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Binary form

Binary form is a musical form in 2 related sections, both of which are usually repeated. Binary is also a structure used to choreograph dance. In music this is usually performed as A-A-B-B.

Binary form was popular during the Baroque period, often used to structure movements of keyboard sonatas. It was also used for short, one-movement works. Around the middle of the 18th century, the form largely fell from use as the principal design of entire movements as sonata form and organic development gained prominence. When it is found in later works, it usually takes the form of the theme in a set of variations, or the Minuet, Scherzo, or Trio sections of a "minuet and trio" or "scherzo and trio" movement in a sonata, symphony, etc. Many larger forms incorporate binary structures, and many more complicated forms (such as the 18th-century sonata form) share certain characteristics with binary form.

Structure
A typical example of a piece in binary form has two large sections of roughly equal duration. The first will begin in a certain key, which will often, (but not always), modulate to a closely related key. Pieces in a major key will usually modulate to the dominant, (the fifth scale degree above the tonic). Pieces in a minor key will generally modulate to the relative major key, (the key of the third scale degree above the minor tonic), or to the dominant minor. A piece in minor may also stay in the original key at the end of the first section, closing with an imperfect cadence.

The second section of the piece begins in the newly established key, where it remains for an indefinite period of time. After some harmonic activity, the piece will eventually modulate back to its original key before ending.

More often than not, especially in 18th-century compositions, the A and B sections are separated by double bars with repeat signs, meaning both sections were to be repeated.

Binary form is usually characterized as having the form AB, though since both sections repeat, a more accurate description would be AABB. Others, however, prefer to use the label AA′. This second designation points to the fact that there is no great change in character between the two sections. The rhythms and melodic material used will generally be closely related in each section, and if the piece is written for a musical ensemble, the instrumentation will generally be the same. This is in contrast to the use of verse-chorus form in popular music—the contrast between the two sections is primarily one of the keys used.

Further distinctions
A piece in binary form can be further classified according to a number of characteristics:

Simple vs. rounded

Occasionally, the B section will end with a "return" of the opening material from the A section. This is referred to as rounded binary, and is labeled as ABA ′. In rounded binary, the beginning of the B section is sometimes referred to as the "bridge", and will usually conclude with a half cadence in the original key. Rounded binary is not to be confused with ternary form, also labeled ABA—the difference being that, in ternary form, the B section contrasts completely with the A material as in, for example, a minuet and trio. Another important difference between the rounded and ternary form is that in rounded binary, when the "A" section returns, it will typically contain only half of the full "A" section, whereas ternary form will end with the full "A" section.

Sometimes, as in the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti, the return of the A theme may include much of the original A section in the tonic key, so much so that some of his sonatas can be regarded as precursors of sonata form.

Rounded binary form is sometimes referred to as small ternary form.

Rounded binary or minuet form: A     :||: B                           A or A' I(->V) :||: V(or other closely related) I

If the B section lacks such a return of the opening A material, the piece is said to be in simple binary.

Simple: A->B :||: A->B I->V :||: V->I

Slow-movement form: A'       A" I->V      I->I

Many examples of rounded binary are found among the church sonatas of Vivaldi including his Sonata No. 1 for Cello and Continuo, First Movement, while certain Baroque composers such as Bach and Handel used the form rarely.

Sectional vs. continuous

If the A section ends with an authentic (or perfect) cadence in the original tonic key of the piece, the design is referred to as a sectional binary. This refers to the fact that the piece is in different tonal sections, each beginning in their own respective keys.

If the A section ends with any other kind of cadence, the design is referred to as a continuous binary. This refers to the fact that the B section will "continue on" with the new key established by the cadence at the end of A.

Symmetrical vs. asymmetrical
If the A and B sections are roughly equal in length, the design is referred to as symmetrical.

If the A and B sections are of unequal length, the design is referred to as asymmetrical. In such cases, the B section is usually substantially longer than the A section.

The asymmetrical binary form becomes more common than the symmetrical type from about the time of Beethoven, and is almost routine in the main sections of Minuet and Trio or Scherzo and Trio movements in works from this period. In such cases, occasionally only the first section of the binary structure is marked to be repeated.

Although most of Chopin's nocturnes are in an overall ternary form, quite often the individual sections (either the A, the B, or both) are in binary form, most often of the asymmetrical variety. If a section of this binary structure is repeated, in this case it is written out again in full, usually considerably varied, rather than enclosed between repeat signs.

Balanced binary
Balanced binary is when the end of the first section and the end of the second section have analogous cadential material (and arguably pre-cadential material). The usual pattern for balanced binary is to arise in a continuous binary form (i.e., one in which the first section ends off tonic), where the two sections end with "rhyming cadences", in which the same cadential material occurs in both sections, appropriately transposed for their keys. This differs from Rounded Binary, since in a Rounded Binary form, thematic material from the A section must return at the end of the B section (which usually occurs at the beginnings of phrases), whereas in a balanced binary, it is sufficient for a meaningful portion of the end of the final phrase to return.

For example, if the A section is a period (using Caplin's naming conventions; elsewhere called a parallel period), the first ("antecedent") phrase of the A section will begin with a basic idea (generally for one half of the phrase) and end with a relatively weak cadence, and the second ("consequent") phrase will begin with the same basic idea and end with a stronger cadence; alternatively, if the A section is a sentence, the first half of the section will consist of two repetitions of the basic idea (with the second possibly transposed or slightly altered), and the rest of the phrase will drive towards a cadence. In a rounded binary form, at the end of the B section, if the A section was a sentence, typically the beginning of the sentence returns, potentially abridged, followed by the cadence; if a period, the same is true, but since the antecedent and the consequent of a period both begin the same way, it is generally simpler to say that the entire consequent phrase returns. However, in either case, it is the basic idea that returns, followed by the cadence. In a balanced binary, the basic idea need not return. There is some room for debate concerning how much material must return preceding the cadence; it is a subjective decision upon which theorists may differ. Thus, it is not always clear how the concept of balanced binary should apply if the A section is a period. However, if the A section is a sentence, the balanced binary may bring back the entire second half of the A section (transposed if appropriate) without ever bringing back the basic idea.

There is also some room for debate concerning how the concept of balanced binary should relate to sectional binary forms. In principle, there is no intrinsic reason why a sectional binary form in which the second half of the A section (whether sentence or period) returns at the end of the B section should not be considered balanced since they end with the same cadences. From this point of view, many rounded binary forms are also balanced (especially those in which the A section is a period), but the fact that they would be balanced would be effectively uninteresting because the fact that they are rounded supersedes this characteristic. However, if one considers rhyming cadences in different keys to be a defining characteristic of balanced binary, then balanced and rounded binaries are mutually exclusive but analogous structures belonging, respectively, to continuous and sectional forms.

Rounded vs. incipient or small ternary
As noted above, there is some disagreement about the use of the term rounded binary. The disagreements concern two issues: whether the names rounded binary, incipient ternary, or small ternary is more appropriate to describe the form; and how much of the A section must return at the end of the B section to be considered rounded.

The principal difference between rounded binary and small ternary forms is the nature of the material between the A section and the return of the thematic material from the A section at the end of the form. In rounded binary, this additional material is called a digression, and does not stand alone as a satisfying musical section, whereas in ternary, this material constitutes a complete musical section unto itself (albeit potentially ending off tonic if part of a continuous form).

The issue concerning how much of the A section must return to be considered rounded binary is subjective. Either the entire A section must return or only the thematic material of the A section (specifically, the basic idea) and the cadence.

Putting these ideas together, if the material between the A section and the return of the thematic material does not stand alone (a digression) and only a part of the A section returns, we do not have a ternary form, and may have a rounded binary, though not all theorist would accept this terminology (and there is some overlap here with the notion of balanced binary -- see above). If we have a digression, but also have the entire A section returning, then it might be called either rounded binary or incipient ternary (meaning, "approaching ternary"), depending on the theorist. If the intermediate material stands on its own as a self-sufficient section, then we have small ternary (in such cases, the entire A section usually returns).

title: Binary form


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Frankland Group National Park

Frankland Group is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1353 km northwest of Brisbane. The five continental islands of the Frankland Group are High Island, Normanby Island, Mabel Island, Round Island and Russell Island, which lie about 10 km offshore, and are about 45 km south east of Cairns. They are the traditional home of the Mandingalbay Yidinji, and the Gungandji Aboriginal peoples. On 9 June 1770, on the First voyage of James Cook, Cook named the island group after Admiral Sir Thomas Frankland, 5th Baronet (1718 – 1784).

A large number of birds are supported here, including numerous seabirds, as well as pied imperial pigeons, fruit doves, varied honeyeaters, and white-breasted woodswallows.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Frankland Group National Park


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Freshwater National Park

Freshwater is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 34 km north of Brisbane. The park is west of Redcliffe, near Deception Bay, within Caboolture Shire.

The park's vegetation is a remnant of the Open Sclerophyll Woodland which was once common in this area. The dominant trees are Eucalyptus species, notably scribbly gum - Eucalyptus racemosa with smooth white trunks, and some Angophora species, while the shrub layer varies from an Open Heath area dominated by low grasstrees in the south of the park to dense Casuarina stands, and small swampy areas with paperbark trees (Melaleuca sp.). A small creek runs through the north end of the park. Sighted in the Open Heath area are low growing plants such as the fringed lilly Thysanotus tuberosus, tall sundew Drosera peltata, which is a carnivorous plant, flat-stemmed cord rush Eurychorda complanata and Wallum grevillea Grevillea leiophylla, which is a delicate pink flowered grevillea growing to only about 30 cm. This is only a small selection of the numerous beautiful plants to be found in this park. This park is one of the few protected places of Open Woodland/Low Heathland in the area. Much of this type of vegetation has been cleared for development.

Though very small, and surrounded by development, roads and a highway, the park is rich with wildlife. In spring it teams with birds, most noticeable being the many species of honeyeaters. Australian fairywrens such as the beautiful blue variegated fairywren and the brilliant red and black red-backed fairywren both occur here. In a very large old gum tree wedge-tailed eagles have made a nest, and the adults are often seen soaring over the park. Calls from white-throated gerygones, spangled drongos and rainbow bee-eaters make a pleasant background sound in the park.

The invertebrate fauna is rich, with many species of dragonflies and damselflies being quite obvious in summer. The magnificent large dragonfly Hemianax papuensis hawks through the park all year long, while in summer the beautiful Rhyothemis graphiptera, with wings barred with glistening dark purple, waft slowly along the tracks, and deep red Diplacodes bipunctata males sun themselves on twigs low to the ground.

title: Freshwater National Park


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Girraween National Park

Girraween National Park is an area of the Granite Belt in the Darling Downs region of Queensland, Australia reserved as a national park. Girraween is known for its spectacular flowers, dramatic landscapes and unique wildlife. Bushwalking and rock climbing are the most popular activities in the park.

Location
The park is situated 40 km south of Stanthorpe. The southern boundary of the park is the state border between Queensland and New South Wales. It is a twin park with Bald Rock National Park, which lies across the border in New South Wales, and features Bald Rock, the second-largest monolith (after Uluru) on the continent. Curiously, South Bald Rock and West Bald Rock lie in Girraween National Park in Queensland, not in Bald Rock National Park in New South Wales.

Features
It features granite landscapes, balancing boulders, clear streams, wetlands, cascades and open forest. The granite outcroppings, such as the Pyramids and Castle Rock at 1112 m, dominate the local scenery. The park contains many kilometres of graded walking trails to the park's major features like the First Pyramid, Second Pyramid, The Sphinx, Turtle Rock, Underground Creek, the Eye of the Needle and Mount Norman - the highest point in the park at 1267 metres. Fire trails can be followed when venturing into the southern and eastern sections of the park. The park has a temperate climate. During winter snow can fall in the area.

Fauna and flora
Girraween is an Aboriginal word meaning 'place of flowers' and the best time to see the local flora is late in July when the Golden Wattle blooms.

The park has abundant fauna, including some that are rarely seen elsewhere in Queensland, such as the common wombat, spotted quoll, lyrebird and the turquoise parrot.

The area is also noted for its diverse flora. The eucalypt forests and heathlands provide habitat for abundant birdlife. In spring, many wildflowers bloom, this led to its being called "place of flowers" in the indigenous language. The area is the only place where the Wallangarra whitegums grow.

In 1992, Taronga Park Zoo staff discovered the rare Bald Rock Creek turtle. The species has only been found within a ten km stretch of the creek.

Facilities
Camping facilities are provided by the Queensland Department of National Parks at Castle Rock. The site has toilets available, is suitable for caravans and has disabled access to the amenities blocks.

title: Girraween National Park


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Glass House Mountains National Park

Glass House Mountains National Park is a heritage-listed national park at Glass House Mountains, Sunshine Coast Region, Queensland, Australia. It is also known as Beerburrum Forest Reserve 1. It is 70 km north of Brisbane and consists of a flat plain punctuated by rhyolite and trachyte volcanic plugs, the cores of extinct volcanoes that formed 26 million to 27 million years ago. The mountains would once have had pyroclastic exteriors, but these have eroded away.

The national park was established in 1994. On 23 June 2010 the Queensland Government announced the expansion of the park to include an additional 2,117 ha. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 3 May 2007.

Facilities
Camp grounds are available at Glass House Mountains township and Coochin Creek, west of Beerwah. Lookouts have been built at several of the summits. Walking tracks allow access to the summits of Mount Beerwah, Mount Tibrogargan and Mount Ngungun. Access is via the Steve Irwin Way exit from the Bruce Highway.

History
The Glass House Mountains are one of southeast Queensland's most impressive landmarks. They are situated 65 - 75 km north of Brisbane and are a group of steep sided plugs of trachyte and rhyolite, once within volcanoes active in the early Tertiary Period. They have been exposed by wind and water erosion of the softer material of the cones and surrounding area and now rise dramatically from the flat coastal plain.

The mountains are central to the creation myths of the region and their spiritual and social importance and links to Indigenous people continues to this day.

The first European description of the Glass House Mountains was by Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook, when he sailed north up the east coast of Australia on his voyage of discovery in the ship HM Bark Endeavour in 1770. The shape of the mountains reminded him of the huge glass furnaces (glasshouses) back in his native Yorkshire and he named them accordingly. In his log for 17 May 1770 he wrote: "this place may always be found by three hills which lay to the northward of it in the latitude of 26 degrees 53 minutes south. These hills lay but a little way inland and not far from each other; they are very remarkable on account of their singular form of elevation which very much resembles glass houses which occasioned me giving them that name: the northernmost of the three is the highest and largest. There are likewise several other peaked hills inland to the northward of these but they are not nearly so remarkable."Nearly thirty years later, Lieutenant (later Captain) Matthew Flinders sailed up the coast in the sloop Norfolk. In his report to the Governor of New South Wales, Captain John Hunter, dated 14 July 1799 he wrote: "At dusk Cape Moreton bore west two or three miles, and the highest glass house, whose peak was just topping over the distant land, had opened around it at 3 degrees west or 4 degrees north. Two Haycock like hummocks distinct from any other land opened soon after a few degrees to the southward."On 26 July Flinders took two sailors and the Aborigine Bungaree and landed on the shore with the intention of climbing Mount Tibrogargan. They climbed Mount Beerburrum before setting off for Tibrogargan, which they reached the next day, but which they did not climb.

On 29 November 1823 John Oxley entered observations of the Glass Houses in his field book. Allan Cunningham also mentioned them in his report of 15 July 1829.

In 1839-42 Andrew Petrie and Stephen Simpson explored the Glasshouse Mountains and in 1848 Andrew and John Petrie climbed Beerwah and left a note in a bottle at the summit. Petrie and naturalist Dr Ludwig Leichhardt visited the area in 1843 and 1844 and made geological and botanical observations. The Glass House Mountains have been an inspiration for artists since they were first described by Cook, including the painting by Conrad Martens' Glasshouse Mountains, Moreton Bay. Numerous poems have been written about them and they have been the subjects of writings such as the short story, The Mountains Played, by Judith Wright.

The mountains have also been a popular subject for both amateur and professional photographers from the early years of photography to the present day. Recent musical works such as Robert Davidson's Tibrogargan and John Gilfedder's work Legend of the Tibrogargan testify to the continuing appeal of the mountains.

The proximity of the peaks to several large coastal population centres makes them destinations for tourists who participate in bushwalking, climbing and take-in the views from the mountains.

The Glass House Mountains provide islands of natural habitat for plants and animals. They conserve regionally significant areas of rhyolitic mountain vegetation that supports 26 plants that are rare, threatened or of conservation interest. The ridges, rocky pavements, scree slopes and gullies provide a variety of habitats for vegetation ranging from Eucalypt open forest to montane heaths and shrublands. The mountains also provide a habitat for many species of fauna, some of which are rare or endangered. The area now known as the Glass House Mountains National Park was first gazetted in 1954. Gazetted areas incorporated smaller parks such as Beerwah, Coonowrin, Ngungun and Tibrogargan. These smaller parks were amalgamated into the Glass House Mountains National Park in 1994.

Description
The Glass House Mountains are a group of dome shaped hills and conical peaks rising sharply above the surrounding sub-coastal lowlands. They are the remnants of rhyolite and trachyte volcanic plugs and are located in southeast Queensland 65 - 75 km north of Brisbane and west of the townships of Glass House Mountains and Beerburrum.

Glass House Mountains National Park and Beerburrum Forest Reserve 1 covers eleven of the 16 Glass House Mountains and a small parcel of land known as Blue Gum Creek. The park is in eight sections ranging in size from 11 to 291 ha and in total cover an area of approximately 883 ha.

Mount Tibrogargan (364 m) and Mount Cooee (106 m) are composed of alkali rhyolite. Mount Cooee has caves and there are the remains of an old trigonometry station at the summit. It is a habitat for the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Mount Tibrogargan is the third highest and is open for the public to climb.

Mount Beerwah (556 m) is composed of alkali trachyte. Near the top, there are large hexagonal cooling columns on its north side (the Organ Pipes). The mountain also has early timber trails and timber getters' campsites on the eastern side. It has caves and is also a peregrine falcon habitat. Mount Beerwah is the highest peak within the park; however public access to the "tourist track" in the National Park has been restricted since 2009.

Mount Ngungun (253 m) is composed of alkali rhyolite. This mountain also has good examples of vertical columnar jointing and has caves. There is evidence of early 1950s quarrying activities.

Mount Coonowrin (Crookneck) (377 m) is composed of alkali rhyolite. It has good examples of vertical columnar jointing and has caves. Timber and steel pitons left by climbers can be found, though the mountain is now closed to climbers. It is a habitat for the peregrine falcon. Mount Coonowrin is the second highest; however, public access to it has been prohibited since 1999 due to the danger of trachyte rock stability.

Mount Elimbah (109 m) is locally called Saddleback because of the saddle like dip between the peaks. It is composed of alkali rhyolite and right-angled trenches used for World War Two infantry training can be seen on the lower slopes

Blue Gum Creek is an area of about 11 ha. It supports populations of the endangered swamp stringbark Eucalyptus conglomerata. It is an isolated species habitat for several vulnerable species of frogs including wallum froglet Crinia tinnula, wallum sedge frog Litoria olongburensis and Freycinet's frog Litoria freycineti and the rare green thighed frog Litoria brevipalmata.

Mount Miketeebumulgrai (202 m) is composed of porphyritic trachyte and provides feeding and nesting places for the black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami) and the rare grey goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae).

Mount Coochin, (as known as Coochin Hills) - west hill 235 m, east hill 230 m, is composed of alkali rhyolite and supports an area of the endangered plant species Leucopogon recurvisepalus.

Mount Beerburrum (278 m) is composed of porphyritic trachyte. The mountain has complex rainforest, with some endangered plant species such as Tindal's stringybark (Eucalyptus tindaliae), Pink bloodwood (Corymbia intermedia) and Smooth-barked apple (Angophora leiocarpa). Scribbly gum (Eucalyptus racemosa) is locally predominant in places, with the largest tract retained on Mount Beerburrum. The mountain has a forestry fire tower with a viewing platform at the summit.

Mount Tunbubudla, also known as the Twins (west twin 294 m, east twin 338 m), is composed of alkali rhyolite. The majority of the mountain is covered in dry sclerophyll forest. There are also areas of exposed rock dominated by the rare Bronze-barked Tea Tree (Leptospermum luehmannii), a plant restricted to the Glasshouse Mountains.

Mount Tibberoowuccum (220 m) is composed of alkali rhyolite. The mountain is a dome-shaped rock surrounded by eucalypt open forest, as well as complex rainforest, although the area is not extensive. There is a small population of Narrow-leaf bitter-pea (Daviesia Mimosoides) present on the southern slope of the mountain. This shrub is widespread in Victoria and New South Wales, but rare in Queensland, and the Mount Tiberoocwuccum population is the most northerly known.

Other peaks include:
 * Round Mountain
 * Wild Horse Mountain, 123 m

Flora

The peaks support a diverse range of habitats including montane heath and shrubland, open forest and woodlands and small rainforest patches on some peaks.The montane heath is particularly rich in threatened and endemic species many of which can be found nowhere else. In total there are 26 species of rare vegetation on the heaths. The Glasshouse Mountains Tea Tree (Leptospermum leuhmanii) is restricted to the peaks and is notable for its beautiful smooth orange bark. The Mount Beerwah Mallee Red Gum (Eucalyptus kabiana) is also endemic and is named after the local Aboriginal Tribe and traditional owners the Kabi Kabi (pronounced Gubbi Gubbi). Other endemic plants include Gonocarpus effusus, Grevillea hodgei, Westringia grandifolia and Leptospermum oreophyllum.

Heritage listing
Glass House Mountains National Park and Beerburrum Forest Reserve 1 was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 3 May 2007 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

The Glass House Mountains as ancient landforms illustrate the evolution of the landscape and the geological history of volcanic activity in the area. Because of their size and distinctive form they are readily identifiable from a number of distant observation points from both land and sea and so have played an important role in navigation in connection with the European exploration of the east coast of Australia. Captain Cook sighted and named them in 1770. In 1799 Matthew Flinders also reported on the Glass House peaks and camped in the area. Other early explorers connected with them are John Oxley, Alan Cunningham, Andrew Petrie and Ludwig Leichhardt.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

The Glass House peaks are visually impressive, rising dramatically from a flat coastal plain and are landmarks that can be seen from as far away as the Scenic Rim on the Queensland and New South border and out to sea. Views of the mountains, and obtained from the mountains, are of high aesthetic value and have inspired countless paintings and photographs. Their majestic and eerie beauty continues to attract large numbers of visitors to the national park areas that contain them.

The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.

The Glass House peaks are central to the creation myths of the region and have a high degree of cultural significance to Indigenous people.

The wider community also values the mountains as recreational venues and their closeness to Brisbane and major centres on the Sunshine Coast have made them readily accessible to day-trippers. The peaks have for many years been popular destinations for people wanting to bushwalk, picnic and to enjoy the volcanic scenery.

title: Glass House Mountains National Park


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Gloucester Island National Park

Gloucester Island is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 950 km northwest of Brisbane. It is visible from the town of Bowen. The island was seen and erroneously named "Cape Gloucester" by British explorer James Cook in 1770. The name "Cape Gloucester" has been used informally for areas on or near Gloucester Island.

Bird watching is topical from October to April, when thousands of migrating birds can be seen, especially waders. The average altitude of the terrain is 34 metres.

title: Gloucester Island National Park


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Goneaway National Park

Goneaway is a national park in Central West Queensland, Australia, 1158 km west of Brisbane.

The park is a habitat for 17 species of plants and 55 species of animals. The elevation of the terrain is 215 metres.

title: Goneaway National Park


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Goodedulla National Park

Goodedulla is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 573 km northwest of Brisbane. The park is located in the centre of the Brigalow Belt.

Access to the park is by four-wheel-drive vehicle only. Camping requires a permit and is available at three locations; Wadlow Yards, Kings Dam and The Palms, although none of the three have any facilities.

The average elevation of the terrain is 147 metres. 399 species of wild animals have been recorded in the park.

title: Goodedulla National Park


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Goodnight Scrub National Park

Goodnight Scrub is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 274 km northwest of Brisbane. It is located in the locality of Good Night which is split between the Bundaberg Region and the North Burnett Region local government areas, but is predominantly in the Bundaberg Region part of the locality. The park covers an area of 66.7 km2 of land within the Burnett River water catchment and the South East Queensland bioregions. At the southern extent of the park is the Paradise Dam.

Goodnight Scrub National Park protects dry rainforest predominated by hoop pine. At least five rare or threatened species have been identified in the park.

Camping is not permitted in the park. No walking tracks are provided, however there are fire trails.

The elevation of the terrain is 154 metres.

title: Goodnight Scrub National Park


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Goold Island National Park

Goold Island is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1250 km northwest of Brisbane. The island is close to the northern tip of Hinchinbrook Island off the coast from Cardwell in Rockingham Bay and is part of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area.

Covering 8.3 km2 the island is located 17 km from shore. It is covered mostly with open eucalypt forest, rainforested gullies and semi permanent creek water.

History
For many thousands of years before non-indigenous peoples arrived into the region, Goold Island, neighbouring islands and surrounding seas were occupied, used and enjoyed by generations of the Bandjin peoples ancestors, leaving behind an array of stone fish traps and shell middens still to be found on and around the island to this day.

Bandjin survivors of an often violent non-indigenous 'occupation' of the region continue to value and consider Goold Island as part of their sea country and, in December 2005, they included Goold Island within Australia's and Queensland's first accredited 'Traditional Use of Marine Resource Agreement'

Camping
Campers are required to bring their own water and all camping equipment. Camping is by permit only and is limited numbers so it is best to book in advance. Access to the islands is by ferry, private boat or charter or sea kayak. Marine stingers are present during the warmer months.

Neighbouring Islands
The nearby Brook Islands are smaller and made up of North, Tween, Middle and South islands, the first three of which comprise the Brook Islands National Park. These islands are used mainly by nesting birds. It is important not to disturb the birds during breeding seasons. Birds found here include the Torresian imperial-pigeon (estimated at over 40,000), bridled terns, black-naped terns, roseate terns and little terns. The beach stone-curlew also makes North Brook Island its home.

title: Goold Island National Park


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Great Basalt Wall National Park

Great Basalt Wall is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1124 km northwest of Brisbane. This national park protects 35,200 ha of land containing the Great Basalt Wall, a geological formation of the Toomba flow. The Toomba volcano erupted approximately 20,000 years ago, covered 670 square kilometres, and flowed for 120 km. It is one of the most recent volcanic eruptions in Queensland. Due to the viscous nature of the rocky lava flows the park is not accessible to the public.

249 animal species inhabit the park. The elevation of the terrain is 498 metres.

title: Great Basalt Wall National Park


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Great Sandy National Park

Great Sandy National Park is a coastal national park in the Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia.

Geography
The park features untouched beaches, large sand dunes, heathlands, rainforests, swamps, creeks, freshwater lakes and mangrove forests.

Great Sandy National Park is divided into two sections. The Cooloola Recreation Area section is situated on the coast between Noosa Heads in the south and Rainbow Beach in the north and covers 184,000 ha. The K'Gari section (formerly known as Fraser Island) encompasses almost all of the world's largest sand island, which is situated north of Rainbow Beach, covering 56,000 ha.

Birds
The land within the park is classified by BirdLife International as the Cooloola and Fraser Coast Important Bird Area because it supports a large population of black-breasted buttonquails as well as many bush and beach stone-curlews, green catbirds, regent bowerbirds, mangrove honeyeaters, and pale-yellow robins. Cooloola is also home to the eastern ground parrot and has one of the last coastal populations of the emu.

Features
The Cooloola section contains the Cooloola Great Walk, a five-day hiking trail. Boat tours and canoeing along the Noosa River are popular visitor activities. On Fraser Island is the 90 km long Fraser Island Great Walk. Lake Cootharaba offers fishing, sailing, and canoeing opportunities.

Whale watching, fishing, four-wheel driving, and bushwalking are also popular. The park also features two shipwrecks; the SS Maheno and the Cherry Venture.

The only place in the world where tall rainforest grows in sand is on K'Gari (formerly known as Fraser Island). The sand island has coloured sand cliffs on its eastern beach and numerous walking tracks from short boardwalks to longer walks, which cross sand blows.

K'Gari also has more than 100 freshwater lakes including the largest perched lake in the world, Lake Boomanjin. Lake Wabby is a popular swimming and fishing spot.

A unique feature of Great Sandy National Park is the coloured sands, which are formed by old sand mixed with clay into a consolidated mass. The visible hues include red, brown, and yellow, which are a reflection of the iron-rich minerals embedded in the sands for thousands of years and brought to the surface by wind and water eroding the land.

Access
Access to Fraser Island ideally requires a high-clearance 4WD vehicle. Parts of the Cooloola section are also inaccessible without a four-wheel drive. Vehicles entering the park need to obtain a vehicle permit for both Fraser Island and the Cooloola Recreational Area. Both sections have numerous camping areas.

Camping
Permits are required to camp in the park. About 15 camp sites are in the Cooloola section. Only electric motors and non-motorised vessels are permitted past Campsite 3.

Fines
Fines are issued for feeding Fraser Island's wild dingo population or leaving food or rubbish that may attract them.

title: Great Sandy National Park


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Green Island National Park

Green Island National Park is a protected area declared over a small (12 ha) coral cay of Green Island, Cairns Region, Queensland, Australia. It is known to the local Gungganyji Aboriginal peoples as Dabuukji. The Gungganyji people used the island as an initiation ground.

It is 27 km offshore from Cairns (1394 km northwest of Brisbane), Queensland, can be accessed by a choice of boats leaving daily from Cairns, and is reputed to be the most visited (popular) island National Park within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area.

Park features
Green Island is a true coral cay formed over thousands of years by the build-up of sand and coral rubble deposited on the calm side of a platform reef. The island is covered in tropical vine forest which supports a diversity of birds and insects. The surrounding coral reef is home to many kinds of corals, clams, fish, stingrays and other reef life. Green and hawksbill turtles are seen offshore. More than 60 species of bird are found on the island. While exploring the east coast in 1770, Lieutenant James Cook recorded on his chart "a low green woody island" and named the island after his ship's astronomer, Charles Green. In 1857, the first of many beche-de-mer fishing stations was established on the island. In 1928, the first regular ferry service began in the region.

Green Island has been a popular tourist resort for more than a century. The island became a national park in 1937, a marine park in 1974 and part of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area in 1981. Today the island, reef and beaches are managed together as a recreation area.

Camping on the island is not permitted. A small luxury resort is built on the island with daily ferry services providing access.

title: Green Island National Park


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Grey Peaks National Park

Grey Peaks is a national park in Far North Queensland, Australia, 1,374 km northwest of Brisbane. It is part of the Coastal Wet Tropics Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of lowland tropical rainforest birds.

The forests of the national park dominate are dominated by large-fruited red mahogany Eucalyptus pellita and red turpentine Syncarpia glomulifera.

The average altitude of the terrain is 88 metres.

title: Grey Peaks National Park


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Halifax Bay Wetlands National Park

Halifax Bay Wetlands is a national park at Halifax Bay in Queensland, Australia, 1179 km northwest of Brisbane.

The one island in the park is Pandora Reef. This place is known as a spawning ground for many species of fish, such as barramundi, mangrove jack, grunter and salmon.

title: Halifax Bay Wetlands National Park


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Hann Tableland National Park

Hann Tableland is a national park in Far North Queensland (Australia), 1,436 km northwest of Brisbane. It is located in the northern section of Paddys Green, a locality in the Tablelands Region local government area. It was first set aside as national park in 1989 and nearly doubled in size with an expansion in 2004.

The park is located within the Einasleigh Uplands bioregion and the Mitchell River water catchment area.

The national park was established to conserve the forests of the Hann Tableland mountain range. Three rare or threatened species have been identified within the Hann Tableland National Park. These are northern greater glider, northern quoll, and buff-breasted button-quail. It lacks visitor facilities with the exception of the Bicentennial National Trail.

The average elevation of the terrain is 522 metres.

title: Hann Tableland National Park


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Hasties Swamp National Park

Hasties Swamp is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1,371 km northwest of Brisbane. The swamp is located several kilometres south of the town of Atherton in Far North Queensland. The main feature of the park is a seasonal wetland. Part of the swamp was first declared a national park on 5 April 1980.

Habitat protected within the park supports up to 300 species of birds. These include the sarus crane, pale-vented bush-hen and buff-banded rail.

A bird hide provides viewing opportunities for visitors, including those using wheelchairs.

The wetland is surrounded by open eucalypt forest. The average elevation of the terrain is 826 metres.

title: Hasties Swamp National Park


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Hell Hole Gorge National Park

Hell Hole Gorge is a national park in South West Queensland, Australia, 912 km west of Brisbane. It is characterized by steep cliffs up to 45 metres high along the Powell Creek and Spencer Creek. Notable waterholes are the Hell Hole Waterhole (0.38 hectares) and Spencer's Waterhole (0.22 hectares). A campground offering primitive camping is available, no potable water is available on site. Access is by four wheel drive vehicles.

Hell Hole Gorge National Park is notable in that it is a site of a large massacre of Aboriginal people that occurred as retribution for the killing of Richard Welford of nearby Welford Downs in 1872.

Some of the plants that come to life here after rain are Hakea maconochiena, Thryptomene hexandra, Acacia spania and Euphorbia sarcostemmoides.

The average elevation of the terrain is 262 metres.

title: Hell Hole Gorge National Park


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Hinchinbrook Island National Park

Hinchinbrook Island National Park is Australia's largest island national park. It is situated along the Cassowary Coast Queensland, Australia. The nearest capital city is Brisbane approximately 1,240 km to the south. Lucinda is 135 km or 1.5 hours drive north of Townsville being the closest North Queensland provincial city. Cairns a Far North Queensland provincial city is two and a half to 3 hours drive north from Cardwell. The main geographical features in the park are the rugged Hinchinbrook Island, including Mount Bowen (1121 m), The Thumb (981 m), Mount Diamantina (953 m) and Mount Straloch (922 m).

The park contains the Thorsborne Trail for hikers. Also within the park lies the ruined Hinchinbrook Island Wilderness Lodge. The resort closed in 2010 as a result of the global financial crisis and was destroyed by Cyclone Yasi shortly after. The buildings have been ransacked by looters and vandals. The developer has gone broke and there is no airport, making access a problem for any future developer.

Situation
The Hinchinbrook Island National Park includes 393 km2 area of Hinchinbrook Island. The continental island has a mountainous interior providing diverse refuges for endemic and Endangered Species, such as dugong and green turtle.

Other conservation parks nearby
These continental islands which are part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park are Goold Island National Park, Brook Islands National Park and Family Islands National Park.

title: Hinchinbrook Island National Park


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Holbourne Island National Park

Holbourne Island National Park is a national park in Queensland (Australia), 983 km northwest of Brisbane.

History
Holbourne Island became well known in 1875, when 18 survivors of the shipwreck SS Gothenburg reached its shores. Four survivors arrived on a damaged port lifeboat on 25 February, where they survived by eating raw bird's eggs and drinking rain water that had pooled in the island rocks. The following day, 14 survivors from a starboard lifeboat also landed. Because rescue was uncertain, the survivors engraved their names on the concave side of a large turtle shell, which is displayed in the South Australian Museum, on North Terrace in Adelaide.

On 28 February, 15 of them set off in the starboard lifeboat for an island about 20 mi away to the south, which seemed to be more in the track of ships. A rescue ship sent looking for survivors of Gothenburg, picked up the group and took them safely to Bowen. The ship subsequently returned to Holbourne Island and rescued the three remaining survivors.

Present day
As well as being a national park, Holbourne Island is well known as a natural bird sanctuary and turtle nesting area.

On 2 September 2001, the 50,000 gross ton bulk carrier Pax Phoenix departed Hay Point, Queensland bound for India via Singapore. While passing Holbourne Island, an oil slick was noticed and described as being 60 to(-) in width. Although there were concerns about the effect on the island and wildlife, it eventually dispersed naturally out to sea without impact.

Holbourne Island is often referred to as part of the Coral Sea's Bermuda Triangle, as several maritime mysteries are linked to the area.

title: Holbourne Island National Park


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Homevale National Park

Homevale is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 821 km northwest of Brisbane. The landscape is dominated by cliffs, peaks and spires.

Fossils dating from the Permian period (280-225 million years) have been found here.

The average elevation of the terrain is 436 metres.

title: Homevale National Park


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Ileana Cotrubaș

Ileana Cotrubaș (born 9 June 1939) is a Romanian operatic soprano whose career spanned from the 1960s to the 1980s. She was much admired for her acting skills and facility for singing opera in many different languages.

Life and career
Cotrubaș was born in Galați. She grew up in a musical family; her father, Vasile, was a tenor in an amateur choir. Cotrubaș' musical career began at the age of nine when she became a member of a children's radio choir. By the age of eleven, she was one of its leading soloists. In 1952, she moved to Bucharest to study at the Școala Specială de Muzică school for the musically gifted. Cotrubaș made her stage debut with the Bucharest Opera as Yniold in Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande in 1964. She subsequently expanded her repertory to include roles such as Oscar in Verdi's Un ballo in maschera, Gilda in Rigoletto, and Blonde in Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail and began appearing in productions throughout Europe.

In 1965, Cotrubaș won the International Vocal Competition 's-Hertogenbosch in Netherlands, where she won first prize in opera, lieder, and oratorio. The following year, she won the ARD International Music Competition in Munich. Those awards, together with her great success in the role of Pamina in Mozart's Die Zauberflöte in Brussels, led to appearances in the Vienna State Opera, Hamburg State Opera, Berlin State Opera and Salzburg Festival, and to a contract with the Oper Frankfurt in 1968.

In 1969, she made her UK debut at the Glyndebourne Festival as Mélisande, and sang two succeeding seasons there in the title role of Cavalli's La Calisto. She made her début at the Royal Opera House in London in 1971 as Tatyana in Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin. Cotrubaș signed a three-year contract with the Vienna State Opera in 1970. During her time there, she learned the roles of Susanna in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro, Zerlina in Don Giovanni, the title role in Verdi's La traviata, Mimì in Puccini's La bohème, and Sophie in Der Rosenkavalier by Richard Strauss.

In 1973, she made her American operatic debut at the Lyric Opera of Chicago as Mimì, and at Glyndebourne sang Susanna opposite the Figaro of Knut Skram. Cotrubaș made her international breakthrough on 7 January 1975, when she replaced Mirella Freni at La Scala as Mimì. She had to fly from her home in Kent and arrived 15 minutes before curtain time. Her interpretation was acclaimed by critics and audiences alike.

Cotrubaș made her Metropolitan Opera debut on 23 March 1977, as Mimì in a production with José Carreras and Renata Scotto. While with the Met, she appeared as Gilda, opposite Plácido Domingo and Cornell MacNeil, in a televised performance of Rigoletto on 7 November 1977, and as Violetta, again opposite Domingo and MacNeil, in a televised performance of La traviata on 28 March 1981. She sang three other roles at the Met: Ilia in Mozart's Idomeneo (in its Metropolitan Opera premiere), Tatyana, and Micaëla in Bizet's Carmen, the role of her final performance with the company on 26 March 1987.

Cotrubaș is known for being very demanding of directors and colleagues. On several occasions—Eugene Onegin in Vienna in 1973 and Don Pasquale at the Met in 1980—she walked out of productions when she disagreed with the stage director. She retired from public singing in 1990, but continued to teach, giving master classes and coaching promising young singers, including Elena Tsallagova.

Recordings

 * Puccini : La bohème – Cotrubaș with Luciano Pavarotti and Piero Cappuccilli, conducted by Carlos Kleiber, live recording at La Scala, Milan, 22 March 1979 EX92T01/2 CD
 * Verdi: Rigoletto – Cotrubaș with Plácido Domingo and Piero Cappuccilli, Vienna Philharmonic, conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini, studio recording, Deutsche Grammophon. Cat: STEREO 4152888-2
 * Verdi: Rigoletto – Cotrubaș with Plácido Domingo and Cornell MacNeil, Metropolitan Opera, conducted by James Levine, DVD, Deutsche Grammophon
 * Verdi: La traviata – Cotrubaș with Plácido Domingo and Sherrill Milnes, conducted by Carlos Kleiber, studio recording, [Deutsche Grammophon
 * Bizet: Les pêcheurs de perles – Cotrubaș (Leila), Alain Vanzo (Nadir), Guillermo Sarabia (Zurga), Roger Soyer (Nourabad), Paris Opera Orchestra and chorus, Georges Prêtre, conductor. Audio CD: EMI Cat: 367702-2
 * Donizetti: L'elisir d'amore – Cotrubaș with Plácido Domingo, Geraint Evans and Ingvar Wixell and Lillian Watson and Royal Opera House Orchestra, John Pritchard, conductor, CBS
 * Charpentier: Louise – Cotrubaș with Plácido Domingo, Gabriel Bacquier and Jane Berbié, New Philharmonia Orchestra and Ambrosian Opera Chorus, Georges Prêtre, conductor, Sony Masterworks
 * Massenet: Manon – Cotrubaș with Alfredo Kraus, Choeurs et Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse, Michel Plasson, conductor, EMI
 * Francesco Cavalli: La Calisto – Cotrubaș with Janet Baker, London Philharmonic Orchestra, Raymond Leppard, conductor, Decca
 * Puccini: Il trittico – Cotrubaș with Renata Scotto, New Philharmonia Orchestra, Lorin Maazel, conductor, Sony
 * Bizet: Carmen – Cotrubaș with Teresa Berganza, London Symphony Orchestra, Claudio Abbado, conductor, Deutsche Grammophon
 * Humperdinck: Hänsel und Gretel – Cotrubaș with Frederica von Stade, and Christa Ludwig, Gürzenich Orchestra, John Pritchard, conductor, Sony
 * Handel: Rinaldo – Cotrubaș, La Grande Ecurie et la Chambre du Roya, Jean-Claude Malgoire, conductor, Sony
 * Rossini: Il turco in Italia – Cotrubaș, with James Morris, Vienna Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, conductor, Deutsche Grammophon
 * Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro – Cotrubaș, Vienna Philharmonic, Herbert von Karajan, conductor, Decca
 * Mozart: Die Zauberflöte – Cotrubaș, Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, James Levine, conductor, RCA
 * Mozart: Così fan tutte – Cotrubaș, Royal Opera House Covent Garden, Colin Davis, conductor, Phillips
 * Mozart: Idomeneo – Cotrubaș with Luciano Pavarotti, and Hildegard Behrens, James Levine, conductor, Deutsche Grammophon
 * Mozart: Bastien und Bastienne – Cotrubaș, Leopold Hager, conductor, Orfeo
 * Mozart: Requiem – Cotrubaș, Neville Marriner, conductor
 * Gluck: Paride ed Elena - Franco Bonisolli, Cotrubas, Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra, Lothar Zagrosek, conductor, Orfeo

title: Ileana Cotrubaș


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Hope Islands National Park

Hope Islands National Park is a national park in Queensland (Australia) 1,521 km north-west of Brisbane. The park consists of four islands: East Hope and West Hope, Snapper Island and Struck Island.

The Hope Islands are situated approximately 37 km south-east of Cooktown and about 8 km offshore (-15.73889°N, 145.45222°W) and officially part of the mainland locality of Rossville.

Struck Island is a rocky outcrop just off Thornton Beach and south of Cape Tribulation.

Snapper island is about two km long and is at the mouth of the Daintree River. It is about 20 km north of Port Douglas.

Access is via private vessel or by permitted commercial operators.

The Hope islands were named by Lt James Cook on 13 June 1770, after his ship HMS Endeavour narrowly escaped sinking after running aground on the eastern part of Endeavour Reef at 11pm on 11 June. Cook writes of taking a risk and sailing from the reef on the morning of 13 June in favourable conditions but the three operational bilge pumps could not keep up with the flow of water. Cook wrote "we were always in hopes of being able to reach these Islands". Cook speaks of he and the crew thinking the situation so dire that the best scenario would be to ground the boat on the reef surrounding the islands if the mainland could not be reached. They aimed to build a vessel from the wreck to make it back to the East Indies. However, some crew members were able to "fother" the leak using a sail so that the water could be cleared easily using one bilge pump. Endeavour was able to be sailed safely to what is now Cooktown so that repairs could be undertaken.

title: Hope Islands National Park


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Howick Group National Park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal Land)

Howick Group National Park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal Land) is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1,689 km northwest of Brisbane. The national park was previously named Howick Group National Park until it was renamed on 28 November 2013.

Flora and fauna
The national park is known to have 152 endemic species of plants and 118 endemic species of animals, of which 15 are rare or endangered species.


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Hull River National Park

Hull River is a national park in Queensland (Australia), 1275 km northwest of Brisbane. GIS mapping data from Queensland Department of Natural Resources (2002) showed an area of 3,240 hectares, of which about 2,100 hectares are estuarine mangroves, with the remainder being swamp forests dominated by Melaleuca and specialist Eucalypt species. Rainfall averages 3,600 mm per year. The park is part of the Coastal Wet Tropics Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of lowland tropical rainforest birds.

The former Hull River Aboriginal Settlement was located in this park.

Hull River is a habitat for 267 species of animals and 522 species of plants. The average elevation of the terrain is 32 metres.

title: Hull River National Park


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Hans Sloane

Sir Hans Sloane, 1st Baronet (16 April 1660 – 11 January 1753), was an Anglo-Irish physician, naturalist, and collector, with a collection of 71,000 items which he bequeathed to the British nation, thus providing the foundation of the British Museum, the British Library, and the Natural History Museum, London. He was elected to the Royal Society at the age of 24. Sloane travelled to the Caribbean in 1687 and documented his travels and findings with extensive publications years later. Sloane was a renowned medical doctor among the aristocracy, and was elected to the Royal College of Physicians at age 27. Though he is credited with the invention of chocolate milk, it is more likely that he learned the practice of adding milk to drinking chocolate while living and working in Jamaica. Streets and places were later named after him, including Hans Place, Hans Crescent, and Sloane Square in and around Chelsea, London – the area of his final residence – and also Sir Hans Sloane Square in Killyleagh, his birthplace in Ulster.

Early life and family
Sloane was born into an Anglo-Irish family on 16 April 1660 at Killyleagh, a village on the south-western shores of Strangford Lough in County Down in Ulster, the northern province in Ireland. Hans Sloane was the seventh and last child of Alexander Sloane who died when Hans was six years old. Alexander Sloane was a collector general of taxes for County Down and was an agent for the 1st Earl of Clanbrassil (of the first creation; c. 1618–1659), and was a brother to James Sloane, MP (1655–1704). It is said that Sarah Hicks (Hans's mother) was an English woman who moved to Killyleagh as Anne Carey's companion when Anne married Lord Clanbrassil. Sloane's paternal family were Ulster-Scots, having migrated from Ayrshire in the south-west of Scotland; they settled in east Ulster during the Plantation of Antrim and Down, which was slightly separate from the wider Plantation of Ulster, under King James VI and I. The Sloane children, including Hans, were taken up by the Hamilton family and had much of their early tuition conducted within the Killyleagh Castle library. Out of Alexander's sons, only three reached adulthood: Hans, William, and James. The graveyards of Henry and John Sloane can be found in Killyleagh's parish courtyard; both brothers died in their childhood. The eldest brother James was elected a Member of Parliament for Roscommon and Killyleagh in 1692. John Sloane later became an MP of Thetford and a barrister of the Inner Temple, spending most of his time in London.

Like many other Scots 'Planters' in Ulster during the seventeenth-century, the Sloane name was almost certainly of Gaelic origin, Sloane probably being an anglicisation of Ó Sluagháin.

As a youth, Sloane collected objects of natural history and other curiosities. This led him to the study of medicine, which he did in London, where he studied botany, materia medica, surgery and pharmacy. His collecting habits made him useful to John Ray and Robert Boyle. After four years in London he travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and Montpellier, and stayed long enough at the University of Orange-Nassau to take his MD degree there in 1683; he was hired as an assistant to prominent physician Thomas Sydenham who gave the young man valuable introductions to practice. He returned to London with a considerable collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former were sent to Ray and utilised by him for his History of Plants.

Voyage to the Caribbean and the creation of chocolate milk
Sloane was elected to the Royal Society in 1685. In 1687, he became a fellow of the College of Physicians, and the same year went to Jamaica aboard HMS Assistance (1650) as personal physician to the new Governor of Jamaica, the 2nd Duke of Albemarle. Albemarle died in Jamaica the next year, 1688, so Sloane's visit lasted only fifteen months.

During his time in the Caribbean, Sloane visited several islands and collected more than 1,000 plant specimens as well as large supplies of cacao and Peruvian bark from which he later extracted quinine to treat eye ailments. Sloane noted about 800 new species of plants, which he catalogued in Latin in his Catalogus Plantarum Quae in Insula Jamaica Sponte Proveniunt (Catalogue of Jamaican Plants), published in 1696. His first writings about his trip appeared in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, in which Sloane described Jamaican plants such as the Pepper Tree and the coffee-shrub, alongside accounts of the earthquakes that struck Lima in 1687 and Jamaica in 1687/1688 and 1692. In Sloane's work, Natural History of Jamaica, he describes for the Queen of England the Black ethnomusic of Jamaica. With the help of a local musician, he included the musical score and words of festival songs. Sloane married Elizabeth Langley Rose, the widow of Fulke Rose of Jamaica, and daughter of Alderman John Langley, a wealthy heiress of sugar plantations in Jamaica worked by slaves. The couple had three daughters, Mary, Sarah and Elizabeth, and one son, Hans; only Sarah and Elizabeth survived infancy. Sarah married George Stanley of Paultons and Elizabeth married Charles Cadogan, who became 2nd Baron Cadogan. Once back in Britain, income from Sloane's career as a physician and his London property investments, coupled with Elizabeth's inheritance, enabled Sloane to build his substantial collection of natural history artefacts in the following decades. Sloane additionally had investments in the Royal African and South Sea Companies, both of which traded in slaves.

The Natural History Museum lists Sloane as the inventor of drinking chocolate with milk. However, according to historian James Delbourgo, the Jamaicans were brewing "a hot beverage brewed from shavings of freshly harvested cacao, boiled with milk and cinnamon" as far back as 1494. Sloane encountered the cocoa bean while he was in Jamaica, where the local people drank it mixed with water, though he is reported to have found it nauseating. Many recipes for mixing chocolate with spice, eggs, sugar and milk were in circulation by the seventeenth century. Sloane may have devised his own recipe for mixing chocolate with milk, though if so, he was probably not the first. (Some sources credit Daniel Peter as the inventor in 1875, using condensed milk; other sources point out that milk was added to chocolate centuries earlier in some countries. ) By the 1750s, a Soho grocer named Nicholas Sanders claimed to be selling Sloane's recipe as a medicinal elixir, perhaps making "Sir Hans Sloane's Milk Chocolate" the first brand-name milk chocolate drink. By the nineteenth century, the Cadbury Brothers sold tins of drinking chocolate whose trade cards also invoked Sloane's recipe.

In 1707 Sloane listed the variety of punishments inflicted on slaves in Jamaica. For rebellion, slaves were usually punished "by nailing them down to the ground ... and then applying the fire by degrees from the feet and hands, burning them gradually up to the head, whereby their pains are extravagant." For lesser crimes, castration or mutilation ("chopping off half the foot") was the norm. And as for negligence, slaves "are usually whipt ... after they are whipt until they are raw, some put on their skins pepper and salt to make them smart; at other times their masters will drip melted wax on their skins, and use very exquisite torments."

Society physician

Sloane started his own practice in 1689 at 3 Bloomsbury Place, London, Sloane worked among the upper classes where he was viewed as fashionable; he built a large practice which became lucrative. The physician served three successive sovereigns: Queen Anne, George I, and George II.

There was some criticism of Sloane during his lifetime as a mere "virtuoso", an undiscriminating collector who lacked understanding of scientific principles. One critic stated that he was merely interested in the collection of knick-knacks, and another called him the "foremost toyman of his time". Sir Isaac Newton described Sloane as "a villain and rascal" and "a very tricking fellow". Some believed that his true achievement was in making friends in high society and with important political figures, rather than in science. Even as a physician, he did not get a great deal of respect from many, being seen as primarily a seller of medications and a collector of curios. Sloane's only medical publication, an Account of a Medicine for Soreness, Weakness and other Distempers of the Eyes (London, 1745), was not published until its author was in his eighty-fifth year and had retired from practice.

In 1716 Sloane was created a baronet, making him the first medical practitioner to receive a hereditary title. In 1719 he became president of the Royal College of Physicians, holding the office for sixteen years. In 1722 he was appointed physician-general to the army, and in 1727 first physician to George II.

He was elected president of Royal College of Physicians in 1719 and served in that role until 1735. He became secretary to the Royal Society in 1693, and edited its Philosophical Transactions for twenty years. In 1727 he succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as president. He retired from the Society at the age of eighty.

Sloane's role as First Secretary and later President of the Royal Society, a period which included his revitalising editorship of the Philosophical Transactions, permitted Sloane little time for progressing his own scientific research, which led to the criticism of Sloane as a mere "virtuoso".

Aside from his service as Royal Physician, Sloane's true achievement during his time at the Royal Society was in acting as a conduit between the worlds of science, politics and high society.

Sloane's time in France at the beginning of his career later enabled him to fulfil the role of intermediary between British and French scientists, fostering the sharing of knowledge between the two countries at the height of the Age of Enlightenment. Notables from that period who visited Sloane to view his collection include the Swiss anatomist Albrecht von Haller, Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin and Carl Linnaeus.

In 1745, at the age of eighty-five, and after having retired from medical practice, Sloane published his first medical work, Account of a Medicine for Soreness, Weakness and other Distempers of the Eyes (London, 1745).

During his life, Sloane was a correspondent of the French Académie Royale des Sciences and was named foreign associate in 1709, in addition to being a foreign member of the academies of science in Prussia, Saint Petersburg, Madrid and Göttingen.

Charity work
Sloane helped out at Christ's Hospital from 1694 to 1730 and donated his salary back to that institution. He also supported the Royal College of Physicians' dispensary of inexpensive medications and operated a free surgery every morning.

He was a founding governor of London's Foundling Hospital, the nation's first institution to care for abandoned children. Inoculation was required for all children in its care; Sloane was one of the physicians of that era who promoted inoculation as a method to prevent smallpox, using it on his own family and promoting it to the royal family. He had been introduced to the concept of inoculation by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in the court of Queen Caroline.

The British Museum and Chelsea Physic Garden

Sloane's purchase of the manor of Chelsea, London, in 1712, provided the grounds for the Chelsea Physic Garden.

Over his lifetime, Sloane collected over 71,000 objects: books, manuscripts, drawings, coins and medals, plant specimens and others. His great stroke as a collector was to acquire in 1702 (by bequest, conditional on paying of certain debts) the cabinet of curiosities owned by William Courten, who had made collecting the business of his life.

When Sloane retired in 1741, his library and cabinet of curiosities, which he took with him from Bloomsbury to his house in Chelsea, had grown to be of unique value. He had acquired the extensive natural history collections of William Courten, Cardinal Filippo Antonio Gualterio, James Petiver, Nehemiah Grew, Leonard Plukenet, the Duchess of Beaufort, Adam Buddle, Paul Hermann, Franz Kiggelaer and Herman Boerhaave.

Death and legacy

In his final year, Sir Hans Sloane suffered from a disorder with some paralysis. He died on the afternoon of 11 January 1753 at the Manor House, Chelsea, and was buried on 18 January in the south-east corner of the churchyard at Chelsea Old Church with a memorial inscribed as follows:"To the memory of SIR HANS SLOANE BART President of the Royal Society, and of the College of Physicians; who in the year of our Lord 1753, the 92d of his age, without the least pain of body and with a conscious serenity of mind, ended a virtuous and beneficent life. This monument was erected by his two daughters ELIZA CADOGAN and SARAH STANLEY"

His grave is shared with his wife Elisabeth, who died on 17 September 1724.

On his death he bequeathed his books, manuscripts, prints, drawings, flora, fauna, medals, coins, seals, cameos and other curiosities to the nation, on condition that Parliament should pay his executors £20,000, far less than the value of the collection, estimated at £80,000 or greater by some sources and at over £50,000 by others. The bequest was accepted on those terms by an act passed the same year, and the collection, together with George II's royal library, and other objects. A significant proportion of this collection was later to become the foundation for the Natural History Museum. When Sloane wrote his will not only did he say he wanted to sell his work to the Parliament for 20,000 pounds, he also stated that he wanted his work to be seen by anyone who wanted to see it. The Curators thought that only scholars and the upper class were allowed to see the collection. They weren't comfortable with the idea that the lower class was able to come to the museum and look at the collection because they didn't think that lower class citizens were worthy. The Curators believed that learning was a privilege that only the upper class had.

He also gave the Society of Apothecaries the land of the Chelsea Physic Garden which they had rented from the Chelsea estate since 1673.

A life-size statue of Sloane was erected in the town square of Killyleagh, the town in which he was born.

Controversy
In August 2020, a bust of Sloane in the British Museum's Enlightenment Gallery was moved by the museum. The decision came as part of that year's wave of removals of monuments to those who had benefited from slavery. History Ireland contributor Tony Canavan, writing of the decision and observing the fact that the Sloane family had moved to Ireland from Scotland during the Plantation of Ulster (or, more correctly, during the Plantation of Antrim and Down), noted that "the fact that Sloane came from a Scots-Irish family who benefited from a different kind of plantation, following the expulsion of natives and the confiscation of their land, [which seemed] never to have been an issue".

Places named after Sloane
Sloane Square, Sloane Street, Sloane Avenue, Sloane Grammar School and Sloane Gardens in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea are named after Sloane. His first name is given to Hans Street, Hans Crescent, Hans Place and Hans Road, all of which are also situated in the Royal Borough.

Plants and animals named after Sloane

 * Sloanea, a plant genus, was named after him by Linnaeus.
 * Urania sloanus, a species of moth.
 * Spondylurus sloanii, a species of lizard, was named in his honour by Daudin.
 * Chauliodus sloani, a species of deep sea fish found across the world.

title: Hans Sloane


text:
Talk:List of The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series) episodes

Untitled
I will be working my way through, filling in information on each episode page while I have time. Non-copyrightable information will be pulled mainly from Twilight Zone fan sites, and all will be listed on the sources page. I will only write programme summaries for episodes I have seen, so as not to get into copyright issues (it's hard to rewrite a copyrighted summary without knowing what is neccessary ot the story and what isn't). I have seen very few episodes from season 1, but I'll be filling in stuff as and when I can. Some may scoff, and say it doesn't belong her but hard disk space is cheap, and I enjoy doing this. I see no reason why Wikipedia can't have so much TZ info :) Smelialichu 16:45 Oct 13, 2002 (UTC)

I'm going to take the liberty to cross link your articles a little bit more, Just because once you get to a specific episode there's no like back to the main pages!!Lightning 01:15 Oct 15, 2002 (UTC)

Thanks Lightning, I appreciate it. I'll put your crosslinked bit in all my new ones. Smelialichu 19:26 Oct 19, 2002 (UTC)

Weren't there a couple of films as well in the 80's? Should these also be included here?
 * Well, there was a Twilight Zone fim yes, and it consisted of several TZ stories, I guess they could be listed if you wanted to call them "episodes". Also, there's the New Twilight Zone now, but it hasn't come over to the UK yet so I haven't seen a single one. Smelialichu 16:03 Jan 20, 2003 (UTC)

I like it! Eventually, it might be nice to have a very brief note next to each episode title on this list, with notable details, so that those who remember the plot or star of an episode but not the title might have an easier time finding it. Something along the lines of "Bill Mumy wishes them into the cornfield" would do it. Difficult to do for every single one perhaps, but worth considering. :) Have fun, hope to see more soon.  Catherine

Here is a list of sources that have been used for The Twilight Zone/List of episodes. If you use another source to write something for the Episode section, please append to this list. If you want to use these sources to add anything else to the Twilight Zone episode information, be careful with copyright issues. Basic information such as original airdates, writer and notable cast can not be copyrighted, however a programme synopsis and a more complex compilation of facts not easily available (maybe complete cast lists?) could pose problems. If you want to add complete cast lists I personally recommend writing them down from any DVD's or VHS copies of the episodes you may have. That aside, here are the sources:

http://www.thetzsite.com/

http://www.scifi.com/twilightzone/ Talk:List of The Twilight Zone episodes

I dont have a problem with a list of Twilight Zone episodes... but do they need to each have their own page? I tried to make an article linking to a satirical newspaper called The Chaser, luckily I checked it, and found it was not about the newspaper, but about the TZ ep of that name. I fear there will be many more disambiguation pages needed, as other people intend to link to articles with similar names to these episode names. I'm probably talking to the wrong people here, as most people reading this would be huge TZ fans! --Chuq 05:31, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Episode format
If you're going to do this, you really need to do something about the format of these things. I came across Twenty-Two by chance, and had no idea what it was supposed to be (Twenty-two, episode 53? What in the world??) until following the links all the way at the bottom of the page. I think every article needs to be self-contained, one shouldn't need to get down to the see also section to even figure out what it is supposed to be. Perhaps start with:

Twenty-two is an episode of the Twilight Zone television show...

Also, if the only information available is what I see in that article, it seems like there's no reason to even have an article: just make a table for all but the most notable episodes. Kevin Saff 21:35, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I have been going through all each Twilight Zone episode and reading the synopsis and the formatting is driving me crazy. I know it would be really difficult to get a consistent length of plot summarization, but sometimes the opening narration is listed before the summary, sometimes as part of it, and either way, it's shown in a hundred different ways.  It's maddening!  I am going to start going through them and make them uniform sometime within the next month or so, but I am not sure which format to follow. Also, sorry for the placement of my talk, but I am not sure where to place it, as the correct plac would be somewhere in the middle of Grendelkhan's paragraph? Dancemotron 19:32, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * You're absolutely right that the articles are poorly written. I've taken the liberty of starting to redo the pages in a much more wiki-ish format. (See Time Enough at Last.) I'm summarizing the synopses at TvTome.com to have something in the Synopsis section, but most of the eps could use a summary from someone who's actually seen them. I own precisely one episode---To Serve Man---and will be summarizing that and sending up a screencap just as soon as I have a chance to. It's in the middle of season three, so it might be a while. However, I do feel strongly that the pages should stay here, in their improved form. (See new version linked to above.) There's no reason not to have this kind of reference here; The Twilight Zone is an important enough show, culturally speaking, to justify it. (I'd back a similar initiative for Babylon 5 or The X-Files, but not for B. L. Stryker.)  As for redirects, moving the episode pages to "Foo (Twilight Zone)" if a collision is found shouldn't be a major problem; in the new form, it's not ambiguous that they're referring to Twilight Zone episodes. Grendelkhan 01:23, 2004 May 9 (UTC)

 * Thanks, Grendelkhan, your format is much better. If every article were expanded to that point, I agree they would be worth keeping.  I have seen a few episodes, but not recently, so I doubt I could assist much in that effort. Kevin Saff 21:29, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

Dancebot, last week at Talk:The Twilight Zone (TV series), I wrote the following (perhaps I should have put it here instead): Someday, in a perfect world, we'll have something like WikiProject The Simpsons/Style guide for the Twilight Zone episodes. Like many (most?) Wikipedia TV episode pages, they're all over the map today in terms of consistency between pages. It's going to be a monumental task to fix them, but it would be nice if someone who knows how could get the ball rolling.

Because TZ has a new cast each episode, the cast members should be listed, too. Lacking any kind of standard, I think cast members, should be listed as suggested by WikiProject Doctor Who, which advises to list cast as follows:

 * Cast: Following on-screen cast list, with the name of the character followed by an em dash (— or &mdash;) followed by the name of the actor
 * Cast notes: Notes regarding casting or cast members.

See Rose (Doctor Who) as an illustrative example.

I'd also be in favor of including the opening and closing narration as "cquote" text at the beginning and end of the plot summary. Travisl 15:57, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * See WikiProject The Twilight Zone. Thoughts? Travisl 04:56, 28 May 2007 (UTC)

I also have noticed that the "Trivia" section for the episode pages are almost always called something different. "Trivia," "Influence," "Production notes," "Episode Notes" and so forth all seem to be the same thing. Should there be a standard name for these sections? One name should work, as there doesn't seem to be more than one of these on the pages I've seen and the information contained isn't necessarily confined to the specific meaning of each heading (eg. something about another show referencing that episode being listed under "Production Notes"). If there should be a unified name, what should it be? I'd suggest "Trivia," as it seems to be a fairly catch-all term.71.10.75.111 (talk) 01:50, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

 * The draft style guide at WikiProject The Twilight Zone says "Episode Notes". I'd go with that. However, the section should be written to avoid creating lists of miscellaneous information. travisl (talk) 04:58, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

Double quotes
According to our Manual of Style, all "individual episodes of TV shows" are to placed within double quotation marks. I have just done this. Ianblair23 5 July 2005 00:44 (UTC)

Infobox
Is there someway we can change the infobox so that the season heading (e.g., "Season one") also contains links to the other four seasons? No response, so I boldly just did it. Let me know if you don't like it. Travisl 22:44, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Radio
Should the radio episodes be listed in here? WildFan48 21:58, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Most Famous Episode
I was just paging through a bunch of these, and a large fraction of the articles include an introduction with the sentence declaring that "it is one of the most famous episodes of the series." Garbage.
 * Uh, so remove those sentences. --70.234.37.206 06:57, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

Episode numbers
The First revival segments were numbered incorrectly, where each segment was given its own episode number. I've corrected the ones for DVD disc 1 & 2, and will come back and finish the rest when I can get the other discs out and make sure that I am putting them on there accurately. In the meantime, I've removed the incorrect information, as it's better to have a blank then the wrong information. I'm numbering them 1a for episode 1 segment 1, 1b for episode 1 segment 2, etc. 121.208.180.8 (talk) 18:42, 15 February 2008 (UTC) Edit: I found the information online and have updated the remaining segments 121.208.180.8 (talk) 18:56, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

Movie segments
The first movie segment was called "Time Out." The format suggests it was called "A Quality of Mercy." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.31.95.72 (talk) 04:06, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

Episode list color coding
I just added color to the Season 1-5 Original series episode lists to get some opinions. Other lists use color to distingush the different seasons(List of Family Guy episodes and List of Star Trek: The Original Series episodes) and I thought that we should give it a try. We can change the colors that I used as well. Shinerunner (talk) 18:58, 26 October 2008 (UTC)

Season 1 WHO OH
Where is Season 1 and what does WHO OH mean? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.229.163.201 (talk) 22:18, 4 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Vandalism, which has been fixed. travisl (talk) 17:39, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

A Kind of Stopwatch: The Original Title
"A Kind of Stopwatch" (Season 5, Episode 124) is the title on the script, two versions of which were published in As Timeless as Infinity: The Complete Twilight Zone Scripts of Rod Serling, Volume 3, edited by Tony Albarella (Gauntlet Press, 2007). The original scripts (both versions) are part of The Rod Serling Archives at Ithaca College. —Preceding unsigned comment added by PlaysInPeoria (talk • contribs) 06:05, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I just rewatched the episode here and the title used for the broadcast episode is "A Kind of a Stopwatch" at time stamp 2:29. Also, when I reverted your change the last time I noted in the edit summary that the Internet Movie Data Base among many others use this title. A Google search shows that the title "A Kind of a Stopwatch" has 2,160,000 hits while "A Kind of Stopwatch" has 442,000 hits. While the working title was "A Kind of Stopwatch" the actual title used for the episode was "A Kind of a Stopwatch". Take a look for yourself.  Shine runner   (talk)   11:38, 13 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Also, the information that you have should be included in the article for the episode. I can't see that the article should be renamed from the original broadcast title since the article is about the broadcast episode and not the script. Shine runner  (talk)   12:07, 13 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, it's a trivia note about that particular episode, but it's not the actual title of the episode. Many films undergo title changes during production. As an example, Field of Dreams was originally going to be called the same name as the source book, Shoeless Joe. Return of the Jedi was originally Revenge of the Jedi. And so on. Baseball Bugs What's up, Doc? carrots 12:38, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Additionally, Marc Scott Zicree's The Twilight Zone Companion (second edition, pp. 367-368) only refers to it as "A Kind of a Stopwatch." If this article were about the script only, then I'd agree that the article "a" should be dropped, but because this is about the episode that aired, we should use the title that appears onscreen. (Compare, however, to The Eye of the Beholder, which is some releases has the on-screen title "The Private World of Darkness", which was its original title before being changed to prevent confusion with another film.) travisl (talk) 05:59, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

Sourcing of creation and conception and reception
For people joining here who want to expand an article about an episode of the Twilight Zone, there is a source that can be creation and conception and reception of specific episodes. The Twilight Zone Companion (Marc Scott Zicree, December 1982, Bantam Books) is a good one. WhisperToMe (talk) 21:24, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

Walking Distance
Who wrote Walking Distance? 203.35.82.133 (talk) 09:56, 23 April 2010 (UTC)
 * It was written by Rod Serling. Shine runner   (talk)   00:25, 24 April 2010 (UTC)
 * This article says otherwise. 203.35.82.136 (talk) 04:09, 28 April 2010 (UTC)

Article split
Due to the extreme length (139 kilobytes - very long), the article has been split into three articles, with each "revival" series with its own list page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Musdan77 (talk • contribs) 22:08, 2 February 2011 (UTC)

Request for comment
Please take a look here regarding an issue relevant to The Twilight Zone episode articles. Sro23 (talk) 05:24, 21 May 2016 (UTC)

Infobox HELP?!?
I wanted to add a link to director Jack Smight's name in the Season One infobox, since he has an article on here -- but I can't, because I can't get to the damn infobox on here in order to put the link onto his name! I can't access it, and the infobox on the main article for Season One doesn't link to the infobox on this page! I can't figure it out! HELP!!! :-O Stolengood (talk) 22:37, 13 March 2017 (UTC)


text:
Hemocyanin

Hemocyanins (also spelled haemocyanins and abbreviated Hc) are proteins that transport oxygen throughout the bodies of some invertebrate animals. These metalloproteins contain two copper atoms that reversibly bind a single oxygen molecule (O2). They are second only to hemoglobin in frequency of use as an oxygen transport molecule. Unlike the hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates, hemocyanins are not confined in blood cells, but are instead suspended directly in the hemolymph. Oxygenation causes a color change between the colorless Cu(I) deoxygenated form and the blue Cu(II) oxygenated form.

Species distribution
Hemocyanin was first discovered in Octopus vulgaris by Leon Fredericq in 1878. The presence of copper in molluscs was detected even earlier by Bartolomeo Bizio in 1833. Hemocyanins are found in the Mollusca and Arthropoda, including cephalopods and crustaceans, and utilized by some land arthropods such as the tarantula Eurypelma californicum, the emperor scorpion, and the centipede Scutigera coleoptrata. Also, larval storage proteins in many insects appear to be derived from hemocyanins.

The hemocyanin superfamily
The arthropod hemocyanin superfamily is composed of phenoloxidases, hexamerins, pseudohemocyanins or cryptocyanins, and (dipteran) hexamerin receptors.

Phenoloxidase are copper containing tyrosinases. These proteins are involved in the process of sclerotization of arthropod cuticle, in wound healing, and humoral immune defense. Phenoloxidase is synthesized by zymogens and are activated by cleaving an N-terminal peptide.

Hexamerins are storage proteins commonly found in insects. These proteins are synthesized by the larval fat body and are associated with molting cycles or nutritional conditions.

Pseudohemocyanin and cryptocyanins genetic sequences are closely related to hemocyanins in crustaceans. These proteins have a similar structure and function, but lack the copper binding sites.

The evolutionary changes within the phylogeny of the hemocyanin superfamily are closely related to the emergence of these different proteins in various species. The understanding of proteins within this superfamily would not be well understood without the extensive studies of hemocyanin in arthropods.

Structure and mechanism
Although the respiratory function of hemocyanin is similar to that of hemoglobin, there are a significant number of differences in its molecular structure and mechanism. Whereas hemoglobin carries its iron atoms in porphyrin rings (heme groups), the copper atoms of hemocyanin are bound as prosthetic groups coordinated by histidine residues. Each hemocyanin monomer holds a pair of copper(I) cations in place via interactions with the imidazole rings of six histidine residues. It has been noted that species using hemocyanin for oxygen transportation include crustaceans living in cold environments with low oxygen pressure. Under these circumstances hemoglobin oxygen transportation is less efficient than hemocyanin oxygen transportation. Nevertheless, there are also terrestrial arthropods using hemocyanin, notably spiders and scorpions, that live in warm climates. The molecule is conformationally stable and fully functioning at temperatures up to 90 degrees C.

Most hemocyanins bind with oxygen non-cooperatively and are roughly one-fourth as efficient as hemoglobin at transporting oxygen per amount of blood. Hemoglobin binds oxygen cooperatively due to steric conformation changes in the protein complex, which increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen when partially oxygenated. In some hemocyanins of horseshoe crabs and some other species of arthropods, cooperative binding is observed, with Hill coefficients of 1.6–3.0. Hill coefficients vary depending on species and laboratory measurement settings. Hemoglobin, for comparison, has a Hill coefficient of usually 2.8–3.0. In these cases of cooperative binding hemocyanin was arranged in protein sub-complexes of 6 subunits (hexamer) each with one oxygen binding site; binding of oxygen on one unit in the complex would increase the affinity of the neighboring units. Each hexamer complex was arranged together to form a larger complex of dozens of hexamers. In one study, cooperative binding was found to be dependent on hexamers being arranged together in the larger complex, suggesting cooperative binding between hexamers. Hemocyanin oxygen-binding profile is also affected by dissolved salt ion levels and pH.

Hemocyanin is made of many individual subunit proteins, each of which contains two copper atoms and can bind one oxygen molecule (O2). Each subunit weighs about 75 kilodaltons (kDa). Subunits may be arranged in dimers or hexamers depending on species; the dimer or hexamer complex is likewise arranged in chains or clusters with weights exceeding 1500 kDa. The subunits are usually homogeneous, or heterogeneous with two variant subunit types. Because of the large size of hemocyanin, it is usually found free-floating in the blood, unlike hemoglobin. Hexamers are characteristic of arthropod hemocyanins. A hemocyanin of the tarantula Eurypelma californicum is made up of 4 hexamers or 24 peptide chains. A hemocyanin from the house centipede Scutigera coleoptrata is made up of 6 hexamers or 36 chains. Horseshoe crabs have an 8-hexamer (i. e. 48-chain) hemocyanin. Simple hexamers are found in the spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus and the isopod Bathynomus giganteus. Peptide chains in crustaceans are about 660 amino acid residues long, and in chelicerates they are about 625. In the large complexes there is a variety of variant chains, all about the same length; pure components do not usually self-assemble.

Catalytic activity
Hemocyanin is homologous to the phenol oxidases (e.g. tyrosinase) since both proteins have histidine residues, called "type 3" copper-binding coordination centers, as do the enzymes tyrosinase and catechol oxidase. In both cases inactive precursors to the enzymes (also called zymogens or proenzymes) must be activated first. This is done by removing the amino acid that blocks the entrance channel to the active site when the proenzyme is not active. There is currently no other known modifications necessary to activate the proenzyme and enable catalytic activity. Conformational differences determine the type of catalytic activity that the hemocyanin is able to perform. Hemocyanin also exhibits phenol oxidase activity, but with slowed kinetics from greater steric bulk at the active site. Partial denaturation actually improves hemocyanin's phenol oxidase activity by providing greater access to the active site.

Spectral properties
Spectroscopy of oxyhemocyanin shows several salient features:
 * 1) Resonance Raman spectroscopy shows that  is bound in a symmetric environment (ν(O-O) is not IR-allowed).
 * 2) OxyHc is EPR-silent indicating the absence of unpaired electrons
 * 3) Infrared spectroscopy shows ν(O-O) of 755 cm−1

Much work has been devoted to preparing synthetic analogues of the active site of hemocyanin. One such model, which features a pair of copper centers bridged side-on by peroxo ligand, shows ν(O-O) at 741 cm−1 and a UV-Vis spectrum with absorbances at 349 and 551 nm. Both of these measurements agree with the experimental observations for oxyHc. The Cu-Cu separation in the model complex is 3.56 Å, that of oxyhemocyanin is ca. 3.6 Å (deoxyHc: ca. 4.6 Å).

Anticancer effects
The hemocyanin found in the blood of the Chilean abalone, Concholepas concholepas, has immunotherapeutic effects against bladder cancer in murine models. Mice primed with C. concholepas before implantation of bladder tumor (MBT-2) cells. Mice treated with C. concholepas hemocyanin showed antitumor effects: prolonged survival, decreased tumor growth and incidence, and lack of toxic effects and may have a potential use in future immunotherapy for superficial bladder cancer.

Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) is an immune stimulant derived from circulating glycoproteins of the marine mollusk Megathura crenulata. KLH has been shown to be a significant treatment against the proliferations of breast cancer, pancreas cancer, and prostate cancer cells when delivered in vitro. Keyhole limpet hemocyanin inhibits growth of human Barrett's esophageal cancer through both apoptic and nonapoptic mechanisms of cell death.

Case studies: environmental impact on hemocyanin levels
A 2003 study of the effect of culture conditions of blood metabolites and hemocyanin of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei found that the levels of hemocyanin, oxyhemocyanin in particular, are affected by the diet. The study compared oxyhemocyanin levels in the blood of white shrimp housed in an indoor pond with a commercial diet with that of white shrimp housed in an outdoor pond with a more readily available protein source (natural live food) as well. Oxyhemocyanin and blood glucose levels were higher in shrimp housed in outdoor ponds. It was also found that blood metabolite levels tended to be lower in low activity level species, such as crabs, lobsters, and the indoor shrimp when compared to the outdoor shrimp. This correlation is possibly indicative of the morphological and physiological evolution of crustaceans. The levels of these blood proteins and metabolites appear to be dependent on energetic demands and availability of those energy sources.

title: Hemocyanin