text:
Talk:Predestination in Calvinism

Rewrite
I made some appropriate changes to the article. I did a large rewrite but not on the whole thing. Right now the article needs deletion/condensing of a lot of side issues and histories. I didn't feel like hijacking the whole edit or putting negative bias into views that are not my own. The article does not as of yet mention the source of this Calvinistic belief or theistic determinism. It only mentions predestination with respect to election. The source of doctrine comes from God being absolutely sovereign, infinitely wise, omniscient, and omnipotent. He will work all things for the good of those who believe in Him. God thus carries out His own plan throughout time, absolutely to completion with infinite wisdom. The means are predestination. It also needs to discuss the dangers when we try to see God's plan that remains unrevealed. We should not try to look into it or judge others. Calvin addresses this. Finally, It needs to state that it differs from fatalism in the sense that it is not blind or based on random chance. --Newchasm

I think the calvinism's response should not be included. Appearantly some Calvinist thought that the rest of the article did a bad job at explainaion of Their doctrine. Furthermore, I fully understand calvinistic predestination. It has much more to do with absolute sovereignty than it does with election. Double predestination does not equal Calvinistic predestination. Furthermore, Unconditional election is the outworking of predestination in Salvation. It is not the cause. Next, the discussion on free will is misleading since calvinist's mean different things with that phrase. Read Jonathan Edwards. The will is free to follow what it desires most. It is still free here but it is not free in what it can desire. I might try to rework this article later. --Newchasm

I agree with Ed, in particular the "calvinisms response" part I suggest it be deleted in part that it was added and does contain bias in that it builds a straw man of calvinism and also sola fide. hewoulddieforu

A lot of this sounds like personal opinion, disagreeing with Calvinism. I suggest a rewrite. --Ed Poor

It is a topic under discussion on Predestination, written from a calvinist's point of view, in the attempt to show that calvinists are capable of sympathizing with the difficulty involved in understanding a doctrine that is not meant to be understood; while trying to show its usefulness within the calvinist system. I am hoping that an agreement can be reached on how the doctrine can be expressed, so that those who believe it can agree with those who do not, regarding how the doctrine should be expressed in a neutral point of view. If we reach that agreement, then I suggest that this topic should be deleted (or, rewritten with a less practical purpose in mind). The idea is similar to what has been done in Jehovah's Witnesses. Mkmcconn

Actually, upon reading the entire article, this article seesm remarkably balanced. It points out, quite fairly, that most people find the Calvinist doctrine incomprehensible, and then explains why Calvinists believe that it is defensible. Itis done in class Wikipedia NPOV style. This is great. However, I think it errs, in that it attributes a belief to Calvinists that they don't have. The author of this entry so far holds that Calvinists really don't believe what they say they believe; rather they believe in free will in the same way that most people do. Therefore he strains to find a way to make their belief reject predestination, despite the Calvinists own claims. This I find incorrect. Calvinists are very clear that some people are elect, others are not, and that there is nothing that anyone can do about this. They can, if they wish, add that "free will" also exists, but this is literally impossible to do. It is a logical contradiction, and can only be affirmed by cognative dissonance (a mental state in which a person holds two mutually contradictory beliefs at the same time.) RK

 * That's true. It is not free will in the same sense as others hold to it.  This is the importance of the section on "Equivocal or analogical concepts of freedom" in the Predestination article. Mkmcconn

This is a polemic against the doctrine, rather than a statement of it. I suggest that this page is deleted until a better definition of this doctrine is available. This is not the forum for such argumentative articles. By all means put this is an article on Universalism or some other such. This is not educational, in that it should provide a positive definistion and explanation of the doctrine. notsnhoj

 * It contains polemic against the doctrine, yes. But it is written to answer those arguments; as discussed above, the essay was written to help explain a particular approach to the topic of predestination.  It was intended that it should be deleted; but in the meantime, several articles linked to it.  If your concern is that it is offensive to Calvinists: it was written by a Calvinist - which does not guarantee that it is not offensive, but it may vouche for its neutrality.  See Predestination and Types of religious predestination for the product of the discussion of which this essay was a part. Mkmcconn 05:41, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * It certainly needs work as is. But I don't think it's all that bad by Wikipedia standards, frankly. I'd keep it. Andrewa 19:51, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

OK, I'm going to chop it down and see what happens.

Here's the original content, prior to my cutting it down to the first couple of paragraphs: Dpbsmith 02:33, 19 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Content prior to 2/18/2004
The Calvinist doctrine of predestination is easy to state in all of its infamous bluntness :

 * Predestination we call the eternal decree of God, by which He hath determined in Himself what He would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny; but eternal life is foreordained for some, and eternal damnation for others.  -- John Calvin Institutes of the Christian Religion

The Westminster Confession of Faith is just as blunt, and expands the issue at length in Chapter III:

 * 3. By the decree of God, for the manifestation of His glory, some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life; and others foreordained to everlasting death.

And yet, what Calvinists are quite willing to confess among themselves, they sometimes are unwilling to say as boldly to others, or to allow others to attribute to them. Why is this? Is the doctrine of predestination according to Calvinism that, God foreordains some to eternal life, and others to eternal damnation, or not? Is it a decision based purely on his own will, so that there's nothing anyone can do to be saved if they aren't "one of the elect", or isn't it?

Any frank Calvinist must admit that, it appears to be as simple as that. If this is what people understand it to be, and he wants to say that they have not understood the doctrine, then the Calvinist must acknowledge that it's not for lack of understanding of the English language that they have come to their conclusion.

Besides this, notwithstanding the bluntness of its statements, the Westminster Confession of Faith uses notoriously peculiar language on these points in Chapter III.

 * 1. God from all eternity, did, by the most wise and holy counsel of His own will, freely, and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass: yet so, as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures; nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established.

This is a square circle indeed, if it's saying what it seems. From eternity, an order of all things is set in exhaustive detail, which nothing can change. And yet, this unchangeable order does not contradict the will of the creatures or take away their freedom, or remove second causes, much less cause the sinful choices of man? One may well wonder what the use is, of a doctrine that cannot be understood. It states plainly, what it denies in the next sentence. Here, supposedly, is a cause of every detail, that doesn't cancel second causes, or involve any coercion, or even resistance, much less offer "violence" to man's free choices or cause man to sin. In fact quite the opposite, says the confession, the freedom of man's choices is established inviolate by God's unchangeable decree. Perhaps Westminster is speaking merely of foreknowledge? Chapter III, again:

 * 2. Although God knows whatsoever may or can come to pass upon all supposed conditions, yet hath He not decreed any thing because He foresaw it as future, or as that which would come to pass upon such conditions.

A distinction is made, between the decision that God makes from himself without reference to anything else - this "eternal decree" - and any actions that He may take based upon what happens, or what will happen, or what He understands about causes and consequent effects. Predestination is not foreknowledge. Instead, in section 7, it says that a secret counsel, an eternal and immutable purpose, and the good pleasure of His will is the basis of God's decree concerning both, those who are saved and those who are damned, as opposed to "any foresight of faith, or good works, or perseverance in either of them, or any other thing in the creature, as conditions, or causes moving Him thereunto." This is where the crass criticism comes from, when referring to human hubris: "He does whatever he damn well pleases".

Now, we revisit the question of why Calvinists object when opponents repeat what Calvinists confess. The answer appears to be, because it evokes hatred of God in those who do not know God, if this be God. This appears from section 8 of chapter III:

 * The doctrine of this high mystery of predestination is to be handled with special prudence and care, that men, attending the will of God revealed in his Word, and yielding obedience thereunto, may, from the certainty of their effectual vocation, be assured of their eternal election. So shall this doctrine afford matter of praise, reverence, and admiration of God; and of humility, diligence, and abundant consolation to all that sincerely obey the gospel.

Essentially, what this is saying according to Calvinists is that, the doctrine has no profitable meaning, except for those who believe the gospel. And, say the Calvinists quite adamantly, the gospel is not about predestination but about Christ, and the forgiveness of sins.

This gospel of Christ, according to Calvinists, is to be preached freely to all men, and they are to be urged with all sincerity to trust in it. The gospel should never be replaced with teachings on election and predestination, which cannot have any profitable meaning except to those who have trusted in the gospel. It is never to be said, "to be saved, you must be elect", because, what can men do to be elect? Therefore, if Calvinists find that their doctrine concerning salvation is being described by others as "you must be elect", they will object (or at least, that appears to be what their confessional documents tell them they should do).

It is never to be said, "judgment is based on God's decree", or "most men are damned before they are even born". That is a false way of speaking to the world. Judgment is based on the good and the evil that men do, Calvinists say, because that is what the gospel says. "Turn away from sin, trust in God and believe in Christ" is the gospel, according to Calvinists; "You must be elect" is an antigospel because it subjects men to false notions of futility, and it is therefore an obstacle to faith, something that should not be said because even if the words are right, the spirit of the words as expressed in unbelief is completely antithetical to their believing intent.

And so, what is the doctrine of predestination? The Calvinists say that it is instruction for those who believe, not to credit their believing to themselves, but to God who has had mercy and granted them faith, in love. It teaches those who have begun to trust God, to continue to trust even to the end of the world, because He has been faithful from the foundations of the world. And, those who have begun to obey, learn that salvation is not an achievement to be earned by them: rather, it is God, who is at work in them to make them willing, and able to live for Him. It teaches them when they preach the gospel to others, not to burden themselves with responsibility for whether they are believed: this is a matter between the others, and God. Therefore, if the world is too stubborn to listen, plead with God to grant them ears to hear, in whose hands are the fates of all men. And, because of this doctrine, no one can say "this people or that people cannot receive the gospel, because circumstances have made it impossible": God is the maker of all circumstance. Therefore, plead with God that he would be willing to overcome every obstacle. And if God by decree has the reins of the hearts and the will of men, then plead with God that men would be turned toward life. Predestination is the doctrine of Calvinism, only if it teaches joy and patience, and the assurance of God's faithfulness.

In other words, it is a doctrine intended to instruct Christians in the obedience of faith, not in the metaphysics of "will" in the abstract. It teaches them to credit nothing in creation for their salvation, but only God alone. And they are cautioned never to use this doctrine wrongly: because if these things are preached to those who do not believe the gospel, they will be provoked to blaspheme God. Because if election is preached, they will only hear a perverse message of damnation, or a message which makes them complacent in their sin. But if repentance and forgiveness through faith in Christ are preached, who knows but that God has written their names for the gift of repentance, in the book of life? So say the Calvinists.

Votes for Deletion
This page is essentially a polemic against the doctrine rather than an imformative definition of it. Regardless of my opinion of the doctrine, i would expect as a researcher, to find a posiotive definition of the doctrine with links to arguments against it. notsnhoj
 * Should probably be listed on Cleanup, not here. RickK 04:56, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * The article was created with a practical purpose in mind, which has since been satisfied. Its essay form probably qualifies it for deletion.  However, it was written more than a year ago, and has been linked from several other articles.  Rewriting may be a less messy route. Mkmcconn 07:55, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, this should not be here. Sam Spade 15:02, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, but truncate to a near-stub. The article topic is highly appropriate. The two opening quotations from Calvin and the Westminster Confession of Faith are a good start for such an article. But even the sentences introducing quotations need to be rewritten to remove the POV stuff about "bluntness." The rest is very non-neutral, and is "original research." I am strongly tempted to rewrite the opening "The doctrine of predestination, as formulated by Calvin, is: 'Predestination [etc.]' It appears in the Westminster Confession of Faith in this form: "By the decree [etc]." and move ALL the rest of it to the Talk page. The above would then constitute the entire article (until the time that someone more knowledgable about Calvinism than I should choose to add to it). Dpbsmith 00:42, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Sounds good, do it. Andrewa 02:14, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Done. Dpbsmith 02:38, 19 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Needs NPOV-ification. Important topic. Wile E. Heresiarch 14:52, 18 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete/redirect. If it's going to be shortened to a semi-stub (as proposed above) anyway, that semi-stub can be moved to predestination, and this page redirected. That page might well be split, but then do it with the merged version, rather than splitting off what just happens to be on another page. Andre Engels 17:35, 18 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Avoiding partial explantions
The central thesis of the essay that has been cut (rightly so, keeping with wikipedia style and genre standards), is that the use of a doctrine is part of its meaning. For that reason, the instruction that governs the use of the doctrine is not an appendix, but pertains to the doctrine itself. The first half of the essay places all weight on the definition from the Westminster Standards, and the second half leans heavily on the section governing use:
 * The doctrine of this high mystery of predestination is to be handled with special prudence and care, that men, attending the will of God revealed in his Word, and yielding obedience thereunto, may, from the certainty of their effectual vocation, be assured of their eternal election. So shall this doctrine afford matter of praise, reverence, and admiration of God; and of humility, diligence, and abundant consolation to all that sincerely obey the gospel.

In addition, the chapter on Election distances itself from philosophical notions of fatalism, pointing out that fatalism contradicts the doctrine by eliminating appreciation of secondary causes and by not distinguishing between predestination and coercion.

In short, the doctrine is not completely expressed only in one section. Only its offensiveness is rightly perceived there, but none of its mitigating elements, which also form the doctrine. So, while the essay form is not appropriate, somehow a full explanation of this topic should point out that there is more to the doctrine as it is fully developed, than is expressed in one section of one chapter of the constitution of one branch of the reformed churches. Do you agree? Mkmcconn 17:34, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

2005 edits
I have added a bit more material; it seems that it has been difficult for folks to reach any kind of agreement on this subject. Most of what I have added has been Arminian/Wesleyan in nature, but I certainly don't want it to remain that way, and earnestly hope that someone is able to flesh it out to make it a bit more NPOV. An important historical theological topic such as this deserves serious consideration. KHM03 23:41, 29 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Expansion request
I added a request for expansion. This is an important theological topic for the understanding of Calvinism which, though I don't agree with all of it, is surely one of the great schools of Christian thought. The page needs work! KHM03 19:20, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

Revisions
I was originally redirected to this article when seeking "Unconditional Election", which I felt was inadequate. I think the article in its present form could easily be incorporated into the existing Predestination article. However, I have made revisions as it stands to make it more helpful; and consequently added new artical on "unconditional election" as one of the Five Points of Calvinism. Jim Ellis 15:41, July 14, 2005 (UTC)

Removed Bias Intro
Removed the text

"This view is entirely true, biblically speaking, as it is founded on numerous passages throughout the New Testament of the Christian Bible. This view was also held by the apostles."

As it is extremely biased towards Calvinism.

-Shin Natsume not logged in

Double Predestination
The section currently asserts that double predestination is not the Calvinistic position. Perhaps the relevant statement from the Westminster Confession of Faith could be included: By the decree of God, for the manifestation of his glory, some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life, and others foreordained to everlasting death. (III,3) StAnselm 04:10, 7 April 2007 (UTC)
 * OK, I've gone ahead and severely edited it. StAnselm 09:06, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Double Predestination can mean different things to different people. Lutherans originally held single predestination that was only positive. They ignored the negative aspect to the logic, that people were left to go to hell. Calvinists did not overlook such. Calvinists came along and logically pieced single predestination into what Lutherans called double predestination. Whereas Calvinists use this title for hypercalvinists as I understand it. I was using it in respect to the latter where people are elected to hell or heaven actively. I like the clarity you put in this section since it describes what I wanted to convey. I like some of the other edits too.Newchasm 05:51, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Reformed people interpret "predestined" and "foreordained" differently, they say one is active while the other is passive, so they don't believe in Double Predestination. Avielh 16:08, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

Remove or cut down the baggage.
This article has a larger section on Universalists and Arminians than on Calvinists. Someone needs to reduce the size or delete it. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Newchasm (talk • contribs) 05:55, 30 April 2007 (UTC).

Merge from double predestination
I propose the double predestination be merged here. Objections? --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 20:40, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

 * if the verses are to be removed (because there are many), than I'd rather that it stands as a separate article (I'll clean it little by little). Also not all Calvinists agree on double predestination and the dividing line between single predestination calvinists and double is not precise, interpretation of verses differ between those sides. It might be better if it stands on it's own, rather than under the heading "(Calvinism)" otherwise it won't be clear (as Double Predestination).

 * Avielh 17:26, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Hi, Avielh. My point here is that there's considerable overlap between predestination, unconditional election, predestination (Calvinism), double predestination, and reprobation and that they (particularly the last four) should somehow be combined into fewer articles. The issue applies to more than one of these, and it could be dealt with in the merge process. --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 20:56, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, Predestination and Predestination (Calvinism) should be merged (nobody types "Predestination (Calvinism)") - and finding that Calvinistic Predestination is not discussed in "Predestination" is just weird. Unconditional Election, Double Predestination and Reprobation should be discussed in Predestination or Predestination (Calvinism), but they in themselves (I think) deserve and can accomodate their own separate articles. For example if Double Predestination is merged into Predestination, there would be no room to show the verses, hermeneutics involved, and the fact that Calvin really believed in it. Even Unconditional Election is so broad,it may concern predestination (Arminians believe in Predestination too) but really is a different topic. Avielh 14:59, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

 * It sounds like we have some initial agreement here. There is some redundancy between some of the aforementioned articles and some deserve their own space. So looking at each of these, what do you think should be merged where, and what should stand on its own? --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 15:36, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Yup, I disagree : ) There is redundancy, but there's a lot of difference... entire books are written on those topics, the verses used to warrant those are also different, even the emphasis on same verses are different. Besides most Calvinist don't agree in Double Predestination... it's not even the Reformed position. Avielh 16:05, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The fact that books have been written on each of these topics does not justify separate articles in a the Wikipedia any more than the fact that books have been written covering all of these topics means that they should be merged. The Wikipedia is not a theology text. My current preference is to merge single predestination and double predestination here and describe the debate here. But if double predestination warrants its own article, I think reprobation should be merged into it. Not all Calvinists are DPers, but all DPers are Calvinists. --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 15:51, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Sorry for removing the tag, I'm not familiar with protocols here. Double Predestination is such a controversial issue (its a big topic), persons who will look for it are particularly interested in how the doctrine works and derived from the bible, and it cannot be merged here (its too big), that's not merging, it's simply deletion of information that people wanted to know about Double Predestination. Also, I can add a shortened form here (I mean, what's more to add in shortened form). Here I question your neutrality (no offense ok), because it seems you just don't agree with double predestination and want the arguments deleted. The arguments are in themselves encyclopedic, because that's what the readers want to know about it - and they are verifiable (they can check the verses, and the qoutes). I guess it could be merged here, but I will still add the arguments if you agree. Avielh 16:26, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Btw, one's view on reprobation depends on whether you're DP (reprobation is part of predestination), SP (reprobation is opposite (kindof) of predestination), or Arminian (reprobation simply as foreknowledge of rejection... kinda like SP really). That's why its better to have separate DP article... (kind of like a separate Predestination (Calvinist) article... no peace between calvinist and arminians I see) Avielh 16:30, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The problem here seems to be that you have a different vision of what the Wikipedia is. It is not a comprehensive resource, it is not a soap box for promoting one's views, and it is not a theological tract. Please read WP:NOT. Moreover, just because someone might look for something on this topic does not mean that that something should appear in the Wikipedia.

 * In any case, every topic must be presented neutrally -- this is not optional. You cannot use disputed texts from the Bible to "prove" your case -- that is original research, and more to the point, arguments don't belong here at all. We're not arguing for or against anything. The intent should never be persuasion. Rather, we're stating how different (notable) groups see things, and we cite their reasons as to why. Please read WP:NPOV and WP:V. The criterion for inclusion is verifiablity, not truth.

 * Again, you are not assuming good faith by accusing me of bias. In fact, I favor double predestination, too. I'm just trying to help you follow the Wikipedia's rules and guidelines. --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 17:21, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Those are valid uses because they are under the section "Biblical Basis (in favor of)", if someone wants to list their own verses in a section "Critisms" or "Inconsistencies with" or "Arguments against", they can do that, just like Predestination (Calvinism) article supports the Calvinist view of Predestination (also using disputed bible verses and qoutes) and biasly ignoring all the numerous bible verses that (seemingly) contradict this disputed topic (which more than 80% of Christians reject). Avielh 18:11, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * You continue to appeal to this article, but you fail to notice that it is not a good article or featured article by Wikipedia standards. In short, this article should not be your model; the guidelines I have repeatedly referenced are the standard, and the featured articles (and to a lesser extent the good articles) should be your models. --Fl e x (talk/contribs) 18:47, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

Some little POVvyness
It doesn't require a full POV-check template, because the article is mostly very good, but the following statements are POVvy, and needs some supporting citations, or reformulations:
 * In his Declaration of Sentiments (1608) Arminius gave twenty arguments against supralapsarianism, which he said (not quite correctly) applied also to sublapsarianism.

... yes maybe "not quite correctly", but citation yet needed,
 * Some scholars have said that Arminianism is Pelagian...

... a typical case of. The article would profit from citations here and there. I like the tone of the article: it does it's best if it would just be a letter to an academical specialist literature, but here is Wikipedia full of critical editors! ... said: Rursus (bork²) 17:35, 12 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Another note:
 * The logical criticism of predestination is that it denies the individual their own free will.
 * It certainly is a "free will" argument, but why is this logical? I thought that logical criticism were paradoxical problems like Omnipotence paradox and Irresistible force paradox, paradoxes that apply to many theologies, not just Calvinism. ... said: Rursus (bork²) 18:04, 12 April 2009 (UTC)
 * And to the defence of the Calvinists, what's the logic in the weird "free will" concept, of doubtful logical stature? If a will is free, then it must be independent of previous experience and genetical heritage. On what is it dependent then? ... said: Rursus (bork²) 18:06, 12 April 2009 (UTC)

C.S. Lewis
I don't understand the C.S. Lewis bit in the Universalism section, or recognise it from anywhere in his writings. Is it really in "Mere Christianity"? If so, is it relevant? - C.S. Lewis wasn't a Universalist. And if it is relevant, can it be cleaned up a bit so it reads more clearly? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.107.131.130 (talk) 10:39, 28 December 2009 (UTC)

Predestination Passages
I put up a link, (predestinationpassages.weebly.com) and it has been removed because it says I am advertising. Does anyone think that is advertising? I put it under pro because the site seems to be for Calvinist Predestination. It is a collection of Predestination Passages which seems to be pretty good. Ns97

Move to Delete Paragraph about Calvinists thinking Arminians are Pelagians
Only a complete moron would conflate the two, and I doubt there's a reputable source. Anyone who knows the word "Pelagian" would know better. The next person who agrees should just go ahead and delete it, since I see no one ever responded to the (citation needed). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.110.191.26 (talk) 23:21, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

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Requested move 15 December 2015

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Move to Predestination in Calvinism. There seems to be unanimous support for a natural title, but consensus favors "Calvinism" over "Reformed theology". Cúchullain t/ c 16:53, 23 December 2015 (UTC)

Predestination (Calvinism) → Predestination in Reformed theology – The current name does not satisfy WP:NCDAB by any stretch. "Reformed theology" is the most common name in reliable sources for the theology of this group despite what historians have used for the religious tradition as a whole. See the books I mentioned in the Calvinism RM plus more if you search Google books (Reformed theology vs. Calvinism). If we must use Calvinism it should be Predestination in Calvinism. JFH (talk) 18:04, 15 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Oppose or move to Predestination in Calvinism. We've already had a recent discussion about the name of the theology. -- Necrothesp (talk) 15:26, 16 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Oppose or move as Necrothesp mentioned. Citing the Theology discussion. Tiggerjay (talk) 01:01, 23 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Support at the least to Predestination in Calvinism, but the need for absolute clarity/popular terms is less in this more detailed topic, also more specific to theology. Johnbod (talk) 08:59, 23 December 2015 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

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title: Talk:Predestination in Calvinism


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Knox, North Dakota

Knox is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 22 at the 2020 census. Knox was founded in 1887.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.50 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 25 people, 13 households, and 6 families living in the city. The population density was 50.0 PD/sqmi. There were 26 housing units at an average density of 52.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White.

There were 13 households, of which 7.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.5% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.8% were non-families. 30.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 30.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.92 and the average family size was 2.50.

The median age in the city was 59.8 years. 8% of residents were under the age of 18; 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16% were from 25 to 44; 36% were from 45 to 64; and 36% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.0% male and 52.0% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 59 people, 22 households, and 13 families living in the city. The population density was 118.6 /mi2. There were 28 housing units at an average density of 56.3 /mi2. The racial makeup of the city was 96.61% White, 1.69% African American, 1.69% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.39% of the population.

There were 22 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.5% were married couples living together, 4.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.4% were non-families. 27.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.36.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 37.3% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 15.3% from 25 to 44, 28.8% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $22,500, and the median income for a family was $30,000. Males had a median income of $33,125 versus $14,167 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,808. There were 14.3% of families and 18.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 25.0% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Transportation
Amtrak’s Empire Builder, which operates between Seattle/Portland and Chicago, passes through the town on BNSF tracks, but makes no stop. The nearest station is located in Rugby, 16 mi to the west.

Education
It is within Rugby Public Schools, which operates Rugby High School.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Knox, North Dakota


text:
Leeds, North Dakota

Leeds is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 442 at the 2020 census.

Leeds was founded in 1887 and named after Leeds, England. It was one of several sites along the Great Northern Railway's transcontinental route between Devils Lake and Minot that were named after places in England (the others were Berwick, Norwich, Penn, Rugby, Surrey, Tunbridge, and York).

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.45 sqmi, all land. The nearby Lake Ibsen is located approximately 1.5 mi south-east of the city center.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 427 people, 201 households, and 118 families living in the city. The population density was 948.9 PD/sqmi. There were 266 housing units at an average density of 591.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 1.4% Native American, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.9% of the population.

There were 201 households, of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.7% were married couples living together, 5.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 1.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.3% were non-families. 35.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.78.

The median age in the city was 50.6 years. 20.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16.8% were from 25 to 44; 30.4% were from 45 to 64; and 27.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.4% male and 49.6% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 464 people, 212 households, and 129 families living in the city. The population density was 1,018.8 PD/sqmi. There were 282 housing units at an average density of 619.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.98% White, 0.65% African American and 2.37% Native American.

There were 212 households, out of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.4% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.7% were non-families. 37.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 23.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 3.7% from 18 to 24, 22.6% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 24.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $31,953, and the median income for a family was $49,444. Males had a median income of $30,500 versus $17,279 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,869. About 6.7% of families and 13.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.6% of those under age 18 and 15.3% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation
Amtrak’s Empire Builder, which operates between Seattle/Portland and Chicago, passes through the town on BNSF tracks, but makes no stop. The nearest stations are located in Rugby, 28 mi to the west, and Devils Lake, 30 mi to the east.

Education
It is in Leeds School District 6.

Great War Monument

Leeds is home to a Great War (World War I) monument that was constructed by the American War Mothers. The six-foot-tall granite pedestal bears a bronze tablet that lists seventy-six men and two Red Cross nurses who participated in the conflict. The call to build the monument went out in the April 15, 1920 issue of the Leeds News. The November 18, 1920 issue of the Leeds News listed the names of the men and women who were to be placed on the monument to ensure that no names had been missed. The August 4, 1921 issue of the Leeds News announced that on August 7, 1921 the monument would be given its official dedication at 3 o'clock by the Great Northern right of way near the depot. It was written that "...this little spot has been seeded down and well cared for this summer and makes a pretty setting for the monument." The monument currently resides in Firemen's Memorial Park.

The steel helmet and service coat of Leeds service member John A. Montgomery is currently located at the National WW1 Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri. Montgomery was assigned to the "...9th Company, 2nd Motor Mechanics Regiment, 2nd Battalion Air Service Mechanics. The 2nd Battalion was attached to the French Tank Corps 4 May 1918 to 13 December 1918 and employed in the repair of French Renault and Schneider tanks. On 5 December 1918, French General Estienne gave the 2nd Battalion Air Service Mechanics permission to wear the insignia of the French Tank Corps." The helmet and service coat both bear the insignia of the French Tank Corps.

Climate
This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Leeds has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

title: Leeds, North Dakota


text:
Maddock, North Dakota

Maddock is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 402 at the 2020 census. Maddock was founded in 1901.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.89 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 382 people, 196 households, and 103 families living in the city. The population density was 429.2 PD/sqmi. There were 253 housing units at an average density of 284.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 95.5% White, 0.3% African American, 3.1% Native American, 0.3% Asian, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population.

There were 196 households, of which 19.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.9% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.4% were non-families. 43.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.95 and the average family size was 2.69.

The median age in the city was 49.3 years. 18.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 19.3% were from 25 to 44; 30.7% were from 45 to 64; and 24.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.8% male and 49.2% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 498 people, 238 households, and 127 families living in the city. The population density was 564.7 PD/sqmi. There were 276 housing units at an average density of 313.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 99.60% White, 0.20% Native American, and 0.20% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.20% of the population.

There were 238 households, out of which 19.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.6% were married couples living together, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.6% were non-families. 45.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 31.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.92 and the average family size was 2.67.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 16.9% under the age of 18, 3.0% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 40.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 53 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $23,636, and the median income for a family was $32,500. Males had a median income of $23,750 versus $16,042 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,662. About 9.6% of families and 13.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.2% of those under age 18 and 13.1% of those age 65 or over.

Climate
This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Maddock has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

title: Maddock, North Dakota


text:
Minnewaukan, North Dakota

Minnewaukan is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. It serves as the county seat and is fourth largest city in the county, after Fort Totten, Leeds, and Maddock. The population was 199 at the 2020 census. Minnewaukan was founded in 1884.

Etymology
Minnewaukan is a Sioux language word meaning "Spirit Water". The town shares this name with the traditional Dakota language of the adjacent Spirit Lake Tribe, Mniwakaƞ Oyate.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.27 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 224 people, 116 households, and 64 families living in the city. The population density was 829.6 PD/sqmi. There were 178 housing units at an average density of 659.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 84.8% White, 11.2% Native American, 0.9% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.

There were 116 households, of which 12.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.4% were married couples living together, 5.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.8% were non-families. 37.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.93 and the average family size was 2.53.

The median age in the city was 50.7 years. 12.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.5% were from 25 to 44; 39.2% were from 45 to 64; and 19.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.4% male and 49.6% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 318 people, 148 households, and 87 families living in the city. The population density was 1,157.0 PD/sqmi. There were 199 housing units at an average density of 724.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 86.16% White, 9.75% Native American, 1.26% from other races, and 2.83% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.57% of the population.

There were 148 households, out of which 26.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 3.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.2% were non-families. 37.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.83.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.3% under the age of 18, 4.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $27,250, and the median income for a family was $37,000. Males had a median income of $30,833 versus $17,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,076. About 5.4% of families and 8.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.2% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over.

Notable people

 * Maxwell Anderson, playwright
 * Pamela Anderson, member of the North Dakota House of Representatives
 * Quentin Anderson, literary critic and cultural historian at Columbia University

title: Minnewaukan, North Dakota


text:
Oberon, North Dakota

Oberon is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 101 at the 2020 census. Oberon was founded in 1886.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.34 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 105 people, 42 households, and 28 families living in the city. The population density was 308.8 PD/sqmi. There were 58 housing units at an average density of 170.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 62.9% White, 31.4% Native American, and 5.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.5% of the population.

There were 42 households, of which 38.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.9% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 9.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.3% were non-families. 33.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.11.

The median age in the city was 39.5 years. 33.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.7% were from 25 to 44; 18.2% were from 45 to 64; and 20% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.4% male and 48.6% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 81 people, 38 households, and 21 families living in the city. The population density was 240.9 PD/sqmi. There were 46 housing units at an average density of 136.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 74.07% White, 22.22% Native American, and 3.70% from two or more races.

There were 38 households, out of which 15.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.4% were married couples living together, 5.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 42.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.2% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 19.8% from 25 to 44, 29.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $23,750, and the median income for a family was $45,417. Males had a median income of $30,833 versus $15,625 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,348. There were 19.0% of families and 25.0% of the population living below the poverty line, including 48.0% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Education
It is within the Oberon School District.

title: Oberon, North Dakota


text:
Warwick, North Dakota

Warwick is a city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 55 at the 2020 census. Warwick was founded in 1907.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.00 sqmi, of which 0.65 sqmi is land and 0.35 sqmi is water.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 65 people, 25 households, and 18 families living in the city. The population density was 100.0 PD/sqmi. There were 32 housing units at an average density of 49.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 56.9% White, 40.0% Native American, 1.5% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.1% of the population.

There were 25 households, of which 44.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.0% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 12.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 28.0% were non-families. 28.0% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.06.

The median age in the city was 36.3 years. 29.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.5% were from 25 to 44; 26.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 60.0% male and 40.0% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 75 people, 34 households, and 21 families living in the city. The population density was 113.2 PD/sqmi. There were 47 housing units at an average density of 71.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 57.33% White and 42.67% Native American.

There were 34 households, out of which 20.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.1% were married couples living together, 14.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.3% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.68.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.7% under the age of 18, 2.7% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 32.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $10,625, and the median income for a family was $29,167. Males had a median income of $26,563 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $10,783. There were 41.7% of families and 44.0% of the population living below the poverty line, including 50.0% of under eighteens and 50.0% of those over 64.

Climate
This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Warwick has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Education
Warwick Public Schools is the local school district.

title: Warwick, North Dakota


text:
York, North Dakota

York is a small rural city in Benson County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 17 at the 2020 census. There is a gasoline station there, and a granary, and farm equipment repair services.

York was founded in 1886 and named after York, England by Great Northern Railway President James J. Hill. It was one of several sites along the Great Northern's transcontinental route between Devils Lake and Minot that were named after places in England (the others were Berwick, Leeds, Norwich, Penn, Rugby, Surrey, and Tunbridge).

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.23 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 23 people, 11 households, and 7 families living in the city. The population density was 100.0 PD/sqmi. There were 23 housing units at an average density of 100.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 87.0% White and 13.0% from two or more races.

There were 11 households, of which 18.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 18.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.4% were non-families. 36.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.71.

The median age in the city was 52.5 years. 17.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 0.0% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 17.3% were from 45 to 64; and 39.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 26 people, 11 households, and 7 families living in the city. The population density was 114.1 PD/sqmi. There were 32 housing units at an average density of 140.4 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.15% White, and 3.85% from two or more races.

There were 11 households, out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.7% were married couples living together, and 27.3% were non-families. 27.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.75.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.9% under the age of 18, 19.2% from 25 to 44, 30.8% from 45 to 64, and 23.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $47,917, and the median income for a family was $49,583. Males had a median income of $23,125 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,529. None of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line.

Transportation
Amtrak’s Empire Builder, which operates between Seattle/Portland and Chicago, passes through the town on BNSF tracks, but makes no stop. The nearest station is located in Rugby, 22 mi to the west.

Education
York is in Leeds School District 6.

title: York, North Dakota


text:
Medora, North Dakota

Medora is a city in Billings County, North Dakota, United States. The only incorporated place in Billings County, it is also the county seat. Much of the surrounding area is part of either Little Missouri National Grassland or Theodore Roosevelt National Park. The population was 121 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Dickinson Micropolitan Statistical Area.

History
Medora was founded in 1883 along the transcontinental rail line of the Northern Pacific Railway by French nobleman Marquis de Mores, who named the city after his wife Medora von Hoffman. Marquis de Mores wanted to ship refrigerated meat to Chicago via the railroad. He built a meat packing plant for this purpose and a house named the Chateau de Mores, which is now a museum.

In the evening of April 7, 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt, who had visited and invested in ranches in the area in the 1880s, visited Medora on a presidential tour of the Western United States. Most of the Badlands' residents turned out to greet him on his whistle stop. Roosevelt later recalled that "the entire population of the Badlands down to the smallest baby had gathered to meet me… They all felt I was their man, their old friend; and even if they had been hostile to me in the old days when we were divided by the sinister bickering and jealousies and hatreds of all frontier communities, they now firmly believed they had always been my staunch friends and admirers. I shook hands with them all and…I only regretted that I could not spend three hours with them." A local hotel changed its name that same year to the Rough Riders Hotel. In 1986 the hotel was purchased and operated by the Theodore Roosevelt Medora Foundation.

Also home to the popular Medora Musical, the city of Medora has become one of the most popular tourist attractions in the state.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.37 sqmi, of which 0.36 sqmi is land and 0.01 sqmi is water.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Medora has a cold semi-arid climate (BSk).

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 112 people, 56 households, and 27 families living in the city. The population density was 311.1 PD/sqmi. There were 102 housing units at an average density of 283.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 93.8% White, 1.8% Native American, 3.6% Asian, and 0.9% from two or more races.

Of the 56 households 10.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.6% were married couples living together, 1.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 1.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 51.8% were non-families. 46.4% of households were one person and 16.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 1.84 and the average family size was 2.63.

The median age was 45.3 years. 11.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 10% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.8% were from 25 to 44; 32.1% were from 45 to 64; and 18.8% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.3% male and 52.7% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 100 people, 51 households, and 23 families living in the city. The population density was 271.7 PD/sqmi. There were 117 housing units at an average density of 317.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.00% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.00% of the population.

Of the 51 households 21.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.9% were non-families. 51.0% of households were one person and 11.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 1.96 and the average family size was 3.00.

The age distribution was 26.0% under the age of 18, 4.0% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 26.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.0% 65 or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.

The median household income was $31,563 and the median family income was $61,250. Males had a median income of $26,042 versus $21,094 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,399. There were no families and 4.8% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 15.0% of those over 64.

Points of interest

 * Medora Musical
 * Theodore Roosevelt National Park (South Unit)
 * Maah Daah Hey Trail
 * Chateau de Mores

title: Medora, North Dakota


text:
Antler, North Dakota

Antler is a city in Bottineau County in the U.S. state of North Dakota. The population was 22 at the 2020 census. Antler was founded in 1905.

History
Antler was established as a rural post office base in 1898. The developed town moved to its present location in 1902 to be closer to the Great Northern Railway to the south. The town was formally platted and founded in 1905, and reached a population of 342 by the 1910 Census. The population declined to 101 by the 1980 Census, and just 47 as of the 2000 census.

Antler High School closed in 1976. The Antler Grade School was set to close in 1981. Fearing the end of their town, Rick Jorgensen and Harley "Bud" Kissner thought of ways to bring in newcomers with school-age children to the town with the intent of keeping the school open. Rick thought of the idea to give away land and Bud volunteered some of his 640 acre farm to modern homesteaders. The deal was to stay for five years and enroll the children in the Antler elementary school. Rick drew up a newspaper ad while a wire service spread the story. The story made national network news, airing twice on NBC evening edition, with the first story stating the reason was to increase the population and the second story about its role in reopening of the town's schools by the land giveaway. Rick received letters from all over the world, including Germany and Australia. The plan worked for just a few years and the grade school closed in 1987, with 6 families receiving plots of 5 or 9 acre.

Geography
Antler is located in Antler Township along the United States' border with Canada. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.17 sqmi, all land. Both Antler and the surrounding township are named for nearby Antler Creek, whose branches resemble deer antlers when viewed on a map.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 27 people, 16 households, and 6 families residing in the city. The population density was 158.8 PD/sqmi. There were 29 housing units at an average density of 170.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.3% White and 3.7% Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.7% of the population.

There were 16 households, of which 12.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.3% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 62.5% were non-families. 62.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 43.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.69 and the average family size was 2.83.

The median age in the city was 53.5 years. 14.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 11.1% were from 25 to 44; 37% were from 45 to 64; and 33.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.9% male and 48.1% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 47 people, 24 households, and 13 families residing in the city. The population density was 264.5 PD/sqmi. There were 44 housing units at an average density of 247.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.00% white. Residents identified themselves as having predominately European ancestry, with the largest three being Norwegian (25.5%), Swedish (14.5%), and German (10.9%).

There were 24 households, out of which 16.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, and 45.8% were non-families. 41.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 25.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.96 and the average family size was 2.69.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.3% under the age of 18, 2.1% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 25.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $16,250, and the median income for a family was $58,000. Males had a median income of $38,750 versus $25,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,516. There were no families and 10.9% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 20.0% of those over 64.

Attractions
Antler is the home of what was previously the world's largest historical quilt. The quilt, coordinated by Leona Tennyson, measured 85 by 134 feet and featured the outline of the state of North Dakota, partitioned into its counties.

Antler is home to the O-2 Flight, "King Stag", LGM-30 Minuteman Nuclear Missile silo (48-58-01 North, 101-15-36 West), with the distinction of being the closest intercontinental nuclear missile to a Nuclear-missile-free Canada. The site is manned by Missile Operations Flights, Operation Support Flight, and Security Forces Flight crews from the 742d Missile Squadron of the 91st Missile Wing "Rough Riders", based out of Minot AFB, Minot, North Dakota.

title: Antler, North Dakota


text:
Bottineau, North Dakota

Bottineau is a city in Bottineau County, North Dakota, United States. It is the county seat of Bottineau County and is located just over 10 mi south of the Canada–United States border. The city's population was 2,194 at the 2020 census.

The city is home to Dakota College at Bottineau. Attractions in Bottineau include the Bottineau Winter Park and "Tommy Turtle," the world's largest turtle, which has become a landmark for the city. Built in 1978 and 30 ft in height, the fiberglass turtle is located in the eastern half of the city and was built as a symbol for the nearby Turtle Mountains. The International Peace Garden is nearby to the northeast.

Bottineau is also home to Programmer's Broadcasting, which owns and operates KBTO, along with KTZU and KWGO in Minot.

History
Bottineau was founded in 1883 as Oak Creek as a customs station and an overnight stagecoach stop. The town name was changed to Bottineau in 1884 in honor of Pierre Bottineau (c. 1814–1895), a Métis pioneer, hunter, and trapper, who became a successful land speculator.

The town was originally located about 1½ miles (2½ km) north of its current location. The entire town was moved south in 1887 to where the Great Northern Railway was installing new tracks.

In 2012, a new chalet called Annie's House was built in Bottineau Winter Park, 10 mi north. The facility was North Dakota's first ski facility for handicapped children and wounded veterans. It was built to honor Ann Nicole Nelson, who was the only North Dakotan to die in the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City.

Geography and climate
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.09 sqmi, all land. The elevation is 1637 ft above sea level.

Bottineau has a humid continental climate (Koppen: Dfb) with four seasons and huge differences in temperatures throughout the year. Summers tend to be warm, sometimes hot, and winters are severely cold. On February 13, 2021, the record low temperature of -51 F was registered.

Law and government
Bottineau uses the city council style of municipal government. Citizens are divided by location into four wards, who each elect two city council members, for a total of eight.

The current president of the city council is Doug Marsden and the current mayor of the city is Perry Schoenborn. The city council meets on the first Monday of every month in the city's Armory.

Economy
The economy in Bottineau is based on agriculture and recreational activities.

The city's commercial district consists mainly of small local shops, but a Wal-Mart Supercenter store is now operating within Bottineau; some consider this unusual for a town of such a small size. Bottineau is also home to the Bottineau County Fair, which is the state's oldest county fair.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,211 people, 972 households, and 538 families living in the city. The population density was 2028.4 PD/sqmi. There were 1,085 housing units at an average density of 995.4 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 92.4% White, 0.7% African American, 4.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population.

There were 972 households, of which 23.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.7% were non-families. 41.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.02 and the average family size was 2.71.

The median age in the city was 44.9 years. 18.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 13.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18.4% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 24.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,336 people, 979 households, and 550 families living in the city. The population density was 2,230.0 PD/sqmi. There were 1,114 housing units at an average density of 1,063.4 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 95.25% White, 0.34% African American, 2.87% Native American, 0.39% Asian, 0.09% from other races, and 1.07% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.98% of the population.

There were 979 households, out of which 24.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 6.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families. 41.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.10 and the average family size was 2.86.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.0% under the age of 18, 14.2% from 18 to 24, 18.9% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 27.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,022, and the median income for a family was $40,938. Males had a median income of $29,286 versus $20,089 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,530. About 5.4% of families and 10.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.0% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over.

K–12
Bottineau Public Schools, the local school district, operates one elementary school, one middle school, and one high school.

Higher education

 * Dakota College at Bottineau

Media
The Bottineau Courant is a weekly publication.
 * Newspapers

KBTO Sunny 101.9 is a local FM station offering local weather, sports, advertisement and country music. A few other stations are available from nearby Manitoba such as 96.1 BOB FM which is an "80's 90's, and whatever" mix station from Brandon, MB, Canada.
 * Radio

Notable people

 * Duane Klueh, basketball player and coach; head coach for Indiana State men's basketball team
 * Ryan Kraft, left wing hockey player with the German Kassel Huskies
 * Gregory R. Page, president and CEO of Cargill Inc.
 * Ronald Paulson, English professor, expert on William Hogarth works
 * Neal Peterson, musician
 * Tom Rapp, leader of the band Pearls Before Swine

title: Bottineau, North Dakota


text:
Gardena, North Dakota

Gardena is a city in Bottineau County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 24 at the 2020 census. Gardena was founded in 1905.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.33 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 29 people, 13 households, and 9 families living in the city. The population density was 90.6 PD/sqmi. There were 21 housing units at an average density of 65.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White.

There were 13 households, of which 15.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.2% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.8% were non-families. 23.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.56.

The median age in the city was 43.5 years. 10.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 20.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.6% were from 25 to 44; 31% were from 45 to 64; and 17.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 58.6% male and 41.4% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 38 people, 13 households, and 7 families living in the city. The population density was 115.6 PD/sqmi. There were 21 housing units at an average density of 63.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 97.37% White, 2.63% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.63% of the population.

There were 13 households, out of which 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.5% were married couples living together, and 38.5% were non-families. 30.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.92 and the average family size was 4.00.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 36.8% under the age of 18, 18.4% from 18 to 24, 13.2% from 25 to 44, 26.3% from 45 to 64, and 5.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 72.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 71.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $26,250, and the median income for a family was $31,250. Males had a median income of $30,625 versus $3,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,443. None of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line.

Education
It is zoned to Bottineau Public Schools.

title: Gardena, North Dakota


text:
Kramer, North Dakota

Kramer is a city in Bottineau County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 24 at the 2020 census. Kramer was founded in 1905.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.15 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 29 people, 16 households, and 12 families living in the city. The population density was 193.3 PD/sqmi. There were 41 housing units at an average density of 273.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White.

There were 15 households, of which 6.75% had children under the age of 21 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 13.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 26.7% were non-families. 20.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.93 and the average family size was 2.18.

The median age in the city was 65.8 years. 10.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 0% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17.1% were from 25 to 44; 17.2% were from 45 to 64; and 55.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45% male and 55.5% female. 0% are part of the lgbtq community.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 44 people, 23 households, and 12 families living in the city. The population density was 277.8 PD/sqmi. There were 43 housing units at an average density of 271.5 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 97.73% White and 2.27% Asian.

There were 23 households, out of which 8.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.2% were married couples living together, and 43.5% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.91 and the average family size was 2.23.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 6.8% under the age of 18, 4.5% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 27.3% from 45 to 64, and 38.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 58 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $17,292, and the median income for a family was $23,333. Males had a median income of $12,250 versus $16,875 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,091. There were 18.8% of families and 21.1% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 25.9% of those over 64.

title: Kramer, North Dakota


text:
Landa, North Dakota

Landa is a city in Bottineau County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 41 at the 2020 census. Landa was founded in 1904.

History
The extension westward of the railroad in 1903 led to the establishment of Landa along the Great Northern Railway. Originally named Strabane, Norwegian immigrants renamed it after Daniel D. Landa and Theodore T. Landa, early settlers in the area.

Landa once had a bank, a hardware store, a lumber yard, a hotel, and other business establishments. Landa incorporated as a city in 1922, and showed a population of 140 during the 1930 Census.

Geography
Landa is located in Scotia Township in the northern part of the county. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.08 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 38 people, 17 households, and 10 families living in the city. The population density was 475.0 PD/sqmi. There were 22 housing units at an average density of 275.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.0% White.

There were 17 households, of which 17.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.8% were married couples living together, and 41.2% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.90.

The median age in the city was 50 years. 23.7% of residents were under 18; 2.6% were between 18 and 24; 15.8% were from 25 to 44; 36.9% were from 45 to 64, and 21.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 57.9% male and 42.1% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 28 people, 15 households, and 7 families living in the city. The population density was 386.1 PD/sqmi. There were 28 housing units at an average density of 386.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 100.00% White.

There were 15 households, out of which 13.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.0% were married couples living together, and 53.3% were non-families. 33.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.87 and the average family size was 2.43.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 7.1% under the age of 18, 17.9% from 18 to 24, 25.0% from 25 to 44, 46.4% from 45 to 64, and 3.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 133.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 160.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $26,500, and the median income for a family was $26,000. Males had a median income of $25,625 versus $8,750 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,109. None of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line.

title: Landa, North Dakota


text:
Cavendish Laboratory

The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the School of Physical Sciences. The laboratory was opened in 1874 on the New Museums Site as a laboratory for experimental physics and is named after the British chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish. The laboratory has had a huge influence on research in the disciplines of physics and biology.

The laboratory moved to its present site in West Cambridge in 1974.

, 30 Cavendish researchers have won Nobel Prizes. Notable discoveries to have occurred at the Cavendish Laboratory include the discovery of the electron, neutron, and structure of DNA.

Founding

The Cavendish Laboratory was initially located on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge. It is named after British chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish for contributions to science and his relative William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire, who served as chancellor of the university and donated funds for the construction of the laboratory.

Professor James Clerk Maxwell, the developer of electromagnetic theory, was a founder of the laboratory and the first Cavendish Professor of Physics. The Duke of Devonshire had given to Maxwell, as head of the laboratory, the manuscripts of Henry Cavendish's unpublished Electrical Works. The editing and publishing of these was Maxwell's main scientific work while he was at the laboratory. Cavendish's work aroused Maxwell's intense admiration and he decided to call the Laboratory (formerly known as the Devonshire Laboratory) the Cavendish Laboratory and thus to commemorate both the Duke and Henry Cavendish.

Physics
Several important early physics discoveries were made here, including the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson (1897) the Townsend discharge by John Sealy Townsend, and the development of the cloud chamber by C.T.R. Wilson.

Ernest Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919. Under his leadership the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, and in the same year the first experiment to split the nucleus in a fully controlled manner was performed by students working under his direction; John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton.

Physical chemistry
Physical Chemistry (originally the department of Colloid Science led by Eric Rideal) had left the old Cavendish site, subsequently locating as the Department of Physical Chemistry (under RG Norrish) in the then new chemistry building with the Department of Chemistry (led by Lord Todd) in Lensfield Road: both chemistry departments merged in the 1980s.

Nuclear physics
In World War II the laboratory carried out research for the MAUD Committee, part of the British Tube Alloys project of research into the atomic bomb. Researchers included Nicholas Kemmer, Alan Nunn May, Anthony French, Samuel Curran and the French scientists including Lew Kowarski and Hans von Halban. Several transferred to Canada in 1943; the Montreal Laboratory and some later to the Chalk River Laboratories. The production of plutonium and neptunium by bombarding uranium-238 with neutrons was predicted in 1940 by two teams working independently: Egon Bretscher and Norman Feather at the Cavendish and Edwin M. McMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley.

Biology
The Cavendish Laboratory has had an important influence on biology, mainly through the application of X-ray crystallography to the study of structures of biological molecules. Francis Crick already worked in the Medical Research Council Unit, headed by Max Perutz and housed in the Cavendish Laboratory, when James Watson came from the United States and they made a breakthrough in discovering the structure of DNA. For their work while in the Cavendish Laboratory, they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962, together with Maurice Wilkins of King's College London, himself a graduate of St. John's College, Cambridge.

The discovery was made on 28 February 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday 14 May 1953 which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday 15 May 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution, found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated 16 May 1953 with the headline "Form of `Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on 12 June 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Bragg's original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press.

Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. Oughton, were some of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Crick and Watson; at the time they were working at the University of Oxford's Chemistry Department. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA. Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

Present site
Due to overcrowding in the old buildings, it moved to its present site in West Cambridge in the early 1970s. It is due to move again to a third site currently under construction in West Cambridge.

Nobel laureates at the Cavendish

 * 1) John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (Physics, 1904)
 * 2) Sir J. J. Thomson (Physics, 1906)
 * 3) Ernest Rutherford (Chemistry, 1908)
 * 4) Sir William Lawrence Bragg (Physics, 1915)
 * 5) Charles Glover Barkla (Physics, 1917)
 * 6) Francis William Aston (Chemistry, 1922)
 * 7) Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (Physics, 1927)
 * 8) Arthur Compton (Physics, 1927)
 * 9) Sir Owen Willans Richardson (Physics, 1928)
 * 10) Sir James Chadwick (Physics, 1935)
 * 11) Sir George Paget Thomson (Physics, 1937)
 * 12) Sir Edward Victor Appleton (Physics, 1947)
 * 13) Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett (Physics, 1948)
 * 14) Sir John Cockcroft (Physics, 1951)
 * 15) Ernest Walton (Physics, 1951)
 * 16) Francis Crick (Physiology or Medicine, 1962)
 * 17) James Watson (Physiology or Medicine, 1962)
 * 18) Max Perutz (Chemistry, 1962)
 * 19) Sir John Kendrew (Chemistry, 1962)
 * 20) Dorothy Hodgkin (Chemistry, 1964)
 * 21) Brian Josephson (Physics, 1973)
 * 22) Sir Martin Ryle (Physics, 1974)
 * 23) Antony Hewish (Physics, 1974)
 * 24) Sir Nevill Francis Mott (Physics, 1977)
 * 25) Philip Warren Anderson (Physics, 1977)
 * 26) Pyotr Kapitsa (Physics, 1978)
 * 27) Allan McLeod Cormack (Physiology or Medicine, 1979)
 * 28) Mohammad Abdus Salam (Physics, 1979)
 * 29) Sir Aaron Klug (Chemistry, 1982)
 * 30) Didier Queloz (Physics, 2019)

Cavendish Professors of Physics
The Cavendish Professors were the heads of the department until the tenure of Sir Brian Pippard, during which period the roles separated.

 * 1) James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE 1871–1879
 * 2) John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh  1879–1884
 * 3) Sir Joseph J. Thomson FRS 1884–1919
 * 4) Ernest Rutherford FRS, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson 1919–1937
 * 5) Sir William Lawrence Bragg CH OBE MC FRS 1938–1953
 * 6) Sir Nevill Francis Mott CH FRS 1954–1971
 * 7) Sir Brian Pippard FRS 1971–1984
 * 8) Sir Sam Edwards FRS 1984–1995
 * 9) Sir Richard Friend FRS FREng 1995–2020
 * 10) Vacant 2020–present

Heads of department

 * 1) Professor Sir Alan Cook FRS FRSE 1979–1984
 * 2) Professor Archie Howie CBE FRS 1989–1997
 * 3) Professor Malcolm Longair† CBE FRS FRSE 1997–2005
 * 4) Professor Peter Littlewood FRS 2005–2011
 * 5) Professor James Stirling† CBE FRS 2011–2013
 * 6) Professor Michael Andrew Parker 2013–2023
 * 7) Professor Mete Atature 2023 –

† Jacksonian Professors of Natural Philosophy

Cavendish Groups
Areas in which the Laboratory has been influential include:-

 * Shoenberg Laboratory for Quantum Matter, led by Gil Lonzarich
 * Superconductivity Josephson junction, led by Brian Pippard
 * Theory of Condensed Matter, which is the dominant theoretical group.
 * Electron Microscopy Group led by Archie Howie
 * Radio Astronomy (led by Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish), with the Cavendish Astrophysics Groups telescopes being based at Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory.
 * Semiconductor Physics
 * Atomic, Mesoscopic and Optical Physics (AMOP) Group led by Zoran Hadzibabic
 * Nanophotonics group led by Jeremy Baumberg
 * Structure and Dynamics Group, led by Jacqui Cole
 * Laboratory for Scientific Computing led by Nikos Nikiforakis
 * Biological and Soft Systems Group led by Pietro Cicuta

Cavendish staff
the laboratory is headed by Mete Atature and the Cavendish Professor of Physics is Sir Richard Friend.

Notable senior academic staff
senior academic staff (Professors or Readers) include:

 * 1) Jeremy Baumberg FRS, Professor of Nanoscience and Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge
 * 2) Jacqui Cole, Professor of Molecular Engineering
 * 3) Athene Donald FRS, Professor of Experimental Physics, Master of Churchill College, Cambridge
 * 4) Sir Richard Friend FRS, FREng, Cavendish Professor of Physics and Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge
 * 5) Stephen Gull, University Professor of Physics
 * 6) Sir Michael Pepper FRS, Kt, Honorary Professor of Pharmaceutical Science in the University of Otago, New Zealand
 * 7) Didier Queloz FRS, professor at the Battcock Centre for Experimental Astrophysics
 * 8) James Floyd Scott FRS,  professor and director of research
 * 9) Ben Simons FRS, Herchel Smith Professor of Physics
 * 10) Henning Sirringhaus FRS, Hitachi Professor of Electron Device Physics and head of Microelectronics and Optoelectronics Group
 * 11) Sarah Teichmann FRS, principal research associate and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge

Notable emeritus professors
The Cavendish is home to a number of emeritus scientists, pursuing their research interests in the laboratory after their formal retirement.

 * 1) Mick Brown FRS, emeritus professor
 * 2) Volker Heine, FRS, emeritus professor
 * 3) Brian Josephson, FRS, emeritus professor
 * 4) Archibald Howie, FRS, emeritus professor
 * 5) Malcolm Longair, CBE, FRS, FRSE, Emeritus Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy
 * 6) Gil Lonzarich, FRS Emeritus Professor of Condensed Matter Physics and professorial fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge
 * 7) Bryan Webber, FRS Emeritus Professor of Theoretical High Energy Physics and professorial fellow at Emmanuel College, Cambridge

Other notable alumni
Besides the Nobel Laureates, the Cavendish has many distinguished alumni including:

 * Louis Harold Gray
 * Richard Edwin Hills
 * Olga Kennard
 * Andrew D. Maynard at Arizona State University
 * Bernard Roberts
 * John Rodenburg
 * Henry Snaith
 * Evan James Williams
 * Richard Jones

title: Cavendish Laboratory


text:
Lansford, North Dakota

Lansford is a city in Bottineau County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 238 at the 2020 census. Lansford was founded in 1903.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.35 sqmi, all land.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 245 people, 103 households, and 73 families living in the city. The population density was 700.0 PD/sqmi. There were 128 housing units at an average density of 365.7 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.7% White, 1.2% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.4% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.7% of the population.

There were 103 households, of which 32.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.2% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.1% were non-families. 26.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.82.

The median age in the city was 35.4 years. 24.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.6% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 7.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 55.1% male and 44.9% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 253 people, 106 households, and 73 families living in the city. The population density was 726.3 PD/sqmi. There were 131 housing units at an average density of 376.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 98.81% White, 0.79% African American, and 0.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.40% of the population.

There were 106 households, out of which 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.3% were married couples living together, 4.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $37,250, and the median income for a family was $42,308. Males had a median income of $24,028 versus $19,821 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,463. About 2.8% of families and 4.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under the age of eighteen and 6.1% of those 65 or over.

Education
The Mohall-Lansford-Sherwood School District was formed in 2005. Lansford, previously known as the Cubs, sends children to M-L-S as well as nearby Glenburn.

Notable people

 * Franklin R. Huwe, North Dakota State Legislator
 * David O'Connell, North Dakota state legislator
 * Henry J. Savelkoul, Minnesota state legislator

Climate
This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Lansford has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

title: Lansford, North Dakota