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Talk:New classical macroeconomics

New classical economics
Is this the same as neoliberalism? Is there a connection?

I have briefly expanded this stub - comments welcome. More will come soon (hopefully!) User:Geordieandy

Quite how is New Classical Economics different from Neo-Classical Economics (apart from the Anglicism over the Latinism)? Phlogistomania 19:18, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC) - New classical economics places a much greater emphasis on the idea of expectation.

It's not the New classical Economics
It's Neoclassical Economics

Neo and new classical models are distinct (as indicated by their different names). The two articles shouldnt be merged, this would be inaccurate.

New classical economics and neoclassical economics
The two are quite separate and distinct. Neoclassical economics is based around Marshall's work - the current article at neoclassical economics describes it well. New classical economics is the name generally used for the school of thought that developed in the 1970s and 1980s by e.g. Robert Lucas that uses neoclassical microfoundations to build macroeconomic models. The two articles should not be merged. 80.4.4.158 15:26, 26 October 2005 (UTC)

I don't think the topics should be merged.
As I understand it, neoclassical economics largely refers to the methodology introduced by Marshall, and later expanded by Samuelson, of employing mathematics and rationality in economics. "Neoclassical economics refers to a general approach (a "metatheory") to economics based on supply and demand which depends on individuals (or any economic agent) operating rationally, each seeking to maximize their individual utility or profit by making choices based on available information. Mainstream economics is largely neoclassical in its assumptions. There have been many critiques of neoclassical economics, both from within orthodox economics, and from outside of it, and often these critiques have been incorporated into new versions of neoclassical theory." see Neoclassical_economics

New classical economics is a school of thought on macroeconomics, and not on economic methodology in general. Furthermore, I have no knowledge of macroeconomists conflating new classical macroeconomics and neoclassical economics; if anything, it has been the case that macroeconomics has two main competing approaches that spawn offshoots in response to each other as the discipline evolves viz. the neoclassical approach and the Keynesian approach. In an adversarial (and seemingly dialectical) manner, the demand-side view (Keynesianism) and the supply-side (Neoclassical) produce the variety of schools of thought, with the New Classical school just one of the many offspring of this interaction (Neokeynsians, Monetarism and New Keynesians some others).

In conclusion, I think this topic should remain independent and be expanded.

Don't merge
They're too different things. In particular New Classical economics focuses on supply shocks as the driving force behind macroeconomic fluctuations - which is what makes them Classical as opposed to Keynsian where it's the demand doing the work. Neoclassical is a much broader and less well defined term. Both New Classical and Keynsian economics (at least of the American kind) would fall within the broader tent of Neoclassical economics.

 * Agreed. "New Classical economics" is a general equilibrium approach to macroeconomics, while Neoclassical economics is the standard, mainstream microeconomic approach. They are completely different topics. Jackson744 20:01, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Don't Merge
Firstly it is not the same as Neoliberalism, although there is a connection. Neoliberalism is an ideology, arguably the most dominant one in shaping the world today. New Classical Economics is, as explained above, a school of thought on macroeconomics, others being Keynesianism, monetarism and so on.

"Neoclassical" refers to the methods that arose during the "marginalist revolution" of the 1870s, and is assocated with Walras, Jevons and Menger. The approach took the mathematical tools of differential algebra and used it to model microeconomic phenomena. Gradually this approach, through the likes of Marshall and Samuelson, has come to be the mainstream microeconomics.

"New Classical" economics is a macroeconomic school associated with Robert Lucas Jnr, Sargent, Wallace and Barro. The connection is that the school claims that macroeconomic models should be built on the basis of neoclassical microeconomic foundations. This is in contrast to Keynes and monetarists who built models describing macroeconomic behaviour that could not be explained on the basis of neoclassical economics. New Classical economists claim that markets clear continuously, including the labour market, and as such unemployment is an entirely voluntary phenomenon. They also claim that government intervention, particularly discretionary monetary policy has no effect unless it is unanticipated. This is the rationale for their argument that government should not intefere in the economy. This is also the link to Neoliberalism, an ideology that holds that the free market and international free trade is the optimal solution and government intervention should therefore be minimized. Useful-idiot 21:07, 19 February 2006

Full employment assumption and search theory
The article claims

At any one time, the macroeconomy is assumed to have a unique equilibrium at full employment

If "New classical economics" refers to the return of macroeconomics to micro foundations, then surely search theory has to be included as a central part of this movement. Indeed, Lucas and Prescott -- two of the four economists listed in the article -- wrote "Equilibrium Search and Unemployment" in the Journal of Economic Theory in 1972. Moreover, search theory, which clearly makes no full employment assumptions, has remained an important branch of modern macro.

The view that "New classical economics" refers merely to a set of models that do not focus on unemployment is not (AFAICT) supported by the econlib entry cited in the article.

Therefore, I think it would be better to say something like:
 * new classical economics is the return of macro to micro-foundations.
 * some models that attempt to explain X, Y, Z find it convenient to assume full-employment.
 * some other models that attempt to explain A, B, C use search theory to describe how people look for work when they are unemployed, and how people decide whether to accept job offers, or do other things like help out with the family.

--Clausen 16:55, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

I generally agree. However I think it'd be more accurate to say that as so far as New Classical theory examines unemployment it focuses on "supply-side" or "structural" causes - hence the "Classical" in New Classical. So search costs, union power, minimum wage laws and other institutional features are used to explain unemployment, unlike in Keynesian economics where unemployment is seen as caused by inadeqaute aggregate demand. Microfoundations is the other side of it.radek 04:48, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

dont merge thaey are distinctly different schools of thought!

New economics???
As of Sept 2007, this page has the title 'New economics' instead of 'New classical economics' or 'New classical macroeconomics'. This is obviously wrong (did someone vandalize this?) I agree with the comment above that 'New classical' is not a synonym for 'neoclassical'. But calling it 'New economics' is even more incorrect.

To the best of my knowledge, there is no school called 'New economics'. Therefore, this page should be deleted in order not to mislead people; its content should be moved to 'New classical macroeconomics'. --Rinconsoleao 14:10, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

 * There was a school of thought called 'New Economics'. That was a label for Keynesian economic policy in the USA in the 1960s. 128.132.1.10 (talk) 17:50, 8 April 2016 (UTC)

Moving page
The capitalization of this article's title does not adhere to Wikipedia standards. I am moving the page from "New Classical Macroeconomics" to "New classical macroeconomics". --JHP (talk) 03:27, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Lucas vs RBC
The article states:

"The most famous New Classical model is that of Real Business Cycles, developed by Robert Lucas, Jr., Finn E. Kydland, and Edward C. Prescott,..."

I argue the statement is false because there is a substantial difference between New classical model with rational expectations developed by Lucas (1972), in which unanticipated monetary shocks have an impact on the real economy, i.e. unanticipated monetary shocks, subject to certain assumptions, cause the cycle and the one know as RBC. In RBC model developed originally by Kydland and Prescott (1982) monetary shocks (even if unanticipated) do not influence real economy, i.e. do not significantly influence real GDP and therefore do not cause the cycle. According to RBC theory, exogenous, unpredictable technology shocks are the key driver of the cycle. Finally, in modern economic literature, New classical model developed by Lucas and RBC model founded by Kydland and Prescott are considered as separate theories, even though they have some common features such as rational expectations and microeconomic foundation. RBC model has not been developed by Lucas. RBC model is not a New classical model it is just build on New classical foundations but differs in assumptions, and substantially differs in conclusion about the nature of the business cycle and ability of monetary policy to influence the real economy. Pvavrinec (talk) 00:27, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Rename to new classical economics?
I've hardly heard anybody calls it new classical macroeconomics. It's typically known as new classical economics. Its rival school, new Keynesian is called new Keynesian economics, rather than new Keynesian macroeconomics. So, let's rename the page, shall we? __earth (Talk) 13:04, 2 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Several other sources use "new classical macroeconomics" for articles on this topic. See The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics and The New School's History of Economic Thought. I know it's not a clear issue--I've found other sources that use "new classical economics"--but I'd lean towards leaving it as is.--Bkwillwm (talk)

 * My impression is that both names are used pretty frequently. Keep in mind that New classical economics and New classical macroeconomics both exist, and both direct to this page. So the only issue is what should be considered the main name of the page. Rinconsoleao (talk) 10:39, 3 November 2010 (UTC)

Assessment
It is not an assessment if the "assessment" is only based on Peter Galbacs of the Budapest Business School but leaves out a lot more prominent critics. I will shorten it. --Pass3456 (talk) 17:56, 6 May 2015 (UTC)

The New Keynesianism is not a rival school
The new Keynesianism arose after Lucas's criticism and in response to it. Lucas's competitor is the old classical Keynesianism, post-Keynesianism or simply Keynesianism, which ignored the microeconomic foundations.

"New classical macroeconomics strives to provide neoclassical microeconomic foundations for macroeconomic analysis. This is in contrast with its rival new Keynesian school that uses microfoundations, such as price stickiness and imperfect competition, to generate macroeconomic models similar to earlier, Keynesian ones." TimurMamleev (talk) 12:36, 23 May 2024 (UTC)

Milton Friedman
"New Classical and monetarist criticisms led by Robert Lucas, Jr. and Milton Friedman respectively forced a labored rethinking of Keynesian economics. In particular, Lucas designed the Lucas critique primarily as a means to cast doubt on the Keynesian model. This strengthened the case for macro models to be based on microeconomics."

Friedman's monetarism is superfluous.

At the same time, they forgot to mention Robert Barro, Prescott, Sargent. TimurMamleev (talk) 12:40, 23 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:New classical macroeconomics


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Sysop and Bureaucrat of Korean Wikipedia.

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National Lacrosse League

The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's professional box lacrosse league in North America. The league is headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

The NLL currently has fifteen teams: nine in the United States and six in Canada. The NLL ranks third in average attendance for pro indoor sports worldwide, behind only the NHL and NBA. Unlike other box lacrosse leagues, which play in the summer, the NLL plays its games in the winter and spring, from December to June. Each year, the playoff teams battle for the National Lacrosse League Cup. The NLL has averaged between 8,900 and 10,700 spectators per game each year since 2004.

Box lacrosse rules
The NLL plays four 15-minute quarters with 2-minute breaks between quarters and a 15-minute half-time. At the start of the each quarter and after every goal, players "face-off" at the center of the field to determine who will get possession. This is done by the two players pushing the heads of their sticks together with the game ball in the middle. A scrum-like match usually happens when the players on either team try and win the ball.

If a game is tied after regulation, the two teams play sudden death overtime. Each team may take a 45-second timeout per half. Each team dresses 19 players: 2 goaltenders and 17 "runners". NLL goals are 4'9" wide and 4' tall.

The NLL uses a 30-second shot clock, which is similar to a professional or collegiate basketball shot clock. The clock starts its countdown once one team gets possession of the ball. If the offense does not shoot the ball in time, they lose possession. However, if the offense shoots on goal and then retrieves the ball, the shot clock is restarted.

Fighting is a 5-minute major penalty and does not result in an automatic ejection.

Season and playoffs
Each team in the NLL plays eighteen games during the regular season, nine each at home and away. The league has one standings table for its 15 teams. NLL games are typically played on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays while some weekends see teams play twice.

The regular season begins in December and ends in April. Starting in 2018, the league announced that the playoffs would be expanded to eight teams to accommodate expansion.

Beginning with the 2024 season, the playoffs feature the top 8 teams in the standings. The first round is single-elimination, and the Conference Finals and Championship rounds are best-of-three.

Players
The NLL adopted a soft salary cap of US$400,000 per team for the 2013 season. The average base salary as of the 2013 season was $19,135. The maximum salary for a franchise player is approximately $34,000. Most NLL players have full-time jobs off the floor, such as Buffalo's John Tavares, a high school teacher in Mississauga, Ontario. As of 2018, the NLL salary cap was $415,000, with Buffalo Business First reporter Paul Lane citing the following pay scale:

 * Rookies: $10,208
 * Second-year players: $12,196–$16,631
 * Veteran minimum: $15,165
 * Veteran maximum: $30,132
 * Franchise player: $37,664
 * Average salary: $19,375.21

Although nine of the fifteen teams are based in the U.S., less than 7% of players are American. Approximately 83% are Canadian and 10% are Haudenosaunee, from either Canada or the U.S.

Current teams
Beginning with the 2024 NLL season, the league eliminated its East and West Conferences that existed during the 2023 NLL season and all teams play in a single division with every team playing every other team at least once. Beginning in the 2025 Season, the New York Riptide will relocate to Ottawa, Canada and rename themselves to the Ottawa Black Bears.

An asterisk (*) denotes the franchise moved to its present location and has been in one or more previous locations in its history (see franchise timeline below or team pages for relocation history).

The following lists franchises that are no longer active in the NLL.

Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League
The rebirth of major professional box lacrosse in the United States came on March 13, 1986, with the formation of the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League (EPBLL), which was incorporated by Russ Cline and Chris Fritz. The "Eagle League" moniker was inspired by a meeting with Iroquois leaders, whose culture views the animal as a tutelary spirit. Previously, in 1985, box lacrosse sponsored an event played at the Spectrum in Philadelphia. The USA/Canada Superseries was an eight-game series seen as a precursor to the new league.

Darrell Russell was named Commissioner of the league, which had four teams based in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., and East Rutherford, New Jersey. The EPBLL opened play for the 1987 season with two games on 10 January 1987: the Philadelphia Wings at the New Jersey Saints (Philadelphia defeated New Jersey 11–8) and the Baltimore Thunder at the Washington Wave.

The four teams contested a six-game regular season before a postseason that saw all four teams qualify for a single knockout tournament, which ended with the Baltimore Thunder being crowned as the EPBLL's first champion. Coached by Bob Griebe, the Baltimore Thunder defeated the Washington Wave by a score of 11–10 to capture the league's first championship.

The league announced that a total of 124,536 fans attended Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League games in its first season.

1988
The same four teams played in the second season of the EPBLL. The teams expanded to an eight-game schedule, and set up a three-team playoff with the regular season winner claiming a bye to the title game. The New Jersey Saints became the second league champions by defeating the Washington Wave 17–16 before 8,125 fans at the Capital Centre. For the Wave, it was the second time in as many years they reached the championship game, only to lose a one-goal game.

After the season, the league announced that the champion Saints would relocate to the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island and be called the New York Saints beginning in the 1989 season. Moreover, the league itself would be changing its name, adopting the more conventional Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL) name, as the spiritual implications of its original name proved too cryptic for most people to understand.

The MILL announced that it awarded expansion teams to Detroit and Boston, to begin play in the 1989 season. The Detroit team was named the Turbos, and played at Joe Louis Arena; the Boston entry was called the New England Blazers and they played their home games at the Worcester Centrum.

1989
Each of the six teams played an eight-game schedule in 1989, with an even four home and road games.

In its first ever regular season game, 12,171 fans watched the expansion Turbos defeat the Washington Wave 11–9 in Detroit to start 1989 season. As the season went on, regular season attendance figures for the league totaled at 230,724 for 24 regular season games, which made an average of 9,614 people in the stands per game. When adding the postseason, the numbers grew to 255,088 total and an average of 9,811 a game. The Philadelphia Wings captured the league championship in front of a record postseason crowd of 16,042 at the Spectrum, defeating the New York Saints 11–10.

After the championship game, the league announced expansion into Pittsburgh, with a team called the Pittsburgh Bulls. The new team effectively replaced the Washington Wave, who closed operations after three seasons.

1990
In 1990, each of the six teams played an eight-game schedule. Near of the end of the season, the New York Saints defeated the Philadelphia Wings 8–5 before the first sellout and the largest crowd in league history: 17,177 at the Spectrum in Philadelphia. The Saints' victory forced a playoff rematch the following week. However, the Wings won that game and later went on to become the first team to win a second league championship, defeating the New England Blazers 17–7 in front of 11,479 fans for their second consecutive title.

The league announced that attendance for 26 total games during the season was 287,585, increasing the average attendance per game to 11,060. After the season, the MILL announced the signing of twin brothers Paul Gait and Gary Gait, 3-time All-Americans at Syracuse, to the Detroit Turbos after being drafted. The two brothers had won national championships with the Syracuse Orange in 1988, 1989, and 1990.

1991
In 1991, the season schedule increased from 8 to 10 games, with each team playing five games at home and five games on the road.

In the first game of the regular season, the debut of Detroit rookie twin brothers Paul and Gary Gait was successful, as they paced the Turbos to a 20–16 victory over the Baltimore Thunder. 1991 was a record-breaking year, especially in Detroit. The Gaits set new standards in most offensive categories. Paul scored a record 47 goals, while Gary was second in the league with 32. Gary established new records with 36 assists and 68 points. As a team, Detroit set records for goals scored with 184, assists with 227, and total points with 411. The Turbos went on to defeat the Thunder 14–12 to claim their first championship. The championship game was attended by 10,814 at the Baltimore Arena. Final league attendance numbers for the 1991 season reached 287,654. On 20 April 1991, the National Division All-Stars defeated the American Division All-Stars, 25–20, in the inaugural League All-Star Game at the Spectrum in Philadelphia.

After the season, the league announced that Buffalo had been awarded an expansion team for the 1992 season. The team was named the Bandits.

1992
The league reverted to an eight-game schedule for the 1992 season, with four home games and four road games. The Blazers moved from Worcester to Boston and were rebranded as the Boston Blazers. The expansion Buffalo Bandits defeated the Philadelphia Wings 20–11 in their first ever sellout of 16,325 at Memorial Auditorium. It marked the second sellout in league history. The Bandits also defeated the Baltimore Thunder in front of a second sellout crowd, marking the first time a team sold out two games in the same season. The Bandits advanced to the league championship game by defeating the Detroit Turbos 19–16 to win the National Division crown. The Philadelphia Wings defeated the Saints 8–6 to capture the American Division Championship. Buffalo defeated Philadelphia 11–10 in overtime, marking the first time an expansion team won the league title.

1993
Buffalo won their second consecutive championship with a 13–12 comeback victory over the Philadelphia Wings before 16,325 in the sold-out Memorial Auditorium. The Bandits kept their 18-game winning streak alive, the longest in professional sports at the time. Buffalo joined the Wings as the only team in league history to win back-to-back championships.

Business-wise, the League and the Players Association announced a three-year contract agreement and the league signed a six-year agreement with ESPN. The Pittsburgh Bulls folded after their fourth season, having never made the playoffs, bringing the league back to six teams going into 1994.

1994
ESPN2's first Monday night broadcast featured the Detroit Turbos against the Baltimore Thunder. The Philadelphia Wings denied the Buffalo Bandits a third consecutive championship by defeating the Bandits 26–15 in front of a sellout crowd of 16,284 at Memorial Auditorium. The win gave the Wings its third league championship, the most of any team. ESPN broadcast the game live from Buffalo, marking the first live telecast by ESPN of a league game.

After the season, the league announced that Rochester, New York, would be awarded an expansion team for the 1995 season, the Rochester Knighthawks. The team would effectively replace the Turbos, who folded after their sixth season, keeping the league at six teams.

1995
The expansion Rochester Knighthawks won their inaugural game 12–8 against the New York Saints at the War Memorial. Philadelphia broke the league's attendance record when 17,380 fans watched the Wings defeat the Baltimore Thunder in the regular season finale. The 1995 season marked the first time that Paul and Gary Gait played on different teams, with the former playing for Rochester and the latter for Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Wings won a second-consecutive and fourth overall championship by defeating the Knighthawks 15–14 in overtime.

After the season the league another expansion team, the Charlotte Cobras, who would play out of Charlotte, North Carolina.

1996
For 1996 the league schedule expanded to 10 games. A crowd of 16,818, the fourth largest in league history, watched the Wings defeat the Charlotte Cobras at CoreStates Spectrum in Philadelphia. The Cobras went on to post the first winless season in league history, and subsequently folded after only one year of play. The Wings advanced to their fifth consecutive league championship game by defeating the Boston Blazers 10–8 in the final MILL game to be played in their historic home arena. However, the Buffalo Bandits played spoiler to the Wings and denied them a third consecutive title, defeating Philadelphia 15–10 in the championship game in front of a sold-out Memorial Auditorium in Buffalo. The Bandits picked up their third championship, and said goodbye to their own arena at the end of the season.

1997
The 11th season opened with three games, including Rochester playing Buffalo at the Bandits' new home, the Marine Midland Arena, in front of a new league record crowd of 18,595 fans. The Rochester Knighthawks, coached by Barry Powless, claimed their first MILL championship in front of the second largest crowd in MILL history, 18,055, also played at the Marine Midland Arena, defeating the Bandits 15–12.

National Lacrosse League
In 1997, the Major Indoor Lacrosse League was renamed the National Lacrosse League, and announced that the schedule would be expanded from 10 to 12 games. In addition, the league welcomed two new expansion teams, the Syracuse Smash, based in Syracuse, New York, and the Ontario Raiders, based in Hamilton, Ontario, while the Boston Blazers folded after nine seasons. John Livsey Jr. was named as the first Commissioner of the NLL.

1998
The 1998 regular season schedule included six home and six road games for each team, with each team facing their six opponents twice during the regular season. In addition, the playoff format saw a best-of-three championship series with semifinal playoff action still taking place in a single-game elimination format, though sites of all post-season games were based on regular season record.

A blockbuster trade saw seven-time All-Pro Paul Gait go to the expansion Syracuse Smash in exchange for draft picks and player compensation. Reigning league MVP Gary Gait was sent to Baltimore in a blockbuster trade involving player and cash compensation.

The Philadelphia Wings swept the best-of-three Championship Series with 16–12 and 17–12 victories. The second game marked the first title game appearance by Baltimore since 1991, and the win was Philadelphia's fifth in franchise history. Wings goaltender Dallas Eliuk was named Championship Series MVP.

1999
In 1999, the Raiders moved to Toronto and were renamed the Toronto Rock. The Rock finished the season with a perfect home record, going a combined 8–0 (regular season and playoffs) after a 13–10 win over the Rochester Knighthawks in the championship game before a sellout crowd of 15,691 at Maple Leaf Gardens. The game was televised throughout Canada by CTV SportsNet, and in the United States on ESPN2.

After the season, it was announced that the charter franchise Baltimore Thunder would move to Pittsburgh and become the Pittsburgh CrosseFire. In addition, the Albany Attack, based in Albany, New York, joined the NLL as an expansion team, bringing the league to eight teams ahead of the 2000 season for the first time.

2000
18,911 fans watched the Philadelphia Wings battle the Pittsburgh CrosseFire. Pittsburgh won the game 14–8 in front of a new record NLL crowd. The Toronto Rock won their second consecutive championship when Kaleb Toth beat Knighthawks goaltender Pat O'Toole with 1.1 seconds remaining in regulation time of the title match to give the Rock a 14–13 victory. Considered to be among the best lacrosse games ever played, the 2000 Final was the last sporting event to be held in the historic Maple Leaf Gardens.

After the season, the league expanded again, with former Commissioner John Livsey leading the establishment of the Columbus Landsharks in Columbus, Ohio. In addition, the Smash relocated north of the border and became the Ottawa Rebel, after three straight last place finishes, while the CrosseFire moved to Washington, D.C., and became the Washington Power. Jim Jennings was named the new Commissioner and announced that league headquarters would be relocated from Buffalo to Lyndhurst, New Jersey.

2001
In front of the league's largest crowd in history, the Philadelphia Wings won their sixth league championship with a 9–8 win over the Toronto Rock at the Air Canada Centre in front of 19,409 fans. Wings goaltender Dallas Eliuk was named Most Valuable Player.

The league announced a major expansion after the season, awarding new franchises to Montreal, New Jersey, Calgary, and Vancouver for the 2002. This would take the league from nine to thirteen teams, more than three times the number of teams that played the inaugural season in 1987. The expansion teams were the Montreal Express, the New Jersey Storm, the Calgary Roughnecks, and the Vancouver Ravens.

2002
With thirteen teams, the league established a divisional format with Eastern, Central, and Northern divisions. The Vancouver Ravens played their inaugural home game at General Motors Place in Vancouver. The Ravens defeated the Toronto Rock 13–12 in front of a crowd of 13,772, the largest to attend the first home game of an expansion franchise. The Albany Attack hosted the Rock in the 2002 Final, with the Rock defeating the Attack by a score of 13–12 to capture their third title in four seasons. 9,289 fans watched the game at the Pepsi Arena in Albany. Toronto forward Colin Doyle was voted Championship Game MVP, scoring three goals and one assist.

After the season, the league announced another relocation of the Washington Power franchise, now under new ownership in Denver. The team was bought by Kroenke Sports Enterprises, who also owned the Colorado Avalanche, Denver Nuggets, and the Pepsi Center, where the new Colorado Mammoth would host games. The new team marked the league's first U.S. team west of the Mississippi River. In addition, the Montreal Express suspended operations after just one season of play.

2003
The Colorado Mammoth played their inaugural home game at Pepsi Center in Denver. The Mammoth won 13–12 in double overtime against the Toronto Rock in front of 16,121 fans. The crowd broke the record for an inaugural home game attendance. The Mammoth also defeated the New York Saints by a score of 19–13 in front of a sellout of 18,207 fans, the first of two sellouts in Denver that season. The Mammoth averaged over 16,000 fans per game, second only to Toronto.

The Rochester Knighthawks hosted the Toronto Rock in the 2003 Champion's Cup Final. The Rock defeated the Knighthawks by a score of 8–6 to capture their fourth title in five seasons. 11,051 fans attended the game at the Blue Cross Arena in Rochester. Toronto goalie Bob Watson earned Championship Game MVP honors with his 40 saves.

The off-season was a tumultuous one for the NLL. The Ottawa Rebel joined the Montreal Express in suspending operations, while the New York Saints folded altogether after sixteen seasons. There were also three relocations: the Columbus Landsharks moved to Glendale and became the Arizona Sting; the New Jersey Storm moved to southern California and became the Anaheim Storm; and the Albany Attack moved to northern California and became the San Jose Stealth. This led to a new divisional alignment, with the league opting for a two-division, East/West format.

2004
For 2004, the new Western Division consisted of Anaheim, Arizona, Calgary, Colorado, San Jose, and Vancouver, while the Eastern Division consisted of Buffalo, Philadelphia, Rochester, and Toronto. The top three teams in each division would earn playoff berths with the division champions receiving byes. The second and third-place finishers would face each other in the opening round with the winners facing their respective division champions in the semi-final round. The semi-final winners (East vs. West) would meet in the 2004 Champions' Cup Final with the higher seed hosting. Fox Sports Net became the league's new national broadcast partner in the United States. Fox Sports Net carried nine regular-season game broadcasts spread across the schedule to over 50 million homes, along with the 2004 All-Star Game on 22 February 2004.

The Arizona Sting played their inaugural home game at the new Glendale Arena in Arizona, the first event ever held inside the arena. The Sting defeated the Vancouver Ravens by a score of 16–12 in front of 12,789 fans. The Colorado Mammoth hosted a sellout crowd of 18,305 at Pepsi Center in a 14–13 loss to the Calgary Roughnecks, the first of five Mammoth sellout crowds on the season. The 2004 All-Star Game was played in front of 16,742 fans at Pepsi Center in Denver, the largest All-Star Game crowd in league history. The East Division All-Stars defeated the West Division All-Stars by a score of 19–15.

The Calgary Roughnecks won their first Champion's Cup by defeating the Buffalo Bandits 14–11 at Pengrowth Saddledome in Calgary in front of 19,289 fans. The sellout crowd was the second highest single game attendance total in NLL history.

The collective bargaining agreement (CBA) between the league and players' association expired at the end of the season, necessitating negotiations for a new agreement. The Vancouver Ravens suspended operations after three seasons, while the owners of the Minnesota Wild purchased the dormant Montreal Express franchise and relocated it to Saint Paul, calling the team the Minnesota Swarm.

2005

The protracted negotiations over a new CBA threatened to encroach upon or even cancel the 2005 season; however, the league announced a new 3-year CBA with the Player's Association (PLPA) in October, allowing the season to porceed.

A new preseason attendance record was set as 14,084 fans came to the Xcel Energy Center in St. Paul for the first home exhibition game of the expansion Minnesota Swarm. The game marked the first professional lacrosse game ever played in the state of Minnesota.

The National Lacrosse League All-Star Game aired live on NBC at 2 PM Eastern. The game became the first live broadcast of lacrosse on national U.S. network television. The game was also televised in Canada on The Score, and internationally via CNBC International, CNBC Asia, and on Armed Forces Network. The East Division defeated the West Division 11–10 in overtime in front of 11,511 fans at Pengrowth Saddledome in Calgary.

The Gait brothers were reunited when Paul ended his retirement, signing with the Colorado Mammoth and re-joining brother and Mammoth captain Gary.

The 2005 NLL Championship Game was played in front of a record 19,432 fans at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto and in front of a national network television audience in the US on NBC and in Canada on the Score. The Toronto Rock defeated the Arizona Sting 19–13, capturing their fifth title in seven seasons, capping a dominant run for the team and pulling within one title of the Philadelphia Wings' six. Colin Doyle was named MVP of the game after leading the Rock with five goals and three assists.

After the season, the Anaheim Storm folded after two years in California. However, the dormant Ottawa Rebel franchise was purchased and relocated to Edmonton by Bruce Urban, where the team was called the Edmonton Rush. In addition, the NLL awarded an expansion franchise to Portland, Oregon, which would be known as the Portland LumberJax, and which brought the league up to eleven teams.

The league also announced the establishment of the National Lacrosse League Hall of Fame. The Hall opened with five charter members who made contributions to the league and the sport of lacrosse: league founders Russ Cline and Chris Fritz; players Paul and Gary Gait; and the late Les Bartley, the coach with the most wins in league history.

The NLL and Reebok announced a multi-year exclusive partnership in which all NLL players would use Reebok equipment and would be exclusively outfitted in the brand's footwear and apparel. The partnership made the brand the official equipment, uniform, and footwear provider of the league.

2006
The Edmonton Rush played their inaugural game and home opener in front of 11,385 fans at Rexall Place in Edmonton, Alberta, losing 10–9 in overtime to the San Jose Stealth, the second time an expansion team forced overtime in their inaugural game.

The 2006 National Lacrosse League All-Star Game was held at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto. The West Division defeated the East Division 14–13 in front of 15,924 fans. Calgary Roughnecks forward Lewis Ratcliff scored the game-winning goal with 4.4 seconds remaining. Ratcliff was named the Game MVP. The league finished its 20th season by setting an all-time single season attendance mark, reaching a total of 1,037,147 fans for the 2006 season, which included 88 regular-season games, six playoff games, and the All-Star Game.

The Colorado Mammoth defeated the Buffalo Bandits 16–9 in front of 16,104 fans at HSBC Arena in Buffalo to secure the first championship in team history. Mammoth forward Gavin Prout was named game MVP, scoring four goals and adding three assists for seven points in the win.

After the season, the NLL announced two new expansion franchises for the 2007 season: a return to New York City with the New York Titans, and the first team in Chicago in the Chicago Shamrox. This brought the league back to thirteen teams for the first time since 2002.

2007
The expansion New York Titans played their home opener at Madison Square Garden, defeating the expansion Chicago Shamrox 11–9 in front of 13,127 fans. The Eastern Division defeated the Western Division 20–16 in front of 12,856 fans at Rose Garden in Portland in the 2007 All-Star Game. Buffalo Bandits forward Mark Steenhuis was named the game's Most Valuable Player becoming the first player in NLL history to win two All-Star Game MVP honors.

The NLL reached a milestone in 2007 as the league plays its 1,000th regular season game when the Minnesota Swarm hosted the Colorado Mammoth, with the Mammoth winning 11–9.

The Rochester Knighthawks defeated the Arizona Sting 13–11 in the 2007 Championship final. John Grant was named Championship Game MVP with a three-goal/five-assist performance. The victory marked the first time that Rochester had won the title since 1997.

After the season, the NLL reached a new seven-year CBA with the players' union. However, negotiations were protracted and threatened the 2008 season, to the extent that the Arizona Sting and a new Boston expansion franchise, reviving the Blazers name, announced that they would pause operations until 2009. As such, only twelve teams would compete in 2008.

2008
John Tavares broke Gary Gait's all-time goal scoring record in 2008. Tavares, who had already captured the all-time points and assists records, notched his record-breaking 597th career goal in the third quarter of Buffalo's 17–13 victory over New York. Philadelphia Forward Athan Iannucci broke Gary Gait's single season scoring record of 61 goals. He went on to finish the season with 71 goals.

The Buffalo Bandits defeated the Portland LumberJax by the score of 14–13 in the 2008 Championship game at HSBC Arena. The event, which aired nationally on ESPN2, drew a sellout crowd of 18,690 fans. Mark Steenhuis captured the game's MVP honors with five goals and one assist. The Toronto Rock and Rochester Knighthawks both missed the playoffs for the first time in either franchise's history.

2009

The Arizona Sting and Boston Blazers were both expected to re-join the league for the 2009 season. While the Blazers did so, the Sting instead folded, and its players were dispersed in a dispersal draft. Moreover, the Chicago Shamrox folded after just two seasons, failing to make the playoffs either year. The league also announced the addition of instant replay for officials to review disputed goals and crease violations during games. George Daniel was named new league Commissioner.

Calgary won its second championship, defeating New York 12–10 in front of a crowd of 13,042 at Pengrowth Saddledome. Josh Sanderson was named Championship Game MVP, finishing with two goals and three assists.

After the season, the San Jose Stealth announced that they were relocating to Everett, where they would be known as the Washington Stealth. The New York Titans, also relocated, moving to Florida and becoming the Orlando Titans. Finally, the Portland LumberJax folded after four seasons of play.

2010
The Washington Stealth won the championship in its first season in its new home, defeating the Toronto Rock 15–11 in front of a crowd of 8,609 at Comcast Arena. Lewis Ratcliff was named Championship Game MVP.

After the season, the Orland Titans folded after just one season in Florida.

2011
2011 marked the 25th season for the NLL. The Toronto Rock won its record-tying sixth championship, tying the Philadelphia Wings, by defeating the Washington Stealth 8–7 in front of a crowd of 8,609 at Air Canada Centre. Bob Watson was named Championship Game MVP. After the season, the latest incarnation of the Boston Blazers announced that it was folding after just three seasons, bringing the league down below ten teams for the first time since 2001, where it would stay until 2019.

2012
The Rochester Knighthawks won its third championship, defeating the Edmonton Rush 9–6 in front of a crowd of 9,277 at Blue Cross Arena. Cody Jamieson was named Championship Game MVP. For the first time since 1992, there was no off-season team movement in 2012.

2013
The Rochester Knighthawks won its second-consecutive and fourth overall championship, defeating the Washington Stealth 11–10 in front of a crowd of 5,200 at Langley Events Centre. Cody Jamieson was named Championship Game MVP. After the season, the Stealth announced that they would be re-locating north of the border to become the Vancouver Stealth, bringing the NLL back to British Columbia for the first time since 2004.

2014
The Rochester Knighthawks won a third-consecutive and fifth overall championship in 2014, defeating Calgary Roughnecks 2–1 in the final series. Game 1 was an 11–7 victory for the Roughnecks in front of a crowd of 16,541 at Scotiabank Saddledome. The Knighthawks won game 2, 16–10, and clinched game 3, 3–2, in front of a crowd of 9,188 at Blue Cross Arena. Dan Dawson was named Championship Game MVP.

After the season, the Philadelphia Wings were purchased and moved to Connecticut, where they were renamed the New England Black Wolves, ending a run of 28 seasons for the Wings in Philadelphia.

2015
The Edmonton Rush won its first championship in 2015, defeating the Toronto Rock 2–0 in the final series. The Rush won game 1, 15–9 in front of a crowd of 9,257 at Air Canada Centre. Game 2 was an 11–10 victory in front of a crowd of 12,275 at Rexall Place. Mark Matthews was named Championship Game MVP. However, the Rush announced after the season that, unable to come to a new arena-lease agreement, the team would be relocating to Saskatoon, where it was renamed the Saskatchewan Rush. In addition, the Minnesota Swarm were relocated to Atlanta and renamed the Georgia Swarm.

2016
Nick Sakiewicz was appointed the 5th Commissioner of the NLL ahead of the 2016 season.

The Rush won its second-consecutive Champion's Cup and its first after relocating to Saskatchewan, defeating the Buffalo Bandits 2–0 in the final series. Game 1 finished 11–9, in front of a crowd of 12,692 at First Niagara Center. Game 2 finished 11–10 in front of a crowd of 15,182 at SaskTel Centre. Aaron Bold was named Championship Game MVP.

2017
In 2017, the Georgia Swarm won its first championship in just its second season in Georgia, defeating the Saskatchewan Rush 2–0 in the final series. It was the third straight year that the Rush made the finals. Game 1 was an 18–14 result in front of a crowd of 7,642 at Infinite Energy Arena. Game 2 finished 15–14 in front of a crowd of 14,264 at SaskTel Centre. Lyle Thompson was named Championship Game MVP.

2018
In 2018, the Saskatchewan Rush re-gained the title, winning the first National Lacrosse League Cup, which replaced the Champion's Cup, defeating the Rochester Knighthawks 2–1 in the final series. It was the third title in four seasons for the Rush with the team making the final all four seasons.

After the season, the league announced two expansion franchises that would begin play in 2019: a new Philadelphia Wings franchise along with a new southern California team, the San Diego Seals. This brought the league back to eleven teams. In addition, the league announced two further expansion teams that would begin play for the 2020 season. First, the New York Riptide would play out of the Saints' old home in Uniondale. Secondly, while Knighthawks owner Curt Styres announced that he would be moving the franchise from Rochester to Halifax after the 2019 season, the league awarded a new expansion franchise for Rochester to the owners of the Buffalo Sabres, Pegula Sports and Entertainment, to immediately replace the departing Knighthawks.

2019
The 2019 NLL season was delayed when the Professional Lacrosse Players Association went on strike shortly before training camp was set to begin over negotiations for a new CBA. On 15 November 2018, the league announced that a counter-proposal submitted by the Players Association had been rejected. Subsequently, the league announced that all games to be played in the first two weeks of the season were canceled. On 24 November, the NLL and the PLPA reached a new five-year collective bargaining agreement. The first week of the season began on December 15 and the league announced each team will still play the standard 18 game schedule.

The league kicked off its first game of the season on 15 December, with the Wings returning to Philadelphia. The Wings fell to the visiting Buffalo Bandits 17–15. On 22 December, the San Diego Seals played their first ever game, upsetting the Colorado Mammoth at the Pepsi Center, 17–12. The Calgary Roughnecks won their third title, defeating Buffalo 2–0 in the final series.

2020
2020 saw the debut of three teams. The original Knighthawks completed their move to Nova Scotia and were re-branded the Halifax Thunderbirds; the departing K-Hawks were replaced by the new expansion Rochester Knighthawks; and the New York Riptide also began play. This brought the league to thirteen teams for the first time since 2007.

On 13 March 2020, league play was indefinitely suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. At the time teams had played 10 to 14 matches. On 4 June, the league announced that the rest of the season and the playoffs were canceled due to the pandemic, and that attention would turn to organizing the 2021 season. However, this development did not stop league business, and in July 2020, a new expansion team was awarded to Fort Worth, Texas. The new team would be known as the Panther City Lacrosse Club.

On 3 February 2021, the 2021 season was also canceled due to logistical issues and uncertainties relating to the pandemic, including travel restrictions and quarantine requirements. The NLL stated that it was turning its attention to planning for the 2022 season. That spring, the New England Black Wolves announced that they would be relocating to New York and would be renamed the Albany FireWolves, bringing the NLL back to Albany for the first time since 2003. In addition, the league awarded another expansion franchise, this one to Las Vegas, to begin play in 2023. This new team would become the Las Vegas Desert Dogs.

2022
The NLL returned on 3 December 2021, marking the beginning of the 2022 season, the league's 35th, and the first game action in nearly two years. The fourteen teams, the highest number ever for the league, played a full 18-game schedule. The return was successful, and the season ended with the Colorado Mammoth defeating the Buffalo Bandits on 18 June 2022, winning the championship series 2 games to 1. The season marked the debut of Panther City and the FireWolves.

2023
The 2023 season began 2 December 2022, and ended with the Buffalo Bandits avenging their championship series loss from the previous season, defeating the Colorado Mammoth on 3 June 3, 2023, to win the series 2 games to 1. This was the inaugural season for the Las Vegas Desert Dogs, bringing the number of teams to fifteen. The 2023 NLL Stadium Showdown, the first outdoor NLL game, was held on 4 March at Snapdragon Stadium in San Diego, between the Desert Dogs and the San Diego Seals; the Seals won the game 15–12.

Commissioners

 * 1) Darrel Russell, 1987–1997
 * 2) John Livsey Jr, 1997–2000
 * 3) Jim Jennings, 2000–2009
 * 4) George Daniel, 2009–2015
 * 5) Nick Sakiewicz, 2016–2022
 * 6) Brett Frood, 2022–present

Name changes/relocations

 * New Jersey Saints (1987–1988) → New York Saints (1989–2003) → Inactive
 * New England Blazers (1989–1991) → Boston Blazers (1992–1997) → Inactive
 * Baltimore Thunder (1987–1999) → Pittsburgh CrosseFire (2000) → Washington Power (2001–2002) → Colorado Mammoth (2003–current)
 * Ontario Raiders (1998) → Toronto Rock (1999–current)
 * Syracuse Smash (1998–2000) → Ottawa Rebel (2001–2003) → Inactive (2003–2005) → Edmonton Rush (2005–2015) → Saskatchewan Rush (2016–current)
 * Albany Attack (1999–2003) → San Jose Stealth (2004–2009) → Washington Stealth (2010–2013) → Vancouver Stealth (2014–2018) → Vancouver Warriors (2018–current)
 * Columbus Landsharks (2001–2003) → Arizona Sting (2004–2007) → Inactive
 * Montreal Express (2002) → Inactive → Minnesota Swarm (2004–2015) → Georgia Swarm (2016–current)
 * New Jersey Storm (2002–2003) → Anaheim Storm (2004–2005) → Inactive
 * New York Titans (2007–2009) → Orlando Titans (2010) → Inactive
 * Philadelphia Wings (1987–2014) → New England Black Wolves (2015–2021) → Albany FireWolves (2022–current)
 * Rochester Knighthawks (1995–2019) → Halifax Thunderbirds (2020–current)
 * New York Riptide (2018–2024) → Ottawa Black Bears (2025–current)

NLL Unboxed program
In November 2023, ahead of the 2024 season, the NLL launched an initiative known as "NLL Unboxed" (stylized as "NLL unBOXed"). It is designed to help promote the sport of lacrosse via youth and school programs in strategic markets that do not currently have NLL franchises, and build interest in the sport in the lead-up to lacrosse at the 2028 Summer Olympics. Each market in the program receives a team brand as a "lacrosse community", which is used as part of promotion for the program and related activities.

As part of the program, the league began to hold "NLL Unboxed Series" games in the 2024 season, which are played in the market of one of the lacrosse communities in the program. The first of these games was hosted by Castors de Montréal in February 2024, with the Toronto Rock playing the New York Riptide at Place Bell in Laval, Quebec. It marked the first NLL game played in the Montreal area since the Montreal Express' first and only season in 2002.

National Lacrosse League Players' Association
The National Lacrosse League Players' Association (NLLPA), formerly the Professional Lacrosse Players' Association (PLPA), is the trade union of players in the NLL. The PLPA was founded in 1991 by Dave Succamore (a former Detroit Turbos player), Peter Schmitz (a former Boston Blazers player and president) and four other players from other teams with assistance by labor attorney Ronald L. Jaros. The union was organized to assist with missed work pay for players who miss their regular jobs for games; expanded expense reimbursement; more opportunities for promotional pay on top of their regular game salaries; more time for rookies to assess their initial contracts; game compensation for practice players; free agency; a standard grievance and arbitration process for fines and suspensions. Before the players' union was in place, injured players' medical bills were paid by the League through workman's compensation insurance in the states where teams were located.

Media coverage
In the early 2000s, CNN Sports Illustrated aired NLL games regularly. The NLL had had its All-Star Games and Championship games on NBC in 2005 and ESPN2 in 2006.

In 2007, the NLL had a regularly scheduled "Game of the Week" on Versus. For the 2008 season, due to dispute between the Professional Lacrosse Players' Association and the NLL owners in completing the collective bargaining agreement, the "Game of the Week" on Versus was cancelled. Also in 2007, the NLL signed an agreement with Sirius Satellite Radio, who were the "Official Satellite Radio Partner". The pact included a "Game of the Week" as well as a weekly highlight show.

For the 2011 season, the NLL returned to Versus, beginning with coverage of the 2011 All-Star Game, followed by 6 weekly games, and 2 playoff games, one of these being the championship game. In the 2012 season, the rights shifted to CBS Sports Network, which carried a package of eight regular season games.

In 2012, the NLL reached an agreement with the YouTube channel The Lacrosse Network. All games were available on YouTube after the broadcast and most games were broadcast live. For the 2016 season, the league moved to Fox Sports' streaming platform Fox Sports Go. Beginning with the 2016 division semifinals, the NLL introduced an in-house NLLTV service operated by NeuLion.

In the 2017 season, the NLL reached a two-season deal with Twitter to stream a weekly game, as well as playoff games and the Champion's Cup, via the social network's live streaming features. A separate deal was reached with CBS Sports Digital to stream games on its subscription platform SportsLive.

For the 2018–19 season, the league announced a broadcasting agreement with Turner Sports, under which its games would be streamed exclusively by B/R Live.

For the 2021–22 season, the NLL reached a new media rights agreement with ESPN Inc., under which all games would stream on ESPN+ in the United States, and at least 10 would air on an ESPN television channel. In Canada, the league also returned to TSN (which is minority-owned by ESPN) for the first time since 2016, airing a Saturday-night package focusing on its Canadian franchises, playoff games, and streaming of other games online for TSN subscribers. All other game broadcasts are produced in-house by the league, using a mix of on-site staff and remote production hubs (with Dome Productions, a joint venture between TSN's parent company Bell Media and rival Rogers Media, handling the hub for Canadian teams and other games broadcast by TSN).

Video games
Blast Lacrosse, a video game based on the NLL, was released on 23 May 2001. Developed by Sandbox Studios and published by Acclaim Entertainment, it was the first lacrosse video game and included all nine teams from the NLL's 15th season (2001).

On 31 March 2010, the NLL announced it had partnered with Crosse Studio and Triple B Games to develop NLL Lacrosse 2010 presented by Reebok Lacrosse. The game was released exclusively on Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Indie Games on April 23, 2010. Crosse Studio and Triple B Games developed Inside Lacrosse's College Lacrosse 2010 in 2009 before approaching the NLL to license their next game.

Awards

 * National Lacrosse League Weekly Awards
 * National Lacrosse League Monthly Awards
 * MVP Award
 * Rookie of the Year Award
 * Les Bartley Award (coach of the year)
 * GM of the Year Award
 * Executive of the Year Award
 * Defensive Player of the Year Award
 * Transition Player of the Year Award
 * Goaltender of the Year Award
 * Sportsmanship Award
 * Tom Borrelli Award (writer of the year)

title: National Lacrosse League


text:
Herman of Carinthia

Herman of Carinthia (1105/1110 – after 1154), also called Hermanus Dalmata or Sclavus Dalmata, Secundus, by his own words born in the "heart of Istria", was a philosopher, astronomer, astrologer, mathematician and translator of Arabic works into Latin.

Alongside Adelard of Bath, John of Seville, Gerard of Cremona and Plato of Tivoli, Herman is the most important translator of Arabic astronomical works in 12th century. The influence of his translations on the development of medieval European astronomy was especially large.

Name
Herman (also spelled Hermann) is known by several bynames in English and Latin referring to his land of origin or his ethnicity: Hermann of Carinthia (Hermannus de Carinthia); Hermann of Dalmatia or Hermann the Dalmatian (Hermannus Dalmata ); or Hermann the Slav (Hermannus Sclavus ). Herman always refers to his homeland as Carinthia or Istria. His own preferred nickname was Hermannus Secundus, that is, the "second Hermann", by way of which he declared himself the successor of Hermannus Contractus, an earlier writer on the astrolabe.

Life
The main sources for Herman's life are the prologues to his own works. These can be supplemented by a few references to him in the writings of his contemporaries. In his own account, he was born in the early 12th century, possibly around 1105 or 1110, in central Istria, then part of the Duchy of Carinthia in the Holy Roman Empire. The location is difficult to pin down given the much broader extent of the March of Istria in the 12th century, which included the Karst Plateau, Trieste, Duino and most of the area of later Inner Carniola, possibly even encompassing the upper Vipava Valley. The term "central Istria" was likely used for all those (predominantly Slavic-inhabited) areas under the rule of the margrave of Istria, as opposed to the predominantly Romance-speaking coastal towns which lived under an autonomous municipal regime.

Herman most likely went to a Benedictine monastic school in Istria. He subsequently studied under Thierry of Chartres, either at Paris or at Chartres, before 1138. It is possible that he first met Robert of Ketton in Paris or Chartres. Richard Hakluyt, quoting an anonymous Latin source from the time of the Second Crusade, says that Robert "traveled through France, Italy, Dalmatia, and Greece, and came at last into Asia, where he lived in great danger of his life among the cruel Saracens, but yet learned perfectly the Arabian tongue" and "returned by sea into Spain", adding that Herman "had accompanied him in his long voyage." This single passage has been elaborated with many conjectures by later historians, some having him pass through Constantinople on his way to Baghdad in 1135 and sojourning in Damascus in 1136–1138.

The first securely datable event in Herman's life is his translation of Sahl ibn Bishr's Fatidica in 1138. In fact, all his activities can be traced only for the period 1138–1143, when he was in Spain.

Translation of Islamic works
In 1142 Herman was in Spain and became involved in a project to translate Islamic texts. Peter the Venerable recruited a team, including Herman, to translate five texts about Islam into Latin. Different members of the team appear to have concentrated on different works, and Herman is credited as the main translator of two of them: De generatione Muhamet et nutritura eius and De doctrina Muhamet.

The most significant translation in the collection was that of the Qur'an. This was entitled Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete and was the first known translation of the Qur'an into a European language. Robert of Ketton was its principal translator, according to most sources (including the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete itself). However, Herman may have had some input, given the team nature of the project. Despite being an imperfect translation, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete remained the standard one for centuries, circulating in manuscript before being printed in the 1543 edition published in Basel by Theodor Bibliander. In this edition both Herman's above-mentioned translations of treatises about Islam appeared together with a preface by Martin Luther.

Translations of the classics

 * Herman translated Euclid's Elements around 1140, possibly in collaboration with Robert of Ketton. (There were also other twelfth century translations).
 * Herman translated Claudius Ptolemy's Planisphaerium in Toulouse in 1143. Herman translated it from an Arabic translation from the Greek (jointly with commentaries of Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, who worked in Córdoba in the 10th century). Western European scholastics became aware of Ptolemy's astronomical views via this translation dedicated to Thierry of Chartres. (This translation was for a long time believed to be the only surviving link to Ptolemy's original. Later another Arabic translation was found to have been preserved in Istanbul).

Herman also translated Ptolemy's Canon of Kings. For long many thought that Ptolemy was translated by German Herman Contractus and not by Herman of Carinthia.

Astrology and astronomy
Herman's first known translation was the sixth book of an astrological treatise Liber sextus astronomie by the Jewish writer Sahl ibn Bishr. It was released in Spain in 1138 under the title Zaelis fatidica (Prophesy). Sahl ibn Bishr had been writing in the Greek astrological tradition. Ibn Bishr's first five books were preserved in the translation of John of Seville (Johannes Hispanus) (circa 1090 – circa 1150). The sixth book deals with three thematic topics regarding the influences on the world and its inhabitants. The work contains divinations based on the movements of the planets and comets.

Circa 1140 Herman translated into Latin the astronomical work of Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi Kitab al-madkhal ila ilm ahkam al nujum (Introduction to Astronomy). The work contains problems from Greek philosophy, Arabic astronomy and Eastern astrology, and was first translated into Latin by John of Seville in 1133. Herman's less literal translation was published several times under the title Liber introductorius in astronomiam Albumasaris, Abalachii (Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg 1489; Venice 1495 and 1506). A large part of Herman's translation was copied into Roger of Hereford's Book of Astronomical Judgements. Sections of Herman's translation were also compiled by the otherwise-unknown medieval author Georgius Zothorus Zaparus Fendulus into his richly illustrated Liber astrologiae (Liber Abumazarus).

Herman produced a version of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī's astronomical tables (zij) – they were also translated in 1126 by Adelard of Bath (1075–1164).

Charles Burnett (2001) postulates that Herman collaborated with Robert of Ketton and Hugo of Santalla on the Liber novem iudicum (the Book of Nine Judges), a collection of translations of Arabic astrologers, notably al-Kindi. Their project may have been to supplant the current superstitious Latin astrology with Arabic astronomical science. Arabic texts cite often Hermes as an authority. Burnett postulates that Renaissance magi merely continued this Hermetic tradition begun by Herman, Robert and Hugh. Herman shares technical terminology with Hugh and a penchant for evocation of the Asclepius, most notably in De essentiis (see below)

Original writings
His original contribution to philosophy was De essentiis (On essences). In this work Herman deals with five Aristotelian categories (causa, motus, spatium, tempus, habitudo). He started to write this treatise in 1143 in Toulouse and he completed it the same year in Béziers. In 1982 this book was reprinted in Germany.

Some other works are believed to be Herman's: In the text (or a manuscript, the syntax of this article was not clear) of De indagatione cordis there are many names of scientists and scholars whose work Herman knew and used: Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787–886), Sahl ibn Bishr, Aomar Tiberia, Abu al-Kindi (801–873), the eighth-century Jewish astrologer Al Batrig Mashallah (Messahalla), Hermes, and Dorotheos of Sidon.
 * meteorological Liber imbrium (A book about precipitations) (1140 to 1141)
 * astrological De indagatione cordis (About heart researches) (after 1140)
 * mathematical and astronomical De mensura, De utilitatibus astrolabii, De compositione et usu astrolabii (before 1143 – Herman was certainly interested in the Astrolabe – the portrait shows Herman with one)

Many medieval authors refer to Herman's work, for instance Albert the Great (Albert von Bollstädt, Albertus Magnus), instructor to Thomas Aquinas, in his work Speculum astronomiae.

title: Herman of Carinthia


text:
Spasticity

Spasticity  is a feature of altered skeletal muscle performance with a combination of paralysis, increased tendon reflex activity, and hypertonia. It is also colloquially referred to as an unusual "tightness", stiffness, or "pull" of muscles.

Clinically, spasticity results from the loss of inhibition of motor neurons, causing excessive velocity-dependent muscle contraction. This ultimately leads to hyperreflexia, an exaggerated deep tendon reflex. Spasticity is often treated with the drug baclofen, which acts as an agonist at GABA receptors, which are inhibitory.

Spastic cerebral palsy is the most common form of cerebral palsy, which is a group of permanent movement problems that do not get worse over time. GABA's inhibitory actions contribute to baclofen's efficacy as an anti-spasticity agent.

Pathophysiology
Spasticity mostly occurs in disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) affecting the upper motor neurons in the form of a lesion, such as spastic diplegia, or upper motor neuron syndrome, and can also be present in various types of multiple sclerosis, where it occurs as a symptom of the progressively-worsening attacks on myelin sheaths and is thus unrelated to the types of spasticity present in neuromuscular cerebral palsy rooted spasticity disorders.

The cause of spasticity is thought to be where an imbalance occurs in the excitatory and inhibitory input to α motor neurons caused by damage to the spinal cord and/or central nervous system. The damage causes a change in the balance of signals between the nervous system and the muscles, leading to increased excitability in muscles. This is common in people who have cerebral palsy, brain injuries or a spinal cord injury, but it can happen to anybody e.g. having a stroke.

One factor that is thought to be related to spasticity is the stretch reflex. This reflex is important in coordinating normal movements in which muscles are contracted and relaxed and in keeping the muscle from stretching too far. Although the result of spasticity is problems with the muscles, spasticity is actually caused by an injury to a part of the central nervous system (the brain or spinal cord) that controls voluntary movements. The damage causes a change in the balance of signals between the nervous system and the muscles. This imbalance leads to increased activity (excitability) in the muscles. Receptors in the muscles receive messages from the nervous system, which sense the amount of stretch in the muscle and sends that signal to the brain. The brain responds by sending a message back to reverse the stretch by contracting or shortening. Overall, a defining feature of spasticity is that the increased resistance to passive stretch is velocity-dependent. Lance (1980) describes it this way: "...a motor disorder, characterised by a velocity-dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes (muscle tone) with exaggerated tendon jerks, resulting from hyper-excitability of the stretch reflex as one component of the upper motor neurone (UMN) syndrome".

Spasticity is found in conditions where the brain and/or spinal cord are damaged or fail to develop normally; these include cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury and acquired brain injury including stroke. Damage to the CNS as a result of stroke or spinal cord injury, alter the [net inhibition] of peripheral nerves in the affected region. This change in input to bodily structures tends to favor excitation and therefore increase nerve excitability. CNS damage also causes nerve cell membranes to rest in a more [depolarized] state. The combination of decreased inhibition and an increased depolarized state of cell membranes, decreases action potential threshold for nerve signal conduction, and thus increases activity of structures innervated by the affected nerves (spasticity). Muscles affected in this way have many other potential features of altered performance in addition to spasticity, including muscle weakness; decreased movement control; clonus (a series of involuntary rapid muscle contractions often symptomatic of muscle over-exertion and/or muscle fatigue); exaggerated deep tendon reflexes; and decreased endurance.

Spasticity and clonus
Clonus (i.e. involuntary, rhythmic, muscular contractions and relaxations) tends to co-exist with spasticity in many cases of stroke and spinal cord injury likely due to their common physiological origins. Some consider clonus as simply an extended outcome of spasticity. Although closely linked, clonus is not seen in all patients with spasticity. Clonus tends to not be present with spasticity in patients with significantly increased muscle tone, as the muscles are constantly active and therefore not engaging in the characteristic on/off cycle of clonus. Clonus results due to an increased motor neuron excitation (decreased action potential threshold) and is common in muscles with long conduction delays, such as the long reflex tracts found in distal muscle groups. Clonus is commonly seen in the ankle but may exist in other distal structures as well, such as the knee or spine.

Characteristics of spasticity
A commonly known feature of spasticity, known as Clasp-knife response is the sudden decrease of tone after initial resistance, also referred to as a lengthening reaction or a "catch-yield sequence". This is because of inverse stretch reflex activation mediated by the Golgi tendon organ on sustained muscle stretching resulting in sudden relaxation of the muscle. Another characteristic of spasticity, which may be referred to as "seatbelt effect" of spasticity, is different as the amount of resistance offered by the muscle is directly proportional to velocity of the passive movement. It is caused by increased muscle spindle excitability and velocity sensitivity of Ia spindle afferent nerve fibres, resulting in excessive activation of alpha motor neurons of the spinal cord. It is similar to the tug we feel initially while pulling the seatbelt of a car beyond a certain velocity, hence the name "seatbelt effect"

Diagnosis
The clinical underpinnings of two of the most common spasticity conditions, spastic cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis, can be described as follows: in spastic diplegia, the upper motor neuron lesion arises often as a result of neonatal asphyxia, while in conditions like multiple sclerosis, spasticity is thought by some to be as a result of the autoimmune destruction of the myelin sheaths around nerve endings—which in turn can mimic the gamma amino butyric acid deficiencies present in the damaged nerves of spastic cerebral palsy children, leading to roughly the same presentation of spasticity, but which clinically is fundamentally different from the latter.

Spasticity is assessed by feeling the resistance of the muscle to passive lengthening in its most relaxed state. A spastic muscle will have immediately noticeable, often quite forceful, increased resistance to passive stretch when moved with speed and/or while attempting to be stretched out, as compared to the non-spastic muscles in the same person's body (if any exist). Spasticity can be differentiated from rigidity with the help of simple clinical examination, as rigidity is a uniform increase in the tone of agonist and antagonist muscles which is not related to the velocity at which the movement is performed passively and remains the same throughout the range of movement while spasticity is a velocity-dependent increase in tone resulting from the hyperexcitability of stretch reflexes. It primarily involves the antigravity muscles – flexors of the upper limb and extensors of the lower limb. During the passive stretch, a brief "free interval" is appreciated in spasticity but not in rigidity because the resting muscle is electromyographically silent in spasticity. In contrast, in rigidity, the resting muscle shows firing.

As there are many features of the upper motor neuron syndrome, there are likely to be multiple other changes in affected musculature and surrounding bones, such as progressive malalignments of bone structure around the spastic muscles (leading for example to the scissor gait and tip-toeing gait due to ankle equinus or ankle planter flexion deformity in spastic cerebral palsy children, scissor gait is caused by spasticity of the hip adductor muscles while tip-toeing gait is caused by spasticity of the gastrocnemius-soleus muscle complex or calf musculature. Also, following an upper motor neuron lesion, there may be multiple muscles affected, to varying degrees, depending on the location and severity of the upper motor neuron damage. The result for the affected individual, is that they may have any degree of impairment, ranging from a mild to a severe movement disorder. A relatively mild movement disorder may contribute to a loss of dexterity in an arm, or difficulty with high level mobility such as running or walking on stairs. A severe movement disorder may result in marked loss of function with minimal or no volitional muscle activation. There are several scales used to measure spasticity, such as the King's hypertonicity scale, the Tardieu, and the modified Ashworth. Of these three, only the King's hypertonicity scale measures a range of muscle changes from the UMN lesion, including active muscle performance as well as passive response to stretch.

Assessment of a movement disorder featuring spasticity may involve several health professionals depending on the affected individual's situation, and the severity of their condition. This may include physical therapists, physicians (including neurologists and rehabilitation physicians), orthotists and occupational therapists. Assessment is needed of the affected individual's goals, their function, and any symptoms that may be related to the movement disorder, such as pain. A thorough assessment will include analysis of posture, active movement, muscle strength, movement control and coordination, and endurance, as well as spasticity (response of the muscle to stretch). Spastic muscles typically demonstrate a loss of selective movement, including a loss of eccentric control (decreased ability to actively lengthen). While multiple muscles in a limb are usually affected in the upper motor neuron syndrome, there is usually an imbalance of activity, such that there is a stronger pull in one direction, such as into elbow flexion. Decreasing the degree of this imbalance is a common focus of muscle strengthening programs. Spastic movement disorders also typically feature a loss of stabilisation of an affected limb or the head from the trunk, so a thorough assessment requires this to be analysed as well.

Secondary effects are likely to impact on assessment of spastic muscles. If a muscle has impaired function following an upper motor neuron lesion, other changes such as increased muscle stiffness are likely to affect the feeling of resistance to passive stretch. Other secondary changes such as loss of muscle fibres following acquired muscle weakness are likely to compound the weakness arising from the upper motor neuron lesion. In severely affected spastic muscles, there may be marked secondary changes, such as muscle contracture, particularly if management has been delayed or absent.

Treatment
Treatment should be based on assessment by relevant health professionals. For spastic muscles with mild-to-moderate impairment, exercise should be the mainstay of management, and is likely needed to be prescribed by a physiatrist (a doctor specialized in rehabilitation medicine), occupational therapist, physical therapist, accredited exercise physiologist (AEP) or other health professional skilled in neurological rehabilitation.

Muscles with severe spasticity are likely to be more limited in their ability to exercise, and may require help to do this. In spastic cerebral palsy children the main treatment modality of spasticity is conservative in the form of botulinum toxin A injection and various physical therapy modalities such as serial casting, sustained stretching and medical pharmacologic treatment. Spasticity in cerebral palsy children is usually generalized although with varying degrees of severity across the affected extremities and trunk musculature. Neglected or inappropriately treated spasticity can eventually lead to joint contractures. Both spasticity and contractures can cause joint subluxations or dislocations and severe gait difficulties. In the event of contracture there is no role for conservative treatment. Hip dislocation and ankle equinus deformity are known to arise from muscle spasticity primarily. Orthopedic surgical reconstruction of the hip is commonly practiced to improve sitting balance, nursing care and relieve hip pain. Treatment should be done with firm and constant manual contact positioned over nonspastic areas to avoid stimulating the spastic muscle(s). Alternatively, rehabilitation robotics can be used to provide high volumes of passive or assisted movement, depending on the individual's requirements; this form of therapy can be useful if therapists are at a premium, and has been found effective at reducing spasticity in patients with strokes. For muscles that lack any volitional control, such as after complete spinal cord injury, exercise may be assisted, and may require equipment, such as using a standing frame to sustain a standing position.

A general treatment guideline can be followed that involves:
 * The initial focus on first activating contraction of antagonist muscles to provide reciprocal inhibition and lengthen spastic muscles
 * Reciprocal actions are attempted. Agonist contractions are performed first in small ranges progressing to larger arcs of movement
 * Highly stressful activities be minimized early in training
 * Functional skills are targeted for training
 * Patients and family/caregivers should be educated about the importance of maintaining range of motion and doing daily exercise

Medical interventions may include oral medications such as baclofen, clonazepam, clonidine, diazepam, or dantrolene. If refractive to oral agents, spasticity may be treated with intrathecal baclofen therapy (IBT) when spasticity. IBT may also be used in patients with limited tolerance to other modalities. Phenol injections can be used, or botulinum toxin  injections into the muscle belly, to attempt to dampen the signals between nerve and muscle. The effectiveness of medications vary between individuals, and vary based on location of the upper motor neuron lesion (in the brain or the spinal cord). Medications are commonly used for spastic movement disorders, but research has not shown functional benefit for some drugs. Some studies have shown that medications have been effective in decreasing spasticity, but that this has not been accompanied by functional benefits. Surgery could be required for a tendon release in the case of a severe muscle imbalance leading to contracture. In spastic CP, selective dorsal rhizotomy has also been used to decrease muscle overactivity.

Incorporating hydrotherapy in the treatment program may help decrease spasm severity, promote functional independence, improve motor recovery and decrease medication required for spasticity, which may help reduce the side effects that are possible with oral drug treatments. A 2004 study compared the effects of hydrotherapy on spasticity, oral baclofen dosage and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores of patients with a spinal cord injury (SCI). It was found that subjects who received hydrotherapy treatment obtained increased FIM scores and a decreased intake of oral baclofen medication. A 2009 study looked at the effect of hydrotherapy to decrease spasticity on post-stroke, hemiparetic patients with limited mobility and concluded that there was a significantly larger increase in FIM scores compared to the control group that did not receive hydrotherapy.

Prognosis
The prognosis for those with spastic muscles depends on multiple factors, including the severity of the spasticity and the associated movement disorder, access to specialised and intensive management, and ability of the affected individual to maintain the management plan (particularly an exercise program). Most people with a significant UMN lesion will have ongoing impairment, but most of these will be able to make progress. The most important factor to indicate ability to progress is seeing improvement, but improvement in many spastic movement disorders may not be seen until the affected individual receives help from a specialised team or health professional.

Research
Doublecortin positive cells, similar to stem cells, are extremely adaptable and, when extracted from a brain, cultured and then re-injected in a lesioned area of the same brain, they can help repair and rebuild it. The treatment using them would take some time to be available for general public use, as it has to clear regulations and trials.

History
Historical progression of spasticity and the upper motor neuron lesion on which it is based has progressed considerably in recent decades. However, the term "spasticity" is still often used interchangeably with "upper motor neuron syndrome" in the clinical settings, and it is not unusual to see patients labeled as "spastic" who actually demonstrate not just spasticity alone, but also an array of upper motor neuron findings.

Research has clearly shown that exercise is beneficial for spastic muscles, even though in the very early days of research it was assumed that strength exercise would increase spasticity. Also, from at least the 1950s through at least the 1980s, there was a strong focus on other interventions for spastic muscles, particularly stretching and splinting, but the evidence does not support these as effective. While splinting is not considered effective for decreasing spasticity, a range of different orthotics are effectively used for preventing muscle contractures on patients with spasticity. In the case of spastic diplegia there is also a permanent neurosurgical treatment for spasticity, selective dorsal rhizotomy, that directly targets nerves in the spine that cause the spasticity, and destroys them, so that the spasticity cannot be activated at all.

title: Spasticity


text:
Cassini

Cassini may refer to:

People

 * Cassini (surname)
 * Oleg Cassini (1913–2006), American fashion designer

 * Cassini family:

 * Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712), Italian mathematician, astronomer, engineer, and astrologer
 * Jacques Cassini (1677–1756), French astronomer, son of Giovanni Domenico Cassini
 * César-François Cassini de Thury (1714–1784), French astronomer and cartographer, son of Jacques Cassini
 * Jean-Dominique, comte de Cassini (1748–1845), French astronomer, son of César-François Cassini de Thury
 * Alexandre Henri Gabriel de Cassini (1781–1832), French botanist and naturalist, son of Jean-Dominique de Cassini

Planetary science

 * Cassini's laws on the motion of the Moon
 * Cassini Division, a gap in the rings of Saturn
 * Cassini–Huygens, the space mission to examine Saturn and its moons, of which the Cassini orbiter was a part
 * Cassini (Martian crater)
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 * 24101 Cassini, an asteroid
 * 24102 Jacquescassini, another asteroid
 * Cassini Regio, the dark region of the moon Iapetus

Other uses

 * Cassini, South Australia
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 * Cassini Glacier, in Antarctica
 * Cassini periodical cicadas, two species of insect
 * French cruiser Cassini, French Navy cruiser

title: Cassini