecraft
The spacecraft carrying on top the lander capsule, weighed together 1538 kg and was 2.7 meters tall. It commenced the main descent, shortly before its controlled impact it ejected the lander capsule. The lander had a mass of 99 kg and consisted of a spheroid Automatic Lunar Station (ALS) capsule measuring 58 cm. It used a landing bag to survive the impact speed of over 54 km/h. It was a hermetically sealed container with radio equipment, a program timing device, heat control systems, scientific apparatus, power sources, and a television system.

The spacecraft was developed in the design bureau then known as OKB-1, under Chief Designer Sergei Korolev (who had died before the launch). The first 11 Luna missions were unsuccessful for a variety of reasons. At that time the project was transferred to Lavochkin design bureau since OKB-1 was busy with a human expedition to the Moon. Luna 9 was the twelfth attempt at a soft-landing by the Soviet Union; it was also the first successful deep space probe built by the Lavochkin design bureau, which ultimately would design and build almost all Soviet (later Russian) lunar and interplanetary spacecraft.

Launch and translunar coast
Luna 9 was launched by a Molniya-M rocket, serial number 103-32, flying from Site 31/6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. Liftoff took place at 11:41:37 GMT on 31 January 1966. The first three stages of the four-stage carrier rocket injected the payload and fourth stage into low Earth orbit, at an altitude of 168 by and an inclination of 51.8°. The fourth stage, a Blok-L, then fired to raise the perigee of the orbit to a new apogee approximately 500000 km, before deploying Luna 9 into a highly elliptical geocentric orbit.

For thermal control, the spacecraft then spun itself up to 0.67 rpm using nitrogen jets. On 1 February at 19:29 GMT, a mid-course correction took place involving a 48-second burn and resulting in a delta-v of 71.2 m/s.

Descent and landing
At an altitude of 8300 km from the Moon, the spacecraft was oriented for the firing of its retrorockets and its spin was stopped in preparation for landing. From this moment the orientation of the spacecraft was supported by measurements of directions to the Sun and the Earth using an optomechanical system. At 75 km above the lunar surface, the radar altimeter triggered the jettison of the side modules, the inflation of the airbags and the firing of the retro rockets. At 250 m from the surface, the main retrorocket was turned off by the integrator of an acceleration having reached the planned velocity of the braking manoeuver. The four outrigger engines were used to slow the craft. About 5 m above the lunar surface, a contact sensor touched the ground triggering the engines to be shut down and the landing capsule to be ejected and its landing airbag being inflated. The capsule landed at 22 km/h.

The capsule bounced several times before coming to rest in Oceanus Procellarum west of Reiner and Marius craters at approximately 7.08 N, 64.37 W (other sources indicate ) on 3 February 1966 at 18:45:30 GMT.

Surface operations
Approximately 250 seconds after landing in the Oceanus Procellarum, four petals that covered the top half of the spacecraft opened outward for increased stability. Seven hours after (to allow for the Sun to climb to 7° elevation) the probe began sending the first of nine images (including five panoramas) of the surface of the Moon. Seven radio sessions with a total of 8 hours and 5 minutes were transmitted, as well as a series of three TV pictures. After assembly the photographs gave a panoramic view of the immediate lunar surface, comprising views of nearby rocks and of the horizon, 1.4 km away.

The pictures from Luna 9 were not released immediately by the Soviet authorities, but scientists at Jodrell Bank Observatory in England, which was monitoring the craft, noticed that the signal format used was identical to the internationally agreed Radiofax system used by newspapers for transmitting pictures. The Daily Express rushed a suitable receiver to the Observatory and the pictures from Luna 9 were decoded and published worldwide. The BBC speculated that the spacecraft's designers deliberately fitted the probe with equipment conforming to the standard, to enable reception of the pictures by Jodrell Bank Observatory.

The radiation detector, the only dedicated scientific instrument on board, measured dosage of 30 millirads (0.3 milligrays) per day. The mission also determined that a spacecraft would not sink into the lunar dust; that the ground could support a lander. The last contact with the spacecraft was at 22:55 GMT on 6 February 1966.

Models and displays
Detailed Luna 9 models are on display at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics, Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics, Museum of Cosmonautics and Rocket Technology, Museum of Air and Space Paris and other locations.

Stamps
The successful Luna 9 landing was commemorated on stamps.

title: Luna 9


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Luna 10

Luna 10 (or Lunik 10) was a 1966 Soviet lunar robotic spacecraft mission in the Luna program. It was the first artificial satellite of the Moon.

Luna 10 conducted extensive research in lunar orbit, gathering important data on the strength of the Moon's magnetic field, its radiation belts, and the nature of lunar rocks (which were found to be comparable to terrestrial basalt rocks), cosmic radiation, and micrometeoroid density. Perhaps its most important finding was the first evidence of mass concentrations (called "mascons") — areas of high density below the mare basins that distort lunar orbital trajectories. Their discovery has usually been credited to the American Lunar Orbiter series.

The spacecraft
Part of the E-6S series, Luna 10 was battery powered and had an on-orbit dry mass of 540 kg. Scientific instruments included a gamma-ray spectrometer for energies between 0.3–3 MeV (50–500 pJ), a triaxial magnetometer, a meteorite detector, instruments for solar-plasma studies, and devices for measuring infrared emissions from the Moon and radiation conditions of the lunar environment. Gravitational studies were also conducted.

The flight
Luna 10 launched towards the Moon on 31 March 1966 at 10:48 GMT.

After a midcourse correction on 1 April, the spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 3 April 1966 and completed its first orbit 3 hours later (on 4 April Moscow time). A 245-kilogram instrument compartment separated from the main bus, which was in a 350 x 1,000-kilometre orbit inclined at 71.9° to the lunar equator.

Luna 10 operated for 460 lunar orbits and performed 219 active data transmissions before radio signals were discontinued on 30 May 1966.

The Internationale
The spacecraft carried a set of solid-state oscillators that had been programmed to reproduce the notes of "The Internationale", so that it could be broadcast live to the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. During a rehearsal on the night of 3 April, the playback went well, but the following morning, controllers discovered a missing note and played the previous night's tape to the assembled gathering at the Congress — claiming it was a live broadcast from the Moon.

title: Luna 10


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Luna 11

Luna 11 (E-6LF series) was an uncrewed space mission of the Soviet Union's Luna program. It was also called Lunik 11. Luna 11 was launched towards the Moon onboard a Molniya-M and entered lunar orbit on 27 August 1966.

Overview
The objectives of the mission included the study of:
 * lunar gamma and X-ray emissions in order to determine the Moon's chemical composition;
 * lunar gravitational anomalies;
 * the concentration of meteorite streams near the Moon;
 * the intensity of hard corpuscular radiation near the Moon.

137 radio transmissions and 277 orbits of the Moon were completed before the batteries failed on 1 October 1966.

This subset of the "second-generation" Luna spacecraft, the E-6LF, was designed to take the first photographs of the surface of the Moon from lunar orbit. A secondary objective was to obtain data on mass concentrations ("mascons") on the Moon first detected by Luna 10. Using the Ye-6 bus, a suite of scientific instruments (plus an imaging system similar to the one used on Zond 3) replaced the small lander capsule used on the soft-landing flights. The resolution of the photos was 15 to 20 meters. To reduce problems caused by damage to the film due to solar radiation it was planned to take all photos within the first 24 hours of lunar orbits. A technological experiment included testing the efficiency of gear transmission in a vacuum as a test for a future lunar rover.

Luna 11, launched only two weeks after the U.S. Lunar Orbiter, entered lunar orbit at 21:49 GMT on 27 August 1966. Parameters were 160 x 1193 kilometers. During the mission, the TV camera failed to return usable images because the spacecraft lost proper orientation to face the lunar surface when a foreign object was lodged in the nozzle of one of the attitude-control thrusters. The other instruments functioned without fault before the mission formally ended on 1 October 1966 after the power supply had been depleted.

title: Luna 11


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Luna 12

Luna 12 (E-6LF series) was an unmanned space mission of the Luna program, also called Lunik 12.

Overview
Luna 12 was launched towards the Moon onboard a Molniya-M and achieved lunar orbit on October 25, 1966. The spacecraft was equipped with a television system that obtained and transmitted photographs of the lunar surface. The photographs contained 1100 scan lines with a maximum resolution of 14.9-19.8 m. Pictures of the lunar surface were returned on October 27, 1966. The number of photographs is not known. Radio transmissions from Luna 12 ceased on January 19, 1967, after 602 lunar orbits and 302 radio transmissions.

Luna 12 was launched to complete the mission that Luna 11 had failed to accomplish—take high-resolution photos of the Moon's surface from lunar orbit. Luna 12 reached the Moon on October 25, 1966, and entered a 133 x 1,200-kilometer orbit. The Soviet press released the first photos taken of the surface on October 29—pictures that showed the Sea of Rains and the Aristarchus crater. Resolution was as high as 15 to 20 meters. Film was developed, fixed, dried automatically, and scanned for transmission to Earth. No further photos were ever released. After completing its main imaging mission, Luna 12 was put into a spin-stabilized roll to carry out its scientific mission, which was successfully fulfilled.

Luna 12 was the first soviet probe where deliberate steps were taken to prevent interception of its signals by Jodrell Bank Observatory. When the probe was in the field of view of the observatory it began switch its signals between two different frequencies, something Jodrell Bank was not able to follow.

Legacy and status
On January 21, 1967, the Soviet news agency TASS announced that Luna 12 had completed its mission, breaking contact with ground stations.

title: Luna 12


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Luna 13

Luna 13 (E-6M series) was an uncrewed space mission of the Luna program by Soviet Union.

Overview
The Luna 13 spacecraft was launched toward the Moon onboard a Molniya-M and accomplished a soft landing on 24 December 1966, in the region of Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms").

The petal encasement of the spacecraft was opened, antennas were erected, and radio transmissions to Earth began four minutes after the landing. On 25 and 26 December 1966, the spacecraft television system transmitted panoramas of the nearby lunar landscape at different Sun angles. Each panorama required approximately 100 minutes to transmit. The spacecraft was equipped with a mechanical soil-measuring penetrometer, a dynamograph, and a radiation densitometer for obtaining data on the mechanical and physical properties and the cosmic ray reflectivity of the lunar surface. Transmissions from the spacecraft ceased on 28 December 1966.

Luna 13 became the third spacecraft to land successfully on the surface of the Moon (after Luna 9 and the American Surveyor 1). The probe landed in the Ocean of Storms at 18:01 UT on 24 December 1966, between the Krafft and Seleucus craters at 18°52' north latitude and 62°3' west longitude. Unlike its predecessor, the heavier Luna 13 lander (113 kilograms) carried a suite of scientific instruments in addition to the usual imaging system.

A three-axis accelerometer within the pressurized frame of the lander recorded the landing forces during impact to determine the soil structure down to a depth of 20 to 30 cm. A pair of spring-loaded booms were also deployed. One of these booms carried a penetrometer, designed to measure the forces required to penetrate the lunar regolith – the penetrating force being supplied by a minute explosive charge. The other boom carried a backscatter densitometer that was used to infer the density of the lunar near-surface regolith. Four radiometers recorded infrared radiation from the surface indicating a noon temperature of 117 ±3 °C while a radiation detector indicated that radiation levels would be less than hazardous for humans.

The lander returned a total of five panoramas of the lunar surface, showing a more smooth terrain than seen by Luna 9. One of the two cameras (intended to return stereo images) failed, but this did not diminish the quality of the photographs. The penetrometer measured the regolith density at 800 kg/m3.

After a fully successful mission, contact was lost at 06:13 UTC on 28th of December when the on-board batteries were exhausted.

title: Luna 13


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Luna 14

Luna 14 (E-6LS series) was an uncrewed space mission of the Luna program run by the Soviet Union. It was also called Lunik 14.

Overview
The spacecraft is believed to have been similar to Luna 12 and the instrumentation was similar to that carried by Luna 10. It provided data for studies of the interaction of the Earth and lunar masses, the lunar gravitational field, the propagation and stability of radio communications to the spacecraft at different orbital positions, solar charged particles and cosmic rays, and the motion of the Moon. This flight was the final flight of the second generation of the Luna series.

Luna 14 successfully entered lunar orbit at 19:25 UT on 10 April 1968. Initial orbital parameters were 160 × 870 kilometers at 42° inclination. The primary goal of the flight was to test communications systems in support of the N1-L3 piloted lunar landing project. Ground tracking of the spacecraft's orbit also allowed controllers to accurately map lunar gravitational anomalies in order to predict trajectories of future lunar missions such as those of the LOK and LK lunar landing vehicles. Luna 14 also carried scientific instruments to study cosmic rays and charged particles from the Sun, although few details have been revealed. The mission lasted 75 days.

title: Luna 14


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Argyria

Argyria or argyrosis is a condition caused by excessive exposure to chemical compounds of the element silver, or to silver dust. The most dramatic symptom of argyria is that the skin turns blue or blue-gray. It may take the form of generalized argyria or local argyria. Generalized argyria affects large areas over much of the visible surface of the body. Local argyria shows in limited regions of the body, such as patches of skin, parts of the mucous membrane or the conjunctiva.

The terms argyria and argyrosis have long been used interchangeably, with argyria being used more frequently. Argyrosis has been used particularly in referring to argyria of the conjunctiva, but the usage has never been consistent and cannot be relied on except where it has been explicitly specified. The term is from the ἄργυρος (argyros, 'silver').

Pathophysiology
In humans and other animals, chronic intake of silver products commonly leads to gradual accumulation of silver compounds in various parts of the body. As in photography (where silver is useful because of its sensitivity to light), exposure of pale or colorless silver compounds to sunlight decomposes them to silver metal or silver sulfides. Commonly these products deposit as microscopic particles in the skin, in effect a dark pigment. This condition is known as argyria or argyrosis.

Chronic intake also may lead to silver pigments depositing in other organs exposed to light, particularly the eyes. In the conjunctiva this is not generally harmful, but it also may affect the lens, leading to serious effects.

Localized argyria often results from topical use of substances containing silver, such as some kinds of eye drops. Generalized argyria results from chronically swallowing or inhaling silver compounds, either for home medicinal purposes, or as a result of working with silver or silver compounds.

While silver is potentially toxic to humans at high doses, the risk of serious harm from low doses, given over a short term, is small. Silver is used in some medical appliances because of its anti-microbial nature, which stems from the oligodynamic effect. Chronic ingestion or inhalation of silver preparations (especially colloidal silver) can lead to argyria in the skin and other organs. This is not life-threatening, but is considered by most to be cosmetically undesirable.

The reference dose, published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1991, which represents the estimated daily exposure that is unlikely to incur an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime, is 5 μg/(kg·d).

Argyria worsens and builds up as exposure to silver continues, and does not resolve once exposure stops because the silver atoms cannot be removed from the skin and other tissues.

History
Since at least the mid-19th century, doctors have known that silver or silver compounds can cause some areas of the skin and other body tissues to turn grey or blue-gray. Argyria occurs in people who ingest or inhale silver in large quantities over a long period (several months to many years). People who work in factories that manufacture silver products can also breathe in silver or its compounds. In the past, some of these workers have become argyric. However, the level of silver in the air and the length of exposure that caused argyria in these workers is not known. Historically, colloidal silver, a liquid suspension of microscopic silver particles, was also used as an internal medication to treat a variety of diseases. In the 1940s, they were overtaken by the use of pharmaceutical antibiotics, such as penicillin.

Society and culture
A prominent case involving the ingestion of colloidal silver was that of American Stan Jones, a Libertarian candidate for the United States Senate in 2002 and 2006. The peculiar coloration of his skin was featured prominently in media coverage of his unsuccessful campaign, though his supporters contended that the best-known photo was "doctored". Jones promised that he was not using his silvery complexion as a gimmick. His purposeful consumption of colloidal silver was a self-prescribed measure undertaken in response to fears that the Y2K problem would make antibiotics unavailable, an event that did not occur. He is reported to have said that given the chance to go back, he would do it again. He maintains that his good health, excepting the unusual skin tone, is the result of his use of colloidal silver.

In 2007, press reports described Paul Karason, an American man whose skin gradually turned blue after he took a homemade silver chloride colloid and used a silver salve on his face in an attempt to treat problems with his sinuses, dermatitis, acid reflux and other issues. At the time of the reports, Karason maintained his belief in silver's effectiveness and continued to take it, albeit in smaller doses. He died in 2013 of a heart attack; "a cause of death was not immediately known", but according to Jo Anna Karason, his estranged wife, "Paul Karason had suffered heart problems for years. He was a heavy smoker, despite undergoing triple bypass surgery about five years ago".

Rosemary Jacobs is a prominent activist against alternative medicine. As a child, Jacobs was treated for allergies with nose drops that contained colloidal silver, and developed argyria as a result. Jacobs came to international attention after Paul Karason was on The Today Show in 2008. From 2010 to 2013, Jacobs posted about topics in health fraud, particularly naturopathy, on her blog.

Possible implications
Although research is still not definitive, the literature has suggested that argyria can cause a decrement in kidney function. Additionally, a lack of night vision may be present.

title: Argyria


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Luna 15

Luna 15 was a robotic space mission of the Soviet Luna programme, that was in lunar orbit together with the Apollo 11 Command module Columbia.

On 21 July 1969, while Apollo 11 astronauts finished the first human moonwalk, Luna 15, a robotic Soviet spacecraft in lunar orbit at the time, began its descent to the lunar surface. Launched three days before the Apollo 11 mission, it was the second Soviet attempt to return lunar soil back to Earth with a goal to outstrip the US in achieving a sample return in the Moon race. The previous mission, designated E-8-5-402, launched 14 June 1969, did not achieve Earth orbit because the third stage of its launch vehicle failed to ignite. The Luna 15 lander crashed into the Moon at 15:50 UT, hours before the scheduled American lift off from the Moon.

Mission
Luna 15 was capable of studying circumlunar space, the lunar gravitational field, and the chemical composition of lunar rocks. It was also capable of providing lunar surface photography. Luna 15 was placed in an intermediate Earth orbit after launch and was then sent toward the Moon. After a mid-course correction the day after launch, Luna 15 entered lunar orbit at 10:00 UT on 17 July 1969. The spacecraft remained in lunar orbit for two days while controllers checked all on-board systems and performed two orbital manoeuvres.

After completing 86 communications sessions and 52 orbits of the Moon at various inclinations and altitudes, it began its descent. Astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin had already set foot on the Moon when Luna 15 fired its main retrorocket engine to initiate descent to the surface at 15:47 UT on 21 July 1969. Transmissions ceased four minutes after de-orbit, at a calculated altitude of 3 km. The spacecraft had probably crashed into the side of a mountain. Impact coordinates were 17° north latitude and 60° east longitude, in Mare Crisium. This (the impact site of LUNA 15) is some 554 km NNE of the Apollo 11 LZ, in a direction of 328 degrees.

An audio recording of the minutes in which British technicians at the radio telescope facility in Jodrell Bank observed Luna 15's descent was first made available to the public on 3 July 2009.

Implications
The simultaneous missions became one of the first instances of Soviet–American space communication: the Soviet Union released Luna 15's flight plan to ensure it would not collide with Apollo 11, although its exact mission was not publicized.

In a race to reach the Moon and return to Earth, the parallel missions of Luna 15 and Apollo 11 represented, in many ways, the culmination of the Space Race between the space programs of the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1960s.

"“I say, this has really been drama of the highest order,”"

- A british astronomer monitoring Luna 15, as it was prematurely deorbited and impacted at 15:50 UTC, two hours before Apollo 11's return ascent

title: Luna 15


text:
Luna 16

Luna 16 was an uncrewed 1970 space mission, part of the Soviet Luna program. It was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and return a sample of lunar soil to Earth. The 101 grams (3.56 ounces) sample was returned from Mare Fecunditatis. It represented the first successful lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union and was the third lunar sample return mission overall.

Overview
The spacecraft consisted of two attached stages, an ascent stage mounted on top of a descent stage. The descent stage was a cylindrical body with four protruding landing legs, fuel tanks, a landing radar, and a dual descent-engine complex.

A main descent engine was used to slow the craft until it reached a cutoff point, which was determined by the on-board computer based on altitude and velocity. After cutoff a bank of lower-thrust jets was used for the final landing. The descent stage also acted as a launch pad for the ascent stage.

The ascent stage was a smaller cylinder with a rounded top. It carried a cylindrical hermetically sealed soil-sample container inside a re-entry capsule.

The spacecraft descent stage was equipped with a television camera, radiation and temperature monitors, telecommunications equipment, and an extendable arm with a drilling rig for the collection of a lunar soil sample.

Mission summary
The Luna 16 automated station was launched toward the Moon from a preliminary Earth orbit and after one mid-course correction on 13 September it entered a circular 111 km with 70° inclination lunar orbit on 17 September 1970. The lunar gravity was studied from this orbit. After two orbital adjustments were performed on 18 and 19 September the perilune was decreased to 15.1 km, as well as the inclination altered in preparation for landing. At perilune at 05:12 UTC on 20 September, the main braking engine was fired, initiating the descent to the lunar surface. Six minutes later, at 05:18 UT, the spacecraft safely soft-landed in its target area at 0°41' south latitude and 56°18' east longitude, in the northeast area of Mare Fecunditatis (Sea of Fertility) approximately 100 kilometers west of Webb crater and 150 km north of Langrenus crater.

This was the first landing made in the lunar night side, as the Sun had set about 60 hours earlier. The main descent engine cut off at an altitude of 20 m, and the landing jets cut off at 2 m height at a velocity less than 2.4 m/s, followed by vertical free fall. The mass of the spacecraft at landing was 1,880 kilograms. Less than an hour after landing, at 06:03 UT, an automatic drill penetrated the lunar surface to collect a soil sample. After drilling for seven minutes, the drill reached a stop at 35 centimeters depth and then withdrew its sample and lifted it in an arc to the top of the spacecraft, depositing the lunar material in a small spherical capsule mounted on the main spacecraft bus. The column of regolith in the drill tube was then transferred to the soil sample container.

After 26 hours and 25 minutes on the lunar surface, at 07:43 UT on 21 September, the spacecraft's upper stage lifted off from the Moon. The lower stage of Luna 16 remained on the lunar surface and continued transmission of lunar temperature and radiation data. Three days later, on 24 September, after a direct ascent traverse with no mid-course corrections, the capsule, with its 101 grams of lunar soil, reentered Earth's atmosphere at a velocity of 11 kilometers per second. The capsule parachuted down 80 kilometers southeast of the town of Jezkazgan in Kazakhstan at 05:25 UT on 24 September 1970. Analysis of the dark basalt material indicated a close resemblance to soil recovered by the American Apollo 12 mission.

According to the Bochum Observatory in Germany, strong and good-quality television pictures were returned by the spacecraft. Luna 16 was a landmark success for the Soviets in their deep-space exploration program; the mission accomplished the first fully automatic recovery of soil samples from the surface of an extraterrestrial body.

A 0.4825 g sample of material from a depth of 27 cm was sent to Britain.

Legacy
Three tiny samples (0.2 grams) of the Luna 16 soil were sold at Sotheby's auction for $442,500 in 1993. The samples were resold by Sotheby's for US$855,000 on 29 November 2018.

A series of 10-kopeck stamps was issued in 1970 to commemorate the flight of Luna 16 lunar probe and depicted the main stages of the programme: soft landing on Moon, launch of the lunar soil sample return capsule, and parachute assisted landing back on Earth.

title: Luna 16


text:
List of Dutch people

Dutch people who are famous or notable include:

Architecture

 * Jaap Bakema (1914–1981)
 * Hendrik Petrus Berlage (1856–1934)
 * Jo van den Broek (1898–1978)
 * Jacob van Campen (1596–1657), Dutch Golden Age architect
 * Pierre Cuypers (1827–1921)
 * Willem Marinus Dudok (1884–1974)
 * Aldo van Eyck (1918–1999)
 * Lieven de Key (1560–1627), renaissance architect
 * Hendrick de Keyser (1565–1621), sculptor and architect
 * Rem Koolhaas (born 1944)
 * Jacobus Oud (1890–1963)
 * Satyendra Pakhale (born 1967)
 * Pieter Post (1608–1669), Dutch Golden Age architect
 * Gerrit Rietveld (1888–1964)

Film

 * Willeke van Ammelrooy (born 1944), actress
 * Antoinette Beumer (born 1962), film director
 * Marjolein Beumer (born 1966), actress, screenwriter
 * Jan de Bont (born 1943), cinematographer
 * Erik-Jan de Boer (born 1967), animation director
 * Rene Daalder (1944–2019), director
 * Mike van Diem (born 1959), screenwriter and director
 * Bracha van Doesburgh (born 1981), actress
 * Philip Dorn (1901–1975), actor
 * Paul Driessen (born 1940), animator, director
 * Bobbi Eden (born 1980), porn actress
 * Cyrus Frisch (born 1969), director
 * Laura Gemser (born 1950), actress
 * Rijk de Gooyer (1925–2011), actor
 * Rutger Hauer (1944–2019), actor
 * Johannes Heesters (1903–2011), actor
 * Tom Holkenborg (Junkie XL) (born 1967), composer
 * Carice van Houten (born 1976), actress
 * Michiel Huisman (born 1981), actor
 * Famke Janssen (born 1964), actress
 * Martin Koolhoven (born 1969), screenwriter and director
 * John Kraaijkamp, Sr. (1925–2011), actor
 * Jeroen Krabbé (born 1944), actor
 * Sylvia Kristel (1952–2012), actress
 * Rik Launspach (born 1958), actor and writer
 * Dick Maas (born 1951), screenwriter and director
 * Anneliese van der Pol (born 1984), actress
 * Renée Soutendijk (born 1957), actress
 * Johanna ter Steege (born 1961), actress
 * Monique van de Ven (born 1952), actress
 * Paul Verhoeven (born 1938), director
 * Wiebe van der Vliet (born 1970), film editor
 * Yorick van Wageningen (born 1964), actor
 * Alex van Warmerdam (born 1952), actor, screenwriter and director
 * Zara Whites (born 1968), former pornographic film actress
 * Michaël Dudok de Wit (born 1953), animator, director
 * Emmanuel Ohene Boafo (born 1993), actor
 * Michael Sanderson (born 1983), Filmmaker and director
 * Mimi Mariani (1928–1971), actress

 * Appie Mussa (born 1998), actor and tiktoker

Music

 * Thomas Acda (born 1967), singer, actor
 * Sharon Den Adel (born 1974), singer of Within Temptation
 * Jan Akkerman (born 1946), guitar player
 * Amber (born 1969), singer
 * Elly Ameling (born 1933), classical music singer
 * Louis Andriessen (1939–2021), composer
 * Dick Annegarn (born 1952), singer, musician
 * Bart Berman (born 1938), pianist, composer
 * Marco Borsato (born 1966), singer
 * Willem Breuker (1944–2010), jazz musician
 * Herman Brood (1946–2001), rock musician and artist
 * Frans Brüggen (1934–2014), conductor, recorder player and baroque flautist
 * Theo Bruins (1929–1993), pianist, composer
 * Armin van Buuren (born 1976), trance DJ
 * Ferry Corsten (born 1973), trance DJ
 * Esmée Denters (born 1988), singer, made famous through YouTube
 * Cristina Deutekom (1931–2014), singer, classical music
 * Alphons Diepenbrock (1862–1921), composer
 * Anita Doth (born 1971), singer
 * Candy Dulfer (born 1969), saxophone player
 * Margriet Ehlen (born 1943), composer
 * Caro Emerald (born 1981), singer
 * Tess Gaerthé (born 1991), actress and singer
 * Martin Garrix (born 1996), House DJ
 * Afrojack (born 1987), House DJ
 * Jan van Gilse (1881–1944), composer
 * Boudewijn de Groot (born 1944), singer, actor
 * Jack Jersey (1941–1997), producer, composer, singer
 * Guus Meeuwis (born 1972), composer, singer
 * Stephen van Haestregt (born 1972), drummer of Within Temptation
 * Bernard Haitink (1929–2021), conductor Concertgebouworkest
 * Alex Van Halen (born 1953), drummer of Van Halen
 * Eddie Van Halen (1955–2020), guitarist of Van Halen
 * Hardwell (born 1988), house DJ
 * Barry Hay (born 1948), singer of Golden Earring
 * André Hazes (1951–2004), singer
 * Oliver Heldens (born 1995), DJ
 * Koen Heldens (born 1986) mixing engineer
 * Ilse Huizinga (born 1966), jazz singer
 * Dominique van Hulst (born 1981), singer, popularly known as Do
 * Janine Jansen (born 1978), violinist
 * Ruud Jolie (born 1976), guitarist of Within Temptation
 * Gerard Joling (born 1960), singer
 * Tom Holkenborg (born 1967), film composer, electronic musician, remixer, composer
 * Isabelle van Keulen (born 1966), classical violinist and violist, educator
 * Tim Kliphuis (born 1974), jazz violinist
 * Peter Koelewijn (born 1940), founder of Dutch rock & roll
 * Astrid Kruisselbrink (born 1972), composer
 * Natalie La Rose (born 1988), singer, dancer and model
 * Arjen Anthony Lucassen (born 1960), composer and musician
 * Joris de Man (born 1972), composer
 * Gwendolyn Masin (born 1977), violinist, author, pedagogue, founder of GAIA Chamber Music Festival
 * Willem Mengelberg (1871–1951), conductor
 * Rogier van Otterloo (1941–1988), composer
 * Willem van Otterloo (1907–1978), composer
 * Jetty Paerl (1921–2013), singer (De vogels van Holland)
 * Willem Pijper (1894–1947), composer
 * Abbie de Quant (born 1946), flautist
 * André Rieu (born 1949), violinist, conductor, and composer
 * Nicky Romero (born 1989), house DJ
 * Julius Röntgen (1855–1932), composer
 * Ramses Shaffy (1933–2009), singer
 * Eva Simons (born 1984), singer-songwriter
 * Simone Simons (born 1985), vocalist of Epica
 * Peter Slaghuis (1960–1991), disc jockey
 * Ray Slijngaard (born 1971), singer and disc jockey
 * Jaap Spaanderman (1896–1985), pianist, cellist, conductor
 * Martijn Spierenburg (born 1975), keyboardist of Within Temptation
 * Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621), composer and organist
 * Anouk Teeuwe (born 1975), singer
 * Herman van Veen (born 1945), singer, theater performer
 * Jeroen van Veen (born 1969), classical pianist and composer
 * Jeroen van Veen (born 1974), bassist of Within Temptation
 * Roel van Velzen (born 1978), singer
 * Matthijs Vermeulen (1888–1967), composer
 * Matthijs Verschoor (born 1955), classical pianist
 * Tijs Verwest (born 1969), DJ (better known as DJ Tiësto)
 * Klaas de Vries (born 1944), composer
 * Edo de Waart (born 1941), conductor
 * Johan Wagenaar (1862–1941), composer
 * Tony Wall (born 1988), guitarist
 * Robert Westerholt (born 1975), guitarist of Within Temptation
 * Jaap van Zweden (born 1960), violinist and conductor

 * Joost Klein (born 1997), singer and rapper

Visual arts

 * Pieter van Abeele (1622–1677), medallist
 * Bernard Accama (1697–1756), painter
 * Karel Appel (1921–2006), painter
 * Hendrick Avercamp (1585–1634), painter
 * Ludolf Backhuysen (1631–1708), painter
 * John Baselmans (born 1954), painter and illustrator
 * Helen Berman (born 1936), painter
 * Charles Bolsius (1907–1983), painters and print maker
 * Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516), painter
 * Ambrosius Bosschaert (1573–1612), painter
 * Jan de Bray (1627–1697), painter
 * Dick Bruna (1927–2017), graphical artist
 * Paul Citroen (1896–1983), painter
 * Anton Corbijn (born 1955), photographer
 * Aelbert Cuyp (1620–1691), painter
 * Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931), painter
 * Willem Drost (1630–1680), painter and print maker
 * Ger van Elk (1941–2014), sculptor
 * M. C. Escher (1898–1972), graphical artist
 * Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890), painter
 * Jan van Goyen (1596–1656), painter
 * Mieke Groot (born 1949), glass artist
 * Frans Hals (1580–1666), painter
 * Jacoba van Heemskerck (1876–1923), painter, stained glass designer and graphic artist
 * Milou Hermus (1947–2021), painter
 * Jan van Herwijnen (1889–1965), painter
 * Pieter de Hooch (1629–1684), painter
 * Helena Klakocar (born 1958), cartoonist
 * Willem de Kooning (1904–1997), painter
 * Andrea Kruis (born 1962), illustrator
 * Jeanne de Loos-Haaxman (1881–1976), art historian
 * Han van Meegeren (1889–1947), forger of paintings
 * Jacobus Anthonie Meessen (1836–1885), photographer
 * Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), painter
 * Rien Poortvliet (1932–1995), painter and illustrator
 * Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669), painter
 * Willem de Rooij (born 1969), contemporary artist
 * Jacob van Ruisdael (c. 1628–1682), landscape painter
 * Geertgen tot Sint Jans (active 1465–1495), painter
 * Carolein Smit (born 1960), ceramic art sculptor
 * Peter Spier (1927–2017), illustrator
 * Jan Steen (1626–1679), painter
 * Marten Toonder (1912–2007), comic creator
 * Thierry Veltman (born 1939), painter and sculptor
 * Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), painter
 * Gisèle d'Ailly van Waterschoot van der Gracht (1912–2013), painter
 * Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman (1882–1945), typographer and illustrator
 * Jacob de Wit (1695–1754), painter

Writers

 * A. C. Baantjer (1923–2010), writer of detective fiction
 * Paul Biegel (1925–2006), writer of children's books
 * Remco Campert (1929–2022), novelist and poet
 * Jacob Cats (1577–1660), poet
 * Isabelle de Charrière (1740–1805), novelist
 * Louis Couperus (1863–1923), novelist and poet
 * Willy Corsari (1897–1998), novelist, actress and composer
 * Johan Fabricius (1899–1981), novelist, journalist and painter
 * Geert Groote (1340–1384)
 * Arnon Grünberg (born 1971)
 * Hella Haasse (1918–2011), novelist
 * Jan de Hartog (1914–2002), novelist and playwright
 * Herman Heijermans (1864–1924)
 * Willem Frederik Hermans (1921–1995), novelist and physical geographer
 * Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581–1647)
 * Constantijn Huygens (1596–1687)
 * Gerrit Krol (1934–2013), novelist, poet
 * Hendrik Willem van Loon (1882–1944)
 * Geert Mak (born 1946), writer of history books
 * Harry Mulisch (1927–2010), novelist
 * Multatuli (1820–1887), novelist
 * Nescio (1882–1961)
 * Cees Nooteboom (born 1933), novelist
 * Willem Oltmans (1925–2004), journalist
 * Gerard Reve (1923–2006), novelist
 * Tjalie Robinson (1911–1974)
 * Annie M.G. Schmidt (1911–1995), children's writer
 * Philip Slier (1923–1943)
 * Joost van den Vondel (1587–1679), poet and playwright
 * Anne de Vries (1904–1964), novelist
 * Janwillem van de Wetering (1931–2008), novelist
 * Willy Wielek-Berg (1919–2004) film critic, writer, columnist
 * Jan Wolkers (1925–2007)

Exploration

 * Willem Barentsz (c. 1550–1597), several expeditions to Arctic waters; discovered Spitsbergen
 * Abraham Blauvelt (1601–1663), Central America
 * Adriaen Block (1567–1627), New Netherland
 * Hendrik Brouwer (1580–1643), discovered the Roaring Forties
 * Olivier Brunel (c. 1540–1585), tried to find a passage around Siberia to China
 * Jan Carstenszoon (1600–1700), New Guinea coast, navigated the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1623
 * Robert Jacob Gordon (1743–1795), extensively traveled South Africa in the service of the Dutch East India Company
 * Dirk Hartog (1580–1621), VOC captain, charted mid-western coast of Australia
 * Jacob van Heemskerk (1567–1607), captain of one of Barent's ships on his last fatal expedition
 * Cornelis de Houtman (1565–1599), brother to Frederick, established Dutch trading route to the Spice Islands
 * Frederick de Houtman (1571–1627), brother to Cornelis, charted several constellations in the southern skies, explored coast of Western Australia
 * Willem Janszoon (c. 1570–1630), first European expedition to make landfall on the Australian continent
 * Jacob Le Maire (c. 1585–1616), Cape Horn, 1616 circumnavigation
 * Cornelius Jacobsen Mey, New Jersey (1614–1620)
 * Olivier van Noort (1558–1627), 1598 circumnavigation
 * Jacob Quaeckernaeck (1500–1606), reached Japan via Street of Magellan and Moluccas
 * Matthijs Quast (died 1641), Japan, Bonin Islands, and legendary islands East of Japan
 * Jan Rijp (c. 1570–c. 1613), saved remainder of Willem Barentsz's crew in 1597
 * Jakob Roggeveen (1659–1729), First European to reach Easter Island Easter 1722
 * Willem Schouten (1567–1625), Cape Horn, 1616 circumnavigation
 * Simon van der Stel (1639–1702), explored South Africa North and East of Cape Town
 * Abel Tasman (1603–1659), extensive voyages around Australia and southwest Pacific, discovered a.o. Tasmania, New Zealand and Tonga
 * François Thijssen (died 1638?), charted 1,000 miles of the Australian South Coast in 1627
 * Alexine Tinne (1839–1869), Sahara desert crossing
 * Willem de Vlamingh (1640–c. 1698), Western Australia
 * Sebald de Weert (1567–1603), discovered Falkland Islands

Fashion models

 * Azra Akın (born 1981)
 * Wilhelmina Cooper (1940–1980)
 * Kim Feenstra (born 1986)
 * Bette Franke (born 1989)
 * Daphne Groeneveld (born 1994)
 * Daniella van Graas (born 1975)
 * Tatjana Maul (born 1988)
 * Rianne ten Haken (born 1986)
 * Marpessa Hennink (born 1964)
 * Querelle Jansen (born 1985)
 * Kim Kötter (born 1982)
 * Doutzen Kroes (born 1985)
 * Karen Mulder (born 1970)
 * Marcus Schenkenberg (born 1968)
 * Iekeliene Stange (born 1984)
 * Lara Stone (born 1983)
 * Romee Strijd (born 1995)
 * Yfke Sturm (born 1981)
 * Mark Vanderloo (born 1968)

Fictional characters

 * Hans Brinker
 * Abraham Van Helsing
 * Peter Van Houten
 * Max Carter

Historians

 * Henrica van Erp (c. 1480–1548)
 * Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft (1581–1647)
 * Johan Huizinga (1872–1945)
 * Loe de Jong (1914–2005)
 * Jan Gerard Kerkherdere (1677–1738)
 * Jan Romein (1893–1962)
 * Petrus Scriverius (1576–1660)
 * Boudewijn Sirks (born 1947)

Journalists

 * Henk Hofland
 * Arendo Joustra
 * Almar Latour
 * Geert Mak
 * Mart Smeets
 * Eva Vlaardingerbroek

Military

 * Gaius Julius Civilis, Batavian military commander, leader of the Batavian rebellion
 * Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587–1629), governor general of the Dutch East Indies
 * Karel Doorman (1889–1942), naval officer
 * Piet Pieterszoon Hein (1577–1629), naval officer
 * Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), general and stadtholder
 * J. B. van Heutsz (1851–1924), governor general of the Dutch East Indies
 * Hendrick Lucifer (1583–1627), naval officer turned pirate
 * Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1567–1625), general and stadtholder
 * Michiel de Ruyter (1607–1676), naval officer
 * Cornelis Tromp (1629–1691), naval officer
 * Maarten Tromp (1598–1653), naval officer
 * Witte Corneliszoon de With (1599–1658), naval officer
 * Cornelis de Witt (1623–1672), naval officer and statesman

Philosophy

 * Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), philosopher and theologian
 * Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637)
 * Evert Willem Beth (1908–1964)
 * Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1673–1743), jurist and legal theorist
 * Pieter de la Court (1618–1685), economist and political theorist
 * Herman Dooyeweerd (1894–1977), philosopher, Vrije Universiteit
 * Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), writer, polemicist, humanist, Protestant Reformation
 * Hugo Grotius (1583–1645), also lawyer, playwright, and poet
 * François Hemsterhuis (1721–1790)
 * Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733), philosopher, political economist and satirist
 * Johannes Jacobus Poortman (1896–1970)
 * Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), philosopher
 * Cornelis Petrus Tiele (1830–1902), theologian and historian of religion

Before 20th century

 * Pier Gerlofs Donia (1480–1520), warrior and freedom fighter
 * William the Silent (1533–1584), stadtholder
 * Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (1547–1619), statesman
 * Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1567–1625), general and stadtholder
 * Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), general and stadtholder
 * Andries Bicker (1586–1652), regent of Amsterdam, statesman
 * Cornelis de Graeff (1599–1664), regent of Amsterdam, statesman
 * Andries de Graeff (1611–1678), regent of Amsterdam, statesman
 * Jan van Riebeeck (1619–1677), administrator and colonizer of Cape Town
 * Cornelis de Witt (1623–1672), statesman
 * Johan de Witt (1625–1672), statesman
 * William III of Orange (1650–1702), stadtholder and king of England
 * Johan Rudolf Thorbecke (1798–1872), prime minister

20th and 21st centuries

 * Dries van Agt (1931–2024), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1977–1982)
 * Jan Peter Balkenende (born 1956), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (2002–2010)
 * Louis Beel (1902–1977), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1946–1948, 1958–1959)
 * Barend Biesheuvel (1920–2001), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1971–1973)
 * Els Borst (1932–2014), Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Health, Welfare and Sport
 * Wouter Bos (born 1963), Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Finance
 * Ben Bot (born 1937), Minister of Foreign Affairs
 * Hans van den Broek (born 1936), Minister of Foreign Affairs, European Commissioner (1993–1999)
 * Jo Cals (1914–1971), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1965–1966)
 * Hendrikus Colijn (1869–1944), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1925–1926, 1933–1939)
 * Pieter Cort van der Linden (1846–1935), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1913–1918)
 * Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (1846–1919), first prominent Socialist
 * Willem Drees (1886–1988), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1948–1958)
 * Wim Duisenberg (1935–2005), Minister of Finance, President of the European Central Bank (1998–2003)
 * Pim Fortuyn (1948–2002), politician, candidate for Prime Minister, assassinated during the 2002 election
 * Cornelis van Geelkerken (1901–1979), National-Socialist, co-founder of the NSB
 * Dirk Jan de Geer (1870–1960), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1926–1929, 1939–1940)
 * Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (born 1948), Minister of Foreign Affairs, Secretary General of NATO (2004–2009)
 * Hans Janmaat (1934–2002), right-wing nationalist
 * Piet de Jong (1915–2016), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1967–1971)
 * Wim Kok (1938–2018), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1994–2002)
 * Neelie Kroes (born 1941), Minister of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, European Commissioner for Competition (2004–2014)
 * Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1901–1905)
 * Ruud Lubbers (1939–2018), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1982–1994), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2001–2005)
 * Joseph Luns (1911–2002), Minister of Foreign Affairs, Secretary General of NATO (1971–1984)
 * Victor Marijnen (1917–1975), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1963–1965)
 * Anton Mussert (1894–1946), National-Socialist, founder of the NSB
 * Pieter Oud (1886–1966), Founder of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy
 * Alexander Pechtold (born 1965), Minister for Government Reform and Kingdom Relations
 * Jan Pronk (born 1940), Minister for Development Cooperation, Minister of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, Head of the United Nations Mission in Sudan (2004–2006)
 * Jan de Quay (1901–1985), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1959–1963)
 * Johan Remkes (born 1951), Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior
 * Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck (1873–1936), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1918–1925, 1929–1933)
 * Piet de Ruiter (1939–2014), member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands between 1971 and 1976
 * Mark Rutte (born 1967), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (since 2010)
 * Pieter Jelles Troelstra (1860–1930), political activist for universal suffrage
 * Joop den Uyl (1919–1987), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1973–1977)
 * Rita Verdonk (born 1955), Minister for Integration & Immigration
 * Hans Wiegel (born 1941), Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior, Queen's Commissioner of Friesland
 * Geert Wilders (born 1963), prominent critic of Islam
 * Gerrit Zalm (born 1952), Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Finance
 * Jelle Zijlstra (1918–2001), Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1966–1967)

Royal Family

 * William I of the Netherlands (1772–1843), King
 * William II of the Netherlands (1792–1849), King
 * William III of the Netherlands (1817–1890), King
 * Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1858–1934), Queen consort, Queen regent (1890–1898)
 * Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880–1962), Queen
 * Juliana of the Netherlands (1909–2004), Queen
 * Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (1911–2004), Prince-consort
 * Beatrix of the Netherlands (born 1938), Queen
 * Prince Claus (1926–2002), Prince-consort
 * Princess Irene of the Netherlands (born 1939)
 * Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (born 1943)
 * Princess Christina of the Netherlands (1947–2019)
 * Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (born 1967), King
 * Máxima of the Netherlands (born 1971), Queen consort
 * Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau (1968–2013)
 * Prince Constantijn of the Netherlands (born 1969)
 * Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands (born 2003)
 * Princess Alexia of the Netherlands (born 2005)
 * Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (born 2007)

Before 20th century

 * Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738), physician
 * C.H.D. Buys Ballot (1817–1890), chemist and meteorologist
 * Ludolph van Ceulen (1540–1610), mathematician
 * Carolus Clusius (1526–1609), doctor and botanist
 * Menno van Coehoorn (1641–1704), military engineer
 * Laurens Janszoon Coster (1370–1440), printer
 * Cornelius Drebbel (1572–1633), inventor and engineer
 * Eise Eisinga (1744–1828), astronomer who built a scale of the solar system in his house
 * David Fabricius (1564–1617), astronomer
 * Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), German-Polish physicist and engineer, lived most of his life in the Dutch Republic
 * Regnier de Graaf (1641–1673), physician and anatomist, who made key discoveries in reproductive biology
 * Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), chemist
 * Coenraad Johannes van Houten (1801–1887), chemist, inventor, known for the Dutch process chocolate
 * Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), mathematician and physicist
 * Constantijn Huygens, Jr. (1628–1697; brother of Christiaan), scientific instrument maker, technological chronicler
 * Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799), physiologist, botanist and physicist.
 * Zacharias Janssen (1580–88 – pre-1632 to 1638), scientific instrument maker from Middelburg, associated with the invention of the first optical telescope
 * Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), chemist, inventor of the Kipp apparatus
 * Jan Leeghwater (1575–1650), hydraulic engineer and mill builder
 * Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), scientist
 * Hans Lippershey (1570–1619), inventor and scientific instrument maker, associated with the invention of the first telescope
 * Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692–1761), Dutch scientist, scientific instrument maker and inventor of Leyden jar
 * Frederik Ruysch (1638–1731), botanist and anatomist
 * Marie du Saar (1860–1955), ophthalmologist
 * Frans van Schooten (1615–1660), mathematician
 * Willebrord Snell (1580–1626), astronomer and mathematician
 * Thomas Joannes Stieltjes (1856–1894), mathematician
 * Simon Stevin (1548–1620), mathematician and engineer
 * Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), scientist
 * Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672), physician and anatomist
 * Nicolaes Tulp (1593–1674), physician, surgeon and mayor of Amsterdam
 * Gustav de Vries (1866–1934), mathematician
 * Hugo de Vries (1848–1937), geneticist
 * Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), physicist
 * Nicolaes Witsen (1641–1717), statesman, shipbuilder, geographer and cartographer
 * Hendrik Zwaardemaker (1857–1930), scientist

20th century

 * Wiebe Bijker (born 1951), social scientist
 * Nicolaas Bloembergen (1920–2017), physicist
 * Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (1881–1966), mathematician
 * Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn (1918–2012), mathematician
 * Hendrik Casimir (1909–2000), physicist
 * Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), atmospheric chemist
 * David van Dantzig (1900–1959), mathematician
 * Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933), physicist
 * Chaim Elata (born 1929), Israeli professor of mechanical engineering, President of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and Chairman of the Israel Public Utility Authority for Electricity
 * George Uhlenbeck (1900–1988), theoretical physicist
 * Samuel Goudsmit (1902–1978), Dutch-American physicist
 * Dirk Brouwer (1902–1966), astronomer
 * Cornelis Johannes van Houten (1920–2002), astronomer
 * Tom Gehrels (1925–2011), astronomer
 * Willem Johan Kolff (1911–2009), physician and inventor
 * Peter Debye (1884–1966), chemist
 * Robbert Dijkgraaf (born 1960), physicist
 * Edsger Dijkstra (1930–2002), computer scientist
 * David Adriaan van Dorp (1915–1995), chemist
 * Eugène Dubois (1858–1944), paleontologist and anatomist
 * Christiaan Eijkman (1858–1930), physician and pathologist
 * Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), physician
 * Anthony Fokker (1890–1939), aviation engineer
 * Valerie Frissen (born 1960), social scientist
 * Richard D. Gill (born 1951), mathematician
 * Arend Heyting (1898–1980), mathematician
 * Gerardus 't Hooft (born 1946), physicist
 * Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), physicist
 * Jacobus Kapteyn (1851–1922), astronomer
 * Willem Hendrik Keesom (1878–1956), physicist
 * Hendrik Anthony Kramers (1894–1952), physicist
 * Pieter Kok (born 1972), physicist
 * Tjalling Koopmans (1910–1985), economist
 * Gerard Kuiper (1905–1973), astronomer
 * Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928), physicist
 * Arend Lijphart (born 1936), political scientist
 * Simon van der Meer (1925–2011), physicist
 * Bram Moolenaar (born 1961), computer programmer, author of text-editor Vim
 * Wubbo Ockels (1946–2014), astronaut
 * Jan Oort (1900–1992), astronomer
 * Anton Pannekoek (1873–1960), astronomer
 * Guido van Rossum (born 1956), computer programmer, inventor of the Python programming language
 * Carel van Schaik (born 1953), primatologist
 * Maarten Schmidt (born 1929), astronomer
 * Willem de Sitter (1872–1934), mathematician, physicist and astronomer
 * Hendrik Tennekes (born 1936), aerodynamics professor
 * Jan Tinbergen (1903–1994), economist
 * Nico Tinbergen (1907–1988), ecologist
 * Martinus J. G. Veltman (1931–2021), physicist
 * Frans de Waal (1948-2024), primatologist
 * Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1903–1996), mathematician
 * Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943), physicist
 * Frits Zernike (1888–1966), physicist
 * Andre Geim (born 1958), Russian-born British-Dutch physicist
 * Konstantin Novoselov (born 1974), Russian-born British physicist, undertook his PhD studies at the University of Nijmegen before moving to the University of Manchester

Sports

 * Estella Agsteribbe (1909–1943), Olympic champion gymnast (team combined exercises)
 * Christijan Albers (born 1979), Formula 1 driver
 * Ryan Babel (born 1986), football player
 * Raymond van Barneveld (born 1967), darts player
 * Marco van Basten (born 1964), manager and retired football player
 * Stan van Belkum (born 1961), water polo player
 * Xander Bogaerts (born 1992), MLB player for the Boston Red Sox
 * Carina Benninga (born 1962), field hockey player, Olympic champion, bronze
 * Dennis Bergkamp (born 1969), manager and retired football player
 * Juliette Bergmann (born 1958), IFBB pro bodybuilder
 * Jorrit Bergsma (born 1985), speed skater
 * Det de Beus (1958–2013), field hockey goalkeeper
 * Fanny Blankers-Koen (1918–2004), athlete
 * Jan Blokhuijsen (born 1989), speed skater
 * Rens Blom (born 1977), 2005 world champion pole vaulter
 * Femke Bol (born 2000), athlete
 * Frank de Boer (born 1970), retired football player
 * Ronald de Boer (born 1970), retired football player
 * Floris Jan Bovelander (born 1966), field hockey player
 * Mart Bras (born 1950), water polo player
 * Jacques Brinkman (born 1966), field hockey player
 * Giovanni van Bronckhorst (born 1975), football player
 * Inge de Bruijn (born 1974), swimmer
 * Roel Buikema (born 1976), football player
 * Ton Buunk (born 1952), water polo player
 * Johan Cruijff (1947–2016), retired football player and former manager
 * Edgar Davids (born 1973), football player
 * Marc Delissen (born 1965), field hockey player
 * Cees Jan Diepeveen (born 1956), field hockey player
 * Ellen van Dijk (born 1987), road and track cyclist, four-time world champion
 * Sjoukje Dijkstra (born 1942), figure skater
 * Robert Doornbos (born 1981), Formula One driver
 * Eva Duldig (born 1938), Austrian-born Australian and Dutch tennis player, author
 * Francisco Elson (born 1976), NBA player for Utah Jazz and San Antonio Spurs
 * Jacco Eltingh (born 1970), tennis player
 * Max Euwe (1901–1981), chess player
 * Didi Gregorius (born 1990), MLB player for New York Yankees
 * Louis van Gaal (born 1951), football player and manager
 * Dan Gadzuric (born 1978), NBA player for Milwaukee Bucks
 * Anton Geesink (1934–2010), judoka
 * Yuri van Gelder (born 1983), gymnast
 * Yvonne van Gennip (born 1964), speed skater
 * Stefan Groothuis (born 1981), speed skater
 * Anky van Grunsven (born 1968), dressage
 * Ruud Gullit (born 1962), football player and coach
 * Paul Haarhuis (born 1966), tennis player
 * Eddy Hamel (1902–1943), Jewish-American soccer player for Dutch club AFC Ajax who was killed by the Nazis in Auschwitz concentration camp
 * Willem van Hanegem (born 1944), football player and coach
 * Wil Hartog (born 1948), Grand Prix motorcycle racer
 * Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink (born 1972), football player
 * John Heitinga (born 1983), football player
 * Guus Hiddink (born 1946), manager and retired football player
 * Ellen Hoog (born 1986), field hockey player
 * Pieter van den Hoogenband (born 1978), swimmer
 * Ernesto Hoost (born 1965), kickboxer
 * Jan Janssen (born 1940), cyclist
 * Bob de Jong (born 1976), speed skater
 * Niek Kimmann (born 1996), champion BMX rider
 * Jelle Klaasen (born 1984), darts player
 * Bep van Klaveren (1907–1992), boxer
 * Patrick Kluivert (born 1976), football player
 * Sjinkie Knegt (born 1989), short-track speed skater
 * Ronald Koeman (born 1963), football player and manager
 * Ada Kok (born 1947), swimmer
 * Richard Krajicek (born 1971), tennis player
 * Sven Kramer (born 1986), speed skater
 * Ties Kruize (born 1952), field hockey player
 * Dirk Kuyt (born 1980), football player
 * Nico Landeweerd (born 1954), water polo player
 * Ellen van Langen (born 1966), athlete
 * Elka de Levie (1905–1979), Olympic champion gymnast (team combined exercises)
 * Arie Luyendyk (born 1953), race car driver
 * Joost Luiten (born 1986), golfer
 * Rie Mastenbroek (1919–2003), swimmer
 * Loek van Mil (1984–2019), baseball player
 * Lion van Minden (1880–1944), Olympic fencer, who was killed in the Auschwitz concentration camp
 * Leontien van Moorsel (born 1970), cyclist
 * Bob Mulder (born 1974), football player
 * Boyito Mulder (born 1991), figure skater
 * Dustley Mulder (born 1985), football player
 * Eefke Mulder (born 1977), field hockey player
 * Erwin Mulder (born 1989), football player
 * Jan Mulder (born 1945), football player
 * Lau Mulder (1927–2006), field hockey player
 * Michel Mulder (born 1986), speed skater
 * Ronald Mulder (born 1986), speed skater
 * Teun Mulder (born 1981), cyclist
 * Youri Mulder (born 1969), football player
 * Bennie Muller (born 1938), football player
 * Ruud van Nistelrooy (born 1976), football player
 * Teun de Nooijer (born 1976), field hockey player
 * Helena Nordheim (1903–1943), Olympic champion gymnast (team combined exercises)
 * Simon Okker (1881–1944), Olympic fencer killed in Auschwitz
 * Tom Okker (born 1944), tennis player, won 1973 French Open Men's Doubles (w/John Newcombe), 1976 US Open Men's Doubles (w/Marty Riessen), highest world ranking # 3 in singles, and # 1 in doubles
 * Tinus Osendarp (1916–2002), athlete
 * Alistair Overeem (born 1980), MMA fighter and former kickboxer
 * Mathieu van der Poel (born 1995), professional cyclist
 * Robin van Persie (born 1983), football player
 * Annie Polak (1906–1943), Olympic champion gymnast (team combined exercises)
 * Daniël de Ridder (born 1984), football player, forward winger/attacking midfielder (Wigan Athletic and U21 national team)
 * Frank Rijkaard (born 1962), football player and manager
 * Lucia Rijker (born 1967), boxer and kickboxer
 * Dorian van Rijsselberghe (born 1988), windsurfer
 * Rintje Ritsma (born 1970), speed skater
 * Arjen Robben (born 1984), football player
 * Johnny Roeg (1910–2003), football player, striker for Ajax
 * Gianni Romme (born 1973), speed skater
 * Wim Ruska (1940–2015), judoka
 * Bas Rutten (born 1965), mixed martial artist
 * Edwin van der Sar (born 1970), football player
 * Ard Schenk (born 1944), speed skater
 * Dafne Schippers (born 1992), athlete
 * Clarence Seedorf (born 1976), football player
 * Aryeh "Arie" Selinger (born 1937), volleyball player & coach
 * Avital Selinger (born 1959), Olympic silver medallist
 * Gerald Sibon (born 1974), football player
 * Judijke Simons (1904–1943), Olympic champion gymnast (team combined exercises)
 * Emil Sitoci (born 1985), pro wrestler
 * Jan Smeekens (born 1985), speed skater
 * Rutger Smith (born 1981), athlete
 * Rik Smits (born 1966), NBA player
 * Wesley Sneijder (born 1984), football player
 * Petra van Staveren (born 1966), swimmer
 * Betty Stöve (born 1945), tennis player
 * Sjaak Swart (born 1938), footballer
 * Bernard D. H. Tellegen (1900–1990), electrical engineer, inventor, known for Tellegen's theorem in circuit theory
 * Carole Thate (born 1971), field hockey player
 * Jan Timman (born 1951), chess player
 * Regilio Tuur (born 1967), boxer
 * Jochem Uytdehaage (born 1976), speed skater
 * Wilma van den Berg (born 1947), sprinter, competed at the 1968 and 1972 Summer Olympics (which she left in the middle, in sympathy with the Israelis after the Munich Massacre)
 * Rick VandenHurk (born 1985), baseball player
 * Arnold Vanderlyde (born 1963), boxer
 * Jim Vandermeer (born 1980), Dutch-Canadian ice hockey player
 * Bart Veldkamp (born 1967), speed skater
 * Kees Verkerk (born 1942), speed skater
 * Martin Verkerk (born 1978), tennis player
 * Jos Verstappen (born 1972), F1 Grand Prix racing driver
 * Max Verstappen (born 1997), F1 Grand Prix racing driver
 * Koen Verweij (born 1990), speed skater
 * Bert van Vlaanderen (born 1964), long-distance runner
 * Gregory van der Wiel (born 1988), football player
 * Harm Wiersma (born 1953), checkers player
 * Hans Wouda (born 1941), water polo player
 * Marcel Wouda (born 1972), swimmer
 * Joop Zoetemelk (born 1946), cyclist
 * Epke Zonderland (born 1986), gymnast
 * Anish Giri (born 1994), chess player

Other

 * Willem Doorn (1836–1908), for 33 years vicar of Nobel Street Church in The Hague
 * Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1165–1197), King of Germany (1190–1197), Holy Roman Emperor (1191–1197), King of Sicily (1194–1197)
 * Pope Adrian VI (1522–1523), pope from 1522 to 1523
 * Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper (1890–2005), oldest person in the world from 29 May 2004 to 30 August 2005
 * Corrie ten Boom (1892–1983), Christian activist during the Holocaust
 * Aaron Abbas (18th century), Jewish editor and printer
 * Geert Adriaans Boomgaard, (1788–1899) officially first ever validated supercentenarian
 * Evert Dudok (born 1959), president of EADS Astrium Space Transportation
 * Gretta Duisenberg (born 1942), pro-Palestinian activist and the wife of Wim Duisenberg
 * Esmée van Eeghen (1918–1944), Dutch resistance member
 * Jacob Eelkens, first commander of the first Dutch fort in America (Fort Nassau)
 * Jetske van den Elsen (born 1972), television presenter
 * Ferry Piekart (born 1974), writer on children's games
 * Anne Frank (1929–1945), diarist in World War II Amsterdam
 * Harry Gideonse (1901–1985), American President of Brooklyn College, and Chancellor of the New School for Social Research
 * Alfred Henry (Freddy) Heineken (1923–2002), commercial mastermind of the Heineken Imperium; grandson of the founder of Heineken
 * Mata Hari (1876–1917), spy
 * Frans van der Hoff (born 1939), co-founder of Max Havelaar, the first Fairtrade certification initiative
 * Aletta Jacobs (1854–1929), first Dutch female to complete a university degree and the first female physician
 * Nicolaas Godfried van Kampen (1776-1839) Dutch Mennonite deacon
 * Frederik Lauesen (born 1972), television presenter
 * Marinus van der Lubbe (1909–1934), see: Reichstag fire
 * George Maduro (1916–1945), Dutch Resistance member; the miniature city of Madurodam is named after him, as well as the Maduroplein area in Scheveningen, in The Hague
 * Adrienne van Melle-Hermans (1931–2007), peace activist
 * Maria van Pallaes (1587–1664), philanthropist in Utrecht
 * Anton Philips (1874–1951), co-founder of the Royal Philips Electronics
 * Gerard Philips (1858–1942), co-founder of the Royal Philips Electronics
 * Roel Pieper (born 1956), businessman and professor
 * Jan Sloot (1945–1999), inventor
 * Joran van der Sloot (born 1987), convicted murderer
 * Peter Stuyvesant (1592–1672), governor of the New Netherland

title: List of Dutch people