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Seven of Nine

Seven of Nine (born Annika Hansen) is a fictional character introduced in the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager. Portrayed by Jeri Ryan, she is a former Borg drone who joins the crew of the Federation starship Voyager. Her full Borg designation was Seven of Nine, Tertiary Adjunct of Unimatrix Zero One. While her birth name became known to her crewmates, after joining the Voyager crew she chose to continue to be called Seven of Nine, though she allowed "Seven" to be used informally.

Seven of Nine was introduced in the fourth-season premiere, "Scorpion, Part II". The character replaced Kes in the main cast, and was intended to introduce a foil to Captain Kathryn Janeway, similar to the role Spock performs for Captain Kirk in Star Trek: The Original Series. The character appeared through the final episode, "Endgame". Stories related to her relationship with Captain Janeway and with The Doctor appeared throughout the series; some episodes, such as "The Raven", explored her background and earlier life as Annika Hansen before she was assimilated by the Borg.

Seven of Nine, again played by Ryan, also appears in the series Star Trek: Picard as a recurring character in the first season before being promoted to series regular for the second and third seasons.

Casting and filming
Following the third season of Star Trek: Voyager, the production team decided that the main cast character of Kes was to be dropped from the show. It was decided that Captain Kathryn Janeway needed a contrasting character, and so Seven of Nine was developed to fill this role. It had been a previous Star Trek staple to have a character that could provide a third-person view on the human condition, prior examples including Spock in Star Trek: The Original Series and Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation and Odo in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. In addition, the producers of Voyager had been keen to make greater use of The Borg as recurring antagonists in the show, particularly after the success of the 1996 Next Generation feature film Star Trek: First Contact.

After being cast, actress Jeri Ryan acknowledged she had hardly even seen Star Trek, and had no idea what the Borg were. To prepare her, the producers gave her a copy of Star Trek: First Contact and the Star Trek Encyclopedia the day before she was due to test for the part. She was specifically told not to base her performance on the Borg Queen from the film as she was a "completely different animal and [they] were creating something entirely new". Her acting experience up until this point had consisted of television movies, guest appearances and Dark Skies.

Her audition process consisted of two readings for the producers before Ryan was asked to come in to talk through the part with the executive producers, Jeri Taylor, Rick Berman and Brannon Braga. Following this, she tested for the network and was told that her option had been picked up. She remarked about her experience of joining the Voyager team: "It was a little awkward since the cast had been together for three years already. And one of the original characters was being written out pretty much at the same time I was being added. But the cast was terrific, and very welcoming." Although she wore extensive make-up for her first appearances, including an eye-piece that fell off when she smiled, her typical make-up regimen took around 45 minutes, with the attachment of the Borg appliance above her eye taking an additional 15 minutes. Her hairstyling usually took as long as that combined.

In the following years, the Voyager writers wrote several plot lines revolving around Seven's exploration of the positive and negative sides of human individuality. The cyborg nature of the character is seen as representing a challenge to "simple conceptions of connections/disconnections between bodies." Ryan maintained that the main topic about Seven was "humanity" and stated that her character was pivotal to the success of the show, because she "brought conflict to the show, which it was sadly lacking. … The Voyager crew was just one big happy family." After the addition of the former Borg drone to the starship's crew at the start of the fourth season of Voyager, the shows' weekly viewer ratings increased by more than 60%. Ryan's arrival on the show was accompanied by a massive publicity campaign in TV magazines and newspaper supplements. Ryan thought that the increase may have been because of the way the character looked, but maintained that those viewers would have been retained by the writing on the show.

She also remarked that "combining non-human qualities with an attractive human appearance," as in Seven's character, was a great move by the producers. She felt that the writers did a good job in not pushing the character to be more human and having Seven enter into relationships on the show. Ryan was concerned that it could have turned out to be "Seven's sexual escapades on Voyager". In terms of portrayal, she said that "keeping a straight face" while showing suppressed emotion was an enjoyable challenge. Regarding her form-fitting one-piece costume, Ryan commented that it was extremely impractical and uncomfortable, but worth the reward of portraying a character like Seven.

Although Seven was originally introduced as a foil for Captain Janeway, with the two of them proving to be very adversarial, they gained mutual respect as time went by. Ryan later described this as a mother-daughter relationship on the show, although she said that the writers had managed to make the character into more of an unruly teenager. The inclusion of Seven of Nine as a primary character for the show alongside Janeway and the Doctor was criticised by other actors. Robert Beltran, who played Chakotay felt that his character, along with Harry Kim, Tuvok and Neelix, had been overlooked. As the end of the series approached, Ryan remarked that she would "love to do something without special effects or rubber glued to my face, it'd be a nice change of pace."

Following the end of Voyager, Ryan joined the main cast of Boston Public, comparing her new character of Ronnie with Seven of Nine, saying "[Seven] had all of these emotions, she just wasn't comfortable expressing them, and didn't really know how to express them; Ronnie, my character on Boston Public, is quite comfortable expressing them, and is fairly free with her expressions, I think. So it's going to be a lot of fun. It's going to be much more free, as far as the acting style." Ryan said that she had several favourite Seven of Nine episodes, including "The Gift", "The Raven", "Revulsion", "Hunters", "Prey" and the two-part "The Killing Game".

Attire and filming issues
Her initial costume as seen in "Scorpion" and the following episode, "The Gift", saw Seven of Nine as a full Borg. This outfit took some two-and-a-half hours for Ryan to get into, but an error was made in measuring the outfit by not taking into account the prosthetics that she was required to wear for the part. This cut off the blood supply through her carotid artery, causing her to pass out on two occasions. After a nurse was called twice to supply oxygen, the costume was modified to stop it from happening again.

Once the character had the majority of the Borg implants removed, a new costume was required. Ryan wore a silver jumpsuit for the first few episodes, which director Jesús Salvador Treviño said that during the filming of the episode "Day of Honor" caused problems as "almost any camera angle inevitably winds up emphasising her sexuality." Ryan described the new costume as "a little snug", and wore a corset-like item which gave the appearance of mechanical ribs. At least one version of the costume had the corset built into it. In order to give her greater height, the shoes which formed part of her costume had four-inch (10 cm) high heels. She said in a 2012 interview that the suit by costume designer Robert Blackman was a "feat of engineering", but required a 20-minute production shutdown if she needed to use the toilet, as she needed that time plus assistance to get into and out of it. She said that it was so fitted and figure hugging that it "might as well have been body paint". The lengthy time it took to use the bathroom led to the actress not drinking any fluids, which in turn made her feel sick.

Treviño praised the subsequent changes to her costume in order to reduce its sexuality, saying that "it is much more sensible, because she's still an attractive person but then you get away from that titillation stuff which I think is so demeaning not only to the audience, but it's kinda of demeaning to what Star Trek is about." The later versions of her costumes still required 20 minutes to get into before filming could start, but Ryan said they were much more forgiving, "In the silver costume, if I got goosebumps, you could see them. The brown costume is a thicker, stronger fabric. It's not quite so clingy, so the waist doesn't have to be cinched in." That version of the costume also removed the vertical bones of the corset, which allowed Ryan to have greater flexibility while wearing it.

One of the major remaining pieces of Borg technology that Ryan continued to wear for the part was what she described as "That little thing over my eye". This was because the term that referred to it in the episodes would change depending on the writers and the episode itself, she explained that "Sometimes, it's my cortical implant. Sometimes, it's my cranial implant. Sometimes, it's my ocular implant."

Appearances
Seven of Nine appeared on Star Trek: Voyager between 1997 and 2001, and between 2020 and 2023 on Star Trek: Picard.

Background
Seven of Nine's backstory was explained during the course of Star Trek: Voyager. She was born on the Tendara Colony on Stardate 25479 to Magnus and Erin Hansen, and was named Annika. At the age of four, her parents were given the USS Raven by Starfleet to help them investigate the presence of an unknown species in deep space. This trip lasted for three years during which time they encountered the Borg and, using a transwarp conduit, followed a cube to the Delta Quadrant. Annika's father developed technology to allow the ship to remain undetected by the aliens, and even to allow them to board the Borg vessel; but after an ion storm struck the vessel, the Borg detected the family and assimilated them.

Annika was placed into a Borg maturation chamber for the next few years, during which time she joined the collective. Following this, she was a Borg drone and assimilated individuals from a number of species, including a crew member from the USS Melbourne at the Battle of Wolf 359 on Stardate 43989.1. Two years later, Seven of Nine, along with three other drones, crashed on a planet and they were separated from the Borg Collective. This caused their individualities to resurface over time, which caused Seven to panic due to her relative inexperience with individuality, and created a temporary hive mind between the four of them until they were retrieved by the Borg.

Joining the crew in "Scorpion"
Seven of Nine first appears in the second part of "Scorpion" at the start of the fourth season. She is chosen by the Borg to communicate verbally with Captain Janeway so that together they can develop a weapon to defeat Species 8472. After a Borg cube destroys itself to save Voyager, Seven is transported aboard the Federation ship. Janeway is injured, leaving Chakotay in command—but he distrusts Seven and the Borg and after he refuses to work with her, she sends the vessel into fluidic space to force them to develop the weapon. Just before doing so, Chakotay decompresses the cargo bay, killing the remaining Borg with the exception of Seven. Janeway recovers and works with Seven and the Doctor to develop the weapon and defeat an attack by Species 8472. With their alliance ended, Seven attempts to assimilate the crew but they override her neural connection to the Collective. Over the course of the following episode, "The Gift", The Doctor removes about 70% of Seven's Borg implants because her body begins to reject the technology once her connection to the Borg Collective is severed. Seven leaves sick bay to help repair the ship, and while working she attempts to communicate with the Collective but is stopped by Kes. She is placed in the brig where she and Captain Janeway have a heart-to-heart discussion. Following the departure of Kes, Seven is given a more human appearance and offered a place in Voyager's crew.

Seven immediately comes into conflict with Chief Engineer B'Elanna Torres in "Day of Honor" and puts Voyager in danger when the Caatati steal the warp drive and hold it hostage for supplies and Seven herself. Instead, she builds a thorium generator to power their vessel, which the Caatati accept in exchange for the core and for allowing the rescue of Torres and Lt. Tom Paris. In "The Raven", Seven, experiencing visions of the Borg and a raven, steals a shuttle and heads into nearby B'omar space. The aliens would not allow Voyager to enter their space, but Tuvok and Paris cross the border in another shuttle and head in pursuit. Tuvok beams across to Seven's shuttle, where she explains she's following a homing beacon. They head to a planet where the wreckage of the USS Raven is crashed on the surface. They transport down and Seven recognises it as her parents' vessel. The B'omar attack but Voyager comes to their aid and the crew depart. Janeway tells Seven that her parents' research records are in the ship's databanks; Seven replies that she might read them someday.

After some time, Seven begins to question why Captain Janeway continues to make contact with alien species as they travel back to Earth, as it often results in incidents. Janeway explains that Voyager's purpose is exploration and will continue that mission despite any problems that might occur. While working in astrometrics, Seven detects an ancient alien communications platform which connects all the way back to the borders of Federation space. This results in the first successful communication with Starfleet since Voyager was stranded in the Delta Quadrant, although it does also result in angering an alien race upon first contact; the Hirogen had claimed the platform for their own. The crew subsequently receive messages from home through the array, but the ship is once again threatened by the Hirogen. Tuvok and Seven transport aboard the array to speed the downloading of the messages, but are captured and tortured by the aliens. They are rescued by Voyager, but the communications array is destroyed. When the crew find a member of Species 8472 being hunted by the Hirogen, Seven is reluctant to help her former enemy as it would put the ship at risk of destruction from the Hirogen. When the Hirogen threaten Voyager, Seven disobeys Janeway's command and transports the alien aboard a Hirogen ship. In response, the Captain punishes her by restricting her computer access and confines her to the cargo bay where her Borg regeneration unit is set up.

In "Retrospect", the Doctor accidentally causes Seven to relive repressed memories of while she was Borg. She confers these memories onto an alien she had just met, and the local authorities seek his arrest. The crew realise what has happened, but he is killed before he can be told he is innocent. During the events of "The Killing Game" where the Hirogen take over Voyager and place the crew in the holodeck for hunting practice, Seven is brainwashed into thinking she was a French club singer during the Nazi occupation of France. She is the first member of the crew who has her memories restored by the Doctor, and helps Janeway bring about a truce with the Hirogen. Janeway and Seven disagree once more in "The Omega Directive" about what to do when the ship detects unstable Omega particles nearby. The Captain wants to destroy them under Starfleet standing orders, while Seven seeks to harness them as the Borg consider the particles to be near perfection. Seven must later deal with a series of hallucinations and loneliness while helping the crew cross a radiation-filled nebula in "One". This experience results in her seeking out the company of other crew members more frequently. Her suspicions of Arturis prove correct in "Hope and Fear" when it is revealed that he was seeking revenge on the Voyager crew for their previous alliance with the Borg by creating a fake USS Dauntless and attempting to take them back to Borg space where they would be assimilated.

Relationships
A few episodes touch on Seven's romantic life, which is limited due to the effect on her emotions of having been part of the Borg. At one point she propositions Harry Kim, but he turns her down. Later on, with the Doctor's assistance, she tries dating other crew unsuccessfully, while later exploring intimate relationships with a hologram of Chakotay. Finally, in "Endgame" she is involved in a romantic relationship with Chakotay which includes at least three dates and a first kiss. In one alternate timeline, they married before her death, and, in another, she is killed along with the rest of the Voyager crew ("Timeless").

Seven has her first experience of motherhood to some degree when, in the episode "Drone", a transporter accident combines her nanoprobes with the Doctor's holoemitter. This results in the creation of One, a Borg with 29th-century technology, whom Seven helps adjust to life on board Voyager. One sacrifices his life to destroy a Borg sphere and protect the vessel, dying in front of an emotional Seven. In the alternative future shown in "Timeless", Seven of Nine and the vast majority of the Voyager crew are dead. Using a Borg temporal transmitter, Chakotay and Harry Kim manage to send information back in time to Seven to prevent the destruction of the ship. A little more of Seven's Borg history is revealed when, due to a modified Borg device planted by an alien species, she begins to exhibit the memories of some of the people she has assimilated. After B'Elanna Torres disables the device, Seven returns to normal.

While investigating a damaged Borg sphere in "Dark Frontier", Seven hears the voice of the collective once more and refuses to return to Voyager. Instead, she is taken back to Borg space where she meets with the Borg Queen, who reveals that Seven's establishment as an individual was all part of a plan to use her memories to allow the Borg to assimilate humanity. The Queen first has Seven assist in the assimilation of a new species, and after some disobedience, has her work on nanoprobes designed to assimilate humans. Seven discovers that her father is assimilated and kept as one of the Queen's personal drones. Meanwhile, Voyager is working on a plan to rescue her, and using the Delta Flyer, approach the vessel close enough that Captain Janeway can transport aboard. Seven and Janeway work together to escape the Queen, and steal technology that reduces their distance to Earth by 15 years. She later attempts to develop her experience of romance, working with the Doctor in the episode "Someone to Watch Over Me".

She becomes involved in a time-travel plot once more when Captain Braxton of the Federation timeship USS "Relativity" pulls her out of the timestream to help prevent the destruction of Voyager. The travel has effects on her body, and she dies, resulting in an earlier version being pulled out of time. During the investigation, it transpires that it was Braxton himself who planted a bomb on the ship and together with the crew of the Relativity, Captain Janeway manages to apprehend Braxton before he plants the device. Seven encounters three former Borg with which she previously formed a mini-collective after their scout vessel crashed on a planet; where the other three were assimilated as adults, Seven's childhood assimilation left her panicking at being separated from the Collective and facing an individuality she did not know how to cope with on her own. She forced this collective on them because they were becoming individuals, which has caused the trio to keep a mental connection even after their eventual disconnection from the rest of the Borg. During the course of "Survival Instinct", the link is terminated, causing each of the former Borg to be predicted to die within a month.

Star Trek: Picard
Seven of Nine appeared as a recurring character in the first season of Star Trek: Picard, and as a main cast member in the second season. In Picard, set more than twenty years after the finale of Voyager, Seven is a member of the Fenris Rangers, a peacekeeping organization active near the former Romulan Neutral Zone. Ryan notes her portrayal is "much more human" and developed a new speaking cadence to reflect the character's two decades living in Federation space.

In 2386, nine years after the USS Voyager returned to Earth, Seven's surrogate son Icheb was abducted by Borg harvesters. Seven attempted to rescue him but arrived too late, finding him mortally wounded. Icheb died in Seven's arms after she acceded to his request to mercy kill him.

In 2399, Seven encounters Jean-Luc Picard and the crew of La Sirena en route to the planet Freecloud. Seven assists Picard in his attempt to rescue Dr. Bruce Maddox from Bjayzl, a criminal businesswoman, by offering herself as bounty. It is revealed that Seven's true intentions are to kill Bjayzl, who was responsible for Icheb's death. Picard believes he is able to talk Seven out of killing Bjayzl, and they return to La Sirena with Maddox. She and Picard discuss their mutual difficulty regaining their humanity after being assimilated by the Borg, and she disembarks under the pretense of rejoining the Rangers, but actually transports back to the surface and vaporizes Bjayzl.

Seven arrives at the Artifact, a disabled Borg cube captured by the Romulans, after being summoned by Picard's companion Elnor. To save the former Borg onboard from execution at the hands of the Romulans, she temporarily connects herself to the cube inside the queencell, taking on the role of a Borg Queen. She does this despite concern about keeping control:

 * "Seven of Nine: Assimilate them? Invade their minds? Suppress their identities, enslave them? Again?
 * "Elnor: You can release them when we win.
 * "Seven of Nine: They won't want to be released. And I... I might not want to release them."

Despite her concerns, Seven is able to disconnect herself after the Romulan forces have been driven off the cube, stating that "Annika" still has work to do. She brings the cube to Soji's homeworld, Coppelius, to aid Picard, but it crashes on the surface after being disabled by the planetary defenses. When the Romulan armada arrives at the planet to destroy the synthetics, the Romulan agent Narissa attempts to access the cube's weapons to destroy La Sirena, but is pushed off a ledge by Seven. After the Romulan armada is warded off, Seven joins the crew of La Sirena and is seen holding hands with Picard's companion Raffi.

Seven returns in the second season, where she is the captain of La Sirena after Rios had returned to Starfleet, and she is in a relationship with Raffi. When Q sends her and others back in a changed timeline, where she was never assimilated and is President Annika Hansen of the Earth-based Confederation of Earth, she joins the La Sirena crew in a time travel journey back to 2024 to prevent Q from creating the alternate timeline and enjoys being Borg-free for the first time since she was six. Seven and Raffi try to find the mysterious Watcher and end up rescuing Rios from ICE officers after being involved in a car chase. She later helps protect and watch over Renée Picard, who is the focus of Q's machinations. She and Raffi then search for Jurati and find that she is slowly becoming a new Borg Queen. In a fight between Borg soldiers, former mercenaries, Adam Soong and the Jurati/Borg Queen entity, she is partially reassimilated to save her life, after Jurati is able to remind the Borg Queen of her affection for Seven. It is also revealed that after Voyager returned to Earth, Seven tried to formally join Starfleet, but was rejected because of her Borg implants. Admiral Janeway threatened to resign from Starfleet over the matter, but Seven dropped her request and joined the Fenris Rangers instead. In the season finale, when they are sent back to their own timeline, Picard gives Seven a field commission, and she takes command of the USS Stargazer.

In the third season, Seven, with Picard and Janeway's encouragement, has remained a Starfleet officer with the rank of commander. She is assigned as first officer of the USS Titan-A, the successor to the ship that William Riker commanded for many years. The transition has not been smooth, as her captain, Liam Shaw, does not trust her due to her Borg past and insists that she use her human name. In the final episode of Star Trek: Picard, Tuvok promotes Seven of Nine to the rank of captain, revealing that Shaw had given her a glowing recommendation for command in spite of the friction between them. Seven is given command of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-G), with Commander Raffi Musiker as her first officer and Ensign Jack Crusher II as her counselor. She is last seen about to give her first command as captain of the Enterprise.

Novels, comics and video games
Following the switch of the Star Trek comic properties to WildStorm, the first comic to be released was Star Trek: Voyager - False Colors. This featured Seven of Nine in a prominent role, as the crew investigate what appears to be a Borg vessel.

Seven of Nine has made appearances in the Star Trek comics, such as in IDW Publishing's Star Trek: The Next Generation – Hive. She has also continued to be a main character in the Voyager novel relaunch.

Some of the novels that prominently feature Seven of Nine include Seven of Nine by Christie Golden, No Time Like the Past by Greg Cox, Shadow by Dean Wesley Smith, The Nanotech War by Steven Piziks, The Farther Shore by Christie Golden, and Before Dishonor by Peter David. There is also a script book featuring six television episodes called Becoming Human: The Seven of Nine Saga.

The first video game that the character of Seven of Nine appeared in was Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force. Despite the rest of the main cast voicing their characters, Jeri Ryan did not voice Seven. Instead, the character was voiced by Joan Buddenhagen, with Ryan's voice pack added alongside an expansion to the game. It was also made available as a free download for those that did not purchase the expansion pack. Jeri Ryan has also voiced the character in the Delta Rising expansion to Star Trek Online, a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). The game is set beyond the end of the original Voyager series, with the storyline placing Seven on board the USS Callisto as a science advisor to the Federation fleet which is returning to the Delta Quadrant. When asked about returning as Seven for the game at the Destination Star Trek 3 convention in London, England, Ryan said that "It was fun, surprisingly fun, she fit like an old pair of slippers."

Reception
The initial fan reaction was mixed with some accusing the show of adding her to attract more 18–35 male audience members, which was denied by Braga. The character's attire, numerous form-fitting catsuits with distinct rib-lines and a high stiff neck, was criticized by veteran Star Trek writer/producer Ronald D. Moore, who felt she should have a more Borg-like appearance. Her outfit also annoyed some who felt that it was an attempt by the show's creators to make her sexually appealing to some viewers, without any storyline purposes intended. Keith DeCandido of Tor.com was critical of the hair and costume which "for reasons that have absolutely nothing to do with the character and everything to do with external factors" but that Ryan's performance manages to elevate matters, and give Seven a compelling journey. Ryan was surprised at the immediate fan reaction on the Internet, as there was a full website devoted to her, created only six days after her casting.

Ziauddin Sardar said in the New Statesman that her appearance on Voyager "restored the warp drive" to the show, resulting in a "triumphant note" to the start of the following season. Meanwhile, Ian Spelling writing in Starlog magazine in 1998 said that the introduction of Seven was "just the kick in the asteroid that Voyager needed."

Rob Owen at the Chicago Sun-Times said that the majority of the Voyager cast were "lacking in depth" with the exception of Seven, the Doctor and Captain Janeway. By the end of the series, Seven was described as the "most bewitching cast member" and the "first authentic Trek bombshell since Uhura" by Frank Ahrens at The Washington Post.

In 2009, IGN ranked Seven of Nine as the 12th-best character of Star Trek overall. In 2012, Paste rated Seven of Nine as the fifth-best character of all Star Trek. In 2016, Screen Rant rated Seven of Nine as the tenth-best character in Star Trek overall. They highlight the character's slow recovery after being victimized by the Borg. In 2018, CBR ranked Jeri Ryan, who plays Seven of Nine, as the 14th best actor of the Star Trek franchise.

Askmen.com ranked Seven of Nine as the fourth-most-attractive woman of the science fiction genre, including film and television. In 2011, Seven of Nine was ranked the second-top-sexiest woman of science fiction television. In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Seven of Nine the fourth-most-attractive person in the Star Trek universe. CBR ranked Seven of Nine the "15th-fiercest" female character of the Star Trek universe. In 2019, Seven of Nine was ranked the fourth-sexiest Star Trek character by SyFy.

Themes
The initial episodes following the introduction of Seven of Nine showed Captain Janeway mirroring the actions of the Borg as she turned down Seven's request to be returned to the collective. Abducting Seven was also suggested to be a "tough-love" scenario with Janeway taking the place of Seven's mother, while the Doctor posed as her father. It was this new family relationship that later caused the Borg Queen to modify her tactics to re-assimilate Seven in the episode "Dark Frontier", by simulating a mother-daughter relationship. The Doctor, Seven and Janeway relationship was also compared to Pygmalion showing Galatea to Venus in the way that the Doctor re-humanised Seven during the events of "The Gift".

Seven was received as one of the Voyager characters who filled a Spock-like role, alongside Tuvok, with her "blonde bombshell" appearance balanced by "intelligence, boldness, rationality and a remarkable lack of interest in the opposite sex".

The sexuality of the character was also questioned following her introduction. The character built up a fanbase among the LGBT community which resulted in an online petition to have her revealed as a lesbian. It was pointed out in The Scotsman that the series attempted to avoid any "lesbian subtext" between Seven and Janeway because it was intended to be seen as "family-friendly". The approach by Harry Kim at one point, to which she suggested that he should disrobe in order to "copulate", was suggested to be because of her curiosity about human mating practices rather than any traditional sense of attraction. When the character returned in the series Star Trek: Picard she was portrayed in a same-sex relationship.

The introduction of Seven on the series had subsequent effects on the series Star Trek: Enterprise, as T'Pol (played by Jolene Blalock) was based on a combination of the Seven character and Leonard Nimoy's original Spock.

The efforts of Seven to return to normal living have been compared by many writers to the deprogramming of former cult members.

Award and nominations
Jeri Ryan was nominated on five occasions at the Saturn Awards for portraying Seven of Nine, winning in 2001 and 2024 for Best Supporting Actress on Television. She has also won the Satellite Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama in 1999.

title: Seven of Nine


text:
752 BC

Events

 * Romulus, first king of Rome, celebrates the first Roman triumph after his victory over the Caeninenses, following the Rape of the Sabine Women. He celebrates a further triumph later in the year over the Antemnates.
 * Rome's first colonies were established.
 * Diocles of Messenia won the seventh Ancient Olympic Games.
 * (or 745 BC) Menahem succeeds Shallum of Israel as king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel.
 * Piye succeeds Kashta as Kushite king, and conquers Egypt founding the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.
 * Visakhayupa succeeds Palaka as emperor of Magadha.

Births

 * Dionysius of Halicarnassus dates the foundation of Rome to 752 BC/2 AUC (traditional date: 21 April 753 BC): "Romulus, the first ruler of the city, began his reign in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, when Charops at Athens was in the first year of his ten-year term as archon."

Deaths

 * Zechariah of Israel, king of the northern Israelite Kingdom of Israel, and son of Jeroboam II.
 * Alara of Nubia, king of Kush.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 752 BC


text:
754 BC

Events

 * End of reign of Rudamun, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (757–754 BC)
 * Start of reign of Iuput, Pharaoh of the Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt (754–715 BC)

title: 754 BC


text:
755 BC

Events

 * Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria

Deaths
Aeschylus, King of Athens, dies after a reign of 23 years and is succeeded by Alcmaeon.

title: 755 BC


text:
Bailey bridge

A Bailey bridge is a type of portable, pre-fabricated, truss bridge. It was developed in 1940–1941 by the British for military use during the Second World War and saw extensive use by British, Canadian and American military engineering units. A Bailey bridge has the advantages of requiring no special tools or heavy equipment to assemble. The wood and steel bridge elements were small and light enough to be carried in trucks and lifted into place by hand, without the use of a crane. These bridges were strong enough to carry tanks. Bailey bridges continue to be used extensively in civil engineering construction projects and to provide temporary crossings for pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

Design
The success of the Bailey bridge was due to the simplicity of the fabrication and assembly of its modular components, combined with the ability to erect and deploy sections with a minimum of assistance from heavy equipment. Many previous designs for military bridges required cranes to lift the pre-assembled bridge and lower it into place. The Bailey parts were made of standard steel alloys, and were simple enough that parts made at a number of different factories were interchangeable. Each individual part could be carried by a small number of men, enabling army engineers to move more easily and quickly, in preparing the way for troops and materiel advancing behind them. The modular design allowed engineers to build each bridge to be as long and as strong as needed, doubling or tripling the supportive side panels, or on the roadbed sections.

The basic bridge consists of three main parts. The bridge's strength is provided by the panels on the sides. The panels are 10 ft, 5 ft, cross-braced rectangles that each weigh 570 lb, and can be lifted by four men. The panel was constructed of welded steel. The top and bottom chord of each panel had interlocking male and female lugs into which engineers could insert panel connecting pins.

The floor of the bridge consists of a number of 19 ft transoms that run across the bridge, with 10 ft stringers running between them, and over the top of the transoms, forming a square. Transoms rest on the lower chord of the panels, and clamps hold them together. Stringers are placed atop the completed structural frame, and wood planking (chesses) are placed atop the stringers to provide a roadbed. Ribands bolt the planking to the stringers. Later in the war, the wooden planking was covered by steel plates, which were more resistant to damage of tank tracks.

Each unit constructed in this fashion creates a single 10 ft section of bridge, with a 12 ft roadbed. After one section is complete it is typically pushed forward over rollers on the bridgehead, and another section built behind it. The two are then connected together with pins pounded into holes in the corners of the panels.

For added strength up to three panels (and transoms) can be bolted on either side of the bridge. Another solution is to stack the panels vertically. With three panels across and two high, the Bailey Bridge can support tanks over a 200 ft. Footways can be installed on the outside of the side-panels. The side-panels form an effective barrier between foot and vehicle traffic, allowing pedestrians to safely use the bridge.

A useful feature of the Bailey bridge is its ability to be launched from one side of a gap, without a need for ANY equipment or personnel on the far bank. In this system the front-most portion of the bridge is angled up with wedges into a "launching nose" and most of the bridge is left without the roadbed and ribands. The bridge is placed on rollers and simply pushed across the gap, using manpower or a truck or tracked vehicle, at which point the roller is removed (with the help of jacks) and the ribands and roadbed installed, along with any additional panels and transoms that might be needed.

During WWII, Bailey bridge parts were made by companies with little experience of this kind of engineering. Although the parts were simple, they had to be precisely manufactured to fit correctly, so they were assembled into a test jig at each factory to verify this. To do this efficiently, newly manufactured parts would be continuously added to the test bridge, while at the same time the far end of the test bridge was continuously dismantled and the parts dispatched to the end-users.

History

Donald Bailey was a civil servant in the British War Office who tinkered with model bridges as a hobby. He had proposed an early prototype for a Bailey bridge before the war in 1936, but the idea was not acted upon. Bailey drew an original proposal for the bridge on the back of an envelope in 1940. On 14 February 1941, the Ministry of Supply requested that Bailey have a full-scale prototype completed by 1 May. Work on the bridge was completed with particular support from Ralph Freeman. The design was tested at the Experimental Bridging Establishment (EBE), in Christchurch, Dorset, with several parts from Braithwaite & Co., beginning in December 1940 and ending in 1941. The first prototype was tested in 1941. For early tests, the bridge was laid across a field, about 2 ft above the ground, and several Mark V tanks were filled with pig iron and stacked upon each other.

The prototype of this was used to span Mother Siller's Channel, which cuts through the nearby Stanpit Marshes, an area of marshland at the confluence of the River Avon and the River Stour. It remains there (50.72528°N, -1.76215°W) as a functioning bridge. Full production began in July 1941. Thousands of workers and over 650 firms, including Littlewoods, were engaged in making the bridge, with production eventually rising to 25,000 bridge panels a month. The first Bailey bridges were in military service by December 1941, Bridges in the other formats were built, temporarily, to cross the Avon and Stour in the meadows nearby. After successful development and testing, the bridge was taken into service by the Corps of Royal Engineers and first used in North Africa in 1942.

The original design violated a patent on the Callender-Hamilton bridge. The designer of that bridge, A. M. Hamilton, successfully applied to the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors. The Bailey Bridge was more easily constructed, but less portable than the Hamilton bridge. Hamilton was awarded £4,000 in 1936 by the War Office for the use of his early bridges and the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors awarded him £10,000 in 1954 for the use, mainly in Asia, of his later bridges. Lieutenant General Sir Giffard Le Quesne Martel was awarded £500 for infringement on the design of his box girder bridge, the Martel bridge. Bailey was later knighted for his invention, and awarded £12,000.

Use in the Second World War
The first operational Bailey bridge during the Second World War was built by 237 Field Company R.E. over Medjerda River near Medjez el Bab in Tunisia on the night of 26 November 1942. The first Bailey bridge built under fire was constructed at Leonforte by members of the 3rd Field Company, Royal Canadian Engineers. The Americans soon adopted the Bailey bridge technique, calling it the Portable Panel Bridge. In early 1942, the United States Army Corps of Engineers initially awarded contracts to the Detroit Steel Products Company, the American Elevator Company and the Commercial Shearing and Stamping Company, and later several others.

The Bailey provided a solution to the problem of German and Italian armies destroying bridges as they retreated. By the end of the war, the US Fifth Army and British 8th Army had built over 3,000 Bailey bridges in Sicily and Italy alone, totaling over 55 mi of bridge, at an average length of 100 ft. One Bailey, built to replace the Sangro River bridge in Italy, spanned 1126 ft. Another on the Chindwin River in Burma, spanned 1154 ft. Such long bridges required support from either piers or pontoons.

A number of bridges were available by 1944 for D-Day, when production was accelerated. The US also licensed the design and started rapid construction for their own use. A Bailey Bridge constructed over the River Rhine at Rees, Germany, in 1945 by the Royal Canadian Engineers was named "Blackfriars Bridge", and, at 558 m (1814 ft) including the ramps at each end, was then the longest Bailey bridge ever constructed. In all, over 600 firms were involved in the making of over 200 miles of bridges composing of 500,000 tons, or 700,000 panels of bridging during the war. At least 2,500 Bailey bridges were built in Italy, and another 2,000 elsewhere.

Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery wrote in 1947:"Bailey Bridging made an immense contribution towards ending World War II. As far as my own operations were concerned, with the eighth Army in Italy and with the 21 Army Group in North West Europe, I could never have maintained the speed and tempo of forward movement without large supplies of Bailey Bridging."

Post-war applications
The Skylark launch tower at Woomera was built up of Bailey bridge components. In the years immediately following World War II, the Ontario Hydro-Electric Power Commission purchased huge amounts of war-surplus Bailey bridging from the Canadian War Assets Corporation. The commission used bridging in an office building. Over 200,000 tons of bridging were used in a hydroelectric project. The Ontario government was, several years after World War II, the largest holder of Bailey Bridging components. After Hurricane Hazel in 1954, some of the bridging was used to construct replacement bridges in the Toronto area. The Old Finch Avenue Bailey Bridge, built by the 2nd Field Engineer Regiment, is the last still in use.

The longest Bailey bridge was put into service in October 1975. This 788 m, two-lane bridge crossed the Derwent River at Hobart, Australia. The Bailey bridge was in use until the reconstruction of the Tasman Bridge was completed on 8 October 1977. Bailey bridges are in regular use throughout the world, particularly as a means of bridging in remote regions. In 2018, the Indian Army erected three new footbridges at Elphinstone Road, a commuter railway station in Mumbai, and at Currey Road and Ambivli. These were erected quickly, in response to a stampede some months earlier, where 23 people died. The United States Army Corps of Engineers uses Bailey Bridges in construction projects, including an emergency replacement bridge on the Hana Highway in Hawaii. Two temporary Bailey bridges have been used on the northern span of the Dufferin Street bridges in Toronto since 2014.

In 2017 the Irish Army built a Bailey bridge to replace a road bridge across the Cabry River, in County Donegal, after the original bridge was destroyed in floods.

In 2021 a Bailey bridge was built across the river Dijle in Rijmenam (Belgium) for the transportation of excavated soil from one side to the other of the river. The bridge allowed the trucks to cross the river without having to pass the city center.

In March 2021, the Michigan Department of Transportation constructed a Bailey bridge on M-30 to temporarily reconnect the highway after the old structure was destroyed in the May 2020 flooding and subsequent failure of the Edenville Dam. The department will replace the temporary bridge with a permanent structure in the coming years.

Following the 2023 Auckland Anniversary Weekend floods and Cyclone Gabrielle in the North Island of New Zealand, Bailey bridges were installed to reconnect communities.

Following the 2023 floods in Madrid, Spain, the Spanish Army is set to build a Bailey bridge in the village of Aldea del Fresno.

title: Bailey bridge


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Scottish Enlightenment

The Scottish Enlightenment (Scots Enlichtenment, Soillseachadh na h-Alba) was the period in 18th- and early-19th-century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of parish schools in the Scottish Lowlands and five universities. The Enlightenment culture was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions which took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as The Select Society and, later, The Poker Club, as well as within Scotland's ancient universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh, King's College, and Marischal College).

Sharing the humanist and rational outlook of the Western Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole.

Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, botany and zoology, law, agriculture, chemistry and sociology. Among the Scottish thinkers and scientists of the period were Joseph Black, James Boswell, Robert Burns, William Cullen, Adam Ferguson, David Hume, Francis Hutcheson, James Hutton, Lord Monboddo, John Playfair, Thomas Reid, Adam Smith, and Dugald Stewart.

The Scottish Enlightenment had effects far beyond Scotland, not only because of the esteem in which Scottish achievements were held outside Scotland, but also because its ideas and attitudes were carried all over Great Britain and across the Western world as part of the Scottish diaspora, and by foreign students who studied in Scotland.

Background
Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament. The parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law remained entirely separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers and jurists remained in Edinburgh. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities and the medical establishment. The lawyers and the divines, together with the professors, intellectuals, medical men, scientists and architects formed a new middle class elite that dominated urban Scotland and facilitated the Scottish Enlightenment.

Economic growth
At the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth, but there were five Scottish universities (St. Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Aberdeen's King's College and Marischal College) against two in England. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap. Contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their displaced workers, enclosures led to unemployment and forced migrations to the burghs or abroad. The major change in international trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade; initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, re-exporting particularly to France. The merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period. The Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr. These made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade.

Education system
The humanist-inspired emphasis on education in Scotland culminated in the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools. The aims of a network of parish schools were taken up as part of the Protestant programme in the 16th century and a series of acts of the Privy Council and Parliament in 1616, 1633, 1646 and 1696 attempted to support its development and finance. By the late 17th century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas. One of the effects of this extensive network of schools was the growth of the "democratic myth", which in the 19th century created the widespread belief that many a "lad of pairts" had been able to rise up through the system to take high office, and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states, particularly England. Historians are now divided over whether the ability of boys who pursued this route to social advancement was any different than that in other comparable nations, because the education in some parish schools was basic and short, and attendance was not compulsory. Regardless of what the literacy rate actually was, it is clear that many Scottish students learned a useful form of visual literacy that allowed them to organise and remember information in a superior fashion.

By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with England's two. After the disruption of the civil wars (Wars of the Three Kingdoms), Commonwealth and purges at the Restoration, they recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry. All saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at King's and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen. Robert Sibbald (1641–1722) was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and would put Scotland at the forefront of new thinking. By the end of the century, the University of Edinburgh's Medical School was arguably one of the leading centres of science in Europe, boasting such names as the anatomist Alexander Monro (secundus), the chemists William Cullen and Joseph Black, and the natural historian John Walker. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, Germany or France. Attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the intellectual benefits of this system.

Intellectual climate
In France, the Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great Encyclopédie (1751–1772) edited by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1713–1784) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals such as Voltaire (1694–1778), Rousseau (1712–1778) and Montesquieu (1689–1755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35-volume set were sold, half of them outside France. In Scottish intellectual life the culture was oriented towards books. In 1763 Edinburgh had six printing houses and three paper mills; by 1783 there were 16 printing houses and 12 paper mills.

Intellectual life revolved around a series of clubs, beginning in Edinburgh in the 1710s. One of the first was the Easy Club, co-founded In Edinburgh by the Jacobite printer Thomas Ruddiman. Clubs did not reach Glasgow until the 1740s. One of the first and most important in the city was the Political Economy Club, aimed at creating links between academics and merchants, of which noted economist Adam Smith was a prominent early member. Other clubs in Edinburgh included The Select Society, formed by the younger Allan Ramsay, a prominent artist, and philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith and, later, The Poker Club, formed in 1762 and named by Adam Ferguson for the aim to "poke up" opinion on the militia issue.

Historian Jonathan Israel argues that by 1750 Scotland's major cities had created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions, such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". Bruce Lenman says their "central achievement was a new capacity to recognize and interpret social patterns."

The Scottish Enlightenment owed much to the highly literate culture of Scottish Presbyterianism. Established as the Church of Scotland following the Revolution of 1688, the Presbyterians supported the 1707 Act of Union, and the protestant Hanoverian monarchy. The eighteenth century saw divisions and dispute between hard-line traditional Calvinists, Enlightenment influenced Moderates, and increasingly popular Evangelicals. Moderate clergy, with their emphasis on reason, toleration, morality and polite manners, were ascendant in the universities. Some of the leading intellectual lights of the Scottish Enlightenment were Presbyterian ministers, such as William Robertson (1721–93), historian and principal of the University of Edinburgh. The careers of sceptics, such as Adam Smith and David Hume, owed much to the tolerance, support and friendship of Moderate clergy.

Such was the reputation of the Scottish clergy for their Enlightenment values that a friend in England asked the Rev. James Wodrow, a minister in Ayrshire, whether two thirds of the Scottish clergy were in reality Deists. Wodrow dismissed the suggestion, and observed that “I cannot imagine the number of Deists among us bear almost any proportion at all to the rest. A few about Edinburgh in east Lothian & in the Merse by reading David Hume’s books & by their conversation & connexions with him & his friends, to whom you may add a scatered Clergyman or two here & there in other parts of [the] Country who has happened to get his education among that set of people; are all you can reckon upon & it is no way difficult to account for their forsaking the faith … & loving a present World & the mode of thinking fashionable in it.” (James Wodrow to Samuel Kenrick, 25 January 1769).

Empiricism and inductive reasoning
The first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment was Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. He was an important link between the ideas of Shaftesbury and the later school of Scottish Common Sense Realism, developing Utilitarianism and Consequentialist thinking. Also influenced by Shaftesbury was George Turnbull (1698–1748), who was regent at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and who published pioneering work in the fields of Christian ethics, art and education.

David Hume (1711–76) whose Treatise on Human Nature (1738) and Essays, Moral and Political (1741) helped outline the parameters of philosophical Empiricism and Scepticism. He would be a major influence on later Enlightenment figures including Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham. Hume's argument that there were no efficient causes hidden in nature was supported and developed by Thomas Brown (1778–1820), who was Dugald Stewart's (1753–1828) successor at Edinburgh and who would be a major influence on later philosophers including John Stuart Mill.

In contrast to Hume, Thomas Reid (1710–96), a student of Turnbull's, along with minister George Campbell (1719–96) and writer and moralist James Beattie (1735–1803), formulated Common Sense Realism. Reid set out his theories in An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764). This approach argued that there are certain concepts, such as human existence, the existence of solid objects and some basic moral "first principles", that are intrinsic to the make up of man and from which all subsequent arguments and systems of morality must be derived. It can be seen as an attempt to reconcile the new scientific developments of the Enlightenment with religious belief.

Literature
Major literary figures originating in Scotland in this period included James Boswell (1740–95), whose An Account of Corsica (1768) and The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785) drew on his extensive travels and whose Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) is a major source on one of the English Enlightenment's major men of letters and his circle. Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form. The lawyer Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782) made a major contribution to the study of literature with Elements of Criticism (1762), which became the standard textbook on rhetoric and style.

Hugh Blair (1718–1800) was a minister of the Church of Scotland and held the Chair of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh. He produced an edition of the works of Shakespeare and is best known for Sermons (1777–1801), a five-volume endorsement of practical Christian morality, and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783). The former fused the oratorical arts of humanism with a sophisticated theory on the relationship between cognition and the origins of language. It influenced many leading thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, including Adam Smith and Dugald Stewart.

Blair was one of the figures who first drew attention to the Ossian cycle of James Macpherson to public attention. Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published "translations" that were proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.

Before Robert Burns (1759–96) the most important Scottish language poet was Robert Fergusson (1750–74), who also worked in English. His work often celebrated his native Edinburgh and Enlightenment conviviality, as in his best known poem "Auld Reekie" (1773). Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is now widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and became a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of Classical, Biblical, and English literature, as well as the Scottish Makar tradition.

Economics
Adam Smith developed and published The Wealth of Nations, the starting point of modern economics. This study, which had an immediate impact on British economic policy, still frames discussions on globalisation and tariffs. The book identified land, labour, and capital as the three factors of production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth, as distinct from the Physiocratic idea that only agriculture was productive. Smith discussed potential benefits of specialisation by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries. His "theorem" that "the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market" has been described as the "core of a theory of the functions of firm and industry" and a "fundamental principle of economic organization." In an argument that includes "one of the most famous passages in all economics," Smith represents every individual as trying to employ any capital they might command for their own advantage, not that of the society, and for the sake of profit, which is necessary at some level for employing capital in domestic industry, and positively related to the value of produce. Economists have linked Smith's invisible-hand concept to his concern for the common man and woman through economic growth and development, enabling higher levels of consumption, which Smith describes as "the sole end and purpose of all production."

Sociology and anthropology
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what leading thinkers such as James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714–99) and Lord Kames called a science of man, which was expressed historically in the work of thinkers such as James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, William Robertson and John Walker, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures, with an awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern notions of visual anthropology permeated the lectures of leading Scottish academics like Hugh Blair, and Alan Swingewood argues that modern sociology largely originated in Scotland. James Burnett is most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical linguistics. He was the first major figure to argue that mankind had evolved language skills in response to his changing environment and social structures. He was one of a number of scholars involved in the development of early concepts of evolution and has been credited with anticipating in principle the idea of natural selection that was developed into a scientific theory by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Mathematics, science and medicine
One of the central pillars of the Scottish Enlightenment was scientific and medical knowledge. Many of the key thinkers were trained as physicians or had studied science and medicine at university or on their own at some point in their career. Likewise, there was a notable presence of university medically-trained professionals, especially physicians, apothecaries, surgeons and even ministers, who lived in provincial settings. Unlike England or other European countries like France or Austria, the intelligentsia of Scotland were not beholden to powerful aristocratic patrons and this led them to see science through the eyes of utility, improvement and reform.

Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746) was appointed as chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College, and was the leading British mathematician of his era. Mathematician and physicist Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) is chiefly noted for his experiments with heat and was the first person to artificially create ice.

Other major figures in science included William Cullen (1710–90), physician and chemist, James Anderson (1739–1808), agronomist. Joseph Black (1728–99), physicist and chemist, discovered carbon dioxide (fixed air) and latent heat, and developed what many consider to be the first chemical formulae.

James Hutton (1726–97) was the first modern geologist, with his Theory of the Earth (1795) challenging existing ideas about the age of the Earth. His ideas were popularised by the scientist and mathematician John Playfair (1748–1819). Prior to James Hutton, Rev. David Ure then minister to East Kilbride Parish was the first to represent the shells 'entrochi' in illustrations and make accounts of the geology of southern Scotland. The findings of David Ure were influential enough to inspire the Scottish endeavour to the recording and interpretation of natural history and Fossils, a major part of the Scottish Enlightenment.

Edinburgh became a major centre of medical teaching and research.

Significance
Representative of the far-reaching impact of the Scottish Enlightenment was the new Encyclopædia Britannica, which was designed in Edinburgh by Colin Macfarquhar, Andrew Bell and others. It was first published in three volumes between 1768 and 1771, with 2,659 pages and 160 engravings, and quickly became a standard reference work in the English-speaking world. The fourth edition (1810) ran to 16,000 pages in 20 volumes. The Encyclopaedia continued to be published in Edinburgh until 1898, when it was sold to an American publisher.

Cultural influence
The Scottish Enlightenment had numerous dimensions, influencing the culture of the nation in several areas including architecture, art and music.

Scotland produced some of the most significant architects of the period who were involved in the intellectual culture of the Enlightenment. Robert Adam (1728–92) was an interior designer as well as an architect, with his brothers developing the Adam style, He influenced the development of architecture in Britain, Western Europe, North America and in Russia. Adam's main rival was William Chambers, another Scot, but born in Sweden. Chambers was appointed architectural tutor to the Prince of Wales, later George III, and in 1766, with Robert Adam, as Architect to the King.

Artists included John Alexander and his younger contemporary William Mossman (1700–71). They painted many of the figures of early-Enlightenment Edinburgh. The leading Scottish artist of the late eighteenth century, Allan Ramsay, studied in Sweden, London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh, where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Gavin Hamilton (1723–98) spent almost his entire career in Italy and emerged as a pioneering neo-classical painter of historical and mythical themes, including his depictions of scenes from Homer's Iliad, as well as acting as an informal tutor to British artists and as an early archaeologist and antiquarian. Many of his works can be seen as Enlightenment speculations about the origins of society and politics, including the Death of Lucretia (1768), an event thought to be critical to the birth of the Roman Republic. His classicism would be a major influence on French artist Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825).

The growth of a musical culture in the capital was marked by the incorporation of the Musical Society of Edinburgh in 1728. Scottish composers known to be active in this period include: Alexander Munro (fl. c. 1732), James Foulis (1710–73) and Charles McLean (fl. c. 1737). Thomas Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie (1732–81) was one of the most important British composers of his era, and the first Scot known to have produced a symphony. In the mid-eighteenth century, a group of Scottish composers began to respond to Allan Ramsey's call to "own and refine" their own musical tradition, creating what James Johnson has characterised as the "Scots drawing room style", taking primarily Lowland Scottish tunes and adding simple figured basslines and other features from Italian music that made them acceptable to a middle-class audience. It gained momentum when major Scottish composers like James Oswald (1710–69) and William McGibbon (1690–1756) became involved around 1740. Oswald's Curious Collection of Scottish Songs (1740) was one of the first to include Gaelic tunes alongside Lowland ones, setting a fashion common by the middle of the century and helping to create a unified Scottish musical identity. However, with changing fashions there was a decline in the publication of collections of specifically Scottish collections of tunes, in favour of their incorporation into British collections.

Wider impact
While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century, disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as Thomas Carlyle, James Watt, William Murdoch, James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Sir Walter Scott. The influence of the movement spread beyond Scotland across the British Empire, and onto the Continent. The political ideas had an important impact on the Founding Fathers of the United States, which broke away from the empire in 1775. The philosophy of Common Sense Realism was especially influential in 19th century American thought and religion.

In traditional historiography, the Scottish Enlightenment was long identified with abolitionism due to the writings of some of its members and the rarity of enslaved people in Scotland. However, academic John Stewart argues that due to the fact that many members of the Scottish Enlightenment were involved in supporting slavery and scientific racism (a consequence, he argues, of Scotland's disproportionate involvement in the Atlantic slave trade), "the development of eighteenth-century chemistry and the broader intellectual [Scottish] Enlightenment were inextricably entangled with the economic Improvement Movement and the colonial economy of the British slave trade."

Cultural representations
The Scottish dramatist Robert McLellan (1907-1985) wrote a number of full-length stage comedies which give a self-conscious representation of Edinburgh at the height of the Scottish enlightenment, most notably The Flouers o Edinburgh (1957). These plays include references to many of the figures historically associated with the movement and satirise various social tensions, particularly in the field of spoken language, between traditional society and anglicised Scots who presented themselves as exponents of so-called 'new manners'. Other later examples include Young Auchinleck (1962), a stage portrait of the young James Boswell, and The Hypocrite (1967) which draws attention to conservative religious reaction in the country that threatened to check enlightenment trends. McLellan's picture of these tensions in national terms is complex, even-handed and multi-faceted.

Key figures

 * William Adam (1689–1748) architect
 * John Adam (1721–1792) architect
 * Robert Adam (1728–1792) architect and artist
 * James Adam (1732–1794) architect and designer
 * Archibald Alison (1757–1839) essayist
 * David Allan (1744–1796) painter and illustrator
 * James Stirling (1692-1770), mathematician, He discovered the Stirling approaches.
 * James Anderson (1662–1728) lawyer, antiquary and historian
 * James Anderson (1739–1808) agronomist, lawyer
 * John Arbuthnot (1667–1735) physician, satirist and polymath
 * John Armstrong (1709–1779) physician, poet and satirist
 * Joanna Baillie (1762–1851) poet and dramatist
 * George Husband Baird (1761–1840) minister, educational reformer and linguist
 * James Beattie (1735–1803) philosopher and poet
 * Andrew Bell (1753–1832) priest and educationalist
 * Sir Charles Bell (1774–1842) surgeon, physiologist and neurologist
 * Henry Bell (1767–1830) engineer
 * John Bell of Antermony (1691–1780) doctor and traveller
 * Joseph Black (1728–1799) physicist and chemist, first to isolate carbon dioxide
 * Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) classical scholar and historian
 * William Blackwood (1776–1834) publisher, founder of Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine
 * Hugh Blair (1718–1800) minister, author
 * Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield, 1st Baronet (1749–1834) physician
 * James Boswell (1740–1795) lawyer, author of Life of Johnson
 * John Broadwood (1732–1812) piano manufacturer
 * Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux (1778–1868) Englishman born, educated and active in Edinburgh, advocate, journalist and statesman
 * Robert Brown (1773–1858) botanist
 * Thomas Brown (1778–1820) philosopher
 * James Bruce of Kinnaird (1730–1794) African explorer
 * James Daniel (Yakov) Bruce (1669–1735) Moscow-born Scot, Count of the Russian Empire, statesman, general, diplomat and scientist
 * Patrick Brydone (1736–1818) traveller and author
 * David Steuart Erskine, 11th Earl of Buchan (1742–1829) founder of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
 * Robert Burns (1759–1796) poet
 * John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713–1792) politician, botanist, literary and artistic patron, first President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
 * Charles Cameron (1746–1812) architect, active in Russia
 * George Campbell (1719–1796) philosopher
 * Thomas Campbell (1777–1844) poet
 * Alexander Carlyle (1722–1805) church leader and autobiographer
 * Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) historian and philosopher
 * Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847) minister and political economist
 * Sir William Chambers (1723–1796) architect
 * John Cleland (1709–1789) writer, author of Fanny Hill
 * Sir John Clerk of Penicuik, 2nd Baronet (1676–1755) politician, lawyer, judge and antiquary
 * Sir John Clerk of Eldin (1728–1812) artist, navalist
 * John Clerk, Lord Eldin (1757–1832) advocate, judge and collector
 * Archibald David Constable (1774–1827) publisher
 * William Cruickshank (c 1740-1810/1) chemist
 * James Craig (1739–1795) architect, designer of the Edinburgh New Town
 * William Cullen (1710–1790) physician, chemist, medical researcher
 * David Dale (1739–1806) industrialist, merchant and philanthropist
 * Alexander Dalrymple (1737–1808) geographer
 * James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount of Stair (1619-1695) lawyer and statesman
 * Sir Alexander Dick, 3rd Baronet of Prestonfield (1703–1785) doctor, President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
 * Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie, 6th Baronet (1694 – 1770) genealogist
 * Alexander Dow (1735/6 – 1779) writer and Orientalist
 * George Drummond (1688–1766) accountant-general and politician, Lord Provost of Edinburgh
 * James Elphinston (1721–1809) educator and linguist
 * Robert Erskine (doctor) (1677–1718) doctor and naturalist, head and reformer of Russian medicine, compiled first herbarium in Russia and discovered mineral waters
 * Henry Erskine (1746–1817) advocate and politician
 * Henry Farquharson (c.1675–1739) mathematician, active in Russia where he introduced Arabic numerals and logarithms
 * Adam Ferguson (1723–1816) considered the founder of sociology
 * James Ferguson (1710–1776) astronomer and instrument maker
 * Robert Fergusson (1750–1774) poet
 * Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun (1653–1716) forerunner of the Scottish Enlightenment, writer, patriot, commissioner of Parliament of Scotland
 * George Fordyce (1736–1802) physician and chemist
 * Andrew Foulis (1712–1775) printer
 * Robert Foulis (1707–1776) printer and publisher
 * John Galt (1779–1839) novelist
 * Alexander Gerard (1728–1795) minister, academic and philosophical writer
 * James Gillray (1756–1815) caricaturist and printmaker
 * Walter Goodall (1706?–1766) historical writer
 * Alexander Gordon of Auchintoul (1669/70–1752) general and memoirist
 * Alexander Gordon (1692?–1755) antiquary and singer
 * Thomas Gordon (writer) (c.1691–1750) writer and translator from Latin
 * Thomas Gordon (1714–1797) philosopher, mathematician and antiquarian
 * John Gregory (1724–1773) physician, medical writer and moralist
 * John Grieve (1753–1805) physician
 * Matthew Guthrie (1743–1807) physician, mineralogist and traveller
 * Sir David Dalrymple, Lord Hailes (1726–1792) advocate, judge and historian
 * Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet (1761–1832) geologist, geophysicist
 * Alexander Hamilton (1739–1802) physician
 * Gavin Hamilton (1723–1798) painter and archaeologist
 * Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803) diplomat, antiquarian, archaeologist and vulcanologist
 * Matthew Hardie (1755–1826) violin maker, called the 'Scottish Stradivari'
 * James Hogg (1770–1835) writer, author of The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner
 * Francis Home (1719–1813) physician
 * John Home (1722–1808) minister and writer, author of Douglas
 * John Hope (1725–1786) physician and botanist
 * Francis Horner (1778–1817) politician, lawyer and political economist
 * John Hunter (1728–1793) surgeon
 * William Hunter (1718–1783) anatomist, physician
 * David Hume (1711–1776) philosopher, historian and essayist
 * Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) philosopher
 * James Hutton (1726–1797) founder of modern geology
 * John Jamieson (1759–1838) minister, philologist and antiquary
 * Robert Jameson (1774–1854) Scottish naturalist and mineralogist
 * Francis Jeffrey, Lord Jeffrey (1773–1850) advocate, journalist and literary critic, founder of the Edinburgh Review
 * Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782) philosopher, judge, historian and agricultural improver
 * John Kay (1742–1826) caricaturist and engraver
 * James Keir (1735 – 1820) chemist, geologist, industrialist and inventor
 * Thomas Alexander Erskine, 6th Earl of Kellie (1732–1781) composer and virtuoso violinist
 * John Law of Lauriston (1671–1729) economist, banker, active in France
 * Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) mathematician, physicist
 * James Lind (1716–1794) doctor, pioneer of naval hygiene
 * James Lind (1736–1812) naturalist and physician
 * Charles Lyell (botanist) (1767–1849) botanist and translator of Dante
 * John Loudon MacAdam (1756–1836) engineer and road-builder
 * Zachary Macaulay (1768–1838) statistician, abolitionist
 * Colin Macfarquhar (1745?–1793) printer, co-founder of the Encyclopædia Britannica
 * Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764–1820) explorer of North America
 * Henry Mackenzie (1745–1831) lawyer and writer
 * Charles Mackie (1688–1770) first Professor of History at Edinburgh University and in the British Isles
 * Sir James Mackintosh (1765–1832) jurist, politician and historian
 * Charles Macintosh (1766–1843) chemist, inventor of waterproof fabrics
 * Colin Maclaurin (1698–1746) mathematician
 * James Macpherson (1736–1796) writer, author of Ossian
 * David Mallet (Malloch) (c.1705–1765) writer
 * Francis Masson (1741–1805) botanist
 * William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield (1705–1793) jurist, judge and politician
 * Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville (1742–1811) advocate and statesman
 * Andrew Meikle (1719–1811) engineer and inventor
 * Adam Menelaws (1749/56–1831) architect, active in Russia
 * James Mill (1773–1836) philosopher
 * Andrew Millar (1705–1768) publisher
 * John Millar (1735–1801) philosopher, historian
 * James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714–1799) judge, founder of modern comparative historical linguistics
 * Alexander Monro I (1697–1767) physician, founder of Edinburgh Medical School
 * Alexander Monro II of Craiglockhart and Cockburn (1733–1817) anatomist, physician
 * John Monro of Auchinbowie (1725–1789) advocate
 * Jacob More (1740–1793) painter
 * James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton (1702–1768) astronomer, patron of science, President of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh and of the Royal Society
 * James Mounsey (1709/10–1773) physician and naturalist
 * Thomas Muir of Huntershill (1765–1799) political reformer
 * William Murdoch (1754–1839) engineer and inventor
 * Alexander Murray (1775–1813) minister and philologist
 * John Murray (1778–1843) publisher
 * Carolina Nairne Lady Nairne, née Oliphant (1766–1845) writer and song collector
 * William Napier (c.1741–1812) musician and music publisher
 * William Nicholson (1782–1849) poet
 * Alexander Nisbet (1657-1725) lawyer, antiquarian and heraldist
 * William Ogilvie of Pittensear (1736–1819) classicist, numismatist and land reformer
 * James Oswald (1710–1769) composer, cellist and music publisher
 * Mungo Park (1771–1806) explorer of West Africa
 * Thomas Pennant Welsh naturalist, traveller, writer and antiquarian (1726–1798), whose travel writings and collected pictorial representations of Scotland inspired the 'petit' grand tour fueling philosophical and artistic re-interpretation of landscape appreciation in Scotland.
 * John Pinkerton (1758–1826) antiquarian, cartographer and historian
 * Archibald Pitcairne (1652–1713) physician and bibliophile
 * John Playfair (1748–1819) mathematician, geologist
 * James Playfair (1755–1794) architect
 * William Playfair (1759–1823) engineer, political economist, founder of graphical methods of statistics
 * Jane Porter (1776–1850) historical novelist
 * Sir Robert Ker Porter (1777–1842) artist, author, diplomat and traveller
 * Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet (1707–1782) physician
 * Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) poet
 * Allan Ramsay (1713–1784) portrait painter
 * Andrew Michael Ramsay (1686–1743) writer, based in France
 * Henry Raeburn (1756–1823) portrait painter
 * Thomas Reid (1710–1796) philosopher, founder of the Scottish School of Common Sense
 * John Rennie (1761–1821) civil engineer
 * William Richardson (1743–1814) author and literary scholar
 * William Robertson (1721–1793) historian, minister and Principal of the University of Edinburgh
 * John Robison (1739–1805) physicist, mathematician and philosopher, first General Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
 * Sir John Ross (1777–1856) Arctic explorer
 * William Roxburgh (1751–1815) surgeon and botanist, founding father of Indian botany
 * Thomas Ruddiman (1674–1757) classical scholar
 * Alexander Runciman (1736–1785) painter
 * John Runciman (1744–1768/9) painter
 * John Rutherford (1695–1779) physician
 * Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819) physician, chemist and botanist
 * Paul Sandby (artist) (1731–1809) English Topographical and landscape painter, among the first to depict Scotland as a place of landscape appreciation in its natural state, influencing Robert Adam and John Clerk of Eldin.
 * Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832) novelist, poet
 * Sir Robert Sibbald (1641–1722) physician and antiquary
 * Sir John Sinclair of Ulbster (1754–1835) writer, statistician
 * William Skirving (c.1745–1796) political reformer
 * William Smellie (1740–1795) editor of the first edition of Encyclopædia Britannica
 * Adam Smith (1723–1790) philosopher and political economist
 * Sydney Smith (1771–1845) English writer, co-founder of Edinburgh Review
 * Tobias Smollett (1721–1771) writer
 * Mary Somerville (1780–1872) science writer, astronomer, polymath
 * Dugald Stewart (1753–1828) philosopher
 * James Stirling (1692–1770) mathematician
 * Sir Robert Strange (1721–1792) engraver
 * Gilbert Stuart (1742–1786) journalist and historian
 * William Symington (1764–1831) engineer, inventor, builder of the first practical steamboat
 * Robert Tannahill (1774–1810) poet
 * James Tassie (1735–1799) gem engraver and modeller
 * Thomas Telford (1757–1834) civil engineer and architect
 * James Thomson (1700–1748) poet, author of The Seasons
 * George Thomson (1757–1851) collector and publisher of the music of Scotland
 * Thomas Trotter (1760–1832) physician
 * George Turnbull (1698–1748) theologian, philosopher and writer on education
 * William Tytler (1711–1792) lawyer and historian
 * Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (1747–1813) advocate, judge, writer and historian
 * David Ure (1750–1798) Reverend, Natural History and History, 1st Statistical Account. First to represent entrochi for Scotland and appreciate Scottish natural history in any detail in History of Rutherglen & East Kilbride, 1793.
 * Richard Waitt (died 1732) painter
 * John Walker (naturalist) (1731–1803) minister and natural historian
 * James Watt (1736–1819) inventor of a more efficient, practical steam engine
 * James Wilson (1742–1798) a Founding Father of the United States, signer of United States Declaration of Independence
 * John Witherspoon (1723–1794) a Founding Father of the United States, signer of US Declaration of Independence

Plus those who visited and corresponded with Scottish scholars:
 * Alexander James Dallas (1759–1817) American statesman
 * Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) English physician, botanist, philosopher, grandfather of Charles Darwin
 * Semyon Efimovich Desnitsky (c. 1740–1789) native of Ukraine, University of Glasgow graduate, "Father of Russian jurisprudence"
 * Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) polymath, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States
 * Princess Yekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova (1743–1810) Director of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg, first President of the Russian Academy

title: Scottish Enlightenment


text:
Chem

Chem may refer to:
 * Chemistry
 * Chemical
 * Chem (journal), a scientific journal published by Cell Press
 * Post apocalyptic slang for "drugs", medicinal or otherwise in the Fallout video game series.

In Ancient Egyptian usage:
 * Khem (also spelt Chem), the Egyptian word for "black"
 * Min (god), in the past erroneously named Khem

CHEM may refer to :
 * A metabolic panel: for instance, CHEM-7, which is the basic metabolic panel
 * CHEM-DT, a Canadian television channel

title: Chem


text:
Khensit

In Egyptian mythology, Khensit (also spelled Chensit, Khenset), which means "placenta", was the patron goddess of the twentieth nome of Lower Egypt. Chensit was the wife of Sopdu and the daughter of Ra, and was depicted as an uraeus. Khensit and Sopdu were sometimes known as the divine pair of Saft el-Hinna.

Khensit was portrayed in many ways, including as Hathor-Isis.

title: Khensit


text:
Khnum

Khnum, also romanised Khnemu (𓎸𓅱𓀭 ẖnmw, ), was one of the earliest-known Egyptian deities in Upper Egypt, originally associated with the Nile cataract. He held the responsibility of regulating the annual inundation of the river, emanating from the caverns of Hapy, the deity embodying the flood. Since the annual flooding of the Nile brought with it silt and clay, and its water brought life to its surroundings, he eventually became known as the creator of human bodies and the life force kꜣ ("ka"). Using a potter's wheel and clay, he fashioned these entities and placed them within their mothers' wombs. Often, his creative endeavors were overseen by another god. He was later described as having moulded the other deities, and was revered as the creator of the animal kingdom.

Worship of Khnum spanned from the First Dynasty and persisted even into the Greco-Roman period when rule by native dynasties had ended. Initially, his primary cult center was at Herwer in Middle Egypt. While his presence on the island of Elephantine dates back to the Early Dynastic Period, it wasn't until the New Kingdom that he ascended to become the principal deity of the island, acquiring the title as the overseer of the First Cataract of the Nile River. At Elephantine, Khnum formed a divine triad alongside the goddesses Satis and Anuket. His religious significance also extended to Esna, located south of Thebes.

Khnum's primary function in the inception of human beings was typically portrayed with the horns of a ram, one of the sacred animals worshiped in Ancient Egypt, representing aspects such as fertility, rebirth, regeneration, and resurrection. He was originally illustrated with horizontally spiraled horns (based on the extinct ovis longipes palaeoaegyptiacus), but his representation later evolved to feature the down-turned horns of Ammon in the New Kingdom (based on the extinct ovis platyra palaeoaegyptiacus). Khnum's imagery also includes the crocodile head, denoting his dominion over the Nile. He can additionally be found wearing the atef crown adorned with two feathers, or the white crown of Upper Egypt.

Etymology
The hieroglyphic symbol hnm (𓎸 ) often appearing in Khnum's name is derived from the word hnmt, signifying "well", or "spring". His name can also be connected to a Semitic root meaning "sheep". Alternatively, the formation of the name can be interpreted as "the beloved divine being". Khnum is also often described with the term iw m hapy, meaning "the coming of the Nile". Additionally, he is called Khnum-Ra, representing his role in the Nile cataract as the soul of the sun-god, Ra. Khnum's positions and powers are described through various titles such as the "Creator god", "Potter god", "Lord of Life", "Lord of the Field", "Lord of Esna", "the good protector", and "Lord of the crocodiles".

Over time, the Egyptian word khn.m was later created to mean "shape" or "build", akin to Khnum's divine powers in creation. His significance also led to early theophoric names of him, for children, such as Khnum-Khufwy "Khnum is my Protector", the full name of Khufu, builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Worship
The worship of Khnum centered on two principal riverside sites, Elephantine and Esna, which were regarded as sacred sites. At Elephantine, he was worshipped alongside Satis and Anuket, while at Esna, he was worshipped alongside Menhit, Nebtu, Neith and Heka. Banebdjedet was the equivalent god in Lower Egypt. Khnum has also been related to the deity Min.

At the Temple at Elephantine and the Temple at Esna, ancient rituals and festivals would take place. Among these was a fertility rite, exclusively participated in by women seeking to conceive, with male priests disallowed. Held late in the evening at the Temple of Esna, this ceremony featured women presenting a potter’s wheel and offering chants before a concealed statue in honor of Khnum. The "Installation of the Potter's Wheel" culminated in a celebrated with a feast, occurring on the first day of the month of Paremhat.

Temple at Elephantine
The original cult center of Khnum was situated in the town of Elephantine, with the temple dating back to the Middle Kingdom era. Khnum, along with his consort Satis and daughter Anuket, were all documented at Elephantine by the Eleventh Dynasty. During the New Kingdom period, leaders expanded existing temples and erected additional structures on the island of Elephantine. Notable additions included the Temples of Khnum and Satet, overseen by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, along with a way-station dedicated to Khnum. Subsequent Ptolemaic and Roman rulers also imposed their own embellishments later on. Rams revered by Khnum have been unearthed on the Elephantine Island, mummified, embellished with golden headgear, and placed in stone coffins. There is also evidence discovered of tensions between the staff at the Temple of Elephantine and a nearby Jewish temple, arising from a desire of the Elephantine staff to enlarge the temple, causing detriment to the Jewish community.

Remnants from the Thirteenth Dynasty, such as limestone fragments, provide evidence of architectural features including an entrance, an ornamented room featuring ceremonial depictions, and a sacred boat shrine. Portions of the Greco-Roman Temple of Khnum are believed to have originated from the Middle Kingdom Temple of Satet. Opposite Elephantine, on the east bank at Aswan, Khnum, Satis and Anuket are shown on a chapel wall dating to the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

Presently, one of the few remaining sections of the Temple of Khnum is a grand monumental entrance.

Temple at Esna
In Esna, a temple was dedicated to Khnum, Neith and Heka, among other deities. Although construction of this temple commenced during the Ptolemaic era, the majority of its surviving sections were erected during Roman times. The temple rested in a field, which Khnum is regarded as the lord of, and was responsible for maintaining the land's fertility, ensuring the continuation of life. The Temple of Esna emphasizes his role as a divine potter through numerous hymns that attribute the creation of deities, mankind, plants, and animals to him. The north temple's wall features depictions of the favor shown by Roman rulers, showcasing offerings made by emperors and their encounters with deities.

Within the temple, Khnum is occasionally depicted with the head of a crocodile. His primary consorts are Nebt-uu and Menhit, while Heka is recognized as his eldest son and successor. Khnum is sometimes referred to as the "father of the fathers" and Neith as the "mother of the mothers". They later become the parents of Ra, who is also referred to as Khnum-Re.

The completion of hieroglyphic embellishments in Egyptian temples culminated with the Temple of Esna. Esna-A, built in the Ptolemaic era, later gained modern renown as the first ancient Egyptian structure to formally record a connection between the zodiac and the two decan lists.

Presently, much of the site lies in ruins, as many blocks had been repurposed to build a canal. The remnants of the temple lie largely obscured beneath modern residential areas.

Portrayal in Art and Literature
Khnum is commonly depicted seated beside a potter's wheel, with a formed entity standing upon it, symbolizing his act of creation. Khnum is often portrayed alongside the frog-headed fertility goddess Heqet, who can be seen assisting him at the pottery wheel, as seen in the wall relief of the mammisi of Nectanebo II. Khnum and Heqet can also be found together molding the god Ihy at the Dendera Temple.

Statues of Khnum, Satis, and Anuket, along with Isis and Horus, adorned the Temple of Beit el-Wali of Ramesses II. In Karnak's Great Hypostyle Wall, Khnum stands beside Pharaoh Ramses II and Horus, employing a net to ensnare water fowl. This is also similarly depicted on the inner north wall of the Temple at Esna with Khnum alongside the Roman emperor Commodus.

Throughout ancient texts, Khnum is depicted as a creator. In the Pyramid Texts of the later Old Kingdom, he crafts ferryboats and a ladder ascending to heaven. The Fifth Dynasty portrays him specifically as the creator of the vessels used by the sun god Ra, known as the solar barque. In the Middle Kingdom, Khnum is credited as the creator of humans in spell 214 of the Coffin Texts. Khnum is mentioned as an inactive god during a famine in the Ipuwer Papyrus of the 12th dynasty, where it is said he "does not fashion because of the state of the land." In the Papyrus d'Obriney of Seti II of the New Kingdom, or Tale of Two Brothers, Khnum is responsible for creating Bata's wife. Khnum's role extends to the Book of the Dead, as part of the formula spell to prevent the heart of the deceased from opposing them in the Necropolis.

Stelas
Khnum features prominently in an inscription and relief of the Ptolemaic Kingdom known as the Famine Stela, located on the island of Sehel, south of Elephantine. The stela recounts a seven-year period of drought and famine during the reign of King Djoser of the Third Dynasty. According to the inscription, Djoser receives a vision of Khnum, who promises to end the famine. In response, the king issues a decree of one-tenth of all revenue to be allocated to the Temple of Khnum as an offering of gratitude. Above the stela, King Djoser is depicted offering tributes to Khnum, as well as the goddesses Satis and Anuket. Khnum is also portrayed in the Stela of Seti I. The king is depicted presenting an offering to Khnum, bowing while holding two nw-pots. Khnum holds a was-scepter in his left hand and an ankh in his right, adorned in a kilt and an atef crown topped with a solar disk. Both figures stand on a mA-sickle and are equally sculpted. Above Khnum, it states, "Beloved of Khnum, lord of the West."

In the Stela of Tutankhamun from Sinn el-Kabid, Tutankhamun is depicted incensing the god Khnum. Khnum is seated on a throne, dressed in a kilt, chest piece, and wide collar, holding an ankh and a was-scepter. Khnum, revered at Kumma, holds an epithet indicative of his protective role over riverine and desert passes, symbolized by opposing bows at the entrances. The text above Khnum designates him as the "Lord of the Cataract."

Hymns
Khnum is a recurring figure in numerous of the hymns within the temples at Elephantine and Esna, showcasing his significance. Distinctively, The Morning Hymn to Khnum aligns him with the gods Amun and Shu, venerating him as the "Lord of life" and attributing him the ability to shape the bodies of humans. Another revered hymn, The Great Hymn to Khnum, celebrates him as the creator of all men, gods, and animals, as well as the provider of minerals and nurturer of plant life. This hymn delves into Khnum's intricate craftsmanship in forming body parts and assigning their functions. Additionally, Khnum is also acknowledged for creating a diversity of languages across regions, contrasting with Egyptian speech. In this hymn, Khnum is further depicted as the "Ba-of" many different deities scattered throughout Egypt, merging with the gods and representing the embodiment of their souls. In The Great Second Hymn to Khnum, the hymn depicts Khnum-Ra sailing across the sky to establish pillars with goddesses in the south, north, and east, and possibly the west.

Further linking Khnum to the divine narrative, he is mentioned in The Hymn to Hapy, connecting him to the Nile-god.

Divine Birth Scenes
The god Khnum plays a significant role in the birth narratives of Egyptian leaders, often serving to legitimize their rule. In the Old Kingdom, King Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty can be seen suckling on the goddess Nekhbet at his birth, with Khnum presiding beside them. In the Middle Kingdom, the Westcar Papyrus, recounts the birth of three triplet kings by the woman Ruddedet. Khnum and the other deities disguise themselves to assist with the birth, and Khnum infuses "health" into the life of the bodies of the future kings, receiving a sack of barley as payment. Queen Hatshepsut of the New Kingdom was similarly illustrated being created on Khnum's potter's wheel in the depiction of her Divine Birth, at the Temple of Deir el-Bahari, bestowing "life, health, and strength, and all gifts," upon her. It is also carved that Khnum made "her appearance above the gods". Additionally, reliefs in the Luxor Temple illustrate Khnum crafting the body and ka of King Amenhotep III in a comparable manner.

In Popular Culture

 * Khnum is featured in Hirohiko Araki's 1989 Manga and it's subsequent TV Adaptation, JoJo's Bizarre Adventure Part 3: Stardust Crusaders as the stand of Oingo of the Oingo Boingo Brothers, giving him the ability to alter his appearance in reference to Khnum's feat of creating humans.

title: Khnum


text:
Heka

Heka may refer to:
 * Heka (god), the deification of magic in Egyptian mythology
 * Lambda Orionis, a star in the constellation of Orion, also known by the traditional names "Meissa" and "Heka"
 * Phenom II, core name for a triple-core in the Phenom II CPU-line from AMD

title: Heka