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Everett Dirksen

Everett McKinley Dirksen (January 4, 1896 – September 7, 1969) was an American politician. A Republican, he represented Illinois in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. As Senate Minority Leader from 1959 until his death in 1969, he played a highly visible and key role in the politics of the 1960s. He helped write and pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, both landmark pieces of legislation during the civil rights movement. He was also one of the Senate's strongest supporters of the Vietnam War. A talented orator with a florid style and a notably rich baritone voice, he delivered flamboyant speeches that caused his detractors to refer to him as "The Wizard of Ooze".

Born in Pekin, Illinois, Dirksen served as an artillery officer during World War I and opened a bakery after the war. After serving on the Pekin City Council, he won election to the House of Representatives in 1932. In the House, he was considered a moderate and supported much of the New Deal; he became more conservative and isolationist over time, but reversed himself to support US involvement in World War II. He won election to the Senate in 1950, unseating Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas. In the Senate, he favored conservative economic policies and supported the internationalism of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Dirksen succeeded William F. Knowland as Senate Minority Leader after the latter declined to seek re-election in 1958.

As the Senate Minority Leader, Dirksen emerged as a prominent national figure of the Republican Party during the 1960s. He developed a good working relationship with Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield and supported President Lyndon B. Johnson's handling of the Vietnam War. He helped break the Southern filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. While still serving as Senate Minority Leader, Dirksen died in 1969.

The Dirksen Senate Office Building is named after him.

Early life
Everett McKinley Dirksen was born on January 4, 1896, in Pekin, Illinois, a small city near Peoria. His parents were German immigrants from East Frisia near the Dutch border. His father Johann Friedrich Dirksen was born in Jennelt and his mother Antje (née Conrady) was born in Loquard. Today, both villages are part of the municipality of Krummhörn.

The Dirksens were strong Republicans. Everett's parents gave him the middle name "McKinley" after William McKinley, then a leading candidate for the Republican nomination for president. His fraternal twin, Thomas Reed Dirksen, was named for Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, also a candidate for the nomination at the time. Another brother, Benjamin, was named for President Benjamin Harrison. Everett had two older half-brothers, Thomas and Henry, from his mother's first marriage to Beren Ailts (died 1890).

Johann and Antje Dirksen spoke a Low German dialect at home and taught German to their children. Johann Dirksen farmed and worked at the Pekin Wagon Works as a design painter. He had a debilitating stroke when Everett was five years old and he died when Everett was nine.

Dirksen grew up on a farm managed by his mother in a neighborhood called Bonchefiddle (″Böhnchenviertel″, Low German for "beans quarter") on the outskirts of Pekin. The neighborhood was known as Bonchefiddle because frugal immigrants grew beans in their front yards instead of decorative flowers. He attended local schools and graduated from Pekin High School in 1913 as the class salutatorian. While in school, he helped support the family by working at a Pekin corn refining factory.

Dirksen attended the University of Minnesota, where he was a pre-law student from 1914 to 1917. He paid his tuition by working in the classified advertising department at the Minneapolis Tribune, as a door-to-door magazine and book salesman, as an attorney's assistant, and as a clerk in a railroad freight office. While attending the university, Dirksen participated in the Student Army Training Corps and attained the rank of major in the school's corps of cadets. He also gained his first political experience by giving local and on-campus speeches in support of Republican presidential nominee Charles Evans Hughes during the 1916 campaign.

Military service
At the start of World War I, the Dirksens came under local scrutiny for their German heritage. Dirksen's mother refused to take down a living room photo of Kaiser Wilhelm II as demanded by a self-appointed Pekin "loyalty commission" on the grounds that "it's a free country." Benjamin Dirksen was medically unfit for military service and Thomas was married. It fell to Everett to demonstrate the family's patriotism by serving in uniform. He dropped out of college to enlist in the United States Army.

On January 4, 1917, his twenty-first birthday, Dirksen joined the United States Army. Three months later, the United States entered World War I. He completed his initial training in field artillery at Camp Custer, Michigan, performed duty with his unit at Camp Jackson, South Carolina, and attained the rank of sergeant. He was deployed to France in 1918 and attended artillery school and officer training at Saumur. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to the 328th Field Artillery Regiment, a unit of the 85th Division. Dirksen was trained as an aerial observer and conducted target acquisition and assessment of field artillery bombardments in the Saint-Mihiel sector as a member of the 328th Field Artillery's 13th and 19th Balloon Companies. He later performed the same duty for the 69th Balloon Company, a unit of the IV Corps. He subsequently served in the intelligence staff section (G-2) of the IV Corps headquarters. Dirksen performed post-war occupation duty with IV Corps in Germany until mid-1919. Dirksen declined an opportunity to remain with the Army of Occupation (extended due to his fluent German), received his discharge, and returned to Pekin.

Post-war
After the war, Dirksen invested money in an electric washing machine business, but it failed, after which he joined his brothers in running the Dirksen Brothers Bakery. He also wrote a number of unpublished short stories, as well as plays with former classmate Hubert Ropp. Dirksen was active in the American Legion, and his appearances on its behalf gave him the opportunity to hone his public speaking skills.

His political career began in 1926 when he was elected to the nonpartisan Pekin City Council. He placed first in a field of eight candidates vying for four seats. At the time, the top vote-getter also received appointment as the city's commissioner of accounts and finance. Dirksen held both posts from 1927 to 1931.

Elections
In 1930, Dirksen unsuccessfully challenged incumbent Representative William E. Hull in the Republican primary. He lost by 1,155 votes, 51.06% to 48.94%. In 1932, he challenged Hull again, and won with 52.5% of the vote.

He was re-elected seven times from 1934 to 1946. His closest challenge came in 1936, when Charles C. Dickman held him to 53.25% of the vote amid a national and statewide landslide for the Democratic Party.

Tenure
His support for many New Deal programs initially marked him as a moderate, pragmatic Republican, though over time he became increasingly conservative and isolationist. During World War II, he lobbied successfully for an expansion of congressional staff resources to eliminate the practice under which House and Senate committees borrowed executive branch personnel to accomplish legislative work. He reversed his isolationist stance to support the war effort, but also secured the passage of an amendment to the Lend Lease Act by introducing it while 65 of the House's Democrats were at a luncheon. It provided that the Senate and the House could, by a simple majority in a concurrent resolution, revoke the war powers granted to the president.

Dirksen studied law privately in Washington, D.C. after he was elected to Congress. He was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1936 and the bar of Illinois in 1937.

In December 1943, Dirksen announced that he would be a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1944. He stated that a coalition of midwestern Republican representatives had urged him to run and that his campaign was serious. However, press pundits had assumed that the candidacy was a vehicle to siphon support away from the campaign of Wendell Willkie, whose reputation as a maverick and staunch internationalist had earned him the hatred of many Republican Party regulars, especially in the Midwest. Dirksen's presidential campaign was apparently still alive on the eve of the 1944 convention, as Time speculated that he was running for vice president. Dirksen received no votes for either office from delegates at the convention.

In 1947, Dirksen was diagnosed with chorioretinitis in his right eye. Despite a number of physicians recommending that the eye be removed, Dirksen chose treatment and rest; he recovered most of the sight in the afflicted eye. In 1948, he declined to run for re-election because of his ailment.

U.S. senator

Dirksen was a Republican Senator 1951–1969.

Elections
In 1950, Dirksen unseated Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas. In the campaign, the support of Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy helped Dirksen gain a narrow victory.

In 1956, Dirksen was re-elected over Democrat Richard Stengel, 54.1% to 45.7%.

In 1962, Dirksen was re-elected to a third term over Democrat Sidney R. Yates, 52.9% to 47.1%.

In 1968, Dirksen was re-elected to his fourth and final term over Democrat William G. Clark, 53.0% to 46.6%.

Tenure
In 1952, Dirksen supported the presidential candidacy of fellow Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, the longtime leader of the Republican party's conservative wing. At the national party convention, Dirksen gave a speech attacking New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, a liberal Republican and the leading supporter of General Dwight Eisenhower. During his speech, Dirksen pointed at Dewey on the convention floor and shouted, "Don't take us down the path to defeat again", a reference to Dewey's presidential defeats in 1944 and 1948. His speech was met by cheers from conservative delegates and loud boos from pro-Eisenhower delegates. After Eisenhower won the nomination, Dirksen supported him.

In 1959, he was elected Senate Minority Leader, defeating John Sherman Cooper, a more liberal senator from Kentucky, 20–14. Dirksen successfully united the various factions of the Republican Party by granting younger Republicans more representation in the Senate leadership and better committee appointments. He held the position of Senate Minority Leader until his death.

Along with House Minority Leaders Charles Halleck and Gerald Ford, Dirksen was the official voice of the Republican Party during most of the 1960s. He discussed politics on television news programs. On several occasions, political cartoonist Herblock depicted Dirksen and Halleck as vaudeville song-and-dance men, wearing identical elaborate costumes and performing an act called The Ev and Charlie Show.

Vietnam War
As senator, Dirksen reversed his early isolationism to support the internationalism of Republican President Eisenhower and Democratic President John F. Kennedy. He was a leading "hawk" on the issue of the Vietnam War, a position he held well before President Johnson decided to escalate the war.

Dirksen said in February 1964: First I agree that obviously we cannot retreat from our position in Vietnam. I have been out there three times, once as something of an emissary for then President Eisenhower. I took a good look at it. It is a difficult situation, to say the least. But we are in to the tune of some $350 million. I think the last figure I have seen indicates that we have over 15,500 military out there, ostensibly as advisers and that sort of thing. We are not supposed to have combatant troops, even though we were not signatories to the treaty that was signed at Geneva when finally they got that whole business out of the fire. But we are going to have to muddle through for a while and see what we do. Even though it costs us $1.5 million a day.

As Johnson followed the recommendations and escalated the war, Dirksen gave him strong support in public and inside the Republican caucus. Some Republicans advised him that it would be to the party's advantage to oppose Johnson. Ford commented, "I strongly felt that although I agreed with the goals of the Johnson administration in Vietnam, I vigorously criticized their prosecution of the war. Now, Dirksen never took that same hard-line position that I took."

Civil rights legislation
Dirksen voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the Voting Rights Act of 1965,  and the confirmation of Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In 1964, amid a 54-day filibuster by Southern senators of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Dirksen, Republican Thomas Kuchel and Democrats Hubert Humphrey and Mike Mansfield introduced a compromise amendment. It weakened the House version on the government's power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak it would cause the House to reconsider the legislation. The Department of Justice said the Mansfield-Dirksen Amendment would not prevent effective enforcement. However, Senator Richard Russell Jr. of Georgia refused to allow a vote on the amendment. Finally, Republican Senator Thruston Morton proposed an amendment that guaranteed jury trials in all criminal contempt cases except voting rights. It was approved on June 9, and Humphrey made a deal with three Republicans to substitute it for the Mansfield-Dirksen Amendment in exchange for their supporting cloture on the filibuster. Thus, after 57 days of filibuster, the substitute bill passed in the Senate, and the House–Senate conference committee agreed to adopt the Senate version of the bill.

At that cloture vote, Dirksen said: "Victor Hugo wrote in his diary substantially this sentiment: 'Stronger than all the armies is an idea whose time has come.' The time has come for equality of opportunity in sharing of government, in education, and in employment. It must not be stayed or denied."

On March 22, 1966, Dirksen introduced a constitutional amendment to permit public school administrators providing for organized prayer by students; the introduction was in response to Engel v. Vitale, which struck down the practice. Considered by opponents to violate the principle of separation of church and state, the amendment was defeated in the Senate and gained only 49 affirmative votes, far short of the 67 votes a constitutional amendment needs for passage.

Dirksen was a firm opponent of the doctrine of one man, one vote on the grounds that large cities (such as Chicago in Dirksen's home state of Illinois) could render rural residents of a state powerless in their state governments without some form of concurrent majority. After the Warren Court imposed one-man-one-vote on all state legislative houses in the 1964 case Reynolds v. Sims, he led an ultimately unsuccessful effort to convene an Article V convention for an amendment to the Constitution that would allow for legislative districts of unequal population.

Oratory
The saying, "A billion here, a billion there, pretty soon, you're talking real money" has been attributed to Dirksen, but there is no direct record of Dirksen saying the remark. Dirksen is also quoted as having said, "The mind is no match with the heart in persuasion; constitutionality is no match with compassion."

Dirksen recorded four spoken-word albums. In 1967 a recording of his own poem "Gallant Men" reached No. 16 on the Billboard 200 and won a Grammy Award for Best Documentary Recording in 1968. On January 7, 1967, Dirksen became the oldest person to reach the Hot 100's top 40, at 71 years, 3 days old, when the single reached No. 33; two weeks later it reached No. 29. In Canada the recording reached No. 76, February 4, 1967. The distinction passed from Dirksen to Moms Mabley with her recording of "Abraham, Martin and John" peaking at No. 35 on 19 July 1969 when she was 75 years 4 months old; then, more than 54 years after that, to Brenda Lee with her recording of "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" from 1958 topping the Hot 100 on 9 (and 16) December 2023 when she was 78 years 363 days old.

Recordings of Dirksen's speeches were edited into a mock interview included on the record "Welcome to the LBJ Ranch!" Dirksen was pleased with his inclusion on the parody record and bought many copies to give out as Christmas gifts.

Dirksen made television guest appearances on game and variety shows, such as What's My Line, The Hollywood Palace and The Red Skelton Show. Dirksen made a cameo appearance in the 1969 film The Monitors, a low-budget science-fiction movie in which invading extraterrestrials assert political dominion over the human race. He also appeared in several other movies.

Appearance and demeanor
Dirksen's penchant for changing his mind was noted by the Chicago Sun-Times, which once noted that he had changed his mind 62 times on foreign policy matters, 31 times on military affairs, and 70 times on agricultural policies.

Family
Dirksen's widow, Louella, died of cancer on July 16, 1979. Their daughter Joy, the first wife of Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee, died of cancer on April 24, 1993.

Religion
Dirksen was a member of the Second Reformed Church, which, although a Dutch Reformed Church, was primarily German (the Reformed Church in America was founded in the 18th century by Dutch immigrants).

Dirksen was a Freemason and was a member of Pekin Lodge No. 29. In 1954, he was grand orator of the Grand Lodge of Illinois. He was honored with the 33rd degree in 1954.

Death
In August 1969, chest X-rays disclosed an asymptomatic peripherally located mass in the upper lobe of the right lung. Dirksen entered Walter Reed Army Hospital for surgery, which was undertaken on September 2. A right upper lobectomy removed what proved to be lung cancer (adenocarcinoma). Dirksen initially did well, but progressive complications developed into bronchopneumonia. He suffered a cardiopulmonary arrest and died on September 7, 1969, at age 73.

Dirksen lay in state at the United States Capitol rotunda, followed by burial at Glendale Memorial Gardens in Pekin.

Legacy and honors
Dirksen was known for his fondness for the common marigold. When political discussions became tense, he would lighten the atmosphere by taking up his perennial campaign to have the marigold named the national flower, but it never succeeded. In 1972, his hometown of Pekin started holding an annual Marigold Festival in his memory. It now identifies itself as the "Marigold Capital of the World".

Dirksen was the recipient of honorary degrees (LL.D.) from Hope College, Bradley University, DePaul University, Lincoln Memorial University, Hanover College, Lewis University, and Illinois College.

Namesakes

 * In 1972, one of the Senate's buildings was renamed the Dirksen Senate Office Building in his honor.
 * The federal courthouse/building of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois and United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago is also named after him.
 * A parkway in Springfield, Illinois (bypass for the historic Route 66 through the capital's center) is named in his honor.
 * Dirksen Drive, a road in DeBary, Florida, is named after him. He was a winter resident in DeBary in his later years.
 * Dirksen's statue, originally located adjacent to the Illinois State Capitol and is now in Mineral Springs Park in his hometown of Pekin, Illinois, includes two objects iconically identified with the senator: an oil can and a bunch of marigolds.
 * Everett Dirksen was inducted as a laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the state's highest honor) by the governor of Illinois in 1966 in the area of government.
 * The Everett McKinley Dirksen Elementary School on 8601 West Foster Avenue in Chicago is a magnet school named in his memory along with other public schools in other Illinois townships.
 * Dirksen was mentioned in Jeff Greenfield's alternate history book If Kennedy Lived in which in 1964, President John F. Kennedy, having survived his assassination in Dallas the previous year, gathered Senate minority leader Dirksen and others in discussion of selling grain to the Soviet Union.
 * The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp in 1981 honoring Dirksen.
 * The Everett McKinley Dirksen Award for Distinguished Reporting of Congress has been awarded annually since 1980 by the National Press Foundation (NPF)

title: Everett Dirksen


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Talk:Beaufort County, South Carolina

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I don't understand the "In popular culture" section, which is just a list of... what? Some of these are movies; are they all movies? If so, are these movies about Beaufort County, shot in Beaufort County, set in Beaufort County? Something else? Kendall-K1 (talk) 01:38, 3 May 2017 (UTC)

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Courthouse PIcture
Mount Pleasant is not currently in Berkeley County. Should a picture of the current courthouse be used instead? (I assume there is one somewhere in Moncks Corner). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.202.33.17 (talk) 04:09, 10 October 2019 (UTC)

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Talk:Calhoun County, South Carolina

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Why did the sentence about hotels get deleted? There is no hotel in Calhoun County.

WP:OR -- WeyerStudentOfAgrippa (talk) 00:03, 26 November 2019 (UTC)

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Talk:Charleston County, South Carolina

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Voting Rights Act case
I've added much content about the 2001 voting rights lawsuit by the US Dept. of Justice, which was settled in 2004 by the county establishing a nine-member county commission, elected from single-member districts. The previous system of at-large voting was found to have so diluted the votes of the substantial African-American minority in the county that for 30 years, they were hardly able to elect any candidates of their choice to the commission. For people who are interested in such cases, Tennessee had similar lawsuits brought by activists in several of its largest cities, where at-large voting for a limited number of city commissioners had excluded significant minorities from being able to elect candidates of their choice. These cities now have larger representative bodies elected from single-member districts, which has resulted in more women and minorities being elected to office.Parkwells (talk) 15:07, 6 March 2015 (UTC)

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Talk:Cherokee County, South Carolina

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Official Government Website:

I fixed the link to the correct address. The other one went to the Cherokee County Development Board, NOT the Government website. I left the link the the Development Board on External Links, because there is some good information on that site. Carolinian 17:47, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Cherokee County, South Carolina


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Talk:Chester County, South Carolina

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title: Talk:Chester County, South Carolina


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Talk:Chesterfield County, South Carolina

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Election Results
I added the election results for the last 8 years - I got them from Politico, this is now, what? - The 23rd of Nov, so they should be pretty, if not entirely accurate, but the vote (2016) is a little down from previous years, I suppose this is due to blacks not showing up for Clinton but there could be more votes to come in, if it changes any then please fix it up. -Eli. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.242.30.23 (talk) 13:27, 22 November 2016 (UTC)


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Talk:Clarendon County, South Carolina

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title: Talk:Clarendon County, South Carolina


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Talk:Colleton County, South Carolina

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title: Talk:Colleton County, South Carolina


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Talk:Darlington County, South Carolina

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i am doing a research project on darlington sc and I am wondering abou the climate, agriculture, rivers, lakes, industry, natural resources, caities and towns and this website doesnt give me anything i need!!! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.58.224.213 (talk) 23:36, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Darlington County, South Carolina


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Talk:Dillon County, South Carolina

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title: Talk:Dillon County, South Carolina


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Talk:Dorchester County, South Carolina

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Hurricane Irene?
Should Hurricane Irene be mentioned here? --Mats33 (talk) 11:04, 26 August 2011 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dorchester County, South Carolina


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Talk:Edgefield County, South Carolina

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Unsourced Content in article
It seems that a user added a lot of content to the "History" section but did not cite any sources. Skimming through, it looks like some of this information will be quite hard to find references for. There is a edit before the user added the content that I can revert the section back to. I might be wrong but it looks like it was copied from the article Edgefield, South Carolina which would also have to be fixed too. What is the opinion on this? DiscoA340 (talk) 22:52, 6 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi DiscoA340. I took down the RFC template per WP:RFCBEFORE. There doesn't seem to be any need for an RFC... at least not yet... if you aren't facing any opposition. I see you're an experienced editor but I'll run though some things you may already know, in case it provides you more clarity or confidence to proceed.
 * I only glanced at the content, but your concerns seem reasonable and supported by policy.
 * All editors are invited and encouraged to WP:Boldly make improvements. You don't need an RFC or permission to trim inappropriate or unsourced content. For any unsourced content that appears reasonable, correct, useful, likely to be sourcable, you may want to consider letting it stay and tagging it as Citation needed. It's not necessary to remove anything you think worth keeping.
 * You might want to see WP:BOLD, revert, discuss cycle. You can just go ahead and edit, if someone reverts (and you don't agree with it) then you can discuss it. If discussion hits a deadlock, then an RFC can resolve the dispute.
 * You suggested possibly reverting back to 07:08, 12 December 2020. That seems to be overkill. The Short description should almost certainly stay, I'm not sure but I think at least some of the infobox changes appeared appropriate, and in general you should see if anything else is worth salvaging. Alsee (talk) 19:39, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
 * @Alsee I understand, I'll look through the section and pare down some of the excessive details. Also, I didn't mean reverting the whole article back to that edit. I would have only taken the "History" section as that was the last edit before the excess details were added to it. Sorry for the confusion, have a good day! DiscoA340 (talk) 20:13, 9 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Edgefield County, South Carolina


text:
Talk:Fairfield County, South Carolina

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title: Talk:Fairfield County, South Carolina


text:
Tail (disambiguation)

A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body, a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso.

Tail or tails may also refer to:

Science and technology

 * Tail (books), a part of a book
 * Tails (operating system) or The Amnesic Incognito Live System, a Linux distribution designed for anonymity and privacy
 * Tail (Unix), a Unix program used to display the last few lines of a file
 * Tail, one of the extreme ends of a probability density function
 * Terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates
 * Poly-A tail, part of a mature mRNA

Entertainment

 * Tails (album), an album by Lisa Loeb
 * Tails (Sonic the Hedgehog), a character in the Sonic the Hedgehog video games and comics
 * Tail, an item in The Paper Mario series
 * Tail, a character in the Kaiketsu Zorori movie

Other uses

 * Tails, the reverse side of a coin
 * Tailcoat or its rear section, a type of coat/suit used for evening dress
 * Tail, the final batsmen in the batting order for cricket
 * Fee tail or tail, an obsolescent term in common law
 * Jabot (window), a kind of soft window treatment

title: Tail (disambiguation)


text:
Chosen-ciphertext attack

A chosen-ciphertext attack (CCA) is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the cryptanalyst can gather information by obtaining the decryptions of chosen ciphertexts. From these pieces of information the adversary can attempt to recover the secret key used for decryption.

For formal definitions of security against chosen-ciphertext attacks, see for example: Michael Luby and Mihir Bellare et al.

Introduction
A number of otherwise secure schemes can be defeated under chosen-ciphertext attack. For example, the El Gamal cryptosystem is semantically secure under chosen-plaintext attack, but this semantic security can be trivially defeated under a chosen-ciphertext attack. Early versions of RSA padding used in the SSL protocol were vulnerable to a sophisticated adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack which revealed SSL session keys. Chosen-ciphertext attacks have implications for some self-synchronizing stream ciphers as well. Designers of tamper-resistant cryptographic smart cards must be particularly cognizant of these attacks, as these devices may be completely under the control of an adversary, who can issue a large number of chosen-ciphertexts in an attempt to recover the hidden secret key.

It was not clear at all whether public key cryptosystems could withstand the chosen ciphertext attack until the initial breakthrough work of Moni Naor and Moti Yung in 1990, which suggested a mode of dual encryption with integrity proof (now known as the "Naor-Yung" encryption paradigm). This work made understanding of the notion of security against chosen ciphertext attack much clearer than before and open the research direction of constructing systems with various protections against variants of the attack.

When a cryptosystem is vulnerable to chosen-ciphertext attack, implementers must be careful to avoid situations in which an adversary might be able to decrypt chosen-ciphertexts (i.e., avoid providing a decryption oracle). This can be more difficult than it appears, as even partially chosen ciphertexts can permit subtle attacks. Additionally, other issues exist and some cryptosystems (such as RSA) use the same mechanism to sign messages and to decrypt them. This permits attacks when hashing is not used on the message to be signed. A better approach is to use a cryptosystem which is provably secure under chosen-ciphertext attack, including (among others) RSA-OAEP secure under the random oracle heuristics, Cramer-Shoup which was the first public key practical system to be secure. For symmetric encryption schemes it is known that authenticated encryption which is a primitive based on  symmetric encryption gives security against chosen ciphertext attacks, as was first shown by Jonathan Katz and Moti Yung.

Varieties
Chosen-ciphertext attacks, like other attacks, may be adaptive or non-adaptive. In an adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack, the attacker can use the results from prior decryptions to inform their choices of which ciphertexts to have decrypted. In a non-adaptive attack, the attacker chooses the ciphertexts to have decrypted without seeing any of the resulting plaintexts. After seeing the plaintexts, the attacker can no longer obtain the decryption of additional ciphertexts.

Lunchtime attacks
A specially noted variant of the chosen-ciphertext attack is the "lunchtime", "midnight", or "indifferent" attack, in which an attacker may make adaptive chosen-ciphertext queries but only up until a certain point, after which the attacker must demonstrate some improved ability to attack the system. The term "lunchtime attack" refers to the idea that a user's computer, with the ability to decrypt, is available to an attacker while the user is out to lunch. This form of the attack was the first one commonly discussed: obviously, if the attacker has the ability to make adaptive chosen ciphertext queries, no encrypted message would be safe, at least until that ability is taken away. This attack is sometimes called the "non-adaptive chosen ciphertext attack"; here, "non-adaptive" refers to the fact that the attacker cannot adapt their queries in response to the challenge, which is given after the ability to make chosen ciphertext queries has expired.

Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack
A (full) adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack is an attack in which ciphertexts may be chosen adaptively before and after a challenge ciphertext is given to the attacker, with only the stipulation that the challenge ciphertext may not itself be queried. This is a stronger attack notion than the lunchtime attack, and is commonly referred to as a CCA2 attack, as compared to a CCA1 (lunchtime) attack. Few practical attacks are of this form. Rather, this model is important for its use in proofs of security against chosen-ciphertext attacks. A proof that attacks in this model are impossible implies that any realistic chosen-ciphertext attack cannot be performed.

A practical adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack is the Bleichenbacher attack against PKCS#1.

Numerous cryptosystems are proven secure against adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks, some proving this security property based only on algebraic assumptions, some additionally requiring an idealized random oracle assumption. For example, the Cramer-Shoup system is secure based on number theoretic assumptions and no idealization, and after a number of subtle investigations it was also established that the practical scheme RSA-OAEP is secure under the RSA assumption in the idealized random oracle model.

title: Chosen-ciphertext attack