text:
Flexagon

In geometry, flexagons are flat models, usually constructed by folding strips of paper, that can be flexed or folded in certain ways to reveal faces besides the two that were originally on the back and front.

Flexagons are usually square or rectangular (tetraflexagons) or hexagonal (hexaflexagons). A prefix can be added to the name to indicate the number of faces that the model can display, including the two faces (back and front) that are visible before flexing. For example, a hexaflexagon with a total of six faces is called a hexahexaflexagon.

In hexaflexagon theory (that is, concerning flexagons with six sides), flexagons are usually defined in terms of pats.

Two flexagons are equivalent if one can be transformed to the other by a series of pinches and rotations. Flexagon equivalence is an equivalence relation.

Discovery and introduction of the hexaflexagon
The discovery of the first flexagon, a trihexaflexagon, is credited to the British mathematician Arthur H. Stone, while a student at Princeton University in the United States in 1939. His new American paper would not fit in his English binder so he cut off the ends of the paper and began folding them into different shapes. One of these formed a trihexaflexagon. Stone's colleagues Bryant Tuckerman, Richard Feynman, and John Tukey became interested in the idea and formed the Princeton Flexagon Committee. Tuckerman worked out a topological method, called the Tuckerman traverse, for revealing all the faces of a flexagon. Tuckerman traverses are shown as a diagram that maps each face of the flexagon to each other face. In doing so, he realized that each face does not always appear in the same state.

Flexagons were introduced to the general public by Martin Gardner in the December 1956 issue of Scientific American in an article so well-received that it launched Gardner's "Mathematical Games" column which then ran in that magazine for the next twenty-five years. In 1974, the magician Doug Henning included a construct-your-own hexaflexagon with the original cast recording of his Broadway show The Magic Show.

Attempted commercial development
In 1955, Russell Rogers and Leonard D'Andrea of Homestead Park, Pennsylvania applied for a patent, and in 1959 they were granted U.S. Patent number 2,883,195 for the hexahexaflexagon, under the title "Changeable Amusement Devices and the Like."

Their patent imagined possible applications of the device "as a toy, as an advertising display device, or as an educational geometric device." A few such novelties were produced by the Herbick & Held Printing Company, the printing company in Pittsburgh where Rogers worked, but the device, marketed as the "Hexmo", failed to catch on.

Tritetraflexagon

The tritetraflexagon is the simplest tetraflexagon (flexagon with square sides). The "tri" in the name means it has three faces, two of which are visible at any given time if the flexagon is pressed flat. The construction of the tritetraflexagon is similar to the mechanism used in the traditional Jacob's Ladder children's toy, in Rubik's Magic and in the magic wallet trick or the Himber wallet.

The tritetraflexagon has two dead ends, where you cannot flex forward. To get to another face you must either flex backwards or flip the flexagon over.

Hexatetraflexagon
A more complicated cyclic hexatetraflexagon requires no gluing. A cyclic hexatetraflexagon does not have any "dead ends", but the person making it can keep folding it until they reach the starting position. If the sides are colored in the process, the states can be seen more clearly. Contrary to the tritetraflexagon, the hexatetraflexagon has no dead ends, and does not ever need to be flexed backwards.

Hexaflexagons
Hexaflexagons come in great variety, distinguished by the number of faces that can be achieved by flexing the assembled figure. (Note that the word hexaflexagons [with no prefixes] can sometimes refer to an ordinary hexahexaflexagon, with six sides instead of other numbers.)

Trihexaflexagon

A hexaflexagon with three faces is the simplest of the hexaflexagons to make and to manage, and is made from a single strip of paper, divided into nine equilateral triangles. (Some patterns provide ten triangles, two of which are glued together in the final assembly.)

To assemble, the strip is folded every third triangle, connecting back to itself after three inversions in the manner of the international recycling symbol. This makes a Möbius strip whose single edge forms a trefoil knot.

Hexahexaflexagon
This hexaflexagon has six faces. It is made up of nineteen triangles folded from a strip of paper.

[[File:hexaflexagon-construction-and-use.jpg|thumb|400px|alt=A series of photos detailing construction and "flexing" of a hexaflexagon|Figures 1-6 show the construction of a hexaflexagon made out of cardboard triangles on a backing made from a strip of cloth. It has been decorated in six colours; orange, blue, and red in figure 1 correspond to 1, 2, and 3 in the diagram above. The opposite side, figure 2, is decorated with purple, gray, and yellow. Note the different patterns used for the colors on the two sides. Figure 3 shows the first fold, and figure 4 the result of the first nine folds, which form a spiral. Figures 5-6 show the final folding of the spiral to make a hexagon; in 5, two red faces have been hidden by a valley fold, and in 6, two red faces on the bottom side have been hidden by a mountain fold. After figure 6, the final loose triangle is folded over and attached to the other end of the original strip so that one side is all blue, and the other all orange.

Photos 7 and 8 show the process of everting the hexaflexagon to show the formerly hidden red triangles. By further manipulations, all six colors can be exposed. ]]

Once folded, faces 1, 2, and 3 are easier to find than faces 4, 5, and 6.

An easy way to expose all six faces is using the Tuckerman traverse, named after Bryant Tuckerman, one of the first to investigate the properties of hexaflexagons. The Tuckerman traverse involves the repeated flexing by pinching one corner and flex from exactly the same corner every time. If the corner refuses to open, move to an adjacent corner and keep flexing. This procedure brings you to a 12-face cycle. During this procedure, however, 1, 2, and 3 show up three times as frequently as 4, 5, and 6. The cycle proceeds as follows:

 * 1 → 3 → 6 → 1 → 3 → 2 → 4 → 3 → 2 → 1 → 5 → 2

And then back to 1 again.

Each color/face can also be exposed in more than one way. In figure 6, for example, each blue triangle has at the center its corner decorated with a wedge, but it is also possible, for example, to make the ones decorated with Y's come to the center. There are 18 such possible configurations for triangles with different colors, and they can be seen by flexing the hexahexaflexagon in all possible ways in theory, but only 15 can be flexed by the ordinary hexahexaflexagon. The 3 extra configurations are impossible due to the arrangement of the 4, 5, and 6 tiles at the back flap. (The 60-degree angles in the rhombi formed by the adjacent 4, 5, or 6 tiles will only appear on the sides and never will appear at the center because it would require one to cut the strip, which is topologically forbidden.)

Hexahexaflexagons can be constructed from different shaped nets of eighteen equilateral triangles. One hexahexaflexagon, constructed from an irregular paper strip, is almost identical to the one shown above, except that all 18 configurations can be flexed on this version.

Other hexaflexagons
While the most commonly seen hexaflexagons have either three or six faces, variations exist with any number of faces. Straight strips produce hexaflexagons with a multiple of three number of faces. Other numbers are obtained from nonstraight strips, that are just straight strips with some joints folded, eliminating some faces. Many strips can be folded in different ways, producing different hexaflexagons, with different folding maps.

Right octaflexagon and right dodecaflexagon
In these more recently discovered flexagons, each square or equilateral triangular face of a conventional flexagon is further divided into two right triangles, permitting additional flexing modes. The division of the square faces of tetraflexagons into right isosceles triangles yields the octaflexagons, and the division of the triangular faces of the hexaflexagons into 30-60-90 right triangles yields the dodecaflexagons.

Pentaflexagon and right decaflexagon
In its flat state, the pentaflexagon looks much like the Chrysler logo: a regular pentagon divided from the center into five isosceles triangles, with angles 72–54–54. Because of its fivefold symmetry, the pentaflexagon cannot be folded in half. However, a complex series of flexes results in its transformation from displaying sides one and two on the front and back, to displaying its previously hidden sides three and four.

By further dividing the 72-54-54 triangles of the pentaflexagon into 36-54-90 right triangles produces one variation of the 10-sided decaflexagon.

Generalized isosceles n-flexagon
The pentaflexagon is one of an infinite sequence of flexagons based on dividing a regular n-gon into n isosceles triangles. Other flexagons include the heptaflexagon, the isosceles octaflexagon, the enneaflexagon, and others.

Nonplanar pentaflexagon and nonplanar heptaflexagon
Harold V. McIntosh also describes "nonplanar" flexagons (i.e., ones which cannot be flexed so they lie flat); ones folded from pentagons called pentaflexagons, and from heptagons called heptaflexagons. These should be distinguished from the "ordinary" pentaflexagons and heptaflexagons described above, which are made out of isosceles triangles, and they can be made to lie flat.

In popular culture
Flexagons are also a popular book structure used by artist's book creators such as Julie Chen (Life Cycle) and Edward H. Hutchins (Album and Voces de México). Instructions for making tetra-tetra-flexagon and cross-flexagons are included in Making Handmade Books: 100+ Bindings, Structures and Forms by Alisa Golden.

A high-order hexaflexagon was used as a plot element in Piers Anthony's novel $\overline{0X}$, in which a flex was analogous to the travel between alternate universes.

Vi Hart, a well-known recreational mathematician and public educator, gained attention for her video on hexaflexagons.

title: Flexagon


text:
Ehi

Ehi or EHI may refer to:

 * Ehi (biblical figure), a minor Old Testament figure
 * Ehi (spirit), the name of a personal spirit in some West African religious beliefs
 * Endurmenntun Háskóla Íslands, a continuing education centre operated by the University of Iceland
 * Energy Helicity Index
 * Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, a measurement scale for handedness
 * Ihy, an ancient Egyptian child god

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ehi


text:
Lists of trees

A listing of lists of trees.

 * List of individual trees, including actual and mythical trees
 * List of largest giant sequoias
 * List of old growth forests
 * List of oldest trees
 * List of superlative trees
 * List of superlative trees in Sweden
 * List of tallest trees
 * List of tree genera
 * List of trees and shrubs by taxonomic family

Lists by location

 * Africa
 * Trees of Africa
 * List of Southern African indigenous trees and woody lianes

 * Americas
 * Trees of Canada
 * Trees of the Caribbean Basin
 * Trees of Northern America

 * Asia
 * Trees of Iran
 * Trees of Pakistan

 * Australasia
 * Trees of Australia
 * List of trees native to New Zealand

 * Europe
 * List of trees of Great Britain and Ireland
 * List of indigenous trees and shrubs of Lithuania
 * List of superlative trees in Sweden

title: Lists of trees


text:
List of trees of Great Britain and Ireland

Many lists of trees of Great Britain and Ireland have been written. There are a number of issues surrounding the inclusion of a species in such a list. As can be seen from the outline of debate below, there is no 'correct' list of trees of Britain and Ireland.

Definition of species
There are a number of different opinions regarding the validity of some species, notably apomictic microspecies and whether some 'species' may actually be hybrids. In particular, the number and definition of species in the genera Sorbus (rowans, whitebeams etc.), Ulmus (elms) and Salix (willows) are open to debate.

Definition of native
Native species are considered to be species which are today present in the region in question, and have been continuously present in that region since a certain period of time. When applied to Britain and Ireland, three possible definitions of this time constraint are:
 * a species that colonised these islands during the retreat of ice at the end of the last ice age
 * a species that was present in these islands when the English Channel was created and the land bridge between Britain and continental Europe was flooded
 * a species that has colonised without human assistance; in some cases this is uncertain.

The only endemic tree species in Britain and Ireland (that is, that are native only to this region) are some apomictic whitebeams.

Species that were native in the region in prehistory before the last ice age, but not subsequently, are generally regarded as extinct and no longer native.

Many additional species have been imported by humans; the total list of all introduced trees numbers several thousand. A far smaller number of these have become widely naturalised, spreading by their own accord without recourse to further human assistance.

Definition of tree
A tree can be defined as a large, perennial, woody plant with secondary branches supported by a primary stem (compare with shrub). There is no set definition regarding minimum size, though most authors cite a tree species as being one which regularly reaches 6 m (20 ft) tall (see also tree).

Native trees

 * Alders
 * Alder (Alnus glutinosa)
 * Apples
 * Crab Apple (Malus sylvestris)
 * Ashes
 * Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior)
 * Beeches
 * European Beech (Fagus sylvatica)
 * Birches
 * Silver Birch (Betula pendula)
 * Downy Birch (Betula pubescens)
 * Box
 * Box (Buxus sempervirens)
 * Cherries and Plums
 * Wild Cherry (Prunus avium)
 * Bird Cherry (Prunus padus)
 * Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa)
 * Elms
 * Wych Elm (Ulmus glabra)
 * Field Elm (Ulmus minor; extremely variable aggregate with many varieties)
 * Hawthorns
 * Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna)
 * Midland Hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata; southern Great Britain only)
 * Crataegus × media - occurs as a natural hybrid wherever monogyna and laevigata overlap.
 * Hazels
 * Common Hazel (Corylus avellana)
 * Hollies
 * European Holly (Ilex aquifolium)
 * Hornbeams
 * European Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus; southern Great Britain only)
 * Junipers
 * Common Juniper (Juniperus communis)
 * Lindens (Limes)
 * Small-leaved Linden/Lime (Tilia cordata)
 * Large-leaved Linden/Lime (Tilia platyphyllos; southern Great Britain only)
 * Maples
 * Field Maple (Acer campestre)
 * Oaks
 * Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur)
 * Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea)
 * Pines
 * Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris)
 * Poplars
 * Aspen (Populus tremula)
 * Black Poplar (Populus nigra; southern Great Britain only)
 * Rowans and Whitebeams
 * European Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia)
 * Common Whitebeam (Sorbus aria) and several related apomictic microspecies
 * Service Tree (Sorbus domestica; recently discovered growing wild on a cliff in south Wales)
 * Wild Service Tree (Sorbus torminalis)
 * Strawberry Tree
 * Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo; Ireland only)
 * Willows (Salix spp.; several species)
 * Bay Willow (Salix pentandra)
 * Grey Willow (Salix cinerea)
 * Goat Willow (Salix caprea)
 * Purple Willow (Salix purpurea)
 * Yews
 * European Yew (Taxus baccata)

Native large shrubs
These larger shrubs occasionally reach tree size:
 * Alder Buckthorn (Frangula alnus)
 * Purging Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica)
 * Elder (Sambucus nigra)
 * Common Dogwood (Cornus sanguinea)
 * Rock Whitebeam (Sorbus rupicola)
 * (Common) Sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides)
 * Spindle (Euonymus europaeus)
 * Eared Willow (Salix aurita)
 * Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus)
 * Wayfaring tree (Viburnum lantana)
 * Common Privet (Ligustrum vulgare)

Naturalised trees

 * From Europe
 * Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster; rarely)
 * European Black Pine (Pinus nigra; rarely)
 * Norway Spruce (Picea abies; rarely)
 * European Larch (Larix decidua)
 * European Pear (Pyrus communis; sometimes regarded as native)
 * Plymouth Pear (Pyrus cordata; sometimes regarded as native )
 * Cherry Plum (Prunus cerasifera)
 * Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus)
 * Norway Maple (Acer platanoides)
 * Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa; a Roman introduction)
 * Swedish Whitebeam (Sorbus intermedia)
 * Holm Oak (Quercus ilex)
 * Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris)
 * Common Horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)
 * English Elm (Ulmus procera; a Roman introduction)
 * Osier (Salix viminalis)
 * Crack Willow (Salix fragilis)
 * White Willow (Salix alba)
 * Almond-leaved Willow (Salix triandra)
 * From Asia
 * Japanese Larch (Larix kaempferi)
 * From North America
 * Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta)
 * Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis)
 * Black Spruce (Picea mariana; rarely)
 * Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
 * Grand Fir (Abies grandis)
 * Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
 * Western Redcedar (Thuja plicata)
 * Lawson's Cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana)
 * Monterey Cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa; rarely)
 * From Oceania
 * Cabbage palm (Cordyline australis)

Endemic species
An endemic species is a plant only native to a certain area. Outside this area, unless spread naturally it is considered non-native, usually as a result of cultivation. Britain and Ireland have few endemic trees, most being micro-species of Whitebeam. But there are some interesting endemic trees nevertheless.

 * Plot's Elm – English Midlands only.
 * Apomictic Whitebeams endemic to the British Isles:
 * Sorbus arranensis – Isle of Arran only.
 * Arran Service Tree – Isle of Arran only.
 * Sorbus pseudomeinichii - Isle of Arran only.
 * Lancashire Whitebeam - North Lancashire & South Cumbria, around Morecambe Bay only.
 * English Whitebeam - Great Britain and Ireland only.
 * Bristol Whitebeam - Avon Gorge only.
 * Devon Whitebeam – Devon, Somerset, Cornwall and Ireland only.
 * Ley's Whitebeam – Brecon Beacons only.
 * Lesser Whitebeam – Brecon Beacons only.
 * Sorbus leptophylla – endemic to UK
 * Sorbus arvonensis - endemic to the Menai Strait region of North Wales.
 * Sorbus wilmottiana – endemic to UK
 * Bloody Whitebeam – Exmoor only.
 * Somerset Whitebeam – coastal North Devon and Western Somerset only.
 * Cheddar Whitebeam – Cheddar Gorge only.
 * No Parking Whitebeam – North Devon only.
 * Llangollen Whitebeam – Llangollen only.
 * Irish Whitebeam – Ireland only.
 * Leigh Woods Whitebeam, Leigh Woods only.


text:
KIM-1

The KIM-1, short for Keyboard Input Monitor, is a small 6502-based single-board computer developed and produced by MOS Technology, Inc. and launched in 1976. It was very successful in that period, due to its low price (thanks to the inexpensive 6502 microprocessor) and easy-access expandability.

History
MOS Technology's first processor, the 6501, could be plugged into existing motherboards that used the Motorola 6800, allowing potential users (i.e. engineers and hobbyists) to get a development system up and running very easily using existing hardware. Motorola immediately sued, forcing MOS to pull the 6501 from the market. Changing the pin layout produced the "lawsuit-friendly" 6502. Otherwise identical to the 6501, it nevertheless had the disadvantage of having no machine in which new users could quickly start playing with the CPU.

Chuck Peddle, leader of the 650x group at MOS (and former member of Motorola's 6800 team), designed the KIM-1 in order to fill this need. The KIM-1 came to market in 1976. While the machine was originally intended to be used by engineers, it quickly found a large audience with hobbyists. A complete system could be constructed for under US$500 with the purchase of the computer itself for only US$245, and then adding a power supply, a secondhand terminal and a cassette tape drive.

Many books were available demonstrating small assembly language programs for the KIM, including The First Book of KIM by Jim Butterfield et al. One demo program converted the KIM into a music box by toggling a software-controllable output bit connected to a small loudspeaker. Canadian programmer Peter R. Jennings produced what was probably the first game for microcomputers to be sold commercially, Microchess, originally for the KIM-1.

As the system became more popular one of the common additions was the Tiny BASIC programming language. This required an easy memory expansion; "all of the decoding for the first 4 K is provided right on the KIM board. All you need to provide is 4 K more of RAM chips and some buffers." The hard part was loading the BASIC from cassette tape—a 15-minute, error-prone ordeal.

Rockwell International—who second-sourced the 6502, along with Synertek—released their own microcomputer in one board in 1978, the AIM-65. The AIM included a full ASCII keyboard, a 20-character 14-segment alphanumeric LED display, and a small cash register-like printer. A debug monitor was provided as standard firmware for the AIM, and users could also purchase optional ROM chips with an assembler and a Microsoft BASIC interpreter to choose from.

Finally, there was the Synertek SYM-1 variant, which could be said to be a machine halfway between the KIM and the AIM; it had the KIM's small display, and a simple membrane keyboard of 29 keys (hex digits and control keys only), but provided AIM-standard expansion interfaces and true RS-232 (voltage level as well as current loop mode supported).

Description

The KIM-1 consisted of a single printed circuit board with all the components on one side. It included three main ICs; the MCS6502 CPU, and two MCS6530 Peripheral Interface/Memory Devices. Each MCS6530 comprises a mask programmable 1024 x 8 ROM, a 64 x 8 RAM, two 8 bit bi-directional ports, and a programmable interval timer. The KIM-1 brochure said "1 K BYTE RAM" but it actually had 1152 bytes. The memory was composed of eight 6102 static RAMs (1024 x 1 bits) and the two 64 byte RAMs of the MCS6530s. In the 1970s memory sizes were expressed in several ways. Semiconductor manufacturers would use a precise memory size such as 2048 by 8 and sometimes state the number of bits (16384). Mini and mainframe computers had various memory widths (8 bits to over 36 bits) so manufacturers would use the term "words", such as 4K words. The early hobbyist computer advertisements would use both "words" and "bytes". It was common to see "4096 words", "4K (4096) words" and "4 K bytes". The term KB was unused or very uncommon. The KIM-1 was introduced in the April 1976 issue of BYTE and the advertisement stated "1 K BYTE RAM" and "2048 ROM BYTES".

Also included were six 7-segment LEDs (similar to those on a pocket calculator) and a 24-key calculator-type keypad. Many of the pins of the I/O portions of the 6530s were connected to two connectors on the edge of the board, where they could be used as a serial system for driving a Teletype Model 33 ASR and paper tape reader and punch.

One of these connectors also doubled as the power supply connector, and included analog lines that could be attached to a cassette tape recorder.

Earlier microcomputer systems such as the MITS Altair used a series of switches on the front of the machine to enter data. In order to do anything useful, the user had to enter a small program known as the "bootstrap loader" into the machine using these switches, a process known as booting. Once loaded, the loader would be used to load a larger program off a storage device like a paper tape reader. It would often take upwards of five minutes to load the tiny program into memory, and a single error while flipping the switches meant that the bootstrap loader would crash the machine. This could render some of the bootstrap code garbled, in which case the programmer had to reenter the whole thing and start all over again.

The KIM-1 included a somewhat more complex built-in Terminal Interface Monitor software called TIM that was "contained in 2048 bytes of ROM in two 6530 ROM/RAM/IO arrays". This monitor software included the ability to run a cassette tape for storage, drive the LED display, and run the keypad. As soon as the power was turned on, the monitor would run and the user could immediately start interacting with the machine via the keypad. The KIM-1 was one of the first single-board computers, needing only an external power supply to enable its use as a stand-alone experimental computer. This fact, plus the relatively low cost of getting started, made it quite popular with hobbyists through the late 1970s.

Video display

The designer of the TV Typewriter, Don Lancaster, developed a low cost video display for the KIM-1. The add-on board would display up to 4000 characters on a TV or monitor. A typical configuration would be 16 lines of 32 upper case only characters. The board had only 10 low cost ICs and used the KIM's memory for the screen storage.

The TVT-6 project appeared on the cover on Popular Electronics in July 1977. The complete kit could be ordered from PAiA Electronics for US$34.95.

Lancaster expanded this design to do color and simple graphics in The Cheap Video Cookbook.

Specifications

 * CPU: MCS6502, clocked at 1 MHz
 * 2× PIO MCS6530 1024 × 8 ROM, a 64 × 8 RAM, 2× 8-bit bi-directional ports, programmable interval timer
 * 8× 6102 static RAM 1024 × 1 (1024 bytes)
 * 6× 7-segment LEDs
 * 24-key calculator type keypad
 * 2× serial ports
 * Terminal Interface Monitor (TIM), that handled booting, keypad, seven-segment LEDs, and cassette tape

Tape format
Each bit is represented by three 2.484 ms long tones. The first is always 3700 Hz, the middle is 3700 Hz for "0" or 2400 Hz for "1", and the last one is always 2400 Hz. This gives an effective bit rate of 134.2 bit/s. Detection is done through a PLL using LM565.

The format of data on the tape is: 100 bytes with the value 0x16 (SYN, Synchronous Idle), one byte with the value 0x2A (*), the record identification number, the start address (two characters for the low byte of address, two characters for the high byte), the end address (in the same format), the actual data, one byte with the value 0x2F ("/" character ), a two-byte checksum, and two bytes with the value 0x04 (EOT, End Of Transmission).

Each byte of memory is stored as two sequential ASCII characters on tape, for example, hexadecimal B5 in memory (181 decimal) would be stored as two sequential ASCII characters "B" and "5" (42 and 35 hexadecimal).

title: KIM-1


text:
Isten

Isten may refer to:

Mythology

 * Istanu, a god in Anatolian mythology
 * Isten, an alternative spelling of Astennu, a figure in Egyptian mythology
 * Isten is the word for God in the Hungarian language

Others

 * Isten, áldd meg a magyart (God, bless the Hungarians), the opening line of Himnusz, the national anthem of Hungary
 * Isten, hazánkért térdelünk (God, We Kneel for our Country), a Hungarian anthem and anthology of Hungarian saints.
 * Isten hozta, őrnagy úr! (The Toth Family), a 1969 Hungarian comedy-drama film directed by Zoltán Fábri
 * Istensegíts (Ţibeni), a village within the commune of Satu Mare in Suceava County, Romania
 * Istentó, a village within the commune of Band in Mureș County, Romania

Llista de personatges de la mitologia egípcia

title: Isten


text:
Iunit

Iunit was a minor goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, whose name means "She of Armant". She is the consort of Montu.

title: Iunit


text:
Kebechet

In Egyptian mythology, Kebechet (spelt in hieroglyphs as Qeb-Hwt, and also transliterated as Khebhut, Kebehut, Qébéhout, Kabehchet and Kebehwet) is a goddess, a deification of embalming liquid. Her name means cooling water.

Myths
Kebechet is a daughter of Anubis and his wife Anput. In the Pyramid Texts, Kebechet is referred to as a serpent who "refreshes and purifies" the pharaoh.

Kebechet was thought to give water to the spirits of the dead while they waited for the mummification process to be complete. She was probably related to mummification where she would fortify the body against corruption, so it would stay fresh for reanimation by the deceased's ka.

title: Kebechet


text:
Fruit tree

A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by animals and humans — all trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term "fruit tree" is limited to those that provide fruit for human food. Types of fruits are described and defined elsewhere (see Fruit), but would include "fruit" in a culinary sense, as well as some nut-bearing trees, such as walnuts.

The scientific study and the cultivation of fruits is called pomology, which divides fruits into groups based on plant morphology and anatomy. Some of those groups are pome fruits, which include apples and pears, and stone fruits, which include peaches/nectarines, almonds, apricots, plums and cherries.

Examples

 * Abiu
 * Almond
 * Amla (Indian gooseberry)
 * Apple
 * Apricot
 * Avocado
 * Bael
 * Ber (Indian plum)
 * Carambola (starfruit)
 * Cashew
 * Cherry
 * Citrus (orange, lemon, lime, etc.)
 * Coconut
 * Crab apple
 * Damson
 * Durian
 * Elderberry
 * Fig
 * Grapefruit
 * Guava
 * Jackfruit
 * Jujube
 * Lemon
 * Lime
 * Loquat
 * Lychee
 * Mango
 * Medlar
 * Morello cherry
 * Mulberry
 * Olive
 * Pawpaw, both the tropical Carica papaya and the North American Asimina triloba
 * Peach and nectarine
 * Pear
 * Pecan
 * Persimmon
 * Pistachio
 * Plum
 * Pomelo
 * Quince
 * Pomegranate
 * Rambutan
 * Sapodilla (chikoo)
 * Soursop
 * Sugar-apple (sharifa)
 * Sweet chestnut
 * Tamarillo
 * Ugli fruit
 * Walnut
 * Water Apple

Advantages
Fruit trees can withstand the variability of rainfall better than annual crops due to the deep root systems and the perennial growth habit.

Disadvantages
Climate change is significantly impacting fruit trees, with effects varying depending on the geographical region and type of fruit tree. The annual temperature in Japan, for example, has risen at a rate of 0.124 °C per decade from 1898 to 2019, influencing fruit tree flowering times and potentially leading to a physiological disorder known as "flowering disorder" in Japanese pear, which may result from abnormal flowering or dormancy or both. In Australia, climate change is predicted to prompt a major shift in the fruit farming industry by 2030, affecting the winter chill period necessary for fruit production.

In addition, climate change has caused challenges like early spring and late frosts, flooding, drought, and extreme heat, all of which effect fruit trees. Severe droughts and flooding affect the trees' growth, making them more susceptible to pests and diseases. Extreme heat can damage growing fruit directly on the tree.

This situation is exacerbated by global trends towards reduced organic matter in soil, necessitating innovative water conservation and management strategies to ensure crop yield and quality.

title: Fruit tree


text:
Kheper

Kheper is a subgenus of Scarabaeus: the typical genus of scarab beetles in the tribe Scarabaeini. The genus name honors the god Khepri in the ancient Egyptian religion, who is depicted as having a scarab for a head. Kheper can be found on the border between Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa in the arid sand dunes. This genus of scarab beetles share a family with the oldest and most revered scarab beetles, the Scarabaeus sacer.

title: Kheper


text:
Talk:Fruit tree

This page is a bit of a stub at the moment, but I hope serves to connect the articles on fruit tree growing, and also act as a bridge from the trees page without cluttering that page up too much... More to follow hopefully quercus robur 19:57 Oct 2, 2002 (UTC)

I've just realised that there may be some duplication between this page and fruit, although I think the 2 pages serve seperate functions- I see this page as being more of a linking page to more specific articles on fruit tree growing and so forth... quercus robur 21:24 Oct 2, 2002 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 11:18, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Nuts?
How the hell do almonds and walnuts classify as fruits? They're nuts, surely!-- Laun  chba  ller  11:56, 27 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fruit tree


text:
Kis

Kis or KIS may refer to:

Places

 * Kiş, Khojavend, Azerbaijan
 * Kiş, Shaki, Azerbaijan
 * Kish (Sumer) (Sumerian: Kiš), an ancient city in Sumer
 * Kis, Babol Kenar, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran
 * Kis, Bandpey-ye Gharbi, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran
 * Kis, Bandpey-ye Sharqi, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran

Schools

 * KIS International School, Bangkok, Thailand
 * Kazakhstan International School, Almaty, Kazakhstan
 * Kodaikanal International School, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, India
 * Korean International School in Shenzhen

Transport

 * Kin Sang stop, Hong Kong, MTR station code
 * Kissimmee (Amtrak station), Florida, USA, Amtrak code
 * Kisumu Airport (IATA: KIS), Kenya

Other

 * Kis (surname)
 * KIS (weapon), a Polish World War II machine pistol
 * Cusae, a city in Upper Egypt
 * Kis FM, an Indonesian radio station
 * Kis language, spoken in Papua New Guinea
 * Kaspersky Internet Security
 * Knowbot Information Service
 * Köpings IS, a Swedish sports club
 * Kosovo Is Serbia, a movement promoting that Kosovo is part of Serbia
 * Keep It Simple, an alternate form of the KISS principle
 * -kis-, from the Greek word, κις, meaning "times", forming a Greek multiple numerical prefix

title: Kis


text:
Walter Annenberg

Walter Hubert Annenberg (March 13, 1908 – October 1, 2002) was an American businessman, investor, philanthropist, and diplomat. Annenberg owned and operated Triangle Publications, which included ownership of The Philadelphia Inquirer, TV Guide, the Daily Racing Form and Seventeen magazine. He was appointed by President Richard Nixon as United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, where he served from 1969 to 1974.

During his tenure as U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom, he developed a close friendship with Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the royal family. After initial perceived missteps, he came to be admired for his dedicated work ethic, his wife's lavish entertaining, and personal gifts to support patriotic British causes, such as the restoration of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. He also paid for the renovation of Winfield House, the American ambassador's residence.

In his later years, Annenberg became one of the most prominent philanthropists in the United States. He established the Annenberg Foundation in 1988, and gave over $2 billion to educational establishments and art galleries, including both the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania and USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism in Los Angeles. At Sunnylands, his 220 acre estate near Palm Springs, California, he entertained royalty, presidents and other celebrities; it is now a museum and retreat center dedicated to furthering the Annenbergs' legacies.

Early life and education
Walter Annenberg was born to a Jewish family in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on March 13, 1908. He was the only son of Sadie Cecelia ( Friedman; 1879–1965) and Moses Annenberg, who published the Daily Racing Form and purchased The Philadelphia Inquirer in 1936. Annenberg was a stutterer since childhood.

He had seven sisters: Diana Annenberg (1900–1905), Esther Annenberg Simon Levee (1901–1992), Janet Annenberg Hooker (1904–1997), Enid Annenberg Bensinger Haupt (1906–2005), Lita Annenberg Hazen (1909–1995), Evelyn Annenberg Jaffe Hall (1911–2005), and Harriet Beatrice Annenberg Ames Aronson (1914–1969).

The Annenberg family moved to Long Island, New York, in 1920. Walter attended Peddie School in Hightstown, New Jersey, where he graduated in 1927. He was admitted to the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, but dropped out without attaining a degree. While in college, he was a member of Zeta Beta Tau, a traditionally Jewish fraternity.

Annenberg was greatly impacted by the tax evasion charges and other scandals involving his father in the 1930s. A significant part of his adult life was dedicated to rehabilitating the family's name through philanthropy and public service.

Business career
After his father's death in 1942, Annenberg took over the family businesses, making successes out of some that had been failing. He bought additional print media as well as radio and television stations, resulting in great success. One of his most prominent successes was the creation of TV Guide in 1952, which he started against the advice of his financial advisors. He also created Seventeen magazine. During the 1970s, TV Guide was making profits in the range of $600,000 to $1,000,000 per week.

While Annenberg ran his publishing empire as a business, he was not afraid to use it for his political purposes. One of his publications, The Philadelphia Inquirer, was influential in ridding Philadelphia of its largely corrupt city government in 1949. It campaigned for the Marshall Plan following World War II and attacked McCarthyism in the 1950s.

In 1966, Annenberg used the Inquirer to cast doubt on the candidacy of Democrat Milton Shapp for governor of Pennsylvania. Shapp was highly critical of the proposed merger of the Pennsylvania Railroad with the New York Central Railroad and was pushing the US Interstate Commerce Commission to prevent it from occurring. Annenberg, who was the biggest individual stockholder of the Pennsylvania Railroad, wanted to see the merger succeed (which it did) and he was frustrated with Shapp's opposition. During a press conference, an Inquirer reporter asked Shapp if he had ever been a patient in a mental hospital. Never having been in one, Shapp simply said "no." The next day, a five-column front page Inquirer headline read, "Shapp Denies Mental Institution Stay". Shapp and others have attributed his loss of the election to Annenberg's newspaper.

At a time when Annenberg was seeking appointment as U.S. ambassador to Great Britain, a TV Guide "special editorial" of April 14, 1969, suddenly reversed what had been the publication's support of the Smothers Brothers in the duo's content fight with their network, CBS. The editorial, "Smothers Out: A Wise Decision," praised the network cancellation of The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, rhetorically asking "Where does satire end -- and sacrilege begin?" Annenberg received the ambassadorship from President Richard Nixon, who at the time was a frequent target of Smothers Brothers on-air barbs and was pressing for more control over television network content.

Even while an active businessman, Annenberg had an interest in public service. In 1953 he became one of the founding trustees of Eisenhower Fellowships. After Richard M. Nixon was elected president, he appointed Annenberg as ambassador to the Court of St James's in the UK. In 1969, under pressure after the Shapp controversy, Annenberg sold The Inquirer and the Philadelphia Daily News, which he bought in 1957, to Knight Newspapers for $55 million. After being appointed as ambassador, he became quite popular in Britain, being made an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple on 26 November 1969 and an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1976.

Annenberg led a lavish lifestyle. His Sunnylands winter estate in Rancho Mirage, California (near Palm Springs), hosted gatherings with such people as President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan, Queen Elizabeth II, Frank Sinatra, Bob Hope, Bing Crosby, Charles, Prince of Wales, and the family of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Annenberg introduced President Reagan to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, and the Reagans often celebrated New Year's Eve with the Annenbergs. President Ronald Reagan named Leonore Annenberg the State Department's Chief of Protocol in early 1981. Sunnylands covers 400 acre, guard-gated on a 650 acre parcel surrounded by a stucco wall at the northwest corner of Frank Sinatra Drive and Bob Hope Drive; the property includes a golf course. The estate continues to be used for meetings and retreats by prominent people.

Annenberg established the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania and the Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism at the University of Southern California. In 1993, he donated 100 million dollars to The Peddie School, the largest donation ever to a school when accounting for inflation. Annenberg served on the advisory board of U.S. English, an organization that supports making English the official language of the United States. He became a champion of public television, receiving many awards, including the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1985, the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Reagan in 1986, the Linus Pauling Medal for Humanitarianism, the 1988 Eisenhower Medal for Leadership and Service, was made a Knight of the Order of St. Gregory the Great in 1998, and was named an Officer of the French Legion of Honor.

In the early 1980s, Annenberg also founded the Annenberg Center for Health Sciences at Eisenhower in Rancho Mirage, California. In the mid-1980s, he established the Annenberg Fellowship to Eton College, a one-year fellowship for one US graduating college senior (chosen from a rotating list of US universities including Duke, Harvard, Penn, Princeton, Yale, and others) to spend a year teaching and serving as a cultural ambassador to the famous British boys' school. In 1989, he established the Annenberg Foundation, and 1993, created the Annenberg Challenge, a US$500 million, five-year reform effort and the largest single gift ever made to American public education. In 1993 he and his wife Leonore were awarded the National Medal of Arts. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1990 and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1995.

He sold Triangle Publications (TV Guide, Daily Racing Form and a few other publications) to Australian publishing magnate Rupert Murdoch in 1988 for $3 billion (a record media price at the time), announcing that he would devote his life to philanthropy.

During his lifetime, it is estimated that Annenberg donated over $2 billion. He once said that "education... holds civilization together". Many school buildings, libraries, theaters, hospitals, and museums across the United States now bear his name. His collection of French impressionist art was valued at approximately US$1 billion in 1991 and was donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City upon his death in 2002. In 1990, he donated $50 million to the United Negro College Fund which was the largest amount ever contributed to the organization. He was also a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at Oxford University, helping to raise funds for the institute's building and library.

Annenberg was named Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia's Person of the Year in 1983 and was inducted into the Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia Hall of Fame in 1992.

In 1995, he received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, one of the Jefferson Awards for Public Service, given out annually by the American Institute for Public Service.

The Annenberg Space for Photography, dedicated to both digital images and print photography was opened in Los Angeles' Century City in 2009 by the Annenberg Foundation and its trustees. The first exhibit featured the work of John Baldessari, Catherine Opie, Douglas Kirkland, Julius Shulman, Lauren Greenfield, and Carolyn Cole.

Personal life
In 1939, Annenberg married Bernice Veronica Dunkelman. Bernice was raised in a Jewish family in Canada, the daughter of Canadian businessman David Dunkelman who was known for mass-producing low-cost suits and selling them at a single price of $14 at his chain of 65 retail stores. They divorced in 1950 after eleven years together. While married, Dunkelman and Annenberg had two children: a daughter, Wallis, and son, Roger. Roger died by suicide in 1962; to commemorate his death, Harvard University, where Roger was a student at the time, now has a Roger Annenberg Hall named in his honor.

In 1951, Annenberg married Leonore "Lee" Cohn. Lee was a niece of Harry Cohn, the founder and president of Columbia Pictures. Although of Jewish ethnicity, she was raised a Christian Scientist by her uncle's wife. Despite being born to Jewish families, the Annenbergs were not practitioners of Judaism; they regularly celebrated Easter and Christmas with family and friends.

Death
Annenberg died at his home in Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, on October 1, 2002, from complications of pneumonia; he was 94 years old. He was survived by his wife, Leonore (February 20, 1918 – March 12, 2009); his daughter, Wallis; and two sisters, Enid A. Haupt and Evelyn Hall. Including those by his wife's daughters from her first two marriages (Diane Deshong and Elizabeth Kabler), he left seven grandchildren and six great-grandchildren.

title: Walter Annenberg


text:
Soyuz 1

Soyuz 1 (Союз 1, Union 1) was a crewed spaceflight of the Soviet space program. Launched into orbit on 23 April 1967 carrying cosmonaut colonel Vladimir Komarov, Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the Soyuz spacecraft. The flight was plagued with technical issues, and Komarov was killed when the descent module crashed into the ground due to a parachute failure. This was the first in-flight fatality in the history of spaceflight.

The original mission plan was complex, involving a rendezvous with Soyuz 2 and an exchange of crew members before returning to Earth. However, the launch of Soyuz 2 was called off due to thunderstorms.

Mission parameters

 * Mass: 6450 kg
 * Perigee: 197.0 km
 * Apogee: 223.0 km
 * Inclination: 50.8°
 * Period: 88.7 minutes

Background
Soyuz 1 was the first crewed flight of the first-generation Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft and Soyuz rocket, designed as part of the Soviet lunar program. It was the first Soviet crewed spaceflight in over two years, and the first Soviet crewed flight following the death of the Chief Designer of the space programme Sergei Korolev. Komarov was launched on Soyuz 1 despite failures of the previous uncrewed tests of the 7K-OK, Kosmos 133 and Kosmos 140. A third attempted test flight was a launch failure; a launch abort triggered a malfunction of the launch escape system, causing the rocket to explode on the pad. The escape system successfully pulled the spacecraft to safety.

According to interviews with Venyamin Russayev, a former KGB agent, prior to launch, Soyuz 1 engineers are said to have reported 203 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday". Russayev also claims that Yuri Gagarin was the backup pilot for Soyuz 1, and was aware of the design problems and the pressures from the Politburo to proceed with the flight. He attempted to "bump" Komarov from the mission, knowing that the Soviet leadership would not risk a national hero on the flight. At the same time, Komarov refused to pass on the mission, even though he believed it to be doomed. He explained that he could not risk Gagarin's life. Russayev's account, however, has been seen as implausible and exaggerated by most historians of the Soviet space programme.

Mission planners intended to launch a second Soyuz flight the next day carrying cosmonauts Valery Bykovsky, Yevgeny Khrunov, and Aleksei Yeliseyev, with Khrunov and Yeliseyev scheduled to do an EVA over to Soyuz 1.

Mission details
Soyuz 1 was launched on 23 April 1967 at 00:32 GMT from Baikonur Cosmodrome carrying Komarov, the first Soviet cosmonaut to fly in space twice, in the 7K-OK No. 4 capsule. Problems began shortly after launch when one solar panel failed to unfold, leading to a shortage of power for the spacecraft's systems. Further problems with the orientation detectors complicated maneuvering the craft. By orbit 13, the automatic stabilisation system was completely dead, and the manual system was only partially effective.

The crew of Soyuz 2 modified their mission goals, preparing themselves for a launch that would include fixing the solar panel of Soyuz 1. However, that night, thunderstorms at Baikonur affected the booster's electrical system, causing the mission to be called off.

As a result of Komarov's report during the 13th orbit, the flight director decided to abort the mission. After 18 orbits, Soyuz 1 fired its retrorockets and reentered the Earth's atmosphere. Despite the technical difficulties up to that point, Komarov might still have landed safely. A few minutes before the tragedy, Komarov maintained radio contact with Gagarin, in particular, stating: "The engine was running for 146 seconds. Everything is going fine. Everything is going fine! The ship was oriented correctly. I am in the middle chair. Tied with straps." To slow the descent, first the drogue parachute was deployed, followed by the main parachute. However, due to a defect, the main parachute did not unfold; the exact reason for the main parachute malfunction is disputed.

Komarov then activated the manually deployed reserve chute, but it became tangled with the drogue chute, which did not release as intended. As a result, the Soyuz descent module fell to Earth in Orenburg Oblast almost entirely unimpeded, at about 40 m/s. A rescue helicopter spotted the descent module lying on its side with the parachute spread across the ground on fire. The retrorockets then started firing which concerned the rescuers since they were supposed to activate a few moments prior to touchdown. By the time they landed and approached, the descent module was in flames with black smoke filling the air and streams of molten metal dripping from the exterior. The entire base of the capsule burned through. By this point, it was obvious that Komarov had not survived, but there was no code signal for a cosmonaut's death, so the rescuers fired a signal flare calling for medical assistance. Another group of rescuers in an aircraft then arrived and attempted to extinguish the blazing spacecraft with portable fire extinguishers. This proved insufficient and they instead began using shovels to throw dirt onto it. The descent module then completely disintegrated, leaving only a pile of debris topped by the entry hatch. When the fire at last ended, the rescuers were able to dig through the rubble to find Komarov strapped into the center couch, his body had turned into charred clothing and flesh. Doctors pronounced the cause of death to be from multiple blunt-force injuries. The body was transported to Moscow for an official autopsy in a military hospital where the cause of death was verified to match the field doctors' conclusions.

The Soyuz 1 crash site coordinates are 51.3609°N, 59.5624°W, which is 3 km west of Karabutak, about 275 km east-southeast of Orenburg. There is a memorial monument at the site in the form of a black column with a bust of Komarov at the top, in a small park on the roadside.

Posthumously, Komarov was named a Hero of the Soviet Union for the second time, and awarded the Order of Lenin. He was given a state funeral, and his ashes were interred in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis at Red Square, Moscow.

Eight years after Komarov's death, a story began circulating that Komarov cursed the engineers and flight staff, and spoke to his wife as he descended, and these transmissions were received by an NSA listening station near Istanbul. Historians such as Asif Azam Siddiqi regard this to be untrue. Komarov final recorded words appear to have been a conversation with a tracking station located near Simferopol on the topic of the separation of the Soyuz modules just before reentry. With the final message received being "Спасибо, передайте всем Произошло" ("Thank you, tell everyone it happened") [Garbled].

Legacy
The Soyuz 1 tragedy delayed the launch of Soyuz 2 and Soyuz 3 until 25 October 1968. This 18-month gap, with the addition of the explosion of an uncrewed N-1 rocket on 3 July 1969, scuttled Soviet plans of landing a cosmonaut on the Moon. The original mission of Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 2 was ultimately achieved by Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5.

A much improved Soyuz programme emerged from this eighteen-month delay, mirroring the improvements made in the Apollo program after the Apollo 1 tragedy. Although it failed to reach the Moon, the Soyuz went on to be repurposed from the centrepiece of the Zond lunar program to the people-carrier of the Salyut space station program, the Mir space station, and the International Space Station. Although it suffered another tragedy with the Soyuz 11 accident in 1971, and went through several incidents with non-fatal launch aborts and landing mishaps, it has become one of the longest-lived and most dependable crewed spacecraft yet designed.

Komarov is commemorated in two memorials left on the lunar surface: one left at Tranquility Base by Apollo 11, and the Fallen Astronaut statue and plaque left by Apollo 15.

title: Soyuz 1


text:
Elmo

Elmo is a red Muppet character on the children's television show Sesame Street. A furry red monster who speaks in a high-pitched falsetto voice and frequently refers to himself in the third person, he hosts the last full five-minute segment (fifteen minutes prior to 2017) on Sesame Street, "Elmo's World", which is aimed at toddlers. He was originally performed by Kevin Clash. Following Clash's resignation in late 2012, Elmo has been performed by Ryan Dillon.

History
Elmo is self-described as three-and-a-half years old and his birthday is on February 3. Elmo characteristically avoids pronouns in reference to himself, instead referring to himself in the third person (e.g. saying "Elmo wants this" instead of "I want this"). Sesame Street staff writer Nancy Sans once described Elmo's origins: "There was this extra red puppet lying around and the cast would pick him up sometimes and try to create a personality, but nothing seemed to materialize."

The character of Elmo was originally conceived as a supporting character and background character by Henson Associates-based Muppet artist/builder Caroly Wilcox in 1979, first appearing in the Sesame Street song "We Are All Monsters", which first aired in a Season 11 episode during 1980. Elmo became a named and recurring character on Sesame Street (during the street storylines) sometime later that season (episode 1439, to be exact), although he still appeared as a supporting character in segments in later episodes of the show at the time. The character was performed by a rotating ensemble of Muppet performers such as Jerry Nelson and Kathryn Mullen while he was a background character in such Sesame Street segments from 1980 to 1984. As a named character, Elmo was performed by Brian Muehl from 1980 to 1984, and later Richard Hunt from 1984 to 1985 upon Muehl's departure. However, in 1985, Hunt was so frustrated with the puppet, he squeezed it and threw it at Kevin Clash, who then performed Elmo. Clash said that Elmo should be a character who is kind and loving. Sans says of Clash, "one day in 1985, Kevin Clash, a talented puppeteer, raised him up and brought energy and life into Elmo and from that day forward we would all write for Elmo." Modern Elmo debuted with the Season 17 premiere of Sesame Street, episode 2096 (first aired November 18, 1985, following the release of the Sesame Street film Sesame Street Presents: Follow That Bird). In the episode, Big Bird is tired of the adults refusing to believe him about Snuffy, so he decides to arrange for them to come to his nest and meet Snuffy, and Elmo offers to help. Snuffy returns, then tells Elmo he had better go home and brush his fur to prepare for the grown-ups' arrival, but Elmo holds on to his snuffle so he cannot go; as such, the adults meet Snuffy for the first time ever. Clash cites a moment later in season 17 (from Episode 2215 in which Elmo packs for an imaginary vacation) as the moment when he "found his voice" as Elmo, and by 1987, he became added to various episodes and product lines. John Tartaglia, Matt Vogel, and Jim Martin have all been secondary performers for the character, providing movement for Elmo's arms and legs, particularly in green-screen shots.

Alongside Cookie Monster, Elmo has appeared in The Furchester Hotel, where he is taking an extended stay because of his fascination with the Furchester Hotel. His father Louie is the brother of Funella Furchester. On May 27, 2020, The Not Too Late Show with Elmo premiered on Max. The series stars Elmo as the host of his own late-night talk show.

Popular culture
After becoming a regular guest on The Rosie O'Donnell Show, Elmo began touring the talk-show circuit. He has appeared on Martha Stewart Living, Martha, The Tony Danza Show, Rove Live, Wait Wait...Don't Tell Me!, and The View. Elmo and a developmental expert gave babysitting tips on the June 18, 2005, episode of Teen Kids News. He has also appeared on Emeril Live, helping Emeril make (non-alcoholic) eggnog during a Holiday Special shown in December 2008. Kevin Clash and Aaron Neville were also guests on this show. On a special episode of Oprah called "The Faces Behind the Famous Names", Kevin Clash and Elmo appeared at the same time.

Elmo was the star of the 1999 full-length, theatrically released motion picture The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland. He also starred in the film Elmo Saves Christmas.

Elmo also appeared in a fifth-season episode of The West Wing along with his friends Zoe and Big Bird. In that episode, Elmo receives a medical checkup from Abbey Bartlet, the First Lady (who is making a guest appearance on Sesame Street), and cheekily questions her about the validity of her medical license.

Elmo also appeared in the eighth-season episode of Scrubs, "My ABC's", along with Oscar the Grouch, Grover, and an Anything Muppet named "Ex Ray". All four characters are in separate fantasies of J.D.'s in the episode.

At the request and with the assistance of Rep. Duke Cunningham, he testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services and Education in April 2002, urging support for increased funding in music education.

Emeril and Elmo's Healthy Start was a special featuring Elmo and Emeril Lagasse that aired on November 4, 2005, at 8 p.m. as part of the Food Network's second annual "Cook With Your Kids Week". The special was produced in conjunction with Sesame Workshop's Healthy Habits for Life program.

In 1996, a Tickle Me Elmo doll became a fad toy.

Some traditionalist fans of Sesame Street have complained that Elmo's prominent status has caused roles to be greatly reduced for several older characters, with some referring to him as the "Little Red Menace". Some fans also blame Elmo for the semi-permanent departure of Kermit the Frog from Sesame Street.

In its FAQ, the Sesame Workshop addresses the allegation that Elmo referring to himself in the third person will teach children improper English, by stating that this behavior "mimics the behavior of many preschoolers. Like 3-year-olds, he doesn't always have the skills or knowledge to speak proper English."

Principal performers

 * Kevin Clash (1985–2012)
 * Ryan Dillon (2013–present)

Alternate performers

 * Jerry Nelson (early 1980s)
 * Kathryn Mullen (early 1980s)
 * Brian Muehl (1980–1984)
 * Richard Hunt (1984–1985)

Assistants

 * Paul McGinnis
 * John Tartaglia
 * Jim Martin
 * Ryan Dillon

International puppeteers

 * Kōji Ochiai (Japanese NHK dub of Sesame Street)
 * Kenta Matsumoto (Japanese, TV Tokyo)
 * Davide Garbolino (Italian version of Elmo's World)
 * Eduardo Garza (Mexican Spanish, Latin Spanish dub of Elmo's World)
 * Igor Cruz (Mexican Spanish)
 * Sabine Falkenberg (German)
 * Hein Boele (Dutch dub of Sesamestreet)
 * Jogchem Jalink (Puppeteer of the Elmo replica puppet used on the Dutch version of Sesamestreet)
 * Tomasz Bednarek (Polish version of Elmo's World)
 * Damon Berry (Takalani Sesame, known as "Neno")
 * Christophe Albertini (5, Rue Sésame)
 * Ariel Doron (Rechov Sumsum)

title: Elmo


text:
Stock character

A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a type of character in a narrative (e.g. a novel, play, television show, or film) whom audiences recognize across many narratives or as part of a storytelling tradition or convention. There is a wide range of stock characters, covering people of various ages, social classes and demeanors. They are archetypal characters distinguished by their simplification and flatness. As a result, they tend to be easy targets for parody and to be criticized as clichés. The presence of a particular array of stock characters is a key component of many genres, and they often help to identify a genre or subgenre. For example, a story with the stock characters of a knight-errant and a witch is probably a fairy tale or fantasy.

There are several purposes to using stock characters. Stock characters are a time- and effort-saving shortcut for story creators, as authors can populate their tale with existing well-known character types. Another benefit is that stock characters help to move the story along more efficiently, by allowing the audience to already understand the character and their motivations. Furthermore, stock characters can be used to build an audience's expectations and, in some cases, they can also enhance narrative elements like suspense, irony, or plot twists if those expectations end up subverted.

Academic analysis
There is often confusion between stock characters, archetypes, stereotypes, and clichés. In part this confusion arises due to the overlap between these concepts. Nevertheless, these terms are not synonyms. The relationship is that basic archetypes (such as "hero" or "father figure") and stock characters (such as "damsel in distress" and "wise fool") are the raw source material that authors use to build on and create fleshed-out, interesting characters. In contrast, stereotypes and clichés are generally viewed as signs of "bad writing or shallow thinking". Some stereotypes, such as racial stereotype characters, may be offensive to readers or viewers.

According to Dwight V. Swain, a creative writing professor and prolific fiction author, all characters begin as stock characters and are fleshed out only as far as needed to advance the plot. E. Graham McKinley says "there is general agreement on the importance to drama of 'stock' characters. This notion has been considerably explored in film theory, where feminists have argued, female stock characters are only stereotypes (child/woman, whore, bitch, wife, mother, secretary or girl Friday, career women, vamp, etc.)." Ulrike Roesler and Jayandra Soni analyze "not only with female stock characters in the sense of typical roles in the dramas, but also with other female persons in the area of the theatrical stage..."

Andrew Griffin, Helen Ostovich, and Holger Schott Syme explain further that "Female stock characters also permit a close level of audience identification; this is true most of all in The Troublesome Reign, where the "weeping woman" type is used to dramatic advantage. This stock character provides pathos as yet another counterpoint to the plays' comic business and royal pomp."

Tara Brabazon discusses how the "school ma'am on the colonial frontier has been a stock character of literature and film in Australia and the United States. She is an ideal foil for the ill mannered, uncivilised hero. In American literature and film, the spinster from East – generally Boston – has some stock attributes." Polly Welts Kaufman shows that the schoolma'am's "genteel poverty, unbending morality, education, and independent ways make her character a useful foil for the two other female stock characters in Western literature: the prostitute with the heart of gold and the long-suffering farmer's wife.'"

Stock characters can be further identified as an alazon, the "impostor and self-deceiving braggart" in a story, or an eiron, a "self-derogatory and understating character".

American film
In American popular films, there are a wide range of stock characters, which are typically used as non-speaking extras in the background, bit parts with a single line, minor secondary/supporting roles, or major secondary/supporting roles. Stock characters in American films have changed over the decades. A 1930s or 1940s film's stock characters include newspaper vendors, ice vendors, street sweepers, and cigarette girls; in contrast, a 1990s film has homeless "bag ladies", pimps, plainclothes police, business women, and Black and Hispanic stereotypes.

Stock characters in American popular culture, especially racial and ethnic stereotypes, often came to be seen as offensive in later decades and were replaced with new stereotypes. For example, the "lazy Black" and the "treacherous bespectacled Japanese" were replaced in the 1990s with the "street-smart Brother" and the "camera-happy Japanese tourist". Other groups more frequently represented as stock characters include women, Native Americans, Hispanics, Arabs, Gays/Lesbians, Jews, and Italians. Other briefly popular stock characters include the 1950s "overweight Communist cell leader" and the 1970s "Black Panther revolutionary".

Even in timeless occupations, the person in the job has changed, reflecting cultural and demographic changes. In the 1990s, a hairdresser (previously French) was often depicted as a gay man, a gardener (previously White) as Asian or Hispanic, a bartender (previously White) as Black, and a maid (previously Black) as Hispanic.

Television
Due to the scheduling constraints on television production, in which episodes need to be quickly scripted and shot, television scriptwriters often depend heavily on stock characters borrowed from popular film. TV writers use these stock characters to quickly communicate to the audience. In the late 1990s, there was a trend for screenwriters to add a gay stock character, which replaced the 1980s era's "African-American workplace pal" stock character. In the 1990s, a number of sitcoms introduced gay stock characters with the quality of the depictions being viewed as setting a new bar for onscreen LGBT depiction.

One challenge with the use of stock characters in TV shows is that, as with films, these stock characters can incorporate racial stereotypes, and "prejudicial and demeaning images". One concern raised with these gay stock characters is they tend to be shown as just advice-giving "sidekicks" who are not truly integrated into the narrative; as well, the gay character's life is not depicted, apart from their advice-giving interactions with the main characters. This also echoed the way that Black and Latino characters were used in 1980s and early 1990s shows: they were given a stock character role as a police chief, which in put them in a position of power, but then these characters were used as minor characters, with little narrative interaction with main characters. In the 2000s, with changing views on depicting race, Latino/a characters are both typecast into stock characters and the writers play with viewer expectations by making a seemingly stock Latino/a character act or behave "against type".

Southern sheriff stock characters are depicted with a negative stereotype of being obese, poorly trained, uneducated, and racist, as was done with Sheriff Roscoe P. Coltrane from The Dukes of Hazzard.

Copyright law
In the United States, courts have determined that copyright protection cannot be extended to the characteristics of stock characters in a story, whether it be a book, play, or film.

title: Stock character


text:
Battlefield Earth

Battlefield Earth may refer to:
 * Battlefield Earth (novel), a science fiction novel by L. Ron Hubbard
 * Battlefield Earth (soundtrack) (also called Space Jazz), companion music soundtrack to the novel, composed by L. Ron Hubbard
 * Battlefield Earth (film), a 2000 film adaptation of the novel, starring John Travolta

title: Battlefield Earth


text:
Talk:Pain

Main image of woman getting blood drawn
The picture used here in this context was chosen poorly. I would argue that physical pain is the least part of why people have fear of needles / injections. I know an injection can be painful but more often than not it is more of s sting and the pain on a very low scale.

A picture of someone with a cut or even a bruise would be more adequate. Or (I know we go into gore territory here) a burn victims skin or someone with a broken bone. Or even childbirth though I don't know it that would be too special because over half the population could not relate.

--89.245.98.149 (talk) 21:53, 30 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree; I removed it. Some1 (talk) 22:00, 30 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I think the better image would be something like a person squinting his eyes, teeth clenched, and mouth stretched in a distressed frown, alongside that person holding or covering their hurt limb. Obviously, I cannot just go ahead and take a photo of myself doing that without actually getting hurt because that's just completely inaccurate. Qwertyxp2000 (talk | contribs) 03:45, 20 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Well, we have this image of a pictogram man with an injured knee and a pulsating pain in the form of two stars, but that isn't accurate for something medical. That kind of picture would be more appropriate for something like showing a normal person what a possible illustrative way of showing the pulsatingness of pain is, but it won't accurately convey a real-world depiction of what physical injury pain may be. Qwertyxp2000 (talk | contribs) 03:47, 20 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Alternatively, we could use a painting depicting pain, as done in psychological pain, but I am not an experienced painting enthusiast, so I would doubt there exists a painting that would depicts physical pain in the form of a simple injury. Qwertyxp2000 (talk | contribs) 03:50, 20 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I found this on the Commons: Wrist pain.jpg Some1 (talk) 04:04, 20 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Looks good. It's a good fit for this article. Qwertyxp2000 (talk | contribs) 04:12, 20 April 2021 (UTC)

pain locations
If a specific location of pain is notable enough for a Wikipedia article, then this article should link to those articles:
 * Headache
 * Abdominal pain
 * Back pain
 * Wrist pain (already linked)
 * Heartburn
 * Chest pain
 * etc.

I also feel this article should mention that some parts of the body cannot feel pain -- "the brain can't feel pain", third degree burns, etc. --DavidCary (talk) 20:03, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Entries and their progress
As of early June 2022, here is progress for the filling of captions in the Pain article:

 * Image: File:Wrist pain.jpg
 * Caption: An illustration of wrist pain
 * Speciality: Neurology and Pain medicine
 * Symptoms: Unpleasant sensory and emotional sensations (with a reference)
 * Complications: ...
 * Onset: ...
 * Duration: Typically depends on the cause
 * Types: Physical, psychological, psychogenic
 * Causes: ...
 * Risks: ...
 * Diagnosis: ...
 * Differential: ...
 * Prevention: ...
 * Treatment: ...
 * Medication: Analgesic
 * Prognosis: ...
 * Frequency: ...
 * Deaths: ...

I believe most the missing sections can be filled, though there are definitely some that probably don't make sense, or may need more specificness. I am also unsure if all of the entries should be filled. For now, I suppose some of the applicable content for the infobox can be found in the article itself, which is nice.

I could plan to edit the article later so that I can think about filling the infobox carefully, but for now I wanted this thought as a small discussion.

Qwertyxp2000 (talk | contribs) 05:31, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pain