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In the Heat of the Night (TV series)

In the Heat of the Night is an American police procedural crime drama television series loosely based on the 1967 film and 1965 novel of the same title that starred Carroll O'Connor as police chief Bill Gillespie and Howard Rollins as police detective Virgil Tibbs. The series was broadcast on NBC from March 6, 1988 to May 19, 1992 before moving to CBS, where it aired from October 28, 1992 to May 16, 1995. Its executive producers were O'Connor, Fred Silverman and Juanita Bartlett. This series marked O'Connor's return to a series for the first time since the All in the Family spinoff Archie Bunker's Place ended in 1983.

Premise
The show is a sequel to the 1967 film, whose events are said to have occurred "a few years ago" despite the show being set in the 1980s-1990s contemporary to its broadcast. In the premiere episode, Philadelphia homicide detective and criminal profiler Virgil Tibbs (Rollins) has returned to his hometown of Sparta, Mississippi for his mother's funeral. He is persuaded by Mayor James Findlay to remain in Sparta as Chief of Detectives under Bill Gillespie (O'Connor), the white police chief with whom he fostered a relationship during a previous murder investigation in which he assisted. Mayor Findlay himself has an ulterior motive for hiring Tibbs: he wants to have some kind of record on civil rights to run for Congress and hiring Tibbs to integrate the all-white Sparta police department would not only help to overcome the local squad's reputation of being racist and underskilled, but also benefits him. Although the team suffers friction over Tibbs' dissatisfaction with the department's limited resources and racial attitudes and Gillespie is annoyed at the detective's condescending suspicions about his hometown, the two men prove highly effective in enforcing the law. At the beginning of the seventh season, Tibbs takes a leave of absence, moving to Jackson, Mississippi to complete his law degree on a compressed schedule. Upon his return to Sparta, he and his wife, Althea (Anne Marie Johnson), have separated and they later divorce. She moves back to Philadelphia with their twins to be near her parents. Through the hard work of Sparta Councilwoman Harriet DeLong (Denise Nicholas), Tibbs is able to retire, although two months shy of the qualifying period and keep his city pension. He begins practicing law upon accepting a position in Ben Taylor's law office. Rollins' final appearance on the series was February 2, 1994. Meanwhile, the Sparta city council dismisses Gillespie as chief of police, selecting Hampton Forbes (Carl Weathers) as his replacement and making him the town's first African American to serve in that position. Gillespie finds a new post of equivalent authority as county sheriff. The two senior police officials find that they get along excellently, in both professional and personal spheres.

Themes
The show dealt with a variety of issues, including racism, police brutality, interracial relationships, hate crimes, drug trafficking, drug addiction, alcoholism, AIDS, misogyny, incest, child abuse, sexual harassment, euthanasia, anti-Semitism, political corruption, prostitution, domestic violence, mental disorders, dysfunctional families, suicide, capital punishment, poverty and drunk driving.

1988
The first season was filmed in Hammond, Louisiana. Hammond was selected by Barrett to represent the small southern town of Sparta, Mississippi. The producers had difficulty finding usable filming locations, because other, more modern structures were close enough to be picked up in the images. Eight episodes were filmed—the two-hour pilot movie and six regular one-hour episodes. The series premiered on March 6, 1988, with the season finale airing on May 3. Many conflicts arose between Bartlett and O'Connor over the writing of the series. At first, she allowed him to consult on the series per his contract. After the pilot, however, she ordered scripts from her writers. O'Connor described these as "recycled material from other crime shows." He was disappointed in the writing, feeling that the writers were taking big-city stories and imposing them on a small town. He believed that the key to this show's success was to express its small-town locale and characters through the stories. Scripts would be given to him marked "FINAL: NO REWRITES", but O'Connor often rewrote scripts anyway, angering the production staff members, who felt they were burning up fax machines with the changes. O'Connor described Bartlett as a very arrogant person. If the show was going to be renewed, then O'Connor was not interested and threatened to quit the show unless Bartlett was replaced as executive producer. The early episodes were gritty, raw and considered groundbreaking for that time. There was an emphasis on grisly murders or other crimes, rather than the lives of the New South-era characters, for which the series later became known.

1988–1989
Season two premiered on December 4, 1988 due to a writers' strike; the season introduced a new look and set of executive producers, Jeri Taylor and her husband David Moessinger, with on-location shooting moved from Hammond, Louisiana to Covington, Georgia, which remained as the primary filming location of the show for the duration of the series. The season premiere was aired as a two-hour TV movie originally entitled "The Voodoo Murders", now known in syndication as "Don't Look Back". The plot revolved around a copycat murder of one that Gillespie had investigated 20 years earlier. Also, the Sparta city council was pushing Virgil Tibbs to run as a possible candidate for Chief of Police to replace Gillespie, but Virgil wasn't interested in doing so; regardless, a rumor begins that Tibbs is after Gillespie's job, causing dissension between the two men. Virgil's wife, Althea, who was a stay-at-home wife in the first season, is offered a position as a teacher and guidance counselor at local Sparta High School by city Councilman Ted Marcus (Thom Gossom Jr.). Gone was Christian LeBlanc, who portrayed Officer Junior Abernathy and added were two new regular characters-- Joanne St. John (Lois Nettleton), the chief's sometime girlfriend and owner of the local diner, The Magnolia Cafe; and rookie officer Wilson Sweet (Geoffrey Thorne), fresh out of the police academy. The season also introduced the first of several new recurring characters, including county coroner Dr. Frank Robb (Dan Biggers). "The Creek" saw the introduction of the first new police character and the second prominent Georgia performer to claim a regular role on the series, Officer Randy Goode (1988-1993) played by Randall Franks, who was cast following the show's move to Covington. "Gunshot", where Virgil experiences guilt and mental trauma after he shoots and kills a female robbery suspect, introduces a character with a criminal past who later becomes invaluable in supplying Gillespie and the Sparta P.D. with information, Jimmy Dawes (Afemo Omilami). Plots in this season included Gillespie witnessing the execution of a man whom he arrested years ago, an episode that O'Connor wrote himself under the pseudonym Matt Harris ("A Trip Upstate"). During the filming of the episode "Walkout", O'Connor began to experience fatigue. It was later discovered that he needed sextuple heart bypass surgery, due to years of heavy smoking. During the last four episodes of the season, Joe Don Baker was brought in as Tom Dugan, a replacement for Chief Gillespie, who was said to be away at a police training conference at Quantico. The episodes where Gillespie was away were "Fifteen Forever", "Ladybug, Ladybug", "The Pig Woman of Sparta" and "Missing". Dugan was appointed acting chief by Councilwoman White, but he was actually working undercover for the FBI in an attempt to stop the assassination of a civil rights preacher during a visit to the town by a white supremacist group (that is not revealed until the season three episode "Anniversary").

The season finale "Missing" has the chief being kidnapped upon his return to Sparta by two men in pig masks and the police and the FBI are trying to locate him and those responsible. O'Connor wanted the chief to undergo heart surgery in the storyline, but the Taylor and Moessinger came up with this storyline instead. It was the final straw in a long line of complaints against Taylor and Moessinger, who were fired at the end of the season, with O'Connor becoming sole executive producer the rest of the series. When Taylor and Moessinger decided to do the show, Taylor was quoted, "I was one of those in the '60s that was out marching for civil rights" and "I was one of those who thought the major work had all been done. When we decided to do the show, we took research trips to the South and we saw that there had been an enormous amount of change. We came back with a renewed vigor but also with the realization that there is still a lot more to be done. There is still deeply entrenched racism. And addressing that became a much larger element in our thinking about the show." Moessinger was quoted, "What makes race relations a constant in our show is the two lead characters-- one is white and one is black. Whether they are angry at each other, whether they're happy or sad, we're showing the interaction of two men who are trying to do the best in life. If we never put one race issue into it, if we never said one word about it, the message is there because it's showing how people ought to interrelate, how they ought to work together, how they ought to get along."

1989–1990
In the third season, O'Connor took complete control of the show after firing Taylor and Moessinger. From that point on, he brought aboard writers and showrunners who shared his vision of where he wanted the series to go. Althea deals with the effects and aftermath of rape in the explosive season premiere episode titled "Rape". Upon returning home from the grocery store one afternoon after school, Althea is ambushed and raped in her kitchen by Sparta High School's new music teacher, Stephen Ainslee (Ken Marshall), who Althea had an uneasy relationship with from the beginning because he couldn't handle her authority and it culminated in the attack. Althea and Virgil are frustrated trying to bring Stephen to justice because new district attorney Gerard Darnelle (Wilbur Fitzgerald) doesn't have enough evidence to prosecute him, especially a positive ID (Ainslee blindfolded Althea with her scarf during the attack, so she couldn't see his face, but she recognized his voice) and Stephen's wife, Linda (Stacy Ray), provides him with an false alibi saying that he was at home with her at the time that Althea was attacked. After Chief Gillespie calls Linda out for her complicity, Linda finally comes forward and implicates Stephen, who invades the Tibbs home during this time and attempts to attack Althea again, but Althea successfully defends herself and Stephen is arrested. The second part of the season two finale, "Missing", is resumed in "Anniversary"-- a decision made by O'Connor that displeased NBC because the episodes were not shown in chronological order. The season two cliffhanger depicted Gillespie being kidnapped and Dugan murdered; with the displacement of the episodes, it was as if none of that ever happened. O'Connor selected "Rape" to kick off season three instead because he thought it was more powerful and would attract higher ratings. The character of Joanne St. John was eliminated to make room for Sparta city Councilwoman Harriet DeLong as Chief Gillespie's future love interest, first as a recurring character, then later as a main cast member. An attractive divorcée, Harriet was college-educated (an Alpha Kappa Alpha member), outspoken and brimming with attitude, which was a turn-off to Gillespie at first and the two of them did not get along. In "First Girl", Gillespie hires Christine Rankin, Sparta's first black policewoman, who is later killed her first day on duty in a shootout with a drug dealer and murder suspect, causing Gillespie despair and guilt. As a result, he is temporarily suspended from his duties as chief of police pending an investigation and intent on seeking out Rankin's killer. Her replacement was Officer LuAnn Corbin (Crystal R. Fox), who would remain a prominent character throughout the rest of the series, although Fox was listed in the ending credits as a guest star until season seven where she finally appeared in the opening credits. Hiring LuAnn opens the door for more policewomen to join the force; Officer Dee Shepard (Dee Shaw) is hired later in the season. In the two-part season finale, "Citizen Trundel" (written by O'Connor, Cynthia Deming and William J. Royce),

Harriet's sister, Natalie, is murdered by order of her secret lover and the married father of her nine-year-old son, millionaire businessman V.J. "Vidge" Trundel. The situation causes Harriet anguish, rage and frustration, not only because of Natalie's murder but because Chief Gillespie is reluctant to pursue the powerful Trundel as a suspect. These are the first episodes in which we see Bill and Harriet's relationship blossom. During this period, he is able to see beyond her hardened exterior and finds a vulnerable and sensitive woman behind it; she discovers his compassionate side. From this point on, a camaraderie is formed between the two. This story arc was of special significance to Nicholas, as her real-life sister had been murdered ten years earlier and the culprit had never been caught. When O'Connor approached Nicholas about the storyline, it had upset her greatly and she had to write him a note explaining the situation, as he was unaware of the circumstances. He offered to have her not appear in the episode, but she chose to do so to bring closure for her and her family. She was able to channel her unresolved grief into the role. Only O'Connor and director Leo Penn knew the truth during filming.

Rollins' substance abuse problems
During the back half of season three, Rollins took six weeks off when he entered a drug and alcohol rehab program to battle his addiction issues. He missed five episodes: "King's Ransom", "Triangle", "Hello In There", "December Days" and "An Angry Woman". MGM worked around his rehab schedule. Episodes were not necessarily aired in the order they were filmed, which explains why Tibbs was present one week and not the next. In an attempt to explain Rollins' absence, Tibbs was said to be in New Orleans working for the FBI. He considered suicide shortly before Christmas 1989, prompting his stay in rehab. O'Connor threatened to sue a tabloid which published a story saying that MGM and O'Connor had fired Rollins for being absent from the set due to his problems. Nicholas said "Carroll set the standard for loyalty. If he liked you, he really liked you and would be there for you."

1990–1991
Cynthia Deming and William J. Royce were made main story editors. The season opens with a two-hour movie entitled "Brotherly Love" and the birth of Virgil and Althea's twins, William and Sarah. While Althea is waiting to go into labor, Tibbs' friend and ex-colleague from the Philadelphia P.D. is found dead and it's at first labeled as a suicide. Tibbs heads up to the big city to attend his funeral, only to learn his friend's death was not by his own hand, but murder. Tibbs soon recognizes there is corruption going on within the police department and his friend was framed for the murder of a drug dealer. In the process of trying to clear his friend's name, he first becomes a target, then framed for murder himself. Chief Gillespie travels to Philly to get Virgil out of jail, help him solve the mystery of what happened to his friend and seek justice for him, expose the corrupt officers and make it back home to Sparta in time for the twins' birth. William and Sarah Tibbs were welcomed into the world on September 18, 1990. Other stories include Bubba going to Los Angeles to extradite a Sparta resident responsible for a fire that killed two people, which was actually the first of two backdoor pilots for a series that featured Alan Autry, but neither were picked up by the network.

1991–1992
The fifth season begins with the revelation that Chief Gillespie has a 19-year-old daughter, Lana Farren (Christine Elise, formerly of Beverly Hills, 90210). The chief is now good friends with her mother, Georgia (Stella Stevens). Lana was conceived during a period where her mother was separated from her husband and she and Gillespie had an affair. However, she was never divorced from her husband Ken. In the episode "The More Things Change", Gillespie and DeLong share their first kiss after he drives her home after attending a party and he finally reveals his affections for her. They both lament the very likely possibility that a relationship between the two of them would not be accepted by most in Sparta. Other storylines include Sweet's quest to discover the truth about the murder of his grandfather in 1948 and those responsible for it (a story loosely based on the murder of Medgar Evers, "Sweet, Sweet Blues" ) and racists sabotaging a celebration honoring a Sparta civil rights pioneer in "Odessa", the first of six episodes written by Nicholas, who, despite enjoying her role as Harriet, was bothered by the show's lack of black writers and complained about it to O'Connor, who admitted that she was right. He asked Nicholas to write a script, which she did. When she submitted it, O'Connor liked it so much that he encouraged her to write others for the series.

In the two-part season finale "Sanctuary" and "The Law on Trial", Sheriff McComb has Gillespie and Tibbs charged with obstruction and harboring a fugitive after an escaped prisoner-- a Salvadoran immigrant seeking asylum-- is given sanctuary in a monastery and the two don't arrest him when he refuses to give himself up. The prisoner is later shot and killed in a standoff with the sheriff's department. Father DiMarco's heartfelt summation to the jury contributes to the case being dismissed (though that is not revealed until the start of season six). Between court appearances, Harriet pays Gillespie an inconspicuous visit and the two share a tender and romantic moment. The conflict between Sheriff McComb and Chief Gillespie lingers throughout the following season, affecting every crossover dealing with subsequent interactions between McComb's deputies and Gillespie's officers. It isn't until the arrival of Chief Hampton Forbes (Weathers) in season seven that we see Sheriff McComb and Chief Gillespie as friends again. The episode and the season end with Gillespie and Tibbs awaiting the verdict in their respective residences on the evening the case is given to the jury. At the end of the original and final broadcast on NBC, it was revealed that the jury couldn't reach a verdict, a mistrial is declared and the two men are freed. Bill and Harriet spend the night together for the first time.

1992–1993
At the beginning of season six, In the Heat of the Night moved from NBC to CBS. It was not publicly known at the time when season five ended whether or not the show would continue. NBC ultimately decided not to renew the series, although the ratings were still respectable and there were still some open-ended plots that hadn't been resolved. A deal was made with CBS to keep the show on the air. Originally, CBS opted to pick up the series for only a set of six two-hour movies. However, it was eventually picked up for a full 22-episode order. The first two episodes of the season see the secret romance between Gillespie and DeLong intensify. They frequently meet in a studio apartment that doubles as Harriet's art studio. In the midst of all this, Harriet's son, Eugene, is a witness to a drive-by shooting involving rival drug gangs. Other highlights from the season include a faded country music singer (Robert Goulet) who ends up committing murder; the reconciliation between Gillespie and his estranged daughter Lana; and a two-part episode directed by Larry Hagman involves a white supremacist politician whose visit to Sparta has a couple of ulterior motives, including aspirations for a presidential run ("The Leftover Man"). Burgess Meredith (in one of his last acting roles) also appears as an eccentric judge overseeing a case (he would return for a brief cameo in season seven). The season ends with Bill and Harriet forced to confront the impending execution of Harriet's ex-husband and Eugene's disapproval of their relationship.

Howard Rollins' firing
Rollins was ultimately dropped from the show for health reasons plus three outstanding warrants in Rockdale County and the city of Covington. He was replaced for season seven by Weathers. Filming began on April 28, 1993. Rollins had not been seen on the set since January 1993, when season six wrapped. Despite numerous attempts by the media to contact Rollins, who was believed to be living in New York City, only O'Connor was in contact with Rollins during this period with the hope that Rollins would get his legal and personal issues resolved and return to the series, but unfortunately, that was not the case. After season 6, Johnson, Thorne and Rollins left the series. Rollins would return occasionally as a guest star, while Johnson took a starring role on the final season of Fox's sketch comedy series In Living Color and Thorne left to pursue a career as a novelist and screenwriter; the character of Sweet simply vanished from the series without any explanation.

Seventh season, 1993–1994
Season 7 opens with Bill Gillespie being forced out of office and former Memphis, Tennessee Police Department Inspector Hampton Forbes (Carl Weathers) is hired as the new police chief by the city council. After nearly three decades on the Sparta police force, Gillespie does not receive a new contract from the council because his romance with Harriet is now out in the open, although other excuses are made for his dismissal. He seems to be accepting of the outcome, while Harriet doesn't hesitate to show her fury over the decision. The transition from Gillespie being in charge to Forbes taking over is slightly uneasy at the very start, but soon things smooth out.

However, Gillespie is soon appointed as the acting Sheriff of Newton County when Nathan McComb suffers a heart attack and is too ill to continue his duties. This new appointment for Gillespie angers several on the city council. They want an investigation, which is upsetting and hurtful for Harriet.

Other cases involve a nine-year-old girl being killed because of a drunk driver (Hagman directed), the return of Parker's stepfather, Roy Eversole (Pat Hingle, first seen in Season 6) and his lady friend Miss Roda (Anne Meara). Gillespie must once again confront his racist past when a new synagogue moves into Sparta and the rabbi (Jerry Stiller) detests Gillespie, who in the 1960s was serving as an officer on the Sparta Police, for his failure to oppose the then serving anti-Semitic Sparta police chief, who was then Gillespie's boss, and who refused to investigate the burning of the local synagogue back in the 1960s. Lana Farren also makes one final appearance as Bill's daughter in the Hagman-directed episode "A Love Lost", in which he must protect her from a former boyfriend who is involved in a gun-running scheme with someone in Sparta.

Virgil Tibbs returns from Jackson with his juris doctor — which explains his absence – in his new capacity as attorney in three episodes ("Virgil Tibbs: Attorney At Law", "Good Cop, Bad Cop", "Conspiracy of One") and assists the Sparta P.D. with several cases after having moved into Ben Taylor's law office. Virgil reveals to Gillespie in "Virgil Tibbs: Attorney At Law" that Althea has left him and took their twins back home to Philadelphia to live, fed up with her life in Sparta and traumatized from all that had happened to her while living there. She didn't want to make the marriage work and later files for divorce, which a heartbroken Virgil does not contest, although he has difficulty accepting his new status as a divorced man. The episode "Conspiracy of One", where Virgil suspects that one of his law firm's clients orchestrated an "accident" which resulted in his spouse's death, marks Howard Rollins' final appearance on the show (air date February 2, 1994).

In the episode "Ches and the Grand Lady", Bobby Short reprises his role as Ches Collins, the blues musician from "Sweet, Sweet Blues" in Season 5. The episode also guest stars Jean Simmons as the dying grand dame of Sparta who also happens to be Ches's old flame and the overbearing great-aunt of Lonnie Jamison. Harriet's son Eugene once again finds himself at odds with the police, endangering his parole trying to help a friend. Maybelle Chesboro (played by Elizabeth Ashley), the ex-madam, returns. (The role of Maybelle was initially played by Diane Ladd in Season 3's "Home Is Where The Heart Is".) She has returned to operate a legal phone sex business.

Finally, in "Dangerous Engagement", Gillespie and DeLong tie the knot at the same sanctuary involved in the "Sanctuary" case from Season 5. Chief Forbes serves as best man.

The season and the TV series wraps up with a two-hour movie of the week, "Give Me Your Life", starring Peter Fonda as Marcantony Appfel, leader of a religious cult in which the sexual abuse of children is rumored to have occurred. The story (by O'Connor and written by Cynthia Deming & William J. Royce) is loosely based on the real-life drama in Waco, Texas, in 1993 with the cult leader David Koresh and his followers.

TV movies and Hugh O'Connor's death
Four made-for-television movies were produced during the 1994–95 season, which was supposedly the continuation of the series. Once released on DVD, these combined movies were considered the eighth season of the show. The movies were:
 * A Matter of Justice
 * Who Was Geli Bendl? (directed by Larry Hagman)
 * By Duty Bound
 * Grow Old Along with Me

Carroll's son and series cast member Hugh O'Connor died by suicide nearly two months before the fourth film aired, having been struggling with a substance abuse issue since his teen years which culminated in his demise. When the film was broadcast in its original, two-hour format, a black screen was added in between the intro tag and the opening title; it read "In memory of Hugh O'Connor: 1962–1995".

Writing staff

 * Carroll O'Connor (1989–1995) as Matt Harris
 * Mark Rodgers (1989–1990)
 * David Moessinger (1988–1989)
 * Jeri Taylor (1988–1989)
 * Edward Deblasio (1989–1990)
 * Nancy Bond (1988–1990)
 * William J Royce (1989–1994)
 * Cynthia Deming (1990–1994)
 * Robert Bielak (1990–1991)
 * Mitch Schneider (1990–1994)
 * Joe Gannon (1991–1994)
 * Denise Nicholas (1992–1995)
 * Terri Erwin (1989–1991)
 * Bill Taub (1991)

Guest stars
During the series' 7-season run, many actors and actresses have made guest appearances and others were newcomers who went on to become well-known. Some of those appearing in In the Heat of the Night episodes were:

 * Claude Akins
 * Ed Ames
 * Mitchell Anderson
 * Alan Arbus
 * Elizabeth Ashley
 * Dana Barron
 * Jennifer Bassey
 * Michael Beck
 * Jason Beghe
 * Vanessa Bell Calloway
 * Paul Benjamin
 * James Best
 * Taurean Blacque
 * Larry Black
 * Susan Blakely
 * Wayne Brady
 * Randy Brooks
 * Tony Burton
 * Thomas Jefferson Byrd
 * Martha Byrne
 * John Davis Chandler
 * Byron Cherry
 * Kevin Conway
 * Franklin Cover
 * Maury Covington
 * Nicolas Cowan
 * Gary Crosby
 * Ken Curtis
 * John Diehl
 * Art Evans
 * Frances Fisher
 * Louise Fletcher
 * Peter Fonda
 * Jeffrey Buckner Ford
 * Don Galloway
 * Willie Gault
 * Marla Gibbs
 * Thomas Ian Griffith
 * Walton Goggins
 * Robert Goulet
 * J.D. Hall
 * Mariska Hargitay
 * Kim Hawthorne
 * Tiger Haynes
 * Tippi Hedren
 * Earl Holliman
 * Michael Horton
 * Iman
 * Adrienne-Joi Johnson
 * Laura Johnson
 * Mickey Jones
 * Renée Jones
 * Stacy Keach
 * Ken Kercheval
 * Bruce Kirby
 * Diane Ladd
 * Ted Lange
 * Mitchell Laurance
 * Kenny Leon
 * Ketty Lester
 * Geoffrey Lewis
 * Josh Lucas (as Joshua Lucas)
 * Marc Macaulay
 * Ted Manson
 * Ken Marshall
 * Rod Masterson
 * Whitman Mayo
 * Richard McKenzie
 * Bill McKinney
 * Stephen Nichols
 * Gail O'Grady
 * Lisa Pelikan
 * Eric Pierpoint
 * Clifton Powell
 * Francesco Quinn
 * Logan Ramsey
 * Lisa Rieffel
 * Mark Rolston
 * Sydne Rome
 * Stephen Root
 * William Sadler
 * George C. Scott
 * Joe Seneca
 * Craig Shoemaker
 * Bobby Short
 * Sonny Shroyer
 * Jean Simmons
 * Michael Spound
 * Marco St. John
 * Stella Stevens
 * Mel Stewart
 * Jerry Stiller
 * Barbara Stock
 * Meshach Taylor
 * Christopher Templeton
 * Ernest Lee Thomas
 * Melvin Van Peebles
 * Jordan Vaughn
 * Nana Visitor
 * Lou Walker
 * Michael Warren
 * Darnell Williams
 * Gary Anthony Williams
 * Traci Wolfe
 * Sharon Wyatt

Future Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman stars Helene Udy, William Shockley and Chad Allen made guest appearances. Future Desperate Housewives star Doug Savant and veteran actor Kevin McCarthy also made their guest appearances on the two-part pilot episode, as well as O. J. Simpson (whom NBC executives originally wanted for the role of Virgil Tibbs before O'Connor selected Rollins), who made a cameo appearance in Season 2. William Schallert, who played Mayor Schubert in the original 1967 film, also made an appearance on the show in Season 4.

Broadcast history
The series debuted as a midseason replacement for the NBC series J.J. Starbuck, premiering on March 6, 1988. The series ran on the network until May 19, 1992, when it moved to CBS and aired until May 16, 1995.

Locations
Like the original movie, the television series also took place in a fictionalized version of Sparta, Mississippi. While there is a real Sparta, the version of Sparta shown on television is very different from the real town. For example, the TV Sparta is situated along Interstate 20, while the real town is nowhere near any interstate. During the first season, Hammond, Louisiana was the site of the show's production. In the second season, the show was moved to Georgia, to an area east of Atlanta and it remained there for the rest of its run. The principal area of Sparta was in fact downtown Covington, Georgia. Rural scenes were filmed in a wide surrounding area, in the Georgia counties of Newton (where Covington is located), Rockdale, Walton, Morgan, and Jasper. Decatur in Dekalb County was used as a stand-in for an episode as the Mississippi Capital city of Jackson, and Atlanta itself was used in one episode, in which Bubba worked on a case there. In fact, during the series' run, many of the cast members had homes in the area and were often spotted in local restaurants and retail stores. The cast members would also go around to local schools to speak to students.

Broadcast and syndication
The series also airs in broadcast syndication on Ovation. Ovation airs the show every Monday and Tuesday afternoon for five hours from 2:00 PM ET to 7:00 PM ET back to back. WGN America previously aired the series every weekday morning starting at 11AM ET for 4 hours usually until 3PM ET Monday through Thursday. WGN aired the show Fridays, too, at the same time. Ovation now has moved the show to Monday mornings from 8 AM to 2 PM as part of their "Morning Mysteries" crime and mystery drama block, and Thursdays at 10 PM/9 PM ET/CT (or sometimes 11 PM/10 PM ET/CT.). The show also aired Tuesdays nights at 7PM ET, but was scaled down to just a Thursday airing starting December 7, 2020. MeTV also acquired the rights to the show and it began airing in around either 2018 or 2019, running it every weekday beginning at 11AM ET/10AM CT. MGM's ThisTV network, a classic movie-focused network, also airs the show weekdays. The show previously aired on TNT from 1995 to 2005. The show has remained relatively strong in syndication to this day, particularly airing on some local stations. Bounce TV began airing reruns of the series starting September 13, 2021.

Home media
TGG Direct released the first season on DVD in Region 1 on August 30, 2012. The eighth and final season was released on June 11, 2013.

On October 23, 2012, TGG Direct released an 8-disc best-of set entitled  In the Heat of the Night – 24hr Television Marathon.

TGG Direct released seasons 4 and 5 onto DVD on December 10, 2013. However, due to licensing issues, the following episodes are missing from the box set: Brotherly Love, Shine On Sparta Moon, Sweet, Sweet Blues, Sanctuary, Law On Trial.

TGG Direct released seasons 2 & 3 in a single boxed set onto DVD on March 11, 2014. However, due to clearance issues, the following episodes are excluded – Season 2 Excluded Episodes: The Family Secret, The Hammer and the Glove, A Trip Upstate, Intruders, Sister Sister, Walkout; Season 3 Excluded Episodes: Fairest of Them All, Crackdown, Anniversary, My Name is Hank, King's Ransom, A Loss of Innocence, Home is Where the Heart Is, Indiscretions, Citizen Trundel Part 1 and Part 2

TGG Direct also released seasons 6 and 7 in individual boxed sets onto DVD on March 11, 2014. However, due to clearance issues, the following episode is excluded from Season 6: Random's Child and the following episodes are excluded from Season 7: Singin' The Blues, Every Man's Family, Maybelle Returns, Ches and the Grand Lady, Dangerous Engagement.

Awards
Both Carroll O'Connor and Howard Rollins received prestigious awards for their work on the show in 1989. O'Connor received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, and Rollins the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series, his second.

In the Heat of the Night won the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Drama Series (formally Outstanding Drama Series, Mini-Series or Television Movie), two years in a row, 1992 and 1993. The 1992 win was specifically for the Season 5 episode, "Sweet, Sweet Blues".

Soundtrack
The theme song, "In the Heat of the Night", was originally recorded by Quincy Jones, with Ray Charles on vocals and piano for the movie. It is usually paired with "They Call Me Mr. Tibbs" on albums. Bill Champlin of the band Chicago sang the opening theme song for the television series.

The original song itself is supposed to be from Virgil's point of view, being a stranger in a hostile environment. In the case of the TV series, the lyrics refer to both main characters fighting crime in the tiny town of Sparta.

Randall Franks and Alan Autry co-produced the cast CD Christmas Time's A Comin' for Sonlite and MGM/UA, featuring the entire cast and a host of music stars. It was released Christmas 1991 and 1992, and was among the top holiday recordings of those years around the South and Midwest.

title: In the Heat of the Night (TV series)


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Dinka religion

Dinka spirituality is the traditional religion of the Dinka people (also known as Muonyjang), an ethnic group of South Sudan. They belong to the Nilotic peoples, which is a group of cultures in Southern Sudan and wider Eastern Africa. The Dinka people largely rejected or ignored Islamic (and Christian) teachings, as Abrahamic religious beliefs were incompatible with their society, culture and traditional beliefs.

Creation
The supreme, creator god, Nhialic (pronounced as Nhialich), is the god of the sky and rain, and the ruler of all the other gods and spirits. He is generally seen as distant from humans. Nhialic is also known as Jaak, Juong or Dyokin by other Nilotic groups such as the Nuer and Shilluk. Nhialic created ex-nihilo and rarely involves itself with the affairs of humans.

There are several versions of the Dinka creation myth which mainly concerns itself with the creation of humans. The first humans are Garang and Abuk. In some cases Nhialic created humans by blowing them out of its nose, other accounts say humans originated from the sky and were placed in the river where they came as fully formed adults. Other accounts say that humans were molded as clay figures and placed to mature in pots. Garang and Abuk were made out of the clay of Sudan.

Nhialic told them to multiply and that their children would die but would come back to life within 15 days. Garang protested that if nobody dies permanently then there would not be enough food. Nhialic then introduced permanent death. Nhialic commanded them to only plant one seed of grain a day or gave them one grain to eat a day. Being hungry, everyday Abuk made a paste with the grain to make the food last longer. However, when Abuk disobeyed and planted more Nhialic cut the rope that connected Heaven and Earth.

Pantheon
The Dinka have a pantheon of deities, most notable:

 * Nhialic, a supreme god
 * Du Chie, a creation god, sometimes precursor, other co-creator with Nhialic
 * Ayum, goddess of the wind. She is often referred to as a force that prevents rain from falling.
 * Alwet, goddess of the rain.
 * Aja.
 * Nyanngol, also known as Nyanwol or Nyancar, a female goddess.
 * Gerrang, also known as Garang.Johnston (1934) described him as a malicious god who often leads humans to commit sins, while Lienhardt (1961) portrays him as a healer deity, though Lienhardt also confirms that the Dinka people tend to attribute misfortunes to Gerrang.
 * Ayak, counterpart to Ayum, a female goddess.
 * Abum
 * Abuk Dit, a mother goddess
 * Dengdit or Deng, is the sky god of rain and fertility. Deng's mother is Abuk, the patron goddess of gardening and all women, represented by a snake.

The term "Jok" refers to a group of ancestral spirits and patron deities of tribes.

Invocation of prayer
The Dinka address their prayers first to the Supreme Being Nhialic then invoke other deities.

The Dinka offer prayers for receiving mild weather. They also pray for good harvest, protection of people, cattle recovery from illness, and good hunting.

Sacrifices of a bull or ox are offered to Nhialic. The Dinka perform sacrifices along with prayers. The invokes all clan-divinities, free-divinities and ancestral spirits and at times Nhialic. Those who are saying the prayers hold a fishing spear in their hands. Short phrases expressing the need are chanted while the spear is thrust at the animal to be sacrificed. The participants repeat the words of the leader. At times of crisis or an important occasion the Dinka will continue to pray and sacrifice for long periods of time.

Stages of sacrificial prayer.

1.   The Leader describes the issue the people are facing.

2.   The Leader and all present Acknowledge past sins.

3.   Praise is offered singing hymns of honor or ox-songs.

4.   Expulsion of the misfortune to the sacrificial animal.

Animism
The Dinka are also animists. They have a Pastoral lifestyle. The Dinka inherit a totem from both their parents. The faithful are expected to make offerings to their totem force and maintain positive relations with members. Eating or hurting your totem animal is a bad omen for those who share a totem. Some totems are believed to endow powers. The owl totem, for example, is believed to give the power of providence. Totems are not exclusively animals, although most are; some Dinka having as their totem a metallic ore or element.

In the Dinka language, a totem is known as a kuar. Dinka do not worship their totems but rather speak of being "related" to them.

Snakes
Some Dinka people respect African puff adders. The most commonly respected snakes are Atemyath, Biar keroor, and Maluang. These snakes are given offerings of locally-made melted cheese to appease them, after which they are released into the forest. Killing snakes is believed to be a bad omen for the community or the individual, with the assumption that spirits may strike the killer.

Astrology
As in other cultures, the Dinka practice a form of astrology: "The Dinka name the stars—for example, “Orion” is called “Wathal Jook.” Orion is a hunter in Greek mythology but Wathal Jook (dogs) are hunters also. The constellation of the scorpion, in Dinka, is called Cuur, which is a type of fish that looks like a scorpion. We believe these mythologies may connect us with others in the east. In our religion the mythology of Ayueldit recounts he was looking for external life and said “the son is eternal.” So they looked for the food of the sun and sent his messengers west cautioning them “go where the sun is every evening.”"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dinka religion


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JAARS

Founded in 1948 as Jungle Aviation and Radio Service by William Cameron Townsend, JAARS is a worldwide, non-profit, mission aviation and support organization with a primary focus on Bible translation support operations. JAARS provides practical support in aviation, land and maritime transportation, information technology and media. Its current president is Steve Russell, as of October 1, 2022.

JAARS marks its 75th anniversary in 2023, with a slight adjustment to its name to incorporate its 75-year heritage—Jungle Aviation and Relay Service.

JAARS is a wholly controlled subsidiary of SIL International, but also partners with many other organizations.

History
William Cameron Townsend co-founded Wycliffe Bible Translators and SIL International in 1934, and as the organization grew, he saw the need for airplanes and radio to reach remote areas around the world and to provide safe access to language groups. JAARS was originally formed as Jungle Aviation and Radio Service in Peru in 1948 and moved to its current location in Waxhaw, North Carolina, in 1961. The 572 acres of land where JAARS is located began as a 200-acre donation by the Belk family. In 1986, as a result of diversifying activities (like information technology and purchasing and shipping), JAARS officially dropped the original meaning behind the acronym and became simply "JAARS Inc."

JAARS Base
JAARS' North Carolina headquarters is commonly called the "JAARS Base". The base is operated by over 500 people on 551 acres, encompassing 68 buildings. While the JAARS Base serves as the home for all the organization's core operations (like transportation), it also hosts staff from partner organizations. For example, SIL International has IT and media staff working at the JAARS Base, and Wycliffe Bible Translators USA has a large contingent of human resources personnel with offices at the center. The center's airport is registered with the FAA as JAARS-Townsend Airport, a public-use airport. The public-use runway is 3,309' x 40' listed as good asphalt. Additionally, three grass runways are used by JAARS for standards training.

Aviation
In aviation, JAARS helps its field partners start and run local aviation programs. This help comes from training staff, setting standards, equipping aircraft, research, and more.

These associates in turn offer several transportation services to a range of individuals, including translators, support staff, consultants, trainers, linguists, Christian mission organizations, hospitals, locals, and governments. These services can also include medical evacuations and disaster relief work.

JAARS' aviation partners fly a variety of aircraft, including:
 * Bell Long Ranger helicopter, flown by SIL International in Papua New Guinea
 * Robinson R66 helicopter, flown at the JAARS Center and by SIL International in Cameroon
 * Cessna 206, flown at the JAARS Center and by partners in Brazil, Cameroon, and Papua New Guinea
 * Cessna 207, Soloy Turbine conversion, flown by SIL International in Cameroon
 * Cessna 208 Caravan, flown by YAJASI in Indonesia
 * Helio Courier, flown at the JAARS Center
 * Pilatus PC-12, flown by YAJASI in Indonesia
 * Pilatus PC-6, flown at the JAARS Center and by YAJASI in Indonesia
 * Quest Kodiak, flown by SIL International in Papua New Guinea

JAARS was one of fifteen organizations that financed the prototyping and development of the Quest Kodiak.

Museum
The Alphabet Museum is located at the JAARS Base in Waxhaw, North Carolina. The museum was established in 1991 by JAARS founder William Cameron Townsend and focuses on the development of the world's alphabets and the history of writing systems and written languages. Exhibits include maps, paintings, sculptures, a replica of the Rosetta Stone, a Torah scroll that is over 150 years old and a handmade lyre. The languages covered include Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Cyrillic and African languages.

The newly reopened Cardenas Building (named for former Mexican president Lázaro Cárdenas) features all new exhibits that tell the story of JAARS.

title: JAARS


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Carl Perkins

Carl Lee Perkins (April 9, 1932 – January 19, 1998) was an American guitarist, singer and songwriter. A rockabilly great and pioneer of rock and roll, he began his recording career at the Sun Studio, in Memphis, beginning in 1954. Among his best-known songs are "Blue Suede Shoes", "Honey Don't", "Matchbox" and "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby".

According to fellow musician Charlie Daniels, "Carl Perkins' songs personified the rockabilly era, and Carl Perkins' sound personifies the rockabilly sound more so than anybody involved in it, because he never changed." Perkins's songs were recorded by artists (and friends) as influential as Elvis Presley, the Beatles, Jimi Hendrix, Johnny Cash, Ricky Nelson, and Eric Clapton, which further established his prominent place in the history of popular music. Paul McCartney said "If there were no Carl Perkins, there would be no Beatles."

Nicknamed the "King of Rockabilly", Perkins was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the Rockabilly Hall of Fame, the Memphis Music Hall of Fame, and the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. He also received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award.

Early life
Carl Lee Perkins was born on April 9, 1932, in Tiptonville, Tennessee, the son of poor sharecroppers Louise and Buck Perkins (misspelled on his birth certificate as "Perkings"). Beginning at the age of six, he worked long hours in the cotton fields with his family, whether school was in session or not. Siblings included brothers Jay and Clayton. The boys grew up hearing Southern gospel music sung by white friends in church and by black field workers and sharecroppers in the cotton fields. On Saturday nights Perkins would listen to the Grand Ole Opry, broadcast from Nashville on his father's radio.

Roy Acuff's broadcasts from the Opry inspired Perkins to ask his parents for a guitar. Since they could not afford to buy one, his father made one from a cigar box and a broomstick. Eventually, a neighbor sold his father a worn-out Gene Autry guitar. Perkins could not afford new strings, and when they broke, he had to retie them. The knots cut his fingers when he would slide to another note, so he began bending the notes, stumbling onto a type of blue note.

Perkins taught himself parts of Acuff's "Great Speckled Bird" and "The Wabash Cannonball", having heard them played on the Opry. He also has cited Bill Monroe's fast playing and vocals as an early influence. Perkins also learned from John Westbrook, an African-American field worker in his sixties who played blues and gospel music on an old acoustic guitar. Westbrook advised Perkins to "Get down close to it. You can feel it travel down the strangs, come through your head and down to your soul where you live. You can feel it. Let it vib-a-rate."

In January 1947, the Perkins family moved from Lake County, Tennessee, to Madison County, 70 miles from Memphis, the largest city in West Tennessee and a center of a great variety of music played by both black and white artists. At age fourteen Perkins wrote a country song called "Let Me Take You to the Movie, Magg". Sam Phillips was later persuaded by the quality of that song to sign Perkins to his Sun Records label.

Beginnings as a performer
Perkins and his brother Jay had their first paying job (in tips) as entertainers during late 1946 at the Cotton Boll tavern on Highway 45, twelve miles south of Jackson, Tennessee, starting on Wednesday nights. Perkins was 14 years old. One of the songs they played was an up-tempo country blues shuffle version of Bill Monroe's "Blue Moon of Kentucky". Free drinks were one of the perks of playing in a tavern, and Perkins drank four beers that first night. Within a month Carl and Jay began playing Friday and Saturday nights at the Sand Ditch tavern, near the western boundary of Jackson. Both places were the scene of occasional fights, and both of the Perkins brothers gained a reputation as fighters.

During the next couple of years, as they became better known, the Perkins brothers began playing other taverns around Bemis and Jackson, including El Rancho, the Roadside Inn, and the Hilltop. Carl persuaded his brother Clayton to join them and play the upright bass, to complete the sound of the band.

Perkins began performing regularly on WTJS in Jackson during the late 1940s as a sometime member of the Tennessee Ramblers. He appeared on the radio program Hayloft Frolic, on which he performed two songs. Sometimes one was "Talking Blues", as done by Robert Lunn on the Grand Ole Opry. Perkins and his brothers began appearing on The Early Morning Farm and Home Hour. Positive listener response resulted in a 15-minute segment sponsored by Mother's Best Flour. By the end of the 1940s, the Perkins Brothers were the best-known band in the Jackson area. Perkins had day jobs during most of these early years, including picking cotton, working at various factories and plants, and as a pan greaser for the Colonial Baking Company. His brothers had similar pick-up jobs.

In January 1953, Perkins married Valda Crider, whom he had known for a number of years. When his job at the bakery was reduced to part-time, Valda, who had her own job, encouraged Perkins to begin working the taverns full-time. He began playing six nights a week. Later the same year he added W.S. "Fluke" Holland to the band as a drummer. Holland had no previous experience as a musician but had a good sense of rhythm.

Malcolm Yelvington, who remembered the Perkins Brothers when they played in Covington, Tennessee, in 1953, noted that Carl had an unusual blues-like style all his own. By 1955 Perkins had made tapes of his material with a borrowed tape recorder, and he sent them to companies such as Columbia and RCA. But he used addresses such as "Columbia Records, New York City" and seemed dismayed at the lack of response. "I had sent tapes to RCA and Columbia and had never heard a thing from 'em."

In July 1954, Perkins and his wife heard a new release of "Blue Moon of Kentucky" by Elvis Presley, Scotty Moore and Bill Black on the radio. As the song faded out, Perkins said, "There's a man in Memphis who understands what we're doing. I need to go see him." According to another telling of the story, it was Valda who said that he should go to Memphis. Later, Presley told Perkins he had traveled to Jackson and had seen Perkins and his group playing at El Rancho.

Years later, the musician Gene Vincent told an interviewer that, rather than Elvis's version of "Blue Moon of Kentucky" being a "new sound", "a lot of people were doing it before that, especially Carl Perkins."

Sun Records
Perkins successfully auditioned for Sam Phillips at Sun Records in early October 1954. "Movie Magg" and "Turn Around" were released on the Phillips-owned Flip label (151) on March 19, 1955. "Turn Around" became a regional success, and Perkins was booked to appear along with Elvis Presley at theaters in Marianna and West Memphis, Arkansas. Johnny Cash and the Tennessee Two were the next musicians to be added to the performances by Sun musicians. During the summer of 1955 they had junkets to Little Rock and Forrest City, Arkansas, and to Corinth and Tupelo, Mississippi. Again performing at El Rancho, the Perkins brothers were involved in an automobile accident in Woodside, Delaware. A friend who had been driving was pinned by the steering wheel and had to be dragged from the burning car by Perkins. Clayton had been thrown from the car but was not seriously injured.

Another Perkins song, "Gone Gone Gone", released by Sun in October 1955, was also a regional success. It was a "bounce blues in flavorsome combined country and R&B idioms". The A-side was the more traditional country song "Let the Jukebox Keep On Playing".

Commenting on Perkins's playing, Sam Phillips has been quoted as saying

"I knew that Carl could rock and in fact he told me right from the start that he had been playing that music before Elvis came out on record ... I wanted to see whether this was someone who could revolutionize the country end of the business."

Also in the autumn of 1955, Perkins wrote "Blue Suede Shoes", inspired by seeing a dancer get angry with his date for scuffing up his shoes. Several weeks later, on December 19, 1955, Perkins and his band recorded the song during a session at Sun Studio in Memphis. Phillips suggested changes to the lyrics ("Go, cat, go"), and the band changed the end of the song to a "boogie vamp".

After Sun records headliner Presley left for RCA in November 1955, Phillips told Perkins, "You're my rockabilly cat now." "Blue Suede Shoes" was released on January 1, 1956, and became a massive chart success. In the United States, it reached number 1 on Billboard magazine's country music chart (the only number 1 success he would have) and number 2 on the Billboard Best Sellers popular music chart. On February 11 Presley performed it on CBS-TV's Stage Show. On March 17 Perkins became the first country artist to reach number 3 on the rhythm and blues charts. That night, he performed the song on ABC-TV's Ozark Jubilee, and Presley reprised his performance on Stage Show.

In the United Kingdom, Perkins's song reached number 10 on the British charts. It was the first record by a Sun artist to sell a million copies. The B side, "Honey Don't", was later covered by the Beatles, Wanda Jackson and, in the 1970s, T. Rex. John Lennon originally sang the song when the Beatles performed it; later it was given to Ringo Starr, one of his few leads during his time with the band. Lennon also performed the song on the Lost Lennon Tapes.

Road crash
After playing a show in Norfolk, Virginia, on March 21, 1956, the Perkins Brothers Band headed to New York City for a March 24 appearance on NBC-TV's Perry Como Show. Shortly before sunrise on March 22, on Route 13 between Dover and Woodside, Delaware, their vehicle hit the back of a pickup truck and went into a ditch containing about 12 inches of water. Holland had to pull Perkins, unconscious, from the water. Perkins had sustained three fractured vertebrae in his neck, a severe concussion, a broken collar bone, and lacerations all over his body. Perkins remained unconscious for an entire day. The driver of the pickup truck, Thomas Phillips, a 40-year-old farmer, died when he was thrown into the steering wheel. Jay Perkins had a fractured neck and severe internal injuries. Later he developed a malignant brain tumor, and died in 1958.

On March 23, Presley's band members Bill Black, Scotty Moore and D.J. Fontana visited Perkins on their way to New York to appear with Presley. Fontana recalled Perkins saying, "You looked like a bunch of angels coming to see me." Black told him, "Hey man, Elvis sends his love", and lit a cigarette for him, even though the patient in the next bed was in an oxygen tent. Presley also telegraphed Perkins his well wishes.

"Blue Suede Shoes" had sold more than 500,000 copies by March 22, and Sam Philips had planned to celebrate by presenting Perkins with a gold record on The Perry Como Show. While Perkins recuperated from his injuries, "Blue Suede Shoes" reached number 1 on regional pop, R&B, and country charts. It also reached number 2 on the Billboard pop and country charts, below Elvis Presley's "Heartbreak Hotel". By mid-April, more than one million copies of "Blue Suede Shoes" had been sold. On April 3, while still recuperating in Jackson, Perkins watched Presley perform "Blue Suede Shoes" in his first appearance on The Milton Berle Show. This was the third time he performed the song on national television.

Return to recording and touring
Perkins returned to live performances on April 21, 1956, beginning with an appearance in Beaumont, Texas, with the "Big D Jamboree" tour. Before he resumed touring, Sam Phillips arranged a recording session at Sun, with Ed Cisco filling in for the still-recuperating Jay. By mid-April, "Dixie Fried", "Put Your Cat Clothes On", "Wrong Yo-Yo", "You Can't Make Love to Somebody", "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby", and "That Don't Move Me" had been recorded. On May 26, Perkins and his band (with Jay Perkins performing wearing a visible neck brace), finally appeared on The Perry Como Show to perform "Blue Suede Shoes".

Beginning early that summer, Perkins was paid $1,000 to play two songs a night on the extended tour of "Top Stars of '56". Other performers on the tour were Chuck Berry and Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers. When Perkins and the group entered the stage in Columbia, South Carolina, he was shocked to see a teenager with a bleeding chin pressed against the stage by the massed crowd. During the first guitar intermission of "Honey Don't", they were waved offstage and into a vacant dressing room behind a double line of police officers. Appalled by what he had seen and felt, Perkins left the tour. Appearing with Gene Vincent and Lillian Briggs in a "rock 'n' roll show", he helped attract 39,872 people to the Reading Fair in Pennsylvania on a Tuesday night in late September. Soon after, a full grandstand and one thousand people stood in a heavy rain to hear Perkins and Briggs at the Brockton Fair in Massachusetts.

Sun issued more Perkins songs in 1956: "Boppin' the Blues"/"All Mama's Children" (Sun 243), the B side co-written with Johnny Cash; and "Dixie Fried"/"I'm Sorry, I'm Not Sorry" (Sun 249). "Matchbox"/"Your True Love" (Sun 261) came out in February 1957. "Boppin' the Blues" reached number 47 on the Cashbox pop singles chart, number 9 on the Billboard country and western chart, and number 70 on the Billboard Top 100 chart.

"Matchbox" is considered a rockabilly classic. It was recorded with Perkins on lead guitar and vocals, and then Sun studio piano player Jerry Lee Lewis. Later that day there was an impromptu session with Perkins, Presley, Johnny Cash, and Jerry Lee Lewis, informally referred to as the Million Dollar Quartet. The full recordings from this jam session, a selection of gospel, country, and R&B songs, were released in 1990.

On February 2, 1957, Perkins again appeared on Ozark Jubilee, singing "Matchbox" and "Blue Suede Shoes". He also made at least two appearances on Town Hall Party in Compton, California, in 1957, singing both songs. Those performances were included in the Western Ranch Dance Party series filmed and distributed by Screen Gems.

He released "That's Right", co-written with Johnny Cash, backed with the ballad "Forever Yours", as Sun single 274 in August 1957. Neither side made it onto the charts.

The 1957 film Jamboree included a Perkins performance of "Glad All Over". The song, written by Aaron Schroeder, Sid Tepper, and Roy C. Bennett, was released by Sun in January 1958.

Life after Sun
In 1958, Perkins moved to Columbia Records, for which he recorded "Jive After Five", "Rockin' Record Hop", "Levi Jacket (And a Long Tail Shirt)", "Pop, Let Me Have the Car", "Pink Pedal Pushers", "Any Way the Wind Blows", "Hambone", "Pointed Toe Shoes", "Sister Twister", "L-O-V-E-V-I-L-L-E" and other songs.

In 1959, he wrote the country & western song "The Ballad of Boot Hill" for Johnny Cash, who recorded it on an EP for Columbia Records. In the same year, Perkins was cast in a Filipino movie produced by People's Pictures, Hawaiian Boy, in which he sang "Blue Suede Shoes".

He performed often at the Golden Nugget Casino in Las Vegas in 1962 and 1963. During this time he toured nine Midwestern states and made a tour in Germany. In 1962 Patsy Cline recorded "So Wrong" written by Carl, Mel Tillis and Danny Dill and had a #14 hit on the Country charts.

In May 1964, Perkins toured Britain with Chuck Berry. Perkins had been reluctant to undertake the tour, convinced that as forgotten as he had become in America, he would be even more obscure in the U.K., and did not want to be humiliated by drawing meager audiences. Berry assured him that they had remained much more popular in Britain since the 1950s than they had in the United States, and that there would be large crowds of fans at every show. The popular young rock group The Animals backed the two performers. On the last night of the tour, Perkins attended a party where he sat on the floor sharing stories, playing guitar, and singing songs while surrounded by the Beatles. Ringo Starr asked if he could record "Honey Don't". Perkins answered, "Man, go ahead, have at it." The Beatles later recorded covers of "Matchbox", "Honey Don't" and "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" (recorded by Perkins, adapted from a song originally recorded by Rex Griffin in 1936, with new music by Perkins; a song with the same title was recorded by Roy Newman in 1938). Ringo sang the lead on the first two, George Harrison received a rare lead on the third. The Beatles also recorded two versions of "Glad All Over" in 1963. Another tour to Germany followed in the autumn.

He released "Big Bad Blues" backed with "Lonely Heart" as a single on Brunswick Records with the Nashville Teens in June 1964.

In 1966, Perkins signed with Dollie Records and released as his first single "Country Boy's Dream", which reached #22 in the country charts. That same year Bob Luman had a Top 40 Country hit with Carl's song "Poor Boy Blues".

While on tour with the Johnny Cash troupe in 1968, Perkins went on a four-day drinking binge that ended in him hallucinating floridly and passing out. When he regained consciousness, he went out to the beach with his last bottle of alcohol. In his autobiography, he described falling to his knees and declaring, "Lord, ... I'm gonna throw this bottle. I'm gonna show You that I believe in you," before hurling the bottle into the sea and vowing to remain sober. Perkins and Cash, who had his own substance-abuse issues, supported each other in their bid to remain sober.

In 1968, Cash recorded the Perkins-written "Daddy Sang Bass" (which incorporates parts of the American standard "Will the Circle Be Unbroken"), and scored No. 1 on the country music charts for six weeks. "Daddy Sang Bass" was a Country Music Association nominee for Song of the Year. Perkins also played lead guitar on Cash's single "A Boy Named Sue", recorded live at San Quentin prison, which went to No. 1 for five weeks on the country chart and No. 2 on the pop chart (the performance was also filmed by Granada Television for broadcast).

Perkins spent a decade in Cash's touring revue, often as an opening act for Cash (as at the Folsom and San Quentin prison concerts, at which he was recorded singing "Blue Suede Shoes" and "Matchbox" before Cash took the stage; these performances were not released until the 2000s). He also appeared on the television series The Johnny Cash Show. On the television program Kraft Music Hall on April 16, 1969, hosted by Cash, Perkins performed his song "Restless".

Perkins and Bob Dylan wrote "Champaign, Illinois" in 1969. Dylan had recorded his album Nashville Skyline, a bold crossover into country, in Nashville from February 12 to February 21. He met Perkins when he appeared on The Johnny Cash Show on June 7. Dylan had writer's block and was unable to complete the song until Perkins contributed a rhythm and some lyrics, upon which Dylan said to him, "Your song. Take it. Finish it." Perkins registered the song as co-authored and recorded it on his 1969 album On Top.

Also in 1969, Columbia's Murray Krugman placed Perkins with the New Rhythm and Blues Quartet, a rockabilly group based in New York's Hudson Valley. Perkins and NRBQ recorded Boppin' the Blues, which featured the group backing him on songs including his staples "Turn Around" and "Boppin' the Blues", as well as songs recorded separately by Perkins and NRBQ. Perkins appeared with Cash on TV on the popular country series Hee Haw, on February 16, 1974.

Tommy Cash (brother of Johnny Cash) had a Top Ten country gospel hit in 1970, with a recording of the song "Rise and Shine", written by Perkins. It reached number 9 on the Billboard country chart and number 8 on the Canadian country chart. Arlene Harden had a Top 40 country hit in 1971 with the Perkins composition "True Love Is Greater Than Friendship", from the film Little Fauss and Big Halsy (1971). Al Martino's cover of the song that same year reached number 22 on the Billboard country chart and number 33 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart.

After a long legal struggle with Sam Phillips over royalties, Perkins gained ownership of his songs in the 1970s and, in 2003, his widow and then owner of the catalog entered into an administration contract with Paul McCartney's MPL Communications.

Later years
The rockabilly revival of the 1980s helped bring Perkins back into the limelight. In 1981 Perkins recorded the song "Get It" with Paul McCartney, providing vocals and playing guitar with the former Beatle; according to one source, he fully co-wrote the song with McCartney. This recording was included on the chart-topping album Tug of War, released in 1982. During 1985, Perkins re-recorded "Blue Suede Shoes" with Lee Rocker and Slim Jim Phantom of the Stray Cats, as part of the soundtrack for the film Porky's Revenge.

In October 1985, Perkins was joined on stage in London for a television special, Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session, by George Harrison, Eric Clapton, Dave Edmunds, Lee Rocker, Rosanne Cash and Ringo Starr. The show was taped live at the Limehouse Studios. It was broadcast on Channel 4 on January 1, 1986. Perkins performed 16 songs, with two encores, in an extraordinary performance. He and his friends ended the session by singing "Blue Suede Shoes", his most famous song, 30 years after its writing, which brought Perkins to tears. The concert special was a highlight of his later career. It has been praised by fans for the spirited performances delivered by Perkins and his guests. The concert was released for DVD by Snapper Music in 2006.

Perkins was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1985. Wider recognition of his contribution to music came with his induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987. "Blue Suede Shoes" was chosen as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's “500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll”. The song also received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. Perkins was inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame in recognition of his pioneering contribution to the genre.

Perkins's only notable film performance as an actor was in John Landis's 1985 film Into the Night. The cameo-laden film includes a scene in which characters played by Perkins and David Bowie die by each other's hand.

Perkins returned to the Sun Studio in Memphis in 1986, joining Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Roy Orbison on the album Class of '55. The record was a tribute to their early years at Sun and, specifically, the Million Dollar Quartet jam session involving Perkins, Presley, Cash, and Lewis in 1956.

In 1989, Perkins co-wrote and played guitar on the Judds' number 1 country hit, "Let Me Tell You About Love". Also in that year, he signed a record deal with Platinum Records for the album Friends, Family, and Legends, featuring performances by Chet Atkins, Travis Tritt, Steve Wariner, Joan Jett and Charlie Daniels, along with Paul Shaffer and Will Lee. The song "Wild Texas Wind" became the title track to a made-for-TV movie featuring Dolly Parton and Gary Busey. In 1996 Willie Nelson, who also appeared in that movie, would join Carl in a duett version of the song. During the production of this album, Perkins was diagnosed with throat cancer. Dolly Parton had a Top 20 Country hit in 1991 with the Perkins co-written "Silver and Gold".

Mark O'Connor recorded a version of the Perkins classic "Restless" in 1991 and had a #25 Country hit with it in the US (#19 in Canada).

He again returned to Sun Studio to record with Scotty Moore, Presley's first guitar player, for the album 706 ReUNION, released by Belle Meade Records, which also featured D. J. Fontana, Marcus Van Storey and the Jordanaires. In 1993, Perkins performed with the Kentucky Headhunters in a music video remake of his song "Dixie Fried", filmed in Glasgow, Kentucky. In 1994, he teamed up with Duane Eddy and the Mavericks to contribute "Matchbox" to the AIDS benefit album Red Hot + Country, produced by the Red Hot Organization.

His last album, Go Cat Go!, released by the independent label Dinosaur Records in 1996, features Perkins singing duets with Bono, Johnny Cash, John Fogerty, George Harrison, Paul McCartney, Willie Nelson, Tom Petty, Paul Simon, and Ringo Starr.

His last major concert performance was the Music for Montserrat all-star charity concert at London's Royal Albert Hall on September 15, 1997, four months before his death.

Personal life
A strong advocate for the prevention of child abuse, Perkins worked with the Jackson Exchange Club to establish the first center for the prevention of child abuse in Tennessee and the fourth in the nation. Proceeds from a concert planned by Perkins were combined with a grant from the National Exchange Club to establish the Prevention of Child Abuse in October 1981. For years its annual Circle of Hope Telethon generated one quarter of the center's annual operating budget.

Perkins had one daughter, Debbie, and three sons, Stan, Greg, and Steve. Stan, Perkins' firstborn son, is also a recording artist. In 2010, he joined forces with Jerry Naylor to record a duet tribute, "To Carl: Let It Vibrate". Stan has been inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. Greg played bass on stage alongside his father at the 1985 Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session concert in London and co-wrote "Birth of Rock and Roll" with his father. (In 1983, a jury in Jackson, Tennessee found Greg Perkins "innocent on two felony counts of vehicular homicide, and guilty on a misdemeanor charge of driving under the influence of alcohol." In 1997, Perkins' wife Valda was "recovering from a yearlong illness," and his son Greg collapsed as a result of liver damage that may have resulted in a liver transplant.

Perkins died on January 19, 1998, at the age of 65 at Jackson-Madison County Hospital in Jackson, Tennessee, from complications from several minor strokes the previous month. Among the mourners at his standing room only funeral at Lambuth University were George Harrison, Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Wynonna Judd, Sam Phillips, Ricky Skaggs, Brian Setzer, Garth Brooks, and Billy Ray Cyrus. During the service Cyrus and Skaggs performed, and the funeral ended with George Harrison performing an acoustic version of "Your True Love". Perkins was interred at Ridgecrest Cemetery in Jackson.

Perkins' widow, Valda deVere Perkins, died on November 15, 2005, in Jackson. Carl and Valda Perkins' son Greg (born January 15, 1959) died three days later at age 46 on November 18, 2005.

Guitar style
As a guitarist Perkins used finger picking, imitations of the pedal steel guitar, palm muting, arpeggios, advantageous use of open strings, single and double string bending, chromaticism, country and blues licks, and tritone and other tonality clashing licks (short phrases that include notes from other keys and move in logical, often symmetric patterns). A rich vocabulary of chords including sixth and thirteenth chords, ninth and add nine chords, and suspensions, show up in rhythm parts and solos. Free use of syncopations, chord anticipations (arriving at a chord change before the other players, often by an eighth-note) and crosspicking (repeating a three eighth-note pattern so that an accent falls variously on the upbeat or downbeat) were also in his bag of tricks.

Legacy
Perkins wrote his autobiography, Go, Cat, Go, published in 1996, in collaboration with music writer David McGee in 1996. Plans for a biographical film were announced by Santa Monica-based production company Fastlane Entertainment; it was slated for release in 2009.

In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked Perkins number 99 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.

Many of the Beatles' live shows were full of Rock 'N' Roll covers of Carl Perkins's songs such as 'Everybody's Trying To Be My Baby', 'Matchbox' and 'Honey Don't'.

His version of "Blue Suede Shoes" was included by the National Recording Preservation Board in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2006.

The Perkins family still owns his songs.

Drive-By Truckers, on their album The Dirty South, recorded a song about him, "Carl Perkins' Cadillac". The Carl Perkins Arena in Jackson, Tennessee, is named in his honor.

George Thorogood and the Destroyers covered "Dixie Fried" on their 1985 album Maverick. The Kentucky Headhunters also covered the song, as did Keith de Groot on his 1968 album No Introduction Necessary, with Jimmy Page on lead guitar and John Paul Jones on bass.

Ricky Nelson covered Perkins's "Boppin' the Blues" and "Your True Love" on his 1957 debut album, Ricky.

Perkins was portrayed by Johnny "Kid Memphis" Holiday in the 2005 Johnny Cash biopic Walk the Line.

Perkins was honored with the "Lifetime Achievement" award during the Tennessee Music Awards event in 2018 at the University of Memphis Lambuth in Jackson, Tennessee.

Awards
The following recording by Carl Perkins was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance".

Original albums

 * Dance Album (1957)
 * Whole Lotta Shakin' (1958)
 * Country Boy's Dream (1967)
 * Original Golden Hits (1969)
 * On Top (Columbia, 1969)
 * Carl Perkins' Greatest Hits (1969, re-recordings)
 * Boppin' the Blues (1970, with NRBQ)
 * My Kind of Country (Mercury, 1973)
 * The Carl Perkins Show (1976)
 * Mr. Country Rock (Demand, 1977)
 * Ol' Blue Suede's Back (1978)
 * Country Soul (1979)
 * Rock 'N Gospel (1979)
 * Cane Creek Glory Church (1979)
 * Live at Austin City Limits (1981)
 * That Rockin' Guitar Man (1981)
 * The Million Dollar Quartet (with Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Johnny Cash) (1981)
 * The Survivors (with Jerry Lee Lewis and Johnny Cash) (1982)
 * Presenting Carl Perkins (Accord, 1982)
 * Every Road (Joker, 1982)
 * Goin' Back to Memphis (Joker, 1982)
 * Boppin' the New Bleus (1982)
 * Born to Boogie (O'Hara Records, 1982)
 * This Ole House (1982)
 * Presenting (1982)
 * The Heart and Soul of Carl Perkins (Allegiance, 1983)
 * Disciple in Blue Suede Shoes (1984)
 * Gospel (1984)
 * Carl Perkins (Dot, 1985)
 * Class of '55 (with Roy Orbison, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Johnny Cash) (1986)
 * Original Sun Greatest Hits (1986)
 * Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session (1986)
 * Up Through the Years 1954–57 (1986)
 * Born to Rock (1989)
 * 706 Re-Union (with Scotty Moore) (1990)
 * Country Boy's Dream – The Dollie Masters (Bear Family, 1991)
 * Friends, Family & Legends (1992)
 * Carl Perkins & Sons (with Greg Perkins and Stan Perkins) (1993)
 * Take Me Back (1993)
 * Go Cat Go! (with various guest stars) (1996)
 * The Silver Eagle Cross Country: Carl Perkins Live (1997)
 * Live at Gilley's (1999)
 * Live (2000)
 * Back on Top – (Bear Family, 2000; 4 CDs, comprising 1968–1975)

Guest appearances

 * Judds: Greatest Hits Volume II (1991)
 * Philip Claypool: Perfect World (1999)

General and cited references

 * Guterman, Jimmy (1998). "Carl Perkins". The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, ed. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 412–413.

title: Carl Perkins


text:
Green anarchism

Green anarchism, also known as ecological anarchism or eco-anarchism, is an anarchist school of thought that focuses on ecology and environmental issues. It is an anti-capitalist and anti-authoritarian form of radical environmentalism, which emphasises social organization, freedom and self-fulfillment.

Ecological approaches to anarchism were first formulated during the 19th century, as the rise of capitalism and colonialism caused environmental degradation. Drawing from the ecology of Charles Darwin, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin elaborated a naturalist philosophy that rejected the dualistic separation of humanity from nature. This was developed into an ecological philosophy by Peter Kropotkin and Élisée Reclus, who advocated for the decentralisation and degrowth of industry as a means to advance both social justice and environmental protection.

Green anarchism was first developed into a distinct political theory by sections of the New Left, as a revival in anarchism coincided with the emergence of an environmental movement. From the 1970s onwards, three main tendencies of green anarchism were established: Murray Bookchin elaborated the theory of social ecology, which argues that environmental issues stem directly from social issues; Arne Næss defined the theory of deep ecology, which advocates for biocentrism; and John Zerzan developed the theory of anarcho-primitivism, which calls for the abolition of technology and civilization. In the 21st century, these tendencies were joined by total liberation, which centres animal rights, and green syndicalism, which calls for the workers themselves to manage deindustrialisation.

At its core, green anarchism concerns itself with the identification and abolition of social hierarchies that cause environmental degradation. Opposed to the extractivism and productivism of industrial capitalism, it advocates for the degrowth and deindustrialisation of the economy. It also pushes for greater localisation and decentralisation, proposing forms of municipalism, bioregionalism or a "return to nature" as possible alternatives to the state.

Background
Before the Industrial Revolution, the only occurrences of ecological crisis were small-scale, localised to areas affected by natural disasters, overproduction or war. But as the enclosure of common land increasingly forced dispossessed workers into factories, more wide-reaching ecological damage began to be noticed by radicals of the period.

During the late 19th century, as capitalism and colonialism were reaching their height, political philosophers first began to develop critiques of industrialised society, which had caused a rise in pollution and environmental degradation. In response, these early environmentalists developed a concern for nature and wildlife conservation, soil erosion, deforestation, and natural resource management. Early political approaches to environmentalism were supplemented by the literary naturalism of writers such as Henry David Thoreau, John Muir and Ernest Thompson Seton, whose best-selling works helped to alter the popular perception of nature by rejecting the dualistic "man against nature" conflict. In particular, Thoreau's advocacy of anti-consumerism and vegetarianism, as well as his love for the wilderness, has been a direct inspiration for many eco-anarchists.

Ecology in its modern form was developed by Charles Darwin, whose work on evolutionary biology provided a scientific rejection of Christian and Cartesian anthropocentrism, instead emphasising the role of probability and individual agency in the process of evolution. Around the same time, anarchism emerged as a political philosophy that rejected all forms of hierarchy, authority and oppression, and instead advocated for decentralisation and voluntary association. The framework for an ecological anarchism was thus set in place, as a means to reject anthropocentric hierarchies that positioned humans in a dominating position over nature.

Roots
The ecological roots of anarchism go back to the classical anarchists, such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin, who both conceived of human nature as the basis for anarchism. Drawing from Charles Darwin's work, Bakunin considered people to be an intrinsic part of their environment. Bakunin rejected Cartesian dualism, denying its anthropocentric and mechanistic separation of humanity from nature. However, he also saw humans as uniquely capable of self-determination and called for humanity to achieve a mastery of its own natural environment as a means to achieve freedom. Bakunin's naturalism was developed into an ecological philosophy by the geographers Peter Kropotkin and Éliseé Reclus, who conceived the relationship between human society and nature as a dialectic. Their environmental ethics, which combined social justice with environmental protection, anticipated the green anarchist philosophies of social ecology and bioregionalism.

Like Bakunin before him, Kropotkin extolled the domestication of nature by humans, but also framed humanity as an intrinsic part of its natural environment and placed great value in the natural world. Kropotkin was among the first environmentalist thinkers to note the connections between industrialisation, environmental degradation and workers' alienation. In contrast to Marxists, who called for an increase in industrialisation, Kropotkin argued for the localisation of the economy, which he felt would increase people's connection with the land and halt environmental damage. In Fields, Factories and Workshops, Kropotkin advocated for the satisfaction of human needs through horticulture, and the decentralisation and degrowth of industry. He also criticised the division of labour, both between mental and manual labourers, and between the rural peasantry and urban proletariat. In Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, he elaborated on the natural basis for communism, depicting the formation of social organisation among animals through the practice of mutual aid.

Reclus himself argued that environmental degradation caused by industrialisation, exemplified to him by mass deforestation in the Pacific Northwest, was characteristic of the "barbarity" of modern civilisation, which he felt subordinated both workers and the environment to the goal of capital accumulation. Reclus was also one of the earliest figures to develop the idea of "total liberation", directly comparing the exploitation of labour with cruelty to animals and thus advocating for both human and animal rights.

Kropotkin and Reclus' synthesis of environmental and social justice formed the foundation for eco-socialism, chiefly associated with libertarian socialists who advocated for a "return to nature", such as Robert Blatchford, William Morris and Henry Salt. Ecological aspects of anarchism were also emphasised by Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, who, drawing from the work of Henry David Thoreau, conceived of anarchism as a means to promote unity between humans and the natural world. These early ecological developments in anarchism lay the foundations for the elaboration of green anarchism in the 1960s, when it was first taken up by figures within the New Left.

Development
Green anarchism first emerged after the dawn of the Atomic Age, as increasingly centralized governments brought with them a new host of environmental and social issues. During the 1960s, the rise of the environmental movement coincided with a concurrent revival of interest in anarchism, leading to anarchists having a considerable influence on the development of radical environmentalist thought. Principles and practices that already formed the core of anarchist philosophy, from direct action to community organizing, thus became foundational to radical environmentalism. As the threats presented by environmental degradation, industrial agriculture and pollution became more urgent, the first green anarchists turned to decentralisation and diversity as solutions for socio-ecological systems.

Green anarchism as a tendency was first developed by the American social anarchist Murray Bookchin. Bookchin had already began addressing the problem of environmental degradation as far back as the 1950s. In 1962, he published the first major modern work of environmentalism, Our Synthetic Environment, which warned of the ecological dangers of pesticide application. Over the subsequent decades, Bookchin developed the first theory of green anarchism, social ecology, which presented social hierarchy as the root of ecological problems.

In 1973, Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss developed another green anarchist tendency, known as deep ecology, which rejected of anthropocentrism in favour of biocentrism. In 1985, this philosophy was developed into a political programme by the American academics Bill Devall and George Sessions, while Australian philosopher Warwick Fox proposed the formation of bioregions as a green anarchist alternative to the nation state.

Following on from deep ecology, the next major development in green anarchist philosophy was the articulation of anarcho-primitivism, which was critical of agriculture, technology and civilisation. First developed in the pages of the American anarchist magazine Fifth Estate during the mid-1980s, anarcho-primitivist theory was developed by Fredy Perlman, David Watson, and particularly John Zerzan. It was later taken up by the American periodical Green Anarchy and British periodical Green Anarchist, and partly inspired groups such as the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), Earth Liberation Front (ELF) and Individualists Tending to the Wild (ITS).

From theory to practice
By the 1970s, radical environmentalist groups had begun to carry out direct action against nuclear power infrastructure, with mobilisations of the anti-nuclear movement in France, Germany and the United States providing a direct continuity between contemporary environmentalism and the New Left of the 1960s. In the 1980s, green anarchist groups such as Earth First! started taking direct action against deforestation, roadworks and industrial agriculture. They called their sabotage actions "monkey-wrenching", after Edward Abbey's 1984 novel The Monkey Wrench Gang. During the 1990s, the road protest movements in the United Kingdom and Israel were also driven by eco-anarchists, while eco-anarchist action networks such as the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and Earth Liberation Front (ELF) first rose to prominence. Eco-anarchist actions have included violent attacks, such as those carried out by cells of the Informal Anarchist Federation (IAF) and Individualists Tending to the Wild (ITS) against nuclear scientists and nanotechnology researchers respectively.

As environmental degradation was accelerated by the rise of economic globalisation and neoliberalism, green anarchists broadened their scope of action from a specific environmentalist focus into one that agitated for global justice. Green anarchists were instrumental in the establishment of the anti-globalisation movement (AGM), as well as its transformation into the subsequent global justice movement (GJM). The AGM gained support in both the Global North and Global South, with the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) becoming a key organisation within the movement. It also gained a wide range of support from different sectors of society, not only including activists from left-wing politics or the environmental and peace movements, but also people from trade unions, church groups and the agricultural sector. Trade unionists were the most prominent presence at the 1999 Seattle WTO protests, even outnumbering the environmentalists and anarchists. Drawing from its anarchist roots, the AGM adopted a decentralised and non-hierarchical model of horizontal organisation, embracing new "anarchical" technologies such as the internet as a means to network and communicate. Through the environmental and anti-globalisation movements, contemporary anarchism was ultimately able to achieve a "quasi-renaissance" in anarchist ideas, tendencies and modes of organisation.

Contemporary theoretical developments
Writers such as Murray Bookchin and Alan Carter have claimed contemporary anarchism to be the only political movement capable of addressing climate change. In his 1996 book Ecology and Anarchism, British anthropologist Brian Morris argued that anarchism is intrinsically environmentalist, as it shared the ecologist principles of decentralisation, non-hierarchical social organisation and interdependence.

By the 21st century, green anarchists had begun to move beyond the previous century's divisions into social ecologist and anarcho-primitivst camps, establishing a new body of theory that rejected the dualisms of humanity against nature and civilisation against wilderness. Drawing on the biocentric philosophy of deep ecology, in 2006, Mark Somma called for a "revolutionary environmentalism" capable of overthrowing capitalism, reducing consumption and organising the conservation of biodiversity. Somma championed a form of solidarity between humanity and the non-human natural world, in a call that was taken up in 2009 by Steven Best, who called for eco-anarchists to commit themselves to "total liberation" and extend solidarity to animals. To Best, morality ought to be extended to animals due to their sentience and capacity to feel pain; he has called for the abolition of the hierarchy between humans and animals, although he implicitly excludes non-sentient plants from this moral consideration. Drawing from eco-feminism, Patrice Jones called for human solidarity with both plants and animals, neither of which she considered to be lesser than humans, even describing them as "natural anarchists" that do not recognise or obey any government's laws.

In 2012, Jeff Shantz developed a theory of "green syndicalism", which seeks to use of syndicalist models of workplace organisation to link the labour movement with the environmental movement.

Social ecology
The green anarchist theory of social ecology is based on an analysis of the relationship between society and nature. Social ecology considers human society to be both the cause of and solution to environmental degradation, envisioning the creation of a rational and ecological society through a process of sociocultural evolution. Social ecologist Murray Bookchin saw society itself as a natural product of evolution, which intrinsically tended toward ever-increasing complexity and diversity. While he saw human society as having the potential to become "nature rendered self-conscious", in The Ecology of Freedom, Bookchin elaborated that the emergence of hierarchy had given way to a disfigured form of society that was both ecologically and socially destructive.

According to social ecology, the oppression of humans by humans directly preceded the exploitation of the environment by hierarchical society, which itself caused a vicious circle of increasing socio-ecological devastation. Considering social hierarchy to go against the natural evolutionary tendencies towards complexity and diversity, social ecology concludes that oppressive hierarchies have to be abolished in order to resolve the ecological crisis. Bookchin thus proposed a decentralised system of direct democracy, centred locally in the municipality, where people themselves could participate in decision making. He envisioned a self-organized system of popular assemblies to replace the state and re-educate individuals into socially and ecologically-minded citizens.

Deep ecology
The theory of deep ecology rejects anthropocentrism in favour of biocentrism, which recognizes the intrinsic value of all life, regardless of its utility to humankind. Unlike social ecologists, theorists of deep ecology considered human society to be incapable of reversing environmental degradation and, as a result, proposed a drastic reduction in world population. The solutions to human overpopulation proposed by deep ecologists included bioregionalism, which advocated the replacement of the nation state with bioregions, as well as a widespread return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Some deep ecologists, including members of Earth First!, have even welcomed the mass death caused by disease and famine as a form of population control.

Anarcho-primitivism
The theory of anarcho-primitivism aims its critique at the emergence of technology, agriculture and civilisation, which it considers to have been the source of all social problems. According to American primitivist theorist John Zerzan, it was the division of labour in agricultural societies that had first given way to the social inequality and alienation which became characteristic of modernity. As such, Zerzan proposed the abolition of technology and science, in order for society to be broken down and humans to return to a hunter-gather lifestyle. Libertarian socialists such as Noam Chomsky and Michael Albert have been critical of anarcho-primitivism, with the former arguing that it would inevitably result in genocide.

Green syndicalism
Green syndicalism, as developed by Graham Purchase and Judi Bari, advocates for the unification of the labour movement with environmental movement and for trade unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) to adopt ecological concerns into their platforms. Seeing workers' self-management as a means to address environmental degradation, green syndicalism pushes for workers to agitate their colleagues, sabotage environmentally destructive practices in their workplaces, and form workers' councils. Green syndicalist Jeff Shantz proposed that a free association of producers would be best positioned to dismantle the industrial economy, through the decentralisation and localisation of production. In contrast to Marxism and anarcho-syndicalism, green syndicalism opposes mass production and rejects the idea that the industrial economy has a "liberatory potential"; but it also rejects the radical environmentalist calls for a "complete, immediate break with industrialism".

Theory
Although a diverse body of thought, eco-anarchist theory has a fundamental basis unified by certain shared principles. Eco-anarchism considers there to be a direct connection between the problems of environmental degradation and hierarchy, and maintains an anti-capitalist critique of productivism and industrialism. Emphasising decentralisation and community ownership, it also advocates for the degrowth of the economy and the re-centring of social relations around local communities and bioregions.

Critique of civilisation
Green anarchism traces the roots of all forms of oppression to the widespread transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary lifestyles. According to green anarchism, the foundation of civilisation was defined by the extraction and importation of natural resources, which led to the formation of hierarchy through capital accumulation and the division of labour. Green anarchists are therefore critical of civilisation and its manifestations in globalized capitalism, which they consider to be causing a societal and ecological collapse that necessitates a "return to nature". Green anarchists uphold direct action as a form of resistance against civilisation, which they wish to replace with a way of simple living in harmony with nature. This may involve cultivating self-sustainability, practising survivalism or rewilding.

Decentralisation
Eco-anarchism considers the rise of states to be the primary cause of environmental degradation, as states promote greater industrial extraction and production as means to remain competitive with other state powers, even at the expense of the environment. Drawing from the ecological principle of "unity in diversity", eco-anarchism also recognises humans as an intrinsic part of the ecosystem that they live in and how their culture, history and language is shaped by their local environments. Eco-anarchists therefore argue for the abolition of states and their replacement with stateless societies, upholding various forms of localism and bioregionalism.

Deindustrialisation
Ecological anarchism considers the exploitation of labour under capitalism within a broader ecological context, holding that environmental degradation is intrinsically linked with societal oppression. As such, green anarchism is opposed to industrialism, due to both its social and ecological affects.

title: Green anarchism


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Talk:September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks/Donations

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Talk:Akron, Pennsylvania

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title: Talk:Akron, Pennsylvania