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Hewing

In woodworking, hewing is the process of converting a log from its rounded natural form into lumber (timber) with more or less flat surfaces using primarily an axe. It is an ancient method, and before the advent of the industrial-era type of sawmills, it was a standard way of squaring up wooden beams for timber framing. Today it is still used occasionally for that purpose by anyone who has logs, needs beams, and cannot or would prefer not to pay for finished lumber. Thus, homesteaders on frugal budgets, for example, may hew their own lumber rather than buy it.

Definitions
Hew is a general term meaning to strike or blow with a tool such as an axe or sword; to chop or gash, and is used in warfare, stone and woodcutting, and coal and salt mining in this sense. Hewing wood is to shape the wood with a sharp instrument such as an axe, specifically flattening one or more sides of a log.

Methods
As an ancient method of timber conversion, different methods of each step in hewing have developed in history.

Prepare log
After a tree is selected and felled, hewing can take place where the log landed or be skidded or twitched (skidded with a horse or oxen) out of the woods to a work site. The log is placed across two other smaller logs near the ground or up on trestles about waist height; stabilized either by notching the support logs, or using a 'timber dog' (also called a log dog, a long bar of iron with a tooth on either end that jams into the logs and prevents movement). The hewer measures and locates the timber within the log on both ends and marks lines along the length of a log, usually with a chalk line.

Scoring
The next step is to chop notches every foot or two, almost as deep as the marked line using a chopping or scoring axe, called scoring. At least three methods are used in scoring. 1) Standing on the log and swinging an axe to chop the score; 2) In Germany a method of two carpenters standing on the ground with the log on trestles and swinging downward to slice the scores. (see video in link below); 3) A chainsaw is used to notch the log, the sections created by the notching are then split off using a felling axe.

Joggling or juggling
The pieces of wood between the notches are knocked off with an axe, this process called juggling or joggling. This results in a rough surface pared down just shy of the marked line. Scoring and juggling remove a fair amount of wood, make hewing easier and prevent long shreds of wood being torn off.

Hewing
Hewing is the last step in this whole process, which is also collectively referred to as hewing. Hewing is done on the logs sides with a broadaxe. Hewing occurs from the bottom of the stem upwards towards what was the top of the standing tree, reducing the tendency of the broken fibers to migrate inwards towards the eventual beam.

It is widely published that an adze was used to hew the top surface of a log flat in the same manner as an axe is used on the sides of a log. However, physical evidence of looking at the marks left by the hewing tools in historic buildings, called tracology, are swung in an arc and thus made by an axe, not an adze. Shipbuilders frequently used adzes in shaping ship timbers, the choice of tool being made by the position of the surface being hewn, the sides best hewn with an axe and the face best hewn with an adze. Historic illustrations do show some Asian carpenters hewing building timbers with an adze. Further smoothing can then be done using a hand plane, drawknife, yariganna (an ancient Japanese cutting tool) or any other established or improvised means.

Some 19th-century timber buildings in the U.S. have hewn long timbers in the same framing with vertically sawn and the later technology of circular sawn timbers. The reason for this is the long timbers were easier to hew with an axe than to take to a sawmill due to poor transportation routes.

Hewn railroad ties are known as axe ties and were made by a tiehacker.

Modern uses
Although still used in niche modern building, salvaged hand-hewn beams are now commonly recycled as architectural details popular in new construction and renovation of homes. They are also popular as decor in commercial and restaurant spaces.

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Novi Sad

Novi Sad (Нови Сад, ; see below for other names) is the second largest city in Serbia after the capital Belgrade and the capital of the autonomous province of Vojvodina. It is located in the southern portion of the Pannonian Plain on the border of the Bačka and Syrmia geographical regions. Lying on the banks of the Danube river, the city faces the northern slopes of Fruška Gora and it is the fifth largest of all cities on the Danube river. It is the largest Danube city that is not the capital of an independent state.

, the population of the administrative area of the city totals 368,967 people, while its urban area (including the adjacent settlements of Petrovaradin and Sremska Kamenica) comprises 306,702 inhabitants.

Novi Sad was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin Fortress, a strategic Habsburg military post. In subsequent centuries, it became an important trading, manufacturing and cultural centre, and has historically been dubbed the Serbian Athens. The city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but was subsequently rebuilt and restored. Today, along with the Serbian capital city of Belgrade, Novi Sad is an industrial and financial center important to the Serbian economy.

Novi Sad was the European Youth Capital in 2019 and the European Capital of Culture in 2022. It became a UNESCO Creative City of Media Arts in 2023.

Name
The name Novi Sad means "new plantation" in Serbo-Croatian. Its Latin name, stemming from the establishment of Habsburg city rights, is Neoplanta. The official names of Novi Sad in local administration are:

In both Croatian and Romanian, which are official in provincial administration, the city is called Novi Sad. Historically, the city was called Neusatz and Neusatz an der Donau (translated as 'Novi Sad on the Danube') in German.

In its wider meaning, the name Grad Novi Sad refers to the "City of Novi Sad", one of the city-level administrative units of Serbia, which includes Novi Sad proper on the left bank of the Danube, the towns of Sremska Kamenica and Petrovaradin on the right bank and the extensive suburbs of the left bank. Novi Sad can also refer strictly to only the urban areas of the city (Novi Sad proper and the towns of Sremska Kamenica and Petrovaradin), or only to the historical core on the left bank, i.e. Novi Sad proper excluding Sremska Kamenica and Petrovaradin.

Older settlements

Human habitation in the territory of present-day Novi Sad has been traced as far back as the Stone Age. Several settlements and necropolises dating to 5000 BC were unearthed during the construction of a new boulevard in Avijatičarsko Naselje. A settlement was also identified on the right bank of the river Danube in present-day Petrovaradin.

In antiquity, the region was inhabited by Celtic tribes, most notably the Scordisci. Celts had been present in the area since the 4th century BC and founded the first fortress on the right bank of the Danube. Later, in the 1st century BC, the region was conquered by the Romans. During Roman rule, a larger fortress was built in the 1st century, named Cusum, and included in the Roman province of Pannonia.

In the 5th century, Cusum was devastated by Hunnic invasions. By the end of the century, the Byzantines had rebuilt the town and called it Petrikon or Petrikov after Saint Peter. Slavic tribes such as the Severians, the Obotrites and the Serbs (including the subtribes of the Braničevci and the Timočani) settled the region around Novi Sad, mainly in the 6th and 7th centuries. The Serbs absorbed the aforementioned Slavic groups as well as the Paleo-Balkanic peoples of the region.

In the Middle Ages, the area was controlled by the Ostrogoths, Gepids, Avars, Franks, West Slavic groups, again by the Byzantines, and finally by the Hungarians. It was a part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary from its foundation in 1000 until the Ottoman invasion in the 16th century. Hungarians began to settle in the area, which before that time had been mostly populated by Slavs. The earliest known mention was as the Hungarian variant Peturwarad or Pétervárad (Serbian: Petrovaradin/Петроварадин), derived from the Byzantine variant, found in documents from 1237. That year, several other settlements were mentioned as existing in the territory of modern-day urban Novi Sad.

From the 13th century to the 16th century, the following settlements existed in the urban territory of the modern-day Novi Sad:
 * on the right bank of the Danube: Pétervárad (Petrovaradin) and Kamanc (Kamenica).
 * on the left bank of the Danube: Baksa or Baksafalva (Bakša, Bakšić), Kűszentmárton (Sent Marton), Bivalyos or Bivalo (Bivaljoš, Bivalo), Vásárosvárad or Várad (Vašaroš Varad, Varadinci), Zajol I (Sajlovo I, Gornje Sajlovo, Gornje Isailovo), Zajol II (Sajlovo II, Donje Sajlovo, Donje Isailovo), Bistritz (Bistrica). Some other settlements existed in the suburbs of Novi Sad: Mortályos (Serbian: Mrtvaljoš), Csenei (Čenej), Keménd (Kamendin), Rév (Rivica).

An etymology of settlement names reveals that some designations are of Slavic origin, which indicates that the areas were initially inhabited by Slavs, particularly the West Slavs. For example, Bivalo (Bivaljoš) had a large Slavic settlement dating from the 5th–6th centuries. Other names are of Hungarian origin (for example Bélakút, Kűszentmárton, Vásárosvárad, Rév), indicating that the settlements were inhabited by Hungarians before the Ottoman invasion in the 16th century. Some settlement names are of uncertain origin.

Tax records from 1522 show a mix of Hungarian and Slavic names among the inhabitants of these villages, including Slavic names like Bozso (Božo), Radovan, Radonya (Radonja), Ivo, etc. Following the Ottoman invasion in the 16th–17th centuries, some of these settlements were destroyed. Most of the surviving Hungarian inhabitants retreated from the area. Some of the settlements persisted under Ottoman rule and were populated by ethnic Serbs.

Between 1526 and 1687, the region was under Ottoman rule. In 1590, the population of all villages in the territory of present-day Novi Sad numbered 105 houses, inhabited exclusively by Serbs. Ottoman records mention only those who paid taxes, so the number of Serbs who lived in the area (for example, those that served in the Ottoman army) was likely larger than was recorded.

Founding of Novi Sad

Habsburg rule was aligned with the Roman Catholic doctrine and, as it took over this area near the end of the 17th century, the government prohibited people of Orthodox faith from residing in Petrovaradin. Unable to build homes there, the Serbs of the area founded a new settlement in 1694 on the left bank of the Danube. They initially called it the 'Serb city' (Srpski Grad, Ratzen Stadt). Another name used for the settlement was Petrovaradinski Šanac. In 1718, the inhabitants of the village of Almaš were resettled to Petrovaradinski Šanac, where they founded Almaški Kraj ('the Almaš quarter').

According to 1720 data, the population of Ratzen Stadt was composed of 112 Serbian, 14 German, and 5 Hungarian houses. The settlement officially gained the present names Novi Sad and Újvidék (Neoplanta in Latin) in 1748 when it became a 'free royal city', in German language it was called Neusatz.

The edict that made Novi Sad a 'free royal city' was proclaimed on 1 February 1748. The edict reads: "' We, Maria Theresa, by the grace of God Holy Roman Empress, Queen of Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Carinthia, [...] cast this proclamation to anyone, whom it might concern... so that the renowned Petrovaradinski Šanac, which lies on the other side of the Danube in the Bačka province on the Sajlovo land, by the might of our divine royal power and prestige...make this town a Free Royal City and to fortify, accept and acknowledge it as one of the free royal cities of our Kingdom of Hungary and other territories, by abolishing its previous name of Petrovaradinski Šanac, renaming it Neoplanta (Latin), Új-Vidégh (Hungarian), Neusatz (German) and Novi Sad (Serbian) '"

In the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy recruited Germans from the southern principalities of the Holy Roman Empire to relocate to the Danube valley. They wanted both to increase the population and to redevelop the river valley for agriculture, which had declined markedly under the Ottomans. To encourage such settlement, the government ensured that the German communities could practice their religion (mostly Catholicism) and use their original German dialect.

Habsburg monarchy

For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, Novi Sad remained the largest city inhabited by Serbs. The reformer of the Serbian language, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, wrote in 1817 that Novi Sad was the 'largest Serb municipality in the world'. It was a cultural and political centre for Serbs (see also Serbian Revival), who did not have their own national state at the time. Due to its cultural and political influence, the city became known as the 'Serbian Athens' (Srpska Atina in Serbian). According to 1843 data, Novi Sad had 17,332 inhabitants, of whom 9,675 were Orthodox Christians, 5,724 Catholics, 1,032 Protestants, 727 Jews, and 30 adherents of the Armenian church. The largest ethnic group in the city were Serbs, and the second largest were Germans.

During the Revolution of 1848–49, Novi Sad was part of Serbian Vojvodina, a Serbian autonomous region within the Austrian Empire. In 1849, the Hungarian garrison, located at the Petrovaradin Fortress, bombarded and devastated the city, which lost much of its population. According to the 1850 census, there were only 7,182 citizens left in the city, compared to 17,332 in 1843. Marija Trandafil and her husband paid for some of the rebuilding including two churches. Between 1849 and 1860, Novi Sad was part of a separate Austrian crownland known as the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar. After the abolishment of this province, the city was included into the Batsch-Bodrog County. The post office was opened in 1853.

Following the compromise of 1867, Novi Sad was located within the Kingdom of Hungary, the Transleithania, which comprised half of the new Austro-Hungarian Empire. During this time, the Magyarization policy of the Hungarian government drastically altered the demographic structure of the city as the formerly predominantly Serbian population became one with a more mixed character. In 1880, 41.2% of the city's inhabitants used the Serbian language most frequently and 25.9% employed Hungarian. In the following decades, the percentage of Serbian-speakers decreased, while the number of Hungarian-speakers increased. According to the 1910 census, the city had 33,590 residents, of whom 13,343 (39.72%) spoke Hungarian, 11,594 (34.52%) Serbian, 5,918 (17.62%) German and 1,453 (4.33%) Slovak. It is not certain whether Hungarians or Serbs were the larger ethnic group in the city in 1910, since the various ethnic groups (Bunjevci, Romani, Jews, other South Slavic people, etc.) were classified in census results only according to the language they spoke.

Similar demographic changes can be seen in the religious structure: in 1870, the population of Novi Sad included 8,134 Orthodox Christians, 6,684 Catholics, 1,725 Calvinists, 1,343 Lutherans, and others. In 1910, the population included 13,383 Roman Catholics and 11,553 Orthodox Christians, while 3,089 declared themselves as Lutheran, 2,751 as Calvinist, and 2,326 as Jewish.

Serbia and Yugoslavia

On 25 November 1918, the Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci and other Slavs of Vojvodina in Novi Sad proclaimed the union of the region of Vojvodina with the Kingdom of Serbia. From 1 December 1918, Novi Sad was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; and in 1929, it became the capital of the Danube Banovina, a province of the newly named Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1921, the population of Novi Sad numbered 39,122 inhabitants, 16,293 of whom spoke the Serbian language, 12,991 Hungarian, 6,373 German, 1,117 Slovak, etc.

In 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded and partitioned by the Axis powers, and its northern parts, including Novi Sad, were annexed by Hungary. During World War II, about 5,000 citizens were murdered and many others were resettled. During the three days of the Novi Sad raid (21–23 January 1942) alone, Hungarian police killed 1,246 citizens, among them more than 800 Jews, and threw their corpses into the icy waters of the Danube.

The total death toll of the raid was around 2,500. Citizens of all nationalities—Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, and others—fought together against the Axis authorities. In 1975 the whole city was awarded the title People's Hero of Yugoslavia.

The Yugoslav Partisans of Syrmia and Bačka entered the city on 23 October 1944. During the military administration of Banat, Bačka and Baranja (17 October 1944 – 27 January 1945), the Partisans killed tens of thousands, mostly Serbs, Germans, and Hungarians, who were perceived as opponents to the new regime.

Novi Sad became part of the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Since 1945, Novi Sad has been the capital of Vojvodina, a province of the Republic of Serbia. The city went through rapid industrialization and its population more than doubled in the period between World War II and the breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.

After 1992, Novi Sad became a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Devastated by NATO bombardment during the Kosovo War of 1999, Novi Sad was left without any of its three Danube bridges (Žeželj Bridge, Varadin Bridge and Liberty Bridge), communications, water, and electricity. Residential areas were cluster-bombed several times while the oil refinery was bombarded daily, causing severe pollution and widespread ecological damage. In 2003, FR Yugoslavia was transformed into the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. These two states separated in June 2006 (following the May 2006 Montenegrin independence referendum), leaving Novi Sad part of the Republic of Serbia.

Geography
The city lies on the meander of the river Danube, which is only 350 meters wide beneath the marking stones of Petrovaradin. A section of the Danube-Tisza-Danube Canal marks the northern edge of the wider city centre. The main part of the city lies on the left bank of the Danube in the region of Bačka, while the smaller settlements of Petrovaradin and Sremska Kamenica lie on the right bank, in the region of Srem (Syrmia). The section situated on the left bank of the river lies on one of the southernmost and lowest parts of the Pannonian Plain, while Fruška Gora on the right bank is a horst mountain. Alluvial plains along the Danube are well-formed, especially on the left bank, and in some parts 10 km from the river. A large part of Novi Sad lies on a fluvial terrace with an elevation of between 80 and 83 m. The northern part of Fruška Gora is composed of massive landslide zones, although they are largely inactive with the exception of the Ribnjak neighbourhood between Sremska Kamenica and Petrovaradin Fortress.

The total land area of the city is 699 km², while its urban area spans 129.7 km².

Climate
Novi Sad has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) closely bordering on humid continental climate (Dfa) with a January mean of 0.7 °C. The city experiences four distinct seasons. Autumn is drier than spring, with long sunny and warm periods. Winter is not so severe, with an average of 22 days of complete sub-zero temperature, and averages 22 days of snowfall. January is the coldest month, with an average low of -2.5 °C. Spring is usually short and rainy, while summer arrives abruptly. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Novi Sad was -30.7 °C on 24 January 1963, and the hottest temperature ever recorded was 41.6 °C on 24 July 2007.

The east-southeasterly wind, known as Košava, blows from the Carpathians and brings clear and dry weather. It mostly blows in autumn and winter, in 2 to 3-day intervals. The average speed of Košava is 25 to 43 km/h, but certain strokes can reach up to 130 km/h. In wintertime, accompanied by snow storms, the winds can cause large snow-drifts.

Settlements

Novi Sad is a typical Central European town in terms of its architecture. The Town Hall and the Court House were built by Emmerich Kitzweger (1868–1917). The city was almost completely destroyed during the 1848/1849 revolution, so architecture from the 19th century dominates the city centre. Small, older houses used to surround the centre of town, but they are now being replaced by modern, multi-story buildings.

During the socialist period, new city blocks with wide streets and multi-story buildings were constructed around the city core. However, not many communist-style high-rise buildings were erected. The total number of apartment buildings, with ten or more floors, remained at about 50, the rest having mostly three to six floors. From 1962 to 1964, a new boulevard, today called Bulevar oslobođenja, was cut through the older neighbourhoods, establishing major communication lines. Several more boulevards were subsequently built in a similar manner, creating an orthogonal network which replaced the primarily radial structure of the old town. These interventions paved the way for a relatively unhampered growth of the city, which has almost tripled in population since the 1950s. Despite a huge increase in car ownership, traffic congestion is still relatively mild, apart from a few major arteries.

Neighbourhoods

Some of the oldest neighbourhoods in the city are Stari Grad (Old Town), Rotkvarija, Podbara, and Salajka. The areas of Sremska Kamenica and Petrovaradin, located on the right bank of the Danube, were separate towns in the past, but today belong to the urban area of Novi Sad. Liman, as well as Bistrica, are neighbourhoods built during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, with contemporary style buildings and wide boulevards (Liman was divided into four sections, numbered I–IV).

New neighbourhoods, like Liman, Detelinara and Bistrica, emerged from the fields and forests surrounding the city. Following World War II, tall residential buildings were constructed to house the huge influx of people leaving the country side. Many old houses in the city centre, from the Rotkvarija and Bulevar neighbourhoods, were torn down in the 1950s and 1960s, to be replaced by multi-story buildings. Since the city has experienced a major construction boom in the last 10 years, some neighbourhoods like Grbavica have completely been transformed.

Neighbourhoods with single-family homes are mostly located away from the city centre. Telep, situated in the southwest, and Klisa, in the north, are the oldest such districts. Adice and Veternik, both located west of the downtown area, have significantly expanded during the last 15 years, partly due to the influx of Serbian refugees fleeing the Yugoslav wars.

Suburbs
While Novi Sad's urban municipalities, which include Petrovaradin, Sremska Kamenica and Novi Sad proper, have a combined population of about 277,000, its suburban areas have approximately 65,000 inhabitants. Some 23.7% of the administrative city's total population resides in the suburbs, which consist of 12 settlements and 1 town. The largest numbers live in Futog (pop. 20,000) and in Veternik (pop. 17,000) to the west. Both places have grown bigger over the years, especially during the 1990s, and have physically merged with the city.

Suburbs like Futog are officially classified as an ' urban settlement'  (town), while other suburbs are mostly considered to be ' rural' (village). Ledinci, Stari Ledinci and Bukovac are all villages located on Fruška Gora's slopes, with the last two having only one paved road. Stari Ledinci is the most isolated and least populated village belonging to Novi Sad's suburban areas.

Towns and villages in the adjacent municipalities of Sremski Karlovci, Temerin and Beočin share the same public transportation system and are economically tied to Novi Sad.

Demographics
Novi Sad is the second largest city in Serbia (after Belgrade), and the largest city in Vojvodina. Since its founding, the population of the city has been constantly increasing. According to the 1991 census, 56.2% of the people who came to Novi Sad from 1961 to 1991 were from Vojvodina, while 15.3% came from Bosnia and Herzegovina and 11.7% from rest of Serbia.

In the 1990s and 2000s, the city experienced significant population growth. According to the 2011 census, the city's population is 231,798, while in its urban area (including adjacent settlements of Petrovaradin and Sremska Kamenica) there are 277,522 inhabitants. Novi Sad's administrative city limits hold 341,625 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups
The ethnic composition in the city administrative area (last three censuses):

All of the inhabited places in the municipalities have an ethnic Serb majority, while the village of Kisač has an ethnic Slovak majority.

Religion
According to the 2011 census, the population of the administrative area of Novi Sad (comprising both municipalities) included 270,831 Orthodox Christians, 21,530 Catholics, 8,499 Protestants, 4,760 Muslims, 84 Jews, and others. The city is the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Eparchy of Bačka, the seat of the Bishop of the Slovak Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Serbia and of the Muftiship of Novi Sad of the Islamic Community in Serbia.

Culture
In the 19th and early 20th century, Novi Sad was the capital of Serbian culture, earning it the nickname Serbian Athens. During that time, many Serbian novelists, poets, jurists, and publishers had lived or worked in Novi Sad at some point in their career, including Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, Mika Antić, Đura Jakšić and Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, among others. Matica srpska, the oldest cultural-scientific institution in Serbia, was moved from Budapest to Novi Sad in 1864, and now contains the second-largest library in the country, the Library of Matica srpska, with over 3.5 million volumes. The Serbian National Theatre, one of the oldest professional theatre among the South Slavs, was founded in Novi Sad in 1861.

Today, Novi Sad is the second largest cultural centre in Serbia, after Belgrade. Municipal officials have made the city more attractive with numerous cultural events and music concerts. Since 2000, Novi Sad is home to the EXIT festival, one of the biggest music summer festivals in Europe. Other important cultural events include the Sterijino pozorje theatre festival, Zmaj Children Games, International Novi Sad Literature Festival, Novi Sad Jazz Festival, and many others. Novi Sad also hosts a fashion show twice a year, attracting local and international designers. Called Serbia Fashion Week, the event also features the works of applied artists, musicians, interior decorators, multimedia experts and architects.

In addition to the Serbian National Theatre, other prominent playhouses consist of the Novi Sad Theatre, Novi Sad Youth Theatre, and the Cultural Centre of Novi Sad. The Novi Sad Synagogue also houses many cultural events. Other cultural institutions include the Detachment of the Serbian Academy of Science and Art, Library of Matica Srpska, Novi Sad City Library and Azbukum. The city is also home to the Archive of Vojvodina, which has collected numerous documents from the Vojvodina region dating back to 1565.

Novi Sad has several folk song societies, which are known as kulturno-umetničko društvo or KUD. The best known societies in the city are: KUD Svetozar Marković, AKUD Sonja Marinković, SKUD Željezničar, FA Vila and the oldest SZPD Neven, established in 1892.

National minorities express their own traditions, folklore and songs through various societies such as the Hungarian MKUD Petőfi Sándor, Slovak SKUD Pavel Jozef Šafárik, and Ruthenian RKC Novi Sad.

Novi Sad was chosen to be the European Capital of Culture for 2021, however its mandate was moved to 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. From this mandate, the industrial zone in Liman neighborhood was repurposed as an artist quarter known as Distrikt. Due the continued efforts of local artists, the city became a UNESCO Creative City of Media Arts in 2023.

Cuisine
Typical Serbian food can be found in Novi Sad, including traditional dishes like ćevapi, burek, kajmak, kiseli kupus, kiflice and pasulj, as well as fish dishes, local cheeses and charcuterie. Restaurants and farmsteads offer fresh produce from local farmers and also regional vintages from Fruska Gora's wineries. Modern alternatives are available at some of the city's top restaurants, which prepare traditional fare with an updated twist. Pastry shops serve local specialties such as layered cakes made from ground nuts and cream, referred to as 'torta' in Serbian. Desserts also often include raspberries, one of the region's largest exports, and historic Dunavska Street is home to many ice cream parlors.

Index sandwich, named after university student index books, is a popular local street food since the 1980s. It is made out of a bread roll stuffed with melted cheese, ham, mushrooms and lashings of sauce.

Museums

The city has several museums and galleries, both public and privately owned. The best known institution in the city is the Museum of Vojvodina, founded in 1847, which houses a permanent collection of Serbian culture and life in Vojvodina since ancient times. The Museum of Novi Sad, located in the Petrovaradin Fortress, has a permanent collection featuring the history of the old fortress.

The Gallery of Matica Srpska is the largest and most respected exhibition space in the city, with two galleries in the city centre. Other museums include The Gallery of Fine Arts – Gift Collection of Rajko Mamuzić and The Pavle Beljanski Memorial Collection, featuring one of the most extensive collections of Serbian art from the 1900s until the 1970s.

Tourism
Since 2000, the number of tourists visiting Novi Sad each year has steadily risen. During the annual EXIT music festival in July, the city is full of young people from all over Europe. In 2017, over 200,000 visitors from 60 countries came to the festival, attending about 35 concerts.

Other events include shows and congresses organized by Novi Sad Fair, a local management company, bringing in many businesspersons and entrepreneurs to the city. Every May, Novi Sad is home to the largest agricultural show in the region, having attracted 600,000 attendees in 2005. The tourist port, near Varadin Bridge in the city centre, welcomes cruise boats from across Europe that travel the Danube river.

The most recognized structure in Novi Sad is the Petrovaradin Fortress, which dominates the skyline and also offers scenic views of the city. The nearby historic neighbourhood of Stari Grad has many monuments, museums, cafes, restaurants and shops. Also in the vicinity, is the Fruška Gora National Park, approximately 20 km from the city centre.

According to the data of the Republic Institute of Statistics of Serbia, a total of 234,708 tourist arrivals were realized in the territory of the City in 2023, which represents an increase compared to the same period in 2022 by 7.2 percent. Also, last year a total of 567,926 overnight stays were realized, which represents a growth of 1.2 percent.

Economy
Novi Sad is the economic centre of Vojvodina, the most fertile agricultural region in Serbia. The city also represents one of the largest economic and cultural hubs in Serbia.

Novi Sad had always been a developed city within the former Yugoslavia. In 1981, its GDP per capita was 172% of the Yugoslav average. During the 1990s, the city, like the rest of Serbia, was severely affected by an internationally imposed trade embargo and hyperinflation of the Yugoslav dinar. The embargo, along with economic mismanagement, led to a decay or demise of once important industrial combines, such as Novkabel (electric cable industry), Pobeda (metal industry), Jugoalat (tools), Albus and HINS (chemical industry). Practically the only viable large facilities remaining today are the oil refinery, located northeast of the city, and the thermal power plant.

The economy of Novi Sad has mostly recovered from that period and grown strongly since 2001, shifting from an industry-driven economy to the tertiary sector. The processes involved in privatizing state and society-owned enterprises, as well as strong private incentives, have increased the share of privately owned companies to over 95% in the district, with small and medium-size enterprises dominating the city's economic development.

The significance of Novi Sad as a financial centre is already proven, by being home to the national headquarters of numerous banks, such as Erste Bank, Vojvođanska banka, and Crédit Agricole; as well as the third largest insurance company in Serbia, DDOR Novi Sad. Furthermore, the city is home to major energy companies like Naftna Industrija Srbije oil company and Srbijagas gas company. It is also the seat of many farms for wheat production and trade.

Novi Sad is also a growing information technology centre within Serbia, second only to Belgrade. As many as 900 IT companies operate in Novi Sad out of a total of 2,500 registered in the territory of the Republic of Serbia with over 11,500 employees. As of September 2017, Novi Sad has one of 14 free economic zones established in Serbia.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Politics

Novi Sad is the administrative centre of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, and as such, home to Vojvodina's Government and Provincial Assembly.

The city's administrative bodies include the city assembly as the representative body, as well as the mayor and city government defining the executive bodies. The mayor and city assembly members are chosen through direct elections. The city assembly has 78 seats, while the city government consists of 11 members. The mayor and members of the city's assembly are elected to four-year terms. The city government is elected by the city assembly at the proposal of the mayor.

As of 2022, the mayor of Novi Sad is Milan Đurić of the Serbian Progressive Party. While his party holds the majority of seats in the city assembly, the Socialist Party of Serbia, the Democratic Party of Serbia, as well as other parties and groups, are also represented.

The city of Novi Sad is divided into 47 local communities within two city municipalities, Novi Sad and Petrovaradin, which are separated by the Danube river.

 * City holidays

The city commemorates the year 1694, when it was established.

The design consists of three white towers placed in the centre, set against a blue sky. A white dove holding an olive branch flies above the larger middle tower. All three structures have rooftops with crenellations, as well as opened windows and closed gates. Below the towers lies a green background, with a wavy white line depicting the Danube River.
 * Coat of arms

Education

Novi Sad is one of the most important centres of higher education and research in Serbia, with four universities overall and numerous professional, technical, and private colleges and research institutes, including a law school with its own publication. The largest educational institution in the city is the University of Novi Sad, a public school established in 1960. , it has 14 faculties, 9 of which are located on the main university campus. It is attended by more than 50,000 students and has a total staff of nearly 5,000.

Business Academy University and EducoNS University are private schools also located in the city. Other educational institutions include Novi Sad Open University, offering professional courses in adult education, and the Protestant Theological Seminary.

, there are 37 elementary schools (33 public and 4 private) with about 26,000 students. The secondary school system consists of 25 vocational schools (12 public and 13 private) and 4 gymnasiums with almost 18,000 students.

Media
Novi Sad has one major daily newspaper, Dnevnik, and among the periodicals, the monthly magazine Vojvodjanski magazin stands out. The city is also home to the headquarters of regional public broadcaster, Radio Television of Vojvodina (RTV), and municipal public broadcaster, Novosadska televizija, as well as a few commercial TV stations such as Kanal 9, Panonija and RTV Most. Major local commercial radio stations include Radio AS FM and Radio 021.

Novi Sad is also known as a publishing centre. The most important publishing houses are Matica srpska, Stilos and Prometej. Well-known journals, in literature and art, include Letopis Matice srpske, the oldest Serbian Journal, Polja, which is issued by the Cultural centre of Novi Sad, and Zlatna greda, published by the Association of Writers of Vojvodina.

The city hosts an annual literature conference, Book Talk.

Sports
Founded in 1790, the  'City Marksmen Association' became the first sporting organization in Novi Sad. Founded on 28 March 1885, VK Danubius 1885 is the oldest rowing club in former Yugoslavia. A more widespread interest in competitive sports developed after the Municipal Association of Physical Culture was created in 1959 and when the Spens Sports center was built in 1981. Today, about 220 sports organizations are active in Novi Sad.

Professional sports in Novi Sad mostly revolve around the Vojvodina multi-sport association. Having won two championships in 1966 and 1989, the FK Vojvodina football club represents the 3rd all-time best team in Serbia, right behind its two Belgrade rivals, Red Star and Partizan. With 13 championship titles, OK Vojvodina is the top volleyball team in the country. As for handball, RK Vojvodina has won the national championship on multiple occasions.

Athletes from Novi Sad had the honour of participating in the first Olympic Games in Athens. The largest number of Novi Sad competitors, to participate in the Olympics, was at the Atlanta Games. Eleven athletes won 6 medals there. Three also competed at the 1980 Moscow Games, while two participated in the 1976 Montreal Games and the 1956 Melbourne Games. Many national and international competitions are held in the city. Novi Sad played host to the European and World Championships in table tennis in 1981 and the 29th Chess Olympiad in 1990. It also welcomed the European and World Championships in sambo, the Balkan and European Championships in judo, the 1987 final match of the Saporta Cup in European basketball, and the final tournament of the European volleyball cup. Furthermore, Novi Sad co-hosted the 2005 European Basketball Championship, as well as hosting the 2017 Volleyball World League matches. The year 2018 saw the city welcome the Senior European Fencing Championships and the European Senior Karate Championships.

The city also holds traditional sporting events such as the Novi Sad marathon, international swimming competitions and many other events. The very first 'MTB Petrovaradin Fortress Cup' took place in 2018, allowing national and regional cyclists to compete. It is also the first mountain bike competition to be held in Serbia.

Recreation
The inhabitants of Novi Sad engage in a wide range of recreational and leisure activities. With regards to team sports, football and basketball have the highest numbers of participants. Cycling is also popular due to the city's flat terrain and the extensive off-road network, found in nearby mountainous Fruška Gora. Hundreds of commuters cycle the roads, bike lanes and bike paths daily.

Proximity to the Fruška Gora National Park attracts many city dwellers on the weekends. They enjoy the numerous hiking trails, restaurants and monasteries located in and around the mountain area. Occurring on the first weekend of every May, the Fruška Gora Marathon lets hikers, runners and cyclists take advantage of the many hiking trails. During the summer months, citizens from Novi Sad visit Lake Ledinci in Fruška Gora, as well as the numerous beaches situated along the Danube, the largest being Štrand in the Liman neighbourhood. There are also several recreational marinas bordering the river.

Transportation

Novi Sad currently does not have its own civil airport. The city is roughly a one-hour drive from Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport, which connects it with capitals across Europe. The small Čenej Airport to the north of the city is used for sporting and agricultural purposes. There are plans to upgrade it to serve for cargo and small-scale public transport, but the future of this initiative is uncertain.
 * Air transport

The main public transportation system in Novi Sad consists of bus lines, operated by the public company JGSP Novi Sad. There are twenty-one urban lines and thirty-five suburban lines, with the main bus terminal being at the northern end of the Liberation Boulevard (Bulevar oslobođenja) next to the Novi Sad railway station, in addition to a smaller terminal in the town center. There are numerous taxi companies serving the city.
 * City transport

The city used to have a tram system, but it was decommissioned in 1957.

Novi Sad lies on branch B of the Pan-European Corridor X. The A1 motorway connects the city with Subotica and Hungary to the north and the capital city of Belgrade to the south. It runs parallel to the Budapest–Belgrade railroad, which connects it to major European cities. On 19 March 2022 the "Soko" (meaning "falcon") high-speed line between Novi Sad and Belgrade opened and runs with 18 departures daily. Its maximum speed is 200 km/h and the 75 kilometres between Belgrade and Novi Sad are covered in 35 minutes. Between Belgrade and Novi Sad there are a total of 60 departures per day. There are three types of trains in total. "Intercity" (SOKO), "Regio-ekspres" and "Regio". Novi Sad is connected with Zrenjanin and Timișoara on the northeast and Ruma on south with a regional highway; there are plans to upgrade it to a motorway or an expressway, with a tunnel under the Fruška Gora shortcutting the Iriški Venac mountain pass.
 * Rail and road transport

Three bridges cross the Danube in Novi Sad (as of 2020): Liberty Bridge (Most Slobode) connects Sremska Kamenica with the city proper. Varadin Bridge (Varadinski most) and Žeželj Bridge (Žeželjev most), connects Petrovaradin with city centre, and used for railway and heavy truck traffic. Many bridges also span the Danube-Tisa-Danube canal, running north of the city centre. Currently, two bridges over the Danube are being built, along with two new railway bridges over the Danube-Tisa-Danube canal.

The Port of Novi Sad is located on the outskirts of the city on Danube river. Since May 2019 it has been owned by DP WORLD from the UAE. With over a million tonnes of load turnover, it is the largest cargo port in Serbia.
 * Water transport

Twin towns – sister cities
Novi Sad has relationships with several twin towns and twin cities. One of the main streets in its city centre is named after Modena in Italy; and likewise Modena has named a park in its town centre Parco di Piazza d'Armi Novi Sad. A city square near the Varadin Bridge is named after Dortmund in Germany; and likewise Dortmund has named a city square Platz von Novi Sad. The Novi Sad Friendship Bridge in Norwich, United Kingdom, by Buro Happold, was also named in honour of Novi Sad. As of October 2023, there plans to establish twin city cooperation with Klagenfurt and Busan.

Novi Sad is twinned with:

 * 🇪🇬 Alexandria, Egypt (2021)
 * 🇲🇪 Budva, Montenegro (1996)
 * 🇨🇳 Changchun, China (1981)
 * 🇺🇸 Cleveland, Ohio, United States (2023)
 * 🇩🇪 Dortmund, Germany (1982)
 * 🇧🇾 Gomel, Belarus (2013)
 * 🇬🇷 Ilioupoli, Greece (1994)
 * 🇧🇦 Istočno Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2021)
 * 🇲🇰 Kumanovo, North Macedonia (2019)
 * 🇮🇹 Modena, Italy (1964)
 * 🇷🇺 Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (2006)
 * Norwich, England, United Kingdom (1989)
 * 🇭🇺 Pécs, Hungary (2009)
 * 🇫🇷 Taverny, France (2020)
 * 🇷🇴 Timișoara, Romania (2005)
 * 🇲🇪 Tivat, Montenegro (2023)
 * 🇲🇽 Toluca, Mexico (2015)

Partner cities
Most frequent cooperation is done with Budva, Dortmund, Taverny, Timișoara, Tivat and Ulm in the fields of culture, tourism and sports. Besides twin cities, Novi Sad has many signed agreements on joint cooperation with other cities, some of which could potential lead to twin city agreements. (see also: Politics of Novi Sad).

Novi Sad has signed agreements on joint cooperation with cities:

 * 🇧🇦 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006)
 * 🇬🇷 Corfu, Greece (2017)
 * 🇫🇷 Enghien-les-Bains, France (2020)
 * 🇷🇺 Frunzensky District, Russia (2003)
 * 🇸🇪 Gothenburg, Sweden (2002)
 * Kranj, Slovenia (2004)
 * 🇷🇺 Krasnodar, Russia
 * 🇺🇦 Lviv, Ukraine (1999)
 * 🇫🇷 Nant, France (2002)
 * Osijek, Croatia (2002)
 * 🇷🇺 Oryol, Russia (2017)
 * 🇫🇷 Saint-Leu-la-Forêt, France (2020)
 * 🇮🇷 Shiraz, Iran (2023)
 * 🇭🇺 Szeged, Hungary (2001)
 * 🇧🇦 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2002)
 * 🇩🇪 Ulm, Germany (2000)

Novi Sad is an associate member of Eurocities.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Novi Sad


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List of Special Areas of Conservation in Northern Ireland

Special Areas of Conservation in Northern Ireland are part of the European Union's Natura 2000 network of sites with special flora or fauna.

Northern Ireland has 54 SACs:


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Carloman II

Carloman II (c. 866 – 6 December 884) was the King of West Francia (future France) from 879 until his death. A member of the Carolingian dynasty, he and his elder brother, Louis III, divided the kingdom between themselves and ruled jointly until the latter's death in 882. Thereafter Carloman ruled alone until his own death. He was the second son of King Louis the Stammerer and Queen Ansgarde.

Upon Louis the Stammerer's death, some Frankish nobles advocated electing Louis III as the sole king, but eventually both brothers were elected kings. They were both crowned in September 879. Some doubts were cast upon the legitimacy of their birth, but these disappeared after their victory over the Vikings on November of that year. In March 880, the brothers divided their father's realm at Amiens, Carloman receiving the southern kingdoms of Burgundy and Aquitaine.

Meanwhile, the powerful Duke Boso of Provence had renounced his allegiance to both brothers and had been elected King of Provence on October 879. In 880, Carloman and Louis III marched against Boso and took the northern parts of his realm, starting a two-year siege in Vienne. The city was finally taken by Richard, Duke of Burgundy, in 882.

Carloman II died near Les Andelys while hunting on December 884. He was accidentally stabbed in the leg by his servant Bertoldus while they were attacked by a wild boar. Carloman survived but died seven days later, on 5–6 December. He was only about 18 years old. Some modern sources give his death date as 12 December, but this is not corroborated by contemporary sources. Carloman's land were inherited by his cousin, the emperor Charles the Fat.

title: Carloman II


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Desiderius

Desiderius, also known as Daufer or Dauferius (born c. 720 – died c. 786), was king of the Lombards in northern Italy, ruling from 756 to 774. The Frankish king of renown, Charlemagne, married Desiderius's daughter and subsequently conquered his realm. Desiderius is remembered for this connection to Charlemagne and for being the last Lombard ruler to exercise regional kingship.

Rise to power
Born in Brescia, Desiderius was originally a royal officer, the dux of Tuscia and he became king after the death of Aistulf in 756. At that time, Aistulf's predecessor, Ratchis, left his monastic retreat of Montecassino and tried to seize the kingdom, but Desiderius put his revolt down quickly with the support of Pope Stephen II. At his coronation, Desiderius promised to restore many lost papal towns to the Holy See and even enlarge the Papal State.

By 757, Desiderius began securing his power, taking what historian Walter Goffart terms, "vigorous steps to suppress resistance to himself in the powerful duchies of Spoleto, in central Italy, and Benevento, to the south." When the upstart Liutprand (Duke of Benevento)—who despised Desiderius—challenged his kingship and threatened to place himself under the protection of Pepin the Short, Desiderius obtained naval assistance from Byzantium and put an end to Luitprand's defiant actions. The Lombard king then granted Luitprand's former duchy to his foe's son, Arechis. In that same year, Desiderius deposed Alboin of Spoleto and exercised the ducal powers there himself. Seeking, like his predecessors, to extend Lombard power in Italy, Desiderius challenged the papacy and vied for the southern duchies. In the August of 759, Desiderius made his son Adelchis associate King of Lombardy.

Shortly after visiting Rome, where he prayed at the tomb of St. Peter, Desiderius "returned to the aggressive expansive policy of his predecessors." He even negotiated with Byzantium in an arrangement that would have eroded papal authority and resulted in further territorial loss for the Holy See in Rome. Sometime in 760, envoys from Pepin convinced Desiderius to return some of the cities he captured back to the papacy, but the Lombard king did not follow through on his promises.

Appointing Antipope Philip
Intervening in the crisis that ensued after the death of Pope Paul I in 767, Desiderius seized a priest named Philip from the Monastery of St. Vitus on the Esquiline Hill in Rome on Sunday, July 31, 768, and summarily appointed him pope. Antipope Philip was not recognized and failed to gain a significant following, so he left the same day and returned to his monastery, where he was never heard from or seen again.

Carolingian Intervention
While Pepin’s previous military campaigns in Italy against Desiderius' Lombard predecessors had been successful, the subsequent relations between the papacy (aligned with the Carolingians) and the Lombards were correspondingly strained and in 773, Pope Hadrian openly broke with king Desiderius. When Desiderius responded by moving against the papal cities, Hadrian immediately appealed to Charlemagne for help against the Lombards. Since the Lombards had blocked the passage through the Alps, Pope Hadrian had to send his embassy by sea; they were commissioned to remind Charlemagne that he was the protector of the papacy.

Originally, Charlemagne had remained on amicable terms with the Lombards, having been married to Desiderius’ daughter, Desiderata. Despite not liking the alliance between Lombards and Franks, Stephen III grudgingly maintained positive diplomatic standing with both kings, but his death in February 772 and the elevation of Pope Hadrian, who wished to undermine this relationship, altered the political environment. Hadrian hedged his bets and took measures to provoke Desiderius; actions designed to make him take an aggressive stance against the Holy See so an appeal could be made for Frankish assistance. Upon hearing the call for help, Charlemagne obliged the Holy See. Carloman's death also changed the situation. It seems the widow of Charlemagne’s brother (Carloman) and her children had taken refuge with Desiderius, who—so it was alleged in the Liber Pontificalis—intended to proclaim a Frankish successor. According to historian Roger Collins, the veracity of this claim can be questioned as a possible piece of disinformation from the papacy "intended to ensure the Frankish king’s help against the Lombards."

During the spring of 773, Charlemagne sent two Frankish armies against the Lombards and after an eight month siege, captured the capital of Pavia and Desiderius himself. Charlemagne subsequently exiled the Lombard king to the abbey of Corbie in northern France, and as “king of the Franks”, added the title “and of the Lombards”, lengthening his moniker. When Charlemagne took the title rex Langobardorum, it marked the first time a Germanic king adopted the title of a kingdom he had conquered. Although Charlemagne had the power to destroy the Lombards outright, he instead permitted them to "retain their laws and pardoned those who were traitors." In the end, Desiderius's ambitions brought about the end of the Lombard kingdom and he was the final Lombard king on record.

Family
He married Ansa (or Ansia) and, as well as a son, had five daughters:

 * Anselperga (or Anselberga), abbess of San Salvatore monastery of Brescia
 * Adelperga (or Adelberga), married Arechis II of Benevento
 * Liutperga (also Liutpirc or Liutberga), married Tassilo III of Bavaria
 * Desiderata married Charlemagne in 770 and was repudiated (a medieval form of divorce) in 771.
 * Gerperga (or Gerberga) married Carloman brother of Charlemagne
 * Adelchis (or Adalgis), patrician in Constantinople

Legacy
Today, the legacy of Desiderius still has significance in Italy. The beautiful monastic church of San Salvatore in Brescia, a testament to Lombard architecture still enduring, was constructed by Desiderius. His name in Italian—"Desiderio"—directly translates to "desire" in English. In the tragedy Adelchi, written by renowned Italian novelist and Poet Alessandro Manzoni in 1822, Desiderius is portrayed as vain man, destroying his kingdom and legacy over his desire for power. His son Adelchi (also called Adalgis) is torn over his father's will and his desire for peace, and dies of starvation. In the play, the author expresses regret that Desiderius and Lombards failed to unite the Italian peninsula. Dante Alighieri in Paradiso VI (line 95) refers to Desiderius as the "Lombard tooth" (or "snake") who bit the Holy Church and was subsequently defeated by Charlemagne.

title: Desiderius


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Carnuntum

Carnuntum ( according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress (castra legionis) and headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large city of approximately 50,000 inhabitants.

Its impressive remains are situated on the Danube in Lower Austria halfway between Vienna and Bratislava in the Carnuntum Archaeological Park extending over an area of 10 km2 near today's villages of Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg.

Military history
Carnuntum first occurs in history during the reign of Augustus (6 AD), when Tiberius made it his base of operations as a Roman fort (castrum) in the campaigns against Maroboduus (Marbod).

Legio XV Apollinaris
Significant Romanisation happened when the town was selected as the garrison of the Legio XV Apollinaris before 14 AD. A few years later, it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along the Danube from Vindobona (now Vienna) to Brigetio (Ó-Szőny). According to Tacitus, the emperor Claudius ordered the governor of Pannonia "to have a legion with an auxiliary on the bank of the Danube" to protect the losers of a dispute between Germanic tribes (the Quadi and Marcomanni) and deter the victors from the temptation to invade Pannonia. To this period (about 50 AD) belongs the auxiliary castrum of a cavalry ala 1.5 km south-west of the legionary fortress.

In 71 AD, after several campaigns, the Legio XV Apollinaris returned to Carnuntum and rebuilt its fortress. While some of the legion fought in Trajan's Dacian Wars, the main body of the legion remained in Pannonia.

Legio X Gemina
Legio X Gemina was sent to Carnuntum for a few years from about 63 AD. During the brief reign of Galba (68–69), it was transferred back to Hispania.

Legio VII Gemina
Legio VII Gemina, newly founded by Galba in 68 AD, was allocated to Carnuntum until about 71 AD after his defeat by Vespasian.

Legio XIV Gemina
In 117–118 AD, Carnuntum became the permanent quarters of Legio XIV Gemina where it stayed for three centuries until the frontier collapsed in 430.

History of the city
In Roman times, Carnuntum had a history as a major trading centre for amber, brought from the north to traders who sold it in Italy; the main arm of the Amber Road crossed the Danube at Carnuntum.

As Aelium Carnuntum, the capital of Pannonia Superior, it was made a municipium by Hadrian. Its importance is indicated by the fact that Marcus Aurelius resided there for three years (172–175) during the war against the Marcomanni, and wrote part of his Meditations there. Also Septimius Severus, at the time governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by his soldiers (193), to replace Emperor Pertinax, who had been murdered.

In the Severan dynasty (193–235), Carnuntum experienced an economic boom, the canabae reaching their maximum size. Caracalla elevated it to colony status as Septimia Colonia Aurelia Antoniana. During the reign of Gallienus, the Pannonians rebelled by electing the usurper Regalianus, who established a mint with coins depicted him and his wife Sulpicia Dryantilla. He was killed shortly afterwards by his own soldiers, probably at Carnuntum.

In 308, during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy, the Emperor emeritus Diocletian chaired a historic meeting there, the Conference of Carnuntum, with his co-emperors Maximian and Galerius, to solve the rising tensions within the tetrarchy.

Around 350 Carnuntum suffered severe earthquake damage.

In 374, it was destroyed by Germanic invaders, the Quadi and Iazyges. Although partly restored by Valentinian I, it never regained its former importance, and Vindobona became the chief military centre. During the Barbarian Invasions, Carnuntum was eventually abandoned and used as a cemetery and source of building material for building projects elsewhere. Eventually, its remains became buried and forgotten.

Today
The Archaeological Park Carnuntum comprises three sites:
 * Museum, Heidentor and amphitheatre near Petronell
 * Excavations in the garden of Petronell Castle
 * Museum Carnuntinum

Civilian city
The remains of the civilian city extend around the village Petronell-Carnuntum. There are several places to see in the city: Roman city quarter in the open-air museum, palace ruins, amphitheatre, and Heidentor.

The Roman city ruins are exposed in the open-air museum directly in the present village. One of the ancient houses, called the House of Lucius, has been rebuilt using traditional techniques. It was opened to the public on 1 June 2006.

The forum was next to the palace ruins, also referred to as the large public baths.

Some way outside the city was a large amphitheatre, which had room for about 15,000 spectators. A plate with an inscription found at the site claims that this building was the fourth largest amphitheatre in the whole Roman Empire.

Heidentor
Between 354 AD and 361 AD, a huge triumphal monument was erected next to the camp and city. Contemporary reports suggest that Emperor Constantius II had it built to commemorate his victories. When the remains of Carnuntum disappeared after the Migration Period the monument remained as an isolated building in a natural landscape and led Medieval people to believe it was the tomb of a pagan giant. Hence, they called it Heidentor ('Heathens' Gate' or 'Pagans' Gate').

Fortress
The only remaining building of the fortress is an amphitheatre, located just outside the fortress. Today, a small adjacent museum shows the history of gladiators.

Culture
The World Theatre Festival Art Carnumtum (Art Carnuntum Welttheater Festival ) is held each year in the ancient amphitheatre. Art Carnuntum is a cultural organisation that aims support the cultural and philosophical heritage of Europe and promotes classical drama in both traditional and contemporary styles. The festival was founded around 1988 by the italian artist Piero Bordin, who died suddenly in March 2021. Since 2021 Constantina Bordin is the new artistic director. Collaborators from Greece include Irini Pappas, Michalis Kakogianis, and Theodoros Terzopoulus, and the popular festival has become known as an international centre for ancient drama as well as European classical and modern music.

The festival was held in August in 2021.

Gladiator school
In September 2011 aerial photographs and ground-penetrating radar led to the discovery of the typical contours of an ancient Roman gladiator school to the south of the Roman settlement, a ludus rivaling the Ludus Magnus school and covering an area of some 3350 sqyd. This approach of aerial photography and modern remote sensing has allowed for a detailed virtual recreation of the gladiator school. The aerial photographs used in the recreation were acquired with a radio-controlled Microdrone md4-1000 quadrocopter, which captured a sufficient number of photographs to create an overlap among them. Then, using a technique called structure from motion (SfM), a 3D model of the school was calculated using the sharpest images.

The school, along with the amphitheater, was located outside of the town's walls. The school had training grounds, bathing facilities, an assembly hall and dormitories for the gladiators. The school also had a courtyard which housed a training area for gladiators. The school was attached to an open campus which was most likely used for chariot races.

Museum Carnuntinum
The archaeological museum Carnuntinum, which is situated in the village of Bad Deutsch-Altenburg on the river Danube, exhibits important archeological finds from the ancient city.

In fiction
Völkisch author Guido von List was so impressed with the ruins that he based his first novel, Carnuntum, on the subject. Another novel, Household Gods, by Harry Turtledove and Judith Tarr, is set in Carnuntum during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, from the point of view of a modern American time traveler.

In Frank Tallis's crime novel Vienna Blood, both Guido von List and his novel Carnuntum appear, together with an eponymous opera based on the novel.

title: Carnuntum


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Đorđe Balašević

Đorđe Balašević (Ђорђе Балашевић; 11 May 1953 – 19 February 2021) was a Serbian singer and songwriter, writer, poet and director. He began his career in the late 1970s as a member of the band Rani Mraz, transitioning after two albums to a solo career. He first gained mainstream prominence for writing Rani Mraz's hit "Računajte na nas" (Count on Us), which was often described as an anthem of a generation. Noted for his vivid lyricism and poetry, Balašević was also known for weaving political commentary into his songs and live performance.

Broadly supportive of South Slavic unity in late 1970s and early 1980s, in the lead up to the Yugoslav wars he began to criticise the authorities. During the Yugoslav wars, he became a prominent anti-war voice in the region, thanks to which he also became an UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador. Balašević was the first Serbian act to perform in Sarajevo following the siege of Sarajevo. Balašević became one of the most prominent critics of Slobodan Milošević's regime, at considerable personal risk. Balašević was a prolific singer and writer, he recorded 14 albums and wrote 8 books during his career and has been characterised by media and commentators as "musical legend" and author of many "evergreen hits".

Early biography
Balašević was born to a Serbian father Jovan, and mother Veronika Dolenec, half Hungarian and a half Croatian from Rasinja near Koprivnica, Croatia. He had a sister Jasna. His grandfather's surname was Balaš but during the World War II his grandfather changed it to Balašević in fear of being Magyarized.

The younger Balašević grew up in Jovan Cvijić street in Novi Sad, in the same house where he lived until his death. He started writing poetry in primary school. He left high school in the third year but managed to get a high school diploma as a correspondence student and passed the preliminary exam for the university study of geography. He never graduated from the university but instead, he decided to pursue a music career, and in 1977 he joined the band Žetva.

Early career: Žetva and Rani Mraz
After Balašević joined the group, Žetva recorded a humorous tango-oriented hit single "U razdeljak te ljubim" (I Lay a Kiss on Your Parting), which was sold in more than 180,000 copies. In 1978, he left Žetva and, together with Verica Todorović, formed the band Rani Mraz. The band had its debut at the 1978 music festival in Opatija with the song "Moja prva ljubav" (My First Love). During 1978, former Suncokret members Biljana Krstić and Bora Đorđević joined the band (forming the most famous Rani Mraz lineup), and together they recorded "Računajte na nas" (Count on Us), written by Balašević, a song which celebrated the youth's adoption of the communist revolution. The song became popular with both the communist authorities and the people, becoming an anthem of the Yugoslav youth. After just a few months of cooperation, Verica Todorović and Bora Đorđević left the band (Đorđević forming his famous hard rock band Riblja Čorba). Biljana Krstić and Balašević then recorded Rani Mraz's first album Mojoj mami umesto maturske slike u izlogu (To my Mom instead of Prom Photo in the Shop-Window) with the help of studio musicians.

At the 1979 Split Festival, Balašević won the first prize with the single "Panonski mornar" (Pannonian Sailor). A few months later, Rani Mraz sold out Belgrade's Dom Sindikata Hall eight times in a row. In 1980, Balašević served in the Yugoslav People's Army in Zagreb and Požarevac, where he had a role in the TV show Vojnici (Soldiers), but also found time to write song "Zbog tebe" (Because of You) for Zdravko Čolić and lyrics for several songs recorded on Srebrna krila album Ja sam samo jedan od mnogih s gitarom (I'm only One of Many with a Guitar).

By the end of 1980, Balašević and Krstić released their second and final album under the name Rani Mraz, with a symbolic title Odlazi cirkus (The Circus Is Leaving). The album reaffirmed Balašević's status and delivered several hit songs, one of them being "Priča o Vasi Ladačkom" (Story of Vasa Ladački) which went on to become one of Balašević's signature songs. However, Rani Mraz officially dissolved after that.

1980s
Balašević started his solo career in 1982 with the album Pub (Jack) which was well received, bringing hits "Boža zvani Pub" (Boža Known as the Jack), "Pesma o jednom petlu" (The Song about a Rooster), "Lepa protina kći" (Archpriest's Beautiful Daughter) and "Ratnik paorskog srca" (Warrior with Peasant's Heart). The album was produced by Josip Boček, who would also produce Balašević's following two releases. Shortly after, Balašević had a role in the TV series Pop Ćira i pop Spira (Priest Ćira and Priest Spira), recorded after Stevan Sremac's novel of the same title. At the time, he wrote the song "Hej, čarobnjaci, svi su vam đaci" (Hey, Magicians, Everyone Can Learn from You) for the football club Red Star Belgrade.

In December 1983, Balašević released the album Celovečernji the Kid (Wholevening the Kid), which featured hits "Svirajte mi 'Jesen stiže, dunjo moja'" (Play 'Autumn Is Coming, My Dear' to Me), "Neko to od gore vidi sve" (Someone from up above Watches it All), "Blues mutne vode" (Muddy Water Blues), "Lunjo" (Hey, Tramp) and "Don Francisco Long Play". The following album, 003, was released in 1985, and brought hits "Slovenska" (The Slavic Song), "Al' se nekad dobro jelo" (Back Then Eating Was Good), "Badnje veče" (Christmas Eve) and "Olivera".

In 1986, Balašević released the album Bezdan (Abyss), which brought hits "Ne lomite mi bagrenje" (Don't Break My Locust Trees), "Bezdan" and "Ne volim januar" (I Don't Like January). The record was produced by Đorđe Petrović and arrangements were done by Aleksandar Dujin. Those two would be the key associates of Balašević in the following years. They became the backbone of Balašević's supporting band nicknamed The Unfuckables.

In 1987, Balašević released his first live album, double album U tvojim molitvama – Balade (In Your Prayers – Ballads). The album was recorded during 1986 and 1987 on his concerts in Zetra hall in Sarajevo, Ledena dvorana and Šalata in Zagreb, Sava Centar in Belgrade, and Studio M in Novi Sad. The album featured a gift 7 in single with previously unreleased tracks "1987" and "Poluuspavanka" (Half-Lullaby). The album also featured previously unrecorded track "Samo da rata ne bude" (Just Let There be no War) which was recorded live with a large children's choir. On 19 July 1987, Balašević, alongside Parni Valjak, Leb i sol and Riblja Čorba, performed at Stadion Maksimir in Zagreb on the 1987 Summer Universiade closing ceremony.

Balašević's next studio album, Panta Rei, released in 1988. The song "Requiem" was dedicated to late Josip Broz Tito, while satire "Soliter" (High-rise) caricatures Yugoslavia as a building in which only façade still holds while foundations slide. Blues sound was present in the songs "Neki se rode kraj vode" (Some Were Born By the Water) and "Nemam ništa s tim" (I Have Nothing to Do with It). Balašević's following album, Tri posleratna druga (Three postwar Friends), was subtitled Muzika iz istoimenog romana (Music from the Novel of the Same Name), referring to his novel Tri posleratna druga. The album was recorded by Dujin, bass guitarist Aleksandar Kravić, and two musicians from Rijeka, guitarist Elvis Stanić (a former Linija 23, Denis & Denis, and Dr Doktor member) and drummer Tonči Grabušić. The album featured radio hits "Kad odem" (When I'm Gone) "D-moll" (D minor), "Ćaletova pesma" (Dad's Song), "Saputnik" (Fellow Traveler), "O. Bože" (Oh God), and folk-oriented "Devojka sa čardaš nogama" (A Girl with Csárdás Legs). The song "Sugar Rap" featured caricatured rap sound.

1990s
The album Marim ja... (As if I care...) was released in 1991. Beside Balašević's old associates, the album featured Davor Rodik (pedal steel guitar), Nenad Jazunović (percussion), and Josip "Kiki" Kovač (violin). The songs "Nevernik" (The Unbeliever), "Ringišpil" (Carousel), "Divlji badem" (Wild Almond) were the album's biggest hits.

As the Yugoslav Wars erupted, Balašević was forced to stop collaborating with Stanić and Grabušić (the two forming the jazz rock band Elvis Stanić Group). Balašević withdrew to isolation, partly due to his anti-war attitudes. His next album Jedan od onih života... (One of Those Lives...), released in 1993, featured Aleksandar Dujin on piano, Dušan Bezuha on guitar, Đorđe Petrović on keyboards, Aleksandar Kravić on bass guitar, Josip Kovač on saxophone, and Dragoljub Đuričić (formerly of YU grupa, Leb i Sol and Kerber) on drums. The songs such as "Krivi smo mi" (It's Our Fault) and "Čovek sa mesecom u očima" (The Man with the Moon in His Eyes) heavily criticized and denounced the ongoing war. At the same time, the compilation album Najveći hitovi (Greatest hits), featuring songs recorded during the 1986–1991 period, was released. The songs which appeared on the compilation were chosen by Balašević himself.

After a long break, at the beginning of 1996, he issued Naposletku... (After All...). Beside Balašević's old associates, the album featured young drummer Petar Radmilović. Na posletku... was mainly folk rock-oriented. Nearly all instruments on the album are acoustic, with the violin becoming dominant and woodwind instruments heavily used. In 1997, the live album Da l' je sve bilo samo fol?, recorded on 6 December 1996 on a concert in Maribor, was released in Slovenia.

The album Devedesete (Nineties), self-released by Balašević in the spring of 2000, was his most politically involved album. The album was produced by Petrović, and, beside old associates, featured the saxophonist Gabor Bunford.

2000s
In 2001, Balašević released the album Dnevnik starog momka (Diary of an Old Bachelor). The album comprised 12 songs, each having a female name as its title. The song titles form the acrostic "Olja je najbolja" (Olja is the Best), Olja being the nickname of Balašević's wife Olivera Balašević. Balašević stated on several occasions that the girls the songs were named after are pure fiction. In 2002, the compilation album Ostaće okrugli trag na mestu šatre (trans. A Round Trace Will Remain at the Place where Tent Used to Be, named after a verse from the song "Odlazi cirkus") was released. The album featured the choice of songs from Balašević's solo career, with some of the older songs prerecorded.

Balašević released the songs that should have been the soundtrack for the film Goose Feather on the album Rani mraz. The album's subtitle was Priča o Vasi Ladačkom.../Muzika iz nesnimljenog filma (Story of Vasa Ladački.../Music from the Film that was not Filmed). The album featured folk rock sound similar to the one on Na posletku. The album featured rerecorded "Priča o Vasi Ladačkom" and the instrumental track based on it, "Pričica o Vasi L." (Short Story about Vasa L.). The album also featured the song "Maliganska", which Balašević wrote at the beginning of his career and unsuccessfully offered to Zvonko Bogdan, and which was previously released by pop rock/folk rock band Apsolutno Romantično under the title Đoletova pesma (Đole's Song). The album, beside old associates, featured Zoran and Pera Alvirović (of Apsolutno Romantično), Andrej Maglovski (accordion), Stevan Mošo (prim), Beni Ćibri (double bass), Agota Vitkai Kučera (soprano), St. George Choir, and others.

2010s
In 2010, Balašević directed the film Like An Early Frost (originally titled Kao rani mraz), starring Daniel Kovačević, Rade Šerbedžija and Balašević's daughter Jovana, based on the song "Priča o Vasi Ladačkom". The film received mostly negative reviews by the critics. In 2012, Balašević released six new songs among which are: "Berba '59." (Harvest of '59), "Ljubav ne pobeđuje" (Love Doesn't Win) and "Osmeh se vratio u grad" (Smile Returned to Town). In 2015, Balašević released a song "Duet" dedicated to Kemal Monteno who had died in January of that year. In 2016, Balašević released a song "Mala vidra sa Begeja" (Little otter from Bega river).

Concerts
His traditional New Year's concerts in Sava Center hall in Belgrade were traditionally sold out. He sold out Sava Center for the first time in the 1982/1983 season.

Political stances
After releasing, one of his first songs "Računajte na nas" (Count on Us), Balašević was politically involved. Together with another early single "Triput sam video Tita" (I Saw Tito Three Times), these songs summed up his support for Yugoslavism and Titoism. In 2018, he commented that "Yugoslavia wasn't good, if it was good it would not fall apart so bloodily".

During the second half of the 1980s, Balašević began to criticize the authorities, and in the early 1990s his songs and stage speeches showed disillusionment and sadness over the fact that bloodshed was possible in the Yugoslavia he once admired. He openly criticized the up-and-coming forms of ethnic nationalism in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Slovenia.

In the ensuing war years, Balašević had serious problems with the government of Slobodan Milošević because he openly stated his opposition to it. At his concerts he often criticized and mocked Milošević and other Serbian politicians. In 1996, he became the UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador for his antiwar statements during the Yugoslav Wars and held the first post-war concert in Sarajevo as the first Serbian artist visiting war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In 2000, he took part in demonstrations during and following the downfall of Slobodan Milošević. In 2006, after Montenegro declared independence from the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, Balašević sent a letter to then Prime Minister of Montenegro Milo Đukanović in which Balašević congratulated Đukanović on the independence of Montenegro. He voted for Boris Tadić in the 2008 and the 2012 Serbian presidential election.

Personal life
Balašević lived in Novi Sad in the same house where he grew up, with his wife Olivera (born Savić in Zrenjanin), who was a ballerina and a member of the national gymnastics team, and their three children; daughters Jovana (an actress, born in 1980) and Jelena (born in 1984), and son Aleksa (born in 1994). On 14 November 2019, Balašević suffered a myocardial infarction from which he was recovering until his death. For most of his life, he declared himself as a Yugoslav. He married Olivera on 7 May 1981 in Novi Sad.

Death
Balašević died on 19 February 2021, in Novi Sad from complications of pneumonia, caused by COVID-19. On 22 February 2021, an event called Noć kada je Đole preplivao Dunav (eng. Night when Đole crossed the Danube) was organized in Novi Sad in memory of him. One of the participants was the Serbian National Theater choir.

Legacy
The 1998 book YU 100: najbolji albumi jugoslovenske rok i pop muzike (YU 100: The Best albums of Yugoslav pop and rock music) features two Đorđe Balašević solo albums, Bezdan (ranked No. 25) and Pub (ranked No. 66), and one Rani Mraz album, Mojoj mami umesto maturske slike u izlogu (ranked No. 44).

In 2000, the song "Slovenska" polled No. 69 on the Rock Express Top 100 Yugoslav Rock Songs of All Times list. In 2006, the song "Priča o Vasi Ladačkom" polled No. 13 B92 Top 100 Domestic Songs list. In 2011, the song "Menuet" was polled, by the listeners of Radio 202, one of 60 greatest songs released by PGP-RTB/PGP-RTS during the sixty years of the label's existence.

In 2007, twenty-one bands from Balašević's native Novi Sad, including Zbogom Brus Li, Pero Defformero, Super s Karamelom and others, recorded a tribute album to Balašević entitled Neki noviji klinci i.... In 2012, singer-songwriter and former Azra leader Branimir "Johnny" Štulić released a cover of "U razdeljak te ljubim" on his official YouTube channel.

In 2016, sketch show Državni posao created episode named after lyrics for a song Sugar rap. In January 2020, Državni posao aired episode referencing to his traditional concerts at the Epiphany (19 January) and his songs. In that episode, there was a dialogue where Novi Sad is a metaphor for Balašević himself.

"Has somebody died? Yes! Who? Novi Sad!"

Only 9 days before his death, Državni posao aired episode named after anthem of Yugoslav youth. Few days after death, Državni posao aired episode named after Rani Mraz second and last album Odlazi cirkus.

Even after the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s, Balašević remained popular and well-liked not only in Serbia but throughout the various former Yugoslav republics. News of his death was widely shared across Croatian and Bosnian media, with Bosnian web portal Klix.ba describing Balašević as a "legendary" performer whose songs could "inspire deepest emotion in an audience." In his hometown of Novi Sad, hundreds of people gathered in the town center after the news of his death, and besides in his native Serbia there were fan gatherings as well as in Zagreb and Pula in Croatia and in Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Mayor of Novi Sad, Miloš Vučević announced that on 21 February, day of mourning will be held in Novi Sad because of Balašević's death.

With Rani Mraz

 * Mojoj mami umesto maturske slike u izlogu (1979)
 * Odlazi cirkus (1980)

Solo

 * Pub (1982)
 * Celovečernji The Kid (1983)
 * 003 (1985)
 * Bezdan (1986)
 * Panta Rei (1988)
 * Tri posleratna druga (1989)
 * Marim ja... (1991)
 * Jedan od onih života... (1993)
 * Naposletku... (1996)
 * Devedesete (2000)
 * Dnevnik starog momka (2001)
 * Rani mraz (2004)

title: Đorđe Balašević


text:
Odo of France

Odo (Eudes; c. 857 – 1 January 898) was the elected King of West Francia from 888 to 898. He was the first king from the Robertian dynasty, the parent house of the House of Capet. Before assuming the kingship, Odo was the count of Paris. His reign marked the definitive separation of West Francia from the Carolingian Empire, which would never be reunited.

Family and inheritance
Odo was the eldest son of Robert the Strong, Duke of the Franks, Margrave of Neustria, and Count of Anjou and Adelaide of Tours. After his father's death at the Battle of Brissarthe in 866, Odo inherited the Margraviate of Neustria. Odo lost this title in 868 when King Charles the Bald appointed Hugh the Abbot to the title. Odo regained it following the death of Hugh in 886. After 882 he was the count of Paris. Odo was also the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours.

In 882 or 883 Odo married Théodrate of Troyes. The eleventh-century chronicler Adémar de Chabannes wrote that they had a son, Arnoul (c.882–898), who died shortly after his father. Guy is named as one of the couple's children in an Alan I's charter dated 28 August 903, but genealogist Christian Settipani has argued that the document is false. The genealogical work Europäische Stammtafeln refers to Raoul as a son of Odo by Théodrate, but its primary source is not known.

Reign
For his skill and bravery in resisting the attacks of Vikings during the 885–886 Siege of Paris, Odo was chosen by the western Frankish nobles to be their king following the overthrow of Emperor Charles the Fat. He was crowned at Compiègne in February 888 by Walter, Archbishop of Sens.

Odo continued to battle against the Vikings and defeated them at Montfaucon, but was soon involved in a struggle with powerful Frankish nobles who supported the claim of Charles the Simple to the throne.

In 890 Odo granted special privileges to the County of Manresa in Osona. Because of its position on the front line against the Moorish aggression, Manresa was given the right to build towers of defence known as manresanas or manresanes. This privilege was responsible for giving Manresa its unique character, distinct from the rest of Osona, for the next two centuries.

To gain prestige and support, Odo paid homage to East Francia's King Arnulf in 888. Despite this, in 894 Arnulf declared his support for Charles the Simple, and after a conflict which lasted three years, Odo was compelled to come to terms with his rival and surrender a district north of the Seine to him. Odo died in La Fère on 1 January 898.

In popular culture
A character named Count Odo is portrayed by Owen Roe in the History Channel's 2013 hit TV series Vikings. This fictional Odo actually saves Paris from a Viking attack, but is killed before ever succeeding in becoming king.

Count Odo appears in The Siege of Paris, the second expansion to the 2020 video game Assassin's Creed Valhalla.

Odo appears in the game Crusader Kings III as a bookmarked character. Players can play as him from the year 867, when he is ten years old, and may gain an achievement for leading his dynasty to rule the Kingdom of France.

title: Odo of France


text:
Talk:Erik the Red

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 13 January 2020 and 20 April 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Lunajb.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:48, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Problem
This article states as fact a great deal of hearsay and needs a heavy editing to seperate facts from what may or may not be true. Eric the Red and events in the early period of Greenland are recorded only in the Saga stories of Iceland - hundreds of years after the time period and with no attempt at historical accuracy. We have no idea, for example, how Eric the Red died or when or wether any plague took place in 1002. DHBoggs (talk) 11:59, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

My translation of Erik the Red's Saga has him alive and well after the return of Karlsefni's expedition to Vinland and long after Leif's accidental landing. This needs a more careful check of the sources. A 'plague' of sorts is recorded within the saga, wiping out several significant characters between Leif's return and Karlsefni's exploratory voyage, but not killing Erik.Anne Fenwick (talk) 22:49, 26 November 2014 (UTC)

mostly uninhabited?
Why did 71.50.86.162 remove the phrase "mostly uninhabited"? The island was indeed mostly uninhabited in the 10th century (there may have been Inuit in the far north). It's an important point, because uninformed readers ought to know that the Norse did not displace any native people when they settled southwest Greenland. Further, it may well have been the Little Ice Age and the resulting encroachment of the Inuit upon the Norse lands that led to (or at least contributed to) the disappearance of the latter in the 15th century. Their history very nicely illustrates the interplay of climate and human settlement, i.e. the Inuit were accustomed to a colder climate, hence throve in SW Greenland even as the Norse were just barely clinging on. Whereas in the 10th century those areas were just right for the Norse and too "tropical" for the Inuit. --Cubdriver 16:26, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

South of Cape Farwell?
What can this possibly mean? "Erik traveled southward from the tip of the island, soon to be called Cape Farewell and continued downward after having been discouraged to have found an area that was apparently too "formidable and uninviting." Eventually he reached a land with fair ouconditions similar to those of Norway that promised growth and prosperity. According to The Saga of Eric the Red, he spent his three years of exile exploring the coast of this land."

Cape Farwell is the southern cape of Greenland. Traveling south, and continuing downward, there is no land before Brazil! What am I missing here?

Banishment
Isn't the listing of the 2 incidents leading to Erik's banishment backwards? And with the extra information provided in the excerpt below, shouldn't we add in the greater details? WiseEyes 19:34, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

Does anyone have any details of the precise incident for which Eric was banished? This is important, because Eric the Red is known as the 'exiled murderer who was the son of an exiled murderer'. --Anon

I have the Penguin Classics translation of the Vinland sagas. Here is the text from Eirik's saga. The Saga of the Greenlanders shows the same facts but somewhat less extensive.

 * Eiriks's slaves started a landslide that destroyed the farm of a man called Valthjof, at Valthjofstead; so Eyjolf Saur, one of Valthjof's kinsmen, killed the slaves at Skeidsbrekkur, above Vatnshorn. For this, Eirik killed Eyjolf Saur; he als killed Hrafn the Dueller, at Leikskalar. Geirstein and Odd of Jorvi, who were Eyjolf's kinsmen, took action over his killing, and Eirik was banished from Haukadale.

 * Eirik then took possession of Brok Island and Oxen Island, and spent the first winter at Tradir, in South Island. He lent his bench-boards to Thorgest of Breidabolstead. After that, Eirik moved to Oxen Island, and made his home at Eirikstead. He then asked for his bench-boards back, but they were not returned; so Eirik went to Breidabolstead and seized them. Thorgest pursued him, and they fought a battle near the farmstead at Drangar. Two of Thorgest's sons and several other men were killed there.

 * After this, both Eirik and Thorgest maintained a force of fighting-men at home. Eirik was supported by Styr Thorgrimsson, Eyjolf of Svin Island, Thorbjorn Vifilsson, and the sons of Thorbrand of Alptafjord; Thorgest was supported by Thorgeir of Hitardale, Aslak of Langadale and his son Illugi, and the sons of Thord Gellir.

 * Eirik and his men were sentenced to outlawry at the Thorsness assembly. (...)

After this, the story goes on to tell that Eirik decides to look for 'Gunnbjarnar Skerries', a land found earlier in the west.

The sagas are much less clear on what happened in Norway. They just say that Eirik's father and Eirik "left their home in Jaederen, in Norway, because of some killings".

Andre Engels

Red Dragon?
The part that says that Eystribyggð means "Red Dragon" in old swedish seems really strange to me. I don't know Old Swedish, but in Norwegian the names of the two villages sound more like "Eystribyggð=Østerbygd=East Village" and "Vestribyggð=Vesterbygd=West Village" to me. user:Poccil, this phrase is a rather recent addition by you, do you have any basis for it?(Note left on Poccil's talk page).--MaxMad 09:34, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Just to confirm the usage: yes, the accepted translations are Eastern Settlement and Western Settlement, so Max is correct. --Cubdriver 10:58, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

Spelling
In order to comply with the "Use Common Names" policy, this aricle should be moved to Eric the Red, because that name is more common. Nohat 20:44, 30 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Eirik Raude
There is also a movable and extremely resistant drilling platform that goes by the name of Eirik Raude. Shouldn't that be mentioned, or a new article created?

--Cctoide 21:50, 4 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Dates
Can anybody substantiate these birth and death years? DoCB gives only fl. 985 Fawcett5 2 July 2005 19:08 (UTC)

Last Name Issue
My last name is Eri, my dad is norweigian. Supposedly I'm decendent from Eric the red.. Is there any way to find out? please someone reply... thanks

Eric the Bloody?
The article sez "the Red" was "perhaps because of his surly temper". I've red he was driven out of every place he lived (Norway, Haukadal, Breida Fjord) because of "some killings", & "the Red" was more likely "the Bloody" (but more polite...). Trekphiler 17:45, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

if you go online to i think its famousfamilytrees.com you can search erik the red and it'll say up to today i beleve!

[b]Red hair[/b] It is most likely he was called 'The Red' because of his red hair. M0NG0LIANWARRI0R 12:13, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

fear of the verb "to be"
The most recent edit has careful removed all cases of the passive voice and replaced them with often awkward constructions. A body of water for example "takes the name" of Eriksfjord. This is just plain wrong: the fjord didn't go to court and get its name changed! It was given that name (and indeed has since been given an alternate, Inuit name) by persons unknown. I would urge the editor not to go around rigidifying other articles in this manner. I would like to see this one reverted, but I don't want to get into a rv war over it. --Cubdriver 10:56, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I plead guilty as charged to fearing the verb "to be". On the other hand I don't feel terribly contrite about suffering from this disease. - I see this sort of stylistic revision as making our encyclopedia more precise and less biased (see E-Prime), and the Wikipedia style guide does frown on passive constructions in general. - If I have unintentionally changed or perverted a meaning, please correct it. In the case of Eriksfjord, I suggest that we could use "acquired the name ..." or "the Norse settlers gave [it] the name of ..." - Pedant17 00:10, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Fine, I'll revert it. --Cubdriver 10:47, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Jared Diamond explains Greenland Settlement collapse best?
I was wondering what basis with which Jared Diamond is considered to be an expert on the demise of the Greenland Settlement? "Collapse" is full of hypotheses that are not backed up with enough evidence for them to be considered fact. What evidence Diamond does use he does not properly cite the historians and archaeologists where he got the evidence. In mention of the Greenland Settlement and its demise Jared Diamond should not be mentioned. Thomas H. McGovern, who has done extensive research in the Greenland and written many papers on the subject, should be used as an expert instead. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 12.201.117.132 (talk • contribs). 22:15, 16 May 2006

Diamond is not an expert at all. Further, his imagination of a catastrophic mass starvation is not generally accepted by those who are. For the most part he rehashes some very old ideas, some good and some a little far fetched - but that is a whole other discussion. DHBoggs (talk) 11:52, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

Contradiction
There are several different dates of death given in the article, not sure which one is correct. Also, severely lacking in citations. --168.99.182.215 14:30, 18 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Having several different dates would be fairly normal. Consider most historical figures. 70.55.200.47 23:42, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

Popular culture
The popular culture section, which someone considers trivia, is entirely unverified. I'm moving it here.
 * Erik/Eric made a cameo appearance in The Wizard of Id. When asked to account for his name, "Eric the Red", he replied: "Go to a few meetings and you're marked for life!"
 * Satirist Will Cuppy discussed Erik/Eric in an essay centered on Leif. He stated that Eric's killing ways tapered off as he grew older: "He had learned that there is no use murdering people; there are always so many left, and if you tried to murder them all you would never get anything else done."
 * Thomas Holt's historical novel, Meadowland, portrays a reason for Erik/Eric's trip to Greenland: "all the bad stuff in his life, he decided, was because of other people - because he, left to himself, he was just a peaceful, harmless farmer who wouldn't hurt a mouse - and the only course left open to him was to up stick and go where there weren't any other people at all."

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 17:02, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Name listing
Is it really neccessary to list his name in 7 different languages? Isn't it fine just to stick with the English and then the Old Norse versions, instead of actually listing ALL the Nordic language version? I'd like to get consensus on this before I do any changes -- Palthrow (talk) 12:12, 17 May 2009 (UTC)
 * Sounds like a good idea to me. Go for it.--Breandán MacAmhlaidh (talk) 08:30, 26 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Agreed. -- Alexf(talk) 09:52, 26 September 2009 (UTC)

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Revising for Class Project
Hi! In the course of the next couple of weeks, I will be working on this article as an assignment for a technical editing course. As I go, I plan to put any ideas in my sandbox before I make any changes. The main focus of these changes will be the structural organization of the article, and I will likely not change any of the existing content. Thanks! Lunajb (talk) 17:35, 2 March 2020 (UTC)

Changes and Questions
I have made multiple changes to the structure of the article to make it more like similar articles, such as Leif Erikson. Because of this, some of the information is in new places and organized differently so it read chronologically. I also took away some of the information that only pertained to Leif Erikson since it was not necessary to understanding the context of Erik's life.

I have not done anything to the Greenland Saga section, but I do wonder if it is relevant to Erik the Red, himself. It seems to fall more in the topic of the Saga of Erik the Red instead. Would it be appropriate to delete it from this article or move it to the Saga of Erik the Red? Lunajb (talk) 06:12, 23 March 2020 (UTC)

Modern Icelandic
We do not need the modern Icelandic names in the lead of Old Norse articles, for the same reason we don't add modern Italian to Roman articles. This is the English Wikipedia - the only relevant names are what he's known as in English and what he was known as in contemporary times. MClay1 (talk) 13:34, 20 August 2021 (UTC)

 * I believe we've reached a compromise on my talk page to include the information in a note. I've made the change. No information has been lost. MClay1 (talk) 14:52, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: English 111 First-Semester College Composition
— Assignment last updated by Lincol7 (talk) 13:03, 4 December 2023 (UTC)

Lead Section Suggestions
''' The Lead Section should include a brief description of the article's major sections as currently it does not. '''

Lead section evaluation: I believe the lead section to be very concise and informative for someone doing a quick overview of who Erik was as it speaks on his greatest achievement, and important information such as where he was born, epithet, and that he is the father of the famous Leif Erikson. I do believe, however, that the lead section would benefit from including a brief rundown of the articles main sections, such as early life (name, birthplace, epithet speculation, maybe Norway banishment), brief rundown of his marriage and sons (speak on Leif Erikson), exile from Iceland, founded settlement in Greenland, and death (not specific cause just year). TheBigGorilla (talk) 23:22, 18 November 2023 (UTC)

 * I think that is a good suggestion, WP:LEAD advocates for generally four well composed paragraphs, this article has a single paragraph with plenty more content to draw from. TylerBurden (talk) 21:57, 19 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Erik the Red