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Pipette

A pipette (sometimes spelled as pipet) is a type of laboratory tool commonly used in chemistry and biology to transport a measured volume of liquid, often as a media dispenser. Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with differing levels of accuracy and precision, from single piece glass pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. Many pipette types work by creating a partial vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw up and dispense liquid. Measurement accuracy varies greatly depending on the instrument.

History
The first simple pipettes were made in glass, such as Pasteur pipettes. Large pipettes continue to be made in glass; others are made in squeezable plastic for situations where an exact volume is not required.

The first micropipette was patented in 1957 by Dr Heinrich Schnitger (Marburg, Germany). The founder of the company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and started the commercial production of micropipettes in 1961.

The adjustable micropipette is a Wisconsin invention developed through interactions among several people, primarily inventor Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy, a professor of biochemistry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Nomenclature
Although specific names exist for each type of pipette, in practice, any type can be referred to as a "pipette". Pipettes that dispense less than 1000 μL are sometimes distinguished as micropipettes.

The terms "pipette" and "pipet" are used interchangeably despite minor historical differences in their usage.

Air displacement micropipettes

Air displacement micropipettes are a type of adjustable micropipette that deliver a measured volume of liquid; depending on size, it could be between about 0.1 μL to 1,000 μL (1 mL). These pipettes require disposable tips that come in contact with the fluid.

These pipettes operate by piston-driven air displacement. A vacuum is generated by the vertical travel of a metal or ceramic piston within an airtight sleeve. As the piston moves upward, driven by the depression of the plunger, a vacuum is created in the space left vacant by the piston. The liquid around the tip moves into this vacuum (along with the air in the tip) and can then be transported and released as necessary. These pipettes are capable of being very precise and accurate. However, since they rely on air displacement, they are subject to inaccuracies caused by the changing environment, particularly temperature and user technique. For these reasons, this equipment must be carefully maintained and calibrated, and users must be trained to exercise correct and consistent technique.

The micropipette was invented and patented in 1960 by Dr. Heinrich Schnitger in Marburg, Germany. Afterwards, the co-founder of the biotechnology company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and initiated the global and general use of micropipettes in labs. In 1972, the adjustable micropipette was invented at the University of Wisconsin-Madison by several people, primarily Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy.

Types of air displacement pipettes include:
 * adjustable or fixed
 * volume handled
 * Single-channel, multi-channel or repeater
 * conical tips or cylindrical tips
 * standard or locking
 * manual or electronic
 * manufacturer

Irrespective of brand or expense of pipette, every micropipette manufacturer recommends checking the calibration at least every six months, if used regularly. Companies in the drug or food industries are required to calibrate their pipettes quarterly (every three months). Schools which are conducting chemistry classes can have this process annually. Those studying forensics and research where a great deal of testing is commonplace will perform monthly calibrations.

Electronic pipette
To minimize the possible development of musculoskeletal disorders due to repetitive pipetting, electronic pipettes commonly replace the mechanical version.

Positive displacement pipette
These are similar to air displacement pipettes, but are less commonly used and are used to avoid contamination and for volatile or viscous substances at small volumes, such as DNA. The major difference is that the disposable tip is a microsyringe (plastic), composed of a capillary and a piston (movable inner part) which directly displaces the liquid.

Volumetric pipettes
Volumetric pipettes or bulb pipette allow the user to measure a volume of solution extremely precisely (precision of four significant figures). These pipettes have a large bulb with a long narrow portion above with a single graduation mark as it is calibrated for a single volume (like a volumetric flask). Typical volumes are 20, 50, and 100 mL. Volumetric pipettes are commonly used to make laboratory solutions from a base stock as well as prepare solutions for titration.

Graduated pipettes
Graduated pipettes are a type of macropipette consisting of a long tube with a series of graduations, as on a graduated cylinder or burette, to indicate different calibrated volumes. They also require a source of vacuum; in the early days of chemistry and biology, the mouth was used. The safety regulations included the statement: "Never pipette by mouth KCN, NH3, strong acids, bases and mercury salts". Some pipettes were manufactured with two bubbles between the mouth piece and the solution level line, to protect the chemist from accidental swallowing of the solution.

Pasteur pipette
Pasteur pipettes are plastic or glass pipettes used to transfer small amounts of liquids, but are not graduated or calibrated for any particular volume. The bulb is separate from the pipette body. Pasteur pipettes are also called teat pipettes, droppers, eye droppers and chemical droppers.

Transfer pipettes
Transfer pipettes, also known as Beral pipettes, are similar to Pasteur pipettes but are made from a single piece of plastic and their bulb can serve as the liquid-holding chamber.

Pipetting syringe
Pipetting syringes are hand-held devices that combine the functions of volumetric (bulb) pipettes, graduated pipettes, and burettes. They are calibrated to ISO volumetric A grade standards. A glass or plastic pipette tube is used with a thumb-operated piston and PTFE seal which slides within the pipette in a positive displacement operation. Such a device can be used on a wide variety of fluids (aqueous, viscous, and volatile fluids; hydrocarbons; essential oils; and mixtures) in volumes between 0.5 mL and 25 mL. This arrangement provides improvements in precision, handling safety, reliability, economy, and versatility. No disposable tips or pipetting aids are needed with the pipetting syringe.

Van Slyke pipette
The Van Slyke pipette, invented by Donald Dexter Van Slyke, is a graduated pipette commonly used in medical technology with serologic pipettes for volumetric analysis.

Ostwald–Folin pipette
The Ostwald–Folin pipette, developed by Wilhelm Ostwald and refined by Otto Folin, is a type of volumetric pipette used to measure viscous fluids such as whole blood or serum.

Winkler–Dennis gas combustion pipette
The Winkler–Dennis gas combustion pipette, developed by Clemens Winkler and refined by Louis Munroe Dennis, is an apparatus for the controlled reaction of liquids under a mild electric current and a supply of oxygen.

Glass micropipette

These are used to physically interact with microscopic samples, such as in the procedures of microinjection and patch clamping. Most micropipettes are made of borosilicate, aluminosilicate or quartz with many types and sizes of glass tubing being available. Each of these compositions has unique properties which will determine suitable applications.

Glass micropipettes are fabricated in a micropipette puller and are typically used in a micromanipulator.

Microfluidic pipette
A recent introduction into the micropipette field integrates the versatility of microfluidics into a freely positionable pipette platform. At the tip of the device a localized flow zone is created, allowing for constant control of the nanolitre environment, directly in front of the pipette. The pipettes are made from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) which is formed using reactive injection molding. Interfacing of these pipettes using pneumatics enables multiple solutions to be loaded and switched on demand, with solution exchange times of 100ms.

Invented by Alar Ainla, currently situated in the Biophysical Technology Lab at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden.

Extremely low volume pipettes
A zeptolitre pipette has been developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The pipette is made of a carbon shell, within which is an alloy of gold-germanium. The pipette was used to learn about how crystallization takes place.

Pipette aids
A variety of devices have been developed for safer, easier, and more efficient pipetting. For example, a motorized pipette controller can aid liquid aspiration or dispensing using volumetric pipettes or graduated pipettes; a tablet can interact in real-time with the pipette and guide a user through a protocol; and a pipette station can help to control the pipette tip immersion depth and improve ergonomics.

Robots
Pipette robots are capable of manipulating the pipettes as humans would do.

Calibration
Pipette recalibration is an important consideration in laboratories using these devices. It is the act of determining the accuracy of a measuring device by comparison with NIST traceable reference standards. Pipette calibration is essential to ensure that the instrument is working according to expectations and as per the defined regimes or work protocols. Pipette calibration is considered to be a complex affair because it includes many elements of calibration procedure and several calibration protocol options as well as makes and models of pipettes to consider.

Posture and injuries
Proper pipetting posture is the most important element in establishing good ergonomic work practices. During repetitive tasks such as pipetting, maintaining body positions that provide a maximum of strength with the least amount of muscular stress is important to minimize the risk of injury. A number of common pipetting techniques have been identified as potentially hazardous due to biomechanical stress factors. Recommendations for corrective pipetting actions, made by various US governmental agencies and ergonomics experts, are presented below.

 * Winged elbow pipetting
 * Technique: elevated, “winged elbow”. The average human arm weighs approximately 6% of the total body weight. Holding a pipette with the elbow extended (winged elbow) in a static position places the weight of the arm onto the neck and shoulder muscles and reduces blood flow, thereby causing stress and fatigue. Muscle strength is also substantially reduced as arm flexion is increased.
 * Corrective action: Position elbows as close to the body as possible, with arms and wrists extended in straight, neutral positions (handshake posture). Keep work items within easy reach to limit extension and elevation of arm. Arm/hand elevation should not exceed 12” from the worksurface.

 * Over rotated arm pipetting
 * Technique: Over-rotated forearm and wrist. Rotation of the forearm in a supinated position (palm up) and/or wrist flexion increases the fluid pressure in the carpal tunnel. This increased pressure can result in compression of soft tissues like nerves, tendons and blood vessels, causing numbness in the thumb and fingers.
 * Corrective action: Forearm rotation angle near 45° pronation (palm down) should be maintained to minimize carpal tunnel pressure during repetitive activity.

 * Clenched fist pipetting
 * Technique: Tight grip (clenched fist). Hand fatigue results from continuous contact between a hard object and sensitive tissues. This occurs when a firm grip is needed to hold a pipette, such as when jamming on a tip, and results in diminished hand strength.
 * Corrective action: Use pipettes with hooks or other attributes that allow a relaxed grip and/or alleviate need to constantly grip the pipette. This will reduce tension in the arm, wrist and hand.

 * Thumb plunger pipetting
 * Technique: Concentrated area of force (contact stress between a hard object and sensitive tissues). Some devices have plungers and buttons with limited surface areas, requiring a great deal of force to be expended by the thumb or other finger in a concentrated area.
 * Corrective action: Use pipettes with large contoured or rounded plungers and buttons. This will disperse the pressure used to operate the pipette across the entire surface of the thumb or finger, reducing contact pressure to acceptable levels.

 * Incorrect posture can have a strong impact on available strength arm strength pipetting
 * Technique: elevated arm. Muscle strength is substantially reduced when arm flexion is increased.
 * Corrective action: Keep work items within easy reach to limit extension and elevation of arm. Arm/hand elevation should also not exceed 12” from the worksurface.

 * Elbow strength pipetting
 * Technique: Elbow flexion or abduction. Arm strength diminishes as elbow posture is deviated from a 90° position.
 * Corrective action: Keep forearm and hand elevation within 12” of the worksurface, which will allow the elbow to remain near a 90° position.

Unlike traditional axial pipettes, ergonomic pipetting can affect posture and prevent common pipetting injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis and other musculoskeletal disorders. To be "ergonomically correct" significant changes to traditional pipetting postures are essential, like: minimizing forearm and wrist rotations, keeping a low arm and elbow height and relaxing the shoulders and upper arms.

Pipette stand
Typically the pipettes are vertically stored on holder called pipette stands. In case of electronic pipettes, such stands can recharge their batteries. The most advanced pipette stands can directly control electronic pipettes.

Alternatives
An alternative technology, especially for transferring small volumes (micro and nano litre range) is acoustic droplet ejection.

title: Pipette


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Cognition

Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, imagination, intelligence, the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation, problem-solving and decision-making, comprehension and production of language. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge to discover new knowledge.

Cognitive processes are analyzed from different perspectives within different contexts, notably in the fields of linguistics, musicology, anesthesia, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, education, philosophy, anthropology, biology, systemics, logic, and computer science. These and other approaches to the analysis of cognition (such as embodied cognition) are synthesized in the developing field of cognitive science, a progressively autonomous academic discipline.

Etymology
The word cognition dates back to the 15th century, where it meant "thinking and awareness". The term comes from the Latin noun ('examination', 'learning', or 'knowledge'), derived from the verb, a compound of  ('with') and  ('know'). The latter half, gnōscō, itself is a cognate of a Greek verb, gi(g)nósko (γι(γ)νώσκω).

Early studies
Despite the word cognitive itself dating back to the 15th century, attention to cognitive processes came about more than eighteen centuries earlier, beginning with Aristotle (384–322 BC) and his interest in the inner workings of the mind and how they affect the human experience. Aristotle focused on cognitive areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery. He placed great importance on ensuring that his studies were based on empirical evidence, that is, scientific information that is gathered through observation and conscientious experimentation. Two millennia later, the groundwork for modern concepts of cognition was laid during the Enlightenment by thinkers such as John Locke and Dugald Stewart who sought to develop a model of the mind in which ideas were acquired, remembered and manipulated.

During the early nineteenth century cognitive models were developed both in philosophy—particularly by authors writing about the philosophy of mind—and within medicine, especially by physicians seeking to understand how to cure madness. In Britain, these models were studied in the academy by scholars such as James Sully at University College London, and they were even used by politicians when considering the national Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75).

As psychology emerged as a burgeoning field of study in Europe, whilst also gaining a following in America, scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, Herman Ebbinghaus, Mary Whiton Calkins, and William James would offer their contributions to the study of human cognition.

Early theorists
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) emphasized the notion of what he called introspection: examining the inner feelings of an individual. With introspection, the subject had to be careful to describe their feelings in the most objective manner possible in order for Wundt to find the information scientific. Though Wundt's contributions are by no means minimal, modern psychologists find his methods to be too subjective and choose to rely on more objective procedures of experimentation to make conclusions about the human cognitive process.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) conducted cognitive studies that mainly examined the function and capacity of human memory. Ebbinghaus developed his own experiment in which he constructed over 2,000 syllables made out of nonexistent words (for instance, 'EAS'). He then examined his own personal ability to learn these non-words. He purposely chose non-words as opposed to real words to control for the influence of pre-existing experience on what the words might symbolize, thus enabling easier recollection of them. Ebbinghaus observed and hypothesized a number of variables that may have affected his ability to learn and recall the non-words he created. One of the reasons, he concluded, was the amount of time between the presentation of the list of stimuli and the recitation or recall of the same. Ebbinghaus was the first to record and plot a "learning curve" and a "forgetting curve". His work heavily influenced the study of serial position and its effect on memory (discussed further below).

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an influential American pioneer in the realm of psychology. Her work also focused on human memory capacity. A common theory, called the recency effect, can be attributed to the studies that she conducted. The recency effect, also discussed in the subsequent experiment section, is the tendency for individuals to be able to accurately recollect the final items presented in a sequence of stimuli. Calkin's theory is closely related to the aforementioned study and conclusion of the memory experiments conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus.

William James (1842–1910) is another pivotal figure in the history of cognitive science. James was quite discontent with Wundt's emphasis on introspection and Ebbinghaus' use of nonsense stimuli. He instead chose to focus on the human learning experience in everyday life and its importance to the study of cognition. James' most significant contribution to the study and theory of cognition was his textbook Principles of Psychology which preliminarily examines aspects of cognition such as perception, memory, reasoning, and attention.

René Descartes (1596–1650) was a seventeenth-century philosopher who came up with the phrase "Cogito, ergo sum", which means "I think, therefore I am." He took a philosophical approach to the study of cognition and the mind, with his Meditations he wanted people to meditate along with him to come to the same conclusions as he did but in their own free cognition.

Psychology
In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions, and such is the same in cognitive engineering. In the study of social cognition, a branch of social psychology, the term is used to explain attitudes, attribution, and group dynamics. However, psychological research within the field of cognitive science has also suggested an embodied approach to understanding cognition. Contrary to the traditional computationalist approach, embodied cognition emphasizes the body's significant role in the acquisition and development of cognitive capabilities.

Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a language). It encompasses processes such as memory, association, concept formation, pattern recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem solving, and mental imagery. Traditionally, emotion was not thought of as a cognitive process, but now much research is being undertaken to examine the cognitive psychology of emotion; research is also focused on one's awareness of one's own strategies and methods of cognition, which is called metacognition. The concept of cognition has gone through several revisions through the development of disciplines within psychology.

Psychologists initially understood cognition governing human action as information processing. This was a movement known as cognitivism in the 1950s, emerging after the Behaviorist movement viewed cognition as a form of behavior. Cognitivism approached cognition as a form of computation, viewing the mind as a machine and consciousness as an executive function. However; post cognitivism began to emerge in the 1990s as the development of cognitive science presented theories that highlighted the necessity of cognitive action as embodied, extended, and producing dynamic processes in the mind. The development of Cognitive psychology arose as psychology from different theories, and so began exploring these dynamics concerning mind and environment, starting a movement from these prior dualist paradigms that prioritized cognition as systematic computation or exclusively behavior.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development
For years, sociologists and psychologists have conducted studies on cognitive development, i.e. the construction of human thought or mental processes.

Jean Piaget was one of the most important and influential people in the field of developmental psychology. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the capacity to do "abstract symbolic reasoning". His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, and Erik Erikson who were also great contributors in the field of developmental psychology. Piaget is known for studying the cognitive development in children, having studied his own three children and their intellectual development, from which he would come to a theory of cognitive development that describes the developmental stages of childhood.

Beginning of cognition
Studies on cognitive development have also been conducted in children beginning from the embryonal period to understand when cognition appears and what environmental attributes stimulate the construction of human thought or mental processes. Research shows the intentional engagement of fetuses with the environment, demonstrating cognitive achievements. However, organisms with simple reflexes cannot cognize the environment alone because the environment is the cacophony of stimuli (electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations). Their sensation is too limited by the noise to solve the cue problem–the relevant stimulus cannot overcome the noise magnitude if it passes through the senses (see the binding problem). Fetuses need external help to stimulate their nervous system in choosing the relevant sensory stimulus for grasping the perception of objects. The Shared intentionality approach proposes a plausible explanation of perception development in this earlier stage. Initially, Michael Tomasello introduced the psychological construct of Shared intentionality, highlighting its contribution to cognitive development from birth. This primary interaction provides unaware collaboration in mother-child dyads for environmental learning. Later, Igor Val Danilov developed this notion, expanding it to the intrauterine period and clarifying the neurophysiological processes underlying Shared intentionality. According to the Shared intentionality approach, the mother shares the essential sensory stimulus of the actual cognitive problem with the child. By sharing this stimulus, the mother provides a template for developing the young organism's nervous system.

Recent findings in research on child cognitive development       and advances in inter-brain neuroscience experiments     have made the above proposition plausible. Based on them, the shared intentionality hypothesis introduced the notion of pre-perceptual communication in the mother-fetus communication model due to nonlocal neuronal coupling. This nonlocal coupling model refers to communication between two organisms through the copying of the adequate ecological dynamics by biological systems indwelling one environmental context, where a naive actor (Fetus) replicates information from an experienced actor (Mother) due to intrinsic processes of these dynamic systems (embodied information) but without interacting through sensory signals. The Mother's heartbeats (a low-frequency oscillator) modulate relevant local neuronal networks in specific subsystems of both her and the nervous system of the fetus due to the effect of the interference of the low-frequency oscillator (Mother heartbeats) and already exhibited gamma activity in these neuronal networks (interference in physics is the combination of two or more electromagnetic waveforms to form a resultant wave). Therefore, the subliminal perception in a fetus emerges due to Shared intentionality with the mother that stimulates cognition in this organism even before birth.

Another crucial question in understanding the beginning of cognition is memory storage about the relevant ecological dynamics by the naive nervous system (i.e., memorizing the ecological condition of relevant sensory stimulus) at the molecular level – an engram. Evidence derived using optical imaging, molecular-genetic and optogenetic techniques in conjunction with appropriate behavioural analyses continues to offer support for the idea that changing the strength of connections between neurons is one of the major mechanisms by which engrams are stored in the brain.

Two (or more) possible mechanisms of cognition can involve both quantum effects and synchronization of brain structures due to electromagnetic interference.

Serial position
The Serial-position effect is meant to test a theory of memory that states that when information is given in a serial manner, we tend to remember information at the beginning of the sequence, called the primacy effect, and information at the end of the sequence, called the recency effect. Consequently, information given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not recalled as easily. This study predicts that the recency effect is stronger than the primacy effect, because the information that is most recently learned is still in working memory when asked to be recalled. Information that is learned first still has to go through a retrieval process. This experiment focuses on human memory processes.

Word superiority
The word superiority effect experiment presents a subject with a word, or a letter by itself, for a brief period of time, i.e. 40 ms, and they are then asked to recall the letter that was in a particular location in the word. In theory, the subject should be better able to correctly recall the letter when it was presented in a word than when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human speech and language.

Brown–Peterson
In the Brown–Peterson cohomology experiment, participants are briefly presented with a trigram and in one particular version of the experiment, they are then given a distractor task, asking them to identify whether a sequence of words is in fact words, or non-words (due to being misspelled, etc.). After the distractor task, they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor task. In theory, the longer the distractor task, the harder it will be for participants to correctly recall the trigram. This experiment focuses on human short-term memory.

Memory span
During the memory span experiment, each subject is presented with a sequence of stimuli of the same kind; words depicting objects, numbers, letters that sound similar, and letters that sound dissimilar. After being presented with the stimuli, the subject is asked to recall the sequence of stimuli that they were given in the exact order in which it was given. In one particular version of the experiment, if the subject recalled a list correctly, the list length was increased by one for that type of material, and vice versa if it was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that people have a memory span of about seven items for numbers, the same for letters that sound dissimilar and short words. The memory span is projected to be shorter with letters that sound similar and with longer words.

Visual search
In one version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a window that displays circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to identify whether there is a green circle on the window. In the featured search, the subject is presented with several trial windows that have blue squares or circles and one green circle or no green circle in it at all. In the conjunctive search, the subject is presented with trial windows that have blue circles or green squares and a present or absent green circle whose presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in the feature searches, reaction time, that is the time it takes for a participant to identify whether a green circle is present or not, should not change as the number of distractors increases. Conjunctive searches where the target is absent should have a longer reaction time than the conjunctive searches where the target is present. The theory is that in feature searches, it is easy to spot the target, or if it is absent, because of the difference in color between the target and the distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent, reaction time increases because the subject has to look at each shape to determine whether it is the target or not because some of the distractors if not all of them, are the same color as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches where the target is present take less time because if the target is found, the search between each shape stops.

Knowledge representation
The semantic network of knowledge representation systems have been studied in various paradigms. One of the oldest paradigms is the leveling and sharpening of stories as they are repeated from memory studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to determine the main meanings of words, finding that the ethical value of words is the first factor. More controlled experiments examine the categorical relationships of words in free recall. The hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly mapped in George Miller's WordNet. More dynamic models of semantic networks have been created and tested with computational systems such as neural networks, latent semantic analysis (LSA), Bayesian analysis, and multidimensional factor analysis. The meanings of words are studied by all the disciplines of cognitive science.

Physical exercise
Aerobic and anaerobic exercise have been studied concerning cognitive improvement. There appear to be short-term increases in attention span, verbal and visual memory in some studies. However, the effects are transient and diminish over time, after cessation of the physical activity. People with Parkinson's disease has also seen improved cognition while cycling, while pairing it with other cognitive tasks.

Dietary supplements
Studies evaluating phytoestrogen, blueberry supplementation and antioxidants showed minor increases in cognitive function after supplementation but no significant effects compared to placebo. Another study on the effects of herbal and dietary supplements on cognition in menopause show that soy and Ginkgo biloba supplementation could improve women's cognition.

Pleasurable social stimulation
Exposing individuals with cognitive impairment (i.e. dementia) to daily activities designed to stimulate thinking and memory in a social setting, seems to improve cognition. Although study materials are small, and larger studies need to confirm the results, the effect of social cognitive stimulation seems to be larger than the effects of some drug treatments.

Other methods
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been shown to improve cognition in individuals without dementia 1 month after treatment session compared to before treatment. The effect was not significantly larger compared to placebo. Computerized cognitive training, utilizing a computer based training regime for different cognitive functions has been examined in a clinical setting but no lasting effects has been shown.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cognition


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Aqueous solution

An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is mostly shown in chemical equations by appending (aq) to the relevant chemical formula. For example, a solution of table salt, also known as sodium chloride (NaCl), in water would be represented as Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq). The word aqueous (which comes from aqua) means pertaining to, related to, similar to, or dissolved in, water. As water is an excellent solvent and is also naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry. Since water is frequently used as the solvent in experiments, the word solution refers to an aqueous solution, unless the solvent is specified.

A non-aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is a liquid, but is not water.

Characteristics
Substances that are hydrophobic ('water-fearing') do not dissolve well in water, whereas those that are hydrophilic ('water-friendly') do. An example of a hydrophilic substance is sodium chloride. In an aqueous solution the hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−) are in Arrhenius balance ([H+] [OH−] = Kw = 1 x 10−14 at 298 K). Acids and bases are aqueous solutions, as part of their Arrhenius definitions. An example of an Arrhenius acid is hydrogen chloride (HCl) because of its dissociation of the hydrogen ion when dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an Arrhenius base because it dissociates the hydroxide ion when it is dissolved in water.

Aqueous solutions may contain, especially in the alkaline zone or subjected to radiolysis, hydrated atomic hydrogen and hydrated electrons.

Electrolytes
Aqueous solutions that conduct electric current efficiently contain strong electrolytes, while ones that conduct poorly are considered to have weak electrolytes. Those strong electrolytes are substances that are completely ionized in water, whereas the weak electrolytes exhibit only a small degree of ionization in water. The ability for ions to move freely through the solvent is a characteristic of an aqueous strong electrolyte solution. The solutes in a weak electrolyte solution are present as ions, but only in a small amount.

Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water yet maintain their molecular integrity (do not dissociate into ions). Examples include sugar, urea, glycerol, and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM).

Reactions
Reactions in aqueous solutions are usually metathesis reactions. Metathesis reactions are another term for double-displacement; that is, when a cation displaces to form an ionic bond with the other anion. The cation bonded with the latter anion will dissociate and bond with the other anion.

A common metathesis reaction in aqueous solutions is a precipitation reaction. This reaction occurs when two aqueous strong electrolyte solutions mix and produce an insoluble solid, also known as a precipitate. The ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether the substance can match or exceed the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the substance lacks the ability to dissolve in water, the molecules form a precipitate.

When writing the equations of precipitation reactions, it is essential to determine the precipitate. To determine the precipitate, one must consult a chart of solubility. Soluble compounds are aqueous, while insoluble compounds are the precipitate. There may not always be a precipitate. Complete ionic equations and net ionic equations are used to show dissociated ions in metathesis reactions. When performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions.

title: Aqueous solution


text: Talk:Taiping Rebellion

title: Talk:Taiping Rebellion


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Distilled water

Distilled water is water that has been boiled into vapor and condensed back into liquid in a separate container. Impurities in the original water that do not boil below or near the boiling point of water remain in the original container. Thus, distilled water is a type of purified water.

History
Drinking water has been distilled from seawater since at least about AD 200, when the process was clearly described by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Its history predates this, as a passage in Aristotle's Meteorologica refers to the distillation of water. Captain Israel Williams of the Friendship (1797) improvised a way to distill water, which he described in his journal.

Applications
In chemical and biological laboratories, as well as in industry, in some appliances, deionized water or reverse osmosis water can be used instead of distilled water as a cheaper alternative. If exceptionally high-purity water is required, double distilled water is used.

In general, non-purified water could cause or interfere with chemical reactions as well as leave mineral deposits after boiling away. One method of removing impurities from water and other fluids is distillation.

For example, ions commonly found in tap water would drastically reduce lifespans of lead–acid batteries used in cars and trucks. These ions are not acceptable in automotive cooling systems because they corrode internal engine components and deplete typical antifreeze anti-corrosion additives.

Any non-volatile or mineral components in water are left behind when the water evaporates or boils away. Water escaping as steam, for example from a boiler of heating system or steam engine, leaves behind any dissolved materials leading to mineral deposits known as boiler scale.

Low-volume humidifiers such as cigar humidors can use distilled water to avoid mineral deposits.

Certain biological applications require controlled impurities, especially in experiments. For example, distilling water to be added to an aquarium would remove known and unknown non-volatile contaminants. Living things require specific minerals; adding distilled water to an ecosystem, such as an aquarium, would reduce the concentration of these minerals. Fish and other living things that have evolved to survive in lakes and oceans should be expected to thrive at mineral ranges found in their original habitat.

Controlled impurities as well as equipment reliability are critically important in medical applications where, for example, distilled water is used in continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machines to humidify air for breathing. Distilled water will not leave contaminants behind when the humidifier in the CPAP machine evaporates the water.

It is also possible for brewers to blend distilled water with hard water to mimic the soft waters of Pilsen.

Another application was to increase the density of the air to assist early airplane jet engines during takeoff in 'hot and high' atmospheric conditions, as was used on the early Boeing 707.

Use in steam irons
Distilled water can be used in steam irons for pressing clothes to minimize the build-up of limescale in hard water areas shortening the lifespan of steam irons. Some steam irons have built in filters to remove minerals from the water meaning standard tap water can be used.

Equipment to distill water

Until World War II, distilling seawater to produce fresh water was time-consuming and expensive in fuel. The saying was: "It takes one gallon of fuel to make one gallon of fresh water." Shortly before the war, Dr. R. V. Kleinschmidt developed a compression still, which became known as the Kleinschmidt still, for extracting fresh water from seawater or contaminated water. By compressing the steam produced by boiling water, 175 gal of fresh water could be extracted from seawater for every gallon (1 gal) of fuel used. During World War II this equipment became standard on Allied ships and on trailer mounts for armies. This method was in widespread use in ships and portable water distilling units during the latter half of the century. Modern vessels now use flash-type evaporators to boil seawater, heating the water to between 70 and 80 C and evaporating the water in a vacuum; this is then collected as condensation before being stored.

Solar stills can be relatively simple to design and build, with very cheap materials.

Distilling water with commercial equipment will almost completely remove all dissolved minerals such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, fluoride, potassium, iron, and zinc leaving a TDS of <1PPM, and reduce its electrical conductivity to <2 μS/cm. Typical tap water has electrical conductivity in the range of 200–800 μS/cm. The pH of distilled water is always slightly lower than 7 (neutral) due to the fact that distilled water will absorb small amounts of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere which forms traces of carbonic acid and lowers the pH of distilled water to around 5.8 pH (very weakly acidic).

Drinking distilled water
Bottled distilled water can usually be found in supermarkets or pharmacies, and home water distillers are available as well. Water purification, such as distillation, is especially important in regions where water resources or tap water is not suitable for ingesting without boiling or chemical treatment.

Municipal water supplies almost always contain trace components at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Some other components such as trace levels of aluminium may result from the treatment process. Fluoride and other ions are not removed through conventional water filter treatments. However, distillation eliminates most impurities.

Distilled water is also used for drinking water in arid seaside areas lacking sufficient freshwater, via desalination of seawater.

Health effects
Distillation removes all minerals from water. This results in demineralised water, which has not been proven to be healthier than drinking water. The World Health Organization investigated the health effects of demineralised water in 1982, and its experiments in humans found that demineralised water increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with decreased serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and other nutrients in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2–4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and arthropathies have been observed. For fluoride the concentration recommended for dental health is 0.5–1.0 mg/L, with a maximum guideline value of 1.5 mg/L to avoid dental fluorosis.

Water filtration and distillation devices are becoming increasingly common in households. Municipal water supplies often have minerals added or have trace impurities at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as volatile organic compounds, fluoride, and an estimated >75,000 other chemical compounds are not removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation and reverse osmosis eliminate nearly all of these impurities.

The drinking of distilled water as a replacement for drinking water has been both advocated and discouraged for health reasons. Distilled water lacks minerals and ions, such as calcium, that play key roles in biological functions, such as in nervous system homeostasis, and are normally found in potable water. The lack of naturally occurring minerals in distilled water has raised some concerns. The Journal of General Internal Medicine published a study on the mineral contents of different waters available in the US. The study found that "drinking water sources available to North Americans may contain high levels of calcium, magnesium, and sodium and may provide clinically important portions of the recommended dietary intake of these minerals". It encouraged people to "check the mineral content of their drinking water, whether tap or bottled, and choose water most appropriate for their needs". Since distilled water is devoid of minerals, mineral intake through diet is needed to maintain good health.

The consumption of "hard" water (water with minerals) is associated with beneficial cardiovascular effects. As noted in the American Journal of Epidemiology, consumption of hard drinking water is negatively correlated with atherosclerotic heart disease.

title: Distilled water


text:
Talk:Pim Fortuyn List

Untitled
I am not a native English speaker, but still think piety is the better term instaed of pity (my dictionary supports me). Pity if for living people. Piety for deceased. Therefore reverting copyedit. Erik Zachte

 * Actually, piety implies respect toward a deity or revered institution, rather than to a person, dead or living. It's not clear if pity is quite right either, so I edited the sentence in question to avoid both: another way would be to use the word respect. Someone else

I find '26 out of 150' much easier to read than 'twenty-six out of one-hundred fifty', why was this changed? Patrick

From Naming conventions:

Use plain numbers only for years Convention: In general the use of number-only page names should only be used for Year in Review entries. So call it Form 1040, not 1040, and Intel 386, not 386. That way, if we ever want to add a page about what happened in the year 1040 or the year 386, we won't have a collision with the other uses of numbers. Erik Zachte

 * The Wikipedia naming convention refers to page names, not to the use of numbers in text. The Chicago Manual of Style states that you spell out numbers from one to ten, and use numerals for 11 and higher. There are exceptions in the case of percentages and money. So the text in this article should read 26 out of 150, not "twenty-six out of one-hundred fifty". I am therefore changing the text back to using numbers. soulpatch

 * These naming conventions are for naming pages, and they make much sense. I was referring to text in a page. (Moreover, even in page names digits are allowed, just not a name consisting of a single number written in digits, since that is reserved for years.) Patrick

Hi Soulpatch, according to the history I would have erased your comment, but it was not there when I started editing. Maybe something went wrong because we were editing at the same time or something. I am sorry, anyway. Patrick

new name
The List Pim Fortuyn will take part of the 2006 elections under the name "Fortuyn". I guess the name of this article needs to reflect the change. Intangible 17:33, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

 * "Will" is incorrect; they are being sued over this by P. Fortuyn's brother, so things are far from sure. 82.176.194.151 12:31, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Pim Fortuyn List


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Talk:Cognition

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Aqua1996.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 17:57, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Links to other articles
There are some links that make no sense in the context of this article. Specifically, there are links to leveling and sharpening which lead to land surveying and blade sharpening, respectively. I assume that these originally pointed to other links that were more relevant. The sharpening page has no disambiguation, so perhaps the original articles were moved? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mstachowsky (talk • contribs) 12:19, 28 November 2018 (UTC)

choices
are choices (specifically those manifesting into an action) fall into the realm of cognition or "cognitive processes"? BriEnBest (talk) 12:09, 28 August 2008 (UTC)

i'm sorry about my above post - i had not read all parts of the discussion when i posted it. I suppose choices do not fall under the realm of cognition (is this correct?). However, I am really interested in finding out more about how thinking becomes a choice (meaning one manifested in action). Thank you so much. BriEnBest (talk) 12:13, 28 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Not to be too trite about this, but the simple yes, we can is a choice. When one has decided 'no, I can't understand something', one has already forfeited one's role in a thought process; that one has automatically lost ones way in the labyrinth,in the race for an achievement. Thus motivation and attention are basic to this thought process. A simple guess is better than a despairing I give up. Why is this? -- it is because one can then think of some simple actions based on that guess, and get on with life. --Ancheta Wis (talk) 17:09, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

Portable cameras and telephones
We read:- ''Other concepts which seem to have arisen only recently (in the last century) include increased expectations for human rights. In this case, an example of an 'emergent behavior' might perhaps be the use of the mass media to publicize inequities in the human condition, perhaps using highly portable cameras and telephones.''

Sorry but I do not understand how portable cameras and telephones would be used.Mikeo1938 (talk) 18:14, 7 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Suppose you have the opportunity to record the beating of someone weaker by someone stronger, and that you have a camera and phone. You could turn on the recorder, point it at the beating, and transmit that record to a news agency. --Ancheta Wis (talk) 17:12, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

Removal of subtopics that are too remote from topic
I have deleted the following two subtopics from the end of the article because they are so remote from the topic of this article as to be irrelevant.

In a cultural context

One famous image, Earthrise, taken during Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to the Moon, shows planet Earth in a single photograph. Earthrise is now the icon for Earth Day, which did not arise until after the image became widespread. At this level, an example of an 'emergent behavior' might be concern for Spaceship Earth, as encouraged by the development of orbiting space observatories etc.

Other concepts which seem to have arisen only recently (in the last century) include increased expectations for human rights. In this case, an example of an 'emergent behavior' might perhaps be the use of the mass media to publicize inequities in the human condition, perhaps using highly portable cameras and telephones. --AlotToLearn (talk) 00:11, 23 January 2009 (UTC)

The second subtopic I have removed was:

Example of emergent organization
It is possible to find other examples of critical mass necessary to develop a concept. For example, a nascent coalition of individuals might fail in the implementation of some agreement among them; but in the words of Ward Cunningham, the inventor of the Wiki-wiki Web:
 * I thought there would be failure modes, but I wasn't surprised that communities found ways around them. I thought it was important that when the organization proved to be wrong, people could reorganize on their own, that organization could emerge.

In other words, when the organization adapted, the concept adapted and survived the incipient failure mode.

--AlotToLearn (talk) 00:16, 23 January 2009 (UTC)

Cognition template
Is anyone else bothered by the "cognition" template? It seems like original research to me. Are there are any sources that claim that the essential topics associated with cognition are "Sentience", "Consciousness", "Sapience", "Self-awareness", "Concept" and "Cognitive linguistics". Please discuss on the talk page of the template. I think it should be removed. CharlesGillingham (talk) 05:20, 15 April 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree with you, and I've boldly removed the template. Not sure when it was added, or by who. Looie496 (talk) 00:43, 16 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Looks like it was added in November 2008 by User:Zahd, who had a not-so-shiny edit history. I don't know enough to judge whether this is a helpful template, but if it's not worth having on this article, it should probably be removed from other articles too. Dreamyshade (talk) 01:35, 16 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Since a few of us seem to agree that this template fails to list the central articles about "cognition", I have removed it and will move forward with a request for deletion. Please discuss at Template Talk:Cognition CharlesGillingham (talk) 02:27, 20 April 2009 (UTC)
 * In addition, this article is a little hard to understand because it is written so academically. I believe it could be revised to read a little simpler so more people would be able to understand the topic better.

17Awesome17 (talk) 23:48, 22 January 2020 (UTC)

"Ontology" section
I have removed that section. It was unsourced and tagged as needing sources for months, and also doesn't have anything to do with cognition as I have learned about it. This section should not go back without having proper sources provided (I actually don't think it should go back at all). Looie496 (talk) 19:56, 4 November 2009 (UTC)

Science News resource, regarding the Lateral occipital cortex (see related Occipital lobe and Lateral occipital sulcus)
If that’s a TV, this must be the den; To the brain, scenes are sums of objects by Laura Sanders October 22nd, 2011; Vol.180 #9 (p. 16) Also related Knowledge. 97.87.29.188 (talk) 23:02, 1 November 2011 (UTC)
 * This seem related, an excerpt ...
 * 99.181.138.228 (talk) 03:33, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Doesn't seem related, to me. But that's not an entirely absurd argument, so it probably shouldn't have been deleted.  — Arthur Rubin  (talk) 06:10, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Over the last couple of days this IP editor has added dozens of things like this to various talk pages. They're not useful, and it can't continue. Looie496 (talk) 15:55, 2 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I see your point. It would to be discussed at the VP, though, if a real editor would object; I don't think AN or ANI would help.  — Arthur Rubin  (talk) 16:39, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Abstract symbolic reasoning!
From a reader's POV, I want to ask question: Section: Cognition. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning.". - what is "abstract symbolic reasoning"? Can you add a short description in the article? You can add a in my talk page! --Tito Dutta Message 04:54, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

(cog)nosco
Latin and Greek, as closely related Indo-European languages, share a common PIE vocabulary. There is no evidence that 'nosco' was 'borrowed' from the Greek, any more that the Gothic 'kunnan' was 'borrowed or that the Greek was 'borrowed' from the Sanskrit or the Persian. (Pamour (talk) 20:31, 4 July 2012 (UTC))

adding for a class
I'm editing this page for my senior lab in Clemson University. A lot of my editing will focus on the history of cognitive psychology, a very brief one since there is already a cognitive psych page here on wikipedia. Also I think it would be beneficial to add some example cognitive experiments and the theories behind them. Perhaps it will spark interest in readers to further research the subject. Mshepha (talk) 14:42, 26 February 2013 (UTC)mshephaMshepha (talk) 14:42, 26 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Welcome Mshepha! Please remember that Wikipedia is not an academic paper or essay. Wikipedia articles should not be based on WP:primary sources, but on reliable, published secondary sources (for instance, journal reviews and professional or advanced academic textbooks) and, to a lesser extent, on tertiary sources (such as undergraduate textbooks). WP:MEDRS describes how to identify reliable sources for medical information, which is a good guideline for many psychology articles as well. With friendly regards,  Lova Falk     talk   15:58, 26 February 2013 (UTC)
 * In my sandbox for this article, I have added a brief history of pivotal figures in the study of cognition as well as some experiments and the cognitive theories behind them just so people who visit the site can get a feel for what the study of cognition is like first hand. It is being peer-reviewed by three classmates as well as my TA and professor. Hopefully my changes will be beneficial to the article! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mshepha (talk • contribs) 12:45, 11 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Hi Mshepha! I've put reading your sandbox on my (way too long) to-do list. However, at a quick glance, I can see that I like having a section on the origins of cognition added. I'm more doubtful about Common theories and their experiments. I think you need to rename that section (Serial position is not a theory), and aren't there hundreds of these kinds of experiments? Why chose these ones?
 * Also, you need to improve referencing. In Referencing for beginners you can read how. If some of your references are books, please state page number.
 * Keep up the good work!  Lova Falk     talk   16:16, 11 March 2013 (UTC)

 * Hello Mshepha, welcome and thank you very much for your effort. I also think that it would be good to have a section on the origins of the scientific/psychological study of cognition. Please keep in mind that an encyclopedic article should focus on relevant information, e.g. how some researcher conceived of cognition (and why so) is much more suitable than biographical data about that person. In general, keep in mind the difference between cognitive psychology and "psychology of cognition".
 * As to the experiments, I think that a possible way to gain structure would be to expand on the relation between early researchers and their methods, i.e. which methods were employed and how do they relate to a particular researcher's idea of cognition?
 * I think that what is compiled under "social processes" is useful. The present article's lead (the first section) is not very good, so definitions of ‹cognition› and an outline of the emergence of the several disciplines which study it is welcome.
 * Page numbers in references are really important (articles just as well as books).
 * 㓟 (talk) 01:41, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

New sections on origins and experiments
Within the article, it should be clearly distinguished between cognition and the study of cognition (e.g., origins of cognition ≠ origins of the study of cognition). Would it be a good idea to combine the new sections with the subsection "Psychology" and make clear that they are about the latter? 㓟 (talk) 12:03, 29 March 2013 (UTC)

Thomas Aquinas
The article states: There is no specific reference given for this statement, and while I believe it to be true, it seems so significant as to require a reference to specific piece of Thomas's writings. Would anyone help?

LookingGlass (talk) 09:28, 18 September 2013 (UTC)

 * @anyone-who-can-help-with-this:
 * FYI I've also tagged the section on Psychology section of the Thomas Aquinas article, so if you can help with the problems there that's be appreciated too. LookingGlass (talk) 10:22, 18 September 2013 (UTC)
 * I've upgraded the request for a citation. Not only have I been unable to find any reference at all that would support the claim but from from what I have read regarding Thomas's work it seems very unlikely to me that such a claim could be founded.  If no citation or information on this can be provided then I propose to delete the passage. LookingGlass (talk) 18:17, 20 September 2013 (UTC)
 * Good idea, thanks. User:㓟 - (pi) (talk) 09:53, 3 October 2013 (UTC)
 * There is nothing in Thomas's article to support this statement, so it has to be deleted as non-supported. I will take a liberty to delete it as the issue have been dormant for 5 years and nobody come up with the supporting citation.Johniddiols (talk) 13:14, 19 January 2018 (UTC)

Intelligence citations bibliography for updating this and other articles
You may find it helpful while reading or editing articles to look at a bibliography of Intelligence Citations, posted for the use of all Wikipedians who have occasion to edit articles on human intelligence and related issues. I happen to have circulating access to a huge academic research library at a university with an active research program in these issues (and to another library that is one of the ten largest public library systems in the United States) and have been researching these issues since 1989. You are welcome to use these citations for your own research. You can help other Wikipedians by suggesting new sources through comments on that page. It will be extremely helpful for articles on human intelligence to edit them according to the Wikipedia standards for reliable sources for medicine-related articles, as it is important to get these issues as well verified as possible. -- WeijiBaikeBianji (talk, how I edit) 15:11, 18 September 2013 (UTC)
 * Interesting. Can you help with the above request? LookingGlass (talk) 19:54, 18 September 2013 (UTC)

 * I'll see what I can find out about Aquinas's view. -- WeijiBaikeBianji (talk, how I edit) 21:24, 18 September 2013 (UTC)

A section on embodiment in cognition is needed
I think this page misses a section on embodiment in cognition, i.e. how biological factors affect cognition, both in animals and humans. Otherwise it seems that only social factors play the role.Verib (talk) 08:30, 20 October 2016 (UTC)

Spelling of names
Specifically, that of Hermann Ebbinghaus. His en.Wikipedia article spells his name with the terminal double "n", which is standard German spelling. The wikiarticle History of Psychology agrees. Anglo/American authors have a way of dropping "extra" letters. I believe this man always spelled his name in the German manner, so I intend to correct it. Rags (talk) 08:30, 31 October 2016 (UTC)

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Wiki Education assignment: Academic Research and Critical Thinking
Hello, I just wanted to put out a statement of intention for my edits to come. I intend to make the psychology section more oriented toward how different lines of psychological reasoning have tackled concepts of cognition. I would also like to eventually add a section on philosophy of mind as the wikiproject seems to deem it necessary. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MatthewSchaublin (talk • contribs) 18:00, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Human Cognition SP23
— Assignment last updated by Serenity D-B (talk) 20:03, 27 March 2023 (UTC)

Dietary Supplement
Hi, I was visiting this page looking for resources in the citations, when one source caught my eye and raised some questions. First of all, I know that primary sources are not preferred citations, but also the article itself is explicitly funded by something called the Wild Blueberry Association of North America, which also provided the samples used in the experiment. I don't have time at the moment to look through all of the links, but if they're all like this, what would the community like to do with the claims in this article? I include the relevant text from the research link below for those who do not have access (underlining added by me for emphasis):

Acknowledgements
We appreciate the support of the Wild Blueberry Association of North America for their provision of the wild blueberry powder used in this study. Further, we thank the South East Doctoral Training Centre and the Wild Blueberry Association for their financial support. This work is part of an ESRC Case funded studentship. We also thank the participants and school staff who accommodated this research.

Go to:

Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Curugh.Firetone (talk) 16:35, 17 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cognition


text:
Harvey Washington Wiley

Harvey Washington Wiley (October 18, 1844 – June 30, 1930) was an American chemist who advocated successfully for the passage of the landmark Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 and subsequently worked at the Good Housekeeping Institute laboratories. He was the first commissioner of the United States Food and Drug Administration.

In 1904 Wiley was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 1910 he was awarded the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute.

Early life and career
Wiley was born on October 18, 1844, in a log farmhouse in Republican Township, in Jefferson County, Indiana, the son of a lay preacher and farmer, Preston Pritchard Wiley and Lucinda Maxwell. The sixth of seven children, Wiley was raised on a 125-acre farm with a creek that emptied into the Wabash River, a tributary of the Ohio River. Wiley's parents were conductors on the Underground Railroad as the southernmost point in Indiana, across the river from slave-owning Kentucky.

He enrolled in nearby Hanover College in 1863 and studied for about one year until he enlisted with the Union Army in 1864, during the American Civil War. He finished the war as a corporal in Company I of the 137th Indiana Infantry Regiment. He returned to Hanover in 1865, majored in the humanities and was a top graduate (A.B.) in 1867. Wiley earned his M.D. from Indiana Medical College in 1871. He was professor of Greek and Latin at Butler College, Indianapolis, 1868–70.

After earning his medical degree Wiley taught chemistry at the Medical College, where he led Indiana's first laboratory course in chemistry beginning in 1873. At Harvard University, he was awarded a B.S. degree in 1873 after only a few months of intense effort. He then accepted a faculty position in chemistry at Purdue University, which held its first classes in 1874. He was also appointed state chemist of Indiana.

In 1878, Wiley went to Germany where he attended the lectures of August Wilhelm von Hofmann—the celebrated German discoverer of organic tar derivatives like aniline. While there, Wiley was elected to the prestigious German Chemical Society founded by Hofmann. Wiley spent most of his time in the Imperial Food Laboratory in Bismarck working with Eugene Sell, mastering the use of the polariscope and studying sugar chemistry. Upon his return to Purdue, Wiley was asked by the Indiana State Board of Health to analyze the sugars and syrups on sale in the state to detect any adulteration. He spent his last years at Purdue studying sorghum culture and sugar chemistry, working to help develop a strong domestic sugar industry. His first published paper in 1881 discussed the adulteration of sugar with glucose.

Wiley commissioned a medical journalist, Wedderburn, to write out his findings in a manner understandable to public and politicians. Areas of concern included Embalmed Milk (adding formaldehyde to milk); adding copper sulphate to tinned French beans to make them green etc. These problems were mainly associated with getting food to large city populations.

The embalmed beef scandal relating to the troop rations in the American-Cuban war of 1898 finally brought the industry to the public interest.

Government career
Wiley was offered the position of Chief Chemist in the United States Department of Agriculture by George Loring, the Commissioner of Agriculture, in 1882. Loring was seeking to replace his chemist with someone who would employ a more objective approach to the study of sorghum, whose potential as a sugar source was far from proven. Wiley accepted the offer after being passed over for the presidency of Purdue, allegedly because he was "too young and too jovial", unorthodox in his religious belief, and also a bachelor. Wiley brought to Washington a practical knowledge of agriculture, a sympathetic approach to the problems of agricultural industry and an untapped talent for public relations.

After assisting Congress in their earliest questions regarding the safety of the chemical preservatives then being employed in foods, Wiley was appropriated $5,000 in 1902 to study the effects of a diet including various preservatives, on human volunteers. These "poison squad" studies drew national attention to the need for a federal food and drug law. These tests were called Hygienic Table Trials. The subjects received $5 a month and free food to be systematically poisoned. 12 volunteers were chosen. One additive was added per trial but he struggled to find non-adulterated products to add the poisons to. First to be tested was borax which tightened old meat which was starting to decompose. The borax was fed to the men in meat and dairy products. Some were given borax and some were not in order to control the study. The volunteers became known as The Poison Squad.

Wiley was originally aiming just to get foods labelled to correctly show their additives. However, he concluded that certain chemicals should be banned. The food industry rose in protest. The proposed Food Bill of 1902 failed to even register a vote, being defeated by lobbyists. He sought the support of female groups, not due to their direct political influence (as they still had none) but due to the domestic pressure which they could exert. The campaign spilled into wider community health and welfare, calling for public (municipal) control of all water supplies and sewer systems. His campaign gained weight when Fannie Farmer joined and paralleled the call for "pure food".

Heinz were one of the first companies to join the push for pure food and changed their recipe for tomato ketchup in 1902 to replace chemical preservatives with vinegar and introducing very hygienic practices into their factories.

In 1905, the Poison Squad was set to work on salicylic acid which was used in multiple products. It was found to cause bleeding of the stomach.

In December 1905, Wiley organized a meeting of more progressive food producers (including Heinz) plus female activists with Theodore Roosevelt to lobby for safe food legislation. Upton Sinclair's book The Jungle revealed inside information from the slaughterhouses of Chicago which caused great consternation. This non-scientific expose of the canned meat industry reminded Roosevelt of his experiences with shoddy meat in Cuba in 1898. In June 1906 this led to the passing of the Meat Inspection Act (controlling slaughterhouses) and the Food and Drug Act (looking at prohibition of additives). Whilst Roosevelt was keen to take sole credit, the popular press of the day called this Act Dr. Wiley's Law.

The law allowed new chemicals to be added to the list of banned additives. The first one to target was Formaldehyde which in 1907 was found to be highly dangerous despite widespread use.

President Roosevelt brought one of his heroes, Ira Remsen, in to monitor Wiley. This was bound to create conflict as Wiley had raised concerns regarding the president's use of saccharin which had been invented by Remsen. This was intended to curb Wiley who had been having large shipments of food and additives condemned.

Wiley soon became a crusader and coalition builder in support of national food and drug regulation. His work, and that of Alice Lakey, spurred one million American women to write to the White House in support of the Pure Food and Drug Act.

Wiley was nicknamed "Father of the Pure Food and Drugs Act" when it became law in 1906. He wrote two editions of Foods and Their Adulteration (1907 and 1911), which described for an audience of non-specialists the history, preparation and subsequent adulteration of basic foodstuffs. He was a founding father of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, and left a broad and substantial legacy to the American pure food movement as its "crusading chemist".

Wiley targeted Coca-Cola in 1909, not because of its use of cocaine which had ceased a few years before, but because of the excessive use of caffeine which was proven to be addictive. The fears were particularly regarding children. This went to trial in 1911 where Coca-Cola argued it could be drunk with no ill effects whether addictive or not. The courts decided that Wiley had gone too far and Coca-Cola were found not guilty of breaching the Food and Drug Act: see United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola. President Taft was pressured into firing Wiley but the press supported his continuing.

The enforcement of the federal Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was assigned to the Bureau of Chemistry, instead of the Department of Commerce or the Department of the Interior, which was a tribute to the scientific qualifications that the Bureau of Chemistry brought to its studies of food and drug adulteration, and misbranding. The first food and drug inspectors were hired to complement the work of the laboratory scientists, and an inspection program was launched which revolutionized the country's food supply within the first decade under the new federal law.

Wiley's tenure generated controversy over his administration of the 1906 statute. Concerns over chemical preservatives, which had not been specifically addressed in the law, continued to be problematic. The Secretary of Agriculture appointed a Referee Board of Consulting Scientists, headed by Ira Remsen of Johns Hopkins University, to repeat Wiley's human trials of preservatives. The use of saccharin, bleached flour, caffeine, and benzoate of soda were all important issues which had to be settled by the courts in the early days under the new law.

Under Wiley's leadership, however, the Bureau of Chemistry grew significantly in strength and stature after assuming responsibility for enforcement of the 1906 Act. Between 1906 and 1912, Wiley's staff expanded from 110 to 146. Appropriations, which had been $155,000 in 1906, were $963,780 in 1912. The Bureau moved into its own building and used the healing symbol of Aesculapius's staff, or Ophiuchus. In 1911, his enemies urged his dismissal from the Department of Agriculture over the technicality that an expert in his department had been paid above the legal rate. But later in the year, President William Howard Taft wrote a letter that fully exonerated Wiley.

On March 15, 1912, Wiley resigned his leadership of the Chemistry Bureau because, from nearly the beginning, he had been antagonized in the enforcement of the Pure Food And Drugs Act, and he had seen the fundamental principles of that act either paralyzed or discredited. Taft expressed his regret at Wiley's resignation and Agriculture Secretary James Wilson spoke highly of how "valuable" Wiley had been, and in turn, Wiley thanked Wilson for the "personal kindness and regard shown him."

Work at Good Housekeeping
After his resignation from government work in 1912, Wiley took over the laboratories of Good Housekeeping Magazine, where he continued his work on behalf of the consuming public. Director, Bureau of Foods, Sanitation and Health was Wiley's official title. His disapprobation of “drugged” products included cola drinks; he warned against the caffeine in them vehemently. In a famous action he brought against The Coca-Cola Company in 1911, he contended that it was illegal to use the name Coca-Cola when there was no actual cocaine in the drink, and also that it was illegal for it to contain caffeine as an additive. Perversely, this was as much as to say that the product ought to have contained cocaine and not caffeine. Still, the case was a landmark in developing standards for truth in labeling. The beverage continued to be brewed, even as of late September 2016, with de-cocaine-ized coca leaves and cola nuts.

He remained with Good Housekeeping for 18 years.

He was famed for giving his "seal of approval" to multiple products, a concept which has been widely reused. The idea, which he established, is now known as the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval.

Death
Harvey Wiley died at his home in Washington, D.C., on June 30, 1930, the 24th anniversary of the signing of the Pure Food and Drug law.

He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery with his wife, Anna Kelton Wiley (1877–1964), whom he married in 1911. His grave is inscribed "Father of the Pure Food Law".

Legacy
The Liberty Ship S.S. Harvey W. Wiley was one of 2751 World War II Liberty Ships built between 1941 and 1945. She was a tanker laid down September 15, 1943, launched October 15, 1943, sold by the government in 1947, and scrapped in 1969.

The U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent postage stamp in Wiley's honor on June 27, 1956, in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the 1906 Act.

The Harvey W. Wiley Award is AOAC International's most prestigious scientific award; it was established in 1956 and has been presented annually since 1957 to a scientist (or group of scientists) who have made an outstanding contribution to analytical method development in an area of interest to AOAC International. AOAC International was founded in 1884 as the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Wiley was a founding member, President in 1886, Secretary from 1889 to 1912, and Honorary President until his death in 1930.

Wiley has several buildings named in his honor. He was honored by Hanover College with a "Wiley Residence Hall" inaugurated in 1956. He was also honored by Purdue University in 1958 when the "Harvey W. Wiley Residence Hall" was opened northwest of the main academic campus. The FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) operations are located in the Harvey W. Wiley Federal Building in College Park, Maryland, which was constructed in 2001 and named after Wiley in 2002.

His birthplace near Kent is commemorated with an Indiana historic marker sign placed at the corner of IN-256 and CR-850W. The marker was sponsored by the Association of Food and Drug Officials and erected in 1981.

French State Leaders named him a Chevalier of the Order of the Légion d'honneur in 1909.

The Harvey Washington Wiley Distinguished Professor of Chemistry is an honor established through the chemistry department at Purdue University. The position has been occupied since 1997 by Dr. Dale W. Margerum.

The home he built at Somerset, Maryland, in 1893, the Wiley-Ringland House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.

Wiley's achievements are the subject of Deborah Blum's 2018 nonfiction book The Poison Squad: One Chemist's Single-Minded Crusade for Food Safety at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, which was the basis for The Poison Squad, a documentary film that first aired on American Experience on January 28, 2020.

Some libertarian philosophers cite Wiley's work as a cornerstone to increasing the breadth and depth of state coercion in the United States, arguing that freedom in medicine, food, and the right to bodily self-ownership began a sharp decline with his measures.

Publications

 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.
 * Wiley, Harvey W. (1930). "Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography." Bobbs Merrill Company, Indianapolis.

He also edited a series of Health Readers for Schools in 1919.

Film

 * The Poison Squad . Film by John Maggio, 2020.

General sources

 * Francis, F. J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.
 * Francis, F. J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.
 * Francis, F. J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.
 * Francis, F. J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.
 * Francis, F. J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.

title: Harvey Washington Wiley


text:
User:Alan Peakall

Alan Peakall

 * Born: August 22 1964 near Newbury, Berkshire
 * Citizen and resident of: United Kingdom
 * Educated: various, including Cambridge University
 * Occupation: Software Engineer

title: User:Alan Peakall


text:
User talk:Alan Peakall

Write to self to test signature expansion Alan Peakall 17:47 Oct 17, 2002 (UTC).

I have previously created Nigel Lawson and Rogernomics prior to logging in and made a number of link fixes factual corrections and suggestions through talk pages.Alan Peakall 17:51 Oct 17, 2002 (UTC)

Hello there Alan, welcome to the 'pedia! If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

- I'm glad you enjoyed the Ibn Battuta article, Alan. I certainly enjoyed writing it -- quite the astonishing character, Mr. Battuta was. -- Paul Drye --

Degenerate matter now makes much more sense. Thanks for your answer. --AN

-

Hello, Alan. I've only just seen your comments on Harold Wilson. Not being an economist, I'm not sure how he ranks among specialists in that particular field, but I do know that his academic prowess at Oxford was legendary. I feel also that he was an "intellectual" as distinct from, say, a "clever man" - despite the image of ordinariness that he tried to cultivate. I've heard him called "one of the finest minds of the century" on more than one occasion - all the more tragic that he should have suffered such a mental deterioration after his retirement. --Deb

Re: Common Agricultural Policy
So why should a link to minimum price go to price control? Please answer at Talk:Common Agricultural Policy :) -- Sam

Hi Alan, I've opened the discussion page on ideology. I took the liberty of posting your message to me and my reply there. roan 08:50 Dec 9, 2002 (UTC)

I don't like the Pol Pot article. It's vague, fragmentary, and could almost be said to have been designed deliberately to hide the Communist genocide of several hundreds of thousands of people. --Ed Poor

Thanks for taking the trouble to revert Nigel Lawson...

 * No problem. As you might guess from the history, I wrote a stub to replace the Nigella-fixated vandalism, not realising that there was a pre-existing article. Once I'd spotted it I reverted to your version. --rbrwr

Alan, I have answered your question on my Talk page. David 20:43 Feb 12, 2003 (UTC)

I need support in trying to keep football at football. They want to move it to soccer, please see talk:list of footballers. Mintguy 10:05 Feb 19, 2003 (UTC)

Hi. I don't know enough about how zoologists or botanists uses the term "subspecies" -- is it the same as "variety?" Is a "subspecies" of a particular animal the same as a "population?" Offhand I would guess that what physical anthropologists call "populations" of humans may correspond to what zooligists call "subspecies" of an animal. I think the real problem is not the gulf between scientists who study humans and scientists who study other animals, but the gulf between scientists and laypeople. Scientists see "species" (and necessarily "subspecies") as statistical phenomena whereas many laypeople see species (and race) as fixed things. Slrubenstein

-

Good catch on General relativity. In the future if you are pretty sure of something, just change it, and leave a note if you want a second opinion. --AN 18:21 Feb 20, 2003 (UTC)

-

See response on the Mugabe talk page to the questions that you had raised.

172

I can't remember if the decomposition was to turn the sphere inside-out, or to create two spheres of the same size as the original. But I am pretty sure a nice sliced-sphere picture was on the cover of SA. (See User_talk:David_spector.)

I honestly hadn't thought about it but I suspect that either South Africa decided not to re-apply or did and was rejected. I have a hunch that it was the latter. I'll see if I can get some information from the Commonwealth Secretariat to see if they know, or else check with the South Africans themselves. Thanks for the observation and the praise. I was appreciated. wikilove. FearÉIREANN 17:39 4 Jun 2003 (UTC)

I'm so glad to find someone who appreciates the Jennings (novels) series. Even though they're about public schoolboys, they've given me and my sisters a lot of laughs over the years. Deb 19:41 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I knew, and still know, virtually nothing about Buckeridge. How come we haven't got an article on him yet? He sounds an interesting man. Deb 19:12 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I reviewed the tangle of changes in concentration camp, looks like yours got in OK, haven't been mangled. My last edit was just to the Gitmo para; I was originally going to delete it summarily, but Google showed a thousand indymedia-type pages calling it a concentration camp, so it's now worthy of mention. Stan 20:47, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I must be better at NPOV than I thought. In real life I am very much anti-Tory. I make it well known to Tories who come to the door at election time that I have no intention of voting for them (without being rude of course). Still I have more time for Tories than I do for Creationists! :-) Mintguy 16:29, 11 Sep 2003 (UTC)

BTW, the electric organ references weren't actually jokes, that's what ichthyologists call them, and at some point I was expecting to write the article on the physiology of the various kinds of electric organs, since they've been studied a fair amount. Stan 18:23, 26 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Wason test.

Article Licensing
Hi, I've started a drive to get users to multi-license all of their contributions that they've made to either (1) all U.S. state, county, and city articles or (2) all articles, using the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike (CC-by-sa) v1.0 and v2.0 Licenses or into the public domain if they prefer. The CC-by-sa license is a true free documentation license that is similar to Wikipedia's license, the GFDL, but it allows other projects, such as WikiTravel, to use our articles. Since you are among the top 2000 Wikipedians by edits, I was wondering if you would be willing to multi-license all of your contributions or at minimum those on the geographic articles. Over 90% of people asked have agreed. For More Information:
 * Multi-Licensing FAQ - Lots of questions answered
 * Multi-Licensing Guide
 * Free the Rambot Articles Project

To allow us to track those users who muli-license their contributions, many users copy and paste the " " template into their user page, but there are other options at Template messages/User namespace. The following examples could also copied and pasted into your user page:

 * Option 1
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

OR
 * Option 2
 * I agree to multi-license all my contributions to any U.S. state, county, or city article as described below:

Or if you wanted to place your work into the public domain, you could replace " " with "  ". If you only prefer using the GFDL, I would like to know that too. Please let me know what you think at my talk page. It's important to know either way so no one keeps asking. -- Ram-Man (comment| talk)

Williams revolution
Hi Alan, can you remember what caused you to originally create the Williams revolution article? Was it a requested article? Was it linked somewhere? I'm sorry that it's such a long time ago, but there is a discussion currently going on based on the observation that the term is apparently not used in the scientific literature or anywhere on the web other than wikipedia - it looks as though we invented it! - Samsara 16:30, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

Your edit creating the article is here. WAS 4.250 19:17, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

 * In reply, yes, all the content has been merged into gene-centric view of evolution. Maybe you could just vote on the article's fate: . Would be nice since you created the article and it seems courteous that your voice should be heard. Thanks. - Samsara 17:48, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Darian calendar
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Darian calendar, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process
 * Martian calendar made up by some non-notable individual on their website. Not even remotely notable & lacking any third party sourcing

All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because, even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. HrafnTalkStalk(P) 17:40, 15 February 2009 (UTC)

Nomination of John Smith (name) for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article John Smith (name) is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/John Smith (name) until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Beerest355 Talk 01:09, 4 July 2013 (UTC)

Just to let you know -- Missing Wikipedians
You have been mentioned at Missing Wikipedians. XOttawahitech (talk) 14:53, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Nomination of William and Mary for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article William and Mary is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/William and Mary until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. --Nevé–selbert 19:25, 4 August 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alan Peakall


text:
Jughead

Jughead may refer to:

 * In fiction
 * Jughead Jones, an Archie Comics character
 * Jughead (comic book), a comic book series featuring the Archie Comics character
 * Jug Head, Canadian nickname for the Kool-Aid Man

 * Music
 * John Jughead, the pseudonym of Screeching Weasel guitarist John Pierson
 * "Jughead", a song on Prince's 1991 album Diamonds and Pearls

 * Other uses
 * Jughead, the nickname for a version of the 1954 Mark 16 nuclear bomb
 * Jughead (search engine), which worked under the Gopher protocol
 * "Jughead" (Lost), an episode of the American television series Lost

title: Jughead