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Ọrunmila

Ọrunmila (Ọ̀rúnmìlà, also Ọrúnla or Orúla in Latin America) is the Orisha of Wisdom, knowledge, and Divination, is the creator of Ifá and Babalawo concept. He is a high priest of Ifá.

Historical and literary sources
Following the categories developed by the Nigerian scholar Peju Yemaje, Orunmila is recognized as a primordial Orisha, an ara orun, one that existed before the creation of humanity and resides in Heaven, as opposed to irun-male or irunmole, sacred beings living on Earth.

He is praise named "Igbákejì Olódùmarè" (second in command to Olodumare) and "Ẹlẹ́rìí ìpín" (witness of fate). Priests of Ifá are known as babalawos and Priestesses of Ifá are known as iyanifas.

Orunmila is considered a sage, recognizing that Olodumare placed Ori (intuitive knowledge) in him as a prime Orisha. It is Ori who can intercede and affect the reality of a person much more than any other Orisha.

Priesthood and initiation
Awo in every tradition study the 256 Odu; each Odu is traditionally considered to include stories and prayers that have been passed down from the time that Orunmila walked the Earth as a prophet.

Some initiatory lineages have only male priests of Orunmila, while other lineages include female priestesses. The term "Awo", meaning "secret" is a gender-neutral title for an initiated priest of Orunmila. The debate surrounding gender is a result of diversity in the history of Ifá in various locations. In Latin America and some areas of West Africa, only men may become full priests of Orunmila, while in other regions of West Africa the priesthood is open to women. Ifá practitioners believe in duality in life: males exist because of the female essence and females exist because of the male essence, so every major rite or ceremony includes both genders.

Every Ifá stanza has one portion dedicated to the issue of teaching the Iwa that Ifá supports. This Iwa, which Ifá teaches transcends religious doctrine, is central to every human being, and imparts communal, social and civic responsibility that Olodumare supports. Of great importance to this is the theme of righteousness and practicing good moral behavior.

Resources

 * Chief S. Solagbade Popoola & Fakunle Oyesanya, Ikunle Abiyamo: The ASE of Motherhood 2007. ISBN 978-0-9810013-0-2
 * Chief S. Solagbade Popoola Library, INC Ifa Dida Volume One (EjiOgbe - Orangun Meji) ISBN 978-0-9810013-1-9
 * Chief S. Solagbade Popoola Library, INC Ifa Dida Volume Two (OgbeYeku - OgbeFun) ISBN 978-1-926538-12-9
 * Chief S. Solagbade Popoola Library, INC Ifa Dida Volume Three (OyekuOgbe - OyekuFun) ISBN 978-1-926538-24-2
 * James J. Kulevich, "The Odu of Lucumi: Information on all 256 Odu Ifa"
 * Ayele Fa'seguntunde' Kumari, Iyanifa:Women of Wisdom ISBN 978-1500492892

title: Ọrunmila


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Aja

Aja or AJA may refer to:

Acronyms

 * AJ Auxerre, a French football club
 * Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport's IATA airport code
 * Al Jazeera America, an American news channel
 * American Jewish Archives
 * American Journal of Archaeology
 * Arbeitskreis gemeinnütziger Jugendaustauschorganisationen, a German organization of non-profit youth exchange groups
 * The Association of Japanese Animations
 * Australian Journalists Association, part of the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance

Anthropology

 * Aja people, a people living in Benin
 * Aja language (Niger–Congo), the language of the Aja people, part of the Gbe dialect continuum
 * Aja people (South Sudan), an ethnic group living in South Sudan
 * Aja language (Nilo-Saharan), a language spoken in Sudan

Gods

 * Aja (Hindu mythology), a prince of the Ikshvaku dynasty
 * Aja (orisha), or Ajija, a Yoruba spirit of the whirlwind
 * Aja, another name of the Hindu god Shiva

Music

 * Aja (album), a 1977 Steely Dan album
 * "Aja" (song), the title track of that album
 * Aja!, a 2015 Maija Vilkkumaa album

People

 * Aja (name)

Places

 * Aja Mountain, a mountain in Ha'il, Saudi Arabia
 * Ajjah, a Palestinian village in the Jenin Governorate in the northern West Bank

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aja


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Blakeney, Norfolk

Blakeney is a coastal village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk. Blakeney lies within the Norfolk Coast AONB (Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty) and the North Norfolk Heritage Coast. The North Norfolk Coastal Path travels along its quayside. The village is 21.1 mi north west of Norwich, 4.6 mi NNW of the larger settlement of Holt, 11.5 mi west of Cromer and 112 mi NNE of London.

The civil parish has an area of 9.9 km2 and in the 2001 census had a population of 789 in 402 households. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of North Norfolk.

Description
Blakeney was a commercial seaport until the early 20th century. Now the harbour is silted up, and only small boats can make their way out past Blakeney Point to the sea. Adjacent to the hill, at the foot of the village's High Street, is the old Guildhall with a 14th-century undercroft.

Higher up the village, the Church of St Nicholas has two towers: the main tower is more than 100 ft (30 m) high and a well-known landmark for miles around; the smaller tower was built as a beacon to guide boats into Blakeney Harbour.

History
In the Domesday Book of 1086, Blakeney is recorded under the name Esnuterle (later, Snitterley); the main landholders are noted as Walter Gifford and William de Noyers. The settlement first appears under the name Blakeney in a document which dates from 1340. Around the same period Edward III's wife, Queen Philippa is said to have dined on fish caught by Blakeney's fishermen.

The village's name means 'Black island'.

Haven
Blakeney Haven was a deeper inlet on the north coast of Norfolk into which the River Glaven flowed. Sheltered behind Blakeney Point, it was a major shipping area in the Middle Ages, with relatively important North Norfolk ports at Wiveton, Cley next the Sea and Blakeney itself. Cley and Wiveton silted up in the 17th century, but Blakeney prospered, especially after the channel to the Haven was deepened in 1817. Packet ships ran from that port to Hull and London from 1840. This trade declined as ships became too large for the harbour, and it is now silted up with access only for small boats.

From the 12th century Blakeney had a reputation for acts of piracy: between 1328 and 1350 it is recorded that men of Blakeney boarded two vessels sailing from Flanders and sailed them back to Blakeney haven, where they were stripped of their cargoes. Many a foreign merchant ship which sought shelter in the haven found its cargo stolen. Such was the lawlessness of the residents that the village refused to supply a ship for the battle against the Spanish Armada.

'Chapel'
This building now in adjoining Cley next the Sea appears never to have been a chapel and may merely have been a hermitage. Indeed, the calendar of England's Patent Rolls dated 20 April 1343, confirms a grant of alms-seeking across the realms to a local hermit.

Friary
This was among the junior houses of a Carmelite region (distinctio) which included Burnham Norton, King's Lynne and Yarmouth the crypt of its senior house is intact and is converted to part of Norwich's Printing Museum which is run by an active printing firm, Jarrold's in the city.

The northern part of Friary Park by the seashore is a modest caravan park for visitors, with the remainder being the relatively small Friary Farm.

Friary Farmhouse incorporates remains of the Carmelite Friary founded in 1296 with its church consecrated in 1302. This was the gift of Maud de Roos or latterly de Ros, née de Vaux, wife of William de Ros, 1st Baron de Ros who distinguished himself in the Crusades, was knighted and granted land at Cley and Blakeney.

In 1321 their son, William completed the foundation.

The house has a date-stone: "1667 T.R.I" and is made of flint and brick with some stone quoins. Despite modern windows and most exterior work it incorporates medieval walling, a buttress, various blocked openings, fragments of window surrounds and stonework including a re-used carved kneeler on the south-west gable with coat of arms.

Windmill
Blakeney Mill in Friary Park is a Grade II listed building and is chiefly of flint with brick dressings (mostly its upper parts) across its three storeys. It appears on a map of 1769 in this exact location, following earlier mention from the Domesday Book of mills in the village.

Railway
In the 19th century a rail branch line from Holt to a new station at Blakeney was planned by the Midland & Great Northern Joint Railway. The scheme was never completed, although the junction site at High Kelling now serves as Holt station on the North Norfolk Railway. A rival proposal for a branch from Cawston to Cley and Blakeney was put forward by the East Norfolk Railway, but this was also not built.

Tourism
Blakeney is a popular tourist resort during the summer months. The village has two large hotels, one in a historic building, and one with a modern main part but with also with a late 17th-century and 18th-century barn annexe, The Blakeney Hotel as well as having the alternative at the end of the Quay Road of the 15 acre caravan site.

Blakeney offers a large range of activities including crabbing, fishing, canoeing and birdwatching. In the area of marshland around Blakeney Point, owned by the National Trust, up to a hundred species of birds can be found throughout the year. Several pubs in the area serve food and real ale.

Wells-next-the-Sea has a miniature and heritage railway 7 mi to the west.

The North Norfolk Coastal Path travels along its quayside and varies between a path through salt marshes, raised promenades, sandy beaches and compact villages in this section.

Demography
The population of Blakeney, according to the census of 1801, was 618. This number increased, lagging just behind national population growth in the forty years to 1851, to 1,108 however a gradual decline in population took place until 1931, particularly during the early years of this decline which coincided with the arrival of the railway at Holt to the south and national urban industrialisation – population fell from 1,108 to 641 in 1931. Population growth resumed and saw a growth between 1961 and 2011, to 801 people. Data for 1801–1961 is available at Britain Through Time. The 2001 and 2011 Censuses give detailed information about the village. The settlement's population in 2011 were living in 407 households.

Transport
The village's centre is off the northern side of the A149 coast road from King's Lynn to Cromer, with a further part of Blakeney community directly adjoining in the residential estates south of this and also several outlying farms. The nearest railway station is at Sheringham, two villages to the east for the Bittern line to Norwich.

The nearest airport is Norwich Airport.

War memorial
Blakeney's elaborate war memorial is located on the side of the A149 and lists the following names for the First World War:
 * Lieutenant Basil C. Ash (1886–1914), 2nd Battalion, Sherwood Foresters
 * Midshipman Christopher A. G. Cooke (1899–1917), HMS Vanguard
 * Second-Lieutenant Cyril C. G. Roe (1896–1917), Drake Battalion, Royal Naval Division
 * Chief-Stoker Vincent K. Bullen (1873–1917), HMS Vanguard
 * Leading-Seaman Charles Claxton (1876–1916), HM Yacht Zaida
 * Able-Seaman Robert Balding (1880–1914), HMS Aboukir
 * Sergeant Reginald M. Daniel (1886–1918), Northumberland Hussars
 * Acting-Sergeant Alfred E. Turner (1885–1915), 7th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Corporal Ernest H. Starling (1893–1917), 2/9th (Queen Victoria's) Battalion, London Regiment
 * Corporal Clement B. Mitchell (d.1917), 8th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Gunner George P. Hudson (1885–1918), 301st Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery
 * Gunner William E. King (1875–1914), HMS Bulwark
 * Gunner George A. King (1886–1917), HMS Crusader
 * Private Percy H. Allen (1885–1915), 10th Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force
 * Private Jack Long MM (d.1917), 2nd Battalion, Coldstream Guards
 * Private William E. Seales (1897–1916), 1/6th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry
 * Private John Newland (d.1917), 8th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment
 * Private James Moore (1898–1916), 1st Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * Private William S. Pyke (1899–1918), 9th Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * Private Thomas H. Palmer (d.1917), 11th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
 * Private Thomas R. D. Lane (d.1917), 1/7th Battalion, King's Regiment (Liverpool)
 * Private Edward A. Adcock (d.1918), 2/8th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers
 * Private Reginald C. Cooper (1896–1916), 1st Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Private Clarence A. Haines (d.1916), 1st Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Private Herbert J. Long (d.1915), 1/5th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Rifleman Frederick W. Pyke (1892–1917), 1/17th (Poplar and Stepney) Battalion, London Regiment
 * J. H. Long
 * J. A. G. Moore
 * C. Nicholls
 * J. W. Smith
 * H. Wright

And, the following for the Second World War:
 * Second-Lieutenant Jack A. Balding (d.1941), Durham Light Infantry
 * Aircraftman-First Class John T. Balding (1913–1940), Royal Air Force
 * Corporal Maurice D. Jackson (d.1943), 9th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
 * Corporal Jack Cobon (1917–1944), 1st Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Leading-Aircraftman Raymond H. Harcourt (d.1944), Royal Air Force
 * Private Harold Milner (1915–1944), 1st Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment
 * Private Frederick W. Grimes (1915–1944), 5th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * N. C. Cooke

title: Blakeney, Norfolk


text:
Palikir

Palikir is the capital city of the Federated States of Micronesia located in the western Pacific Ocean. A town of slightly under 5,000 residents, it is part of the larger Sokehs municipality, which had a population of 6,647, out of the nation's total population of 106,487. It is situated on the northwest side of Pohnpei island (population 34,789), a high volcanic island surrounded by a fringing coral reef. Nearby to the northeast is the island's largest settlement, the coastal town of Kolonia. It was declared the capital of Micronesia in 1989.

History
Pohnpei was ruled by tribal chiefs in ancient times. Palikir was formerly a tiny village of little consequence. The island of Pohnpei was encountered by the Portuguese and Spanish in the 15th century, but colonial settlement did not occur until 1886 by the Spanish. Later Germany attained the Caroline Islands via purchase from Spain at the end of the Spanish–American War in 1898. During World War I control passed to the Japanese. During World War II, the Japanese built an airport near Kolonia. Subsequent to World War II, the island was administered by the United States Government until FSM attained independence in 1979. The government of the Federated States of Micronesia decided to convert the Palikir area into a town to house the central administration of the islands as a purpose built capital city. It was declared the capital of Micronesia in 1989. US aid of US$15 million was made available to develop the site into a modern town. All government offices, some residential houses, and the residence of the President of the Federated States of Micronesia were built. It is now the hub of the federal administration of the country, despite still being a village with a population of 4,645.

Geography
Palikir is located in the northwestern center of Pohnpei Island (formerly known as Ponape). Geologically the island terrain consists of high mountains to low coral atolls. It is the largest, highest, wettest and most scenic island of the Federated States of Micronesia. Palikir is 8 km southwest of Kolonia, which is Pohnpei's largest town and state capital of Pohnpei State. Underwater reefs are found all round the coastal region of the island. 9 km to the southeast, Mount Nanlaud is the highest point of the Federated States of Micronesia and of Pohnpei at 2566 ft as indicated on the definitive USGS 1:25,000 scale topographic survey. Palikir is surrounded by heavily wooded forest.

Climate
Palikir features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification. Common to many areas with this climate, Palikir sees very little variance in its temperatures during the course of the year, averaging roughly 27 C daily throughout the year. The town experiences heavy rainfall year-round; on average 5202 mm of rain falls annually, making it the wettest capital in the world.

Demographics
The nationality of the people is Micronesian with the most common ethnicities being Chuukese, Kosraeans, Pohnpeian, and Yapese. English is the common and official language while each of the major islands have their own local language such as Chuukese, Kosraean, Pohnpeian, and Yapese. 96% of the population is Christian with Roman Catholicism being the majority religion at over 50% of the population. The city has been categorized as having a "high degree of hardship with a typical hardship premium of 30%" from an international perspective.

Administration
Since 1989, Palikir has been the federal capital of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), which attained independence from, and remains since in free association with, the United States in May 1979. FSM has a constitutional government headed by a president.

Economy
The economy of the capital city is reflected in the economic resources of the FSM Islands (600 islands, atolls and islets (including Pohnpei Island) ) as a whole. The economy of the island consists basically of subsistence farming and fishing (fish processing and aquaculture). Tropical agricultural and plantation products like copra, breadfruit, taro, betel nuts, sweet potatoes, cassava, tropical fruits and vegetables, trochus shells, cacao and rice are produced. Livestock, such as pigs and poultry, are raised. Products such as fish, bananas, black pepper, and garments are mainly exported to Japan. Food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment and beverages are imported.

The country is independent, but in fact depends on financial support stemming from its Compact of Free Association with the US. the inflation rate was 2% and the cost of living (for imported goods) in Palikir is reportedly very high in comparison with other places in the world.

Education
Pohnpei State Department of Education operates public schools:
 * Palikir Elementary School

Bailey Olter High School (former Pohnpei Island Central School or PICS) in Kolonia serves students from Sokehs.

Notable people

 * Bailey Olter, politician
 * Emelihter Kihleng, poet

Transportation
Pohnpei International Airport is close to Palikir.

title: Palikir


text:
Bad trip

A bad trip (also known as challenging experiences, acute intoxication from hallucinogens, psychedelic crisis, or emergence phenomenon) is a term describing an acute adverse psychological reaction to effects produced under the influence of psychoactive substances, namely psychedelics. There is no clear definition of what constitutes a bad trip. Additionally, knowledge on the cause of bad trips and who may be vulnerable to such experiences are limited. Existing studies report that possible adverse reactions include, anxiety, panic, depersonalization, ego dissolution, paranoia, as well as physiological symptoms such as dizziness and heart palpitations. However, most studies indicate that the set and setting of substance use influence how people respond.

With proper screening, preparation, and support in a regulated setting these are usually benign. A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, agitation, and psychosis. They manifest as a range of feelings, such as anxiety, paranoia, the unshakeable sense of one's inevitable and imminent personal demise or states of unrelieved terror that they believe will persist after the substance's effects have worn off. As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available.

Bad trips can be exacerbated by the inexperience or irresponsibility of the user or the lack of proper preparation and environment for the trip, and are often reflective of unresolved psychological tensions triggered during the course of the experience. In clinical research settings, precautions including the screening and preparation of participants, the training of the session monitors who will be present during the experience, and the selection of appropriate physical setting can minimize the likelihood of psychological distress. Researchers have suggested that the presence of professional "trip sitters" (i.e., session monitors) may significantly reduce the negative experiences associated with a bad trip. In most cases in which anxiety arises during a supervised psychedelic experience, reassurance from the session monitor is adequate to resolve it; however, if distress becomes intense it can be treated pharmacologically, for example with the benzodiazepine diazepam.

The psychiatrist Stanislav Grof wrote that unpleasant psychedelic experiences are not necessarily unhealthy or undesirable, arguing that they may have the potential for psychological healing and lead to breakthrough and resolution of unresolved psychic issues. Drawing on narrative theory, the authors of a 2021 study of 50 users of psychedelics found that many described bad trips as having been sources of insight or even turning points in life.

Intervention
Medical treatment consists of supportive therapy and minimization of external stimuli. In some cases, sedation is used when necessary to control self-destructive behavior, or when hyperthermia occurs. Diazepam is the most frequently used sedative for such treatment, but other benzodiazepines such as lorazepam are also effective. Such sedatives will only decrease fear and anxiety, but will not subdue hallucinations. In severe cases, antipsychotics such as haloperidol can reduce or stop hallucinations. Haloperidol is effective against acute intoxication caused by LSD and other tryptamines, amphetamines, ketamine, and phencyclidine.

Effects
Bad trips may cause hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD).

Stanislav Grof
Psychiatrist Stanislav Grof once said in an interview:

"There is a tremendous danger of confusing the inner world with the outer world, so you'll be dealing with your inner realities but at the same time you are not even aware of what's happening, You perceive a sort of distortion of the world out there. So you can end up in a situation where you're weakening the resistances, your conscious is becoming more aware, but you're not really in touch with it properly, you're not really fully experiencing what's there, not seeing it for what it is. You get kind of deluded and caught into this."

In a 1975 book, Grof suggested that painful and difficult experiences during a trip could be a result of the mind reliving experiences associated with birth, and that experiences of imprisonment, eschatological terror, or suffering far beyond anything imaginable in a normal state, if seen through to conclusion, often resolve into emotional, intellectual and spiritual breakthroughs. From this perspective, Grof suggests that interrupting a bad trip, while initially seen as beneficial, could potentially trap the tripper in unresolved psychological states. Grof also suggests that many cathartic experiences within psychedelic states, while not necessarily crises, may be the effects of consciousness entering a perinatal space.

Rick Strassman
Professor of psychiatry Rick Strassman is critical of reframing the experience of bad trips as one of "challenging experiences".

title: Bad trip


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Talk:Yemaja

Brazil
I believe that Yemaja also has a strong following in Brazil. But that's about all I know. Perhaps more information on this could be mentioned in the article? Guy

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I'm about 75% sure the Umbandists mentioned in the article are Brazilian.Tokerboy 20:01 Oct 4, 2002 (UTC)

there is a link on the last paragraph to "umbandists" - for which there isn't any article on wikipedia. Why not link it to "Umbanda", as there is such an entry here?

I have been to Rio de Janeiro in 1990 and the goddess, known there as Imanja, is very much in evidence. I was told that underneath catholicism is a lot of local religion and I saw it to be true. In the shops that sell religious icons- paintings and statues of Jesus etc., you can also buy paintings of Imanja- she looks beautiful and rises out of the sea, as she is portrayed in one of the Yemaja pictures on this site. I have also seen the little candles that the locals burn on the beach at Copacabana and Ipanema at night for her. I have no idea how to make this info into a proper article, but I would like mention of at least some of this to go into the Brazil page, the Rio page, the Yemaja page or a little stub of Imanja. IceDragon64 00:09, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

Problem with deity parentage
It is listed on the entry that "Her parents are Oduduwa and Obatala." It is posted elsewhere on Wikipedia that both of these entities were male. There should be more research and I will check entries again. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dweiums (talk • contribs) 21:18, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

Title of Page
It would be nice to have some consistency about the spelling.

The page title is "Yemaja" (a spelling I have never seen). This spelling is never again used in the article.

The spellings I have seen here in Rio de Janeiro are Yemanjá and Iemanjá, both of which are used in the body of the article.

I suggest that, for consistency, the page title be changed to Yemanjá or Yemanja. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.25.15.78 (talk) 20:13, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Yemaja


text:
Eshu

Èṣù is a pivotal Òrìṣà/Irúnmọlẹ̀ in the Yoruba spirituality or Yoruba religion known as ìṣẹ̀ṣe. Èṣù is a prominent primordial Divinity (a delegated Irúnmọlẹ̀ sent by the Olódùmarè) who descended from Ìkọ̀lé Ọ̀run, and the Chief Enforcer of natural and divine laws - he is the Deity in charge of law enforcement and orderliness. As the religion has spread around the world, the name of this Orisha has varied in different locations, but the beliefs remain similar.

Overview
The other names of the Irúnmọlẹ̀ called Èṣù includes; Ẹlẹ́jẹ̀lú, Olúlànà, Ọbasìn, Láarúmọ̀, Ajọ́ńgọ́lọ̀, Ọba Ọ̀dàrà, Onílé Oríta, Ẹlẹ́gbára Ọ̀gọ, Olóògùn Àjíṣà, Láàlú Ògiri Òkò, Láàlù Bara Ẹlẹ́jọ́, Láaróyè Ẹbọra tí jẹ́ Látọpa.

Èṣù is powerful, relevant, and ubiquitous to the extent of having every day of the four-day (ancient/traditional) Yorùbá week as his day of worship (Ọjọ́ Ọ̀ṣẹ̀), unlike all other Irúnmọlẹ̀s and Òrìṣàs (primordial Divinities and deified Ancestor Spirits; "ọjọ́ gbogbo ni ti Èṣù Ọ̀darà".

The controversial cognomen; A-bá-ni-wá-ọ̀ràn-bá-ò-rí-dá (He-who-creates-problems-for-the-innocent) highlights the complexity of the nature of this highly unpredictable Deity called Èṣù Ọba Ọ̀dàrà (who has his abode at crossroads) across all strata of Yorùbá society in general and of spiritual communities in particular.

Èṣù is a personification of Mischief; he is the one who teaches that there are always two sides or more to every issue. He balanced and created directions. That is why it is believed that Èṣù is so necessary to have an ordered life.

According to Oluwo Aderemi Ifaoleepin Aderemi from Oyo Alaafin, to the criminally minded who celebrate wickedness, injustice, and immorality and unrighteous people, Èṣù Láàlù is evil and devilish, whilst Láaróyè Ajọ́ńgọ́lọ̀ Ọkùnrin Òde is an awesome and persuasive Divinity to pious and morally upright people who place a premium on justice, morality, and good character.

Èṣù is the messenger not only to the Olódùmarè, but also to the other Irúnmọlẹ̀s/Òrìṣàs. He is also the intermediary between Ajoguns (evil spirits) to the Irúnmọlẹ̀s/Òrìṣàs and the ẹ̀dá èèyàn (human beings); he is the one who distributes, and also supervises the distribution of sacrifices (ẹbọ) to the Ajoguns.

Name and role
Èṣùu partially serves as an alternate name for Eleggua, the messenger for all Orishas, and that there are 256 paths to Eleggua—each one of which is an Eshu. It is believed that Èṣù of the ìṣẹ̀ṣe Religion is an Òrìṣà similar to Eleggua, but there are only 101 paths to Eshu according to ocha, rather than the 256 paths to Eleggua according to Ifá. Èṣù is known as the "Father who gave birth to Ogboni", and is also thought to be agile and always willing to rise to a challenge.

Both ocha and Ifá share some paths, however. Eshu Ayé is said to work closely with all Òrìṣà including Òrìṣà Olokun and is thought to walk on the shore of the beach. Èṣù Bi is a stern and forceful avatar, appearing as both an old man and young boy, who walked with Shangó and Oyá (the initial two Ibeyi), and Eshu Bi protects both of these, as well as all other small children. Eshu Laroye is an avatar believed to be the companion of Oshún and believed to be one of the most important Eshus, and the avatar of Eshu Laroye is thought to be talkative and small.

Èṣù is always at the middle of divergent world forces. He controls and regulates the two extremes - the world of happiness, joy, and fulfilment, as well as the arena of destruction, hopelessness, and sorrow.

Èṣù always demands from those who have to give to those demanded for it within the premises of sacrifices, rituals, and propitiation. He maintains the delicate balance of good and bad - just and unjust. He protects towns and villages, Priests and Priestess (àwọn Ẹlẹ́gùn - tí wọ́n ní ẹ̀rẹ́ ní Ìpàkọ́, and Devotees and Awos against evil machinations. And he always favours those that performed the necessary and appropriate sacrifices (ẹbọs) and other forms of rituals; "ẹni tó bá rúbọ l'Èṣù ń gbè"!

Èṣù Láàlù is a bosom friend, working partner, confidant, and close associate of Ọ̀rúnmìlà Baraà mi Àgbọnnìrègún, the one who practises and teaches Ifá - an esoteric language of Olódùmarè (containing divine message of life) through a very complex divinatory system, and who also teaches wisdom.

Other names
The name of Eshu varies around the world: in Yorùbáland, Eshu is Èṣù-Elegba or Laolu-Ogiri Oko; Exu de Candomblé in Candomblé; Echú in Santería and Latin America; Legba in Haitian Vodou; Leba in Winti; Exu de Quimbanda in Quimbanda; Lucero in Palo Mayombe; and Exu in Latin America.

Brazil
Exu is known by various forms and names in Afro-Brazilian religions. They include Akesan; Alafiá; Alaketo; Bará, or Ibará; Elegbá, or Elegbará, Inan; Lalu, or Jelu; Laroyê; Lon Bií; Lonã; Odara; Olodé; Tamenta, or Etamitá; Tlriri. The most common forms or praise-names of Exu are Exu-Agbo, the protector and guardian of houses and terreiros; Exu-Elepô, the god of palm oil; Exu lnã, the god of fire; and Exu Ojixé, a messenger god.

Candomblé
A shrine dedicated to Exu is located outside of the main terreiro of a Candomblé temple, usually near the entrance gate. It is, in general, made of a simple mound of red clay. These shrines are similar to those found in Nigeria.

Ritual foods offered to Exu include palm oil; beans; corn, either in the form of cornmeal or popcorn; and farofa, a manioc flour. Male birds, four-legged and other animals are offered as sacrifice to Exu. In each offering made to an orixá, a part of the food is separated and dedicated to Exu.

Umbanda
In the syncretic religion of Umbanda, Exu may have a different meaning. Usually in Umbanda Exu is not considered a single Deity, but many different spirits. Some of the most popular versions of Exu are Exu Caveira ("Skull Exu", represented as a skeleton), Exu Tranca-Rua ("Street Locker", opener and closer of spiritual ways) and Exu Mirim ("Little Exu", a spirit that resembles the personality of a child or teenager). In Umbanda, a Pombagira (female consort of Exu) may also be considered a kind of Exu, commonly venerated in the practice of Brazilian Love magic.

Controversy on English translations and on Google
From the time of the first English translations of Yorùbá words in the mid nineteenth century, Èṣù has been rendered as "devil" or "satan". The first known instance of this came from Samuel Ajayi Crowther's "Vocabulary of the Yoruba" (1842) where his entries for "Satan" and “devil” had Eshu in English. Subsequent dictionaries over the years have followed suit, permeating popular culture and Yorùbá societies as well. Lately, many online campaigns have been set up to protest this, and many activists have worked to correct it. There have also been quite a number of academic work examining the mistranslation.

The translation on Google Translate took up the same earlier mistranslations. This led to a number of online campaigns until 2016 when Nigerian linguist and writer Kola Tubosun, then an employee at Google, first changed it back to less derogatory connotations. When the changes were reverted, he changed them again in 2019. The translation for Èṣù to English now remains "Èṣù" while "devil" and "satan" translate to "bìlísì" and "sàtánì" respectively. Tubosun's 2024 collection of poetry Èṣù at the Library pays literary homage to this episode.

Appearances in popular culture

 * Eshu appears in K. A. Applegate's fantasy series Everworld, serving as the main antagonist of its eighth book, Brave the Betrayal. He is a trickster god who tries many times to emotionally manipulate and mentally break the book's narrator, Jalil Sherman, but is ultimately defeated when Jalil proves too strong to give in to his mental tricks and magical illusions.
 * The 1974 blaxploitation film Abby features Eshu, but mostly as a deranged and ruthless sex deity that possesses a young woman and causes her to sexually assault and brutally murder various men in the process.
 * Eshu appears as the main antagonist of the film Scooby-Doo! Ghastly Goals.
 * Eshu features in the stage name "Eshu Tune" of rapper and comedian Hannibal Buress

title: Eshu


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Post Falls, Idaho

Post Falls is a city in Kootenai County, Idaho, United States. It is the gateway city to North Idaho on I-90 just west of Coeur d'Alene and east of Spokane, Washington. The population was 38,485 at the 2020 census, making it Idaho's ninth-largest city and the second largest city in North Idaho behind Coeur d’Alene.

History
Post Falls is named after Frederick Post, a German immigrant who constructed a lumber mill along the Spokane River in 1871 on land he purchased from Andrew Seltice, Chief of the Coeur d'Alene Tribe. The purchase of the land is preserved in a pictograph on a granite cliff in Treaty Rock Park.

Geography
The coordinates of Post Falls are 47.712°N, -116.948°W.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 14.11 sqmi, of which 14.07 sqmi is land and 0.04 sqmi is water.

Post Falls is located on the Rathdrum Prairie, along the Washington–Idaho border. It is bounded by Coeur d’Alene to the east, Stateline and the state of Washington to the west, and the Spokane River to the south. Post Falls is 20 mi east of Spokane and approximately 100 mi south of the Canada–United States border. The elevation of the city is 2182 ft above sea level.

Climate
Post Falls has a Warm-summer mediterranean climate (Csb), with four very distinct seasons.

Education
The public schools are run by the Post Falls School District #273. Other schools within Post Falls include:
 * Classical Christian Academy
 * Frederick Post Kindergarten
 * Greensferry Elementary
 * Genesis Prep Academy
 * Mullan Trail Elementary
 * Ponderosa Elementary
 * Prairie View Elementary
 * Seltice Elementary
 * Treaty Rock Elementary
 * West Ridge Elementary
 * Post Falls Middle School
 * Immaculate Conception Academy
 * River City Middle School
 * Post Falls High School
 * New Vision Alternative High School
 * North Idaho College Workforce Training Center
 * St. Dominic School
 * Pinegrove Academy

Demographics
As of 2022 the per capita income for the city was $71,042.

2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 38,485 people and 14,430 households residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010. there were 27,574 people, 10,263 households, and 7,396 families living in the city. The population density was 1959.8 PD/sqmi. There were 11,150 housing units at an average density of 792.5 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 94.0% White, 0.4% African American, 0.9% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.0% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.6% of the population.

There were 10,263 households, of which 40.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.7% were married couples living together, 12.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 27.9% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.10.

The median age in the city was 33 years. 29% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.6% were from 25 to 44; 22.4% were from 45 to 64; and 11.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8% male and 51.2% female.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 17,247 people, 6,369 households, and 4,668 families living in the city. The population density was 1,786.1 PD/sqmi. There were 6,697 housing units at an average density of 693.5 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 96.13% White, 0.18% African American, 0.87% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.60% from other races, and 1.61% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.55% of the population.

There were 6,369 households, out of which 40.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.7% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.7% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 30.6% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 9.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $39,061, and the median income for a family was $42,758. Males had a median income of $32,284 versus $22,798 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,692. About 7.1% of families and 9.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.4% of those under age 18 and 7.5% of those age 65 or over.

Economy
Due to the proximity of numerous lakes, rivers and mountains, Post Falls has developed tourism and retirement communities. There is an increasing number of retail, dining and entertainment businesses locating in the City.

Kootenai County traditionally has had a timber-based economy. That is changing gradually, as the manufacturing base has become more diverse. Jobs Plus, Inc., the local economic development organization has recruited several small to medium-sized firms to the county. Manufacturing jobs are found primarily in electronics, lumber and furniture at the present. Post Falls was the chosen location for Flexcel, Inc., a major furniture manufacturer that relocated to North Idaho nearly fifteen years ago and employs a workforce of 350. This was done with the help of Jobs Plus, Inc. and by creating an Urban Renewal District to help build infrastructure. This District closed out at the end of December 2001. Jobs Plus, Inc. has also just recently helped bring Center Partners, a call center business (employing a workforce of 300), and Buck Knives brought their manufacturing headquarters (workforce of 250) to the City.

Construction of a private surgical hospital was completed in 2004. Sysco foods opened their distribution plant during 2005. This project was made possible by Jobs Plus, Urban Renewal, and the City working together. Also, a community development block grant for $500,000 was used to help fund a water tower (approximately $1,500,000 total cost) that was needed on the west side of town for development in that area. In 2007, Cabela's opened its doors to a beautiful 130000 sqft retail store. Considerable economic development activity transpired in Post Falls in 2009 including the opening of ALK Source Materials/Biopol which is a Danish pharmaceutical company, a second Super Wal-Mart store that will be located near the new Cabelas store began its construction and is slated to open in early summer 2010, and Lowe's Home Improvement finalized the purchase of land adjacent to the new Wal-Mart at the Pointe at Post Falls. Ground Force Manufacturing, a large construction equipment manufacturer, completed an addition that increased their production space by 20000 sqft in 2009 in order to meet the heavy demands for their mining construction products around the globe. In 2010, additional commercial real estate activity is anticipated including the construction of the Lowe's Home Improvement store mentioned earlier; a new 30,000 professional office building to house a company named Ednetics; a 30,000 LEED certified industrial building to be the home of a subsidiary of Berg Integrated Systems will begin construction in early 2010; the Idaho Department of Labor will construct their new regional office here in Post Falls that will provide services to the northern five counties of Idaho; several restaurants are also anticipated to locate within the Pointe at Post Falls regional power center to take advantage of the retail traffic of Cabela's and Wal-Mart; the City's downtown area is expected to see a major mixed-use project also take off with infrastructure and the first phase including a hospitality component begin construction; and finally the community anticipates that construction on the Beck Road Interchange with Interstate 90 will begin this fall ultimately providing service to the Pointe at Post Falls and EXPO on the north side of the freeway and the Riverbend Commerce Park and Greyhound Event Center on the south side of Interstate 90.

Top employers
According to the City's 2022 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the largest employers in the city are:

Transportation
The city is served by Interstate 90, the primary east–west highway of the northern United States, which crosses the Idaho panhandle through Post Falls. 2 mi east is its junction with State Highway 41, which extends 8 mi north to Rathdrum. Post Falls is approximately 7 mi west of U.S. Route 95, the state's primary north–south highway, which extends into Canada.
 * [[Image:I-90.svg|25px]] - Interstate 90 - Spokane (west), Coeur d'Alene (east)

Air passenger service is available at Spokane International Airport, west of Spokane. Amtrak passenger rail service is available in Spokane and Sandpoint. Bus service and taxi service are available in the immediate area.

title: Post Falls, Idaho


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Peat

Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'. Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition. Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity. Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat; although less common, other wetlands, including fens, pocosins, and peat swamp forests, also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, and sedges. Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use.

Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world, but this is being banned in some places. By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite. The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 e6km2 and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet, because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m, which is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands", which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions). Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface.

Peat is not a renewable source of energy, due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm per year, and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands. Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of into the atmosphere, and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.

Formation
Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs. The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.

Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year. The estimated carbon content is 415 Gt (northern peatlands), 50 Gt (tropical peatlands) and 15 Gt (South America).

Types of peat material
Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.

Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties – it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

Peatlands distribution
In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they say are the same) as"the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 e6km2 or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions." A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP, based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area. In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km2. About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley. There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. The world's largest tropical peatland is located in Africa (the Democratic Republic of Congo). In addition, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape. Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100000 hectare per year. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands.

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry. Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

Fuel
Peat can be used as fuel once dried. Traditionally, peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating. This tradition can be traced back to the Roman period. For industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed.

Agriculture
In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself – it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003. Whilst bark or coir-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat is still used as raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

Drinking water
Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.

Metallurgy
Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour.

Flood mitigation
Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.

Freshwater aquaria
Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.

Balneotherapy
Peat is widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.

Peat archives
Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.

"In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives."

In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."

Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural-archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example. Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS), and more recently the initial penetration (IP).

Bog bodies
Naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies" have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water, as well as by the antibiotic properties of the organic component sphagnan. A famous example is the Tollund Man in Denmark. Having been discovered in 1950 after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, he was exhumed for scientific purposes and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC. Prior to that, another bog body, the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was a ritual sacrifice. In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.

Environmental and ecological issues

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, whilst Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland. Palsa mires have a rich bird life and are an EU-red listed habitat, and in Canada riparian peat banks are used as maternity sites for polar bears. Natural peatlands also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. For more on biological communities, see wetland, bog or fen.

Around half of the area of northern peatlands is permafrost-affected, and this area represents around a tenth of the total permafrost area, and also a tenth (185 ± 66 Gt) of all permafrost carbon, equivalent to around half of the carbon stored in the atmosphere. Dry peat is a good insulator (with a thermal conductivity of around 0.25 Wm−1K−1) and therefore plays an important role in protecting permafrost from thaw. The insulating effect of dry peat also makes it integral to unique permafrost landforms such as palsas and permafrost peat plateaus. Peatland permafrost thaw tends to result in an increase in methane emissions and a small increase in carbon dioxide uptake, meaning that it contributes to the permafrost carbon feedback. Under 2 °C global warming, 0.7 million km2 of peatland permafrost could thaw, and with warming of +1.5 to 6 °C a cumulative 0.7 to 3 PgC of methane could be released as a result of permafrost peatland thaw by 2100. The forcing from these potential emissions would be approximately equivalent to 1% of projected anthropogenic emissions.

One characteristic of peat is the bioaccumulation of metals concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.

Peat drainage
Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals ). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change. As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon – which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater – is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere. The global emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total emissions from the worldwide 500,000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.

Peat fires
Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain. may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present.

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence, and absence of fire.

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 e9t of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels. Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 Gt of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998. More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades. Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 C ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.

In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires in the Arctic emitted 50 Mt of CO2, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions. The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.

Erosion: Peat hags
Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes in isolation. Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.

Protection
In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5 years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

Latvia
Latvia has been the biggest exporter of peat in the world by volume providing more than 19.9% of the world's volume followed only by Canada with 13% in 2022. In 2020, Latvia exported 1.97 million tons of peat, followed by Germany with 1.5 and Canada with 1.42 million tons. Nevertheless, although first in the world by volume, in monetary terms, Latvian comes second in the world behind Canada. As an example, Latvia's income from exports was 237 million US dollars.

Latvia's peat deposits have been estimated to equal 1.7 billion tons. Latvia, as Finland due its climate has several peat bogs, which account for 9.9% of the country's territory.

More than two thirds of the licensed areas for peat extraction are state-owned; 55% belong to the state whilst 23% belong to the municipalities

Bogs in Latvia are considered important habitant due their ecological values and up to 128 thousand hectares or 40% of the areas in the territory are protected by environmental laws. The most famous national parks and reserves are the Ķemeri National Park, Cenas tīrelis and Teiči Nature Reserve.

Finland
The climate, geography, and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.

At 106 g CO2/MJ, the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO2/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.

Sweden
About 15% of the land in Sweden is covered by peatlands. Whilst nowadays the main use of such soils is for forestry, peat-rich lands have historically been exploited to produce energy, agricultural land and horticultural substrates. The most common method to extract peat during the 19th and 20th centuries was peat cutting, a process where the land is cleared of forest and subsequentially drained. Peat cores are then extracted under dry weather conditions and stored on stacks to let the residual moisture evaporate. Today, clear cutting for horticultural peat (of which Sweden is an important producer in Europe) is limited to some areas of Sweden and strictly regulated by the Swedish Environmental Code to prevent that significant groundwater storages and carbon sinks areas are altered and compromised by human activities. At the same time, restoration of drained peatlands through rewetting is urged by national and international policies to exploit the peat-rich soil properties in mitigating climate change effects.

Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned company called Bord na Móna was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.

In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.

In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.

Russia
Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.

Netherlands
2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>40 cm peat) to about 2733 km2 or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533 and the last one in 1968. Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area and 21% of the population of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, 6.76 m below average sea level.

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400 kg/m3 dry peat) ): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported. Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery. During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat. Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.

Estonia
After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource. The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented. Peat is extracted from around 14 e3ha.

Sikkim
The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands. Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms, 196 families, and 453 genera.

England
England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained. On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat. Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands. Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.

Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.

Scotland
Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted barley. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness". The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky, is calculated in ppm of phenol. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore, the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

Wales
Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas. Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition. In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).

Canada
There are 294 million acres of peatland in Canada, with approximately 43,500 acres in production with another 34,500 acres involved in past production, the current and past acreage in production amounts to 0.03 percent of Canada's peatland. Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K, 1,643,950,000 kg), European Union ($445,304.42K, 2,362,280,000 kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K, 2,184,860,000 kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K, 1,312,850,000 kg), Germany ($223,414.66K, 1,721,170,000 kg).

title: Peat


text:
Dabru Emet

The Dabru Emet (Heb. דברו אמת "Speak [the] Truth") is a document concerning the relationship between Christianity and Judaism. It was signed by over 220 rabbis and intellectuals from all branches of Judaism, as individuals and not as representing any organisation or stream of Judaism.

In light of the Second Vatican Council in 1965, the Dabru Emet was first published on 10 September 2000, in The New York Times, and has since been used in Jewish education programs across the U.S. While affirming that there are theological differences between these two religions, the purpose of Dabru Emet is to point out common ground and a legitimacy of Christianity, for non-Jews, from the Jewish perspective. It is not an official document of any of the Jewish denominations per se, but it is representative of what many Jews feel. Eight major themes are expressed:

 * 1) Jews and Christians worship the same God
 * 2) Jews and Christians seek authority from the same book
 * 3) Christians can respect the claim of the Jews on the land of Israel
 * 4) Jews and Christians together accept the moral principles of the Torah (Pentateuch)
 * 5) Nazism is not a Christian phenomenon
 * 6) The controversy between Jews and Christians will not be settled until God redeems the entire world as promised in scripture and no-one should be pressed into believing another's belief
 * 7) A new relationship between Jews and Christians will not weaken Jewish practice
 * 8) Jews and Christians must work together for justice and peace

Jewish criticism
There are various objections to Dabru Emet from within the Jewish community. Some hold that it understates the significant theological differences between the two religions. Thus, most Conservative and Reform rabbis have not signed it, although many do agree with most of the document. Very few Orthodox rabbis have signed it; The Institute for Public Affairs, of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations (commonly known as the Orthodox Union) issued this response:

While agreeing with desire to encourage inter-faith dialogue and reconciliation, many Jews disagree with the section in Dabru Emet which holds that Christian theology is not in any way to blame for most of the last 2,000 years of anti-Semitism, or the Holocaust. Instead, it is believed by many Jews that much of Christian theology and teachings have been deeply anti-Semitic. Jews point to the 2,000 year history of antisemetism committed by Christians, and anti-Judaism inherent in Christian theological dogma. For instance, statements in the New Testament, such as, in which Jesus speaks divisive words to some particular Jews of his day:

Orthodox Rabbis' Statement: "Christianity Is Neither Accident Nor Error"
On 3 December 2015, 28 Orthodox Rabbis released a statement through the Center for Jewish–Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) in Israel. Rabbis Irving Greenberg, David Rosen, and Shlomo Riskin are prominent among them in the interfaith movement. The unprecedented declaration, entitled "To Do the Will of Our Father in Heaven: Toward a Partnership between Jews and Christians", praises “Nostra Aetate,” a Vatican document that repudiated Christian persecution against Jews. “Now that the Catholic Church has acknowledged the eternal Covenant between God and Israel, we Jews can acknowledge the ongoing constructive validity of Christianity as our partner in world redemption, without any fear that this will be exploited for missionary purposes,” it reads.

Christian reaction
The European Lutheran Commission on the Church and the Jewish People (Lutherische Europäische Kommission Kirche und Judentum, LEKKJ), an umbrella organization representing twenty-five Lutheran church bodies in Europe, issued on May 12, 2003 A Response to Dabru Emet:

"In its Driebergen Declaration (1991), the European Lutheran Commission on the Church and the Jewish People… rejected the traditional Christian “teaching of contempt” towards Jews and Judaism, and in particular, the anti-Jewish writings of Martin Luther, and it called for the reformation of church practice in the light of these insights. Against this background, LEKKJ welcomes the issuance of Dabru Emet: A Jewish Statement on Christians and Christianity. We see in this statement a confirmation of our own work of these past years… We know that we must reexamine themes in Lutheran theology that in the past have repeatedly given rise to enmity towards Jews… Fully aware that Dabru Emet is in the first instance an intra-Jewish invitation to conversation, we see in this statement also an aid to us in expressing and living out our faith in such a way that we do not denigrate Jews, but rather respect them in their otherness, and are enabled to give an account of our own identity more clearly as we scrutinize it in the light of how others see us."

title: Dabru Emet


text:
Talk:Lea (version 2)

Isn't this also how you spell those flower necklaces Hawaiians wear, or at least sell to haole tourists? Tokerboy 20:05 Oct 4, 2002 (UTC)

It's also a river in London

Ah, yes haole tourists, eh? I think it's spelled Lei. Didn't look too good on me. Dieter

This is my middle name... Tiffany Lea.. Tiffany Medow... ha ha nice.. :)

title: Talk:Lea (version 2)


text:
Cley next the Sea

Cley next the Sea is a village and civil parish on the River Glaven in English county of Norfolk, 4 mi north-west of Holt and east of Blakeney. The main A149 coast road runs through the centre of the village, causing congestion in the summer months due to the tight, narrow streets. It lies within the Norfolk Coast AONB (Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty) and the North Norfolk Heritage Coast.

Cley is an Anglo-Saxon village near the sea with a rich history, including being a bustling port in England, where various goods were traded. The 18th-century Cley Windmill is a notable landmark, which was owned by James Blunt's family and has been featured in films and paintings. After the port silted up, Cley became a holiday resort. In 2011, the village had 437 residents in 358 households, and it falls within the North Norfolk constituency.

The village features St Margaret's Church, a Norman-era Grade I listed building. Cley Marshes, an internationally important bird reserve, has been managed by the Norfolk Wildlife Trust since 1926. The marshes, however, face challenges due to coastal erosion, storms, and rising sea levels caused by global warming, prompting concern for their future.

History
The village's name is of Anglo-Saxon origin and derives from the Old English term for a settlement close to the sea with an abundance of clay.

In the Domesday Book, Cley is recorded as a settlement of 38 households located in the hundred of Holt. The village formed parts of the East Anglian estates of King William I.

A ruined building on the marshes is known as Blakeney Chapel; despite its name, it is in Cley parish, and probably never had a religious purpose. It is a Grade II listed building and scheduled monument which was likely an old iron smeltery.

Cley was once one of the busiest ports in England, where grain, malt, fish, spices, coal, cloth, barley and oats were exported or imported. The many Flemish gables in the town are a reminder of trade with the Low Countries. But despite its name, Cley has not been "next the sea" since the 17th century, due to land reclamation. Some of the buildings that once lined the quay remain, notably the 18th-century Cley Windmill. The windmill, a five-storey tower mill, was owned by the family of singer James Blunt for many decades and operated as a bed and breakfast. The mill was sold in 2006, but continues to operate as a bed and breakfast on a non-profit making basis. It was used as a backdrop of the 1949 film Conspirator with Elizabeth Taylor. Cley Mill has often been depicted by local artists and was the subject of a painting by the 20th-century English landscape artist, Rowland Hilder.

After the silting up of the port, Cley had to find another industry; in the late 19th century, it became a holiday resort. The poet Rupert Brooke was staying in Cley with classics professor Francis Macdonald Cornford and his wife, the poet Frances Cornford, early in August 1914 when news came that Britain had entered what was to become the First World War. Brooke had dreamt about the war and woke to find it a reality. He did not speak to his hosts all day until Frances Cornford said, "But Rupert, you won't have to fight?" to which Brooke replied, "We shall all have to fight".

Geography
In the 2011 census, Cley was recorded as having a population of 437 residents living in 358 households.

Cley falls within the constituency of North Norfolk and is represented at Parliament by Duncan Baker of the Conservative Party.

Parish church
St Margaret's, Cley, is of Norman origin and is dedicated to Saint Margaret of Antioch. The great nave was completed in the 14th century with contributions from the de Vaux family. The church is Grade I listed.

Cley Marshes

The marshes around Cley are internationally important for their populations of rare breeding and visiting birds. Cley Marshes bird reserve has been in the care of the Norfolk Wildlife Trust since 1926, making it the oldest county Wildlife Trust reserve in Britain. Among resident breeding birds are avocet, bearded tit, bittern, marsh harrier and spoonbill. Winter visitors include brent goose, Eurasian wigeon, pintail and many species of wading birds. Cley, like neighbouring Salthouse is ideally situated at the apex of the North Norfolk coast as a staging ground for passage migrants, vagrants and rarities of all kinds. A new eco-friendly visitor centre opened in 2007 containing a café, shop, viewing areas (including viewing from a camera on the reserve), exhibition area, interpretation and toilets. The view from the visitor centre across the marsh to the sea is breathtaking. Cley Marshes is the home of the Bird Information Service, publishers of Birding World. The shingle bank holds large numbers of yellow horned poppy.

Sea defences
The salt and fresh water marshes used to be very well protected. However the cost of replenishing the shingle spit grew too much for the village to sustain. Once the repairing stopped, it became easier for waves to get through; in 1953 a large storm, measured at 5.12 m above ordnance datum (see North Sea flood of 1953) hit the North Norfolk coast and the shingle ridge was mostly destroyed. A further storm surge in 1978 measured 4.19 m above ordnance datum and the protection measures confined flooding to the marshes and A149 coast road. The North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan introduced by the Environment Agency has proposed a number of strategies in the light of continual erosion and predicted rising sea levels caused by global warming: these include Advance the line, Hold the line, Managed retreat and Do nothing. Even after extensive public consultation there is widespread local concern that the marshes will be lost to the North Sea.

Notable residents and appearance in media
William Jones was a merchant here in the 18th century. His daughter, Charlotte Jones, became a noted Royal miniature portrait painter.

James Blunt spent time, in his early years, at his grandfather's and later his father's windmill in the village. Cley Old Hall was used as a location in the 1982 film The Ploughman's Lunch. In July 1997 the BBC filmed one of its BBC One balloon idents, which ran from 1997 to 2002, in the village.

War memorials
Cley's war memorials take the form of two carved stone tablets located inside St Margaret's Church. It lists the following names for the First World War:
 * Second-Lieutenant Raven Cozens-Hardy (1886–1917), 4th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Sergeant Ernest W. E. Gibbs (1889–1916), 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Stoker-First Class Herbert W. Ellwood (1879–1918), H.M. Tug Desire
 * Stoker-Second Class James G. Elvin (1900–1918), HMS Vivid
 * Deckhand George W. Grimes (1894–1916), H.M. Trawler
 * Gunner Charles A. Gidney (1894–1914), Royal Horse Artillery
 * Mate James W. Grimes (1885–1916), HMS Invincible
 * Private Herbert Holman (d.1918), 4th Battalion, Bedfordshire Regiment
 * Private William E. Barnes (1893–1916), 2nd (British Columbia Mounted Rifles) Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force
 * Private John E. Barnes (1894–1916), 18th (Western Ontario) Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force
 * Private Ralph Barnes (1886–1915), 1st Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * Private Frederick J. Bishop (d.1916), 10th Battalion, Essex Regiment
 * Private Cecil J. Bolton (1897–1917), 1/5th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Private Cecil A. Gathercole (1898–1917), 9th Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment
 * Private Frederick W. Brett (1886–1916), 1/4th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers
 * Private Albert G. Jeary (d.1916), 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment
 * Private Robert W. E. Gibbs (1893–1917), 11th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment
 * Private George H. Drinkwater (d.1917), 13th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment
 * Robert Leeder

title: Cley next the Sea


text:
746 BC

The following is a list of events that took place in the year 746 BC.

Events

 * Founding of Rome according to Livy's ab urbe condita
 * A revolt in Kalhu brings Tiglath-Pileser III to the throne of the Neo-Assyrian Empire

Deaths

 * Jeroboam II, thirteenth king of the Kingdom of Israel
 * Marquis Wen of Jin, eleventh ruler of the Chinese state of Jin

title: 746 BC


text:
747 BC

Events

 * February 26 - Nabonassar becomes king of Assyria
 * Meles becomes king of Lydia
 * The Lusatian culture city at Biskupin is founded.

title: 747 BC


text:
Talk:Dabru Emet

Thanks for posting this. Are we allowed to edit it? --Ed Poor

We can edit the article, but for historical accuracy, we cannot edit the text of the quote itself; Its a quote, after all. However, we can cut and paste from the article, insert it somewhere else, and then edit it there.

 * Can't the text be transwikied to Wikisource, with the background remaining here? JFW | T@lk  10:11, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't think there's a problem with including the source at Wikisource, but given how short the text is, I don't think that removing it completely to Wikisource simply because it's source text truly serves the purpose of Wikisource which, at least as I understand it, is designed to be a repository of source texts that are significantly more extensive in length and interest than the relatively few paragraphs of the Dabru Emet statement. Tom e r TALK  08:19, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

This article concentrates on negative Jewish responses, without positive Jewish or any Christian responses. Balance? ABShippee

Historical characterizations of Judaism
A previous version said "Throughout the nearly two millennia of Jewish exile, Christians have tended to characterize Judaism as a failed religion or, at best, a religion that prepared the way for, and is completed in, Christianity," but the phrase "a failed religion" was removed. While it would need specific documentation, which I don't have at hand, I believe such a claim, i.e., that some influential Christians referred to Judaism as failed or used some similar idea or terminology, is (alas) justified. The whole topic is tricky (one wonders if any significant statement would be seen as NPOV by all), and perhaps best not dealt with here, in so short a space. The phrase "have tended" is vague in a spot needing precision: does it mean most Christians by number? Most official institutional responses? Most important or leading Christian intellectuals?

Good luck to whoever comes up with a good fix! ABShippee (talk) 22:51, 30 August 2008 (UTC)

Hallo. I’m not at all experienced with Wikipedia editing. I found your username by clicking talk and current discussions .the reason is that I believe there is something strange in the Dabru Emet article. One line seems odd “Part of the Muslim tradiiton”. Anyway apologies for disturbing you. DabruEmet (talk) 05:34, 25 September 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dabru Emet