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New Jersey Route 31

Route 31 is a state highway in New Jersey, United States. It runs 48.93 mi from U.S. Route 1 Business (US 1 Bus.) /US 206 in Trenton, Mercer County, north to an intersection with US 46 in Buttzville in White Township, Warren County. Along the way, Route 31 heads through the communities of Flemington, Clinton, and Washington. Most of the highway is state-maintained; however, the section within the city limits of Trenton is maintained by the city. Much of Route 31 is a two-lane highway that passes through farmland, woodland, and mountainous areas. Two portions of the route—from Trenton to Pennington and from Ringoes to Clinton—consist of more development.

The highway was constructed from 1926 to 1935. Route 31 has carried two different numbers in the past. It was known as Route 30 between 1927 and 1953, when it was renumbered to Route 69 to avoid conflicting with US 30 in southern New Jersey. It was renumbered to Route 31 in 1967 due to sign theft that resulted from the sexual meaning of the number 69. There were plans made in the late 1960s and early 1970s to build a freeway in the Route 31 corridor that would begin in the Trenton area and extend as far north as Interstate 84 (I-84) in Port Jervis, New York; however, it was canceled in the mid-1970s due to opposition from area residents and environmental and financial constraints. In recent years, the portion of Route 31 between Flemington and Clinton has been widened to four lanes. In addition, there was a failed project to build a bypass of Flemington that would have also eliminated the Flemington Circle.

Route description
Route 31 heads north from US 1 Bus./US 206 at the Trenton Battle Monument in Trenton, Mercer County, on city-maintained two-lane undivided Pennington Road. The route passes by residences and some businesses in the northern part of Trenton, crossing County Route 653 (CR 653, Calhoun Street). Route 31 enters Ewing Township and becomes state-mantainted at the point where it crosses CR 634 (Parkway Avenue). The route continues north through suburban residential areas and passes to the west of The College of New Jersey campus. It crosses into Hopewell Township and briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway as it interchanges with I-295. Past this interchange, Route 31 continues north as an undivided road through a mix of residences with some businesses, meeting CR 546 and CR 640 at a traffic circle. It continues past the circle as a two-lane, undivided road and bypasses Pennington to the west. The route briefly skirts into Pennington twice, where it is a divided highway as it crosses over CSX's Trenton Subdivision railroad line. Route 31 enters Pennington again before heading back into Hopewell Township. Here, the road meets CR 640 (North Main Street) again, and heads north into farmland and woodland with some homes. It eventually turns to the northwest and crosses CR 518 (Lambertville-Hopewell Road).

Upon crossing CR 518, Route 31 enters East Amwell Township, Hunterdon County, and continues through rural areas. The route eventually forms the border between East Amwell Township and West Amwell Township and intersects CR 579 (Harbourton Road). The two routes run concurrent to the northwest, becoming a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane that crosses entirely into East Amwell Township before resuming along the border of East and West Amwell Townships. The road becomes a divided highway and crosses entirely into East Amwell Township again before it comes to an interchange with US 202, where CR 579 continues north into Ringoes and Route 31 heads north along US 202, a four-lane, divided highway with intersections featuring jughandle ramps.

US 202 and Route 31 head to the north, coming to an intersection with Old York Road, which heads to the southwest as Route 179 and to the northeast as CR 514. Past this intersection, the road forms the border between East Amwell Township to the west and Raritan Township to the east before crossing entirely into Raritan Township. The road continues north through farms, reaching commercial development as it approaches the Flemington area. The road widens to six lanes and crosses into Flemington. The road comes to the Flemington Circle where US 202 continues to the northeast, Route 12 heads to the west, and Route 31 continues to the north on a five-lane, undivided road. The route crosses back into Raritan Township, where it passes under the Black River and Western Railroad and briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway before reentering Flemington. Not long afterward, it heads into Raritan Township again, where it crosses CR 523 (Walter E. Foran Boulevard) and passes by the former site of Flemington Speedway, now a commercial development called Raritan Town Square. Route 31 passes through suburban development before turning into a four-lane, divided highway with some intersections controlled by jughandles and crossing over Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line and the South Branch Raritan River into Readington Township. It continues north through a mix of farms and wooded areas with some residential areas, crossing into Clinton Township.

Route 31 comes to an interchange with I-78/US 22, with a park and ride lot located to the northwest of the interchange. Past here, the route turns to the northwest into a more developed setting and has an interchange with Route 173. The road runs through Clinton Town, where it crosses the South Branch Raritan River again. Back in Clinton Township, Route 31 intersects CR 513 (Halstead Street), forming a concurrency with that route and running along the eastern shore of Spruce Run Reservoir. CR 513 splits from Route 31 by heading north on West Main Street and Route 31 continues north, narrowing to a two-lane undivided road. The route crosses into Lebanon Township, where it heads northwest across the wooded Musconetcong Mountains. Route 31 passes through Glen Gardner, which it enters upon crossing Sprunce Run, before heading into Hampton, where it heads west through that community as a three-lane road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane and passes over an abandoned railroad line.

Route 31 crosses the Musconetcong River into Washington Township, Warren County, where it heads north into the agricultural Musconetcong Valley. It heads into Washington Borough, where the road becomes four lanes, passing under the Washington Secondary railroad line that is owned by Norfolk Southern and operated by the Dover and Delaware River Railroad and crossing Route 57 (Washington Avenue). Past the Route 57 intersection, Route 31 narrows to three lanes, passing under a Dover and Delaware River Railroad line, and becomes a two-lane road again as it crosses back into Washington Township at the Essex Road intersection. It heads into farmland before turning northwest and heading across Oxford Mountain, entering Mansfield Township. While crossing Oxford Mountain, Route 31 skirts along the border between Mansfield Township and Washington Township. The route enters Oxford Township, where it heads through the community of Oxford as a four-lane road. Route 31 continues north through a mix of woods and agricultural areas past Oxford, crossing into White Township at the East Quarry Road intersection and coming to its terminus at US 46.

Old roads and construction
Before the state received ownership of Route 31, the portion of the highway from Clinton to Oxford was part of the Spruce Run Turnpike. The turnpike was chartered by the New Jersey State Assembly on February 6, 1813 and was maintained and tolled by the Spruce Run Turnpike Company. The turnpike served as a connector along the old Hopewell Road from modern-day Lambertville (then called Georgetown) to New Brunswick. The road also served as a highly used connector route for the Jersey and Castenoga wagon lines, which served both of the aforementioned communities. The route from Trenton to Pennington was part of the Pennington Turnpike, another privately maintained pre-designation highway. The turnpike was chartered on March 17, 1854 by the General Assembly along an alignment of the old Pennington Road. The turnpike road was to be constructed no further than 32 ft in breadth, and to be made out of stone, plank or gravel. The turnpike cost one cent for every carriage or sled pulled by horses or mules (and one cent more for every animal), five mills for horse and rider and every dozen of pigs and sheep. It cost two cents to move a dozen cattle, mules or horses. Fines were levied as high as $10 (1854 USD) to anyone who vandalized any structure along the turnpike. If the company did not construct their highway in six years, the state would then take over and make it a public highway. On November 1, 1898, the 7 mi long turnpike, made mostly of stone, was taken over by the state at a cost of $31,661.87 (1898 USD). Repairs were slated to be completed on the road by October 31, 1899. Also on March 17, 1854, the state legislature made the charter official for the Hopewell and Ewing Turnpike, which used the portion of Route 31 from Pennington to the current-day intersection with CR 654. The turnpike was taken over by the state in 1897 and the privately maintained company was dissolved.

The formation of current-day Route 31 began around 1916, when a portion of the highway, along the community of Hampton was taken over by the state and was repaired to state standards for $300 (1916 USD). In 1923, the state of New Jersey passed the Good Roads Act, which greatly expanded the state highway system in New Jersey. This act took over pre-existing highways and rebuilt them to a standard mandated by the state. Construction began on Route 31 in 1926, when the State Highway Department began work at the southern terminus in Trenton. A total of 11 bridges were constructed along the highway during this time, signifying the route's construction northward. The oldest ones, dating back to 1926, were located in Ewing Township and Oxford Township. The one in Ewing Township was along the first portion of the highway to be constructed. By 1929, the construction had reached Lawrence Township, where another long stretch of highway was built. During 1930, the construction had reached Clinton, Glen Gardener, and Washington. Construction of the highway progressed northbound, with sections of the Mercer-Hunterdon-Warren route reaching Hunterdon County in 1931. The Hunterdon County portion up to the Musconetcong River was constructed for six months, with completion in October 1931. Construction of the highway northward from the Musconetcong River started in October of the same year. The mainline construction reached the northern terminus in Buttzville in 1932. The route, although the construction had reached its northern end, was not complete due to bypasses around Clinton and Pennington were proposed to be built. These bypasses were never constructed, and during 1934, more portions of the highway in Hunterdon County were finished. The route was completed in 1935, providing an uninterrupted route from the capital city of Trenton to northern Warren County.

Designation
What is today Route 31 was defined in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering as Route 30, a highway that began in Trenton and ended in Buttzville. In the 1953 renumbering, Route 30 was renumbered as Route 69, as the number conflicted with US 30 in southern New Jersey. The bypass of Ringoes, shared with US 202, opened in the 1960s. Due to the sexual meaning of the number and resulting sign theft, Route 69 was changed on June 5, 1967 to Route 31 beginning with sign swapping by state crews. The justification for the removal was that people were stealing signs as a trophy for dorm rooms because of their interest in the number 69.

A limited-access freeway was once planned to serve traffic along the Route 31 (then Route 69) corridor. Plans came forth in the 1960s for a highway to run along Route 69 from the in-construction US 1 freeway (then designated Route 174 ) to the U.S. Route 202 freeway in Ringoes. The estimated cost to build the highway according to the proposal estimated to $18 million, with construction completing in 1975. There were plans to extend the freeway further in both directions, including northward to I-80 in Hope Township and southward to I-195. Each of these two extensions were brought forth in the 1960s, and were later shelved due to lack of support. In the early 1970s, a 36 mi long extension of Route 31 was proposed from Oxford, connecting the highway with the proposed Route 23 freeway to I-84 near Port Jervis, New York. This northern freeway extension of Route 31 was to be known as Route F-31 and the Foothills Freeway, and was to run through the Kittatinny Mountains, passing through Stokes State Forest and High Point State Park. The proposal gave an estimated price tag of about $105 million (1970s USD). The northern freeway faced high opposition from residents living in Warren and Sussex counties, who feared environmental damage. A group called Opponents of the Foothills Freeway formed to prevent the road from being built. Along with the growing opposition, environmental and financial issues arose, causing the New Jersey Department of Transportation to cancel the Route 31 from being built mid-1970s.

Following the completion of New Jersey's portion of I-287 in 1993, more out-of-state tractor trailer drivers began to use the alignment of Route 31 as a toll-free alternative to the New Jersey Turnpike. On July 16, 1999, oversize trucks were banned from using Route 31 as part of a larger statewide ban imposed on New Jersey roads not a part of the National Highway System by then-governor Christine Todd Whitman. The legislation had a significant effect on trucks that followed Route 31 as it forced them to use I-287 and the New Jersey Turnpike instead. In the mid-2000s, the portion of Route 31 was widened during extensive construction between Flemington and Clinton that widened the road to four lanes.

The South Branch Parkway
In 2005, the New Jersey Department of Transportation introduced a case study for Route 31 for its New Jersey: Future in Transportation project. Over time, the residents and business owners of Raritan Township and Flemington had growing concerns over the congestion along the highway and US 202. After trying to use vacant land to the east of the current alignment, the Department of Transportation put forth the Flemington Bypass, trying to relieve congestion on Route 31 along the commercial district and to provide access to the industrial land between the two highways and the South Branch Raritan River. The project was never completed and the proposed site remains undeveloped. The Department of Transportation is now looking at a scaled-down bypass, proposed as the South Branch Parkway, to connect Route 31 to US 202 in Flemington.

The parkway was to be built as a two-lane alternative to Route 31 defining the border of the suburban and rural portions of Flemington Borough and Raritan Township. Along with the new parkway, a brand-new local street network was proposed to help support the new alignment. These would minimize the pressure of traffic on Route 31 and include better roads for bicycles and pedestrians. More direct routes to different portions of the community would be provided to maintain the community's character. The proposed parkway was to also help upgrade the sensitive history along the river. According to the 2008 highway plans, the South Branch Parkway would cost the state more than $2.2 million (2008 USD) in funds to put together the survey of lands in the proposed alignment. Some of these funds for the survey were originally intended to go towards the removal of the Flemington Circle.

title: New Jersey Route 31


text:
User talk:Sytone~enwiki

Hello and welcome. There is a copyright concern that has to be worked at at WSDL. --mav

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sytone. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sytone~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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title: User:RandomGuy3829


text:
John Q.

John Q. is a 2002 American thriller drama film written by James Kearns and directed by Nick Cassavetes. It stars Denzel Washington as the title character, a man who is forced to take a hospital emergency room hostage in order for his son to receive a heart transplant. Robert Duvall, James Woods, Anne Heche, Kimberly Elise, and Ray Liotta appear in supporting roles.

The film was shot in Toronto, Hamilton, Ontario, and Canmore, Alberta, although the story takes place in Chicago. Shooting took place for 60 days from August 8 to November 3, 2000, and the film was released on February 15, 2002. It received generally negative reviews from critics, but was a commercial success, grossing $102 million on a $36 million budget.

Plot
A motorist driving recklessly on a freeway is killed in a collision with a truck. Weeks earlier in Chicago, factory worker John Quincy Archibald and his wife Denise are behind with their house and car payments. One day after church, they rush their young son Michael to the hospital after he collapses at his baseball game, and are told by cardiologist Dr. Raymond Turner and administrator Rebecca Payne that Michael needs a heart transplant or he will die. John and Denise have only $1,000 in savings, and they are informed that the hospital requires a $75,000 down payment of the procedure's $250,000 cost simply to place Michael on the organ transplant list. To make matters worse, John discovers that his work's health insurance will not cover the surgery due to them changing his policy as a result of them switching insurance carriers and reducing his working hours.

John and Denise struggle to raise the money and the hospital prepares to send Michael home to die when the couple exhausts all their opportunities and they still come up short. Determined to save his son, John takes Dr. Turner and several patients and staff hostage at gunpoint in the ER. Police negotiator Lt. Frank Grimes makes contact with John, who demands that Payne put Michael's name on the list.

Grimes clashes with his superior Chief Gus Monroe, while most of the hostages sympathize with John's plight and reflect on the flaws of America's healthcare system. A nurse even reveals that Michael's condition could have been detected much earlier during routine checkups, but the doctor had stayed silent about doing additional testing for it to get bonuses from the insurance company in exchange for helping maintain their profit. After agreeing to release some of the patients, John is attacked by hostage Mitch, whose abused girlfriend Julie helps John subdue and handcuff him. John frees expectant couple Steve and Miriam and immigrant mother Rosa with her infant son, who all declare their support for John to the news crews outside. Grimes and Payne reveal John's actions to Denise, and Payne places Michael on the list to perform the operation pro bono.

Overriding Grimes, Monroe has a SWAT sniper enter the ER via an air shaft, luring John into the line of fire with a call from Denise. John speaks with Michael as his condition worsens, while a news crew hacks the police surveillance feed and broadcasts John's conversation with his family. John discovers the hacked news footage just as the sniper fires, wounding him in the shoulder. John overpowers the sniper and uses him as a human shield as he reiterates his demands in front of a cheering crowd. As night falls, Michael is removed from the ICU and brought to the ER in exchange for the sniper's release, while Denise waits at the police command post along with her and John's friends Jimmy and Gina Palumbo.

John reveals his intention to die by suicide to save Michael with his own heart, and also reveals that his gun was empty all along. He persuades Turner to perform the operation, and Julie and security guard Max bear witness to John's impromptu will. He says his goodbyes to Michael, and prepares to end his own life using the only bullet he brought, when Denise brings news that the heart of a recently deceased organ donor – the motorist – is on the way. Once the heart arrives, John releases the hostages, including patient Lester, who surrenders to police posing as John. John, posing as a surgeon, accompanies Michael to the operating room where Grimes, who noticed the switch, allows him to watch Michael's operation before arresting him.

Three months later, John's actions have sparked national debate about healthcare, and in court his family, friends and all the hostages testify on his behalf at trial. John is acquitted of attempted murder and armed criminal action, but convicted of kidnapping and false imprisonment. His lawyer assures him that he will likely serve no more than two years. As John is escorted from the courthouse, Lester proclaims him as a hero, and a now-healthy Michael gains eye contact with John, thanking his father for saving his life.

Cast
• Denzel Washington as John Quincy Archibald

• Kimberly Elise as Denise Archibald

• Daniel E. Smith as Michael "Mike" Archibald

• James Woods as Dr. Raymond Turner

• Anne Heche as Rebecca Payne

• Robert Duvall as Lt. Frank Grimes

• Ray Liotta as Chief Gus Monroe

• Eddie Griffin as Lester Matthews

• Shawn Hatosy as Mitch Quigley

• David Thornton as Jimmy Palumbo

• Laura Harring as Gina Palumbo

• Ethan Suplee as Guard Max Conlin

• Kevin Connolly as Steve Maguire

• Paul Johansson as Tuck Lampley

• Heather Wahlquist as Julie Byrd

• Troy Beyer as Miriam Smith

• Troy Winbush as Steve Smith

• Obba Babatundé as Sgt. Moody

• Larissa Laskin as Dr. Ellen Klein

• Dina Waters as Debby Utley

• Martha Chaves as Rosa Gonzales

• Keram Malicki-Sánchez as Freddy B.

• Vanessa Branch as Nurse

• Stephanie Moore as Admitting Nurse

• Gabriela Oltean as Beautiful BMW Driver

• Jay Leno as himself

• Larry King as himself

• Ted Demme as himself

• Gloria Allred as herself

• Nas as himself

• Bill Maher as himself

• Arianna Huffington as herself

Production
According to the commentary on the Deleted Scenes with Cassavetes and writer James Kearns, the main theme of the movie was said to be "about a miracle and John's faith in God creating the miracle". They also mentioned how SWAT team advisors for the film related a similar true incident in Toronto, where a man (Henry Masuka) took an ER hostage after it would not provide immediate service to his infant son on New Year's Eve 1999. When he exited the ER, he was shot and killed and found to be carrying an unloaded pellet gun.

Release
John Q. opened in first place, grossing $20.2 million during its first weekend. It ended up with a total domestic gross of $71 million and $102.2 million worldwide.

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, John Q. holds an approval rating of 25% based on the 133 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Washington's performance rises above the material, but John Q pounds the audience over the head with its message." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 30 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.

Remake
The film was officially remade in India as the Hindi-language 2006 film Tathastu, in Kannada as Sugreeva and Tamil-language 2023 film Tamilarasan.

title: John Q.


text:
New Jersey Route 32

Route 32 is an arterial state highway in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The route is a 1.18 mi highway along Forsgate Drive that connects U.S. Route 130 (US 130) in South Brunswick Township and the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95 or I-95) at exit 8A in Monroe Township. Despite the short length, it is an important artery that connects not only traffic between the Turnpike and US 130, but traffic to County Route 535 (CR 535). The right-of-way on Forsgate continues eastward as Middlesex County Route 612. Route 32 was first designated in 1964 along Forsgate Drive and was proposed to become part of New Jersey Route 92 along its entire alignment.

Route description
Route 32 begins at a partial interchange with US 130 in South Brunswick Township. The route heads eastward, running along access ramps from US 130 and the local park and ride serving Coach USA buses to New York City. Heading onto the mainline Route 32, the highway receives the moniker of Forsgate Drive. Intersecting with a U-turn ramp from the westbound lanes, the highway serves the area as a four-lane industrial arterial. Route 32 heads further east, passing through industrial areas and local commercial headquarters. A short distance later, the highway intersects with Herrod Drive and Commerce Drive, both of which serve the local industry. Forsgate Drive continues eastward as the arterial, intersecting with CR 535 (Cranbury–South River Road). From here, Route 32 enters Monroe Township and begins serving Interchange 8A on the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95). A partial trumpet interchange, Interchange 8A serves access to CR 535 (for drivers heading to Route 32 westbound) and Route 32 eastbound. After serving another local industry, Route 32 crosses over the four-sectioned mainline of the Turnpike, where the designation ends. The road continues east as CR 612.

History
The alignment of Route 32 was first designated in 1964, when the state took over jurisdiction of a highway from US 130 in South Brunswick, eastward along Forsgate Drive to the intersection with CR 522 and CR 535 in Monroe Township. Exit 8A originally ended at a "T" intersection with Route 32 which was modified to a trumpet interchange after 1987. This originally featured an exit ramp from the tollgate to Route 32 west, which was later changed due to heavy congestion at the ramp. The turnpike ramp to Route 32 westbound was closed off but leaving most of the old pavement in place, creating a stub ramp. In its place, a new, two-lane ramp to CR 535 was built. Motorists must now take CR 535 south to access Route 32 westbound.

Route 32's alignment from US 130 to the Turnpike was also designated to become an alignment of Route 92, a tolled extension of the New Jersey Turnpike. Route 32 and nearby Friendship Road were to be supplanted by Route 92, using exit 8A on the turnpike for the eastern terminus. However, after years of struggle to get the toll route built, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority canceled the Route 92 project on December 1, 2006.

Future
Due to congestion from Interchange 8A of the turnpike, the Turnpike Authority is proposing a project to improve traffic congestion along Route 32 called the "Interchange 8A to Route 130 Connection." The project would start from US 130 in South Brunswick and end at Interchange 8A in Monroe. Plans and dates have yet to be determined.

title: New Jersey Route 32


text:
User talk:RandomGuy3829

Hello there RandomGuy, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

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text: User:Cayenne~enwiki

title: User:Cayenne~enwiki


text:
Heinrich Kiepert

Heinrich Kiepert (July 31, 1818 – April 21, 1899) was a German geographer.

Early life and education
Kiepert was born in Berlin. He traveled frequently as a youth with his family and documented his travels by drawing. His family was friends with Leopold von Ranke, who inspired Kiepert's creative endeavors. Kiepert was taught by August Meineke in school. Meineke influenced Kiepert's interest in classical antiquity. He attended Humboldt University of Berlin. He studied history, philology, and geography.

Cartography career
He published his first geographical work, with Carl Ritter, in 1840, titled Atlas von Hellas und den hellenischen Kolonien. The atlas focused on ancient Greece. In 1841, he drew the maps which appeared in a groundbreaking book on the Mideast, Biblical Researches in Palestine, written by Edward Robinson. In 1848 his Historisch-geographischer Atlas der alten Welt was published. In 1854, his atlas, Atlas antiquus was released. It was translated into five languages. Neuer Handatlas über alle Teile der Erde was first published in 1855. In 1877 his Lehrbuch der alten Geographie was published, and in 1879 Leitfaden der alten Geographie, which was translated into English (A Manual of Ancient Geography, 1881) and into French. In 1894 he created the first part of a larger atlas of the ancient world titled Formae orbis antiqui. He traveled to Asia Minor four times between 1841 and 1848. He created two maps of the region, including Karte des osmanischen Reiches in Asien, in 1844. Furthermore, he made some maps for the Baedeker publishing, mainly for their Egypt and Palestine outstanding guides but also for some of Europe (Paris, London, South Italy, etc.): ''Italie du Sud et la Sicile. Avec excursions aux îles de Lipari, à Tunis, à Malte, en Sardaigne et à Athènes (3rd ed., 1872), London nebst Ausflügen nach Süd-England, Wales u. Schottland, sowie Reiserouten vom Continent nach England (5th ed., 1875); and Paris ses environs et les principaux itinéraires des pays limitrophes à Paris'' (3rd ed., 1874).

Kiepert taught geography at the University of Humboldt-Berlin starting in 1854. He taught at the university until his death.

Death and legacy
He died in Berlin on April 21, 1899. His son, cartographer Richard Kiepert published remaining works by Kiepert after his death, including a map of Asia Minor in 24 sheets on a scale of 1:400,000 in 1902. He also managed the reissuing of Formae orbis antiqui. Kiepert Island is named after Kiepert.

title: Heinrich Kiepert


text:
User talk:Cayenne~enwiki

Hello there Cayenne, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. BTW, nice addition to Harvey Mudd College. Cheers! --maveric149

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cayenne. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cayenne~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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text: User:Dr. Elemento

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User talk:Dr. Elemento

Hello there Dr. Elemento, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. BTW, nice work on Valencia, Spain. Cheers! --maveric149

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New Jersey Route 33

Route 33 is a state highway in the central part of the US state of New Jersey. The highway extends 42.03 mi, from an interchange with U.S. Route 1 (US 1) in Trenton, Mercer County, east to an intersection with Route 71 in Neptune, Monmouth County. Route 33 is a major route through central New Jersey, as it runs from the greater state capital area in the Delaware Valley region, through a mixture of farmland, housing, and commercial developments in the lower Raritan Valley region, en route to the greater Asbury Park area on the Jersey Shore. The route traverses through historic towns such as Hightstown, Monroe, Manalapan, Freehold, and Tinton Falls. There are several intersections on Route 33 with future developments.

Route 33 begins in Trenton as a two-lane residential street. It passes through central Mercer County, joining northbound US 130 in Robbinsville. It leaves the U.S. highway in East Windsor and becomes a local town road into the borough of Hightstown. It turns east again as it passes the east end of the Hightstown Bypass, where it becomes an arterial road with four lanes as it makes its way through Monmouth County toward the shore. Around the greater "Freeholds area", it becomes a freeway. It then crosses the Garden State Parkway's Exit 100 in Tinton Falls and Route 18 in Neptune. Here, it is locally known as Corlies Avenue. Route 33 ends at Route 71 in Neptune. It has two concurrencies along the route, one with Route 34 and the second with US 130. It roughly parallels Interstate 195, located further to the south.

Route description
Route 33 begins at an interchange with the Trenton Freeway (US 1) in the state capital of Trenton, Mercer County; the interchange also includes a ramp from westbound Route 33 to southbound Route 129 at that route's northern terminus at a partial interchange with US 1. The route heads southeast on Market Street as a four-lane divided highway, passing over NJ Transit's River Line and Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line, just south of the Trenton Transit Center serving Amtrak, NJ Transit's Northeast Corridor Line and River Line, and SEPTA's Trenton Line. After intersecting Clinton Avenue, Route 33 becomes Greenwood Avenue and heads east as a two-lane residential street on the east side of the city, passing north of Trenton Central High School and serving a few small businesses. Greenwood Avenue then enters Hamilton Township and enters a slightly more commercialized area before passing north of a cemetery. At this point, Greenwood Avenue ends, and Route 33 merges with Nottingham Way and becomes a four-lane boulevard lined with many homes and businesses. After reaching a modified interchange with Interstate 295 (I-295), Route 33 turns right off of Nottingham Way and becomes a two-lane surface road with a center left-turn lane. The route passes many business and crosses through a wooded residential area before coming back into a commercial area and entering Robbinsville Township, where Route 33 turns northeast onto US 130 and the two routes run concurrently on a four-lane arterial road.

Route 33 and US 130 pass through a wooded area with several business lining the route before entering East Windsor Township, where Route 33 splits off of US 130 onto two-lane Mercer Street. The road passes through woods before emerging into Hightstown, where it serves several businesses and bisects a cemetery before entering the downtown area. Here, Mercer Street ends, and Route 33 runs northeast along Main Street before turning right onto Franklin Street and coming back into East Windsor Township. The route becomes a four-lane arterial road as it passes under the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) and becomes a divided highway, reaching an interchange with the Route 133 freeway, which serves the turnpike.

After the intersection with Twin Rivers Drive, Route 33 enters Monroe Township, Middlesex County, where it serves many residential communities. Continuing east, activity along the sides of the highway disappears, and the route enters Millstone Township, Monmouth County, where businesses begin to reappear. Crossing into Manalapan Township, Route 33 passes through a mix of farmland and commercial areas before reaching the western terminus of Route 33 Business, an old alignment of Route 33. At this point, Route 33 becomes a four-lane freeway known as the Freehold Bypass, and enters Freehold Township. The freeway passes south of Freehold Raceway Mall and bypasses Freehold Borough, reaching interchanges with County Route 537 (CR 537) and US 9 at the southern terminus of Route 79. Heading into more rural areas, Route 33 becomes a two-lane freeway and enters Howell Township and passes over the Freehold Industrial Track railroad line operated by the Delaware and Raritan River Railroad before it meets the eastern terminus of Route 33 Business as the freeway ends.

Now a two-lane surface road, Route 33 passes through a largely wooded area south of Naval Weapons Station Earle and serves several businesses and residential neighborhoods before merging with Route 34 and becoming a four-lane arterial road. The two routes run concurrently and pass over the Southern Secondary railroad line operated by the Delaware and Raritan River Railroad before entering Wall Township, where several businesses line the route. At Collingwood Circle, Route 34 splits from Route 33, and the latter continues east as a four-lane undivided surface road and enters Tinton Falls. The westbound and eastbound lanes eventually split apart as the highway reaches the western terminus of Route 66 and an interchange with the Garden State Parkway. Past this point, Route 33 becomes Corlies Avenue and enters Neptune Township, passing through many residential neighborhoods. After an interchange with the Route 18 freeway, Route 33 forms the border between Neptune Township to the north and Neptune City to the south. The road then crosses entirely back into Neptune Township and passes south of Jersey Shore University Medical Center and K. Hovnanian Children's Hospital. After an intersection with Route 35, Route 33 becomes to a two-lane surface road with a center left-turn lane before crossing NJ Transit's North Jersey Coast Line and reaching its eastern terminus at Route 71.

History
West of Robbinsville, the road was maintained by the Trenton and Allentown Turnpike, which was chartered in 1856; east of Robbinsville, the turnpike followed modern-day CR 526 to Allentown. From the border of Manalapan and Millstone townships east to the intersection with Woodward Road, the road was maintained by the Manalapan and Patton's Corner Turnpike; the road from there to Freehold was maintained as the Freehold and Manalapan Turnpike, chartered in 1858. The Freehold and Manalapan bought the portion of the Manalapan and Patton's Corner now signed Route 33. In addition, a small portion of the Englishtown and Millstone Turnpike was built along Route 33 from CR 527A west to Millstone Road, though this was overtaken in the construction of the Freehold and Manalapan Turnpike, chartered in 1866 to connect Freehold and Manalapan. From Freehold to Jerseyville, Route 33 Business was maintained by the Freehold and Jerseyville Turnpike, chartered in 1866.

Route 33 originally was part of two auto trails: the Cranbury Trail, an alternative to the Lincoln Trail running from New Brunswick to Trenton; and the Jersey Link, running from Hightstown to Ocean Grove. These routes were incorporated in 1916 into two new routes: New Jersey Route 1 in parts of the road south of Hightstown, and Route 7 from Hightstown to its terminus at Route 71. Both roads were changed into Route 33 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering.

Route 33 was originally planned as a freeway from U.S. Route 1 in Trenton across New Jersey to Route 18 in Neptune. However, in 1967, the NJDOT scaled back proposals to the current seven-mile (11 km) Freehold Bypass. The bypass from near County Route 527 in Manalapan to Halls Mills Road in Freehold was completed and opened in segments from 1971 to 1988; however, the remainder of the bypass east to Fairfield Road in Howell was not completed until 2003. The project cost $33.7 million in 2003 USD.

The Route 33 bypass has three abandoned segments. The first of these is the cloverleaf ramp from Route 79 southbound to the Route 33 freeway eastbound. It has been mostly destroyed, to make way for a new reverse jughandle for U.S. Route 9 northbound to Schanck Road. The merging part of the ramp still remains abandoned along the right side of the eastbound freeway.

The original alignment for the freeway east of Halls Mills Road (CR 55) can be seen now as an NJDOT maintenance shed. The new alignment curves to the left after the interchange, in order to avoid what the NJDOT believed to be a suspected (but never identified) turtle bog habitat. The pavement is accessible from the eastbound on-ramp, but is fenced off.

The eastbound Howell road exit ramp, which began construction in 2003, was found to be erroneously placed, possibly confusing drivers on Howell Road. An attempt was made to realign the ramp, though this failed, and the exit was abandoned shortly after, and is still inacessible and rarely maintained. Because of this, the ramp has since remains barricaded off, slowly decaying.

Up until late 1988, Route 33 westbound ran underneath US 130, then merged with US 130's southbound lanes. This was because Route 33 ran parallel to Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) Camden & Amboy route at that point, requiring a massive concrete overpass. (Route 33 eastbound also ascended the bridge approach about halfway before branching off like an exit ramp—a sign with flashing lights read "Hightstown, Shore Points" at the fork.) PRR abandoned the Hightstown–Windsor segment in 1967, reducing the importance of the hulking bridge. NJDOT eventually demolished the crumbling structure in 1989, with its approaches flattened to grade. Route 33 now meets US 130 at the north end of the multiplex with a traffic signal. A similar bridge carried Route 33 over the same PRR (now Conrail Shared Assets Operations [CSAO]) line further south in Robbinsville. NJDOT replaced the overpass with a wider, linear roadway in 2009. As the CSAO line was dormant, no railroad street crossing was installed. Trackage was dismantled two years later in 2011 in between Robbinsville and Windsor.

In 2001, the Freehold Bypass was designated as the Theodore J. Narozanick Highway.

Until 2003, the US 130/Route 33 junction in Robbinsville was configured as an at-grade wye interchange, employing curved ramps for the directional movements. The junction has since been modified to a signalized intersection with ordinary turning lanes. It has also been converted from a T-intersection to a 4-way, with the construction of a new road on the southeast side of US-130.

On December 31, 2006, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority released its proposals regarding Interchange 8 on the New Jersey Turnpike. The old Interchange 8 was to be demolished and replaced with a new interchange. The new Exit 8 would end at the intersection with Route 33, Milford Road, and the Route 133 bypass (on the east side of the expressway, instead of the west). This new Exit 8 would grant direct access to the bypass (without going through any traffic lights), as well as to 33, using grade-separated interchanges. The new toll gate was to feature a total of 10 lanes at the new facility. The new interchange opened in January 2013.

Business route

Route 33 Business is a short state highway in New Jersey that is the original alignment of Route 33 before a freeway was built as a bypass of Freehold. This business route stretches 6.89 mi through Manalapan Township, Freehold Township, Freehold Borough and Howell Township. The highway holds the distinction of being the only business route state highway in all of New Jersey.

Route 33 Business begins at the interchange with Route 33, its parent route, in Manalapan Township, New Jersey. A short distance after, the interchange from Route 33 eastbound merges into Route 33 Business, and the route passes to the south of Monmouth Battlefield State Park and enters Freehold Township. Soon after entering the borough of Freehold, Route 33 Business interchanges with U.S. Route 9. Route 33 Business turns to the southeast, passing to the north of Freehold Raceway. A short distance later, Route 33 Business intersects at a traffic light with New Jersey Route 79 (South Street) in downtown Freehold. Farther east, the route passes over the Freehold Industrial Track railroad line operated by the Delaware and Raritan River Railroad. At the intersection with Fairfield Road, Route 33 Business enters the interchange with Route 33 and the freeway, where the designation terminates.

Route 33 Business originates as an alignment of Route 33, designated across the state in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering as a replacement to Routes 1 and 7, which were assigned in the 1920s. The route remained intact for several decades, continuing as the proposals for the crosstown Route 33 Freeway during the 1960s were drawn up. The new Route 33 Freeway was to be 39 mi long, starting at U.S. Route 1 in Trenton, crossing through Princeton and into Hightstown, where it would connect with the current-day New Jersey Route 133, heading eastward, where it would connect with the unbuilt Driscoll Expressway in Freehold. The freeway would continue, interchanging with the Garden State Parkway near Exit 100 in Neptune and terminate at the Route 18 freeway in Neptune. However, the next year, the New Jersey Department of Transportation had to scale down the project to a new bypass of Freehold, and prevent the congestion of traffic through the borough. Design studies began that year, and the entire bypass was constructed during the 70s and 80s, with most of the freeway finished in 1988. This new bypass was designated as Route 33 Bypass from 1965 until Route 33 was re-aligned off the local roads onto the new freeway in 1990, which at that time, Route 33 Business was designated on the former alignment.

 * Major intersections

Related routes

 * Route 133

title: New Jersey Route 33


text:
Gatineau

Gatineau is a city in southwestern Quebec, Canada. It is located on the northern bank of the Ottawa River, immediately across from Ottawa, Ontario. Gatineau is the largest city in the Outaouais administrative region of Quebec and is also part of Canada's National Capital Region. As of 2021, Gatineau is the fourth-largest city in Quebec with a population of 291,041, and it is part of the Ottawa-Gatineau census metropolitan area with a population of 1,488,307 making it the fourth largest in Canada.

Gatineau is coextensive with a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) and census division (CD) of the same name, whose geographical code is 81. It is the seat of the judicial district of Hull.

It is also the most bilingual (French-English) city in Canada.

Toponomy
In 1613, during his first passage on the Ottawa River, the great explorer Samuel de Champlain was the first European to speak of "the river that comes from the north", traveled for millennia by Aboriginals, but he did not name it. In 1721, Canadian surveyor Noël Beaupré recorded the river, but did not give it a name. In short, the name Gatineau was not used in New France.

In fact, it was not until 1783 that the river was mentioned as Lettinoe in a report by Lieutenant David Jones to the Governor of Quebec, Sir Frederic Haldimand. In 1817, a map by Theodore Davis shows Gatteno, a name taken up with Gatino, Gateno and Gattino on plans by Philemon Wright, the founder of Hull Township, and by Lieutenant-Colonel John By, the engineer responsible for building the Rideau Canal.

It was not until 1821 that the name Gatineau first appeared on a map of Nepean Township, Ontario. The same name appears again on William Henderson's map of 1831, and on another drawn thirty years later by surveyor Thomas Devine. Thereafter, the river was always referred to as the Gatineau.

There are two hypotheses to explain the origin of the city's name. It would be either of Indigenous origin or of French origin:
 * 1) The name of the river and the city would come from the Anishinaabemowin (language of the Algonquin Anishinaabeg) Tenagatino Zibi, according to the elders of Kitigan Zibi.
 * 2) In his 1889 article published in the Echo de la Gatineau, Benjamin Sulte wrote: "One hundred years ago, the Gatineau family was extinct, or thereabouts; it is hardly likely that we waited for its disappearance to consecrate the memory of the three or four fur traders it produced. The custom must have been established during the lifetime of these men, and because they traded in these places. Of the latter fact, for instance, I am not certain." In his own words, Sulte writes that he is creating a myth and that the story that the Gatineau family gave the river its name is a myth, invented by Sulte himself. According to Sulte, the name Gatineau comes from the Gastineau family - not Gatineau - one of its members, Nicolas Gastineau sieur Duplessis (1627-1689).

History

Prior to European settlement, the Gatineau area was inhabited by the Algonquin people which is part of the larger Anishinaabe. The current city of Gatineau is centred on an area formerly called Hull. It is the oldest European colonial settlement in the National Capital Region, but this area was essentially not developed by Europeans until after the American Revolutionary War, when the Crown granted land through the Leaders and Associates program of the Lower Canada Executive, which brought settlement in the Ottawa Valley.

Hull was founded on the north shore of the Ottawa River in 1800 by Philemon Wright at the portage around the Chaudière Falls, just upstream (or west) from the confluence of the Gatineau and Rideau rivers with the Ottawa River. Wright brought his family, four other families, and twenty-five (or 33, according to Philemon's own conflicting reports) labourers with the hope of establishing an agricultural community, but by 1806, Wright and his family took advantage of the large forest stands and began the Ottawa River timber trade, floating the first square timber raft down the Ottawa River to Québec City. For a while, the industry was under a monopoly known as the Gatineau Privilege. The original settlement was called Wright's Town, Lower Canada, and was later renamed as Hull, when it was incorporated in 1875. Bytown, founded in 1832, stood across the river from Wright's Town. In 2002, after amalgamation, Hull became part of a larger jurisdiction named the City of Gatineau.

In 1820, before immigrants from Ireland and Great Britain arrived in great numbers, Hull Township had a population of 707, including 365 men, 113 women, and 229 children. The high number of men were related to workers in the lumber trade. In 1824, there were 106 families and 803 persons. During the rest of the 1820s, the population of Hull doubled, with the arrival of Protestant immigrants from Ulster, now Northern Ireland. By 1851, the population of the County of Ottawa was 11,104, of which 2,811 lived in Hull. By comparison, Bytown had a population of 7,760 in 1851. By 1861, Ottawa County had a population of 15,671, of which 3,711 lived in Hull.

Gradually French Canadians also migrated to the township; their proportion of the population increased from 10% in 1850, to 50% in 1870, and 90% in 1920. Industrial development in the mid-nineteenth century attracted large numbers of French-Canadian workers to Hull.

The Gatineau River, like the Ottawa River, was a basic transportation resource for the draveurs, timber rafters who transported logs via the rivers from lumber camps to downriver destinations. (The Gatineau River flows south into the Ottawa River, which flows east to the St. Lawrence River near Montreal.) The log-filled Ottawa River, as viewed from Hull, was featured on the back of the Canadian one-dollar bill; the paper money was replaced by a dollar coin (the "loonie") in 1987. The last of the dwindling activity of the draveurs on these rivers ended a few years later.

Very little remains of the original 1800 settlement of Hull because the oldest sectors of the town were destroyed by several fires, especially the destructive fire in 1900. The fire also seriously damaged the pont des Chaudières (Chaudière Bridge), but the bridge was rebuilt to join Ottawa to Hull at Victoria Island.

In the 1940s, during World War II, Hull, along with various other regions within Canada, such as Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, and Île Sainte-Hélène, was the site of prisoner-of-war camps. Hull's prison was identified only by a number, as were Canada's other war prisons. The prisoners of war (POWs) were organized by nationality and status: civilian or military status. In the Hull camp, POWs were mostly Italian and German nationals who were detained by the government as potential threats to the nation during the war. As a result of the Conscription Crisis of 1944, Canadians who had refused conscription were also interned in the camp. The prisoners were required to perform hard labour, which included farming and lumbering the land.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, the decaying old downtown core of Hull was redeveloped. Old buildings were demolished and replaced by a series of large office complexes. In addition some 4,000 residents were displaced, and many businesses uprooted along what was once the town's main commercial area.

On 11 November 1992, Ghislaine Chénier, Mayor by interim for the city of Hull, unveiled War Never Again, a marble stele monument that commemorates the cost of war for the men, women and children of Hull.

Geography
Gatineau is located in southwestern Quebec, on the northern bank of the Gatineau River. It is situated at an elevation of around 50 m (164.042 ft) The Gatineau Hills are the foothills of the Laurentian Mountains and located in the region. It is also the location of the second largest urban park in the world. They supply great skiing and snowboarding opportunities within minutes of the city. Gatineau is situated close to where the Canadian shield and the Saint Lawrence Lowlands intersect. The area has several major fault lines and small earthquakes do occur somewhat regularly, on average, there are at least one earthquake of intensity III or higher once every three years in Ottawa-Gatineau. The most memorable being the 2010 Central Canada earthquake that occurred in Quebec. The epicentre was situated approximately 56 kilometres (35 mi) north of Ottawa, Ontario, in the municipality of Val-des-Bois, Quebec.

The city is covered in parks and green spaces. The beautiful Gatineau Park occupies almost 360 square kilometers of forest. The park offers hiking, biking, cross-country skiing and beaches. The Ottawa and Gatineau Rivers flow through Gatineau and Gatineau offers boat rides on the Ottawa River. Gatineau Park has 165 km of pathways and more than 200 km of groomed cross-country ski trails, making it one of the largest trail networks in North America.

Hydrography
Gatineau's entire territory is drained by the Ottawa River, the main tributary of the St. Lawrence. The river marks the city's southern boundary. To the southwest, it widens to form Lac Deschênes. The city is also crossed by several rivers: the Gatineau, the Lièvre and the Blanche. The territory is also criss-crossed by a dozen streams, including the ruisseau de la Brasserie, which forms an island in the downtown area.

There are several lakes in Gatineau, the most notable of which are Lac Leamy, Lac Beauchamp, Lac des Fées, Lac de la Carrière and Lac Pink. Pink is one of the few meromictic lakes in North America.

Climate
Gatineau has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with four distinct seasons and is between Zones 5a and 5b on the Canadian Plant Hardiness Scale. The climate in Gatineau is cold and temperate. Gatineau receives significant precipitation, even during the driest month. The average temperature in this city is 6.5 °C (43.7 °F).

Summer lasts from the end of June to the end of September. The precipitation peaks in June, with an average of 102 mm. From 21 May to 18 September, the warm season lasts 3.9 months, with an average daily high temperature above 20 °C. July is the hottest month in Gatineau, with average highs of 26 °C and lows of 15 °C.

The cold season lasts 3.2 months, from 3 December to 11 March, with an average daily high temperature of less than 1 degree Celsius. January is the coldest month in Gatineau, with an average low of -15 °C and a high of -5 °C.

Data: 1991 - 2021 Min. Temperature °C (°F), Max. Temperature °C (°F), Precipitation / Rainfall mm (in), Humidity, Rainy days. Data: 1999 - 2019: avg. Sun hours

December has the highest relative humidity (78.52%). April is the month with the lowest relative humidity (63.29%). The wettest month is December (12.07 days), while February (9.43 days) is the driest.

Metropolitan area

Gatineau is one of the two major parts of the National Capital Region (Région de la capitale nationale), also known as Canada's Capital Region and Ottawa–Gatineau, which is an official federal designation encompassing the Canadian capital of Ottawa, Ontario, the adjacent city of Gatineau, Quebec, and surrounding suburban and exurban areas. Which include larger urban communities such as Clarence-Rockland, Russell, North Grenville, Val-des-Monts and Cantley. It also includes smaller villages such as Bowman, Denholm, Lochaber and Val-des-Bois.

The National Capital Region has numerous attractions, including world-famous festivals, national museums, famous buildings and architecture, sports, and entertainment. Gatineau is home to the Canadian Museum of History, one of Canada's most visited museums, designed by the renowned architect Douglas Cardinal, a leading figure in contemporary Indigenous architecture.

Amalgamation
As part of the 2000–06 municipal reorganization in Quebec, the five municipalities that constituted the Communauté urbaine de l'Outaouais (Outaouais urban community) were merged on 1 January 2002 to constitute the new city of Gatineau. They were:
 * Aylmer
 * Buckingham
 * Hull
 * Gatineau
 * Masson-Angers

Although Hull was the oldest and most central of the merged cities, the name Gatineau was chosen for the new city. The historic municipality of Gatineau had more residents than Hull, and this name was strongly associated with the area: it was the name of the former county, valley, hills, and park and the main river within the new city limits.

After the 2003 election, the new Liberal government of Jean Charest passed Bill 9, which created a process by which former municipalities could be reconstituted. Contrary to Charest's election promise of full de-amalgamation, Bill 9 restored only selected powers to the de-merged cities (e.g., animal control, garbage pickup, local street maintenance, some cultural facilities). The bigger expenses (e.g., police, fire, main streets, expansion programs) and the majority of the taxes remained in the hands of urban agglomerations. These are controlled by the central merged city because their larger populations give them greater voting weight. 10% of the eligible voters in each former municipality would have to sign a "register" in order to hold a referendum on de-amalgamation.

Residents of Aylmer, Buckingham, Hull and Masson-Angers all surpassed this threshold and sought referendums on de-merge. A simple majority of "yes" votes, based on a turnout of at least 35% of voters, is needed to de-merge. All of the above jurisdictions had the required turnout. A majority of voters in each jurisdiction rejected the de-merger.

Neighbourhoods
Gatineau is divided into 5 sectors; Hull, Aylmer, Gatineau, Masson-Angers and Buckingham.

Demography
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Gatineau had a population of $291,041$ living in $126,476$ of its $133,225$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $276,245$. With a land area of 341.84 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

According to the 2011 census the city of Gatineau had a population of 265,349. This was an increase of 9.6% compared to 2006. Most of the population live in the urban cores of Aylmer, Hull and the former Gatineau. Buckingham and Masson-Angers are more rural communities. Gatineau is the fourth largest city in Quebec after Montreal, Quebec City, and Laval.

The Quebec part of Ottawa-Gatineau Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) – which includes various peripheral municipalities in addition to Gatineau – had a total population of 314,501. Between 2001 and 2006 there was a net influx of 5,205 people (equivalent to 2% of the total 2001 population) who moved to Gatineau from outside of the Ottawa – Gatineau area. There was also a net outmigration of 630 anglophones (equivalent to 2% of the 2001 anglophone population). Overall there was a net influx of 1,100 people from Quebec City, 1,060 from Montreal, 545 from Saguenay, 315 from Toronto, 240 from Trois-Rivières, 225 from Kingston, and 180 from Sudbury.

Ethnicity
The 2001 census found that 4.3% of the population self-identified as having a visible minority status, including, among others, about 1.3% who self-identified as Black, about 1.0% self-identifying as Arab, 0.5% as Latin American, 0.4% as Chinese, 0.3% as Southeast Asian, 0.2% as South Asian, and about 0.1% as Filipino. (Statistics Canada terminology is used throughout.) First Nations comprise 2.7% of the population. The area is home to more than five thousand recent immigrants (i.e. those arriving between 2001 and 2006), who now comprise about two percent of the total population. 11% of these new immigrants have come from Colombia, 10% from China, 7% from France, 6% from Lebanon, 6% from Romania, 4% from Algeria, 3% from the United States and 3% from Congo.

The cultural diversity of the city of Gatineau is noteworthy. The city welcomes between 800 and 1,000 newcomers to Canada each year. They come from some sixty countries and enrich the Gatineau identity.

Canadians were able to self-identify one or more ethnocultural ancestries in the 2001 census. (Percentages may therefore add up to more than 100%.) The most common response was Canadian/Canadien and since the term 'Canadian' is as much an expression of citizenship as of ethnicity these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethnocultural ancestries. 43.1% of respondents gave a single response of Canadian/Canadien while a further 26.5% identified both Canadian/Canadien and one or more other ethnocultural ancestries. 10.4% of respondents gave a single response of French, 1.1% gave a single response of Portuguese, 1.0% gave a single response of Irish, 0.9% gave a single response of Lebanese, 0.8% gave a single response of English, 0.7% gave a single responses of Québécois and 0.7% gave a single response of North American Indian. According to Statistics Canada, counting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnocultural ancestries were: 70.7% North American, 37.8% French, 14.3% British Isles, 4.5% Aboriginal, 4.0% Southern European, 3.8% Western European, 1.9% Arab, 1.7% Eastern European, 1.0% East and Southeast Asian, 0.8% African, 0.7% Latin, Central and South American, 0.7% Caribbean and 0.5% Northern European.

Language
The following statistics refer to the Quebec portion of the Ottawa–Gatineau CMA (as it was defined in the 2021 census): Counting both single and multiple responses, French was a mother tongue for 78.27% of residents in 2021, English for 16.96%, Arabic for 2.74%, Portuguese for 0.85% and Spanish for 2.0%. (Figures below are for single responses only.)

Religion
According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Gatineau included:
 * Christianity (178,850 persons or 62.6%)
 * Irreligion (88,125 persons or 30.8%)
 * Islam (14,840 persons or 5.2%)
 * Buddhism (1,165 persons or 0.4%)
 * Hinduism (535 persons or 0.2%)
 * Judaism (405 persons or 0.1%)
 * Indigenous Spirituality (200 persons or 0.1%)
 * Sikhism (185 persons or 0.1%)
 * Other (1,410 persons or 0.5%)

About 83% of the population identified as Roman Catholic in 2001 while 7% said they had no religion and 5% identified as Protestant (1.3% Anglican, 1.3% United, 0.7% Baptist, 0.3% Lutheran, 0.2% Pentecostal, 0.2% Presbyterian). About 1% of the population identified as Muslim, 0.5% as Jehovah's Witnesses, 0.3% as Buddhist, and 0.2% as Eastern Orthodox.

Immigration
There are a total of 44,180 immigrants (by status) in Gatineau or 15,5% of the whole population and 5,300 non permanent resident.

Economy
Originally, Gatineau's economy was based almost entirely on pulp and paper. However, a number of federal and provincial government offices are located in Gatineau, due to its proximity to the national capital, and its status as the main town of the Outaouais region of Quebec.

A policy of the federal government to distribute federal jobs on both sides of the Ottawa River led to the construction of several massive office towers to house federal civil servants in downtown Gatineau; the largest of these are Place du Portage and Terrasses de la Chaudière, occupying part of the downtown core of the city. Some government agencies and ministries headquartered in Gatineau are the Public Works and Government Services Canada, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Environment Canada, Transportation Safety Board of Canada.

The following federal government departments have their main offices in Gatineau:

 * Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada
 * Canadian Heritage
 * Employment and Social Development Canada
 * Environment Canada (includes offices of Parks Canada)
 * Public Works and Government Services Canada

The following agencies have their main offices in Gatineau.

 * Transportation Safety Board of Canada
 * Passport Canada (under Citizenship and Immigration Canada)
 * Competition Bureau, the Canadian Patent Office and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (under Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada)

In addition to housing a significant portion of federal government offices, the city is also an important regional centre for the Outaouais region. The city serves as the location for the Superior Court of the District of Gatineau, which encompasses all neighboring municipalities. It also houses two of the region's major hospitals as well as numerous provincial colleges.

Other important economic sectors are health care, tourism, education, small business and the provincial public service. The health care and education sectors are particularly important because they represent the region's largest sources of permanent employment outside the federal government. The provincial public service also has a strong presence in the city, due to its status as the region's principal city. There are two hospitals in the city, one in the Hull sector and the other in the Gatineau sector, as well as numerous other clinics and health centers. There are also numerous primary and secondary schools scattered throughout the city. They are managed by four school boards, three of which are French-speaking and one English-speaking. The city is also a major tourist region, with over a million tourists a year visiting the city's museums, parks, lakes and other outdoor attractions.

The Gatineau-Ottawa metropolitan region has over 1,900 technology companies, employing close to 80,000 workers. There are also over 65 research centers and six universities with over 160,000 students (20% of whom are enrolled in science, engineering, and technology programs).

Gatineau's economy relies on a few important sectors. A majority of jobs are accounted for between the federal government, construction and service industries. There is however a large effort to modernize the economy in the region through recent initiatives in the entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystem. The Innovation Gatineau Institute is a regional innovation centre that boasts co-working space as well as startup incubation and acceleration programs to spur innovative business creation. In 2020, The Honourable Mélanie Joly, Minister of Economic Development and Official Languages, visited the Outaouais region to announce  a total of $1,553,448 in financial assistance. This funding will help expand the entrepreneurial ecosystem.

Arts and Culture
Gatineau is home to many attractions and cultural events. It is home to national museums such as the Canadian Museum of History and the Canadian Children's Museum. Nightlife within the city of Gatineau is mostly centered in the "Vieux-Hull" sector behind the Federal office complexes of downtown. The area features many bars and restaurants within walking distance from Ottawa. It is a popular spot for young Ontarians as the legal drinking age in Quebec is 18 (as opposed to Ontario's 19).

Retail
Gatineau is home to Les Promenades. It is a major shopping centre located in Canada's National Capital Region in the city of Gatineau, Quebec. The mall is the intersection of Gréber and Maloney Boulevards, one of the city's busiest intersections, and is just off Autoroute 50. It is the city's largest shopping mall by retail space and by shoppers.

Arenas and Performing arts
La maison de la culture is a multidisciplinary complex housing the Salle Odyssée. This 830-seat auditorium is the city's main performance venue. The complex also houses the Art-Image exhibition center, the municipal library and many other cultural activities, such as dance and the Gatineau archives.

The newest in multidisciplinary complex is called the Centre Slush Puppy. A 4,000-seat arena, including three community ice rinks managed by the non-profit organization Vision Multisports Outaouais, the management model is based on the signing of a 45-year emphyteutic lease. The building will be transferred to the City at the end of the lease. This arena not only hold the QMJHL hockey team Les Olympiques, but also host larger artists such as Flo Rida

Festivals
The Casino du Lac-Leamy is also one of the largest tourist attraction in the city. In August, the Casino hosts an international fireworks competition which opposes four different countries with the winner being awarded a Prix Zeus prize for the best overall show (based on several criteria) and can return in the following year. At the beginning of September, on Labour Day weekend, Gatineau hosts an annual hot air balloon festival which fills the skies with colourful gas-fired passenger balloons. One of Gatineau's urban parks, Jacques Cartier Park, is used by the National Capital Commission during the popular festival, Winterlude. In December, the Gatineau Playground Festival takes place at Complex Branchaud-Brière in Gatineau. This one-of-a-kind event provides children and adults with 67,000 square feet of gaming, sports, go-karts, trampolines, and other activities.

Music
As Gatineau is the smaller of the two cities in its CMA, most major artists perform in Ottawa. However, since the construction of the Centre Slush Puppy, there has been a demand for more events. The first of which was Flo Rida, who almost sold out the 5,000 capacity arena, with around 3,000 tickets sold.

Gatineau is home to numerous French-speaking and English-speaking artists. The biggest French artist are Eva Avila, Martin Giroux and Sofia Duhaime. As for English-speaking artist, they include artist such as Son Rob and YOHARIS.

Parks
There are many parks. Some of them are well gardened playgrounds or resting spaces while others, like Lac Beauchamp Park, are relatively wild green areas which often merge with the woods and fields of the surrounding municipalities. Streams of all sizes run through these natural expanses. Most of the city is on level ground but the Northern and Eastern parts lie on the beginnings of the foothills of the massive Canadian Shield, or Laurentian Mountains. These are the "Gatineau Hills", and are visible in the background of the companion picture.

Gatineau is also the home of the second largest urban park in the world.

Sports

 * Gatineau Olympiques of the QMJHL (Quebec Maritimes Junior Hockey League)
 * Gatineau Jr. Olympiques (also known as Gatineau Junior Express) are a Canadian Junior ice hockey team based in Gatineau, Quebec. They play in the National Capital Junior Hockey League (NCJHL) since 2006.
 * Gatineau Vikings, Canadian football team
 * Tyran de Gatineau, a junior elite baseball team of the Ligue de Baseball Junior Élite du Québec.
 * L'Intrépides de Gatineau, are a Midget AAA hockey team.
 * La Machine de l'Outaouais: a Kin-Ball team of the Ligue Senior élite de Kin-Ball du Québec.
 * Évènements Nordiques Gatineau Nordic Events (ENGNE) representing the regions cross country ski community

Government
The Gatineau City Council (Conseil municipal de Gatineau) is the city's main governing body. It is composed of 19 city councillors and a mayor. The city serves as the seat of the judicial district of Gatineau, which encompasses the entirety of the city of Gatineau as well as several outlying municipalities such as Chelsea, Cantley and Pontiac. The superior court serving the Outaouais region is located in Gatineau across from City Hall on the corner of Laurier and Hôtel-de-Ville. Most of the law firms that represent local businesses throughout the region are also based in Gatineau. On February 22, 2024, the mayor of Gatineau, France Bélisle, handed her resignation stating a toxic work environment. In her place, Daniel Champagne was named acting mayor.

Police and law enforcement
With more than 250 officers, the Service de police de la Ville de Gatineau (SPVG) provides day-to-day policing for the city, in collaboration with other agencies such as the Sûreté du Québec and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police assisting as necessary. They are also responsible for patrolling sections of the highways located within the city limits, including Autoroute 50 and Autoroute 5. The SPVG is equipped with a CID unit, marine unit, drugs unit, gang suppression unit, and a tactical unit (Groupe d'intervention, or GI). Patrol officers are armed with Smith & Wesson M&P .40 calibre pistols. The SPVG uses the same vehicles as similar police forces throughout North America.

Crime
Ottawa and Gatineau have some of the lowest crime rates in Canada. In 2022, the national crime rate in Canada increased by 5% to 5,668 crimes per 100,000 people.

With a crime rate of 4,019 crimes per 100,000 people, Ottawa ranks 27th out of 35 cities in Canada. Gatineau is the 28th most dangerous city in Canada, with a crime rate of 3,737 crimes per 100,000 people.

Infrastructure
The Gatineau-Ottawa Executive Airport is Gatineau's municipal airport, capable of handling small jets. There are Canada customs facilities for aircraft coming from outside Canada, a car rental counter and a restaurant. The airport has a few regularly scheduled flights to points within Quebec, but most residents of Gatineau use the nearby Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport or travel to Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in Montreal.

Public transport
Ottawa and Gatineau have two distinct bus-based public transit systems with different fare structures, OC Transpo and the Société de transport de l'Outaouais. Tickets are not interchangeable between the two, however passes and transfers from one system to the other do not require payment of a surcharge on any routes. There is a proposed LRT system that would connect Gatineau to Bayview and Rideau Centre Stations in Ottawa.

Roads
Many Gatineau highways and major arteries feed directly into the bridges crossing over to Ottawa, but once there the roads lead into the dense downtown grid or into residential areas, with no direct connection to The Queensway. This difficulty is further magnified by the lack of a major highway on the Quebec side of the Ottawa River connecting Gatineau to Montreal, the metropolis of the province; most travellers from Gatineau to Montreal first cross over to Ottawa, and use Ontario highways to access Montreal. However, it is expected that since Autoroute 50 has been completed, the new link between Gatineau and the Laurentides popular tourist area may serve as part of a Montreal by-pass by the north shore for Outaouais residents.

Education
The education system in Quebec is different from other systems in Canada. Between high school, which ends at grade 11, and university, most students go through an additional school called CEGEP, or Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel. CEGEPs offer both pre-university (2-years) and technical (3-years) programs.

With 28.3% of its population over 20 years of age having completed university studies, Gatineau is well ahead of the rest of the Canada. Gatineau also has one of the highest bilingualism rates, with 63.5% of its population fluent in both English and French.

The city of Gatineau, within its Hull neighborhood, houses the main campus of the Université du Québec en Outaouais (UQO), part of the Université du Québec network. The UQO counts over 5,500 students, mostly within its multiple social science programs. It is world-renowned for its cyber-psychology laboratory. Faced with a limited number of domains of study, many Quebec students attend other universities, either in Ottawa or Montreal. Every year, the UQO hosts the Bar of Quebec course for certification of new lawyers.

Gatineau is also the home of two CEGEPs, including the francophone Cégep de l'Outaouais with three campuses across the city and the anglophone Heritage College.

The main French-language school boards in Gatineau are the Commission scolaire des Portages-de-l'Outaouais, the Commission scolaire au Coeur-des-Vallées, and the Commission scolaire des Draveurs. There are also four private high schools: the all-girl Collège Saint-Joseph, the Collège Saint-Alexandre, and École secondaire Nouvelles-Frontières and le Centre académique de l'Outaouais (CADO). Elementary and secondary education in English is held under the supervision of the Western Quebec School Board.

Since 1995, the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) has a campus in Gatineau. A military training centre, Defence Public Affairs Learning Centre, is also located in Gatineau.

Campus médical Outaouais
In 2019, McGill University announced the construction of a new campus for its Faculty of Medicine in the Outaouais region, which will run the undergraduate medical education program in French and allow students to complete their undergraduate medical training entirely in the Outaouais. Official communication with politicians has been ongoing since 2016. The new facility will be erected above the emergency room at the Gatineau Hospital, part of the Centre intégré de santé et de services sociaux de l'Outaouais, in addition to new offices for the associated Family Medicine Unit for residency training. Although the preparatory year for students entering the undergraduate medical education program from CEGEP was initially planned to be offered solely at the McGill downtown campus in Montreal, collaboration with the Université du Québec en Outaouais finally made it possible to offer the program entirely in Gatineau.

Media
Gatineau is the city of licence for several television and radio stations serving the National Capital Region, which is a single media market. Many of the Ottawa-Gatineau region's TV and FM broadcast stations transmit from Camp Fortune just north of Gatineau. All of the stations licensed directly to Gatineau broadcast in French.

Weekly newspapers published in Gatineau include Le Bulletin d'Aylmer (bilingual) and The West Quebec Post. Although Gatineau does not have its own daily newspaper, it is served by daily newspapers published in Ottawa, including the French Le Droit and the English Ottawa Citizen and Ottawa Sun.

The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, the Canadian regulatory agency for broadcasting, is based in Gatineau at Terrasses de la Chaudière.

Notable people

 * Phillippe Aumont
 * Dave Leduc
 * Eva Avila
 * Daniel Brière
 * Daniel Lanois
 * Andrew Leamy (1816–1868), a pioneer industrialist and community leader in Lower Canada
 * Champlain Marcil (1920–2010), photojournalist
 * Stéphane Richer
 * Denis Savard
 * Maxim Tissot
 * Evil Uno
 * Philemon Wright (1760–1839), founder of Hull

title: Gatineau


text:
Chocolate bar

A chocolate bar is a confection containing chocolate, which may also contain layerings or mixtures that include nuts, fruit, caramel, nougat, and wafers. A flat, easily breakable, chocolate bar is also called a tablet. In some varieties of English and food labeling standards, the term chocolate bar is reserved for bars of solid chocolate, with candy bar used for products with additional ingredients.

The manufacture of a chocolate bar from raw cocoa ingredients requires many steps, from grinding and refining, to conching and tempering. All these processes have been independently developed by chocolate manufacturers from different countries. There is therefore no precise moment when the first chocolate bar came into existence. Solid chocolate was already consumed in the 18th century. The 19th century saw the emergence of the modern chocolate industry; most manufacturing techniques used today were invented during this period.

Dark, milk and white are the main types of chocolate. Ingredients not derived from cocoa have been added to bars since the beginning of the chocolate industry, often to reduce production costs. A wide variety of chocolate bar brands are sold today.

Terminology
In many varieties of English, chocolate bar refers to any confectionery bar that contains chocolate. In some dialects of American English, only bars of solid chocolate are described as chocolate bars, with the phrase candy bar used as a broader term encompassing bars of solid chocolate, bars combining chocolate with other ingredients, and bars containing no chocolate at all. In Canada, while the term chocolate bar is commonly used for bars combining chocolate with other ingredients, only bars of solid chocolate can be labelled as a chocolate bar.

The term bar may refer to a large variety of shapes, including not oblong ones, such as squares. Small (bite-sized) chocolate pieces are however usually referred to as chocolates, regardless of shape. These include neapolitans, bonbons, pralines and truffles.

Early history
Solid chocolate was probably already consumed in pre-Columbian America, in particular by the Aztecs, despite the beverage being the traditional form of consumption of cocoa in Mesoamerica. In fact, any finely ground cocoa that is not immediately used to make a drink turns into solid chocolate. The grinding of the cocoa beans was done with a stone metate. Dominican friar Diego Durán mentions in his writings that Aztec soldiers carried small balls of ground cocoa among other military rations. Cocoa was introduced into Europe in the early 16th century, possibly already under its processed (solid) form.

Until the 18th century, chocolate was essentially consumed as a drink. Transport of cocoa beans was slow and difficult, therefore making the product very expensive in Europe. Chocolate was usually sold as a solidified ground but still grainy cocoa paste (in the form of blocks, sticks or balls) to be dissolved in water or milk, either plain or already sweetened and flavoured. It is unclear when bars or tablets of chocolate (meant to be eaten straight as a candy rather than grated into a drink) were made for the first time. It is known, however, that the consumption of solid chocolate by the wealthy increased by the end of the 18th century.

Up to and including the 19th century, confectionery of all sorts was typically sold in small pieces to be bagged and bought by weight. The introduction of chocolate as something that could be eaten as is, rather than used to make beverages or desserts, resulted in the earliest bar forms, or tablets. At some point, chocolates came to mean any chocolate-covered sweets, whether nuts, creams (fondant), caramel candies, or others. The chocolate bar evolved from all of these in the late-19th century as a way of packaging and selling candy more conveniently for both buyer and seller; however, the buyer had to pay for the packaging. It was considerably cheaper to buy candy loose, or in bulk.

The production of chocolate specifically meant to be eaten in bars may predate the French Revolution. The Marquis de Sade wrote to his wife in a letter dated May 16, 1779, complaining about the quality of a care package he had received while in prison. Among the requests that he made for future deliveries were for cookies that "must smell of chocolate, as if one were biting into a chocolate bar." This phrasing is highly suggestive of chocolate bars being eaten by themselves and not just grated into chocolate-based drinks, as was a far more common use at this time. Such a product would predate the invention of the cocoa press and the "Dutch cocoa" by Coenraad Johannes van Houten and other innovations which made chocolate suitable for mass-production.

First mass-produced chocolate bars
The late 18th century saw the beginning of the mechanization of chocolate manufacturing. Water and wind power was used first, steam-powered machines followed. This not only allowed the production of chocolate on a larger scale, but also the production of chocolate with a finer texture.

In 1819, Swiss grocer and chocolatier François-Louis Cailler founded Cailler and opened a sophisticated and water-powered chocolate factory, which allowed him to produce solid chocolate that was molded into tablets. After a few years, sixteen different sorts of chocolate with different packagings were proposed. Shortly after, in 1826, another Swiss chocolatier, Philippe Suchard, opened a chocolate factory where he developed a millstone machine to grind cocoa and sugar, still used today: the melanger. Before opening his factory, Suchard realized that a small tablet sold at a pharmacy was worth three days' wages.

In 1836, French pharmacist Antoine Brutus Menier launched a chocolate tablet with six semi-cylindrical divisions. He previously used chocolate as a coating for pills.

Earlier, in 1828, Casparus van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cocoa beans. The center of the bean, known as the "nib", contains an average of 54 percent cocoa butter. Van Houten's machine – a hydraulic press – reduced the cocoa butter content by nearly half. This not only allowed the creation of defatted cocoa powder (to be used for chocolate drinks), but also the creation of pure cocoa butter.

In 1847, Joseph Fry discovered a way to mix the ingredients of cocoa powder, sugar and cocoa to manufacture a paste with a higher percentage of cocoa butter that could then be more easily molded into a solid chocolate bar. He is generally credited for the first mass-produced bar. Inspired by Fry, John Cadbury, founder of Cadbury, introduced his brand of the chocolate bar in 1849. That same year, Fry and Cadbury chocolate bars were displayed publicly at a trade fair in Bingley Hall, Birmingham.

Fry's chocolate factory, J. S. Fry & Sons of Bristol, England, began mass-producing chocolate bars and they became very popular. Over 220 Fry's products were introduced in the following decades. Fry's Cream Sticks, released in 1853, were the first filled chocolate candy, and led to the Fry's Chocolate Cream bar in 1866. Other products included the first chocolate Easter egg in the UK in 1873, and Fry's Turkish Delight (or Fry's Turkish bar) in 1914.

In addition to Cadbury and Fry, Rowntree's and Terry's were major British chocolate companies, as chocolate manufacturing expanded in England throughout the rest of the century.

Modern chocolate bars
Rodolphe Lindt, a Swiss confectioner, discovered the conching process in 1879. Conching evenly blends cocoa butter with cocoa solids and sugar, therefore making the chocolate perfectly smooth. By the 1920s, it became a standard process in the chocolate industry. The last stage of chocolate manufacturing, tempering, was also developed at around this time. Tempering allows the production of chocolate that is perfectly hard at room temperature and that have an attractive shiny appearance.

A few years earlier, in 1875, milk chocolate makes its appearance. It was developed by another Swiss confectioner, Daniel Peter. He was able to make milk chocolate with the help of his neighbour Henri Nestlé, who was specialized in dehydrated milk products. Daniel Peter launched his successful Gala Peter brand in 1887. Cailler and Suchard followed in the late 19th century, and other factories opened in Switzerland at that time.

In 1897, following the lead of Swiss companies, Cadbury introduced its own line of milk chocolate bars in the UK. Cadbury Dairy Milk, first produced in 1905, became the company's best selling bar.

In the United States, immigrants who arrived with candy-making skills drove the development of new chocolate bars. Milton S. Hershey, a Pennsylvania caramel maker, saw a German-manufactured chocolate-making machine at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. He immediately ordered one for his Lancaster factory and produced the first American-made milk chocolate bar.

In Canada, Ganong Bros., Ltd. of St. Stephen, New Brunswick developed and began selling their version of the modern chocolate bar in 1910.

Chocolate bar sales grew rapidly in the early-20th century. During World War I, the U.S. Army commissioned a number of American chocolate makers to produce 40 pound blocks of chocolate. These were shipped to Army quartermaster bases and distributed to the troops stationed throughout Europe. When the soldiers returned home, their demand for chocolate contributed to the increasing popularity of the chocolate bar.

Combination bars
The first chocolate bars were plain chocolate, but often flavoured with spices, such as cinnamon and vanilla. Producers soon began combining chocolate with other ingredients such as nuts, fruit, caramel, nougat, and wafers. In 1830, Kohler added hazelnuts to chocolate bars and, in 1852, Caffarel added hazelnuts as a smooth paste to its chocolate, creating gianduja. Adding other, usually cheaper, ingredients to bars was also a way to reduce production costs. Additionally, the overwhelming majority of combination bars use milk chocolate, which further decreases the amount of cocoa in the finished product. Approximately 30,000 varieties of candy bars existed in the United States during the 1920s, most of which were produced locally.

A wide selection of similar chocolate snacks or nutritional supplements are produced with added sources of protein and vitamins, including energy bars, protein bars and granola bars.

 * The Fry's Chocolate Cream, produced by J. S. Fry & Sons since 1866, consisted of a plain fondant centre enrobed in plain chocolate. It is the first mass-produced chocolate bar and predates the invention of milk chocolate.
 * The Branche, created by Kohler and produced by Cailler since 1904, is a cylindrical and branch-looking milk chocolate and hazelnut bar with a praline filling, partly made with recycled broken confectionery. As a consequence of its wide success, "branche" has become a generic term (in French) for any stick-like chocolate bar.
 * The Toblerone, produced by Tobler since 1908, is a combination of milk chocolate and torrone, a white nougat made of honey, almonds and egg whites. Its manufacture and distinctive triangular shape was patented at the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property.
 * The Goo Goo Cluster, produced by the Standard Candy Company of Nashville, Tennessee, in 1912, was the first combination bar in the United States. It was made of caramel, marshmallow, and peanuts, covered with milk chocolate. The combination of peanuts with chocolate became very popular in North America, while the hazelnut remained the most popular pairing in Europe.
 * The Clark Bar, a crispy core with caramel and peanut butter covered with milk chocolate, was the first nationally marketed combination bar in the United States.
 * The Oh Henry! bar was created by George Williamson of Williamson Candy Co. and named after an electrician who visited his store and flirted with the female candy makers. Williamson launched an advertising campaign that included newspaper ads, streetcar signs, and billboards. The Oh Henry! bar became one of the top-selling brands in the United States in the 1920s. In 1926, the company published a book, 60 New Ways to Serve a Famous Candy, that included recipes for salads, side dishes, and sweet breads, in addition to desserts.
 * The Baby Ruth was developed by Otto Schnering, owner of the Curtiss Candy Co., by modifying their original candy bar, Kandy Kake, to compete with the Oh Henry! bar. Schnering claimed that the Baby Ruth was named in honor of President Grover Cleveland's daughter, who died at age 12, but some historians suggest that Schnering chose the name to take advantage of the popularity of Babe Ruth without having to pay royalties. Schnering decided to sell his bar for half the price of its competitor, hiring legendary Chicago ad man, Eddy S. Brandt, to market the Baby Ruth under the slogan "Everything you want for a nickel." The catchy slogan, along with other innovative marketing tactics, like sponsoring circuses and dropping Baby Ruth bars over cities from airplanes, made Baby Ruth the most popular candy bar in the U.S by 1925.
 * The Mars bar was introduced by Mars, Incorporated in 1932 in Slough, England, by Forrest Mars, Sr. It consists of caramel and nougat coated with milk chocolate.
 * The Kit Kat bar, created by Rowntree's in 1935, is a milk chocolate-covered wafer bar. The bar consists of two or four fingers that can be snapped from the bar separately. Kit Kat bars are reputed for being made in many different flavours.

Ingredients
A solid chocolate bar contains some or all of the following components: cocoa solids, cocoa butter, sugar, and milk. The relative presence or absence of these define the subclasses of chocolate bar made of dark chocolate, milk chocolate, and white chocolate. In addition to these main ingredients a solid chocolate bar may contain flavorings such as vanilla and emulsifiers such as soy lecithin to alter its consistency. Some chocolate bars contain added milk fat, to make the chocolate softer, since milk fat is a softer fat than cocoa butter. While sugar is commonly used as a sweetener for chocolate bars, some chocolate bars use sugar alcohols, such as maltitol as an alternative.

Compound chocolate, which uses vegetable oils in place of cocoa butter, may be used as a less expensive alternative to true chocolate, though such a product may not be able to be labelled as "chocolate". Combination bars may contain a wide variety of additional ingredients.

Literature and film
The Wonka Bar was introduced as a fictional chocolate bar that served as a key story point in the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. Wonka Bars appear in both film adaptations of the novel, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971) and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005). Wonka Bars were subsequently manufactured and sold in the real world, formerly by the Willy Wonka Candy Company, a division of Nestlé.

Oldest extant
Some of the oldest preserved chocolate bars are two pieces of white and dark chocolate made between 1764 and 1795 for the king of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, as a gift for his courtiers. Each bar, possibly made by the royal confectioner in Warsaw, bears the King's monogram, SAR, and is on display in his summer residence, Palace on the Water, in Warsaw.

World's largest
The world's largest chocolate bar was produced as a stunt by Thorntons plc (UK) on 7 October 2011. It weighed 5,792.50 kg and measured 4m by 4m by 0.35m.

On January 16, 2020, Mars Inc. received the Guinness World Record for largest chocolate nut bar. They produced a 12-foot by 27.5-inch by 27.5-inch Snickers that weighed 4,728 lbs which is the equivalent of 41,000 single-size Snickers.

On January 31, 2020, the Hershey Company beat the Guinness World Record for largest chocolate nut bar surpassing Mars Inc.'s Gigantic Snickers bar with a gigantic Reese's Take 5 Bar measuring 9 by 5.5 by 2 feet and weighing 5,943 lbs. The Take 5 chocolate bar gets its name from the 5 ingredients it contains: Reese's peanut butter, peanuts, pretzels, caramel and chocolate.

title: Chocolate bar