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Talk:Cepstrum

What do you take the log of?

If you do a fft, say in matlab, you get the frequencies on an X axis and an associated amplitude on the Y axis. Lets say it says that the amplitude is 27 at 40 Hz. When I take the log of the FT, is it the log of the 27 or the of the 40? The same goes for the absolute value and the squaring. I know this must seem like a stupid question... and I think it would the be 27, but I appreciate any corroboration on this. It doesn't seem to answer this in the article.

Also, I thought that if you take an Inverse FFT on the FFT of a signal you get the signal back, so it effectively does the opposite operation, so how can both equations be right: FT->log->IFT and FT->log->FT

—Preceding unsigned comment added by 165.124.112.31 (talk) 09:46, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

Lots of sources claim that the cepstrum is FT->log->IFT, while others say "not only is the cepstrum FT->log->FT, but FT->log->IFT is wrong", whereas I don't see FT->log->IFT sources claiming that "FT->log->FT" is wrong. What is it? -Jay Kominek

The two methods are functionally equivalent. In the real case, when we use the IFT there is more data in the end result; however half of it is redundant due to symmetry. The IFT will double the number of points, while the FT will halve the number of points. So, using the IFT will yeild twice the frequency resolution. In this respect, using the IFT is equivalent to using the FT with zero padding to double the length of the signal. Using the IFT may also be desirable for purposes of mathematical analysis, which is probably why most DSP references prefer the IFT. From the intuitionists' perspective is that using the FT 'makes more sense', however using the IFT is certainly NOT wrong. In fact, it is always possible to interchange IFT and FT operators, as long as you know what you're doing. ;) --andy

 * Andy, this is misleading. The only difference between the Fourier transform and the inverse Fourier transform (or DFT and inverse DFT) is the sign of the exponent in the transform (and possibly the normalization), not the number of outputs.  I think you are confusing this with the fact that there are often specialized versions of the DFT (FFT) for real inputs, which only store half of the complex outputs, because the other half is redundant (and conversely, there are specialized inverse FFTs that take conjugate-symmetric outputs to real inputs), but this is an optimization of the implementation, and does not change the logical mathematical transform being computed. —Steven G. Johnson 19:44, Apr 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * In Oppenheim defines the complex cepstrum as complex Fourier transform -> complex logarithm -> inverse Fourier transform. Using this definition, complex cepstrum is invertible, and can be used for homomorphic filtering, i.e. deconvolution of a signal and a filter. In their original paper, Bogert et al. studied seismic echoes, for which the definition "the power spectrum of the log power spectrum" is more intuitive, and need not be invertible. Usually cepstrum is discussed in the context of deconvolution, so it is natural to use the Oppenheim's definition of complex cepstrum, even if the system doesn't need to be invertible. The important thing is the logarithm. Without the logarithm, the second spectral transform would essentially transform back to time domain. For the purposes of speech recognition features, either definition could be used. Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients are calculated using DCT as the second transform, because it works just as well, and also approximately decorrelates the features.

I removed the following note (in bold) from the article: "There are many ways to calculate the cepstrum, some of them need a phase-warping algorithm, others do not. (fixme which one one is?)" Dori 21:16, Nov 18, 2003 (UTC)

 * Many texts incorrectly state that the process is FT->log->IFT, i.e. that the cepstrum is the "inverse Fourier transform of the log of the spectrum". This is not the definition given in the original paper, but unfortunately is widespread.

Note that taking the IFT is equivalent to an FT if you have a purely real signal as input and you are computing the "real cepstrum" (log of magnitudes), which gives a real-symmetric signal as input to the final IFT or FT. So, maybe the IFT version is simply a generalization of the original definition to complex signals or complex cepstrums, and is not "incorrect?"

I don't know much about cepstrums (although I have a lot of experience with FFTs), but this article strikes me as bit weak from a mathematical standpoint. —Steven G. Johnson 19:44, Apr 21, 2004 (UTC)

"...unfortunately is widespread." it's more than widespread, it's almost the only used definition in the signal processing community. By the way, the definition in the mel-frequency domain (MFCC) use a DCT (discrete cosinus transform) instead of IFFT or FFT.Celsius813 17 May 2005

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This is a joke, right? "saphe-cracking" is the give away. Nominate for deletion, as well as anything that links here. --Wtshymanski 21:48, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC) My mistake...this really is legitimate, though in my defense Wikipedia is the first place I've ever heard of this. --Wtshymanski 18:31, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

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Shouldn't the first sentence be "A cepstrum (pronounced "kepstrum") is the result of taking the Fourier transform (FT) of the logarithm of the decibel spectrum as if it were a signal."?

 * please get a WP username and sign your posts. anyway, i think the sentence could be improved but (even though i don't use the term), the "decibel spectrum" has already had a logarithm applied to it.  you don't want to apply the log to the log of the spectrum. r b-j 03:08, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

-

Hey...I have read about cepstrums as homomorphic systems. So, if 2 signals are related in the time domain by a non-linear combination as a convolution..taking the FFT would result in the multiplication of the signals in the ffrequency domain. A log maps the multiplication into the addition domain. Any filtering action can now be performed to remove/smooth any of the signals. But the signals still remain in the frequency domain and an inverse FFT would result in us getting the transformed signal in the time domain. I think an IFFT is more appropriate. But this is the only place where I have seen this definition. --S.Sriram 11:28, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

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Is the etymology section some kind of joke? It's completely useless and should be taken out. One part of a sentence is all that is needed to explan that cepstrum is a rearrangement of spectrum.

"Correctness" of cepstrum definition
I know this has been discussed above, but a lot of the above discussion is old, and I don't want my contribution to be lost, especially since it concerns an edit I made. Moreover, I'm going to take this from a slightly different angle: what really makes one definition of "cepstrum" more "correct" than the other? Yes, FFT -> log -> FFT was the original definition, but FFT -> log -> IFFT is obviously useful to many people, and is what a lot of people mean when they say "cepstrum". Why can't it be both? Why does the original definition have to be the One True Definition? This is obviously a somewhat subjective matter. Because of this, I decided that it is not NPOV to declare that a given definition is "correct" and have reworded the article accordingly. - furrykef (Talk at me) 18:11, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

"Real cepstrum"

 * The real cepstrum uses the logarithm function defined for real values, while the complex cepstrum uses the complex logarithm function defined for complex values also.

I'm not quite sure what this means. Is it saying that the real cepstrum is real FFT -> log -> real FFT? In other words, throwing away the imaginary part after the first FFT as well as the second? I've also seen "real cepstrum" defined as the complex cepstrum with the real components thrown away at the end; which is it? - furrykef (Talk at me) 18:21, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * (Rewritten) Components are not usually thrown away but one may choose to reduce each real+imaginary pair of values to a single real value by rotating their vector angle to zero, where the imaginary part becomes zero. That obtains the absolute value of the complex value. Only its phase information is ignored, the new real value keeps magnitude information.Cuddlyable3 11:29, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

Absolute value
Also, I've also seen a cepstrum defined such that the absolute value is taken before the logarithm. This is not mentioned anywhere in the article; which way is it? Or is it another matter of debate like whether or not taking the IFFT can be considered "correct"? - furrykef (Talk at me) 18:51, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * (Rewritten) The absolute value is taken before the logarithm. Do not take an absolute value of a logarithmic (e.g. decibel) value! Cuddlyable3 11:29, 25 June 2007 (UTC)

The article describes the definitions for the power cepstrum:

--
 * mathematically: power cepstrum of signal $$=\left|\mathbf{F}\left\{\mbox{log}(\mathbf{F}\left\{\mbox{the signal}\right\})^2\right\}\right|^2$$

 * algorithmically: signal → FT → abs → square → log → FT → abs → square → power cepstrum

--

However, the formula does not agree with the other definitions. It would be

mathematically: power cepstrum of signal $$=\left|\mathbf{F}\left\{\mbox{log}(\left|\mathbf{F}\left\{\mbox{the signal}\right\}\right|)^2\right\}\right|^2$$

Otherwise, the square may even return numbers smaller than zero, because the argument is a complex number; remember that $$i^2=-1$$. --62.159.14.3 (talk) 10:55, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

Another note, the definition of the complex cepstrum is messed up as well. It says:

 * signal → FT → abs → log → phase unwrapping → FT → cepstrum

However, this does not make sense: the absolute value of the Fourier transform is real, the following logarithm yields always a real result. Therefore, the logarithm does not have any imaginary part, and phase unwrapping would not be necessary. Actually, in the most reliable definition of the complex cepstrum that I have available here, Digital Signal Processing by Alan Oppenheim and Ronald W. Schafer, Prentice Hall, 1975 edition, page 500, which is part of the chapter 10, "Homomorphic Signal Processing", there is no absolute value. To me, it does not make any sense. Please get some books, verify and fix up the article. --62.159.14.3 (talk) 11:31, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

Added convolution note
The property that convolutions turn into additions is very important and is indeed a large part of the motivation behind the cepstral domain in the first place. I'm not too good at the math latex stuff so maybe someone can fix that up. --Speedplane 05:14, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

How to edit "References" section?
New at this. The word "Analysis" is misspelled in the first (BP Bogert, MJR Healy, JW Tukey) reference.Smoo222 (talk) 21:28, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

 * No, it's not. It's a playful alteration of the word in the same way that "cepstrum" is an alteration of "spectrum". - furrykef (Talk at me) 04:38, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Oops! You're right. About 1/3 of the references to that article online have "corrected" the spelling, but indeed, the original was spelled 'alanysis'. Thank you. Smoo222 (talk) 16:07, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

Cepstral concepts

 * >For example, if the sampling rate of an audio signal is 44100 Hz and there is a large peak in the cepstrum whose quefrency is 100 samples, the peak indicates the presence of a pitch that is 44100/100 = 441 Hz.

For me, this seems incorrect at first glance. The peak indicates there are some pitches with frequency differences of 440 Hz. Couldn't this for example also be a 220Hz symmetric square wave? (220Hz-660Hz-1100Hz-1540Hz...)? I have no means to test this right now without endless calculations, but this is what I'd guess from what I assumed to have understood - it could even be something completely disharmonic, as if you take this square and frequency-shift it by 100Hz. The 440Hz base frequency would then just be the "most probable guess", as the other examples are more or less unlikely for "real world signals". You might have to take into account the saphe to separate such cases. Jssr67 (talk) 20:03, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

 * I think that using the word "pitch" doesn't make the case clearer. One cause is that Pitch (psychophysics) is actually a psychoacoustical quantity. The perceived pitch can certainly be related to periodicities in the signal, but it can also be quite different. I think it is safer to say that the cepstrum shows marked peaks when harmonic structures in the spectrum present, and is therefore usually related to periodicities in the time signal, which in themselves can be perceived as a pitch. In the example above, the perceived pitch would be the fundamental frequency, or F0 (but alas: a pitch can also be perceived for a F0 which isn't there at all, for example when the signal is high-pass filtered, e.g. telephone speech). The physical periodicity in the time signal is also, clearly, 1 / (220 Hz), and one would expect the highest peak in the cepstrum at this position, at a "Quefrency" of 4.54545454... ms.

 * Another thing that might well be worth noting is that when some physical body is periodically excited in a nonlinear manner, then a harmonic spectrum appears, and maximum place in the cepstrum (ignoring an always existing maximum at zero) will indeed show the fundamental frequency. Therefore, the cepstrum is quite important in the analysis of machine vibrations e.g. of gears, because damage of toothed wheels will usually cause such nonlinearities and harmonic noises, which are readily detectable in the cepstrum.
 * --62.159.14.3 (talk) 18:15, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

Confusion - two definitions
In engineering signal analysis the cepstrum is the spectrum of the spectrum ie Ecepstrum=FFT(log(abs(FFT(timesignal))). In speech analysis it is something else involving an IFFT, something like Scepstrum=IFFT(log(abs(FFT(timesignal))).

I very much doubt the two are equivalent and I think it would be a good idea to have sections on each. At the same time I have no great enthusiasm for doing so since Ecepstrum is not very useful. Greglocock (talk) 03:22, 18 September 2013 (UTC)
 * In Lectures "Speech Processing by Computer" (Notes on Computing the IDFT and Cepstrum) by Professor Leah H. Jamieson we have explanation that those two definitions are interchangeable when considering real even functions, which is the case of log(abs) function.--46.215.36.139 (talk) 17:17, 21 January 2014 (UTC)

Minor Ambiguity
The picture located here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cepstrum_signal_analysis.png is very useful for seeing how a cepstrum 'works'; however, it's located within the paragraph defining the four types of cepstra and doesn't have any mention of which type the picture contains. Can someone clarify? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.155.204.180 (talk) 16:13, 9 April 2015 (UTC)

It's the one I have called an engineering cepstrum elsewhere on this talk page. Greglocock (talk) 00:22, 10 April 2015 (UTC)

Improvement of the introduction section
I added more information to the introduction in order to explain background and purpose already in the first sentences (for the quick reader, who is not already familiar with the concept of "cepstrum"). This gives then the possiblity to add more structure and details to the main content and to make separate headlines for power cepstrum, complex cepstrum etc. This will come soon. --Mbasti01 (talk) 16:09, 5 April 2020 (UTC)

Repeated text?
The following text is repeated in the article:

The name cepstrum was derived by reversing the first four letters of spectrum. Operations on cepstra are labelled quefrency analysis (aka quefrency alanysis[1]), liftering, or cepstral analysis. It may be pronounced in the two ways given, the second having the advantage of avoiding confusion with kepstrum. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lehnekbn (talk • contribs) 11:41, 10 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Fixed. 109.252.90.119 (talk) 21:45, 3 November 2021 (UTC)

Cepstrum
Jh 105.103.225.201 (talk) 14:26, 14 December 2022 (UTC)

Ad for a paper in 'Applications'
The second paragraph in the Applications section ("Recently, cepstrum-based deconvolution was used on surface electromyography signals [..]") reads like an ad for the referenced paper. It is too long and detailed compared to the surrounding content and feels out of place.

And indeed, the paragraph was added by a user 'Orcioni', the same name as the second author of the paper (edit of 11:36, 20 March 2018; a year after the paper's publication). TomasFiers (talk) 16:07, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cepstrum


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Disjoint

Disjoint may refer to:
 * Disjoint sets, sets with no common elements
 * Mutual exclusivity, the impossibility of a pair of propositions both being true

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Disjoint


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Portal:Current events/March 2002

March 2002 was the third month of that common year. The month, which began on a Friday, ended on a Sunday after 31 days.

Portal:Current events
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title: Portal:Current events/March 2002


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Talk:Israeli-Palestinian conflict (Current)

-Nonsense cuncator, Its background and the last of the three parter, Its not meant to be exactly up to date, just to more or less organise the last eight years in a synoptical way. This is not to say you cant go ahead yourself and add dates in the highest British attention to the wrong detail, knock yourself out,

But dont take it upon yourself to be destructive  when someone, I, am working my ass off to be constructive. And stick your comments on the Talk page. - Sv

Okay, knock yourself out. I'll probably rename it to something more appropriate. There's no need to get upset; as you did, you just restored your version. BTW, I don't understand "highest British attention to the wrong detail".--The Cunctator

I like the dates. makes sense, at least. I do feel odd, having my work munched on so soon after it was stubbed, sort of seems appropriate to let things stew... you? - Sv Ps. dont forget to change the links on the headers- four pages, main and the three. with your changes, should mean 9 new links. no use in making so many redirects, im thinking, or... maybe theyre fine, what do you see? Redirect for recent history doesnt work. editing only reveals the new page...


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Portal:Current events/February 2002

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Talk:Action film

Is Action a Genre???
It is the most recent of film genres, but is it really a genre?? For me it's just a sub-genre of thriller/suspense with more action than your average thriller. 201.42.211.28 (talk) 23:36, 12 February 2010 (UTC)
 * There have been several books citing it here as a genre. Please note that your suggestions are against WP:OR. Regardless, I do not think the films of Jackie Chan would be part of any subgenre of thrillers for example. Andrzejbanas (talk) 02:56, 13 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Martial arts films in general are hard to re-categorize as thrillers or crime, though that can be a secondary characteristic. The style of fighting is so prominent and so characteristic of MA movies that it becomes their defining trait, so in that sense I think they are very "pure" action movies. Of course that's up for debate. Alexgriffith (talk) 22:00, 22 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, action is a genre by its OWN. People even argue that horror is also part of thriller. This just makes the thriller genre way too broad. Action and horror are both evolved enough to be by THEMSELVES - individual genres. In actuality, thriller should also be a sugbenre of crime or drama because most have incredible amounts of drama and crime elements. You see, this goes like a domino effect. I hereby say that action, thriller and horror are individual genres. They can diverge, but not usually.User:Lionhead99 (talk) 20:56, 8 June 2012 (EST)
 * I agree with Lionhead99 and would add that what makes action a genre isn't just the common "content" tropes - the lone hero, the resolution of conflicts through violence, and car chases or other familiar set pieces - but also how it's filmed. I'm going to add a sections called something like "Camerwork in Action Cinema" or "Action Cinema", discussing kinetic editing, shakey cam, steadicam, quick cuts, using Paul Greengrass, Quentin Tarantino, and John Woo as examples. I'll also link to a really good video-essay by Matthias Stork on the decline of action cinema. One opinion among many but it's good to include the general internet discussion on a topic's Wiki page. Let me know what you think! Alexgriffith (talk) 20:17, 22 March 2013 (UTC)

References to use

 * Please add to the list references that can be used for the film article.

 * — Preceding unsigned comment added by Erik (talk • contribs) 21:13, 25 August 2011 (UTC)
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 * — Preceding unsigned comment added by Erik (talk • contribs) 21:13, 25 August 2011 (UTC)

Non-free file problem
File:Sonny Chiba The Street Fighter.JPG was removed from this article because it either does not have a Non-free use rationale or there are problems with the existing rationale. Please see Non-free content criteria for the applicable policy and Non-free use rationale guideline for how to fix the problem. If further input or help is needed, questions can be directed towards Media copyright questions, the help desk or my talk page. Thank you. Toshio Yamaguchi (talk) 10:24, 17 October 2011 (UTC)

Grammatical and stylistic problems with the article
I have attempted to remove grammatical issues in the portion of the article that explains the history of the action film. There are many cases where sentences could be compressed and words could be eliminated, and I have tried to do this for clarity.

I'm not going to alter the overall narrative of the history of the action film, although I do have some problems with the way it is presented here. It seems that the author(s) are using their personal knowledge of action films but are not providing the proper references to back up their claims.RoyalBlue43 (talk) 00:56, 25 March 2013 (UTC)

Removal of Top Ten Lists
In an effort to contribute to the clean-up effort, I have removed two sizable sections including lists of the "top ten" action films and actors. Though clearly made in good faith, these lists were based upon somewhat subjective information; a single IMDB link alone for each section is an insufficient reference, and a "top" anything that cannot be quantified is inherently un-encyclopedic. "Top-ten grossing films" would be okay (though probably not necessary in this article), but "top-ten" alone is not. Please discuss any other changes before implementing them. --Jackson Peebles (talk) 04:50, 26 March 2013 (UTC)

Sub genres
I've removed sections of sub-genres that either I don't believe they should be re-added without sources. Andrzejbanas (talk) 11:29, 6 July 2020 (UTC)
 * didn't have sources
 * stated information that was not in their sources at all.
 * The recent additions to these sections again state information that is not in the source. The action adventure genre is pulled from this and does not state what is written here at all. Same with the action-drama sources here, this one is referring to television genres, not film, this is no appropriate so I'll have them removed. Andrzejbanas (talk) 17:22, 6 July 2020 (UTC)

It would have been better to rewrite according to the sources. This was the book which I took info on action adventure from. Kailash29792 (talk)  17:52, 6 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Looking at that page, it still says what is stated in the previous source, which was not stated at all on your source. This authors definition seems to be nearly the same as the action thriller definition item as well. Which would look weird on the page. Andrzejbanas (talk) 13:28, 7 July 2020 (UTC)

 * , please comment. Let's come to a consensus that allows redirects like action drama film and action adventure film to remain undeleted and correctly targeting anywhere without being broken redirects. Kailash29792 (talk)  14:08, 8 July 2020 (UTC)

Well, first off, I am sorry for responding late. I too think that redirects to action drama film and action adventure film should at least remain undeleted. There are many movies that combines these genres, and I've myself used the aforementioned redirects instead of mentioning them separately. But as for listing the sub-genres on the article page itself, it's a bit difficult to say. Action can be combined with any other genre, and I'd agree with what AllMovie says for the genre's speciality:

"the various other action subgenres too numerous to mention."

But redirects are pretty harmless. Especially when a lot of Indian movies make use of them, mostly action-dramas. Action-adventure still remains an uncharted territory for many movies, but given there are movies that combine both the genres instead of falling into just one, I think redirects shouldn't be a problem. I'm not going to question the removal of sub-genres such as action-crime because again, action can be combined with any other genre and that would make the combinations, too numerous to mention. (77Survivor (talk) 14:42, 8 July 2020 (UTC))

I'm sorry but the removed subgenres do exist, and if you're unhappy with the sources at the moment, I will add more sources to back them up. 2A02:C7F:6E64:1C00:6D74:7E53:B048:55D6 (talk) 15:06, 8 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you 2A02:C7F:6E64:1C00:6D74:7E53:B048:55D6 for restoring those sections. Now please add more sources to the films mentioned under Action -horror. Kailash29792 (talk)  15:14, 8 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Will do tomorrow when I'm a little freer. 2A02:C7F:6E64:1C00:6D74:7E53:B048:55D6 (talk) 15:17, 8 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I've re-removed them as the current sources and content re-added was not backed up by their source. I'm happy for re-adding them, but I can't think of any instance when you should be re-adding them with sources that do not reflect the content. Andrzejbanas (talk) 15:51, 8 July 2020 (UTC)
 * , did you read mine and 77Survivor's comments? Also, did you read this source I had added? Page 174 says, "Action-adventure films were among the most popular movies of the 1980s. The three Indiana Jones films, starring Harrison Ford, are the archetype of this genre, in which the male hero performs remarkable feats that require bravery and skill throughout a fast-paced 90-minute struggle with an evil villain. The hero ultimately emerges triumphant after several close calls, defeating the villain, saving the day, and usually winning the affection of the female lead. One version of this genre places the hero in faraway, exotic lands, making the villains and the action more unpredictable." Taking info from that, I wrote the section which you mercilessly reverted, saying it does not match the source. Kailash29792 (talk)  15:58, 8 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I must have made a mistake. I was distracted that all the other content re-added without a source (or sources that didn't match their content). I am confused how they say "one version of this genre" which does not sound like a really strong argument of what the genre is about. Also, is this genre more related to adventure films, or more related to action films? They seem to go on about it also belonging to the Vietnam War genre style, but then list things like Rush Hour which seem to contradict what the style of the genre is. I apologize though, it was a mistake on my part. Andrzejbanas (talk) 16:04, 8 July 2020 (UTC)

Coinage of the term
Some time in maybe the mid 80s A writer from the northern US was discussing with my girlfriend an article he was writing about the genre. He was having a problem with what to call the genre. My girlfriend, having previously discussed our preferences in movies where I told her I preferred more action than she did, called me into the conversation asking what the genre of movies like "Rambo" was called. I did not know but made up the term "action movie". Both her, and the writer literally burst in recognition of the appropriateness of the term. Shortly after that the term was widely used in publication. I say this for anyone who wants to research the coinage of the term to look in northern US publications mid 1980s for origin of the term.

98.164.71.229 (talk) 06:43, 13 September 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 21 August 2020 and 10 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Tpourci1, Kmklein1, Troygreen65. Peer reviewers: Aellengray, Favaa98, Laurensmith18.

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Orphaned references in Action film
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Action film's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "lim": From Vigilante film:  From Taxi Driver:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 09:24, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Information Literacy and Scholarly Discourse
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Wiki Education assignment: Information Literacy and Scholarly Discourse
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Re-write
So....I re-wrote the entire article. I've been slowly trying to clean up articles on film genres (see Horror film, Thriller film, Mystery film, etc.) Most of this was unsourced or just did not have any real clear information (citing IMDb, citing nothing, having a history section just be a list of popular films with little context to the a history). I've basically tried to make it stick to scholarly information and publications and cleaned out fillers on actors, etc. It needs some expansion still, but I would appreciate some checking in on this.

My main issues with my own re-write:
 * It's very Hollywood centric, which I think is fine for now, we can build on it like I have in the horror film section on regional areas.
 * Action history kind of cuts off around 2010. There is a new book Yvonne coming out this year which covers the 21st century action film.
 * Some weird issues: Is a martial arts film a sub-genre of the action film? They exist before the contemporary understanding of what action cinema exists, so I don't think it would be 100% correct to call it that.
 * I've removed most of the hybrid genres which just all politely say "science fiction action is action and science together. action horror is action and horror together." These are all kind of...useless and felt as embarrassing as these films can be ;)

I look forward to anyone's response on this. Andrzejbanas (talk) 06:41, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I just wish you hadn't deleted insightful sources such as this and this. Kailash29792 (talk)  09:40, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Nothing's deleted. It's all accessable via the article history. But I'll be honest, I don't see the The Flickering Myth as being a strong source. It honestly appears to be a blog? Andrzejbanas (talk) 12:36, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * First, let me just say that any effort in cleaning up these genre articles is greatly appreciated! I think a lot of editors in the film project get bogged down with other tasks, so much so that these articles tend to fall by the wayside.Flickering Myth is a blog site, but it is self-proclaimed as one of UK's "most influential" (at least at one time, but is that still true?). The site also appears to be run by subject matter experts as well. However, the site's presentation is sub-par IMO and gives off unprofessional vibes. I wouldn't mind if it's cited sparingly, but for any strong claims, I think it's best used as a complementary source only. My 2¢ --GoneIn60 (talk) 17:16, 25 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you! This one has been the most fun to do some research and reading on so far. There citations seem relatively not in-depth (the action horror one reads like a fanzine, there is almost no insight whatsoever.) I do recall the phrase arthouse action being tossed around, but I think it needs more critical depth than the other citation also currently has. On googling, i'm just surrounded by listicals which barely register. Andrzejbanas (talk) 18:50, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

I've basically moved the Hong Kong section into part of the main history. Research best suggests it should be understood from two angles: the Hong Kong film history of it and the Hollywood-style. That way, you can say Hollywood-style and still include things that obviously aren't American like Mad Max 2 in it. I have found information on more specific Australian mode of action films, so i'll try to include that in the future.Andrzejbanas (talk) 19:22, 26 January 2024 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Arthouse action film into Action film
On trying to look up serious journalism on the topic, I've come up empty-handed. This sub-genre is mostly from a blog, with no real industry observation. It appears to be just used amongst enthusiastic bloggers irregularly and with no cohesion to what constitutes the genre. Andrzejbanas (talk) 23:54, 27 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I nominate to keep this article as it is Espngeek (talk) 00:40, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * It doesn't really address that there is no real serious journalism or critical analysis of what the genre is. Could you provide some ? Andrzejbanas (talk) 00:57, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Define "serious journalism" in order for this article to merge Espngeek (talk) 03:15, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Like, non-blogs or listicles that can discuss the genre. Andrzejbanas (talk) 04:22, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Can we merge this article already? Espngeek (talk) 15:05, 2 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I would generally just have this re-direct at this moment. The list generally does not state the genre claimed for most films. We'd still need a better citation for the genre lead, but if you are comfortable, I'm happy to do that. Andrzejbanas (talk) 22:10, 2 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Going to go ahead and move it as there hasn't been any real discussion beyond this. Andrzejbanas (talk) 19:30, 25 March 2024 (UTC)

. I have yet to really find anything referring to this genre in any serious history, discussion, or more than one multiple source outside cheap listicles trying to categorize this genre. I'm proposing it gets removed if we can't find anything more detailed and as this article is expanding. Andrzejbanas (talk) 16:06, 24 June 2024 (UTC)

Sub-genre removal
I've removed a recent addition of sub-genres. Without context or real unique specifics, I think the hybrid genre section covers basically what would be expected. They are hybrids and are used in different contexts depending on who is calling it that. Trying to define them won't agree with anyone. Andrzejbanas (talk) 00:30, 19 February 2024 (UTC) To follow up on this, I do not think it's a great idea to make the hybrid genre thing a dumping ground for listing numbers of hybrids. I have confidence in a reader they can understand what a hybrid genre means from the few examples and that they are all vague in how they can be interpreted. Andrzejbanas (talk) 15:08, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

History
The history section actually drops anything what happened before 1960s; e.g. The Great Train Robbery (1903 film) had already anthing what later would be substantial to action movies, stunts, shootouts, pursuits. In the 1930s serial films did the same. For sure these weren't pure action films yet, but important precedessors. --2A02:560:5491:6700:8B0:DB6D:4BA9:C9C9 (talk) 14:48, 10 June 2024 (UTC)

 * There were tons of films with scenes of stunts and scenes of spectacle and other action-film-esque materia, but they weren't described as action films as we would know them today. It would be an Anachronism to refer to these films that way and to assume they were the forebarers would also be presumed. The article goes into detail about this already. Andrzejbanas (talk) 15:52, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Action film


text:
Portal:Current events/October 2002

October 2002 was the tenth month of that common year. The month, which began on a Tuesday, ended on a Thursday after 31 days.

Portal:Current events
This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from October 2002.

title: Portal:Current events/October 2002


text:
Chart parser

In computer science, a chart parser is a type of parser suitable for ambiguous grammars (including grammars of natural languages). It uses the dynamic programming approach—partial hypothesized results are stored in a structure called a chart and can be re-used. This eliminates backtracking and prevents a combinatorial explosion.

Chart parsing is generally credited to Martin Kay.

Types of chart parsers
A common approach is to use a variant of the Viterbi algorithm. The Earley parser is a type of chart parser mainly used for parsing in computational linguistics, named for its inventor. Another chart parsing algorithm is the Cocke-Younger-Kasami (CYK) algorithm.

Chart parsers can also be used for parsing computer languages. Earley parsers in particular have been used in compiler-compilers where their ability to parse using arbitrary Context-free grammars eases the task of writing the grammar for a particular language. However their lower efficiency has led to people avoiding them for most compiler work.

In bidirectional chart parsing, edges of the chart are marked with a direction, either forwards or backwards, and rules are enforced on the direction in which edges must point in order to be combined into further edges.

In incremental chart parsing, the chart is constructed incrementally as the text is edited by the user, with each change to the text resulting in the minimal possible corresponding change to the chart.

Chart parsers are distinguished between top-down and bottom-up, as well as active and passive.

title: Chart parser


text:
O. R. Tambo International Airport

O. R. Tambo International Airport is an international airport serving the twin cities of Johannesburg and the main capital of South Africa, Pretoria. It is situated in Kempton Park, Gauteng. It serves as the primary airport for domestic and international travel for South Africa and since 2020, it is Africa's second busiest airport, with a capacity to handle up to 28 million passengers annually. The airport serves as the hub for South African Airways. The airport handled over 21 million passengers in 2017.

The airport was originally known as Jan Smuts International Airport, after the former South African Prime Minister. It was renamed Johannesburg International Airport in 1994 when the newly elected African National Congress (ANC) government implemented a policy of not naming airports after politicians. This policy was later reversed, and on 27 October 2006 the airport was renamed after anti-apartheid politician Oliver Tambo.

History
The airport was founded in 1952 as Jan Smuts International Airport, two years after Smuts's death. Situated near the town of Kempton Park on the East Rand, it replaced Palmietfontein International Airport, which had handled European flights since 1945.

In 1943, a decision was made by the Cabinet of the Union of South Africa to construct three international airports with a Civil Airports Advisory Committee formed to investigate and report on the viability. That report was submitted to the Cabinet in March 1944 with one main international airport on the Witwatersrand and two smaller international airports at Cape Town and Durban. The South African Railways and Harbours Administration was given the role of managing the project and later in 1944, a member went to the United States to study standards and methods of construction. Four possible sites around Johannesburg were identified, with one south of Johannesburg chosen but soon discarded due to being situated on land with gold bearing reefs below. Sites were then narrowed down to Kempton Park and the existing airport at Palmietfontein.

Layouts and rough costing for the two sites were established and submitted for a ministerial decision. The site would be at Kempton Park and be named Jan Smuts Airport. The area outside Kempton Park was an expropriated undulating dairy farm of 3,706 acres with a 598 acre eucalyptus plantation. Sitting on a plateau, the area sloped away towards the east. The area was drained by the Blesbok River. The airport became operational on 1 September 1953. The new airport was officially opened by Minister for Transport, Paul Sauer on 4 October 1953 having taken eight years to build at £6.2 million. It had one main runway of 3,200m and two smaller ones of 2,514m that crossed the main with all runways being 60m wide. A 1,000 men had been employed in the repair workshops. The technical areas consisted of 2,957m of roads, 26,477sqm of concrete apron while the hangars had openings of 106m at a height of 21m. It was expecting to manage thirty flights-a-day and over 200,000 passengers that year. Airlines using the airport at its opening were BOAC, Air France, KLM, SAA, Central African Airways, Qantas, El Al, SAS Group and DETA.

In the late 1950s, jet passenger aircraft became the norm and there was a need to expand the existing ground facilities at the airport, which began in the 1960s and early-1970s. In addition to the new airside facilities, ground developments included: improved road access, parking areas, hotel, retail areas and car hire.

The late-1960s saw a new choice of aircraft for South African Airways, the Boeing 747. A decision was made by the Minister of Transport to obtain three, later five 747s for the airline. Delivery would begin in October 1971 with the first flight to London on 10 December 1971 with daily services from February 1972. These purchases however required new hangar facilities with the contract awarded in September 1969 initially worth R2,983,408. Construction started in December 1968 and was completed in October 1971 for R8,000,000 while other work at the airport associated with the arrival of these new aircraft brought the costs to R40,000,000. Other new buildings such as workshops, testing facilities, stores, staff accommodation and air cargo handling building were built. The new hangar would allow for two 747s in each bay with dimensions of 73.2 m wide, 24.4 m high and a depth of 91.4 m.

It was used as a test airport for Concorde during the 1970s, to determine how the aircraft would perform while taking off and landing at high elevations ('hot and high' testing). During the 1980s, many countries stopped trading with South Africa because of the United Nation sanctions imposed against South Africa in the struggle against apartheid, and many international airlines stopped flying to the airport. These sanctions also resulted in South African Airways being refused rights to fly over most African countries, and in addition, the risk of flying over some African countries was emphasised by the shooting down of two passenger aircraft over Rhodesia (e.g. Air Rhodesia Flight 825 and 827), forcing them to fly around the "bulge" of Africa. This required specially-modified aircraft like the long-range Boeing 747SP. A second runway was built at the airport in the late-1980s.

In December 1993, a R120,000,000 upgrade at the airport was completed. The main part of the projects was an 880 m, 3000 t steel airside corridor consisting of two levels high of 6 m wide with thirteen passenger bridges. The upper levels are connected the departure lounges through security screening points. Lower levels are for arrivals for entry into the immigration and custom areas. A future provision for extensions to this airside corridor was included in the design. A new airside bus terminal was also added for bussing in passengers to aircraft not able dock next to the terminal. Other parts of the project included upgrading the terminal facilities for the passengers.

Following the ending of apartheid, the airport's name, and that of other international airports in South Africa, were changed and these restrictions were lifted. With the creation of the Airports Company of South Africa (ACSA) in the mid-nineties, a plan to commercialise the airport began with new passenger and retail and airside facilities to handle a larger number of aircraft completing this phase in 2004.

The airport overtook Cairo International Airport in 1996 as the busiest airport in Africa and is the fourth-busiest airport in the Africa–Middle East region after Dubai International Airport, Hamad International Airport, and Abu Dhabi International Airport. In fiscal year 2010, the airport handled 8.82 million departing passengers.

In late 2005, a proposal was made for the airport to be renamed "O. R. Tambo International", after former African National Congress President and anti-apartheid activist Oliver Tambo, in a change to the policy of neutrally-named airports. The proposal was formally announced in the Government Gazette of South Africa on 30 June 2006, allowing a 30-day window for the public to register objections. The name change was implemented on 27 October 2006 with the unveiling of new signs at the airport. Critics noted the expense involved in renaming the airport. Corne Mulder of the Freedom Front Plus described the renaming as "nothing less than political opportunism and attempts by the ANC government to dodge the true socio-economic issues of the country".

On 26 November 2006, the airport became the first in Africa to host the Airbus A380. The aircraft landed in Johannesburg on its way to Sydney via the South Pole on a test flight.

There was no provision for rapid train access until 2010, when the Gautrain opened and allowed passengers to reach the airport from the Johannesburg CBD, Sandton and Pretoria.

Airport information
O. R. Tambo International Airport is a hot and high airport. Situated 1,700 metres (5,500 feet) above mean sea level, the air is thin. This is the reason for the long runways.

On 10 January 2013 the airport's ICAO code was changed from FAJS to FAOR.

South African Airways Museum
The South African Airways Museum once was located at the airport. This room full of South African Airways memorabilia was started by two fans of the airline as a temporary location until they could set it up in one of Jan Smuts International's buildings in 1987. The museum has since relocated to Rand Airport (FAGM).

Aircraft viewing decks
The airport has two viewing decks. One is located above the Central Terminal Building, and the other in an administrative section of the airport above the international check-in counters. There are regular displays of Oliver Reginald Tambo, the airport's namesake in the viewing decks.

Runways
O. R. Tambo International Airport has two parallel runways adjacent to the airport's terminal buildings. There used to be a third runway, 09/27, but it was closed and became taxiway Juliet. Another decommissioned runway was 14/32 (which crossed runways 03L/21R and 03R/21L); it was converted into taxiway Echo.

The runways are equipped with approach lighting systems. Sequenced flashers are not used at any South African runways and therefore not installed. Touchdown zone (TDZ) lighting is available, but never turned on. Runway Threshold, Edge and Centerline lights are the only lighting available. During busy periods, outbound flights use the western runway (03L/21R) for take-off, while inbound flights use the eastern runway (03R/21L) for landing. Wind factors may cause numerous variations, but on most days flights will take off to the north and land from the south.

Taxiways and aprons
O. R. Tambo International Airport has a network of asphalt taxiways connecting runways, aprons and maintenance facilities. All of these taxiways are 30.5 metres wide, except for taxiways Echo and Juliet which are 60 metres wide; they were formerly runways 14/32 and 09/27, respectively. The airport also has nine aprons. Cargo aircraft park at aprons Golf and Whiskey. Many airlines have their aircraft wait long hours between arriving and departing flights. Such aircraft and other cargo aircraft are parked at aprons Delta and Foxtrot to free up jetbridges. Aprons Alpha, Charlie and Echo have jetbridges that connect them to their respective gates. The Bravo apron is not connected to the terminal building, and thus aircraft that are parked there must use an airport bus service.

Developments
ACSA reported that major new developments took place at the airport, in preparation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The development includes expansion of the international terminal, with the new international pier (opened in 2009), which includes gates for the Airbus A380 and increased capacity at the same time. A new Central Terminal building, designed by Osmond Lange Architects and Planners, was completed on 1 April 2009. An additional multi-storey parkade was built in January 2010, at a cost of R470 million opposite the Central Terminal Building, plus Terminal A was also upgraded and the associated roadways realigned to accommodate more International Departures space.

The Central Terminal Building (CTB) (cost: R2 billion) boosted passenger capacity at the landside of the terminal in 3 levels, and allows direct access from international and domestic terminals. Additional luggage carousels were added on 12 March 2010 to accommodate the Airbus A380. Arrivals are accommodated on Level 1, with departures expanded on Level 3; Level 2 accommodates further retail and commercial activities. The Gautrain Rapid Rail Link station is above the terminal.

The new International Pier (cost: R535 million) has increased international arrivals and departures capacity in a two-storey structure with nine additional airside contact stands, four of which are Airbus A380 compatible. Air bridges are already in place and the existing duty-free mall will be extended into this area. Additional lounges and passenger-holding areas will be constructed on the upper level.

A second terminal between the two runways has been cancelled. It would have contained its own domestic and international check-in facilities, contact stands, shops and lounges and was projected to cost R8 billion.

Terminals
There are six terminals at the airport, in three major areas: the international terminals; the domestic terminals; and the transit terminals. The transit terminal housed disused parts of the old domestic terminals. It has been mostly demolished to build a new Central Terminal that will provide an indoor link between domestic and international terminals, as well as a central passenger check-in area and more gates. It was constructed for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Terminals A1 and A2 handle international passengers while the other two terminals handle domestic passengers. Due to the airport's design, departure and arrivals terminals are considered separate terminals. The Central Terminal that is under construction will be named Terminal A3 and it will be used for both international and domestic passengers. The two terminals, Terminal A and Terminal B have been restructured. Several airlines now use Terminal B for all check-ins, for both national and international flights. The airlines that use Terminal B include Air Cote D'Ivoire, RwandAir, South African Airways, Airlink, Lift-Airline, FlySafair, KLM, Air France, Ethiopian Airlines, Qantas and Air Mauritius.

The ample parking available at O. R. Tambo International Airport was revamped as part of the upgrades made prior to the 2010 World Cup with the introduction of state-of-the-art technology that allows visitors to identify available parking spaces easily.

Passenger

 * Notes
 * : This flight operates via Walvis Bay. However, this carrier does not have rights to transport passengers solely between Walvis Bay and Saint Helena.
 * : This flight operates via Saint Helena.
 * : This flight operates via Lubumbashi.
 * : One of two of these flights from Atlanta continues on to Cape Town. However, this carrier does not have rights to transport passengers solely between Johannesburg and Cape Town.
 * : This flight operates via Blantyre.
 * : This flight operates via Lusaka.
 * : This flight operates between Singapore and Cape Town with a stopover at Johannesburg. However, this carrier does not have rights to transport passengers solely between Johannesburg and Cape Town.
 * : This flight operates via Accra.
 * : Two flights originate from Maputo and Durban respectively. However, this carrier does not have rights to transport passengers solely between Johannesburg and Maputo/Durban.

Traffic and statistics
O. R. Tambo International Airport recorded 21.2 million passengers in 2017–2018, up from 20.7 million passengers the year before. Of those passengers, 9.2 million were international and 11 million domestic, with the remainder being classified as "regional" or "unscheduled". 220,644 aircraft traffic movements were recorded; the majority being domestic services. O. R. Tambo International Airport is the busiest airport in South Africa.

Other buildings
South African Airways is headquartered in Airways Park on the grounds of O. R. Tambo International Airport. The building was developed by Stauch Vorster Architects. Airways Park was completed in March 1997 for R70 Million ($17.5 Million). The fourth floor of the West Wing of the Pier Development of O. R. Tambo was also the head office of South African Express until it ceased operating in 2020.

Rail transit
The Gautrain, a modern regional express rail system, serves the airport thanks to its station located directly in the terminal. It links the airport with Sandton, a major business district and a primary tourist area, and, from there, the rest of the Gautrain system. The Gautrain is generally praised for its safety and overall efficiency.

Car
The airport is easily accessible by car and it is located northeast of Johannesburg Central at the eastern end of the R24 Airport Freeway. It can be accessed by the R24 Airport Freeway (also known as the Albertina Sisulu Freeway) from Johannesburg Central and the R21 highway from Pretoria and the central part of the East Rand. The R24 intersects with the R21 near the airport and with the O. R. Tambo Airport Highway. This highway goes through the airport terminals, separating them from the parking bays, but it branches off into two directions: "departures" and "arrivals", and then it re-branches into the intersection.

Bus
Five bus city lines, operated by Metrobus and Putco, pass through the airport twice a day. The buses are accessible in the morning and the evening, when there are many passengers departing and arriving. There are also private bus lines operating express buses to the CBD of Johannesburg, as well as other locations.

Accidents and incidents

 * 20 October 1957 – A Vickers Viscount G-AOYF, operated by Vickers on a test flight, was damaged beyond economic repair when the starboard undercarriage collapsed following a heavy landing.
 * 22 September 1972 — A Beech 18 operated by United Air (not to be confused with United Airlines of the United States or United Airways of Bangladesh) crashed 12 km (7.4m) N of JNB while attempting to land back at Johannesburg. All 3 occupants on board were killed along with 2 persons on the ground.
 * 1 March 1988 – A Comair Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante ZS-LGP operating Flight 206, exploded in mid-air whilst on final approach. All seventeen occupants were killed. A passenger was suspected of detonating an explosive device but to this day it has never been proven.
 * 22 April 1999 – Boeing 727 ZS-IJE was damaged beyond repair by large hailstones while on approach for landing. The aircraft landed safely with no loss of life.
 * 3 November 2001 – A Reims-Cessna F406 crashed shortly after takeoff from runway 03R, killing all 3 occupants. The aircraft did not have a valid certificate of airworthiness at the time of the incident.
 * 9 April 2004 – An Emirates Airbus A340-300 A6-ERN operating flight EK764 from Johannesburg to Dubai sustained serious damage during takeoff when it failed to become airborne before the end of the runway, striking 25 approach lights, causing four tyres to burst which in turn threw debris into various parts of the aircraft, ultimately damaging the flap drive mechanism. This rendered the flaps immoveable in the takeoff position. The aircraft returned for an emergency landing during which the normal braking system failed as a result of the damage. The aircraft was brought to a stop only 250 metres from the end of the 3,400-metre runway using reverse thrust and the alternate braking system. In their report, South African investigators found that the captain had used an erroneous take-off technique, and criticised Emirates training and rostering practices. This incident was similar to an incident which happened at Melbourne airport in 2009.
 * 22 December 2013 – A British Airways Boeing 747-400 G-BNLL operating flight BA33 collided with a building at the airport. Four ground-handling staff in the building sustained minor injuries. The airplane was written off and scrapped by April 2015.
 * 26 October 2015 – A British Airways operated by Comair Boeing 737-400 ZS-OAA operating flight BA6234 from Port Elizabeth suffered a gear collapse while landing at the airport. There were no injuries.
 * 12 November 2022 - A South African Airways Airbus A320 (ZS-SZJ) being towed collided with a parked FlySafair Boeing 737-8BG (ZS-SJH) at O. R. Tambo International Airport. No passengers were onboard either aircraft at the time. The FlySafair's empennage section and SAA wing tip were damaged. As a result, both aircraft were rendered inoperable.

title: O. R. Tambo International Airport


text:
Ramiro I of Aragon

Ramiro I (bef. 1007 – 8 May 1063) was the first King of Aragon from 1035 until his death, although he is sometimes described as a petty king. He would expand the nascent Kingdom of Aragon through his acquisition of territories, such as Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and the city of Sangüesa. Sancho Ramírez, his son and successor, was King of Aragon, but also became King of Pamplona.

Biography

Apparently born before 1007, he was the illegitimate son of Sancho III of Pamplona by his mistress Sancha of Aybar. Ramiro was reputed to have been adopted by his father's wife Muniadona after he was the only one of his father's children to come to her aid when needed, although there is no surviving record of these events and the story is probably apocryphal.

During his father's reign, he appeared as witness of royal charters starting in 1011, and was given numerous properties in the county of Aragon, and by the division of Sancho's realm on the latter's death in 1035, the county of Aragon fell to Ramiro with the title of baiulus or steward. This was part of what would prove to be a larger division: Navarre and the Basque country went to eldest half-brother García, the county of Castile was held by Ferdinand, while the counties of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza fell to Gonzalo and Ramiro received lands in Aragon to hold under García.

Ramiro's exact status is vague. He was called king by his vassals, neighbors, the church and even his sons, yet he always referred to himself simply as Ranimiro Sancioni regis filio (Ramiro, son of King Sancho). Likewise, in his two wills, he refers to his lands as having been given him in stewardship: in the first by García, and in the second by God. He is called regulus (rather than rex used for García) and quasi pro rege (acting as if king) in charters from Navarre. Due to his growing independence and the small size of his Pyrenean holdings, he is sometimes called a "petty king", Aragon a "pocket kingdom".

Ramiro sought to enlarge his lands at the expense of both the Moors and his brother, García, the King of Navarre. Shortly after the death of his father (the date variously placed from 1036 to 1043), he supported the emir of Tudela in an invasion of the Navarre. While he was defeated in the Battle of Tafalla, he still was able to gain territory, including Sanguesa, and established a state of semi-autonomy. In 1043, apparently with the approval of García, he annexed Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, previously held by his youngest legitimate half-brother, Gonzalo. This union created a pseudo-independent Aragonese state, with its capital at Jaca, that would give rise to the Kingdom of Aragon.

After annexation of Ribagorza and Sobrarbe, Ramiro began the advance from Aragon toward Huesca and Zaragoza. The first charter for the royal town of Jaca is attributed to him. It included well defined laws of protection even to non-residents, and would set an example for urban rights until late in the Middle Ages.

Ramiro died at the Battle of Graus in 1063 while trying to take the city. He was buried at the monastery of San Juan de la Peña, in Santa Cruz de la Serós.

Marriage and children
Before he was married, Ramiro had a mistress named Amuña (Amunna) with whom he had an illegitimate son, Sancho, in whom he confided the government of the county of Ribagorza. Via a son García of Aybar and Atarés, Count Sancho was grandfather of Pedro de Atarés, a candidate to succeed Alfonso the Battler.

Ramiro's first wife was Gisberga, daughter of Bernard Roger of Bigorre, on 22 August 1036. She changed her name to Ermesinda on marrying him. Together the couple had five children:

 * Sancho Ramírez, his successor
 * García, Bishop of Jaca
 * Sancha, who married Armengol III of Urgel in 1065
 * Urraca, nun in Santa Cruz de la Serós
 * Theresa, who married William Bertrand of Provence

Ramiro's second wife was Agnes (Inés), perhaps a daughter of the Duke of Aquitaine. No children are known from this marriage.

title: Ramiro I of Aragon


text:
Charles, Duke of Orléans

Charles of Orléans (24 November 1394 – 5 January 1465) was Duke of Orléans from 1407, following the murder of his father, Louis I, Duke of Orléans. He was also Duke of Valois, Count of Beaumont-sur-Oise and of Blois, Lord of Coucy, and the inheritor of Asti in Italy via his mother Valentina Visconti.

He is now remembered as an accomplished medieval poet, owing to the more than five hundred extant poems he produced, written in both French and English, during his 25 years spent as a prisoner of war and after his return to France.

Accession
Charles was born in Paris, the son of Louis I, Duke of Orléans and Valentina Visconti, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan. He acceded to the duchy at the age of thirteen after his father had been assassinated on the orders of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. Charles was expected to carry on his father's leadership against the Burgundians, a French faction which supported the Duke of Burgundy. The latter was never punished for his role in Louis' assassination, and Charles had to watch as his grief-stricken mother Valentina Visconti succumbed to illness not long afterwards. At her deathbed, Charles and the other boys of the family were made to swear the traditional oath of vengeance for their father's murder.

During the early years of his reign as duke, the orphaned Charles was heavily influenced by the guidance of his father-in-law, Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, for which reason Charles' faction came to be known as the Armagnacs.

Even before his father's death, he received a pension of 12,000 livres from King Charles VI, his uncle, in 1403. In addition, his first marriage, to Isabella of Valois, widow of Richard II of England, may have brought him a dowry of 500,000 francs.

Imprisonment
After the war with the Kingdom of England was renewed in 1415, Charles was one of the many French noblemen at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415. He was discovered unwounded but trapped under a pile of corpses. He was taken prisoner by the English, and spent the next twenty-four years as their hostage. After his capture, his entire library was moved by Yolande of Aragon to Saumur, to prevent it from falling into enemy hands.

He was held at various locations, and moved from one castle to another in England, including the Tower of London, Bolingbroke Castle 1422-1423 (where he contributed to the building of the Church tower) and Pontefract Castle – the castle where England's young King Richard II (first husband of Charles's own deceased first wife Isabella of Valois) had been imprisoned and died 15 years earlier at the age of 33. His last place of confinement seems to have been Stourton, Wiltshire.

The conditions of his confinement were not strict; he was allowed to live more or less in the manner to which he had become accustomed, like so many other captured nobles. However, he was not offered release in exchange for a ransom, since the English King Henry V had left instructions forbidding any release: Charles was the natural head of the Armagnac faction and in the line of succession to the French throne, and was therefore deemed too important to be returned to circulation.

Poetry
It was during these twenty-four years that Charles would write most of his poetry, including melancholy works which seem to be commenting on the captivity itself, such as En la forêt de longue attente.

The majority of his output consists of two books, one in French and the other in English, in the ballade and rondeau fixed forms. Though once controversial, it is now abundantly clear that Charles wrote the English poems which he left behind when he was released in 1440. Unfortunately, his acceptance in the English canon has been slow. A. E. B. Coldiron has argued that the problem relates to his "approach to the erotic, his use of puns, wordplay, and rhetorical devices, his formal complexity and experimentation, his stance or voice: all these place him well outside the fifteenth-century literary milieu in which he found himself in England."

One of his poems, Is she not passing fair?, was translated by Louisa Stuart Costello and set to music by Edward Elgar. Claude Debussy set three of his poems to music in his Trois Chansons de Charles d'Orléans, L.92, for unaccompanied mixed choir. Reynaldo Hahn set six of them: Les Fourriers d'été, Comment se peut-il faire ainsi, Un loyal cœur (in Chansons et Madrigaux, 1907), Quand je fus pris au pavillon, Je me mets en votre mercy, and Gardez le trait de la fenêtre (in Rondels, 1899).''

Freedom
Finally freed on 3 November 1440 by the efforts of his former enemies, Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal, the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy, he set foot on French soil again after 25 years, by now a middle-aged man at 46 and "speaking better English than French," according to the English chronicler Raphael Holinshed. Part of the agreement, concluded the previous July, was an immediate ransom payment of 80,000 saluts d'or, and a promise to pay 140,000 crowns later. Philip the Good had also made it a condition that the murder of Charles' father Louis of Orleans by Philip's own father, John the Fearless, would not be avenged (John himself had been assassinated in 1419).

Charles agreed to this condition prior to his release. Meeting the Duchess of Burgundy after disembarking, the gallant Charles said: "M'Lady, I make myself your prisoner." At the celebration of his third marriage, to Marie of Cleves (Philip's niece), he was created a Knight of the Golden Fleece. His subsequent return to Orléans was marked by a splendid celebration organised by the citizens. Marie brought a considerable dowry, which helped to pay part of his ransom, although he had difficulty making up the balance, and that of his brother Jean d'Angoulême, also a prisoner.

He made an unsuccessful attempt to press his claims to Asti in Italy, before settling down as a celebrated patron of the arts. In Blois, he kept a miniature court at which many of the French men of letters at the time—François Villon, Olivier de la Marche, Georges Chastellain, Jean Meschinot and others—were residents or visitors or correspondents. He died at Amboise in his 71st year.

Marriage and children
Charles married three times. His first marriage, in 1406 at Compiègne, was with his first cousin Isabella of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France and widow of Richard II of England. She died three years later in childbirth aged 19. Their daughter Joan survived and married John II of Alençon in 1424 in Blois, but died childless.

Secondly, Charles married Bonne of Armagnac, the daughter of Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, in 1410. Bonne died before he returned from captivity. The couple had no mutual children.

On his return to France in 1440, Charles married Marie of Cleves in Saint-Omer (daughter of Adolph I, Duke of Cleves) and niece of Philip the Good, who had arranged his release. They had three children:
 * Marie of Orléans (19 December 1457 – 1493, Mazères). Married Jean of Foix in 1483.
 * Louis XII of France (1462–1515).
 * Anne of Orléans (1464–1491, Poitiers), Abbess of Fontevrault and Holy Cross Abbey Poitiers.

Honours

 * Kingdom of France – Duchy of Orléans : Grand Master and Knight of the Order of the Porcupine
 * Duchy of Burgundy : Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece ( List )

In fiction and popular culture

 * Charles appears as "Duke of Orléans" in William Shakespeare's Henry V. In the 2012 television adaptation The Hollow Crown, Charles is played by French actor Stanley Weber and is inaccurately portrayed as dying at Agincourt.
 * The critically acclaimed historical novel Het Woud der Verwachting / Le Forêt de Longue Attente (1949) by Hella Haasse (translated into English in 1989 under the title In a Dark Wood Wandering) gives a sympathetic description of the life of Charles, Duke of Orléans.
 * Charles is a major character in Margaret Frazer's The Maiden's Tale, a historical mystery and fictional account of a few weeks of his life in England in the autumn of 1439, shortly before his release in 1440.
 * Charles is a minor character in the historical fiction novel Crown in Candlelight by Rosemary Hawley Jarman.
 * Charles is referenced as the author of "the first known Valentine" in Netflix original Big Mouth 's Valentine's Day special, "My Furry Valentine".
 * Charles’ words "The world is weary of me. And I am weary of it." appear as an epigraph in Michel Houellebecq’s The Map and the Territory.

title: Charles, Duke of Orléans


text:
Stromness

Stromness (, Straumnes; Stromnes) is the second-most populous town in Orkney, Scotland. It is in the southwestern part of Mainland, Orkney. It is a burgh with a parish around the outside with the town of Stromness as its capital.

Etymology
The name "Stromness" comes from the Old Norse Straumnes. Straumr refers to the strong tides that rip past the Point of Ness through Hoy Sound to the south of the town. Nes means "headland". Stromness thus means "headland protruding into the tidal stream". In Viking times the anchorage where Stromness now stands was called Hamnavoe.

Town
A long-established seaport, Stromness has a population of approximately 2,500 residents. The old town is clustered along the characterful and winding main street, flanked by houses and shops built from local stone, with narrow lanes and alleys branching off it. There is a ferry link from Stromness to Scrabster on the north coast of mainland Scotland.

First recorded as the site of an inn in the sixteenth century, Stromness became important during the late seventeenth century, when Great Britain was at war with France and shipping was forced to avoid the English Channel. Ships of the Hudson's Bay Company were regular visitors, as were whaling fleets. Large numbers of Orkneymen, many of whom came from the Stromness area, served as traders, explorers and seamen for both. Captain Cook's ships, Discovery and Resolution, called at the town in 1780 on their return voyage from the Hawaiian Islands, where Captain Cook had been killed.

Stromness Museum reflects these aspects of the town's history (displaying for example important collections of whaling relics, and Inuit artefacts brought back as souvenirs by local men from Greenland and Arctic Canada).

Stromness harbour was rebuilt to the designs of John Barron in 1893.

At Stromness Pierhead is a statue by North Ronaldsay sculptor Ian Scott, depicting John Rae standing erect with an inscription describing him as "the discoverer of the final link in the first navigable Northwest Passage", which was unveiled in 2013.

Parish
The parish of Stromness includes the islands of Hoy and Graemsay in addition to a tract of land about 5 by on Mainland, Orkney. The Mainland part is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south and southeast by Hoy Sound, and on the northeast by the Loch of Stenness.

Antiquities include Breckness House, erected in 1633 by George Graham, Bishop of Orkney, at the west entrance of Hoy Sound.

Media and the arts
The Stromness branch of the Orkney Library and Archive is housed in a building given to the library service in 1905 by Marjory Skea Corrigall.

Writer George Mackay Brown (1921–1996) was born and lived most of his life in the town, and is buried in the town's cemetery overlooking Hoy Sound. His poem "Hamnavoe" is set in the town, and is in part a memorial to his father John, a local postman.

Stromness is also named in the title of Sir Peter Maxwell Davies's popular piano piece "Farewell to Stromness", a piano interlude from The Yellow Cake Revue, which was written in 1980 to protest against plans to open a uranium mine in the area. The title refers to yellowcake, the powder produced in an early stage of the processing of uranium ore. The Revue was first performed by the composer at the Stromness Hotel on 21 June 1980, as part of the St Magnus Festival; plans for the uranium mine were cancelled later that year.

Stromness is also the title of a 2009 novel by Herbert Wetterauer.

Stromness plays host to the Pier Arts Centre, a collection of twentieth-century British art given to the people of Orkney by artists such as Margaret Gardiner.

Geology
Stromness presents to the Atlantic a range of cliffs between 100 and 500 ft high, and to Hoy Sound a band of fertile lowlands. The rocks possess great geological interest, and were made well known by the publication of the evangelical geologist Hugh Miller, The Footprints of the Creator or The Asterolepsis of Stromness (1849).

title: Stromness


text:
Sancho Ramírez

Sancho Ramírez (c. 1042 – 4 June 1094) was King of Aragon from 1063 until 1094 and King of Pamplona from 1076 under the name of Sancho V (Antso V.a Ramirez). He was the eldest son of Ramiro I and Ermesinda of Bigorre. His father was the first king of Aragon and an illegitimate son of Sancho III of Pamplona. He inherited the Aragonese crown from his father in 1063. Sancho Ramírez was chosen king of Pamplona by Navarrese noblemen after Sancho IV was murdered by his siblings.

Biography
Sancho Ramírez succeeded his father as second King of Aragon in 1063. Between 1067 and 1068, the War of the Three Sanchos involved him in a conflict with his first cousins, both also named Sancho: Sancho IV the king of Navarre and Sancho II the king of Castile, respectively. The Castilian Sancho was trying to retake Bureba and Alta Rioja, which his father had given away to the king of Navarre and failed to retake. The Navarrese Sancho begged the aid of the Aragonese Sancho to defend his kingdom. Sancho of Castile defeated the two cousins and retook both Bureba and Alta Rioja, as well as Álava.

Sancho Ramírez followed his father's practice, not using the royal title early in his reign even though his state had become fully independent. This changed in 1076, when Sancho IV of Navarre was murdered by his own siblings, thus prompting a succession crisis in this neighboring kingdom that represented Aragon's nominal overlord. At first, the murdered king's young son, García, who had fled to Castile, was recognized as titular king by Alfonso VI, while Sancho Ramírez recruited to his side noblemen of Navarre who resented their kingdom falling under Alfonso's influence. The crisis was resolved by partition. Sancho Ramírez was elected King of Navarre, while he ceded previously contested western provinces of the kingdom to Alfonso. From this time, Sancho referred to himself as king not only of Aragon but also Navarre.

Sancho conquered Barbastro in 1064, Graus in 1083, and Monzón in 1089. He was defeated by El Cid, who was raiding his lands and those of his Muslim allies, at the Battle of Morella, probably in 1084. He perished in 1094 at the battle of Huesca.

Sancho contracted his first marriage in c. 1065, to Isabella (died c. 1071), daughter of Count Armengol III of Urgel. They were divorced 1071. His second marriage, in 1076, was with Felicia (died 3 May 1123), daughter of Hilduin IV, Count of Montdidier. A third marriage—to Philippa of Toulouse—is sometimes given, but contemporary evidence records him as still married to Felicia at the time of his death. He was father of four sons: by Isabella, he had Peter, his successor; by Felicia he had Ferdinand, who was alive in 1086 but died within the next decade, Alfonso, who succeeded Peter, and Ramiro, who succeeded Alfonso.

Marriage and family
Sancho Ramírez married Isabella of Urgell, daughter of Ermengol III, Count of Urgell around the year 1062. They had one known child:

 * Peter (c. 1068 – 1104), known as "the Catholic", who ruled as King of Aragon and Pamplona from 1094 until 1104. Peter married Agnes of Aquitaine.

Sancho Ramírez remarried around 1071 with Felicia of Roucy, daughter of Hilduin IV, Count of Montdidier. They had three children:

 * Fernando Sánchez (1071 – 1094)
 * Alfonso Sánchez (c. 1073 – 1134), known as "the Battler", King of Aragon and Pamplona from 1104 until 1134. He married Urraca of León, Queen of León, Castile and Galicia. Their marriage was annulled in 1112.
 * Ramiro Sánchez (1086 – 1157), known as "the Monk", King of Aragon between 1134 and 1157, and married to Agnes of Aquitaine in her second marriage after Viscount of Thouars, Aimery V.

title: Sancho Ramírez


text:
Peter I of Aragon and Pamplona

Peter I (Pedro, Pero, Petri; c. 1068 - 1104) was King of Aragon and also Pamplona from 1094 until his death in 1104. Peter was the eldest son of Sancho Ramírez, from whom he inherited the crowns of Aragon and Pamplona, and Isabella of Urgell. He was named in honour of Saint Peter, because of his father's special devotion to the Holy See, to which he had made his kingdom a vassal. Peter continued his father's close alliance with the Church and pursued his military thrust south against bordering Al-Andalus taifas with great success, allying with Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as El Cid, the ruler of Valencia, against the Almoravids. According to the medieval Annales Compostellani Peter was "expert in war and daring in initiative", and one modern historian has remarked that "his grasp of the possibilities inherent in the age seems to have been faultless."

Early life
The Crónica de San Juan de la Peña, a rather late source for Peter's reign, states that Peter was 35 years of age when he died, which places his birth in 1068 or 1069. As a child Peter was placed in the line of succession to the County of Urgell by the first testament of his uncle Ermengol IV, after Ermengol's own son and brothers. He was not destined to inherit it.

In 1085, two years after his father had conquered Graus (28 April 1083), Peter was entrusted with Sobrarbe and Ribagorza as a subkingdom with its capital at Graus, which he thenceforth ruled more or less independently with the title of king (Latin rex). On 28 October 1087 Peter joined his father in Pamplona in Navarre, where the two monarchs confirmed the rights of the bishops in the city. He pursued the Reconquista with vigour in the southeast of the realm. In 1087 he may have been present at the unsuccessful siege of Tudela. Later that year he conquered Estada, in 1088 Montearagón, and on 24 June 1089 Monzón. These conquests opened up the valley of the Cinca, which he proceeded to conquer as far as Almenar, taken in 1093.

Sole reign
Peter succeeded to the whole of his father's kingdom on the latter's death while besieging Huesca in 1094. Peter raised the siege, only to return to it within the year. After 1094 his objectives shifted westwards, towards the valley of the Gallega. In 1095 Peter renewed his father's oaths to Urban II, and Urban renewed his promise of protection, under which Sancho, his sons, and his kingdom had been placed in July 1089. On 16 March 1095 the pope even issued a bull, Cum universis sancte, granting the king and queen of Aragon immunity from excommunication without the permission of the pope. That same year, while he was besieging Huesca, Peter defeated the relief forces of the Taifa of Zaragoza at the Battle of Alcoraz. Peter later rewarded a certain Sancho Crispo for his contribution of three hundred knights and infantry at Alcoraz. He went on to take Huesca on 27 November of that same year.

Reconquista and war with the Almoravids

The next year (1096) Peter travelled south to inspect his fortress at Castellón, though the Historia Roderici claims that he came to help Rodrigo. He met Rodrigo in Valencia and with a large force already assembled they decided to reinforce the southern frontier fort of Benicadell, rebuilt by Rodrigo in 1091. As they were passing by Xàtiva they were met by an Almoravid force under the command of Mohammed, the nephew of Almoravid leader Yusuf ibn Tashfin, and the commander whom Rodrigo had defeated at the Battle of Cuarte in 1095. They decided to hastily restock Benicadell and retreat to Valencia via the coast, but were met at the Battle of Bairén by Muhammad's forces encamped on the high ground that reached almost to the sea. A small Almoravid fleet had been assembled from the southern ports, including Almería, and the Christians were trapped between arrow fire from the ships and the cavalry perched atop the hill. Rodrigo roused the troops with a speech and the next day at midday the Christians charged. The Battle of Xàtiva ended in a rout, with many Almoravids killed or forced into the river or the sea, where many drowned. Peter and Rodrigo returned to Valencia in triumph and thanking God for the victory, as the Historia records.

In 1099, in preparation for the fall of Barbastro, Peter sent Ponce, then Bishop of Roda, to Rome to ask Pope Urban II to transfer the see of Roda to Barbastro. The pope complied with Peter's request, and endowed the transferred diocese with all the re-conquered lands of the Diocese of Lleida. Peter's motive in this action was probably to curtail any expansion of the Diocese of Urgell in the direction of Lleida. In any case, Barbastro fell in 1100.

According to what is probably a legend, at the urging of the monks of San Juan de la Peña Peter planned to join on the Crusade of 1101 and make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, but Pope Paschal II refused to allow it and ordered him to make war on Zaragoza instead. Peter, probably aided by knights from France and Catalonia, certainly did make war on Zaragoza in 1101, in a campaign that lasted the whole year. He may have been inspired by the First Crusaders, since contemporary accounts of the 1101 campaign call him a "cross-bearer" (crucifer). The size of his forces so impressed a contemporary scribe in León that he remarked in the dating formula of a document of 12 February that "Peter, Aragonese king, with his infinite multitude of armed men, the city of Zaragoza, with Christ's banner, fought". By June Peter had begun the siege of Zaragoza itself. For the siege he had a fortress built named Juslibol (a corruption of the Latin slogan Deus lo volt [God wills it] used by the First Crusaders) and ringed the city with banners bearing the cross. In August he was conducting a razzia (raid) as far south as Alpenes and the river Ebro, but the campaign was eventually aborted due to insufficient cavalry. By the end of the year he had expanded Aragon and Navarre in the west almost as far as the walls of Zaragoza and Tudela, though the cities both remained in Muslim hands.

Administration of the realm and the granting of fueros
During his reign Peter bestowed fueros on Barbastro (1100), Caparroso (1102), and Santacara (1102). The last was repopulated partly by Frenchmen, whose influence on local customs is apparent. According to Peter's fueros, citizens were required to serve in local campaigns and castle defence, but were exempted from long-term service in the "host". Horse-owners resident in the towns of Barbastro and Santa Cristina de Somport (1104) were also exempted from knight-service, known as cavalcata. In 1101 Peter delineated the boundaries of the diocese of Barbastro–Roda, and those that would belong to Lleida after its reconquest. On 11 December 1102 Peter was in Estella on the border with Castile, perhaps seeking the aid of Alfonso VI after a particularly disastrous autumn for the Christians of eastern Spain. In 1104 Peter granted a fuero to all the infanzones of his realm, retaining his right to require three-day field service.

Succession
Peter's first marriage, to Agnes of Aquitaine (betrothed 1081), was arranged by his father and took place in the capital of Jaca in January 1086. His second marriage, to a certain Bertha, probably from Lombardy, was officiated in Huesca on 16 August 1097. This represented the transferral of the capital of Aragon from Jaca to the larger city of Huesca. Peter's only children, Isabella and Peter (born c. 1086), both from his first marriage, died young in 1103 and on 1 February 1104, respectively. Peter was married to María Rodríguez, a daughter of El Cid, in 1098 - a marriage celebrated in the Cantar de mio Cid and in subsequent literature. Both Isabella and Peter were interred in San Juan de la Peña on 18 August 1104.

When Peter I died in the Val d'Aran his kingdoms passed to his younger half-brother, Alfonso the Battler. Peter was buried in San Juan de la Peña alongside his children. When Alfonso also died without living children, the kingdom of Aragon passed to the youngest brother, Ramiro II. Peter's name was adopted, in a feminised form, for Ramiro's only child, and successor, Petronilla (1137–64). The name "Peter" entered the name-pool of the House of Barcelona into which Petronilla married and appeared commonly thereafter in the ruling family of Aragon.

title: Peter I of Aragon and Pamplona


text:
Dore Abbey

Dore Abbey is a former Cistercian abbey in the village of Abbey Dore in the Golden Valley, Herefordshire, England. A large part of the original medieval building has been used since the 16th century as the parish church, with remaining parts either now ruined or no longer extant.

History
The abbey was founded in 1147 by Robert fitzHarold of Ewyas, the Lord of Ewyas Harold, possibly on the site of earlier wooden monastic buildings of which no traces remain. The abbey is located close to the River Dore. It was formed as a daughter house of the Cistercian abbey at Morimond in France, perhaps after Lord Robert had met the Abbot of Morimond on the Second Crusade. Construction of buildings in local sandstone began around 1175, and continued through the time of the first three abbots, Adam (1186-c.1216), Adam II (c.1216–1236), and Stephen of Worcester (1236–1257). The design of the church was modelled on that of Morimond, with a presbytery, two chapels, two transepts, a crossing and a nave.

Gerald of Wales claimed that the first Abbot Adam was a devious individual intent on acquiring property by any means, fair or foul. During the early 13th century, the abbey expanded its land holdings, particularly through the acquisition of good quality farmland in the area granted to them by King John in 1216. This enabled the abbey to become wealthy, especially through the sale of wool, and as a result the abbey was largely rebuilt in the Early English style. The presbytery was expanded, and additional chapels, a processional ambulatory, and domestic buildings including a chapter house were added. In 1260, the abbey was described as a "sumptuous church". The new building was consecrated by Thomas de Cantilupe, Bishop of Hereford, in 1282, and was dedicated to the Holy Trinity and Saint Mary. Around 1305, Richard Straddell (d.1346) became Abbot. He was a distinguished scholar and theologian who at times served as a diplomat for the crown. In 1321 he was given a relic of the Holy Cross by William de Gradisson, and the abbey became a centre of pilgrimage. Large parts of the 12th- and 13th-century buildings, including the north and south transepts and the interior columns, together with some tiles, wooden fittings and fragments of stained glass, remain in place today, incorporated into the later church. The building also houses two 13th-century effigies, thought to be those of a later Lord Robert of Ewyas and his half-brother Roger de Clifford (d.1286), and carved stone roof bosses.

The abbey was run with the aid of seventeen granges, nine in the Golden Valley, four in northern Gwent, and three far to the west in Brycheiniog, centred on the parish of Gwenddwr; these last were at the extreme limit of the distance granges were supposed to be, a day's journey from the abbey. The abbey also owned property in Hereford and elsewhere, and drew revenues from five appropriated parishes.

The abbey was dissolved in 1536. The building was bought by a local landowner, John Scudamore, a member of a gentry family historically connected with Owain Glyndŵr. Some items were hidden but most of the building was allowed to fall into disrepair. The surviving building was restored in the 1630s by his great-great-grandson John Scudamore, 1st Viscount Scudamore, who, after the early deaths of several of his children, became convinced that he should make amends for living off the proceeds of former monastic land. Scudamore was a friend of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, who is believed to have influenced the re-design and rebuilding of the church, for its use as a parish church. The original mediaeval altar was found in a nearby farm, being used for salting meat and making cheese, and was returned to the church. The original nave was blocked off and a new tower erected, and a new carved oak rood screen, incorporating the arms of Scudamore, Laud, and King Charles I, was made by John Abel of Hereford. In addition, new stained glass was provided, and the walls were painted with instructional pictures and texts, many of which remain visible. The new church was re-consecrated on 22 March 1634. Further restoration was carried out between 1700 and 1710, and new paintings, including a large coat of arms of Queen Anne, were added.

By the end of the nineteenth century the church was again in need of repair, and work was carried out by a local architect, Roland Paul, in 1901–09. Paul was also responsible for part-excavating and plotting the remaining foundations and traces of the original Abbey buildings, which now underlie the churchyard.

Churchyard
The churchyard contains the grave of Driver William John Watkins, a Royal Field Artillery soldier of World War I.

Other burials

 * Roger de Clifford (1189-1232)
 * Sibil d'Ewyas Clifford, his wife (1178-1236)
 * Roger de Clifford, their son (1215-86)

title: Dore Abbey


text:
Boxgrove Priory

Boxgrove Priory is a ruined priory in the village of Boxgrove in Sussex, England. It was founded in the 12th century.

Origins
The Priory was founded in the reign of Henry I, about 1123 by Robert de Haia (or de la Haye), Lord of Halnacre by gift of the king. A Saxon church had existed on the site before the Conquest. The Priory was founded for three Benedictine monks, and was a dependency by the Lessay Abbey in Normandy.

In about 1126, upon the marriage of Robert's daughter Cecily to Roger St John the number of monks living at Boxgrove was increased from the original three to six. Robert had died by 1165. By 1187 there were 15 monks. A 19th monk was added to the priory in about 1230 by William de Kainesham, Canon of Chichester.

By 1535 the priory's possessions were worth £185 19s. 8d. gross, and £145 10s. 2½d. clear.

Dissolution
The Priory was dissolved in 1536. At the time of the dissolution there were eight priests and one novice, as well as twenty-eight servants and eight children living in the priory. After the dissolution, the Priory church became the parish church.

Modern history
The Priory church is still in use as the Church of St Mary and St Blaise.

The ruins are a Grade I listed building.

Burials

 * Thomas Poynings, 5th Baron St John

title: Boxgrove Priory


text:
Ramiro II of Aragon

Ramiro II (24 April 1086 – 16 August 1157), called the Monk, was a member of the House of Jiménez who became king of Aragon in 1134. Although a monk, he was elected by the Aragonese nobility to succeed his childless brother Alfonso the Battler. He then had a daughter, Petronilla, whom he had marry Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona, unifying Aragon and Barcelona into the Crown of Aragon. He withdrew to a monastery in 1137, leaving authority to Ramon Berenguer but keeping the royal title until his death.

Early life
Ramiro was the youngest son of Sancho Ramírez, king of Aragon and Navarre, and Felicia of Roucy. Sancho placed Ramiro as a child into the Benedictine monastery of Saint Pons de Thomières in the Viscounty of Béziers. As a respected monk, Ramiro was elected abbot of the Castillian royal monastery of Santos Fecundo y Primitivo in Sahagún and later was abbot of the monastery of San Pedro el Viejo at Huesca. Wanting to limit Ramiro's power within the Kingdom of Navarre-Aragon, his brother Alfonso the Battler had blocked his elections as bishop of Burgos and as bishop of Pamplona.

In 1134 Ramiro had been elected bishop of Barbastro-Roda when the death of his childless brother made him one of the candidates for succession to the crown. Others put forward included Alfonso VII of Castile, who as a foreign king found little support, and the choice of the Navarrese nobility, Pedro de Atarés, grandson of Sancho Ramírez, Count of Ribagorza, the illegitimate son of Ramiro I of Aragon. At an assembly at Borja intended to resolve the succession, a misunderstanding alienated Pedro from his supporters, yet they were unwilling to accept the Aragonese-favored Ramiro, and in the end the kingdoms were divided. In Navarre, García Ramírez, a scion of the pre-union royal family of Navarre and protégé of Alfonso VII was chosen king, while in Aragon the choice fell on Ramiro, who suspended his monastic vows to take the crown.

King of Aragon
The reign of Ramiro the Monk, as he is known, was tumultuous. At the beginning of his reign he had problems with his nobles, who thought he would be docile and easily steered to their wishes, but discovered him to be inflexible. In order to produce an heir, Ramiro married Agnes, daughter of Duke William IX of Aquitaine. He and Agnes had a daughter, Petronilla, who was betrothed to Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona at the age of one. The marriage contract, signed at Barbastro on 11 August 1137, made Petronilla the heir to the crown of Aragon, which in event of her childless death would pass to Ramon Berenguer and any children he might have by other wives. Ramon accepted Ramiro as "King, Lord and Father", and the County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were united into the Crown of Aragon. The previously-landlocked Aragonese state thus returned to the position of peninsular power it had held prior to the loss of Navarre, and received a window to the Western Mediterranean it would come to dominate.

In the time between his accession and the betrothal of his daughter, Ramiro II had already had to put down a rebellion of the nobles, and knowing himself not to be a war king, he passed royal authority to his son-in-law Ramon Berenguer on 13 November 1137. Ramon became the "Prince of the Aragonese people" (Princeps Aragonensis) and effective chief of the kingdom's armies. Ramiro withdrew from public life, returning to the Abbey of San Pedro in Huesca. He later became known for the famous and passionate legend of the Bell of Huesca. He died there on 16 August 1157 and is buried there.

In 1137 he ceded the throne but continued to hold the title of king until his death, and even so the chronicles written in other kingdoms mention him. Regardless of Ramiro's title, his daughter Petronilla was using the title of regina (queen) in not only the document about her abdication in 1164 but also her will, written in 1152, before her father's death.

title: Ramiro II of Aragon