text:
Talk:Loanword

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 26 August 2019 and 11 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Siot0819.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:46, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Cleanup
The article is a mess. The section on the classification could be better organised. The section about English should end up at the end of the article. But primarily, the "other languages" section is a mixture of everything, from Jèrriais applying historical processes to recent borrowings to the recent displeasure of the Italian government. Rather than such trivia, the article could use some more core content on e.g. the phonetic adaptation of borrowings or the circumstances in which words are being borrowed. --93.105.205.33 (talk) 16:27, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

I edited the part of the source for the English loan of loanword. In the source itself it's only spoken about German as source for it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.100.62.29 (talk) 09:45, 4 November 2014 (UTC)

"Borrowed from one language"
Is it meaningful to talk of terms being "borrowed" from one language? I know this is the term used, but "borrowing" has the sense of depriving with the intention of returning at a later date, and this is not what happens with loanwords. Then again, the same problem arises with the word "loanword", so perhaps "borrowing" is OK after all. — 194.74.1.82 (talk) 17:09, 2 February 2011 (UTC)
 * "Borrowing" is the word used in the literature. --Pfold (talk) 18:08, 2 February 2011 (UTC)
 * This is a little crazy when you think about it. "Loanword" is a very strange term to apply in situations in which words or expressions from other languages are incorporated into common language use.  But I disagree with the above commenter who says "borrow has a sense of depriving with intention to return...." it's obvious this is not about a "physical object" being handed off, but about a word - a spoken sound.  Words / spoken sounds can be used freely.  This sounds like a cutesy expression from a some college English teacher who was not thinking deeply about what he / she was saying ... by-the-way, do they still teach English in college these days?  Loan infers the original host language acted purposefully to allow the borrower language to use the expression.  That sounds like "expropriated." Language do not act purposefully.  It is even weird if you think about it.  By that measure borrowed is also inappropriate.  Words/expressions are also not purposefully borrowed from another language.  They are both action verbs but there is no actor doing the acting.  Of the two, borrow is more appropriate for obvious reasons since the "borrower" did this thing ... the "loaner" had zero say, zero to do with this matter.  Maybe "adopted from" is better yet.Danleywolfe (talk) 16:29, 26 November 2013 (UTC)

 * I repeat: "Borrowing" and "Loanword" are the terms used in the literature. This a well established field of linguistic scholarship - arguing with the terminology and suggesting "corrections" is utterly pointless. --Pfold (talk) 17:51, 26 November 2013 (UTC)
 * And linguists are aware that the metaphor is flawed. —Tamfang (talk) 02:09, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

Bias
In the Classes section the following appears:

 * "One of the most dramatic examples of a loan word that carries with it a new concept is the introduction of the idea of the seventh day as a holy day of rest presented to the pagan world through Hebrew. The Hebrew word שַׁבָּת has been transliterated into practically every language in the world: in Arabic it is transliterated as السبت; Greek Σάββατο; Latin sabbato; Spanish sábado; and in English Sabbath."

The suggestion that Arabic "borrowed" the word "sabbath" from Hebrew can be most charitably described as inaccurate. Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic (among others) descend from the same language, and the word for Saturday is derived from the Arabic numeral seven in exactly the same way that all other days of the week are derived from the numbers 1-6. Suggesting that the word is borrowed from Hebrew is rather like suggesting that French borrowed the word "Lundi" from Spanish. I'm removing the reference to Arabic, but would also recommend rewriting this section. 76.167.253.199 (talk) 19:45, 15 August 2011 (UTC)

 * lundi was obviously borrowed from Italian, not Spanish. —Tamfang (talk) 02:11, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

Clean up banner
Saw banner, had a go, but will need several editors to give this article a churn. In ictu oculi (talk) 05:03, 30 October 2011 (UTC)
 * reorganised the leading section trying to turn it into a 101 for general users
 * didn't touch the linguistic classification section (this is way too technical for anyone with no academic knowledge - but then happy to leave this untouched)
 * transmission - minor changes, but mostly subsectioning
 * reborrowing - deleted the beefsteak example per previous editors critique and due to the cinema one being self-evident.

definition
The intro appears rather long, however, a definition can often be clarified by giving the opposite, here "native or inherited word", where I would suggest "native", because also loans can be inherited. HJJHolm (talk) 10:20, 3 February 2013 (UTC)

Citation Request
I added a citation request on the origin of the English suffix -er due to the possible (and likelier) source alternative in Proto-Germanic -ārijaz. 217.16.133.200 (talk) 11:01, 24 August 2013 (UTC)

Contradiction with example "café"
In the introduction, it lists the word borrowed from french "café" as an example of a loan word. Yet, in the linguistic definition diagram it lists "café" as a "foreign word," not a "loadword." This seems like a contradiction? If I'm understanding correctly, since café keeps the original spelling, it is in fact not a loanword? It's all rather confusing, honestly. I think this article could do much better to clarify things. Fritzendugan (talk) 02:11, 14 July 2014 (UTC)

In keeping all the discussion centralized, I've included discussion from my talk page on this topic from another user:
 * Hello, Fritzendugan. In your Talk note about Loanword, you make a good point about the ambiguity of "café" between the categories of "loanword" and "foreign word". The system of categories seems to entail more precision than is warranted by the data. What would you think of inserting the following wording immediately below the diagram?
 * The diagram’s distinction between a “loan word” and a “foreign word”--based as it is on the presence or absence of orthographic adaptation--can be problematic in a language whose spelling system is heterogeneous, such as English. By one standard, the frequent omission of the accent from “café”, for example, might constitute an adaptation and qualify the word as a loanword. By another standard, the fact that the spelling has not been altered to “caffay” might mark the word as an unadapted “foreign word”. Kotabatubara (talk) 14:10, 14 July 2014 (UTC)

I would like to add that I think the above suggestion helps to clarify the confusion, and would probably be sufficient. Fritzendugan (talk) 06:59, 15 July 2014 (UTC)

Linguistic classification image
This branching image seems a little awkward to read, illegible at smaller screen sizes and entirely useless to screen readers. Should it be a table or something instead, perhaps with fewer examples? --Gnomus (talk) 18:23, 23 May 2015 (UTC)
 * I agree. Unfortunately, I wouldn't know what to do to really help tackle the accessibility issues of the image (although I've seen Wikipedia tables with pretty interesting cell sizes, so it probably is possible to move to a table), but I would agree that less examples are needed (I would even go as far as to say one example per item is enough). As well, I think something needs to be done with the font and style. Change the font, change the line spacing, something, because what it is now is not the best (although I am no expert). JaykeBird (talk) 13:13, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

"Citation needed"
Did someone have a field day posting Citation needed tags all over the article?

I definitely agree that citations are important to have, especially for information that is not generally known, but some of the information that is here, I may consider common knowledge of the subject. Some of the stuff tagged are things that you would get by simply looking at the two words. From Origins, "[Latin words] missa and communio have entered English as mass and communion". Anyone looking at the English and Latin words would obviously assume that one led to another; the only concern would be a false etymology, and if that is the case, it should be removed, not cited.

At the very least, though, this is an example of overtagging. All but one paragraph in Origins has a "Citation needed" tag on it. Nearly every single paragraph in Transmission Patterns has this tag. This is simply too much.

I would suggest we review the article and think more about what does and does not really need a citation, and remove unnecessary "Citation needed" tags from the article. If there's still a multitude of them, I would suggest we instead post refimprove at the top of the article, and write a post in the talk page stating what sections and sentences need citations. JaykeBird (talk) 13:56, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Loanword. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012643/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20050524aj.html to http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20050524aj.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 16:12, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

Add something like this?
I moved some text from the article Transliteration to its Talk page, because I felt it does not belong to transliteration but perhaps to the topic of loanwords. I do not want to insert it into this article because I feel it needs quite some editing before it can be added. I think the author of the removed section wanted to express some thoughts on how loanwords are modified in the goal language. For example, the English "bishop" does not include the nominative suffix "-os" from the Greek original "episkopos". My guess at the reason is that the nominative marker was, in a sense, translated (to an empty morpheme in English) while the main part of the word "episkop-" was borrowed. Is this an example of a loanblend? Is it something to add to this page? -- David N. Jansen (talk) 12:55, 30 June 2017 (UTC)

Lead sentence

Hello, I've moved your comment about the lead of this article here, so other interested editors may participate if they wish to; they are unlikely to find it on my Talk page.

Your remarks are apparently in response to this revert of your edit to the lead sentence. You graciously accepted it, but I wanted to explain my original rationale, and point out an additional problem. In the edit summary, you said it provided phrasal suppletion for readability and semantic clarity. I wouldn't say it made it much worse, but every edit should improve the article in some way, no matter how small. There's an argument that your edit made it slightly worse for our foreign readers, because the original version of the sentence is simpler, and closer in form at least to Romance languages like Spanish, French, Italian,, or Portuguese for example. Slavic languages also follow this pattern. Given that that does double-duty in English as both a relative and a demonstrative, including it where it is not needed might lead a foreign reader down the garden path assuming a demonstrative that wasn't there and requiring back-pedaling to reparse and understand the sentence, especially where the original sentence is complicated by various appositives or parentheticals, as you rightly pointed out. This was a major factor in my original revert; I apologize for the brevity of my "better before", as I usually err on the side of being too wordy (of which this post may be a good example!) rather than too brief. Like you, I also am not too crazy about overly telegraphic responses that don't indicate what the objection is. Part of my excuse, if you want to call it that, is that you never know who's actually going to read or consider a longer, more well thought out response, or whether you're just wasting your time, and a couple of words suffice. I can see that you are someone who is definitely reading and considering the meaning of the summary, and I'll try to do better next time as far as being more informative in the summary.

That said, I don't think the word as added to the lead sentence in the follow-up edit helps at all—what is it even doing there?—and may be worse. However, I don't wish to revert again, and I'll let someone else get involved with it, should they care to.

Finally, I'm in full agreeement with you about the seven interpolated words; that's almost a pet peeve of mine, and if I ever get around to writing a bot, it will be one that counts the number of useless words between the subject of the lead sentence and its verb, and tags it for copyediting when it exceeds some threshold. I keep mental notes when I see them, and I well remember one that had 37 words between the bolded topic noun phrase, and the verb is. In cases like that, I just imagine people falling asleep on their keyboard, waiting for the verb to arrive; this is something that the Germans have a patent on, and English speakers shouldn't have to put up with it. Now you'll have to excuse me, as my fetish for reduced relatives (tiny cousins struck by my magic shrinking ray gun?) demands my attention... Cheers, Mathglot (talk) 03:16, 4 March 2021 (UTC)

 * I put "as" there for two reasons: First, in my understanding of Latin-based and Asiatic languages, a conjunction is required in the relevant context, and its omission in English can be disconcerting or perplexing. Second, the meaning I intended with "as" is "in the manner that (a word is)" or "like (a word is)." More than just serving a syntactic function, I intended it to cover those gray-area cases between loanword/calque/pidgin word, especially when some element of the word gets changed in the borrowing, whether it's pronunciation, spelling, compounding, or whatever. (Think naive versus naïve, or et cetera versus et cētera.) Don't get me wrong: I really do admire the definition the way I found it, feel a bit chagrined by my first edit (re. the tense issue, not the conjunction itself), and I stand by the inclusion of "as" as an improvement, but wouldn't feel humiliated if something better came along. One quibble: It seems we disagree about how foreign readers respond to "that" when they encounter it. In my experience, they're more confounded by it's omission than by its sometimes ambiguous inclusion. And one callout on where you're decidedly equivocal: "that" does not do double-duty in English; it performs quintuple -duty as (1) a relative pronoun, (2) demonstrative pronoun, (3) conjunction-A (i.e. so-called relativizer), (4) conjunction-B (i.e. so-called complementizer), and (5) adverb (e.g. "Do you think this is all that important?"). Nonetheless, I think that that that that that first edit meant is not as troublesome as that that that that comment you made above makes it out to be. Got that? Cheers.--Kent Dominic·(talk) 05:07, 4 March 2021 (UTC)

 * P.S. I have no use for the traditionalist terms, relative clause (whether restrictive or non-restrictive), defining clause, and adjectival clause together with their misbegotten relative pronouns, etc. And my skin curls at the terms, "relativizer" and "complementizer" despite how I endorse the thrust of the former as well as the latter's view that the traditional relative pronoun is no pronoun at all, but rather a conjunction. In my lexicon, there are appositive conjunctions (e.g. "The bread that I bought...), parenthetical pronouns (e.g., "The bread, which I bought yesterday, ...") and nominal conjunctions (e.g. "She said that she baked the bread"). Furthermore, there are appositive phrases (e.g. "The bread that sold well is out of stock") distinguished from appositive clauses (e.g. "The bread that we ate is out of stock") but only parenthetical clauses (e.g. "The bread, which sold well, is out of stock;" "Milwaukee, where I was born, is in Wisconsin.") This paradigm addresses my pet peeve of linguists who argue essential versus nonessential or defining versus non-defining stuff in a sentence. My question: If that's the smell test, why include non-essential stuff in the first place? Or, why not define stuff more appropriately in the first place? Plus, "relative" has no linguistic relevance to its syntactic function, unlike "appositive" and "parenthetical." I'm publishing later this year. We'll see how far things fly. --Kent Dominic·(talk) 05:07, 4 March 2021 (UTC)

 * I look forward to it. And I'll see your four that 's, and raise you eight buffalo's. Cheers, Mathglot (talk) 05:16, 4 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Cool. But I had 5 that's + 4 that's = 9. Ha! --Kent Dominic·(talk) 10:02, 4 March 2021 (UTC)

Quickfire edit changes; edit summary
I am trying to get a clue when it comes to WP. With editing and WP policy, it's becoming clearer there are as many styles and interpretations as there are editors. I understand the general, but there are sometimes remarks made shortly after an edit that leave me unsure.

On this page for example, I made edits to what was, in my view, some very under-developed concepts, some using expression I would contend was not encyclopedic in tone. The issues I tried to edit out had been present in the article for a considerable time. Another editor made changes to my edit very soon after. Their edit summary made some fair-enough points, but those points would equally apply to the base material I changed - again, I mention, of longstanding presence. So, I become a bit unsure: Do they realise this? Was it me moving it around that brought it to their attention? Do they think it's actually now? Hard to say, but for the removal of (my) doubt, I explain, in tiresome detail, the edits. AukusRuckus (talk) 09:07, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Concision v. precision
Sorry for the "wall-o'-text". My edits, though, were merely variations and re-positioning of text in existence long before my changes. I realise your ES may well be just generalised, not-specifically directed, comments, but as they came so quickly after my change, thought I would address your comments directly anyway. This here is truly a wall of text! For which, in advance, my apologies.

Firstly, this statement, in the body of the article since at least 2015:

Strictly speaking, the term loanword conflicts with the ordinary meaning of loan in that something is taken from the donor language without it being something that is possible to return. of 30 words, I re-wrote to the more encyclopedic voice (imv) using 14 additional words:

Although the term loanword might suggest, through the ordinary meaning of the word loan, (a loaned item being one returned to its original owner), that these might be temporary imports into the "borrowing" language, this metaphorical use implies the foreign origin and utility in the recipient language. loanwords are in effect permanent adoptions from the "donor" language. [Struck out phrases included in edit, but may be improved without; new, not included words, in colour.]

As explication of the term, I thought it a better fit in the lead than where it was. However, "lead follows body", so perhaps it is out of place there too. It clearly does not fit into the section from which it came, "Examples and related terms". It's the term, not a related one. Whatever the case, again, a very recent addition.

Included in the removed wall of text was:

This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because they share an etymological origin, and calques, which involve translation.

and this sentence: Loanwords from languages with different scripts are usually transliterated (between scripts), but they are not translated.

Again, these are of fairly longstanding. (How long they've been in the lead, I'm not sure, but I think since well before your most recent edits to the article). As it is, I think the lead may now verge on too short to be "a concise overview" of article. However, YMMV! AukusRuckus (talk) 09:07, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * I pity the reader who, after reading the lead, mistakes "loanword" for a word borrowed from a given language only to be returned or restored subsequently. That's what editor before you ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/72.231.184.83) was rightfully concerned about. A way to avert such a notion: "permanently adopted." Even a slight expansion a la "permanently adopted without intending to return or restore..." seems superfluous. I have no substantive qualms with the verbiage predating this latest round of edits, but that mouthful of explication is aimed at the least common denominator. (Really, how would you react to an article on, say, clownfish, if it specified that it had nothing to do with a clown? Hint: There's an infinite number of things that something is not.) --Kent Dominic·(talk) 13:45, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree it is unneeded. It seems it was of importance to previous editors, as for example, here. My approach to editing is a cautious one: Go with what's there, especially if it's been around for a while, lest you offend someone, and attempt to improve that. I  from the assumption that the existence of a statement over the medium- to long-term meets with the consensus of users, before my arrival on the scene. "Expansion" was just an attempt to be more precise. I do not give a bollocks about this trivial text, I just did not want the wall of text ES directed at someone who did not create it. The argument for its exclusion is preaching to the choir. It seems I did not convey the point I intended to, for which my apologies for wasting your time. All the best,  AukusRuckus (talk) 01:45, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Forget the stricken part. I mistook what was removed from the lead when looking at the diff. Still not sure what "attempting to distinguish 'loanwords' from 'loaned words'" means, though. Not anything I was trying to do ... AukusRuckus (talk) 10:59, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * "Loaned word" is the interpretation implicit in what the previous editor ridiculed. I agree that the deleted material was superfluous and unencyclopedic. If there's anyone who thinks we borrowed "soufflé" from the French on loan for a few centuries only to return the word after we've finished with it, please restore that earlier verbiage. --Kent Dominic·(talk) 13:45, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks,, that actually gave me a good laugh! 01:45, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Original research
An editor, in 2017, included something about routes of transmission of loanwords, contrasting "popular" loanwords with "learned" ones: Popular loanwords are spread orally. Learned loanwords are first used in written language, often for scholarly, scientific, or literary purposes.

To me, this was ill-defined (what's "popular", what's "learned"?), but it was cited, so I thought it best to only alter its tone, substituting, "spread orally" with "by word-of-mouth" (among other changes). As with the original material, I presumed that the source given by earlier editor covered both statements. That was tagged, with the ES saying "the 'w-o-m' verbiage smacks of WP:OR". If it were up to me only, I would remove this part entirely, until a fully developed section -or at least paragraph- on the incorporation of borrowings into languages could be written.

My question is: Is it the I used that suggests OR? If not, why was it not tagged before, in its former state? I would be fine with changing it back to "spread orally", if that would help, as that was not the crux of my changes. In any case, I added another cite and another instance of the existing cite (although I do not have access to that source.) AukusRuckus (talk) 09:07, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * That 2017 edit might be factually true, but it wasn't attested by cite. It also seems reasonable that popular loanwords are spread word of mouth. But, according to whom? If according only to what you and I (and perhaps the 2017 editor) believe to be true, then it's WP:OR. My tag urged posting a cite that backs up what might well be common sense but nonetheless had no objective data or published assertion to back it up. --Kent Dominic·(talk) 13:58, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
 * That is what I am saying (and said above), though: I believe (possibly incorrectly) it attested to in the cite already given. If you know that it was not, then surely tag would have been better? My comments are nothing to do with including "commonsense" assertions without sources. I never want to do that. Where in all my excessive verbiage have I given that impression? Perhaps, in trying to be specific, I have made a TL:DR, so my points are not understood for that reason?
 * "Popular loanwords are spread orally. Learned loanwords are first used in written language, often for scholarly, scientific, or literary purposes." [previous version]
 * Why is this statement, "Popular loanwords are spread orally." considered unattested? (is what I was to get at.) I took it as a part-and-parcel of a unified premise, cited at the end of par, as normal. You don't address that. And that was my query, not some need to keep it included because it's common sense!
 * Also, was surprised a little by just what you're saying here: It's been there a long time, but edit  - seemingly - brought it to an editor's attention. I.e. If it "smacks of WP:OR", why didn't it "smack of OR" before? I realise you may never have seen or noticed that before; none of us are required to notice, and we can add tags or alter when we do, if we want. That does not seem to be what you are saying, though. It just leaves me confused. .. Just getting my head around the in-and-outs, trying to adjust my style to the WP-style, and fellow-editors. I will stop my blather now. AukusRuckus (talk) 01:45, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

 * The stuff in question wasn't properly attested before the latest round of edits. I vaguely recall seeing the verbiage and thinking it needed to be deleted if not properly cited, but I had no particular interest in following up. My editing interests typically extend no further than the lead ¶ of an article, so the material under discussion was pretty much off my radar. I tend to withhold most of my gripes unless an article's lead is implicated. Seeing your edit as it popped up on my watchlist, however, motivated my further involvement. Indeed there are tons of other issues in this article that aren't worth my bother. Offhand, "very few Indonesians have a fluent knowledge of Dutch" is unattested and not really relevant to this article. Also, the entire second ¶ in the Linguistic classification is rife with unattested WP:OR and argumentation. I've got no ax to grind; I'm just calling it out as major departures from Wikipedia's standards. Someone more passionate about this topic is bound to straighten it out sooner or later. --Kent Dominic·(talk) 02:51, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Date error?
I don't know the correct dates so I can't fix it, but when I read 'The studies by Werner Betz (1971, 1901)' I thought it seemed improbable that he wrote studies 70 years apart. So I clicked on the link to see that he would have written the first study 11 years before he was born. Assuming his birthdate is correct, the 1901 study date is impossible. I hope someone can correct this. Werner August Josef Betz (1 September 1912 – 13 July 1980) 2601:58A:8E7F:6F60:6876:7251:E529:EDA1 (talk) 03:03, 22 September 2023 (UTC)

Café
"Examples of loanwords in the English language include café (from French café, which means "coffee")"

Not true... Le café also means the place, not only the drink. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/french-english/caf%C3%A9

See it says "établissement" But it's arguing that the establishment doesn't exist in French in the sentence. Can this be better fixed with a reference? — Preceding unsigned comment added by KimYunmi (talk • contribs) 18:45, 28 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Loanword


text:
User:Wer~enwiki

Began editing in the year 2002.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Wer~enwiki


text:
Akureyri

Akureyri (, locally ) is a town in northern Iceland. Akureyrarbær ("town of Akureyri") is Iceland's fifth most populous municipality and the largest outside the Capital Region. The municipality includes the town's neighbourhood at the head of Eyjafjörður and two farther islands: Hrísey at the mouth of Eyjafjörður and Grímsey off the coast.

Nicknamed the "Capital of North Iceland", Akureyri is an important port and fishing centre. The area where Akureyri is located was settled in the 9th century, but did not receive a municipal charter until 1786. Allied units were based in the town during World War II. Further growth occurred after the war as the Icelandic population increasingly moved to urban areas.

The area has a relatively mild climate because of geographical factors, and the town's ice-free harbour has played a significant role in its history.

History

The Norse Viking Helgi magri (the slim) Eyvindarson originally settled the area in the 9th century. The first mention of Akureyri is in court records from 1562, when a woman was sentenced there for adultery. In the 17th century, Danish merchants based their camps at the current site of Akureyri, which was one of the numerous spits of land in Pollurinn. The main reasons for choosing this spot for trading operations were the outstanding natural harbour and the fertility of the area. The merchants did not live at Akureyri year-round, but returned home in the winter.

Permanent settlement at Akureyri started in 1778, and eight years later, the town was granted its municipal charter by the king, Christian VII, along with five other towns in Iceland. The king hoped to improve the living conditions of Icelanders by this action, because at the time, Iceland had never had urban areas. As far as the king was concerned, Akureyri was unsuccessful, because it did not grow from its population of 12. It lost its municipal status in 1836, regaining it only in 1862. From then on, Akureyri grew because of the excellent port conditions and perhaps more because of the productive agricultural region around it. Agricultural products became an important sector of the economy.

During World War II, Akureyri was one of three air bases used by the Norwegian-British No. 330 Squadron RNoAF. The squadron, which was formed on 25 April 1941, flew Northrop N-3PB bombers: 'A' flight was based at RAF Reykjavik, 'B' flight at Akureyri and 'C' flight at Budareyri (Reyðarfjörður now). On 1 December 1940, 'A' and 'B' flights ceased operating from Norwegian bases, but 'C' flight continued to fly Northrop N-3PBs from Akureyri until 5 April 1943. No. 330 Squadron RNoAF also operated Catalina flying boats from Akureyri, which protected convoys between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Murmansk in northern Russia from attack by German submarines. Under the German plan for invasion of Iceland, Operation Ikarus, Akureyri was scheduled as one of two ports at which the Germans were to land.

In the 20th century, Iceland experienced an exodus from the countryside to the towns. Commerce and service industries grew to be the primary employers in Akureyri in the 1990s. Jón Sveinsson, a popular author of children's books, was born in Akureyri.

In the early 21st century, fishing industries have become more important in Akureyri as two of the major fishing companies of Iceland have become a more important source of revenue and are expected to grow further in coming years. The University of Akureyri was founded in 1987 and is growing rapidly.

Since 2004, the former municipality of Hrísey, an island 35 km to the north, has been a part of Akureyri. Hrísey, which has a population of 210, is the second-largest island off Iceland and is a site for pet and livestock quarantine. The settlement was previously the site of fishing processing. The town is located on the southern part of the island. The northern part consists of privately owned land that requires passes to enter.

Geography
Akureyri is located at 65.68333°N, -18.1°W and positioned on the west side of the inland end of the fjord Eyjafjörður.

It is surrounded by mountains, the highest being Strýta (1,451 m); 10 km to the west) and Kerling  (1,538 m) at the head of Glerádalur, 15 km to the southwest. It has a narrow coastal strip of flat land; inland is a steep but low hill. In earlier times, a few spits of land (Icelandic: eyri, thus Akur-eyri) jutted from the narrow coast, but much land has since been reclaimed from the sea, so that today the coastline is more even except for the largest spit, Oddeyri , which was formed by the river Glerá, which runs through the town. The name of the town is possibly derived from the name of a field that may have been situated near some of the sheltered locations by the river.

The body of sea between Oddeyri and the end of the fjord is known as Pollurinn ("The Pool") and is known for calm winds and a good natural harbour. Akureyri today is centered on Ráðhústorg (Town Hall Square) near the northwest corner of Pollurinn. The districts of Akureyri are: Innbær, the oldest part of town on the strip of land between the hill and Pollurinn south of the central area; Brekkan , on top of the hill; Oddeyri on the peninsula of the same name; and Glerárhverfi on the north bank of the Glerá (also referred to colloquially as Þorpið , 'the Village'). Because of the town's position at the head of a long fjord surrounded by high mountains, the climate is more typically inland than coastal, with greater variations in temperature (warmer summers, colder winters) than in many other inhabited parts of Iceland. However, the mountains shield the town from strong winds. The relatively warm climate (for its latitude) allows the botanical gardens to flourish without need of a greenhouse. The area around Akureyri has one of the warmest climates in Iceland, even though it is only 100 km from the Arctic Circle.

Climate
Akureyri has either the rare dry-summer subarctic climate (Köppen: Dsc) if the 0 C isotherm is used, or the very rare cold-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csc) if the -3 C isotherm is used, with cold though not severe winters and mild summers. The snow cover starts forming in late October and melts in April, yet snow can lie on the mountain peaks around Akureyri for the whole year. Akureyri is a very cloudy town, averaging only 1,029 sunshine hours annually, with barely any sunshine between November and February (which is also due to the town's location less than 100 km from the Arctic Circle), but precipitation is much lower than in southern Iceland because the prevailing winds are from the south – it is as little as a fifth as much as in Vík í Mýrdal.

Demographics
On 1 January 2015, Akureyri had a population of 18,191; of whom 9,011 were men and 9,180 were women. About 3% of the population are foreign citizens, from 53 countries. In 2014, there were 229 births and 118 deaths in Akureyri. Immigration in 2014 was 1,097 individuals, while emigration was 1,122 residents. Population growth in 2014 was therefore 0.5%. The population in 1910 was 2,239, increasing to 7,711 in 1950 and 16,756 in 2005.

Crime
Crime statistics have been published by the Iceland national police for 2000. Akureyri had a reported 726 nontraffic offences per 10,000 population compared with a national average of 892, while 2,891 traffic offences per 10,000 population were recorded compared with a national average of 2,397. Akureyri has five police officers on call. Incidents have occurred where insufficient police officers were on duty to respond to criminal activity in progress, as confirmed by the mayor. However, Akureyri, and Iceland in general, has one of the lowest crime rates in the world.

Economy
The fishing industry has historically been a large and important part of the local economy. In recent years, other industries and business services have also begun. Higher education is also a growing sector in the local economy. About 20% of the work force is in the service industry.

Two of the five largest fishing companies in Iceland are headquartered in Akureyri, partly because of the ice-free port. Other large companies in Akureyri include Samherji, Norðurmjólk, Brim hf, and Vífilfell, the largest brewery in Iceland. Sjúkrahús Akureyrar (FSA/Akureyri Hospital) is a major employer in the area and is one of two major hospitals in Iceland.

Corporations pay a tax rate of 18% to the national government, which is one of the lowest in the world. No additional local corporate taxes are levied. Property tax, at 1.99%, accounts for most of the tax base. A local government deficit of ISK 1 billion (US$9 million) was anticipated in 2009, prompting a cut in salaries of the mayor, town councilors, and committee members by 10% and increases in local taxes and property taxes.

Culture

Akureyri has a robust cultural scene, with several bars and reputable restaurants (such as "Greifinn", "Bautinn", "RUB 23 Steak/Sushi", "Kung Fu sushi bar" and "Götubarinn"). The Icelandic folk dance ensemble "Vefarinn" comes from Akureyri. Folk culture, in general, is more prevalent in Akureyri than in Reykjavík. During the summer, several festivals are held in Akureyri and the surrounding area. One example is the medieval festival held every summer at Gásir. The Akureyri International Music Festival, a concert series by bands, was held for the fourth time in 2009. The town has one of the largest libraries in the country.

Media
The Vikudagur newspaper is published in Akureyri. The Icelandic National Broadcasting Service (Ríkisútvarpið) operates two radio channels nationwide. The several radio stations in Akureyri include FM Akureyri and Voice FM 98.7. Several television stations can be watched in Akureyri. N4 is a station whose studios are located in Akureyri. Initially a local channel, it began to broadcast nationwide in 2008.

Townscape
Sites that have been cited as areas of interest include various museums, churches, and the Botanical Gardens. Local museums include the Minjasafnið á Akureyri (Akureyri Museum), Listasafnið á Akureyri (Akureyri Art Museum), Nonnahús (Nonni house or Jón Sveinsson Memorial Museum, for the writer), Davíðshús (David's house or Davíð Stefánsson Memorial Museum, for the poet), Akureyri Museum of Industry, a motorcycle museum, and Flugsafn Íslands (Aviation Museum of Iceland). The most northerly 18 hole golf course in the world is in the town. The Náttúrufræðistofnun Norðurlands (Nature Museum) was opened in 1957 and is in the grounds of the Akureyri Botanical Garden. The Botanical Gardens (Lystigarður Akureyrar) are located in Spítalavegur. Large churches include the Akureyrarkirkja (The church of Akureyri) and Glerárkirkja (The church of Glerá). Sundlaug Akureyrar is a swimming pool in Akureyri.

New residential and commercial growth has required an extension of electricity and water distribution, as well as new water drilling. Much of the town is heated geothermally.

Law and government
Akureyri is governed by a town council, directly elected by those over 18 with registered domicile in the town. The council has 11 members, who are elected for four-year terms. The mayor is appointed by the council: usually one of the council members is chosen, but they may also appoint a mayor who is not a member of the council.

The last elections to the town council were held on May 31, 2014. The People's List (Listi fólksins), which won an outright majority in 2010, and The Town List (Bæjarlistinn) merged into L-list, the Town List of Akureyri. They had seven representatives together, but now have only two, 18.8%. The Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn) received the most votes, three seats in the council, 25.8%, instead of only one previously. Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin) and Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn) each got two seats instead of the previous one each. Left-Green Movement (Vinstri hreyfingin grænt framboð) and Bright Future (Björt framtíð) each got one seat. L-list, Social Democratic Alliance, and the Progressive Party formed a new majority in the council. The new majority decided that Eiríkur Björn Björgvinsson, mayor of Akureyri since 2010, would continue to serve as mayor.

Timeline of mayors

 * 1919–1934 – Jón Sveinsson
 * 1934–1958 – Steinn Steinsen
 * 1958–1967 – Magnús Guðjónsson
 * 1967–1976 – Bjarni Einarsson
 * 1976–1986 – Helgi M. Bergs
 * 1986–1990 – Sigfús Jónsson
 * 1990–1994 – Halldór Jónsson
 * 1994–1998 – Jakob Björnsson
 * 1998–2007 – Kristján Þór Júlíusson
 * 2007–2009 – Sigrún Björk Jakobsdóttir
 * 2009–2010 – Hermann Jón Tómasson
 * 2010–2018 – Eiríkur Björn Björgvinsson
 * 2018–present – Ásthildur Sturludóttir

Twin towns – sister cities
Akureyri is twinned with:

 * 🇳🇴 Ålesund, Norway
 * 🇺🇸 Denver, United States
 * 🇨🇦 Gimli, Canada
 * 🇮🇸 Hafnarfjörður, Iceland
 * 🇫🇮 Lahti, Finland
 * 🇷🇺 Murmansk, Russia
 * 🇬🇱 Narsaq, Greenland
 * Randers, Denmark
 * 🇫🇴 Vágur, Faroe Islands
 * 🇸🇪 Västerås, Sweden

In 2007, a friendship and fisheries agreement was signed with Grimsby, United Kingdom, which according to Ice News, might lead to a twin cities designation in the future.

Education
There are two high schools (junior colleges) in Akureyri, one of them being the second oldest in Iceland. Menntaskólinn á Akureyri (MA) is the older of the two schools, offering purely academic studies, while the newer Verkmenntaskólinn á Akureyri (VMA), offers both academic and vocational studies. The University of Akureyri (Háskólinn á Akureyri) was founded in 1987. There are 3 faculties or colleges, the Faculty of Business and Science, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences and Faculty of Health Sciences. The university offers master's degrees in several subjects.

Airport
Akureyri Airport, one of four international airports in Iceland and the only international airport in the north of the country, was constructed in 1954 replacing the airstrip at Melgerdismelar further to the south.

The airport is mostly used for domestic flights. Icelandair flies several times a day to Reykjavík, and there are also domestic flights to Grímsey, Vopnafjörður and Þórshöfn (small settlements in northeast Iceland).

There are also seasonal scheduled international flights to London-Gatwick, Amsterdam and Zürich with easyJet and Transavia. Nerlerit Inaat in Greenland is also served.

In 2007, Akureyri Airport had a passenger traffic level of 221,200 and 19,778 aircraft movements.

Marine port
The port of Akureyri is vital to the town, as fisheries are an important part of its economy. It is the site of large fish processing plants and has docking facilities for trawlers. It is also important for freight handling and for tourism, as cruise ships stop in Akureyri during the summer months. The ice-free nature of the port has been important in the town's establishment.

Bus
Local bus services within Akureyri are provided by the SVA (Akureyri Bus Company), which does not charge fares. The cessation of fares in 2008 resulted in an increase of 130% in passenger numbers compared to the previous year when fares were charged.

Roads
Route 1 or the Ring Road (Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur) connects the town with the other parts of the country, including Reykjavík, which is 390 km away. The road is mostly one lane in each direction, but is paved and open year-round. The Vaðlaheiðargöng tunnel is directly east of the town on Route 1. It opened for traffic in December 2018, reducing the road distance from Akureyri to Mývatn lake by 16 km. It is currently Iceland's only toll road.

Parking in the city centre is subject to fees as of 2023, split into two zones.

The F821 mountain road climbs southwards from Akureyri and connects with the F26 mountain road across the highlands towards the south of the country. It is only open during summer.

Utilities
Akureyri has been heated geothermally since the late 1970s. Starting in 1928, there were unsuccessful attempts to develop geothermal energy. During this period, electricity and oil were used for heating. Construction of a geothermal distribution system was begun in 1976 after the discovery of a commercially viable source in 1975. Distribution was widespread by 1979.

The Laugaland field near Akureyri was the first geothermal source commercially developed. The Ytri-Tjarnir field followed. To obtain sufficient water flow, additional fields were developed at Botn in 1980, Glerárdalur 2 km SW of the town in 1981, and Þelamörk 10 km north of the town in 1992. Water temperature is generally 65 to 75 C but can drop to 45 C during hot summer days. The cost of geothermal production is, at 32 mill/kwh, higher than the Icelandic national average of 11, but slightly less than the cost of imported heating oil. There is diminishing excess capacity but there are known and untapped resources near the town. Furthermore, there have been proposals to reinject water to extend the life of the sources.

Sports
Knattspyrnufélag Akureyrar (KA) and Þór Akureyri are the two biggest multi-sport clubs in the town. They field teams in several sports, such as basketball, football and handball.

The most successful football team of late in the town has been Þór/KA, a joint women's team from KA and Þór. Since 2008, it has finished in the top four in the top-tier Úrvalsdeild kvenna, winning the national championship in 2012 and 2017. The clubs also have two men's football teams under their own names.

The clubs field a joint team in women's handball, KA/Þór. They fielded a joint men's team under the name Akureyri Handboltafélag from 2016 to 2017 before KA broke off from the cooperation and fielded a separate team in 2017–2018.

In basketball, Þór fields both men's and women's team. Its women's team has won the national championship three times: in 1969, 1971 and 1976.

The town's ice hockey team, Skautafélag Akureyrar, is the most successful team in the history of the Icelandic Hockey League, with 20 championships from 1992 to 2018.

The Akureyri Golf Club is the second oldest golf club in Iceland behind the Reykjavík Golf Club. It was established in 1935 and is the annual location of The Arctic Open held each summer solstice. The town is also the birthplace of Icelandic footballers Birkir Bjarnason and Aron Gunnarsson, as well as mixed martial arts fighter Gunnar Nelson.

title: Akureyri


text:
Hull, Quebec

Hull is the central business district and oldest neighbourhood of the city of Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. It is located on the west bank of the Gatineau River and the north shore of the Ottawa River, directly opposite Ottawa. As part of the Canadian National Capital Region, it contains offices for over 20,000 civil servants. It is named after Kingston upon Hull in England.

Early history

Hull is a former municipality in the Province of Quebec and the location of the oldest non-native settlement in the National Capital Region. Prior to European settlement, various Anishinaabe peoples including the Algonquins inhabited the area. It was founded on the north shore of the Ottawa River in 1800 by Philemon Wright at the portage around the Chaudière Falls just upstream (or west) from where the Gatineau and Rideau Rivers flow into the Ottawa. Wright brought his family, five other families and twenty-five labourers and a plan to establish an agriculturally based community to what was a mosquito-infested wilderness. But soon after, Wright and his family took advantage of the large lumber stands and became involved in the timber trade. Originally the place was named Wright's Town, Lower Canada, and the name Wrightville survives as the name of a neighbourhood in Hull.

The Gatineau River, like the Ottawa River, was very much the preserve of the draveurs, people who would use the river to transport logs from lumber camps until they arrived downriver. (The Gatineau River flows south into the Ottawa River which flows east to the St Lawrence River near Montreal.) The log-filled Ottawa River, as viewed from Hull, appeared on the back of the Canadian one-dollar bill until it was replaced by a dollar coin (the "loonie") in 1987, and the last of the dwindling activity of the draveurs on these rivers ended a few years later.

Ottawa was founded later, as the terminus of the Rideau Canal built under the command of LCol. John By as part of fortifications and defences constructed after the War of 1812. Originally named Bytown, Ottawa did not become the Canadian capital until the mid-19th century after the original parliament in Montreal was torched by a rioting mob of English-speaking citizens on April 25, 1849. Its greater distance from the Canada–US border also left the new parliament less vulnerable to foreign attack.

Nothing remains of the original 1800 settlement; the downtown Vieux-Hull sector was razed by a destructive fire in 1900 which also destroyed the original pont des Chaudières (Chaudière Bridge), a road bridge which has since been rebuilt to join Ottawa to Hull at Victoria Island.

1917 to 2000
Hull was noted for its nightlife during the years 1917 to 2000.

Prohibition on the sale of alcohol in Ontario began in 1916, and continued until the repeal of the Ontario Temperance Act in 1927. Hull's proximity to Ontario made it a convenient place for people from Ottawa to consume alcohol, and a sharp increase in arrests for drunk and disorderly conduct was noted in Hull in 1917. As a result, in May 1918, Hull enacted local laws prohibiting the sale of alcohol. This led to a dramatic increase in bootlegging in Hull, and the town gained the nickname le Petit Chicago, because its per capita crime rates were similar to those in Chicago. In 1919, a local plebiscite repealed Hull's prohibition laws, causing Hull's drinking establishments to once again thrive as a result of the continued prohibition in neighbouring Ontario. Most of Hull's bars were conveniently located near the Alexandra Bridge to Ottawa, which a local newspaper called, "the bridge of the thousand thirsts".

Hull's Chief of Police stated in 1924 that the cause of Hull's lawlessness was its proximity to Ottawa, and a report published in 1925 found that visitors to Hull accounted for up to 90 percent of its bar patrons, as well as the vast majority of those arrested for drunk and disorderly conduct. A newspaper in the 1920s stated, "these taverns, which are Hull's sole attraction, are not bar rooms, but barn-like, dim rooms in old buildings".

During the early 1940s—when bars in Ontario closed at 1 am and bars in Quebec closed at 3 am—residents of Ontario continued to take advantage of Quebec's more liberal policies on alcohol control. An official inquiry in the 1940s found that gambling houses and illegal bars in Hull were receiving protection from corrupt local politicians, who also encouraged police not to arrest prostitutes.

During World War II, Hull, along with various other regions within Canada, such as the Saguenay, Lac Saint-Jean, and Île Sainte-Hélène, had Prisoner-of-war camps. Hull's prison was simply labelled with a number and remained unnamed just like Canada's other war prisons. The prisoners of war (POWs) were sorted and classified into categories by nationality and civilian or military status. In this camp, POWs were mostly Italian and German nationals. During the Conscription Crisis of 1944 the prison eventually included Canadians who had refused conscription. Also, prisoners were forced into hard labour which included farming the land and lumbering.

The Macdonald-Cartier Bridge was constructed in 1965, pushing many of Hull's bars to streets north. A large office complex known as Place du Portage began construction in the 1970s, uprooting many businesses along what was once the town's main commercial area, and displacing some 4,000 residents.

The disco era of the 1970s ushered in new prosperity for Hull's nightlife, and "Viva Disco" was named in Playboy magazine's top ten in North America.

In the early 1980s, Hull City Council began encouraging the expansion of bars in the downtown area. Bars in Hull continued to remain open two additional hours compared to bars in Ontario, and some bars offered a shuttle service from Ottawa.

By 1985, Hull had the highest crime rate in Quebec, with offences in the bar district including murder, drug dealing, rowdiness, violence, noise, vandalism and drunkenness.

The Canadian Museum of History relocated nearby in 1989, and politicians in Hull expressed concern about the city's image. Official committees in Hull weighed the job creation and profitability of Hull's nightlife, against the costs of policing and cleanup. A "zero tolerance" campaign began in 1990, which involved undercover policing, the revocation of liquor licences, and a public awareness campaign to inform young drinkers in Ontario that disorderly behaviour would not be tolerated in Hull. Soon, police in Hull were aggressively towing illegally parked cars, and individuals caught urinating in public were fined as much as $400.

By 2000, Hull had spent considerable resources making the downtown more attractive, and the decaying old core of Hull was transformed by demolition and replacement with a series of large office complexes. Most of the bars on the Hull strip were gone, and were replaced by restaurants, cafés and stores. The city also provided funds to businesses that wanted to renovate. This resulted in a 75 percent drop in crime in the former bar district from 1994 to 2000, and the main street "was no longer attracting large crowds looking for a fight". Prostitution, however, was not affected. Mayor Yves Ducharme expressed a desire to attract residents back to downtown Hull, and encouraged the construction of studio and bachelor apartments on Promenade du Portage, across from the federal government buildings.

Former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney wrote of Hull: "The town [Ottawa] visibly sagged by ten at night, just in time for residents seeking relief from the stifling boredom to cross the bridge to Hull, Quebec, where nightclubs, dancehalls, bars, and a few great restaurants provided sanctuary and stimulation."

Amalgamation
In 2002, the Parti Québécois, leading the provincial government, merged the cities of Hull, Gatineau, Aylmer, Buckingham and Masson-Angers into one city. Although Hull was the oldest and most central of the merged cities, the name Gatineau was the only original city name among the five final names offered as choices for the amalgamated city. A majority of the residents of all five cities chose Gatineau.

In 2004, there was a referendum to decide whether Hull would remain in Gatineau. The majority of those who voted in Hull voted against the de-amalgamation, and the status quo prevailed.

Geography
Hull is located at the confluence of the Gatineau and Ottawa rivers.

Navigation beyond Ottawa-Hull on the Ottawa River is still difficult as watercraft must be removed from the Ottawa River due to obstacles posed by rapids such as the Rapides des Chaudières or "Kettle Rapids".

Demographics
Prior to amalgamation in 2002, Hull's population was 66,246 (2001 Census of Canada). According to the Canada 2011 Census, Hull had a population of 69,004.

Approximately 80% of residents speak French as their first language and about 9% English as their first language (2001 Census of Canada).

Education
Commission Scolaire des Portages-de-l'Outaouais (CSPO) operates Francophone public schools.

Western Québec School Board operates Anglophone public schools.

Economy
Hull now depends primarily on the civil service as an economic mainstay. A number of federal and provincial government departments are located here. The policy of the federal government to distribute federal jobs on both sides of the Ottawa River led to the construction of several massive office towers to house federal civil servants in the 1970s and 80s; the largest of these are Place du Portage and Terrasses de la Chaudière, occupying part of what had been the downtown core of Hull.

Two paper mills (Scott Paper and the E. B. Eddy division of Domtar) still retain some industrial facilities on the Ottawa River in the centre of Hull, Quebec.

Hull is also the home to the Casino du Lac-Leamy and to the Canadian Museum of History directly opposite Parliament Hill. Hull is also Outaouais's cultural centre.

Notable people

 * Derick Brassard (born 1987), professional ice hockey player
 * Philippe DioGuardi (born 1961), tax lawyer
 * Catherine Martin (born 1958), screenwriter and director
 * Bernie Guindon, founder Satan's Choice MC
 * George Kourounis, adventurer

title: Hull, Quebec


text:
Rie Mastenbroek

Hendrika "Rie" Wilhelmina Mastenbroek (26 February 1919 – 6 November 2003) was a Dutch swimmer and a triple Olympic champion.

Biography
Born in Rotterdam, she started swimming under the coaching of "Ma" Braun, who had coached her daughter to an Olympic gold medal in 1928. In 1934, Mastenbroek won three gold medals and a silver at the European Championships.

She repeated that performance at the 1936 Summer Olympics, aged only 17, winning the 100 m freestyle, 400 m freestyle and the 4×100 m freestyle. In the 100 m backstroke, she finished second behind teammate Nida Senff. (Senff missed a turning point and had to swim back before completing the last 50 m. She nevertheless beat Mastenbroek thanks to an outstanding last leg.)

The following year she became a swimming instructor, thereby losing her amateur status and becoming ineligible for competition.

During her career she broke nine world records (six for backstroke and three for freestyle). In 1968 she was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame. In 1997 she received the Olympic Order.

She died at age 84 in Rotterdam. After her death, Stichting Aquarius named the Rie Mastenbroek Trophy after her.

title: Rie Mastenbroek


text:
Saratoga, Wyoming

Saratoga is a town in Carbon County, Wyoming, United States. The population was 1,702 at the 2020 census.

Saratoga is the home of the Steinley Cup microbrew festival and competition, usually held in August at Veterans Island Park, a playground and picnic facility on a small island in the North Platte River, which is designated a Blue Ribbon Stream by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department. Saratoga also has a public pool heated by a hot spring. Its two largest employers are the United States Forest Service and Carbon County School District No. 2, both public sector employers. The town's motto is "Where The Trout Leap In Main Street." The local newspaper is the Saratoga Sun.

Geography and climate
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 3.59 sqmi, of which 3.40 sqmi is land and 0.19 sqmi is water.

2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 1,697 people, 804 households, and 476 families residing in the town. The population density was 497.1 PD/sqmi. There were 982 housing units at an average density of 287.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 93.7% White, 0.9% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 3.5% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.1% of the population.

There were 804households, of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.4% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.07 and the average family size was 2.62.

The median age in the town was 48.9 years. 17.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.3% were from 25 to 44; 34.6% were from 45 to 64; and 21.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 51.3% male and 48.7% female.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,690 people, 802 households, and 474 families residing in the town. The population density was 497.1 PD/sqmi. There were 979 housing units at an average density of 287.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 94.4% White, 0.9% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 2.2% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1% of the population.

There were 802 households, of which 21.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.9% were non-families. 34.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.07 and the average family size was 2.62.

The median age in the town was 48.9 years. 17.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.3% were from 25 to 44; 34.6% were from 45 to 64; and 21.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 51.3% male and 48.7% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,726 people, 757 households, and 482 families residing in the town. The population density was 505.7 /mi2. There were 939 housing units at an average density of 275.1 /mi2. The racial makeup of the town was 95.42% White, 0.12% African American, 0.81% Native American, 0.70% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.56% from other races, and 1.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.11% of the population.

There were 757 households, out of which 27.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.4% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.3% were non-families. 31.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.79.

In the town, the age distribution of the population shows 23.1% under the age of 18, 5.2% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $37,135, and the median income for a family was $45,362. Males had a median income of $32,446 versus $20,489 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,376. About 8.4% of families and 10.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.0% of those under age 18 and 12.2% of those age 65 or over.

Government
Saratoga government runs on a mayor/council forum. Saratoga has a town council consisting of 4 council members and a mayor. As of January 3, 2023, the mayor is Chuck Davis.

Notable people

 * C. C. Beall (1892–1970), commercial illustrator, portrait artist
 * C. J. Box (born 1958), novelist
 * Rodney Morris (born 1970) professional pool player
 * Howard Thomas Orville (1901–1960), naval officer, meteorologist
 * Garrett Price (1896–1979) lived in Saratoga as a boy and later wrote and illustrated a Sunday comic strip, set in the town and called ″White Boy,″ which appeared in the Chicago Tribune during the 1930s
 * Annie Proulx (born 1935), novelist

Education
Public education in Saratoga is provided by Carbon County School District Number 2.

Saratoga has two schools, Saratoga High School and Saratoga Elementary School. The middle school was closed and demolished in 2005. After its destruction, the classes that had been in that building were separated, part of them attending the elementary school and the remainder the high school. Saratoga has redeveloped an old school building into the multi-use Platte Valley Community Center, which hosts concerts, lectures, theatrical performance, and community events.

Saratoga has a public library, a branch of the Carbon County Library System.

title: Saratoga, Wyoming


text:
User:Brandon1323

I'm a student at Utah State University studying physics and information systems, with interests in pretty much everything else. (and to answer the inevitable question, nope, I'm not a mormon, don't wear 'holy underwear', haven't a single wife, etc. :-)

Stumbled upon this encyclopedia summer of 2002, I was really impressed by the amount of work put into the detailed and thoughtful contributions, as well as the near absence of any BS posts (maybe the world can get along...). Other than porn, access to varied viewpoints and useful information is the most important aspect of the internet revolution, and as people become more knowledgable, hopefully they will become less tolerant to abuse by people in power and this world will become a better place. So I encourage you all to contribute anytime you see an area you have knowledge in.

title: User:Brandon1323


text:
Croydon Airport

Croydon Airport was the UK's only international airport during the interwar period. It opened in 1920, located near Croydon, then part of Surrey. Built in a Neoclassical style, it was developed as Britain's main airport, handling more cargo, mail, and passengers than any other UK airport at the time. Innovations at the site included the world's first air traffic control and the first airport terminal. During World War II the airport was named RAF Croydon as its role changed to that of a fighter airfield during the Battle of Britain; and in 1943 RAF Transport Command was founded at the site, which used the airport to transport thousands of troops into and out of Europe.

After the Second World War, its role returned to civil aviation, but the role of London's primary international airport passed to London Heathrow Airport. Croydon Airport closed in 1959. It had been known under eight different names while it was active.

In 1978, the terminal building and Gate Lodge were granted protection as Grade II listed buildings. In May 2017, Historic England raised the status of the terminal building to Grade II*. Owing to disrepair, the Gate Lodge is now classified as Heritage at Risk by Historic England.

Origin
In December 1915, Beddington Aerodrome was established – one of a number of small airfields around London that were created for protection against Zeppelin airship raids during the First World War. In January 1916, the first two aircraft, B.E.2Cs, arrived at the aerodrome as part of Home Defence. Waddon Aerodrome opened in 1918 as part of the adjoining National Aircraft Factory No. 1, to serve aircraft test flights. The two airfields were on each side of Plough Lane, Beddington to the west and Waddon to the east.

Beddington Aerodrome became a large Reserve Aircraft and Training aerodrome for the Royal Flying Corps. After the end of the First World War the aerodrome became an important training airfield for the newly formed Royal Air Force. During 1919, Prince Albert (later George VI) gained his "wings" here with No. 29 Training Squadron, the first member of the royal family to learn to fly. His elder brother, the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII), also received flying training with No. 29 Training Squadron at Beddington during 1919.

The following units were also here at some point: • No. 17 Reserve Aeroplane Squadron

• No. 17 Reserve Squadron

• No. 17 Training Squadron

• No. 19 Reserve Squadron

• 24th Aero Squadron

• No. 40 Training Squadron

• No. 65 Reserve Squadron

Beddington and Waddon aerodromes were combined to become Croydon Aerodrome, the gateway for all international flights to and from London. The new, single aerodrome opened on 29 March 1920, replacing the temporary civil aerodrome at a Cavalry ground on Hounslow Heath. Plough Lane remained a public road crossing the site. Road traffic was halted when necessary, first by a man with a red flag and later by a gate. The aerodrome stimulated a growth in regular scheduled flights carrying passengers, mail and freight, the first destinations being Paris, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Two flights daily from Paris were scheduled for ease of communication with London during the Paris Peace Conference. In 1923, flights to Berlin Tempelhof Airport began.

Penshurst Airfield was an alternative destination for airliners when Croydon was closed on account of fog. One such diversion was on 24 September 1921, when a de Havilland DH.18 aircraft was diverted to Penshurst. This situation lasted until Penshurst closed on 28 July 1936.

Croydon was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control, a control tower, and radio position-fixing procedures. The "aerodrome control tower", 15 ft high with windows on all four sides, was commissioned on 25 February 1920 and provided basic traffic, weather and location information to pilots. There, Jimmy Jeffs was its first air traffic control officer.

On the formation of Britain's first national airline, Imperial Airways, on 31 March 1924, Croydon became the new airline's operating base. Imperial Airways was the British Government's chosen instrument to develop connections with the U.K.'s extensive overseas interests. It was therefore from Croydon that Britain first developed its European and longhaul routes to India, Africa, the Middle and Far East, Asia, Africa and Australia (in conjunction with Qantas).

Following the Imperial Airways de Havilland DH.34 crash of December 1924, Britain's first major civil aviation accident, conditions at Croydon came under criticism from the public inquiry that investigated the causes. The inquiry was Britain's first into an aviation accident which led to an Act of Parliament, the Croydon Aerodrome Extension Act 1925. The Croydon Aerodrome Extension Act led to large scale expansion, redevelopment and construction of an improved new airport with airport buildings constructed adjacent to the Purley Way, Croydon.

Expansion
Under the provisions of the Croydon Aerodrome Extension Act 1925, the airport was greatly enlarged between 1926 and 1928, with a new complex of buildings being constructed alongside Purley Way, including the first purpose-designed airport terminal and air traffic control tower, the world's first airport hotel, and extensive hangars. The development cost £267,000 (£ in today's prices). Plough Lane was closed permanently to let heavier airliners land and depart safely. The airport's terminal building and control tower were completed in 1928, and the old wooden air traffic control and customs building demolished. The new buildings and layout began operations on 20 January 1928, and were officially opened on 2 May 1928 by Lady Maud Hoare.

Croydon was where regular international passenger services began, initially using converted wartime bombers, and the Croydon–Le Bourget route soon became the busiest in the world. Air traffic control was first developed here, as was the "Mayday" distress call. Amy Johnson took off from Croydon on 5 May 1930 for her record-breaking flight to Australia. In 1927, Charles Lindbergh arrived in Spirit of St. Louis, to be greeted by an enthusiastic crowd of over 100,000 people. Winston Churchill also took flying lessons.

On the morning of 11 July 1936, Major Hugh Pollard, and Cecil Bebb left Croydon Airport for the Canary Islands in a de Havilland Dragon Rapide aircraft, where they picked up General Francisco Franco, taking him to Spanish Morocco and thereby helping to trigger the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War.

Imperial Airways used the Handley Page HP42/HP45 four-engined biplanes from Croydon, and the Armstrong Whitworth Atalanta, which was the first monoplane airliner used by the airline, intended for use on the African routes. In March 1937 British Airways Ltd operated from Croydon, moving to Heston Aerodrome in May 1938. Imperial Airways, serving routes in the British Empire, and British Airways Ltd, serving European routes, were merged by the Chamberlain government in November 1938 to become British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Larger four-engined monoplanes, Armstrong Whitworth Ensign series (G-ADSR) came into service that year.

The airport also hosted a much-publicised visit by Gertrud Scholtz-Klink, leader of the National Socialist Women's League (NS-Frauenschaft) and rumoured to be a spy; historians have speculated that she landed in Britain to cultivate German spies living here, in the run-up to WWII.

Second World War
When the Second World War started in September 1939, Croydon Airport was closed to civil aviation but played a vital role as a fighter station during the Battle of Britain. No. 92 Squadron flew Supermarine Spitfires from RAF Croydon during the early part of the Second World War and the Battle of Britain.

The following units were here at some point: • No. 1 Squadron RAF

• No. 1 Squadron RCAF

• No. 2 Squadron RAF

• No. 3 Squadron RAF

• No. 10 Squadron RAF

• No. 17 Squadron RAF

• No. 22 Squadron RAF

• No. 32 Squadron RAF

• No. 39 Squadron RAF

• No. 41 Squadron RAF

• No. 72 Squadron RAF

• No. 83 Squadron RAF

• No. 84 Squadron RAF

• No. 85 Squadron RAF

• No. 92 Squadron RAF

• No. 93 Squadron RAF

• No. 111 Squadron RAF

• No. 116 Squadron RAF

• No. 145 Squadron RAF

• No. 147 Squadron RAF

• No. 167 Squadron RAF

• No. 207 Squadron RAF

• No. 271 Squadron RAF

• No. 285 Squadron RAF

• No. 287 Squadron RAF

• No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron

• No. 317 Polish Fighter Squadron

• No. 414 Squadron RCAF

• No. 435 Squadron RCAF

• No. 437 Squadron RCAF

• No. 501 Squadron RAF

• No. 605 Squadron RAF

• No. 607 Squadron RAF

• No. 615 Squadron RAF • No. 1 Aircraft Delivery Flight RAF (January 1942 - July 1944)
 * Units:

• No. 110 (Transport) Wing RAF (July 1944 - February 1946)

• No. 143 Gliding School RAF (May 1945 - December 1946)

• No. 405 Aircraft Repair Flight

• No. 405 Repair & Salvage Unit

• No. 409 Repair & Salvage Unit

• No. 3202 Servicing Commando

• No. 4007 Anti-Aircraft Flight RAF Regiment

Battle of Britain
On 15 August 1940, Croydon Airport was attacked in the first major air raid on the London area. At around 6.20 pm 22 Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter-bombers of Erpr.Gr.210 mounted a final raid of the day, intended for RAF Kenley nearby, but attacked Croydon (four miles further north) in error. The armoury was destroyed, the civilian airport terminal building was badly damaged, and a hangar was damaged by cannon fire and blast. Another hangar and about forty training aircraft in it went up in flames. Six airfield personnel died (four airmen from No. 111 Squadron, an officer of No. 1 Squadron RCAF, and a female telephonist from Station HQ). Factories next to Croydon Airport took the worst of the bombing. The British NSF factory (making electrical components) was almost entirely destroyed, and the Bourjois perfume factory gutted. The Rollason Aircraft factory also received bomb hits and accounted for many of the 62 civilians (including five women) killed and 192 injured. Eight of the attacking aircraft were shot down by the Hurricanes of 32 and 111 Squadrons.

Post-war developments and final closure
Following the end of the war, it was realised that post-war airliners and cargo aircraft would be larger and that air traffic would intensify. The urban spread of south London and the growth of surrounding villages had enclosed Croydon Airport and left it little room for expansion. Heathrow was therefore designated as London's airport.

Croydon returned to civil control in February 1946; a diagram in the issue of Flight magazine dated 11 April shows 1250 yd ground run in the 170–350 direction, 1150 yd 060-240 and 1100 yd 120–300 (the numbers are degrees clockwise from north). Northolt opened to the airlines soon after that, cutting Croydon's traffic, but the September 1946 ABC Guide shows 218 departures a week to Belfast, Dublin, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow (Renfrew), Jersey, Guernsey, and several continental airports. A year later there were 56 departures a week, mostly BEA de Havilland Dragon Rapides that weeks later left Croydon for good.

It was decided in 1952 that the airport would eventually be closed, as Blackbushe Airport in Hampshire and Northolt Aerodrome in Middlesex could accommodate European flights during the 1950s. The last scheduled flight from Croydon departed at 18:15 on 30 September 1959, followed by the last aircraft (a private flight), at 19:45; the airfield officially closed at 22:20.

On 27 September 2009, to mark the 50th anniversary of the closing of the airport, eleven light aircraft, including eight biplanes, staged a flypast. A gold laurel leaf tribute was laid in the control tower to mark the anniversary.

Present day
Much of the site has been built over, but some of the terminal buildings near Purley Way (the A23 road) are still visible, clearly identifiable as to their former purpose. The former terminal building is called Airport House, and the former control tower houses a visitors' centre.

A de Havilland Heron (a small propeller-driven British airliner of the 1950s) is displayed on the forecourt outside Airport House, mounted on struts. The Heron is painted to represent an example registered G-AOXL of Morton Air Services, the aircraft that flew the last passenger flight from Croydon on 30 September 1959. A memorial to those lost in the Battle of Britain stands slightly to the south.

Although Croydon has long ceased operation, the two cut ends of Plough Lane have never been reunited, but the area between has been developed instead into parkland, playing fields, and the Roundshaw residential estate with its roads aptly named after aviators and aircraft. All that remains of the runways is a small area of tarmac about 400 ft long each way in Roundshaw Park just west of Purley Way, which is a remnant of the WNW-ESE runway due south of the control buildings; it can be seen at 51.35107°N, -0.11745°W; the "arm" may be a remnant of a taxiway to Hangar B. The area is used primarily by walkers, model aircraft enthusiasts, locals playing football and the Croydon Pirates baseball team.

The church on the Roundshaw estate has a cross on its outside wall that was made from the cut down propeller of a Spitfire based at Croydon during the Second World War.

The area is still known as Croydon Airport for transport purposes and was the location for Croydon Water Palace.

In recognition of the historical significance of the aerodrome, two local schools (Waddon Infants School and Duppas Junior School) merged in September 2010 and became The Aerodrome School.

The buildings
The Aerodrome Hotel and the terminal building including its grand booking hall were built in the neo-classical geometrical design typical of the early 20th century. A further item that would have caught the eye of visitor and traveller alike was the time zone tower (now lost) in the booking hall with its dials depicting the times in different parts of the world. Croydon Airport's Aerodrome Hotel is part of Croydon Vision 2020 regeneration plan.

The Airport Hotel survives as the independent Hallmark Hotel.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 15 March 1923, Farman F.60 Goliath F-AEIE of Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes overran the runway on landing and collided with a building. The aircraft was later repaired and returned to service.
 * On 22 January 1924, Goliath F-GEAO of Air Union was destroyed by fire following an accident when landing.
 * On 24 December 1924 (1924 Imperial Airways de Havilland DH.34 crash), Imperial Airways de Havilland DH.34 G-EBBX crashed and caught fire shortly after takeoff from Croydon, killing the pilot and all seven passengers.
 * On 6 November 1929, the Deutsche Lufthansa Junkers G 24bi Oberschlesien (registration D-903) crashed after striking trees on a hill in Marden Park, Surrey, while attempting to return to Croydon in thick fog after taking off for a flight to Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Three of the four crew members and four of the five passengers died.
 * On 19 May 1934, a Wibault 280 of Air France crash-landed on a cricket pitch adjacent to Croydon Airport as a result of running out of fuel. Only one of the ten people on board was injured.
 * On 31 May 1934 an Air France aircraft carrying newspapers to Paris crashed after hitting the mast of an aircraft radio navigation beacon that had been erected off the end of the white-line takeoff path, killing the two crew.
 * On 6 March 1935, in the Croydon Airport robbery, £21,000 worth of gold bullion was stolen. Three men were charged, only one was sentenced. The gold was never found.
 * On 9 December 1936 (1936 KLM Croydon accident), a KLM Douglas DC-2 crashed on takeoff at Croydon Airport on a flight to Amsterdam. The accident killed 15 out of 17 on the DC-2, including Juan de la Cierva and Arvid Lindman.
 * On 25 January 1947 (1947 Croydon Dakota accident), a Spencer Airways Douglas Dakota failed to get airborne on a flight to Rhodesia. The aircraft struck another parked and empty aircraft, killing 11 passengers and the pilot.

Immigration and customs
The Chief Immigration Officer of the shipping port of Port of Dover, P. L. Hartley, took over in 1936.

Medical provision
A medical officer, Dr John Robert Draper, M.B., B.Ch., was employed by Croydon Council to take over medical duties at the airport from 1 January 1931. He was answerable to Croydon's Medical Officer of Health. Following the Public Health (Aircraft) Regulations 1938, his role changed significantly.

Literary references
Croydon Airport features heavily in two detective novels, Freeman Wills Crofts' The 12.30 from Croydon (1934) and Agatha Christie's Death in the Clouds (1935). It is also mentioned in Evelyn Waugh's Labels: A Mediterranean Journey (1930), Elizabeth Bowen's To the North (1932) and Winston Churchill's Thoughts and Adventures (1932).

W. H. Auden, in his Letter to Lord Byron (1937), lists "Croydon Aerodrome" as one of the locations visited by a modern-day Don Juan.

title: Croydon Airport