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Chamonix

Chamonix-Mont-Blanc (Chamôni-Mont-Blanc), more commonly known simply as Chamonix (Chamôni), is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in Southeastern France. It was the site of the first Winter Olympics, held in 1924.

Chamonix is situated in the French Alps just north of Mont Blanc, the highest mountain in Western Europe. Between the peaks of the Aiguilles Rouges and the notable Aiguille du Midi, it borders both Switzerland and Italy. It is one of the oldest ski resorts in France, popular with alpinists and mountain enthusiasts. Via the cable car lift to the Aiguille du Midi it is possible to access the off-piste (backcountry) ski run of the Vallée Blanche (White Valley).

Name
The name Campum munitum, meaning fortified plain or field, had been used as early as 1091. By 1283 the name had been abbreviated to a similar form to the modern Chamonis. Other forms through the ages include Chamouny in 1581, Chamony in 1652, Chamouni in 1786, and the particular spelling Chamonix from 1793.

Status
Chamonix is the fourth-largest commune in metropolitan France, with an area of 245 km2. Its population of around 8,900 ranks 1,089th within the country of France.

History
The valley was first mentioned in 1091, when it was granted by the Count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St. Michel de la Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century had established a priory there. However, in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519.

In 1530, the inhabitants obtained from the Count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was often visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva (first recorded visit in 1411, while St. Francis de Sales came there in 1606). But travellers for pleasure were very rare.

Chamonix was part of the historical land of Savoy emerged as the feudal territory of the House of Savoy during the 11th to 14th centuries. The historical territory is shared between the modern countries of France, Italy and Switzerland. The House of Savoy became the longest surviving royal house in Europe. It ruled the County of Savoy to 1416 and then the Duchy of Savoy from 1416 to 1860.

The first party to publish (1744) an account of their visit was that of Richard Pococke, William Windham and others, such as the Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 Horace Bénédict de Saussure, as well as rather later Marc-Théodore Bourrit.

The growth of tourism in the early 19th century led to the formation of the Compagnie des Guides de Chamonix in 1821, to regulate access to the mountain slopes (which were communally or co-operatively owned), and this association held a monopoly of guiding from the town until it was broken by French government action in 1892; thereafter guides were required to hold a diploma issued by a commission dominated by civil servants and members of the French Alpine Club rather than local residents.

From the late 19th century on, tourist development was dominated by national and international initiatives rather than local entrepreneurs, though the local community was increasingly dependent upon and active in the tourist industry.

The commune successfully lobbied to change its name from Chamonix to Chamonix-Mont-Blanc in 1916. However, following the loss of its monopoly, the Compagnie reformed as an association of local guides, and retained an important role in local society; it provided the services of a friendly society to its members, and in the 20th century many of them were noted mountaineers and popularisers of mountain tourism, notably the novelist Roger Frison-Roche, the first member of the Compagnie not to be born in Chamonix.

Serving as the host city for the first Winter Olympic Games in 1924 further raised Chamonix's profile as an international tourist destination.

During the Second World War, a Children's Home operated in Chamonix, in which several dozens of Jewish children were hidden from the Nazis. Some of those who hid them were recognised as "Righteous Among the Nations".

By the 1960s, agriculture had been reduced to a marginal activity, while the number of tourist beds available rose to around 60,000 by the end of the 20th century, with about 5 million visitors a year.

Settlements
The commune of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc includes 16 villages and hamlets. From north to south: Le Tour 1462 m, Montroc, Le Planet, Argentière 1252 m, Les Chosalets, Le Lavancher, Les Tines, Les Bois, Les-Praz-de-Chamonix 1060 m, Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Les Pècles, Les Mouilles, Les Barrats, Les Pélerins, Les Gaillands, and Les Bossons 1012 m.

Climate
Due to its elevation, Chamonix has a humid continental climate (Dfb, according to the Köppen climate classification), with an average annual precipitation of 1280 mm. Summers are mild and winters are cold and snowy.

Mountain and winter sports
Chamonix is a winter sports resort town that still attracts skiers ready to test themselves both on the pistes in the official area and against the challenges of the backcountry skiing. As the highest European mountain west of Russia, Mont Blanc attracts mountain climbers. The Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc has been held every August since 2003.

There is a cable car up to the 3842 m Aiguille du Midi. Constructed in 1955, it was then the highest cable car in the world and remains the highest vertical ascent cable car in the world.

Chamonix is divided into three separate ski areas (Les Grands Montets, Brévent - Flégère, le domaine de Balme) which run along the valley from Le Tour down to Les Houches. In addition to the 1924 Winter Olympic Games, the town hosts a round of the FIS Alpine Ski World Cup and the Arlberg-Kandahar. It previously hosted the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1937 and the 1984 and 1988 Biathlon World Championships for women.

The 1930 Ice Hockey World Championships was mostly held at Chamonix. The town also hosted the European Curling Championships in 1991 and 1999.

Roads
The town of Chamonix is served by French Route Nationale 205 (RN 205), nicknamed the Route blanche, or "white route", due to its snowiness. This is an extension of French autoroute 40 (A40), similarly nicknamed the autoroute blanche, which ends at Le Fayet, a village in the commune of Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. The 11.6-km Mont Blanc Tunnel, which opened in 1965, links Chamonix to Courmayeur in Italy. Chamonix is linked to Switzerland by what used to be RN 506a. In 2006, it was converted to a Route Départementale 1506, with a part of it integrated into RN 205. The nearest airport to Chamonix is Geneva Cointrin International and it is 88 km away.

Rail
Chamonix is served by the metre-gauge St Gervais-Vallorcine Line, operated by SNCF. The line from Saint Gervais (on the standard-gauge rail network) to Chamonix opened in 1901; it was extended to Vallorcine in 1908. The line holds the record for the steepest gradient on any standard (adhesion) railway. There are 10 stations on this line within the commune of Chamonix: Montroc-le-Planet, Argentière, La Joux, Les Tines, Les Praz-de-Chamonix, Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Chamonix-Aiguille-du-Midi, Les Moussoux, Les Pélerins and Les Bossons.

From Vallorcine, the rail route continues over the border into Switzerland, meeting the SBB network at Martigny. This latter section, a metre-gauge cog railway, is operated by Transports de Martigny et Régions SA. The train service from Vallorcine to Martigny is known as the Mont Blanc Express. Timetables on the St Gervais-Vallorcine and Vallorcine-Martigny sections are synchronized.

The 5.1-km Montenvers Railway is a cog railway that provides access to the tourist site of Montenvers. Opened in 1909, its rail station was built next to SNCF's Chamonix station on the St Gervais-Vallorcine Line. In fact the two stations are directly linked. Montenvers provides further tourist access to middle and high mountain areas.

Cable cars
Chamonix has one of the highest cable cars in the world, which links the town to the summit of the Aiguille du Midi at 3842 m. It is based on an older system built in 1920, rebuilt in the first half of the 1950s over five summer seasons, fully modernized in 1979, and upgraded again in 2008. On the other side of the valley, another cable car links Chamonix to the viewpoint of Planpraz. A second line links Planpraz to the summit of Le Brévent at 2525 meters. Many other cable cars exist in the valley, and are heavily used by skiers and residents. The Plan Joran chairlift at the base of Les Grands Montets is due to be replaced by a 10-person gondola for the Winter 2014/15 season.

Sister cities
Chamonix is twinned with:

Notable people

 * Michel-Gabriel Paccard (1757–1827) a Savoyard doctor and alpinist, citizen of the Kingdom of Sardinia
 * Venance Payot (1826–1902) a naturalist, glaciologist, mountain-guide, scholar, author and twice mayor of Chamonix
 * Edward Whymper (1840-1911), the English mountaineer, explorer, illustrator, and author best known for the first ascent of the Matterhorn, died here in 1911
 * Joseph Vallot (1854–1925) a scientist, astronomer, botanist, geographer, cartographer and alpinist
 * Charles Bozon (1932–1964) an alpine ski racer and bronze medallist at the 1960 Winter Olympics

title: Chamonix


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John Sell Cotman

John Sell Cotman (16 May 1782 – 24 July 1842) was an English marine and landscape painter, etcher, illustrator, and a leading member of the Norwich School of painters.

Born in Norwich, the son of a silk merchant and lace dealer, Cotman was educated at the Norwich Grammar School. He showed an early talent for art. It was intended that he followed his father into the family business but, intent on a career in art, he moved to London in 1798, where he met artists such as J. M. W. Turner, Peter de Wint and Thomas Girtin, whose sketching club he joined, and whom he travelled with to Wales and Surrey. By 1800 he was exhibiting at the Royal Academy, showing scenes of the Welsh countryside there in 1801 and 1802. His drawing expeditions took him throughout southern Britain, and to Yorkshire, where he stayed with the Cholmeley family during the three summers of 1803–1805.

His sons Miles Edmund and John Joseph Cotman became notable painters in their own right.

Early years
John Sell Cotman was born in Norwich, on 16 May 1782, the first child of Edmund Cotman, hairdresser and his wife Ann (née Sell) living at 26 Bridge Street, in St George's parish. Edmund Cotman later became a silk merchant and a lace dealer. Their son was baptised at St. Mary Coslany, Norwich, on 7 June 1782. The family name was written as Cottman in the parish baptism record, which has survived.

Cotman was educated at Norwich Grammar School, and is recorded as starting there as a non-paying pupil on 3 August 1793. He showed a talent for art from an early age and would often go out on drawing trips into the countryside around Norwich and the North Norfolk coast. A story survives that the boy's headmaster, Dr Forster, disliked cats. When Forster saw a large realistic-looking cardboard cat on his desk, he held the silhouette up and said, "I know who is the only boy who could have drawn this." Smiling, he put the cat away.

His father intended him to go into the family business, but the boy was instead intent on a career in art. When asked for his advice, the artist John Opie replied to Cotman's father: "let him rather black boots than follow the profession of an artist". A drawing from this period, House at St Stephen's Road, Norwich (1794), is considered to be the earliest surviving work by Cotman, produced when he was a boy of 12.

Move to London
Cotman moved to London, probably in 1798. He lived at 28 Gerrard Street, Soho, initially making a living through commissions from print-sellers. His sketches at Rudulph Ackerman's print shop at 96 The Strand were studied by the Norwich artist John Thirtle when a young man. Cotman came under the patronage of Thomas Munro, physician to the Bridewell and Bethlehem Hospitals, whose house in Adelphi Terrace was a studio and a meeting place for artists, that had included the young J. M. W. Turner and Thomas Girtin. Cotman was influenced by Girtin, and soon joined his sketching club. During the summer of 1799 the two artists went together to Surrey on a drawing expedition. In 1800 (and again in 1802 with his landlord, the artist Paul Sandby Munn), Cotman travelled to Wales to sketch.

In 1800, Cotman exhibited at the Royal Academy for the first time. He exhibited other Welsh scenes at the Royal Academy in 1801 and 1802. In 1800, he was awarded an honorary palette by the Society of Arts. He continued to exhibit at the Academy until 1806. He was based during the early 1800s in London, but is known to have advertised in Norwich—in September 1802 he advertised his services as a drawing teacher in the Norwich Mercury.

Yorkshire visits (1803–1805)
In the three summers of 1803–1805, Cotman stayed with the Cholmeley family at Brandsby Hall in Yorkshire. On the last of these three visits from London, he made a series of watercolours of the River Greta, after he was invited to visit Rokeby Park, the home of the English traveller John Morritt. Cotman's delicate paintings from these visits are among the finest produced by a European watercolourist.

Return to Norwich
In late 1806, Cotman returned to live in Norwich. He joined the recently-formed Norwich Society of Artists, exhibiting 149 works with the society between 1807 and 1810. He became President of the Society in 1811.

Cotman married Ann Miles at Felbrigg parish church on 6 January 1809. The pair remained devoted throughout their married lives. Their eldest child Miles Edmund was born on 5 February the year after their marriage. Their daughter Ann was born in July 1812 after the family moved to Great Yarmouth in April 1812, followed by three more sons, John Joseph Cotman, (Francis) Walter, and Alfred Henry. who were born in 1814, 1816 and 1819 respectively. A sixth child, a daughter, was born in 1822.

As part of his teaching, Cotman operated his own version of a watercolour subscription library, so that his pupils could take home his drawings to copy. In 1810, Cotman began to etch, and the following year his first set of etchings (Miscellaneous Etchings) was published, strongly influenced by the work of the Italian artist Piranesi. All but one of the subjects were architectural, and were mostly of Yorkshire buildings. He later published a set of etchings of the ancient buildings of Norfolk (Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk (1818).

In 1817, 1818, and 1820, Cotman visited Normandy with his friend the banker Dawson Turner, and made drawings of buildings. Two years later he published a set of 100 etchings based on sketches made during his Normandy tour. After these visits, the character of his paintings changed, the later ones being more brightly coloured.

Move to Great Yarmouth and return to Norwich
From 1812 to 1823, Cotman lived on the Norfolk coast at Great Yarmouth, where he studied the shipping, and mastered depicting the form of sea waves. Some of his finest marine pieces date from this time.

Cotman returned to Norwich in 1824, hoping to improve his financial position, and moved into a large house in St Martin's Plain, opposite the Bishop's Palace, where he built up a collection of prints, books, armour, and models of ships, to aid his compositions. He showed work from 1823 to 1825 at the Norwich Society of Artists' annual exhibitions.

In 1825, Cotman became an Associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Watercolours and was a frequent exhibitor there until 1839. However he was driven to despair by his constant financial struggles.

King's College, London
In January 1834, Cotman was appointed Master of landscape drawing at King's College School in London, partly on the recommendation of J. M. W. Turner. In 1836, his son Miles Edmund was appointed to assist him. The poet and artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti was one of his pupils. In London, Cotman developed friendships with the artists James Stark, George Cattermole, Samuel Prout, and Cornelius Varley. In 1836, he became an honorary member of the Institute of British Architects. In 1838, all of his etchings were published by Henry George Bohn.

In 1834, Miles Edmund remained in Norwich to work as an art teacher, when the rest of the Cotman family moved to London upon Cotman's appointment at King's College. A year after his move to London, Mile Edmund moved to London to be his father's assistant, after his brother John Joseph returned to Norwich. Miles Edmund succeeded his father as drawing master at King's College in 1843.

Final years
From 1839, Cotman became severely depressed, a condition that lasted into 1841. That year, he resumed his correspondence with Dawson Turner. Granted a fortnight's leave from King's College, he journeyed from London to Great Yarmouth by ship and then on to Norwich, ultimately staying in Norfolk for two months before returning to the capital. He produced some chalk drawings of church interiors, and of the Norfolk countryside, the dates of which allow his journey around the county to be traced: his sketches included Itteringham, 12 November and Storm off Cromer. During this period he was able to visit his elderly father at Thorpe St Andrew, when he probably began preparatory work for a painting, entitled From my Father's House at Thorpe. His last oil painting—dated 18 January 1842 and never completed—was A View of the Norwich River.

Cotman's depression returned, and by June 1842 he had become seriously ill, dying "of natural decay" on 24 July 1842. He was interred in the cemetery of St John's Wood Chapel, London. In his will he left everything to his wife Ann, and enabled her to receive a pension. His paintings and drawings were sold off from May 1843, fetching lower and lower prices for his financially-troubled family as the sales continued.

Paintings, drawings, and etchings
Over 600 of Cotman's watercolours and drawings were bought by the Norwich curator James Reeve, who sold more than half of them to the British Museum in 1902; the remainder of Reeve's collection was acquired by the Norwich Castle from the collection of the Norfolk industrialist Russell Colman. Some of Cotman's paintings, etchings, and drawings are on public display in Norwich, where well over 2,000 works are held. Other works are at the Leeds Art Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, and other regional centres. In the United States, there are works by Cotman at the Yale Center for British Art in New Haven, Connecticut, and in other galleries around the country.

Cotman was not thought to be important during his lifetime, and he made little money from sales of his paintings and drawings. The sale of his works and library took place over five days at Christie's. His drawings and pictures fetched £260, his collection of books and art was sold off for £300 and the sum total for his prints was £30.

Cotman's architectural etchings have long been considered as a valuable record for historians.

Reputation and legacy
Cotman and Crome were the two finest of the Norwich School of painters, who were both recognised by the public during their lives, with Cotman's Architectural Antiquities of Normandy bringing him wider praise. The architect Augustus Pugin, in his Specimens of Gothic Architecture (1823), mixed praise and criticism "[the plates] are drawn and etched in a masterly style, but with a good deal of management, by which the subjects appear, in several instances, of grander character than really belongs to them...In some Plates also, the human figures are evidently below the size of life, and so exaggerate the size of the buildings they are placed against."

The art historian Andrew Moore, describes the artists as "two of the most original talents in the history of early nineteenth century British art", and that they were rivalled only by Turner, Girtin, and the English artist John Constable. The 1887 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography noted that Cotman's reputation had improved over time, and described him as "one of the most original and versatile of English artists of the first half of this century, a draughtsman and colourist of exceptional gifts, a water-colourist worthy to be ranked among the greater men, and excellent whether as a painter of land or sea".

The Norwich Art Circle exhibited 100 of Cotman's works at Norwich in 1888, the first time his collected works had been shown in public. The exhibition led to a critical appraisal of his output and secured a second exhibition that year at the Burlington Fine Arts Club.

The art historians Lawrence Binyon and William Dickes both wrote extensively about Cotman's oil paintings and watercolours. His oils were first exhibited when they were shown at the Tate Gallery, London in 1922 According to his biographer Sydney Kitson, Cotman's reputation was enhanced by The Water-Colour Drawings of John Sell Cotman by Paul Oppé, which appeared in a special edition of The Studio in 1923.

Cotman's reputation has been hidden by misinformation, and by works that were in the past misattributed. Among his pupils, the most notable were Thirtle and Cotman's own sons.

Artistic output

 * Works by Cotman in the Norfolk Museums Collections
 * The Cotman Collection at Leeds Art Gallery
 * Works by Cotman at the British Museum.
 * Works by Cotman and plates from Cotman's Liber Studiorum (1838) at the Cleveland Museum of Art.
 * Works by (or associated with) John Sell Cotman held by the National Trust
 * Works by John Sell Cotman at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 * In Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834, as illustration to Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem :
 * Perawa, Malwa, engraved by W LePetit.
 * Perawa, Malwa, engraved by W LePetit.

Published works

 * 1838: Liber Studiorum (produced between 1805 and 1814)
 * 1818: Etchings of Ancient Buildings in England
 * 1817: Specimens of Norman and Gothic Architecture in the County of Norfolk
 * 1818: Excursions in the County of Norfolk, volumes 1 and 2
 * 1819: Sepulchral brasses in Norfolk and Suffolk, volumes 1 (Norfolk) and 2 (Suffolk)
 * 1822: Architectural Antiquities of Normandy, by John Sell Cotman; accompanied by historical and descriptive notices by Dawson Turner, Esq. F.R. and A.S

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Sell Cotman


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Crome's Broad

Crome's Broad is situated to the east of the River Ant, north of How Hill, within The Broads National Park in Norfolk, England.

It is named after John Crome, the founder of the Norwich School of painters.

title: Crome's Broad


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Enschede

Enschede (known as Eanske in the local Tweants dialect of Low Saxon) is a city and municipality in the province of Overijssel. It is located in the Twente region of the eastern Netherlands. The east of the urban area reaches the border of the German city of Gronau.

The municipality of Enschede consisted only of the city of Enschede until 1935, when the rural municipality of Lonneker, which surrounded the city, was annexed after the rapid industrial expansion of Enschede that began in the 1860s and involved the building of railways and the digging of the Twentekanaal.

Enschede is home to the football club FC Twente, a one-time Dutch champion; the University of Twente; and the last Polaroid film factory.

During the Carnival festivities, which take place in February or March, Enschede is temporarily renamed as Krekkelstad, which means "cricket town" in English.

Geography

Enschede lies in the eastern part of Overijssel and is the easternmost city of more than 140,000 inhabitants in the Netherlands. The city lies a few kilometres from Germany, which borders the municipality. A few small rivers flow through or surround the city, such as the Roombeek and Glanerbeek.

Enschede contains five official city districts, which also include surrounding villages in the municipality:

 * Stadsdeel Centrum (Binnenstad, Boddenkamp, De Bothoven, 't Getfert, Hogeland Noord, Horstlanden-Veldkamp, Laares, Lasonder-'t Zeggelt)
 * Stadsdeel Noord (for example: Lonneker, Deppenbroek, Bolhaar, Mekkelholt, Roombeek, Twekkelerveld)
 * Stadsdeel Oost (for example: Wooldrik, Velve-Lindenhof, De Eschmarke, 't Ribbelt, Stokhorst, Dolphia, 't Hogeland and Glanerbrug)
 * Stadsdeel Zuid (Wesselerbrink, Helmerhoek and Stroinkslanden)
 * Stadsdeel West (Boswinkel, Ruwenbos, Pathmos, Stadsveld, Bruggert, 't Zwering, 't Havengebied, De Marssteden, Boekelo, Usselo and Twekkelo)

Climate

Like most of the Netherlands, Enschede features an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen classification), however, winters tend to be less mild than the rest of the Netherlands due to its inland location. Although the former military airport is derelict and plans to revive the place were canceled in 2012, the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute still maintains a weather station there.

Preindustrial era
The early history of Enschede is largely unknown, but a settlement existed around the Old Marketplace in early medieval times. The name of this settlement is mentioned as Anescede or Enscede meaning either "near the border" (with Bentheim) or "near the Es" and sported a church, a marketplace and a fortified aristocratic house.

Enschede was granted city rights around 1300 which were confirmed in 1325 by Bishop Jan III van Diest and henceforth was allowed to protect itself with a wall. Because a stone wall was too expensive (since stone had to be imported), Enschede had a system of ditches, palisades and hedges instead, which is still reflected in the street-names Noorderhagen and Zuiderhagen (North Hedge and South Hedge, respectively). The city plan of this era is still recognisable in the street-pattern. The city was spared destruction in 1597 at its capture during the Eighty Years' War when after a short siege, the Spanish garrison surrendered the city and the defences were razed.

Because the medieval city was largely built of wood and stone houses were the exception, fire was a constant risk and a series of fires in 1517, 1750 and again on 7 May 1862 earned the people from Enschede the nickname Brandstichters (arsonists).

Industrial era
The last fire coincided with the start of the growth of the city into a large production center for textiles, stimulating a large increase in population, which by 1894 had reached an estimated 18,267: nineteenth-century urban growth was at first rather chaotic. The names of the slums (like De Krim and Sebastopol) are still notorious, although they have long since been torn down. In 1907 the laissez faire mentality was dropped and Enschede was the first city in the Netherlands to draw up an official expansion plan, incorporating the surrounding municipality of Lonneker.

Textile production, originally a cottage industry, reached an industrial scale at the start of the 19th century. In particular, bombazijn (a mixture of cotton and linen) proved a successful export. One such factory to have produced textiles in the late 19th century is the Hardick & Seckel Factory.

World War II
During World War II, Enschede was one of the first Dutch cities to be captured by German troops, being the city closest to Germany. Resistance members helped many of the Jews from Enschede to hide on farms in the vicinity. Out of approximately 1300 Jews in Enschede, 500 were saved (38.5%), compared to less than 20% in the rest of the Netherlands. This higher survival rate is attributed to three members of the Jewish Council of Enschede, Sig Menko, Gerard Sanders and Isidoor Van Dam who took the initiative, against the advice of the Jewish Council of Amsterdam, of urging their community to go into hiding and not to answer the call-up of the Germans for "labour in the East." Another notable hero of the era was Enschede Pastor Leendert Overduin, who saved hundreds of Jewish children and adults, with help from his sister and others, through a network of safehouses in and around Enschede.

Enschede was bombed on several occasions, most notably on 10 October 1943, and 22 February 1944. During the first raid the nearby airport (then Fliegerhorst Twente) was a target of opportunity for the VIII Bomber Command during a raid on rail- and waterways in Münster. 141 people died and many houses were damaged. The latter mission named Enschede as a target of opportunity during Big Week after bombers had been recalled due to adverse weather.

The end of the industrial age
In the sixties of the 20th century, the textile industry was completely lost, at the cost of approximately 30,000 jobs. Most of the large factory complexes were demolished in the 1970s and 1980s, some were renovated and given a new purpose. For example, homes were built in the former factories of Jannink and Van Heek. In addition, part of the Jannink complex was converted into a museum. Enschede developed into a service city.

In the 1970s the textile production in Enschede came to a halt, due to fierce competition from mainly the Far East. This had a profound effect on the populace. Enschede became one of the poorest municipalities in the Netherlands and went bankrupt. Large areas of industrial wasteland came to mark the city. With the support of the national government, this property was acquired and rebuilt. The city center was rendered a car-free zone.

In 1961 it was announced a third technical university would be founded, placed on an estate on the western border of Enschede. This green campus called Drienerlo was donated by the city of Enschede. Building was complete in 1964, when the first and only full-facility university of the Netherlands was realised.

On 13 May 2000, a fireworks storage depot in Enschede exploded, destroying part of the neighborhood of Roombeek and killing 23 people, including 4 firemen. In 2001 a referendum confirmed the proposal of the city council to expand the built-up area into the Usseler Es, an area of historic cultural significance and of geological importance, as it was here that the Usselo horizon was discovered. The renovations at Roombeek were finished in the year 2012. The place where the factory used to be is now a monument.

The Alpha Tower was completed in 2008 and this tower block with 91 apartments spread over 29 floors, with a height of 101 meters, is the tallest building in Enschede and the whole province of Overijssel. In the period 1995–2010, Enschede grew by approximately 10,000 inhabitants, but since then the growth has stagnated.

Religion
The largest religion in Enschede is Christianity with 34.9% of the population being Christian.

Enschede has a large Assyrian community, the first Assyrians came to Enschede in the 1970s, primarily from Turkey (Tur Abdin). Today there are three Syriac Orthodox Churches in the city which meet the spiritual needs of Enschede's more than 10,000 Assyrians.

Demographics
As of 2020, Enschede had a total population of 159,640 people.

Economy
The city is a former centre of textile production. When this industry left the area for cheaper production centers in South-East Asia, Enschede became one of the poorest municipalities in the Netherlands. More educated and wealthier citizens have historically migrated to the Randstad region; decades of renovation work in the city center have been carried out with the goal of making Enschede more attractive to this group. Modern shopping centres and department stores that until recently were only found in much larger cities have been opened. Enschede is host to many yearly festivals and the Old Market Square is often the venue for events, live music and other activities at the weekend.

The proximity to Germany has, historically, been another major factor in the city's economic activity, ranging from the smuggling of coffee and tobacco in the 19th and 20th century, to large numbers of Germans, who visit the city's shops and weekly markets. Therefore, many natives of Enschede speak German more or less fluently.

The city is co-operating with the nearby municipalities of Almelo, Borne and Hengelo as Netwerkstad Twente. A draft law plan to merge Enschede with Hengelo and Almelo was defeated in parliament under the influence of opposition from the other towns.

Grolsch beer is brewed in Enschede, and the tyre manufacturer Apollo Vredestein B.V. head office and a factory is in the city. It is one of the most important employers of the region.

Museum
There are several museums in Enschede, among them the Rijksmuseum Twenthe for art. A museum of natural history and a museum dedicated to the history of the textiles industry, both closed in January 2007, have merged, and have reopened in April 2008 in new premises on a new location under the name TwentseWelle (Source/Well of Twente). The new location is situated in Roombeek, where a fireworks disaster took place in 2000. The new museum is located partly in a renovated old textile factory, in reference to Enschede's textile history, and partly in an adjourning new building, designed by the Amsterdam-based firm SeARCH (project architect: Bjarne Mastenbroek). Besides museums there are also several art spaces, the most prominent being Villa de Bank and TETEM. The latter focuses on art and technology, and aims to be accessible for a wide public. Enschede is also home of The Netherlands Symphony Orchestra.

De Museumfabriek (formerly TwensteWelle) is a museum in the Roombeek district that arose from a merger of three institutions: Natuurmuseum Enschede, Van Deinse Instituut and Fabriekcomplex Jannink. In this museum, the cultural-historical heritage of Twente is linked to the natural-historical heritage, a unique combination for the Netherlands. The museum was opened in April 2008 by the then Queen Beatrix.

Music and theater
The German-Dutch relationship is characteristic of music culture, which arose through cooperation in the border region and the dominant textile industry in the 19th and 20th centuries. Especially during the period of reversal after the World War I, a close German-Dutch cultural cooperation developed in Gronau and Enschede, which became increasingly important from string quartets, salon orchestras and hot dance music bands to symphony orchestras and an operetta company ("Enschedesch Opera en Operette Gezelschap") with their own performances. At the same time, jazz also found enthusiastic supporters from 1920 onwards.

The three major concert stages for classical music in Enschede – the Muziekcentrum, the Twentse Schouwburg and the Grote Kerk – have been operating under the name Podium Twente since September 2002 and since September 2011 under the name Wilminktheater en Muziekcentrum Enschede. There is a varied offer of concerts, theater, youth and youth performances and the like to visit.

In November 2008 the Nationaal Muziekkwartier opened its doors in Enschede. A new large theatre, pop stage Atak, the ArtEZ Conservatory, the Orkest van het Oosten (now the Dutch Symphony Orchestra), the Twente Music School, the Nationale Reisopera (now the Nederlandse Reisopera) and Podium Twente (now Wilminktheater en Muziekcentrum Enschede) have settled in this dominant building opposite the Central Station in Enschede. There will be a new large square, the Willem Wilminkplein.

In December 2012, the Serious Request action from national radio station 3FM took place in Enschede, which collected more than 12.2 million euros (almost US$16.2 million).

Research, education and health care
The University of Twente (Universiteit Twente), a university with mostly technical studies, is located in Enschede. It is one of the four technical universities in the Netherlands (besides Delft University of Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology and the Wageningen University and Research Centre). The Universiteit Twente is also the only large-campus university in the Netherlands.

The university has courses in pure technical studies such as Applied Physics, Applied Mathematics, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Informatics/Computer Science and Industrial Engineering and also offers study programmes in Communication, Psychology, Economic Sciences, International Business Administration, Public Administration, Applied Medicine and Biomedical Technology; the latter attract a broader public. Since 2006, the programmes of European Studies, Advanced Technology, Creative Technology and ATLAS University College have been added to the university's offerings.

The Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation of the University of Twente, with former name International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, (known by its abbreviation ITC) runs MSc, Master's, Diploma and PhD courses in Geo-Information Science for developing countries. Students from all over the world attend the ITC. Enschede also has an academy of arts and design combined with a conservatory named ArtEZ. Enschede is also home to one of the three campuses of Saxion University of Applied Sciences (Saxion Hogeschool), a polytechnical school offering internationally recognized Bachelor's degrees and Master's degrees in a wide range of fields, including engineering, economics, social work, investigations and health care. The other campuses are located in Deventer and Apeldoorn.

The Medisch Spectrum Twente (MST) hospital is one of the largest top-clinical hospitals of the Netherlands and features important tertiary care departments, fulfilling a supraregional role. It includes a level I trauma center as well. The hospital is strongly involved in higher medical education, with up to 300 medical students following their internships in the hospital at any given time, closely working together with the University of Twente's Technical Medicine program training a new type of technically specialized doctors.

Train
Enschede is a terminus station of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) railway lines from the west. Trains operate to Hengelo, Almelo, Zwolle, Deventer, Apeldoorn, Amersfoort Centraal, Hilversum, Amsterdam Zuid, Schiphol Airport, Utrecht Centraal and Den Haag Centraal.

To the east there is a line to Gronau, Germany, which has two more stations in the Netherlands: Enschede De Eschmarke and Glanerbrug. The latter two have low ridership. The line is served by DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (part of the German Deutsche Bahn), to Münster and to Dortmund, each on an hourly interval and alternating half-hours in the service to Gronau.

There is no track connection between the two systems. The through line had been retained for eventual NATO use during the Cold War even after through passenger service was ended (September 1981), although it was in serious disrepair in later years. With the renewal of service to Germany (May 2001) the track was severed; there is a gap of about 30 centimeters between them which means that Enschede is now a "double terminus station" with tracks to the West (the Netherlands) and to the East (Germany) but with no connection between them.

There is also Enschede Kennispark railway station, near the football stadium.

Bus
Enschede is situated at the south-east terminus of the Twentekanaal. There is also a network of bus lines connecting nearly every part of the city with the centre. Enschede also has bus connections to nearby towns and cities, like Hengelo, Oldenzaal and south towards Haaksbergen, Neede and Eibergen. The city lines are operated by Syntus, under the Twents-branche. The interlocal lines are exploited by Syntus and Arriva.

Air
Previously, Enschede had a combined regional civil airport, Enschede Airport, and Airbase Twenthe of the Royal Netherlands Air Force. The latter was closed in 2007; the former was closed in 2008. However, It remains in operation for business air traffic flying via a charter or private jet, and recreational flights.

Roads
Around the center districts of Enschede is a complete ring road with a length of approximately 8 km, which is popularly called "de singel". This was constructed in the period between 1916 and 1929. Most major arterial roads connect to the canal. Enschede is connected to the national road network by means of the A/N35 and the N18. Below and on the edge of the center are various parking facilities, the most famous and largest of which is the Van Heekgarage, which is located under the Van Heekplein. At the end of 2012, construction of an additional entrance and exit at Kuipersdijk was started as the South entrance. Van Heekgarage is the largest underground parking garage in the Netherlands with a capacity of 1650 cars.

Sports
Enschede's association football club is FC Twente. Twente were the 2010 Eredivisie champions but were relegated to the second-tier league, the Eerste Divisie, after the 2017–18 season. Since the 2019–2020 season, they are back in the Eredivisie. De Grolsch Veste Stadium is the club's home base and has a capacity of 30,205 spectators. The Enschede Marathon is the second oldest marathon in Europe, and the oldest in the Netherlands, having been run annually since 1947. DOS-WK played in the Korfbal League until 2006. Enschede built the second indoor speed skating arena in the country, IJsbaan Twente.

Twin towns
Enschede is twinned with:
 * 🇨🇳 Dalian, People's Republic of China, since 2009
 * 🇩🇪 Münster, Germany, since 2021
 * 🇺🇸 Palo Alto, California, United States, since 1980

Notable people

 * See also People from Enschede

Arts

 * Aleida Leurink (1682–1755) Dutch writer
 * Édouard Niermans (1859–1928) French architect during the Belle Époque
 * Marilyn Mills (1903–1956) Dutch-born American film actress of the silent era
 * Kees van Baaren (1906–1970) Dutch composer and teacher
 * Harry Bannink (1929–1999) Dutch composer, arranger and pianist
 * Willem Wilmink (1936–2003) Dutch poet and writer
 * Jan Cremer (born 1940) Dutch author, photographer and painter
 * Jasper van 't Hof (born 1947) Dutch jazz pianist and keyboard player
 * Wilma Landkroon (born 1957) Dutch pop singer
 * Natasja Vermeer (born 1973) Dutch model and actress
 * Hansje van Halem (born 1978) Dutch graphic designer and type designer
 * Bracha van Doesburgh (born 1981) Dutch actress
 * Christiaan Kuyvenhoven (born 1985) Dutch classical pianist

Public thinking & public service

 * Maurice Frankenhuis (1894–1969) Dutch Jewish businessman, historian, researcher, author, Holocaust survivor and philanthropist; lived in Enschede pre-WW1
 * Ankie Stork (ca.1922 – 2015) Dutch resistance fighter during the WWII German occupation
 * Kees Boertien (1927–2002) Dutch politician and jurist
 * Heiko Wierenga (1933–2013) Dutch politician and Mayor of Enschede 1977 to 1994
 * Jan Mans (born 1940) Dutch politician, Mayor of Enschede 1994 to 2005
 * Bert Doorn (born 1949) Dutch politician and Member of the European Parliament
 * Peter den Oudsten (born 1951) Dutch politician, Mayor of Enschede 2005 to 2014
 * Tomás Gómez Franco (born 1968) Spanish politician
 * Pepijn van Houwelingen (born 1980) Dutch politician (MP)

Science & business

 * Hans van Abeelen (1936–1998) first Dutch behavioural geneticist
 * Henk J. M. Bos (born 1940) Dutch historian of mathematics
 * Paul Polman (born 1956) Dutch businessman with Procter & Gamble, Nestlé and Unilever
 * Wiebe Draijer (born 1965) Dutch engineer, civil servant and CEO of the Rabobank.
 * Maarten J. M. Christenhusz (born 1976) botanist, natural historian and photographer
 * Uğur Üngör (born 1980) academic and scholar of genocide and mass violence, raised in Enschede

Sports

 * Hans Schnitger (1915–2013) field hockey player, competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics
 * Paul Hoekstra (born 1944) Dutch-born, Belgian retired sprint canoeist, silver medalist at the 1964 Summer Olympics
 * Jan Jeuring (born 1947) Dutch former professional footballer, 326 appearances for FC Twente
 * Johan Reekers (born 1957) Dutch eight time paralympian
 * Henk-Jan Zwolle (born 1964) former rower, team bronze and gold medalist at the 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics
 * Dorien de Vries (born 1965) sailor, bronze medalist at the 1992 Summer Olympics
 * Noor Holsboer (born 1967) field hockey defender, team bronze medalist at the 1988 and 1996 Summer Olympics
 * Kirsten Gleis (born 1969) retired volleyball player, played 241 matches for the NL
 * Sander Westerveld (born 1974) former professional football goalkeeper with 440 club appearances
 * Jeroen Heubach (born 1974) former football player with over 320 club appearances
 * Bas Nijhuis (born 1977) Dutch football FIFA referee and full-time baker
 * Ruud ter Heide (born 1982) former professional football striker with 313 club appearances, and a convicted killer
 * Rianne Guichelaar (born 1983) water polo player, team gold medalist at the 2008 Summer Olympics
 * Karim El Ahmadi born 1985) Moroccan professional footballer with almost 400 club appearances
 * Jorien ter Mors (born 1989) Dutch short and long track speed skater; gold medalist at the 2014 and 2018 Winter Olympics
 * Mitch Stockentree (born 1991) former professional footballer
 * Larry ten Voorde (born 1996) Dutch racing driver and two-time champion of the Porsche Supercup

Literature

 * Alfred Hagemann/Elmar Hoff (Hg.): Insel der Träume. Musik in Gronau und Enschede (1895–2005), Klartext-Verlag, Essen 2006.

title: Enschede


text:
Talk:Printmaking

Untitled
"Woodcut thought to be the earliest printmaking technique appearing first in 19th century China."

BC or AD? AD is impossible, since woodcut was used in Europe much earlier.

S.

- http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=printmaking plagiarism by wiki? or is the same author responsible for the bulk of the definition on both sites? wiki is post-dated by a day, so either is possible.

 * ArtSchoolGirl (the E2 user who is the original author of this work), gave explicit permission to reprint this here. matt kane's brain 16:36, 9 December 2005 (UTC) (who forgot to sign this earlier!)

Iron oxide - million years
That is a reasonable statement. Iron oxide that we scoop up off the surface to make the paints, and iron it's self, has been here for millions of years. It would only change into something else if there was something w,heird in the room (like an open bottle of hydrochloric acid). Suffice it to say, the paper / cloth would likely have gone mouldy / fallen to bits, before the iron oxide / gold / lead changed in a normal atmosphere.

There are, for example, cave paintings, who's colours come from metal oxides, that were done at least a few thousand years ago and still retain their colour.

This is quite a difficult thing to explain but, the primary thing that decomposes pigments (in the atmosphere) is oxygen. If something is already an oxide (e.g. iron oxide), or unable to react with oxygen directly (e.g. gold), it can't go any further than it already is. Organic dyes, on the otherhand, can be quite easily oxidised; pretty much anything that's organic gradually oxidises when exposed to the atmosphere (e.g. perfumes / oil going dark yellow, then brown, then black).

The decomposition of organic materials is accelerated, sometimes a great deal, by exposure to UV and heat. This isn't much of a problem for simple oxides. Indeed, if any of the iron oxide did happen to decompose, it'd only be returned to iron oxide by such an exposure. Removing the oxygen from iron oxide requires a great deal of effort; e.g. a blast furnace (and then it slowly returns to iron oxide, rust, when left out). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.152.24.190 (talk) 14:25, 9 March 2012 (UTC)

Listing Printmakers
It doesn't make sense to list Printmakers below the article, which gives examples under each heading ("etching", "silkscreen", etc.), especially since the seperate Printmakers list below only identifies Mauricio Lasansky. Also, the lists of artists under each medium's content is misleading, as most were proficient in many different media. I suggest either removing the "Printmakers" heading and lone example or moving all artists listed at the bottoms of each medium under that heading. Or even creating or editing a "List of Printmakers" entry to be referenced here, removing the lists in this more general article (I see there is a List of artists collection of lists of artists of various media, but Printmaking isn't one of them!) Any preferences? PJV - I agree that printmakers under each section is misleading. And I think Category:Printmaking should be created -- although, there is a Category:Printmakers, which need to be applied to each artist using the media. --Renice 15:24, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Improvement drive
Graphics is currently nominated to be improved by WP:IDRIVE. Vote for it if you want to contribute.--Fenice 20:10, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

merge with woodcut
I don't think, that merging the woodcut article with thisone is a wise idea. Woodcut was used in the old Chine for printing chineese letters (occasionaly pictures). The article about printmakeking is on the other hand strictly about printing images using "modern" methods. In other words, there is no history involved and shouldn't be, because the theme contents of strictly technical issues of printing. --Mindshot 06:58, 25 May 2006 (UTC) -- I agree (see question below on merging relief print). --Renice 17:00, 30 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree don't merge woodcut or woodblock into printmaking. This is an overview article, not supposed to replace articles on woodblocking. Just like other print techniques,aquatint, drypoint, etc... all have their own articles. Goldenrowley 03:24, 4 October 2006 (UTC)

Advertising
I feel that the Philigrafika external link is just advertising and should be removed. Anyone else? GreenInker 08:36, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

agreed Johnbod 04:00, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

changes to be made
I find it disturbing that the page lists four forms of printmaking, but in the explanation section its headings include woodblock (instead of relief) and etching (instead of intaglio.) This needs to be corrected. Listing woodcut as the only form of relief printing is a mistakes which excludes all other substrates as possibilities in the article. What about linocuts? And what about creating reliefs through metal substrates, even through the use of etching techniques? And as to etching being listed instead of intaglio, what becomes of drypoint or engraving, which never utilize an etching solution in any way?? The form of the print, whether it be relief, intaglio, screen, or litho, is really dependent on where the ink is held by the substrate, not the substrate being used. You can do mock-litho with a xerox copier print-out, without the need for stones in any way. You can create an embossed image that would print as relief with etching. The point is, the printmaking article should hold all of this information in order to become a more complete explanation of what that medium truly is. - I agree. I think this article needs to be reorganized -- a rough-draft suggestion:
 * Relief
 * Woodcut
 * Color woodcuts
 * Multiple blocks superimposed in alignment (registration), eg., Ukiyo-e
 * Reduction block Prints
 * Cut-block prints (e.g., Munch's The Heart)
 * White-line woodcuts: applying color by hand to separated areas
 * Linocut
 * Wood engraving
 * Blind embossing
 * Cast Paper
 * Cardboard relief prints
 * Foam plate prints
 * Intaglio
 * Drypoint
 * Engraving
 * Mezzotint
 * Etching
 * Aquatint
 * Chine Collé
 * Collagraph (collage-like process creating a plate that may print as both relief and intaglio)
 * Planographic
 * Lithograph (based on antipathy of grease and water)
 * Stone
 * Metal
 * Offset printing
 * Monotypes [Note: I think the intro needs to be corrected, since the production of multiples is not requisite to printmaking.] ALSO there have been innovations in offset monotype in which multiple prints can be acheived!!!!
 * Xerography
 * Digital prints
 * Laser
 * Ink jet / Giclée
 * Photographic {Note: These are experimental photography techniques, NOT printmaking techniques. There are photographic techniques such as photo etching and photo litho.}
 * Polaroid Transfers
 * Blueprints and Brown sepiaprints
 * Stencil
 * Pochoir
 * Serigraphy (Silkscreen)

--Renice 20:40, 28 July 2006 (UTC) - I have started a page for working on the rewriting of this article at User_talk:Renice/Printmaking. --Renice 16:03, 29 July 2006 (UTC) -

Merge Relief Print?
Yes!

Relief print should be merged with, or redirected to, this article. While the various types of relief print (woodcut, linocut, etc.) should have their own articles.

--Renice 16:56, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

- I've removed the merge tag on relief print (I didn't take it off here), but would be happy to revisit the issue when this page is in shape. Come back Renice, we need you! Johnbod 17:59, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

differentiate from printing
May seem obvious to the artists here, but it isnt for everyone  & also from  artists' books. Line will be added. DGG 03:53, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Old Master Prints
I am writing an article called Old master print - not the happiest term perhaps but probably the least confusing. This will cover the Western print, especially the "artist's print" up to about 1830 from a mainly art-historical & social perspective. I won't link it in to this article until it is more complete, but do have a look. I am hoping not to have to do too much on printmaking techniques, but since this article here would in an ideal world be called something like "Fine Art printmaking techniques in America from 1950 to the present" I will either have to do something here or in my article. I will probably also work on the line engraving article, which should be linked to much more prominently here. Johnbod 14:38, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

hi evry 1 my name fanny adams

limited edition
this redirects to an article mainly about CD's etc called "special edition" - fair enough. I have added to the printmaking bit there, but somewhere i have seen an Wiki article all about LE prints - but i've now lost it. Anyone know what its called? Not "LE print" or "art print". Johnbod 15:44, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

ok - please ignore last- I found it - was edition. links redone Johnbod 17:57, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

As a folowup note, that article has been moved to edition (printmaking), as the word is too common not to be disambiguated, especially since the book usage is probably primary. oknazevad (talk) 04:14, 25 July 2015 (UTC)

changes 13/11 "artists using.."
I have reverted these changes: cur) (last) 00:51, 13 November 2006 69.118.30.221 (Talk) (→Techniques)

because they made the whole bottom half of the article half width. I'm not sure what they were trying to do (blank edit box, no name user), but it didn't seem to work. Were those "Artists using... " always in boxes in mid-article? - I thought they were down at the bottom once. Personally I don't think I like them there & if they are so prominent they are an odd selection of artists, and too many, I would say...

The article certainly needs work, in fact a major overhaul, but as it is an important one I think it would be better to float changes here first Johnbod 02:25, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Variables In Print Production
Looking at the nature of the beast "Print Production" and the way technology is busy improving the ways of print production as we know it from yesterday. It is important to actually understand the huge amount of variables that many systems must take into consideration when trying to automate most of the processes but saying this, I could not find any research or information on the world wide web identifying what exactly these variables are? Thu the reason for this extra part to the Print page, please add your thoughts on variables not in the list below: 1) Paper 2) Ink 3) ... (unsigned - moved from article)
 * NB this is printmaking, not the printing page Johnbod 11:44, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Giclee
Anyone who can help me find more permanent, reliable sources backing up the origin of the term Giclee..[excess blather removed]?

The word Giclée (pronounced 'zhee-clay') was coined in 1991 by Jack Duganne, then working at Nash Editions. The word is derived from the French word 'gicleur' meaning 'nozzle' and 'gicler' which is the verb 'to spray', meaning spraying nozzle or the spraying of ink. The main intention was to distinguish fine art prints form those created for commercial purposes, very much the same reason as 'serigraph' was coined earlier. Today different terminology is used to address work printed by digital technology. In the Summer Exhibition 2002, at the Royal Academy of Art, Jennifer Dickson used the term 'Giclée print' on her Petal Screen, "Milton Lodge." However, using the same technology, William Alsop, "Goldsmiths Two," and Edward Cullinan , "Plan of Turner Gallery, Margate," both used the term 'Digital print'. Dorothy Simpson Krause defines Giclée as "reproductions of work done originally in another medium. I make inkjet prints of original digital art," she adds. Mr. Maklansky, assistant director at New Orleans Museum of Modern Art urges that the term "Giclée" should not be used, and Stephen Goddard informs us that "the curatorial world is likely to use the term 'inkjet print." Nash Editions states that: "We do not support the use of the term 'Giclée' to represent anything other than reproductions created for the 'decorative' art market. Most credible museums utilise the term 'digital ink-jet'." To have a consistent terminology I suggest that the term 'Giclée' should be applied to reproductions of artwork originally created by the use of another medium, and 'Digital ink jet' for artworks intended for, and finally created by the use of a computer and digital print technology.

--http://www.worldprintmakers.com/english/mamata.htm

also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Giclée : ''I went to Lille, in France to help hang an exhibition in a fairly major gallery there, half way through hanging the show, one of the directors asked me what kind of prints the ones that I happened to be putting up were. So I told him in my best french "they are giclee prints" at this he erupted into hysterical laughter, and after gasping something to the others in the room they too fell about laughing. Eventually they pulled themselves together enough to tell me what they found so amusing. The upshot was that the word giclee may well technicaly mean 'squirt' in France, but in THAT part of france it is mainly used in much the same way we might use the word 'cum'. It seems that I was hanging a whole load of orgasm prints - so be warned, think twice before you try and sell a giclee print in france, unless of course...''

and below, from http://www.artthrob.co.za/01jan/news.html :

''Giclee is a sales term, pure and simple, a bit of hype devised to assuage the anxieties of insecure artists and to obscure for ignorant collectors the fact that this is a machine generated print. Especially given the fact that many people in the art world are French, and many more speak French and know colloquial as well as dictionary French, I'd be greatly surprised to find a decade hence that the term "giclee" -- with its lewd, crude connotations -- has taken root and is commonly used internationally by sophisticated people in the visual arts.''

Noel vs liam (talk) 23:25, 27 April 2009 (UTC)

 * The refs you provided already say it all. "Giclée" has no meaning, it is a made up sales buzz word. It has no definition as any type of print technology. It can only be attributed to the technology it was intended to cover for Inkjet printing. It does not mean Iris or Pigment print or anything else.

 * Please see What's In a Name: The True Story of "Giclée". "Duganne (A printmaker at Nash Editions) opened his pocket Larousse and searched for a word that was generic enough to cover most inkjet technologies at the time and hopefully into the future. He focused on the nozzle, which most printers used. In French, that was le gicleur." However, the controversy started immediately. Graham Nash and Mac Holbert had come up with "digigraph," which was close to "serigraph" and "photograph." The photographers liked that. --- So Giclée was not adopted by Nash Editions and the name was intended to mean any digital injet prints (anything with a nozzle).

 * as to "quite an international embarrassment", observations by Wikipedia editors and writers in general are not considered encyclopedic (see WP:OR and WP:RELY). To state that the term is quite an international embarrassment you would need to cite several books, mags, articles all citing some big international embarrassment. 75.196.138.175 (talk) 01:50, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

Fair enough-- thanks for the link. Noel vs liam (talk) 07:50, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

A print is not a copy??
who wrote that part, the print companies? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.81.199.45 (talk) 18:47, 25 August 2011 (UTC)

Adding my favorite printmaker
There are thousands of artists who make prints - we cannot include everyone...Modernist (talk) 20:11, 1 May 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Printmaking


text:
Salhouse Broad

Salhouse Broad, one of the Norfolk Broads, is situated on the River Bure in The Broads in Norfolk, England.

The broad is situated just off the river and attracts little through traffic. It lies south of Hoveton Great Broad and approximately half a mile north of the village of Salhouse. Salhouse Broad is accessible from the landward side and moorings are also permitted to fee-paying boat visitors. It is privately owned and managed in conjunction with the community of Salhouse. The broad covers an area of 32 acre and is home to many forms of wildlife including the Norfolk hawker dragonfly and the swallowtail butterfly. Black swans have been recorded on this broad. Salhouse Broad is unusual in being the result of the flooding of tenth century sand and gravel diggings, not of peat diggings like most of the broads.

title: Salhouse Broad


text:
Salhouse

Salhouse is a village and civil parish in the Broads in the English county of Norfolk. It lies south of the River Bure and Salhouse Broad, about 10 km north-east of Norwich. The civil parish has an area of 8.96 km2 and in the 2001 census had a population of 1,462 in 604 households, increasing to 1,486 in 638 households at the 2011 Census. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of Broadland although areas adjoining the river and broad fall into the executive area of the Broads Authority.

Churches
Salhouse All Saints church, which is thatched and believed to date mainly from the 14th century (little remaining of an older chapel on the site), stands on a hill beside the Salhouse-Wroxham Road (B1140). The church contains among other features an oak rood screen, a unique sacring bell which hangs in the chancel and dates from the reign of Queen Mary, and two coffin lids discovered under the nave floor in 1839 and dated to the 13th century. There is also a red brick Baptist church in Chapel Loke, off Lower Street, which dates from 1802.

Other buildings and facilities
To the west of All Saints Church stands the grade II listed Salhouse Hall, built in red brick with limestone detailing, was uninhabited for 30 years before being refurbished for cottage rental. Parts of this building may date from the 16th century although it is mostly 18th century with 19th-century Gothic style remodelling. The village also features the Bell Inn, a 17th-century public house and the Lodge Inn, which is located halfway between Salhouse and Wroxham. Salhouse is served by Salhouse railway station, which is on the Bittern Line from Norwich to Cromer and Sheringham and once featured two waiting rooms, although they are no longer in regular use. Salhouse has a post office, Village store and Coffee shop in Lower Street and several other small businesses including kennels and a Potter.

Salhouse Broad
The 32-acre Salhouse Broad, lying about half a mile to the north of the village, is privately owned and jointly managed with the local community. It is accessible by boat from the River Bure and via a footpath from the village.

Toponymy
Salhouse is first recorded in 1291 as Salhus. The first element is believed to derive from Old English salh "sallow", a kind of willow. The word still exists in dial. English saugh. Sallow descends itself from OE inflexional salg- (ME salwe).

The second element is the Old English hūs or Old Norse hús "house".

Homonymy with Sahurs (Normandy, Salhus ar. 1024) in the low Seine valley, which shows together with other place-names and anthroponyms in Normandy, that there were Anglo-Saxons among the Danish settlers.

A further variation on the spelling may be seen as "Psalhous" in 1452.

Rackheath Eco Town
During 2008, proposals were made for a very controversial new eco-town, to contain over 3000 homes, to be built in Rackheath and Salhouse. The proposals have attracted much criticism, mainly because it is to be built on a greenfield site, within a mile of The Broads National Park.

title: Salhouse


text:
Middelburg, Zeeland

Middelburg is a city and municipality in the south-western Netherlands serving as the capital of the province of Zeeland. Situated on the central peninsula of the Zeeland province, Midden-Zeeland (consisting of former islands Walcheren, Noord-Beveland and Zuid-Beveland), it has a population of about 48,000.

In terms of technology, Middelburg played a role in the Scientific Revolution at the early modern period. The town was historically a center of lens crafting in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. The invention of the microscope and telescope is often credited to Middelburg spectacle-makers (including Zacharias Janssen and Hans Lipperhey) in the late 16th century and early 17th century.

History

The city of Middelburg dates back possibly to the late 8th century or early 9th century. The first mention of Middelburg was as one of three fortified towns (borgs) erected on Walcheren (then an island) to guard against Viking raids. In 844 a monastery was built on the site, which remained an active Catholic foundation until the Reformation. Foundations for Middelburg's "stately and picturesque" main church were first laid in the 10th century; additional construction continued through the Middle Ages.

Middelburg was granted city rights in 1217. During the Middle Ages, it became an important trading centre in the commerce between England and the rising cities of Flanders, a fact commented on by Geoffrey Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales. The town continued to gain in power and prestige during the 13th and 14th centuries.

From 1559 to 1603, Middelburg was the episcopal see of a Catholic bishopric covering all Zeeland. In the Eighty Years' War, the city was captured by Dutch rebels from the Spanish forces during a long siege (1572–1574). The northern provinces of the Low Countries won their independence from their former Spanish Habsburg rulers and formed the Dutch Republic, a Protestant state. Later, during the 17th century (the Dutch Golden Age), Middelburg became, after Holland's metropolis Amsterdam, the most important center for the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. As such, Middelburg also played an important role in the 17th century slave trade.

Samuel Ben Israel, son of Menasseh Ben Israel, is buried in Middelburg at the Sephardic burial site located at the 'Jodengang' outside the citywall. Menasseh Ben Israel negotiated with Cromwell the opening of England, and its colonies, to the Jews. Middelburg also has an Ashkenazic burial site, which is located at the Walensingel inside the city wall. In 1994 the synagogue was restored, as it was partially destroyed during the Second World War. This synagogue was the third one to be built in the Netherlands during the Golden Age. In the hall of the railway station there is a plaque of remembrance for the Jews of Zeeland who started their journey to the death camps from the Middelburg train station. About a third of the old city centre was devastated by bombs and fire in the early phases of World War II, on 17 May 1940. It is still not certain if German bombers or French artillery were responsible. The town was captured and liberated by British troops during Operation Infatuate on 6 November 1944. After the War, as much of the destroyed part of the old town center was rebuilt and restored along pre-War lines as far as was possible. The city's archives, however, had been incinerated during the German bombardment.

Modern Middelburg has preserved and regained much of its historic and picturesque character. There are lavish 17th and 18th century merchant houses and storehouses standing along canals, of a similar style as found in cities like Amsterdam. The old city moats are still there, as are two of the city gates, the Koepoort Gate and the Varkenspoort Gate. Part of the 18th century moat and defence works, however, were demolished in the 19th century to make way for a commercial canal that crosses Walcheren from Vlissingen to Veere. The medieval abbey is still in use today, as a museum and as the seat of the provincial government.

Notable locals
Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573–1621) was a still life painter of the Dutch Golden Age who worked most of his life in Middelburg. He had three sons, Johannes Bosschaert (1606/08– 1628/29), Ambrosius Bosschaert II (1609–1645) and Abraham Bosschaert the Younger (1612–1643) who were all Dutch Golden Age painters. The painter Pieter Gaal (1769–1819) was born, settled and died here, after traveling over Europe to paint.

Another well-known citizen of Middelburg was the admiral and explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who was born in the city in 1659 and died there in 1729. Roggeveen discovered Easter Island (Rapa Nui) in the South Pacific Ocean on Easter Sunday, 6 April 1722. Further discoveries on the same journey included islands of the Tuamotu group, now part of French Polynesia.

Petronella Johanna de Timmerman, scientist and poet, was born here in 1723. In 1774 she was inducted as an honorary member of the academy Kunstliefde Spaart Geen Vlijt. Also, she presented the academy with poems, translated from French plays. She died in Utrecht in 1786.

The arts

 * Hortensia del Prado (? - 1627), a Dutch horticulturalist and noblewoman
 * Adrianus Valerius (c. 1575 – 1625), a Dutch poet and composer
 * Jacob van Geel (c. 1585 – 1648), a Dutch Golden Age painter.
 * Christoffel van den Berghe (c. 1590 – c. 1645), a Dutch Golden Age painter of landscapes
 * Balthasar van der Ast (1593/94 – 1657), a Dutch Golden Age painter
 * Pieter de Putter (c. 1600 – 1659), a Dutch still life painter
 * Daniël de Blieck (c. 1610 – 1673), a Dutch Golden Age painter, draughtsman and architect
 * Philips Angel I (1616–1683), a Dutch still-life painter
 * Ariana Nozeman (1626/1628 – 1661), the first actress in The Netherlands
 * Pieter Borsseler (c. 1633 – c. 1687), a Dutch portrait painter, prominent in England
 * Pieter Bustijn (1649–1729), a composer, organist, harpsichordist and carillon player
 * Adriaen Coorte (c. 1665 – c. 1707), a Dutch Golden Age painter of still-lifes
 * Barend Cornelis Koekkoek (1803–1862), a Dutch landscape artist and lithographer
 * Suzanna Sablairolles (1829–1867), a Dutch stage actress
 * Anna Adelaïde Abrahams (1849–1930), a Dutch still life painter
 * Henri Eduard Beunke (1851–1925), a Dutch writer, known for his literary regionalistic work
 * Herman Johannes van der Weele (1852–1930), a Dutch painter of the 2nd Hague School
 * Pieter Cornelis Boutens (1870–1943), a Dutch poet, classicist, and mystic
 * Joost Baljeu (1925–1991), a Dutch painter, sculptor and writer
 * Paul van der Feen (born 1978), a Dutch saxophonist
 * Carolyn Lilipaly (born 1969), a Dutch news anchor and actress
 * Stefan de Vries (born 1970), a Dutch writer and journalist

Public thinking and public service

 * Paul of Middelburg (1446–1534), a Flemish scientist and Bishop of Fossombrone
 * Philippe van Lansberge (1561–1632), a Dutch Calvinist Minister, astronomer and mathematician
 * John Forbes (c. 1568–1634) founded a Church of Scotland
 * Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637), a Dutch philosopher and scientist
 * Sir Balthazar Gerbier (1592–1663), an Anglo-Dutch courtier, diplomat, art advisor, miniaturist and architectural designer
 * Paulus van de Perre (c. 1598 – 1653 in London), a Dutch politician and diplomat, negotiated with Oliver Cromwell
 * Adam Boreel (1602–1665), a Dutch theologian and Hebrew scholar
 * Margaretha Sandra (1629–1674), a Dutch military heroine in the siege of Aardenburg in 1672
 * Frederik van Leenhof (1647–1715), a controversial Dutch pastor and philosopher
 * Adrian Beverland (1650 — 1716 in London), a Dutch humanist scholar, banished in 1679 and settled in England
 * Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1673–1743), a Dutch jurist and legal theorist
 * Stephanus Versluys (1694–1736), the 21st Governor of Dutch Ceylon
 * Reynier de Klerck (1710–1780), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies 1778/1780
 * Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel (1736–1800) was Grand Pensionary of Zeeland
 * Piet Meertens (1899–1985), a Dutch scholar of literature, dialects, and ethnology
 * Etty Hillesum (1914 – 1943 in Auschwitz), the Dutch author of confessional letters and diaries
 * Hendricus Leopold (1918–2008), a Dutch diplomat, first Ambassador of the Netherlands to Suriname Recipient of The Honorary Order of the Palm
 * Albert de Vries (born 1955), a Dutch politician, alderman of Middelburg 2002/2012
 * Han Polman (born 1963), a Dutch politician, King's Commissioner of Zeeland since 2013
 * Harald Bergmann (born 1965), a Dutch politician, Mayor of Middelburg since 2012

Science and business

 * Zacharias Janssen (1585 – c. 1632), a Dutch spectacle-maker, lived mostly in Middelburg.
 * Alexander Daniell (1599–1668), the sole proprietor of the Manor of Alverton, Cornwall 1630/1668
 * Pieter van Abeele (1608–1684), a medallist, perfected the technique of pressing hollow medals
 * Jan Goedart (1617–1668), a Dutch naturalist, entomologist and painter
 * Steven Blankaart (1650–1704), a Dutch physician, iatrochemist, and entomologist
 * Pieter Boddaert (1730–1795), a Dutch physician and naturalist
 * Franz Zacharias Ermerins (1808–1871), a Dutch physician and medical editor
 * Jan Adrianus Herklots (1820–1872), a Dutch zoologist, researched carcinology and the echinoderms
 * Cecil Hoare FRS (1892–1984), a British protozoologist and parasitologist
 * Lili Bleeker (1897–1985), a Dutch entrepreneur and physicist, designed and made optical instruments
 * Cees Maas (born 1947), former chief financial officer of the ING Group

Sport

 * Jan Poortvliet (born 1955), a retired football defender with 531 club caps
 * Elisabeth Willeboordse (born 1978), a female judoka, bronze medallist at the 2008 Summer Olympics

Geography and climate
Aside from the town of Middelburg, the municipality also includes several population centres, including: Arnemuiden, Kleverskerke, Nieuw- en Sint Joosland and Sint Laurens. The town is close to the coast but the distance of 10–15 km means the winters are somewhat colder with especially lower winter minima and higher summer maxima. It has a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb) with few extremes. Winters tend to be mild, especially considering the northern latitude, summers are cool and precipitation is spread out evenly over the year. All seasons are warming up by about 0.5 °C/decade due to anthropogenic warming. The extremes measured since 2000, 2 km northeast of the town in the countryside with calibrated equipment have been −17.2 °C on 4 February 2012 and 40.9 °C on 25 July 2019, the latter unofficially being a new Dutch all-time high record, slightly above the 40.7 °C measured at Gilzerijen KNMI and 40.6 °C in Westdorpe. Vlissingen KNMI measured −11.0 °C and 37.5 °C on the same dates, clearly showing how much the influence is diminished just 8 km further inland. The climate is warming due to anthropogenic influences, clearly witnessed by the fact that the previous record of 37.5 °C was measured just a year before. Also, in the past minima have been at and probably below −20 °C in winter months. Snowcover, days with airfrost and icedays (Tx < 0.0 °C) have greatly diminished and with it ice speedskating on the canals, a favourite sport in the winter months, has become very infrequent since 2013 especially.

Culture and recreation
When William of Orange decided to found the first university in the Netherlands in 1575, he initially considered locating it in Middelburg. Ultimately he chose Leiden, however, and Middelburg—as well as all of Zeeland—remained without a university until 2004 when University College Roosevelt (formerly known as Roosevelt Academy), affiliated with Utrecht University, was established. A campus of the HZ University of Applied Sciences is also located in the city, although this institution has its headquarters in the nearby city of Vlissingen.

Cultural institutions
• Zeeuws Museum

• Vleeshal

• Sjakie's Chocolademuseum

• Zeeuws Archief

• Zeeuwse Bibliotheek

• Centrum Beeldende Kunst

• University College Roosevelt

Theaters and concert halls
• Schouwburg

• Concertzaal Zeeland

• Spiegeltheater

• Minitheater

• Filmtheater Schuttershof

• UCR Stand up comedy theatre

Sightseeing
• The Abbey

• Kuiperspoort

• The "Lange Jan"

• City Hall

• Oostkerk

• Damplein

Sports
Middelburg has a rugby club, Oemoemenoe, and four football (soccer) clubs: MZVC, Zeelandia Middelburg, Jong Ambon and FC Dauwendaele. Jong Ambon is translated Young Ambon, and consists of mostly Ambonese players. FC Dauwendaele is the club of the neighborhood of Dauwendaele.

Transportation

Middelburg has a railway station with intercity train connections to Vlissingen, Goes, Roosendaal, Rotterdam, The Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, and Amsterdam. Four trains leave every hour in both directions.

In popular culture

 * In Rafael Sabatini's 1929 novel "The Romantic Prince", set in the late 1460s, Middelburg is the home town of Mister Danvelt and his son Philip. The Danvelt home is a beautiful, gabled house on the Lange Delft, not far from Middelburg's imposing abbey. Philip Danvelt inherits the house and lives there with his wife Johanna when he is arrested by Lord Claude de Rhynsault.
 * In The Canterbury Tales, c. 1387, the Merchant speaks of the absolute importance of keeping the sea free of pirates bitwixe Middelburgh and Orewelle ("between Middelburg and Orwell", the latter referring to the River Orwell in England).

title: Middelburg, Zeeland


text:
Kirkwall

Kirkwall (Kirkwa, Kirkwaa, or Kirkwal; Kirkavå) is the largest town in Orkney, an archipelago to the north of mainland Scotland. First mentioned in the Orkneyinga saga, it is today the location of the headquarters of the Orkney Islands Council and a transport hub with ferries to many locations. It at the centre of the St Magnus International Festival and is also popular stopping off point for cruise ships. St Magnus Cathedral stands at the heart of the town.

Etymology
The name Kirkwall comes from the Norse name Kirkjuvágr meaning "church bay", the settlement having been established by the Norse in the 11th century. As late as 1525 the name is recorded as Kirkevaag. This became in time "Kirkwaa" and then eventually Kirkwall - but how the second syllable came to be spelled "wall" is not certain. MacBain quotes F. W. L. Thomas: "How, I ask, could vágr come to be represented by wall? Whence came the ll? Was it that Scottish immigrants finding the sound of vá represented it in writing by 'wall,' the ll at first being silent?"

History
The town was first mentioned in the Orkneyinga saga in the year 1046, when it was recorded as the residence of Rögnvald Brusason, the Earl of Orkney, who was killed by his uncle Thorfinn the Mighty. In 1486, King James III of Scotland elevated Kirkwall to the status of a royal burgh. On the western edge of the town, surrounded by Hatston Industrial Estate, there is a prehistoric monument, known as the "Grain Earth House" (see Historic Scotland). It is a short, low, stone-walled passage, deep underground, leading to a small pillared chamber. This kind of earth house (or "souterrain") is characteristic of the Northern Isles (although the Grain Earth House is unusually deep below ground). It was originally connected to a surface dwelling, which has since disappeared. The purpose of these Iron Age structures remains unknown. Further west, towards Grimbister, there is a similar structure, known as Rennibister Earth House.

Governance
Kirkwall is the administrative centre of Orkney, and the site of the headquarters of both Orkney Islands Council and NHS Orkney.

From 1708 to 1918, Kirkwall was a parliamentary burgh, and was combined with Dingwall, Dornoch, Tain and Wick to form the Northern Burghs constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of Great Britain (1708–1801) and then of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (1801–1918). (Cromarty was added to this constituency in 1832.) The constituency was a district of burghs known as the Tain Burghs until 1832, and then as the Wick Burghs. It was represented by one Member of Parliament (MP) until 1918, when the constituency was abolished and Kirkwall was merged politically into the county constituency of Orkney and Shetland. Although sometimes referred to as "The City and Royal Burgh of Kirkwall" Kirkwall is not technically a city.

In the 1784–85 term, the well-known outspoken Liberal Charles James Fox represented Tain in the British Parliament. His political opponents fiercely objected to his having been elected from his usual constituency, Westminster; the unlikely resolution of this dispute was that Fox was made a burgess of Kirkwall.

Geography
Kirkwall is 130 mi north of Aberdeen and 528 mi north of London. It is situated on the northern coast of Mainland, Orkney, with its harbours in the bay of Kirkwall to the north, and with Scapa Flow 1.4 mi to the south. Its parish, St Ola, forms the isthmus between Firth and Holm. It is the most populous island settlement in Scotland.

Climate
Kirkwall has an oceanic climate (Cfb), with a strong maritime influence on its temperature. As a result, it is generally cooler than the rest of the UK in the summer. The exception is that Kirkwall tends to be warmer than Shetland, being closer to mainland Scotland.

Demography
The population of Kirkwall is continuously on the rise. The population rose from 6,205 in 2001 to 9,293 in 2011 to reach an estimated 10,020 in 2020.

Economy
Kirkwall harbour with nearly 1 km of quay edge is the second commercial hub for Orkney after Hatston. There is a Marina, and support for fishing and dive vessels. After extensive work on harbour facilities, the town has become a popular cruise ship stop, with several ships arriving each week in the season. This has added to the prosperity of the town and allowed a thriving sector of independently owned shops. Each year now, 140 cruise ships visit Kirkwall and Stromness.

Weaving in Orkney took place from Viking times, with John Sclater & Co involved in Tweed production in Kirkwall in the 1970s. They used the brand names Norsaga and Jarltex.

Culture and community
The Orkney Library and Archive is in Kirkwall. Kirkwall also has the most northerly of the world's Carnegie libraries, which was opened by Andrew Carnegie and his wife in 1909. The building survives, although the library has since moved to a larger building on Junction Road which opened in August 2003.

The town has two museums, the larger being The Orkney Museum in Tankerness House, which contains items of local historical interest within one of Scotland's best-preserved 16th-century town-houses. It is a Category A listed building Scotland. The prehistoric, Pictish and Viking collections are of international importance. The other museum is the Orkney Wireless Museum, dealing with the history of radio and recorded sound. It is located in a Category C listed building, possibly the former harbour master's office, on Junction Road. Orkney Tourist Board is located in an 18th-century Category B listed building on Broad Street.

There is a Royal National Lifeboat Institution lifeboat station.

One of the major annual events in the town is the Ba Game, held each Christmas Day and New Year's Day between the Uppies and the Doonies, each team representing one half of the town.

Media and the arts
The composer Peter Maxwell Davies was among a group which founded the annual St Magnus International Festival which is centred on Kirkwall each midsummer. Notable music acts such as the Wrigley Sisters and Bryttania formed in Kirkwall.

Orkney Theatre, a 384-seat venue, was opened in 2014 next to Kirkwall Grammar School in The Meadows. It has an orchestra pit which can be made available for use by removing two rows of seats.

Kirkwall Harbour can be seen in The Highlands and Islands – A Royal Tour, a 1973 documentary about Prince Charles' visit to the Highlands and Islands, directed by Oscar Marzaroli. Scottish film-maker Margaret Tait was born in Kirkwall, and many of her films (in particular the Aspects of Kirkwall series) are set there.

Long-running The Simpsons character Groundskeeper Willie was born in Kirkwall.

Landmarks
Kirkwall has many 17th–18th-century houses and other structures in the local vernacular style. Kirkwall Town Hall was completed in 1884.

Transport
Kirkwall is a port with ferry services to Aberdeen and Lerwick, as well as the principal north islands in the group. Hatson pier, the main ferry terminal, is some 2 mi outside the town centre.

The Aberdeen, Leith, Clyde & Tay Shipping Company operated steamer services to Kirkwall from 1836, with successor companies operating until 2002.

Kirkwall Airport, the main airport for Orkney, is 2+1/2 mi southeast of the town. There are no passenger rail services in Kirkwall, the nearby railways having been industrial or military.

Nursery schools

 * Glaitness Nursery
 * Papdale Nursery
 * Peedie Breeks Nursery (closed 2020)
 * Strynd Nursery
 * Willow Tree Nursery

Primary schools

 * Aurrida School
 * Glaitness Primary School
 * Papdale Primary School

Secondary schools

 * Kirkwall Grammar School

Colleges and universities

 * Orkney College UHI
 * Institute of Northern Studies

The oldest school in Kirkwall, Kirkwall Grammar School, has been established since circa 1200. The current school building was opened in 2014.

The Orkney College main campus is situated in Kirkwall, in a purpose-built building that opened in 2000.

Religious sites
The 'Kirk' of Kirkwall was not the cathedral (which was originally at Birsay), but the 11th-century church of Saint Olaf of Norway. One late medieval doorway survives from this church, and an aumbry from the original church survives within the late 19th-century structure of the present-day Saint Olaf's Church (Episcopal) in the town's Dundas Crescent. At the heart of the town stands St Magnus Cathedral, which was founded in memory of Saint Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney 1108–1117 by Earl (later Saint) Rögnvald Kali. Next to the cathedral are the ruins of the former Bishop's Palace and Earl's Palace.

Sport
The Pickaquoy Centre, Orkney's largest leisure centre, is located in Kirkwall, which opened in 1999.

Kirkwall Grammar School Sports Centre has indoor sports facilities, and grass and synthetic pitches, available to the public.

Twin town – sister city
Kirkwall is twinned with:

 * Moena, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol (since 1996)

Notable people

 * Conran of Orkney, 7th-century Bishop of the Orkneys
 * Stanley Cursiter, Painter and Limner, born in East Road
 * Ola Gorie, jewellery designer
 * Peter Marshall. He was educated in Kirkwall.
 * Clara Anne Williams (née Rendall) (Kirkwall, 24 July 1887), missionary, teacher, wife of Rev. Aeneas Francon Williams, was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind medal in 1946 for her work during WWII being in-charge of Red Cross work in Dooars, Bengal, India.
 * Ann Scott-Moncrieff, author and writer

title: Kirkwall


text:
Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney

Saint Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, sometimes known as Magnus the Martyr, was Earl of Orkney from 1106 to about 1117.

Magnus's grandparents, Thorfinn the Mighty, Jarl of Orkney and his wife Ingibiorg Finnsdottir, had two sons, Erlend and Paul, who were twins. Through Ingibiorg's father Finn Arnesson and his wife, the family was related to the Norwegian Kings Olav II and Harald II.

Family background
Magnus was the first son of Erlend Thorfinnsson, Earl of Orkney (who ruled jointly with his brother Paal) and Thora, a daughter of Sumarlidi Ospaksson. They had one other son, Aerling, and two daughters, Gunnhild and Cecilia. Erlend also had a natural daughter called Jaddvor. Paul and Erlend remained on friendly terms until their children grew to adulthood, due to the rivalry between Haakon Paulsson and Aerling Erlendsson. Both are described as talented but also quarrelsome and arrogant. Magnus, by contrast, was "a quiet sort of man".

Haakon believed himself to be the most highly-born of the cousins and wanted to be seen as the foremost amongst his kin, but Aerling was not one to back down. The fathers did their best to reach a settlement but it became clear that they were both favouring their own offspring and eventually the earldom was divided into two distinct territories.

Norwegian influence
Haakon Paalsson went on a long journey to Scandinavia, with his cousin Ofeig, latterly staying with his kinsman, Magnus Barefoot the king of Norway. Whilst there he heard that his father Paal had largely handed over control of Orkney to Earl Erlend and his sons and that after a substantial period of peace the people of Orkney were not keen to see Haakon returning. He therefore asked King Magnus for help in the hope of obtaining the earldom for himself. Haakon suggested to the king that he take back direct control of Orkney as a base for raiding further afield. Magnus was persuaded and in 1098 he launched a major campaign, taking his 8-year-old son Sigurd with him. However, King Magnus had designs that were not envisaged by Haakon. He took possession of the islands, deposing both Erlend and Paal Thorfinsson who were sent away to Norway as prisoners, Haakon and his cousins Magnus and Aerling Erlendsson were taken by King Magnus as hostages and Sigurd was installed as the nominal earl. Sigurd's rule was aided by a council, with Haakon as a member of this group.

From Orkney, King Magnus then set out on a raiding expedition along the west coast of Scotland and into the Irish Sea.

Battle of Menai Straits
According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Magnus had a reputation for piety and gentleness, which the Norwegians viewed as cowardice. He refused to fight in a Viking raid in Anglesey, Wales, because of his religious convictions, and instead stayed on board the ship during the Battle of Menai Straits, singing psalms. His brother Aerling died while campaigning with King Magnus, either at that same battle or in Ulster.

Magnus was obliged to take refuge in Scotland, but returned to Orkney in 1105 and disputed the succession with his cousin Haakon. Having failed to reach an agreement, he sought help from King Eystein I of Norway, who granted him the earldom of Orkney and he ruled jointly and amicably with Haakon until 1114.

Execution
Eventually however, the followers of the two earls fell out, and the sides met at the Thing (assembly) on the Orkney mainland, ready to do battle. Peace was negotiated and the Earls arranged to meet each other on the island of Egilsay at Easter, each bringing only two ships. Magnus arrived with his two ships, but then Haakon treacherously turned up with eight ships.

Magnus took refuge in the island's church overnight, but the following day he was captured and offered to go into exile or prison, but an assembly of chieftains, tired of joint rule, insisted that one earl must die. Haakon's standard bearer, Ofeigr, refused to execute Magnus, and an angry Haakon made his cook Lifolf kill Magnus by striking him on the head with an axe. It was said that Magnus first prayed for the souls of his executioners.

According to the sagas, the martyrdom took place after Easter, on 16 April. The year is often given as 1115, but this is impossible as 16 April fell before Easter that year. Sigurd Towrie follows Orkney Historian Gregor Lamb in placing the death of Magnus in 1118. The best authorities now give the date at 1117 and his 900th anniversary was commemorated in his Cathedral in Kirkwall in Orkney in 2017.

Burial
Magnus was first buried on the spot where he died. According to his legend, the rocky area around his grave miraculously became a green field. Later Thora, Magnus' mother, asked Haakon to allow her to bury him in a church. Haakon gave his permission and Magnus was then buried at Christchurch at Birsay.

There were numerous reports of miraculous happenings and healings. William the Old, Bishop of Orkney, warned that it was "heresy to go about with such tales" and was then struck blind at his church, but subsequently had his sight restored after praying at the grave of Magnus, not long after visiting Norway (and perhaps meeting Earl Rognvald Kolsson).

In 1136 Bishop William of Orkney sanctified the murdered Earl Magnus, making him Saint Magnus. It is thought probable that St Magnus Church, Egilsay, was constructed on the island shortly afterwards, at or near the supposed site of the murder. This may have replaced an earlier church which could have already been there at the time of the murder of Magnus.

Magnus's nephew, Rögnvald Kali Kolsson, laid claim to the Earldom of Orkney, and was advised by his father Kol to promise the islanders to "build a stone minster at Kirkwall" in memory of his uncle, the Holy Earl, and this became St Magnus Cathedral. When the cathedral, begun in 1137, was ready for consecration, the relics of St Magnus were transferred. On 31 March 1919, during restoration work, a hidden cavity was found in a column, containing a box with bones including a damaged skull. These are held without (much) doubt to be the relics of St Magnus. The remains were replaced in the pillar in 1926, with the location marked with a cross.

Interpretations
At the time the Orkneyinga saga was first written down Haakon Paalsson's grandson, Harald Maddadsson, was Earl of Orkney and the writer of the saga clearly had some difficulty in portraying the kin-slaying of Magnus Erlendsson. Thomson (2008) concludes that the "assembly" that sentenced Magnus was either invented or heavily emphasised in order to "divert some of the blame from Hakon". Furthermore, in reporting on Earl Haakon's death the saga reports that this was "felt to be a great loss, his later years having been very peaceful".

The beatification of members of the nobility who met a violent death was a common tendency in medieval Scandinavian society. In the case of Earl Magnus it also had a political purpose in that it enabled the surviving descendants of Erlend Thorfinsson and their family to turn this death to their advantage in portraying him as a peaceful martyr. Ultimately they succeeded in maintaining their prominent position in Orkney when Rognvald Kali Kolsson, the son of Magnus's sister Gunnhild became earl in 1136.

In literature and the arts
Saint Magnus is the subject of the novel Magnus by Orcadian author George Mackay Brown, which was published in 1973, St Magnus, Earl of Orkney by John Mooney, and "Saint Magnus, the Last Viking" a novel for young adults by Susan Peek, published in 2016. In 1977 Peter Maxwell Davies wrote a one-act opera, The Martyrdom of St Magnus, based on Mackay Brown's novel. In 1989 the English composer Clive Strutt who lives on the Orkney island of South Ronaldsay composed THREE HYMNS In Praise of Saint Magnus based on a 12th-century theme existing in Uppsala University, Sweden. The song "Higher Ground" by Rasmussen, which represented Denmark at the Eurovision Song Contest 2018, is based on the legend of Magnus Erlendsson. In 2023 Loganair named one of their Britten-Norman Islande (registration G-BLDV) Magnus Erlendsson.

Affiliations
In the Faroes, the St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkjubøur was built around 1300 A.D., at the time of Bishop Erlendur. It is quite sure that the church was used for services (though it never was finished, or has been destroyed later), for estimated relics of Saint Magnus were found here in 1905. Kirkjubøur is one of the most important Faroese historical sites and expected to become a World Heritage Site. In total there are 21 churches in Europe dedicated to St Magnus.

St Magnus the Martyr is a church near the north end of London Bridge in London originally dating to the 12th century, which was reconstructed under the direction of Christopher Wren in the 17th century.

Other affiliations include:
 * TS Magnus, Australian Navy Cadets
 * Anglican Church Grammar School in Brisbane, of which he is the patron saint, and also namesake of Magnus house.

title: Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney