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Modern synthesis (20th century)

The modern synthesis was the early 20th-century synthesis of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and Gregor Mendel's ideas on heredity into a joint mathematical framework. Julian Huxley coined the term in his 1942 book, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. The synthesis combined the ideas of natural selection, Mendelian genetics, and population genetics. It also related the broad-scale macroevolution seen by palaeontologists to the small-scale microevolution of local populations.

The synthesis was defined differently by its founders, with Ernst Mayr in 1959, G. Ledyard Stebbins in 1966, and Theodosius Dobzhansky in 1974 offering differing basic postulates, though they all include natural selection, working on heritable variation supplied by mutation. Other major figures in the synthesis included E. B. Ford, Bernhard Rensch, Ivan Schmalhausen, and George Gaylord Simpson. An early event in the modern synthesis was R. A. Fisher's 1918 paper on mathematical population genetics, though William Bateson, and separately Udny Yule, had already started to show how Mendelian genetics could work in evolution in 1902.

Different syntheses followed, including with social behaviour in E. O. Wilson's sociobiology in 1975, evolutionary developmental biology's integration of embryology with genetics and evolution, starting in 1977, and Massimo Pigliucci's and Gerd B. Müller's proposed extended evolutionary synthesis of 2007. In the view of evolutionary biologist Eugene Koonin in 2009, the modern synthesis will be replaced by a 'post-modern' synthesis that will include revolutionary changes in molecular biology, the study of prokaryotes and the resulting tree of life, and genomics.

Darwin's evolution by natural selection, 1859
Charles Darwin's 1859 book, On the Origin of Species, convinced most biologists that evolution had occurred, but not that natural selection was its primary mechanism. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, variations of Lamarckism (inheritance of acquired characteristics), orthogenesis (progressive evolution), saltationism (evolution by jumps) and mutationism (evolution driven by mutations) were discussed as alternatives. Darwin himself had sympathy for Lamarckism, but Alfred Russel Wallace advocated natural selection and totally rejected Lamarckism. In 1880, Samuel Butler labelled Wallace's view neo-Darwinism.

The eclipse of Darwinism, 1880s onwards
From the 1880s onwards, biologists grew skeptical of Darwinian evolution. This eclipse of Darwinism (in Julian Huxley's words) grew out of the weaknesses in Darwin's account, with respect to his view of inheritance. Darwin believed in blending inheritance, which implied that any new variation, even if beneficial, would be weakened by 50% at each generation, as the engineer Fleeming Jenkin noted in 1868. This in turn meant that small variations would not survive long enough to be selected. Blending would therefore directly oppose natural selection. In addition, Darwin and others considered Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics entirely possible, and Darwin's 1868 theory of pangenesis, with contributions to the next generation (gemmules) flowing from all parts of the body, actually implied Lamarckism as well as blending.

Weismann's germ plasm, 1892
August Weismann's idea, set out in his 1892 book Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung ("The Germ Plasm: a Theory of Inheritance"), was that the hereditary material, which he called the germ plasm, and the rest of the body (the soma) had a one-way relationship: the germ-plasm formed the body, but the body did not influence the germ-plasm, except indirectly in its participation in a population subject to natural selection. If correct, this made Darwin's pangenesis wrong, and Lamarckian inheritance impossible. His experiment on mice, cutting off their tails and showing that their offspring had normal tails, demonstrated that inheritance was 'hard'. He argued strongly and dogmatically for Darwinism and against Lamarckism, polarising opinions among other scientists. This increased anti-Darwinian feeling, contributing to its eclipse.

Genetics, mutationism and biometrics, 1900–1918

While carrying out breeding experiments to clarify the mechanism of inheritance in 1900, Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns independently rediscovered Gregor Mendel's work. News of this reached William Bateson in England, who reported on the paper during a presentation to the Royal Horticultural Society in May 1900. In Mendelian inheritance, the contributions of each parent retain their integrity, rather than blending with the contribution of the other parent. In the case of a cross between two true-breeding varieties such as Mendel's round and wrinkled peas, the first-generation offspring are all alike, in this case, all round. Allowing these to cross, the original characteristics reappear (segregation): about 3/4 of their offspring are round, 1/4 wrinkled. There is a discontinuity between the appearance of the offspring; de Vries coined the term allele for a variant form of an inherited characteristic. This reinforced a major division of thought, already present in the 1890s, between gradualists who followed Darwin, and saltationists such as Bateson.

The two schools were the Mendelians, such as Bateson and de Vries, who favoured mutationism, evolution driven by mutation, based on genes whose alleles segregated discretely like Mendel's peas; and the biometric school, led by Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon. The biometricians argued vigorously against mutationism, saying that empirical evidence indicated that variation was continuous in most organisms, not discrete as Mendelism seemed to predict; they wrongly believed that Mendelism inevitably implied evolution in discontinuous jumps.

A traditional view is that the biometricians and the Mendelians rejected natural selection and argued for their separate theories for 20 years, the debate only resolved by the development of population genetics. A more recent view is that Bateson, de Vries, Thomas Hunt Morgan and Reginald Punnett had by 1918 formed a synthesis of Mendelism and mutationism. The understanding achieved by these geneticists spanned the action of natural selection on alleles (alternative forms of a gene), the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, the evolution of continuously-varying traits (like height), and the probability that a new mutation will become fixed. In this view, the early geneticists accepted natural selection but rejected Darwin's non-Mendelian ideas about variation and heredity, and the synthesis began soon after 1900. The traditional claim that Mendelians rejected the idea of continuous variation is false; as early as 1902, Bateson and Saunders wrote that "If there were even so few as, say, four or five pairs of possible allelomorphs, the various homo- and heterozygous combinations might, on seriation, give so near an approach to a continuous curve, that the purity of the elements would be unsuspected". Also in 1902, the statistician Udny Yule showed mathematically that given multiple factors, Mendel's theory enabled continuous variation. Yule criticised Bateson's approach as confrontational, but failed to prevent the Mendelians and the biometricians from falling out.

Castle's hooded rats, 1911
Starting in 1906, William Castle carried out a long study of the effect of selection on coat colour in rats. The piebald or hooded pattern was recessive to the grey wild type. He crossed hooded rats with both wild and "Irish" types, and then back-crossed the offspring with pure hooded rats. The dark stripe on the back was bigger. He then tried selecting different groups for bigger or smaller stripes for 5 generations and found that it was possible to change the characteristics considerably beyond the initial range of variation. This effectively refuted de Vries's claim that continuous variation was caused by the environment and could not be inherited. By 1911, Castle noted that the results could be explained by Darwinian selection on a heritable variation of a sufficient number of Mendelian genes.

Morgan's fruit flies, 1912
Thomas Hunt Morgan began his career in genetics as a saltationist and started out trying to demonstrate that mutations could produce new species in fruit flies. However, the experimental work at his lab with the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster showed that rather than creating new species in a single step, mutations increased the supply of genetic variation in the population. By 1912, after years of work on the genetics of fruit flies, Morgan showed that these insects had many small Mendelian factors (discovered as mutant flies) on which Darwinian evolution could work as if the variation was fully continuous. The way was open for geneticists to conclude that Mendelism supported Darwinism.

An obstruction: Woodger's positivism, 1929
The theoretical biologist and philosopher of biology Joseph Henry Woodger led the introduction of positivism into biology with his 1929 book Biological Principles. He saw a mature science as being characterised by a framework of hypotheses that could be verified by facts established by experiments. He criticised the traditional natural history style of biology, including the study of evolution, as immature science, since it relied on narrative. Woodger set out to play the role of Robert Boyle's 1661 Sceptical Chymist, intending to convert the subject of biology into a formal, unified science, and ultimately, following the Vienna Circle of logical positivists like Otto Neurath and Rudolf Carnap, to reduce biology to physics and chemistry. His efforts stimulated the biologist J. B. S. Haldane to push for the axiomatisation of biology, and by influencing thinkers such as Huxley, helped to bring about the modern synthesis. The positivist climate made natural history unfashionable, and in America, research and university-level teaching on evolution declined almost to nothing by the late 1930s. The Harvard physiologist William John Crozier told his students that evolution was not even a science: "You can't experiment with two million years!"

The tide of opinion turned with the adoption of mathematical modelling and controlled experimentation in population genetics, combining genetics, ecology and evolution in a framework acceptable to positivism.

Fisher and Haldane's mathematical population genetics, 1918–1930
In 1918, R. A. Fisher wrote "The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance," which showed how continuous variation could come from a number of discrete genetic loci. In this and other papers, culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Fisher showed how Mendelian genetics was consistent with the idea of evolution by natural selection.

In the 1920s, a series of papers by J. B. S. Haldane analyzed real-world examples of natural selection, such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths. and showed that natural selection could work even faster than Fisher had assumed. Both of these scholars, and others, such as Dobzhansky and Wright, wanted to raise biology to the standards of the physical sciences by basing it on mathematical modeling and empirical testing. Natural selection, once considered unverifiable, was becoming predictable, measurable, and testable.

De Beer's embryology, 1930
The traditional view is that developmental biology played little part in the modern synthesis, but in his 1930 book Embryos and Ancestors, the evolutionary embryologist Gavin de Beer anticipated evolutionary developmental biology by showing that evolution could occur by heterochrony, such as in the retention of juvenile features in the adult. This, de Beer argued, could cause apparently sudden changes in the fossil record, since embryos fossilise poorly. As the gaps in the fossil record had been used as an argument against Darwin's gradualist evolution, de Beer's explanation supported the Darwinian position. However, despite de Beer, the modern synthesis largely ignored embryonic development when explaining the form of organisms, since population genetics appeared to be an adequate explanation of how such forms evolved.

Wright's adaptive landscape, 1932

The population geneticist Sewall Wright focused on combinations of genes that interacted as complexes, and the effects of inbreeding on small relatively isolated populations, which could be subject to genetic drift. In a 1932 paper, he introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape in which phenomena such as cross breeding and genetic drift in small populations could push them away from adaptive peaks, which would in turn allow natural selection to push them towards new adaptive peaks. Wright's model would appeal to field naturalists such as Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr who were becoming aware of the importance of geographical isolation in real world populations. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright helped to found the discipline of theoretical population genetics.

Dobzhansky's evolutionary genetics, 1937

Theodosius Dobzhansky, an immigrant from the Soviet Union to the United States, who had been a postdoctoral worker in Morgan's fruit fly lab, was one of the first to apply genetics to natural populations. He worked mostly with Drosophila pseudoobscura. He says pointedly: "Russia has a variety of climates from the Arctic to sub-tropical... Exclusively laboratory workers who neither possess nor wish to have any knowledge of living beings in nature were and are in a minority." Not surprisingly, there were other Russian geneticists with similar ideas, though for some time their work was known to only a few in the West. His 1937 work Genetics and the Origin of Species was a key step in bridging the gap between population geneticists and field naturalists. It presented the conclusions reached by Fisher, Haldane, and especially Wright in their highly mathematical papers in a form that was easily accessible to others. Further, Dobzhansky asserted the physicality, and hence the biological reality, of the mechanisms of inheritance: that evolution was based on material genes, arranged in a string on physical hereditary structures, the chromosomes, and linked more or less strongly to each other according to their actual physical distances on the chromosomes. As with Haldane and Fisher, Dobzhansky's "evolutionary genetics" was a genuine science, now unifying cell biology, genetics, and both micro and macroevolution. His work emphasized that real-world populations had far more genetic variability than the early population geneticists had assumed in their models and that genetically distinct sub-populations were important. Dobzhansky argued that natural selection worked to maintain genetic diversity as well as by driving change. He was influenced by his exposure in the 1920s to the work of Sergei Chetverikov, who had looked at the role of recessive genes in maintaining a reservoir of genetic variability in a population, before his work was shut down by the rise of Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union. By 1937, Dobzhansky was able to argue that mutations were the main source of evolutionary changes and variability, along with chromosome rearrangements, effects of genes on their neighbours during development, and polyploidy. Next, genetic drift (he used the term in 1941), selection, migration, and geographical isolation could change gene frequencies. Thirdly, mechanisms like ecological or sexual isolation and hybrid sterility could fix the results of the earlier processes.

Ford's ecological genetics, 1940

E. B. Ford was an experimental naturalist who wanted to test natural selection in nature, virtually inventing the field of ecological genetics. His work on natural selection in wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that predictions made by R. A. Fisher were correct. In 1940, he was the first to describe and define genetic polymorphism, and to predict that human blood group polymorphisms might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease. His 1949 book Mendelism and Evolution helped to persuade Dobzhansky to change the emphasis in the third edition of his famous textbook Genetics and the Origin of Species from drift to selection.

Schmalhausen's stabilizing selection, 1941
Ivan Schmalhausen developed the theory of stabilizing selection, the idea that selection can preserve a trait at some value, publishing a paper in Russian titled "Stabilizing selection and its place among factors of evolution" in 1941 and a monograph Factors of Evolution: The Theory of Stabilizing Selection in 1945. He developed it from J. M. Baldwin's 1902 concept that changes induced by the environment will ultimately be replaced by hereditary changes (including the Baldwin effect on behaviour), following that theory's implications to their Darwinian conclusion, and bringing him into conflict with Lysenkoism. Schmalhausen observed that stabilizing selection would remove most variations from the norm, most mutations being harmful. Dobzhansky called the work "an important missing link in the modern view of evolution".

Huxley's popularising synthesis, 1942

In 1942, Julian Huxley's serious but popularising Evolution: The Modern Synthesis introduced a name for the synthesis and intentionally set out to promote a "synthetic point of view" on the evolutionary process. He imagined a wide synthesis of many sciences: genetics, developmental physiology, ecology, systematics, palaeontology, cytology, and mathematical analysis of biology, and assumed that evolution would proceed differently in different groups of organisms according to how their genetic material was organised and their strategies for reproduction, leading to progressive but varying evolutionary trends. His vision was of an "evolutionary humanism", with a system of ethics and a meaningful place for "Man" in the world grounded in a unified theory of evolution which would demonstrate progress leading to humanity at its summit. Natural selection was in his view a "fact of nature capable of verification by observation and experiment", while the "period of synthesis" of the 1920s and 1930s had formed a "more unified science", rivalling physics and enabling the "rebirth of Darwinism".

However, the book was not the research text that it appeared to be. In the view of the philosopher of science Michael Ruse, and in Huxley's own opinion, Huxley was "a generalist, a synthesizer of ideas, rather than a specialist". Ruse observes that Huxley wrote as if he were adding empirical evidence to the mathematical framework established by Fisher and the population geneticists, but that this was not so. Huxley avoided mathematics, for instance not even mentioning Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection. Instead, Huxley used a mass of examples to demonstrate that natural selection is powerful and that it works on Mendelian genes. The book was successful in its goal of persuading readers of the reality of evolution, effectively illustrating topics such as island biogeography, speciation, and competition. Huxley further showed that the appearance of long-term orthogenetic trends – predictable directions for evolution – in the fossil record were readily explained as allometric growth (since parts are interconnected). All the same, Huxley did not reject orthogenesis out of hand, but maintained a belief in progress all his life, with Homo sapiens as the endpoint, and he had since 1912 been influenced by the vitalist philosopher Henri Bergson, though in public he maintained an atheistic position on evolution. Huxley's belief in progress within evolution and evolutionary humanism was shared in various forms by Dobzhansky, Mayr, Simpson and Stebbins, all of them writing about "the future of Mankind". Both Huxley and Dobzhansky admired the palaeontologist priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Huxley writing the introduction to Teilhard's 1955 book on orthogenesis, The Phenomenon of Man. This vision required evolution to be seen as the central and guiding principle of biology.

Mayr's allopatric speciation, 1942

Ernst Mayr's key contribution to the synthesis was Systematics and the Origin of Species, published in 1942. It asserted the importance of and set out to explain population variation in evolutionary processes including speciation. He analysed in particular the effects of polytypic species, geographic variation, and isolation by geographic and other means. Mayr emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation, where geographically isolated sub-populations diverge so far that reproductive isolation occurs. He was skeptical of the reality of sympatric speciation believing that geographical isolation was a prerequisite for building up intrinsic (reproductive) isolating mechanisms. Mayr also introduced the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations. Before he left Germany for the United States in 1930, Mayr had been influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch, who in the 1920s had analyzed the geographic distribution of polytypic species, paying particular attention to how variations between populations correlated with factors such as differences in climate.

Simpson's palaeontology, 1944
George Gaylord Simpson was responsible for showing that the modern synthesis was compatible with palaeontology in his 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution. Simpson's work was crucial because so many palaeontologists had disagreed, in some cases vigorously, with the idea that natural selection was the main mechanism of evolution. It showed that the trends of linear progression (in for example the evolution of the horse) that earlier palaeontologists had used as support for neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis did not hold up under careful examination. Instead, the fossil record was consistent with the irregular, branching, and non-directional pattern predicted by the modern synthesis.

Society for the Study of Evolution, 1946
During World War II, Mayr edited a series of bulletins of the Committee on Common Problems of Genetics, Paleontology, and Systematics, formed in 1943, reporting on discussions of a "synthetic attack" on the interdisciplinary problems of evolution. In 1946, the committee became the Society for the Study of Evolution, with Mayr, Dobzhansky and Sewall Wright the first of the signatories. Mayr became the editor of its journal, Evolution. From Mayr and Dobzhansky's point of view, suggests the historian of science Betty Smocovitis, Darwinism was reborn, evolutionary biology was legitimised, and genetics and evolution were synthesised into a newly unified science. Everything fitted into the new framework, except "heretics" like Richard Goldschmidt who annoyed Mayr and Dobzhansky by insisting on the possibility of speciation by macromutation, creating "hopeful monsters". The result was "bitter controversy".

Stebbins's botany, 1950
The botanist G. Ledyard Stebbins extended the synthesis to encompass botany. He described the important effects on speciation of hybridization and polyploidy in plants in his 1950 book Variation and Evolution in Plants. These permitted evolution to proceed rapidly at times, polyploidy in particular evidently being able to create new species effectively instantaneously.

Definitions by the founders
The modern synthesis was defined differently by its various founders, with differing numbers of basic postulates, as shown in the table.

After the synthesis
After the synthesis, evolutionary biology continued to develop with major contributions from workers including W. D. Hamilton, George C. Williams, E. O. Wilson, Edward B. Lewis and others.

Hamilton's inclusive fitness, 1964
In 1964, W. D. Hamilton published two papers on "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour". These defined inclusive fitness as the number of offspring equivalents an individual rears, rescues or otherwise supports through its behaviour. This was contrasted with personal reproductive fitness, the number of offspring that the individual directly begets. Hamilton, and others such as John Maynard Smith, argued that a gene's success consisted in maximising the number of copies of itself, either by begetting them or by indirectly encouraging begetting by related individuals who shared the gene, the theory of kin selection.

Williams's gene-centred evolution, 1966
In 1966, George C. Williams published Adaptation and Natural Selection, outlined a gene-centred view of evolution following Hamilton's concepts, disputing the idea of evolutionary progress, and attacking the then widespread theory of group selection. Williams argued that natural selection worked by changing the frequency of alleles, and could not work at the level of groups. Gene-centred evolution was popularised by Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene and developed in his more technical writings.

Wilson's sociobiology, 1975

In 1975, E. O. Wilson published his controversial book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, the subtitle alluding to the modern synthesis as he attempted to bring the study of animal society into the evolutionary fold. This appeared radically new, although Wilson was following Darwin, Fisher, Dawkins and others. Critics such as Gerhard Lenski noted that he was following Huxley, Simpson and Dobzhansky's approach, which Lenski considered needlessly reductive as far as human society was concerned. By 2000, the proposed discipline of sociobiology had morphed into the relatively well-accepted discipline of evolutionary psychology.

Lewis's homeotic genes, 1978

In 1977, recombinant DNA technology enabled biologists to start to explore the genetic control of development. The growth of evolutionary developmental biology from 1978, when Edward B. Lewis discovered homeotic genes, showed that many so-called toolkit genes act to regulate development, influencing the expression of other genes. It also revealed that some of the regulatory genes are extremely ancient, so that animals as different as insects and mammals share control mechanisms; for example, the Pax6 gene is involved in forming the eyes of mice and of fruit flies. Such deep homology provided strong evidence for evolution and indicated the paths that evolution had taken.

Later syntheses
In 1982, a historical note on a series of evolutionary biology books could state without qualification that evolution is the central organizing principle of biology. Smocovitis commented on this that "What the architects of the synthesis had worked to construct had by 1982 become a matter of fact", adding in a footnote that "the centrality of evolution had thus been rendered tacit knowledge, part of the received wisdom of the profession".

By the late 20th century, however, the modern synthesis was showing its age, and fresh syntheses to remedy its defects and fill in its gaps were proposed from different directions. These have included such diverse fields as the study of society, developmental biology, epigenetics, molecular biology, microbiology, genomics, symbiogenesis, and horizontal gene transfer. The physiologist Denis Noble argues that these additions render neo-Darwinism in the sense of the early 20th century's modern synthesis "at the least, incomplete as a theory of evolution", and one that has been falsified by later biological research.

Michael Rose and Todd Oakley note that evolutionary biology, formerly divided and "Balkanized", has been brought together by genomics. It has in their view discarded at least five common assumptions from the modern synthesis, namely that the genome is always a well-organised set of genes; that each gene has a single function; that species are well adapted biochemically to their ecological niches; that species are the durable units of evolution, and all levels from organism to organ, cell and molecule within the species are characteristic of it; and that the design of every organism and cell is efficient. They argue that the "new biology" integrates genomics, bioinformatics, and evolutionary genetics into a general-purpose toolkit for a "Postmodern Synthesis".

Pigliucci's extended evolutionary synthesis, 2007
In 2007, more than half a century after the modern synthesis, Massimo Pigliucci called for an extended evolutionary synthesis to incorporate aspects of biology that had not been included or had not existed in the mid-20th century. It revisits the relative importance of different factors, challenges assumptions made in the modern synthesis, and adds new factors such as multilevel selection, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, niche construction, and evolvability.

Koonin's 'post-modern' evolutionary synthesis, 2009

In 2009, Darwin's 200th anniversary, the Origin of Species' 150th, and the 200th of Lamarck's "early evolutionary synthesis", Philosophie Zoologique, the evolutionary biologist Eugene Koonin stated that while "the edifice of the [early 20th century] Modern Synthesis has crumbled, apparently, beyond repair", a new 21st-century synthesis could be glimpsed. Three interlocking revolutions had, he argued, taken place in evolutionary biology: molecular, microbiological, and genomic. The molecular revolution included the neutral theory, that most mutations are neutral and that negative selection happens more often than the positive form, and that all current life evolved from a single common ancestor. In microbiology, the synthesis has expanded to cover the prokaryotes, using ribosomal RNA to form a tree of life. Finally, genomics brought together the molecular and microbiological syntheses - in particular, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria shows that prokaryotes can freely share genes. Many of these points had already been made by other researchers such as Ulrich Kutschera and Karl J. Niklas.

Towards a replacement synthesis

Biologists, alongside scholars of the history and philosophy of biology, have continued to debate the need for, and possible nature of, a replacement synthesis. For example, in 2017 Philippe Huneman and Denis M. Walsh stated in their book Challenging the Modern Synthesis that numerous theorists had pointed out that the disciplines of embryological developmental theory, morphology, and ecology had been omitted. They noted that all such arguments amounted to a continuing desire to replace the modern synthesis with one that united "all biological fields of research related to evolution, adaptation, and diversity in a single theoretical framework." They observed further that there are two groups of challenges to the way the modern synthesis viewed inheritance. The first is that other modes such as epigenetic inheritance, phenotypic plasticity, the Baldwin effect, and the maternal effect allow new characteristics to arise and be passed on and for the genes to catch up with the new adaptations later. The second is that all such mechanisms are part, not of an inheritance system, but a developmental system: the fundamental unit is not a discrete selfishly competing gene, but a collaborating system that works at all levels from genes and cells to organisms and cultures to guide evolution. The molecular biologist Sean B. Carroll has commented that had Huxley had access to evolutionary developmental biology, "embryology would have been a cornerstone of his Modern Synthesis, and so evo-devo is today a key element of a more complete, expanded evolutionary synthesis."

Historiography
Looking back at the conflicting accounts of the modern synthesis, the historian Betty Smocovitis notes in her 1996 book Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology that both historians and philosophers of biology have attempted to grasp its scientific meaning, but have found it "a moving target"; the only thing they agreed on was that it was a historical event. In her words"'by the late 1980s the notoriety of the evolutionary synthesis was recognized ... So notorious did 'the synthesis' become, that few serious historically minded analysts would touch the subject, let alone know where to begin to sort through the interpretive mess left behind by the numerous critics and commentators'."

title: Modern synthesis (20th century)


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Talk:Patient- controlled analgesia

I believe this article should be titled without the space after the hyphen. --KQ

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Patient- controlled analgesia


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Talk:Cocktail

"Bartesian" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Bartesian. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 June 13 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. signed,Rosguill talk 17:07, 13 June 2021 (UTC)

Mixed drinks before the usual word
This article needs more information on mixed drinks before the word 'cocktail' came into common use to describe them. The word didn't invent the idea, or did it? Starple (talk) 10:58, 29 November 2021 (UTC)

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User:Danja

Danny Ayers

Personal site : http://dannyayers.com

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Talk:Wright brothers

The Importance of Kites
Years ago, I read a Scientific American article about the Wright Brothers. (Probably in the 80s or 90s.) According to the article, the main purpose of the kits was to solve safety problems. They discovered the conditions that would cause wings to stall, and figured out how to prevent or recover from this, with their kites. Their commitment to safety came out of their decision to fly the planes themselves. So their decision to work out safety issues with unmanned kites before they ever built a full size plane was central to their success. But this article doesn't make that point It only mentions kites as a means of studying controls. (If I get a more accurate date for the article, I'll post it here.) — MiguelMunoz (talk) 02:12, 19 March 2023 (UTC)

 * The two viewpoints are not mutually exclusive. Control and safety end up being the same thing in terms of results. If you can't control a plane it is unsafe. I'm not against someone adding more about safety, though. Binksternet (talk) 03:08, 19 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I'd be interested in seeing that article or a verifiable summary. My understanding from Wright biographies and Smithsonian articles is that the 1899 kite was intended to test control (wing warping in particular); I'm not aware that the brothers had much if any concept about "stall" at that early stage. Binksternet makes a good point that safety and control are closely linked. DonFB (talk) 05:28, 19 March 2023 (UTC)
 * The Wrights certainly had some concept of stalling, as is evident from Wilbur Wright's address to the Western Society of Engineers in 1901 Consider this description of a Lilienthal glider mishap:

 * In one glide the machine rose higher and higher till it lost all headway. This was the position from which Lilienthal had always found difficulty to extricate himself, as his machine then, in spite of his greatest exertions, manifested a tendency to dive downward almost vertically and strike the ground head on with frightful velocity. Wilbur goes on to describe in some detail what he saw as the cause of this phenomenon (movement of the centre of pressure with changes in angle of attack, to use modern terminology - see also the numbered summary statements at the end of the address).

 * As for the purpose of kite experiments, Wilbur explicitly states in the same address that manned kites were seen as a means of gaining experience:

 * We figured that Lilienthal in five years of time had spent only about five hours in actual gliding through the air. The wonder was not that he had done so little, but that he had accomplished so much. It would not be considered at all safe for a bicycle rider to attempt to ride through a crowded city street after only five hours' practice, spread out;in bits of ten seconds each over a period of five years; yet Lilienthal with this brief practice was remarkably successful in meeting the fluctuations and eddies of wind gusts. We thought that if some method could be found by which it would be possible to practice by the hour instead of by the second there would be hope of advancing the solution of a very difficult problem. It seemed feasible to do this by building a machine which would be sustained at a speed of 18 miles per hour, and then finding a locality where winds of this velocity were common. With these conditions, a rope attached to the machine to keep it from floating backward would answer very nearly the same purpose as a propeller driven by a motor, and it would be possible to practice by the hour, and without any serious danger, as it would not be necessary to rise far from the ground, and the machine would not have any forward motion at all.

 * Note however that Wilbur begins his address by describing how earlier unmanned kite experiments had demonstrated that certain assumptions regarding lift generated made by previous experimenters were incorrect, and that further experimentation was needed in order to determine the optimum aerofoil profile, wing planform etc - which eventually led to the Wright's building their wind tunnel. I'm not sure it is particularly useful to assert definitively what the purpose of the Wright kite experiments was - they saw achieving successful powered flight as something to be achieved through practical experimentation, and the kites were a part of this ongoing process. AndyTheGrump (talk) 08:13, 19 March 2023 (UTC).

 * There might be some confusion here over terminology. MiguelMunoz may be referring not simply to the 1899 kite, but to the subsequent gliders, which the brothers did fly unmanned as big kites before climbing in and piloting them. But the 1899 kite, which was truly the size of a kite, was not, I believe, intended to investigate much about lift and stall, but only to see if wing warping could be a workable method of lateral control. DonFB (talk) 10:41, 19 March 2023 (UTC)

Without Katherine's German skills
there would be no flight for these two. Their sister was the key element for them to understand any of the German engineering and physics they were trying to implement, and the article appears to near-intentionally omit her presence vis-a-vis importance in the factual progress.

Happy to have the promise rings her brothers bestowed upon her, to be left out though. Arcsoda (talk) 21:12, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

 * We have a full biography of Katharine Wright Haskell, and she is discussed quite a bit in this article. If you have a source which suggests that her knowledge of German played a significant part in the events described, cite it, and we can consider adding it, both here, and to her biography. AndyTheGrump (talk) 22:02, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

Heavier-than-air?
The lead paragraph describes the brothers as having flown a "heavier-than-air aircraft" but this is meaningless and removing the adjective should be considered. All flying creatures and objects are heavier than air, so it is tautological to say so. It make the encyclopaedia look illiterate. Spideog (talk) 17:28, 13 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Hot air balloons are lighter-than-air aircraft, and have been used for human flights sinvce 1783. The Wright brothers did not create the first aircraft. Dimadick (talk) 21:53, 13 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Try lifting a hot air balloon. Much heavier than air. Spideog (talk) 18:01, 15 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Hot air lifts hot air balloons by making them lighter than surrounding cooler air. — RCraig09 (talk) 19:51, 15 April 2024 (UTC)
 * So is a hot air balloon lighter than air or heavier? The article says heavier but you say lighter. Spideog (talk) 19:06, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * The article does not say hot air balloons are heavier than air. They are lighter than air. — RCraig09 (talk) 19:25, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * What a load of pedantic nonsense. Obviously the balloon itself is denser than air. When filled with air hotter than the surrounding atmosphere the whole may be less dense. In any case, @Lighter than air' is the generally accepted term for aerostats.TheLongTone (talk) 13:34, 16 May 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 June 2024
I would like to add to the external links section. I want to add a hyperlink to http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/wilbur_wright_obituary with the label Wilbur Wright Obituary from Collier's Magazine, 1912. Sonny.lucas (talk) 23:33, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

 * No, we aren't going to help you promote the website you have been spamming into multiple articles. AndyTheGrump (talk) 00:09, 13 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wright brothers


text:
William Moulton Marston

William Moulton Marston (May 9, 1893 – May 2, 1947), also known by the pen name Charles Moulton, was an American psychologist who, with his wife Elizabeth Holloway, invented an early prototype of the polygraph. He was also known as a self-help author and comic book writer who created the character Wonder Woman.

Two women, his wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston, and their polyamorous life partner, Olive Byrne, greatly influenced Wonder Woman's creation.

He was inducted into the Comic Book Hall of Fame in 2006.

Early life and career
Marston was born in the Cliftondale section of Saugus, Massachusetts, the son of Annie Dalton (née Moulton) and Frederick William Marston. Marston was educated at Harvard University, graduating Phi Beta Kappa and receiving his B.A. in 1915, an LL.B. in 1918, and a PhD in psychology in 1921. While a student at Harvard, Marston sold his first script, The Thief, to filmmaker Alice Guy-Blaché, who directed the film in 1913. After teaching at American University in Washington, D.C., and Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, Marston traveled to Universal Studios in California in 1929, where he spent a year as Director of Public Services and taught at the University of Southern California.

Marston had two children each with both his wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston and partner Olive Byrne. Elizabeth gave birth to a son, Pete, and a daughter, Olive Ann. Olive Byrne gave birth to two sons. Elizabeth supported the family financially while Olive Byrne stayed home to take care of all four children. Marjorie Wilkes Huntley was a third woman who occasionally lived with them, and who would go on to become office executive under H. G. Peter.

Psychologist and inventor
Marston was the creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which became one component of the modern polygraph invented by John Augustus Larson in Berkeley, California. Marston's wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, suggested a connection between emotion and blood pressure to William, observing that, "[w]hen she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb".

Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston's collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth's own work on her husband's research. She also appears in a picture taken in his laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced by Marston, 1938).

Marston set out to commercialize Larson's invention of the polygraph, when he subsequently embarked on a career in entertainment and comic book writing and appearing as a salesman in ads for Gillette Razors, using a polygraph motif. From his psychological work, Marston became convinced that women were more honest than men in certain situations and could work faster and more accurately. During his lifetime, Marston championed what he saw as the latent abilities and causes of the women of his day.

Marston was also a writer of essays in popular psychology. In 1928, he published a book entitled Emotions of Normal People, a defense of many sexual taboos, using much of Byrne's original research she had done for her doctorate. He dedicated the work to her, Holloway, his mother, his aunt, and Huntley. It received almost no attention from the rest of the academic community other than a review, written by Byrne herself, under her alternate name Olive Richard in The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.

Emotions of Normal People also elaborated on the DISC Theory. Marston viewed people behaving along two axis, with their attention being either passive or active, depending on the individual's perception of his or her environment as either favorable or antagonistic. By placing the axis at right angles, four quadrants form, with each describing a behavioral pattern:
 * Dominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
 * Inducement produces activity in a favorable environment
 * Submission produces passivity in a favorable environment
 * Compliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.

Marston posited that there is a masculine notion of freedom that is inherently anarchic and violent and an opposing feminine notion based on "Love Allure" that leads to an ideal state of submission to loving authority.

Creation
On October 25, 1940, an interview conducted by his partner Olive Byrne (under the pseudonym "Olive Richard") was published in The Family Circle (titled "Don't Laugh at the Comics"), in which Marston said that he saw "great educational potential" in comic books. (A follow-up article was published two years later in 1942. ) The interview caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodical Publications and All-American Publications, two of the companies that would later merge to form DC Comics.

In the early 1940s, the DC Comics line was dominated by superpower-endowed male characters such as the Green Lantern and Superman, as well as Batman, with his high-tech gadgets. According to the Fall 2001 issue of the Boston University alumni magazine, it was the idea of Marston's wife, Elizabeth Holloway Marston, to create a female superhero. Marston recommended an idea for a new kind of superhero, one who would conquer not with fists or firepower, but with love. "Fine," said Elizabeth, "but make her a woman."

Marston introduced the idea to Max Gaines, co-founder with Jack Liebowitz of All-American Publications. Given the go-ahead, Marston developed Wonder Woman, basing her character on the unconventional, liberated, powerful modern women of his day. Marston's pseudonym, Charles Moulton, combined his own and Gaines's middle names.

In a 1943 issue of The American Scholar, Marston wrote: "Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. Not wanting to be girls, they don't want to be tender, submissive, peace-loving as good women are. Women's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness. The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman."

In 2017, a majority of Marston's personal papers arrived at the Schlesinger Library at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University; this collection helps to tell the backstory of "Wonder Woman", including his unorthodox personal life with two idealistic and strong women, Olive Byrne and Elizabeth Marston, with a connection to Margaret Sanger, one of the most influential feminists of the twentieth century.

Development
Marston's character was a native of an all-female utopia of Amazons who became a crime-fighting U.S. government agent, using her superhuman strength and agility, and her ability to force villains to submit and tell the truth by binding them with her magic lasso. Her appearance was believed by some to be based somewhat on Olive Byrne, and her heavy bronze bracelets (which she used to deflect bullets) were inspired by bracelets worn by Byrne.

After her name "Suprema, the Wonder Woman" was replaced with simply "Wonder Woman", which was a popular term at the time that described women who were exceptionally gifted, the character made her debut in All Star Comics #8 in December 1941. Wonder Woman next appeared in Sensation Comics #1 (January 1942), and six months later, Wonder Woman #1 debuted. Except for four months in 1986, the series has been in print ever since. The stories were initially written by Marston and illustrated by newspaper artist Harry Peter. During his life Marston had written many articles and books on various psychological topics, but his last six years of writing were devoted to his comics creation.

Death
William Moulton Marston died of cancer on May 2, 1947, in Rye, seven days before his 54th birthday. After his death, Elizabeth and Olive continued to live together until Olive's death in 1990, aged 86; Elizabeth died in 1993, aged 100.

Legacy
In 1985, Marston was posthumously named as one of the honorees by DC Comics in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great. His contributions to the development of the polygraph are featured in the documentary film The Lie Detector which first aired on American Experience on January 3, 2023.

Themes
William Moulton Marston's philosophy of diametric opposites has bled into the design of his Wonder Woman mythology. This theme of diametrics took the form of his emphasis of particular masculine and feminine configurations as well as dominance and submission.

Marston's "Wonder Woman" is an early example of bondage themes that were entering popular culture in the 1930s. Physical and mental submission appears again and again throughout Marston's comics work, with Wonder Woman and her criminal opponents frequently being tied up (or otherwise restrained), and her Amazonian sisters engaging in frequent wrestling and bondage play. These elements were softened by later writers of the series, who dropped such characters as the Nazi-like blonde female slaver Eviless completely, despite her having formed the original Villainy Inc. of Wonder Woman's enemies (in Wonder Woman #28, the last by Marston).

Though Marston had described female nature as being more capable of submission emotion, in his other writings and interviews, he referred to submission as a noble practice. He did not shy away from the sexual implications, saying:

"The only hope for peace is to teach people who are full of pep and unbound force to enjoy being bound... Only when the control of self by others is more pleasant than the unbound assertion of self in human relationships can we hope for a stable, peaceful human society... Giving to others, being controlled by them, submitting to other people cannot possibly be enjoyable without a strong erotic element."

One of the purposes of these bondage depictions was to induce eroticism in readers as a part of what he called "sex love training." Through his Wonder Woman comics, he aimed to condition readers to become more readily accepting of loving submission to loving authorities rather than being so assertive with their own destructive egos. About male readers, he later wrote: "Give them an alluring woman stronger than themselves to submit to, and they'll be proud to become her willing slaves!"

Marston combined these themes with others, including restorative and transformative justice, rehabilitation, regret, and their roles in civilization. These appeared often in his depiction of the near-ideal Amazon civilization of Paradise Island, and especially its "Reform Island" penal colony, which played a central role in many stories and was the "loving" alternative to retributive justice of the world run by men. These themes are particularly evident in his last story, in which prisoners freed by Eviless, who have responded to Amazonian rehabilitation and now have good dominance/submission, stop her and restore the Amazons to power.

Some of these themes continued on in Silver Age characters, who may have been influenced by Marston, notably Saturn Girl and Saturn Queen, who (like Eviless and her female army) are also from Saturn, are also clad in tight, dark red bodysuits, are also blond or red-haired, and also have telepathic powers.

Wonder Woman's golden Lasso of Truth and in particular one of the Amazon queens' scions of the Girdle of Aphrodite or Venus which Marston first fictionally encountered as Wonder Woman's 'Magic Girdle of Aphrodite' then reaching back to its origin called her Golden Girdle of Gaea, were the focus of many of the early stories and have the same capability to reform people for good in the short term that Transformation Island and prolonged wearing of Venus Girdles offered in the longer term. The Venus Girdle was an allegory for Marston's theory of "sex love" training, where people can be "trained" to embrace submission through eroticism.

In film
Marston's life is depicted in Professor Marston and the Wonder Women, a 2017 biographical drama also portraying Elizabeth Holloway Marston, Olive Byrne, and the creation of Wonder Woman. Marston is portrayed in the film by Welsh actor Luke Evans.

title: William Moulton Marston


text:
Talk:LGBT movements

On-going anti-LGBTQ purges and censorship in the List of people from Ukraine
A clique of editors seem to be implementing a purge of any mentionings of notable LGBTQ Ukrainians and LGBTQ activism in Ukraine.

In particular, the corresponding section in the List of people from Ukraine listing notable LGBTQ Ukrainians and Ukrainian LGBTQ activists with Wikipedia pages, has been first censored and then completely purged by this clique of editors, under the obviously false pretext of such entries in the list being "unecyclopedic"(!).

Please review the following revision history, between July 27 and July 29, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_from_Ukraine&action=history.

The purged list of notable LGBTQ Ukrainians and Ukrainian LGBTQ activists is as follows:

LGBTQ Ukrainians, pro-European and pro-Western LGBTQ Ukrainian activists
 * Bogdan Globa
 * Mike Enzi – US Senator from Wyoming
 * Maurice Hinchey – former New York Congressman (Ukrainian mother)
 * Volodymyr Horowitz
 * Olha Kobylianska
 * Alla Nazimiv - US Ukrainian actress, also known as an active member of the Hollywood LGBTQ community
 * Anna Sharyhina - influential Ukrainian lesbian, LGBTQ leader
 * Stav Strashko - distinguished Ukrainian Israeli transgender actress, passionate advocate of transgender lifestyle in Ukraine
 * Edward Tarletski - Belarusian-Ukrainian LGBTQ activist

Please help to monitor and report the disruptive anti-LGBTQ editors and please help to edit List of people from Ukraine so that it objectively reflects the role of the LGBTQ people in the past, current and future Ukrainian politics, life, arts and science! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/2601:646:8500:2DD0:C5D3:FEA3:9F2F:EBCC 1 August 2020

Movement vs movements
Sources (both popular and scholarly) differ in whether they speak of a single "LGBT movement" or multiple "LGBT movements". I think this has been a topic of some controversy in the history of this article, and I don't want to relitigate that controversy here, but I also think the article could do with some (neutral) discussion of those terminological issues. SomethingForDeletion (talk) 00:43, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

 * It's more sensible that it be "LGBT rights movement". Zenomonoz (talk) 02:11, 9 December 2023 (UTC)
 * So yeah, I think there are two terminological disputes here (1) "LGBT movement[s]" vs "LGBT rights movement[s]"; (2) "LGBT movement" vs "LGBT movements". Still, my point in this section was to argue we should discuss these terminology issues in the article somewhere; I was trying to avoid reopening the can of worms about what the article should be called. SomethingForDeletion (talk) 10:02, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: LGBTQ Communication
— Assignment last updated by RjR5789 (talk) 04:31, 9 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:LGBT movements


text:
Istro-Romanian language

The Istro-Romanian language (rumârește, vlășește) is an Eastern Romance language, spoken in a few villages and hamlets in the peninsula of Istria in Croatia, as well as in the diaspora of this people. It is sometimes abbreviated to IR.

While its speakers call themselves Rumeri, Rumeni, they are also known as Vlachs, Rumunski, Ćići and Ćiribiri. The last one, used by ethnic Croats, originated as a disparaging nickname for the language, rather than its speakers.

Due to the fact that its speakers are estimated to be fewer than 500, it is listed among languages that are "severely endangered" in the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.

It is also considered by some Romanian scholars to be an idiosyncratic offshoot dialect of Romanian.

Recent history
There have been many significant challenges facing Istro-Romanians in preserving their language, culture and ethnic identity, including emigration from communism and migration to nearby cities and towns after World War II, when a peace treaty of February 10, 1947, transferred Istria from Italy (which had held it since World War I) and awarded it to Yugoslavia, the parent country of present-day Croatia and Slovenia, which divided Istria between themselves, while Italy still retained a small portion near Trieste.

Before the 20th century, Istro-Romanian was spoken in a substantially broader part of northeastern Istria surrounding the Ćićarija mountain range (ancient Mons Carusadius). The Istro-Romanians now comprise two groups: the Ćići around Žejane (denoting the people on the north side of Mt. Učka) and the Vlahi around Šušnjevica (denoting the people on the south side of Mt. Učka (Monte Maggiore). However, apart from borrowings from other languages which vary from village to village, their language is linguistically identical. There are also several hundred native speakers who live in the United States – not only in Queens, New York (as has been mistakenly believed by some), but throughout the five boroughs of New York City, as well as in upstate New York and the neighboring states of New Jersey and Connecticut; there are also still native speakers in California. There are further groups of native speakers in Italy, Canada, Sweden, and Australia.

The number of Istro-Romanian speakers has been reduced by their assimilation into other linguistic groups that were either already present or introduced by their respective new rulers of Istria: in the 1921 Italian census, there were 1,644 declared Istro-Romanian speakers in the area, while in 1926, Romanian scholar Sextil Pușcariu estimated their number to be closer to 3,000. Studies conducted in Istria in 1998 (?) by the Croatian linguist August Kovačec revealed only 170 active speakers (but those counted presumably are only those still in villages where the language is actively spoken, thereby excluding those who moved to larger towns in Istria), most of them being bilingual (or trilingual), except for 27 children.

On the other hand, the major northern village Žejane and nearby hamlets at the Slovenian border are less Italianized and more Slavicized. Many villages in the area have names that are of Romanian origin, such as Jeian, Buzet ("lips"), Katun ("hamlet"), Letaj, Sucodru ("under a forest"), Costirceanu (a Romanian name). Some of these names are official (recognized by Croatia as their only names), while others are used only by Istro-Romanian speakers (ex. Nova Vas|Noselo).

Origin
Some loanwords suggest that before coming to Istria, Istro-Romanians lived for a period of time on the Dalmatian coast near the Dinara and Velebit mountains.

August Kovačec (1998) hypothesizes that the Istro-Romanians migrated to their present region about 600 years ago from the territory of present-day Romania, after the bubonic plague depopulated Istria. This hypothesis is based on chronicles of the Frankopan princes that state that in the 15th century they accepted the migrating Vlachs from the nearby mainland and from the northern part of Krk (Veglia) island, and settled them in isolated villages in Poljica and Dubašnica, between the castles of Dobrinj and Omišalj, and in the port of Malinska. The term "Vlach", however, refers to all Eastern-Romance-language speakers and cannot be associated exclusively with Istro-Romanians. In fact, pockets of Romanian-language speakers persisted in Malinska up to the mid-19th century, they gradually assimilated and their language disappeared with the last speaker, Mate Bajčić Gašparović. Today, few Romance-language toponyms remain in Malinska.

Consonants

 * Sounds can also be realized as  in some dialects or positions.
 * only occurs marginally, or from loanwords.

Vowels

 * Sounds can also be heard as lower  in other dialects.

Lexis
Although it is a Romance language, Istro-Romanian has received a great amount of influence from other languages. According to a 2005 analysis, 50% of the words in Istro-Romanian come from Serbo-Croatian, 16% come from either Serbo-Croatian or Slovene, 3% come from Slovene, 4.7% come from Italian/Venetian, 3.5% come from Old Church Slavonic and only 25% come from Latin.

Another study made in 2009 found that 647 words are inherited from Latin (compared to about 2000 words inherited from Latin in most Romance languages), and 25 words are from the substrate, a much smaller number compared to Daco-Romanian which preserved 89 words from the substrate. The situation is typical for isolated languages/dialects with lower number of speakers. Even so, Istro-Romanian has managed to preserve a few words from Latin that are not found in other Eastern Romance languages: gåbu "yellow" (<galbus; also present in Romanian as galben), ånča "here" (<hac‑ce), oča (<hac/hocce+a), iențå (< *hic‑ce+a), iuva "where".

title: Istro-Romanian language


text:
Beckenham (UK Parliament constituency)

Beckenham was a constituency in Greater London represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament from 2010 until its abolition for the 2024 general election by Bob Stewart, a member of the Conservative Party.

Under the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, the majority of the constituency was incorporated into the new constituency of Beckenham and Penge.

Constituency profile
The constituency is mostly leafy and suburban — one widely known gazetteer summarised this in 2012: "'The properties on these streets typically include a range of styles, from modern to Mock Tudor. However many local residents are wealthy city commuters. Keston Common and Keston Ponds are both popular attractions for locals...The common theme is large, detached houses with substantial land and typically with asking prices of over £1 million. At the lower end of the market, a one bedroom period conversion flat on Turpington Lane near Bromley Common, or a one bedroom flat in a modern block on Homesdale Road, near the Bickley border, would demand an asking price of approximately £160,000.'" There are significant areas of open land to the south around Hayes and Keston. The upmarket town centre of Beckenham is split between this constituency and Lewisham West and Penge to the west.

All wards have voted between 60 and 70% Conservative since the seat's inception. In times when Labour has led in the national polls the seat has remained Conservative. The smallest majority in a general election was 9.3%, in 1997; in all other elections except 2001 there have been majorities of more than 15%. The seat happened to become safer in its cut down to six wards (from ten) in 2010. This removed the three most Labour inclined wards of the borough, centered on Penge, and one other, taken from the more suburban parts that lean strongly or weakly Conservative.

Since 1983 there has been a close contest for second place between Labour and the Liberal Democrats. Labour's share has remained much greater than in Orpington whereas the Liberal Democrat share has remained much greater than in Croydon Central.

History
The constituency has only elected Conservatives as its MPs since 1950.

The constituency shared boundaries with the Beckenham electoral division for election of councillors to the Greater London Council at elections in 1973, 1977 and 1981.

The closest the Conservatives have ever come to losing this seat was at a by-election in November 1997, at the height of Tony Blair's 'honeymoon period' as Prime Minister, following the resignation of the previous MP Piers Merchant in a sex scandal. Even then, the former MP for Hastings who lost her seat in the earlier 1997 general election, Jacqui Lait, managed to win the seat by just over 1,000 votes.

Between 1957 and 1992 the long-serving MP for Beckenham was Sir Philip Goodhart, who was soon after 1979 discovered by Margaret Thatcher to be a right-of-centre or 'wet conservative' and consequently his career as a junior minister came to a quick end. Goodhart is best known for his book on the workings of the Conservative MPs' 1922 Committee, and for his brother Charles, who was a famous economics professor at LSE and sat for some time on the Bank of England's monetary policy committee.

Before Sir Philip Goodhart, the former Conservative Chief Whip Patrick Buchan-Hepburn represented Beckenham in Parliament.

Boundaries
1950–1974: The Municipal Borough of Beckenham, and the Urban District of Penge.

1974–1983: The London Borough of Bromley wards of Anerley, Clock House, Copers Cope, Eden Park, Lawrie Park and Kent House, Manor House, Penge, and Shortlands.

1983–1997: The London Borough of Bromley wards of Anerley, Clock House, Copers Cope, Eden Park, Kelsey Park, Lawrie Park and Kent House, Penge, and Shortlands.

1997–2010: The London Borough of Bromley wards of Anerley, Clock House, Copers Cope, Eden Park, Kelsey Park, Lawrie Park and Kent House, Penge, Shortlands, West Wickham North, and West Wickham South.

2010–2024: The London Borough of Bromley wards of Bromley Common and Keston, Copers Cope, Hayes and Coney Hall, Kelsey and Eden Park, Shortlands, and West Wickham.

Despite the changes in ward names, the 1974–1983 boundaries and the 1983–1997 boundaries are almost exactly the same boundaries. Similarly, despite the changes in local authorities and the listing of wards, the 1950–1974 boundaries and the 1997–2010 boundaries are almost exactly the same.

Beckenham constituency covers the northwestern part of the London Borough of Bromley. The local government ward boundaries were redrawn for the 2002 local elections, though this did not affect parliamentary limits until the 2010 general election.

Pre-2010 boundary review
Following their review of parliamentary representation in South London, the Boundary Commission for England made revisions to this seat. Clock House ward, Crystal Palace ward, and Penge and Cator ward were transferred from Beckenham to help create the new constituency of Lewisham West and Penge. Parts of Bromley Common and Keston, Hayes and Coney Hall, and Shortlands wards were transferred to Beckenham from Bromley and Chislehurst. A small part of Bromley Common and Keston ward was transferred to Beckenham from Orpington and a tiny part of Bromley Town ward was transferred from Beckenham to Bromley and Chislehurst.

Abolition
Under the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, the constituency underwent major boundary changes, with eastern areas, comprising the Bromley Common and Keston, and Hayes and Coney Hall wards, being transferred to the new constituency of Bromley and Biggin Hill. To compensate, "Penge" (comprising the Clock House, Crystal Palace, and Penge and Cator wards) was transferred back from the now abolished seat of Lewisham West and Penge. Accordingly, the seat was renamed Beckenham and Penge, first contested at the 2024 general election. With the new boundary changes it was notionally a marginal seat but was won by Liam Conlon for Labour with a majority of 12,905.

title: Beckenham (UK Parliament constituency)


text:
User talk:Danja

what you mean I have to talk?

Hello there Danja, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

Orphaned non-free image (File:Carolinelp.gif)
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File:Named-graphs-1.svg needs authorship information
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The media file you uploaded as File:Named-graphs-1.svg appears to be missing information as to its authorship (and or source), or if you did provide such information, it is confusing for others trying to make use of the image.

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Your user page
Hello, I found your user page while doing some wikiarchaeology. . I have restored all of its earliest surviving revisions from old copies of the Wikipedia database, so they are available to everyone now. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 09:41, 27 June 2013 (UTC)

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Atom content addition
You've added an example of embedded content to the Atom example.

I'd disagree to some extent that this is "probably the most important part of an entry" because Atom (and for a long time, RSS as there was little else it could do) manages to shift basic titles and summaries around without needing to embed content like this. It's certainly "very important" but nor is it "essential" (it works without) and we can agree to differ over "most important".

Accordingly, would it be better if this added example used an XHTML namespace with a prefix? That would be (IMHO) clearer to readers of what is still probably their first Atom example as it makes it very clear what is XHTML and what is Atom. As an example of likely practice, it's also (again IMHO) a more common way of doing things. Certainly I've never generated Atom feeds with embedded content without putting an explicit prefix onto there.

RSS was awkward (and a mess to be honest) because it was neither XML nor even SGML and there was a lot of nasty custom parsing going on to embed HTML, especially anywhere near Userland. For Atom though, it has always (IMHO) at least been XML-clean and so prefixed namespacing was the simplest and easiest route. Andy Dingley (talk) 10:19, 7 May 2014 (UTC)

Please delete the impression of the English royals, is totally irrelevent.

And please someone get some decent natural history material.

title: User talk:Danja


text:
Talk:Cullman County, Alabama

Untitled
Wondering how to edit this U.S. County Entry? The WikiProject U.S. Counties standards might help. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ram-Man (talk • contribs) 18:22, 1 October 2002 (UTC)

External Link
Hello, there is an article here, http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1326, that might be useful. Thanks, Justin --Duboiju (talk) 17:58, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

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Mistake in this article.
This article states that John Cullmann clashed with “traditional southern cotton culture.” There was NEVER a cotton culture in Cullman county because the terrain is hilly, the soil is rocky and hard to till, and the only waterways in the area were smaller tributaries with rapids and were virtually non-navigable by any reasonably-sized boats that could carry cotton.

Cullman was previously mostly part of Winston county which had the smallest slave population in the state of Alabama and of which a majority sided with the Union against slavery and the “planter” class during the Civil War. In fact, many veterans of the Civil War from Cullman county had been part of William T. Sherman’s army that destroyed Atlanta and tore a gash through Georgia and the Carolinas.

You are asking for a donation but you obviously have done NO research on many of these articles. I sometimes use Wikipedia to find other sources but I never trust your articles because they are inadequately researched or the contributors of content have poor reading comprehension and worse data analysis skills. I will donate when you earn my trust. 2600:6C58:7900:F8C:FC48:662E:6AAF:635C (talk) 07:22, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cullman County, Alabama


text:
Talk:Dale County, Alabama

Untitled
Wondering how to edit this U.S. County Entry? The WikiProject U.S. Counties standards might help. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ram-Man (talk • contribs) 18:23, 1 October 2002 (UTC)

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Hello, there is an article here, http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1327, that might be useful. Thanks, Justin --Duboiju (talk) 19:02, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100708051936/http://www.usgennet.org/usa/al/county/barbour/CSA/33rd_alabama_co.htm to http://www.usgennet.org/usa/al/county/barbour/CSA/33rd_alabama_co.htm
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title: Talk:Dale County, Alabama


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Kelly Osbourne

Kelly Michelle Lee Osbourne (born 27 October 1984) is an English television personality, singer, actress, model, and fashion designer. The daughter of Ozzy and Sharon Osbourne, she came to prominence while appearing on the reality show The Osbournes (2002–2005) with her family, for which they won a 2002 Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program. Her other television work includes hosting Project Catwalk (2007–2008) and Fashion Police (2010–2015), competing on the ninth season of Dancing with the Stars (2009), and judging on Project Runway Junior (2015–2017) and Australia's Got Talent (2016). She also played the voice role of Hildy Gloom in the Disney XD animated series The 7D (2014–2016).

As a singer, Osbourne has released two studio albums: Shut Up (2002) and Sleeping in the Nothing (2005). In 2003, she collaborated with her father Ozzy on the single "Changes" (a Black Sabbath song) which reached number one on the UK Singles Chart.

Early life
Osbourne was born at Portland Hospital in Westminster, London. She has an elder sister, Aimee, and a younger brother, Jack. From Ozzy's first marriage, she also has two half-siblings: Jessica Hobbs and Louis John Osbourne. She had an unofficially "adopted" brother, Robert Marcato, whom Sharon and Ozzy took in after Marcato's mother died. Kelly grew up travelling with her father as he went on tour, and lived in more than 20 homes, mostly in the US, as well as in the UK. Her maternal grandfather was Don Arden (Harry Levy), an English music manager. Her mother is of Irish and Jewish descent.

Osbourne attended private schools in England including Pipers Corner School.

2002–2005: The Osbournes and Shut Up
Osbourne and the rest of her family (without Aimee) starred on the MTV reality show The Osbournes, which aired from 2002 to 2005. The series chronicled their day-to-day life, portraying a dysfunctional family in which metal music, profanity and other harshness were a daily part of life. Kelly, the middle child, emerged (according to Rolling Stone) as "a wickedly funny, brutally honest, pint-size, potty-mouthed spitfire." The series started when she was seventeen, and ended when she was twenty. Kelly said in an interview for The Osbournes DVD that the crew were only actually supposed to be there for a few weeks but ended up staying for a few months and that the constant cameras focusing on her and her family was stressful. In 2002, during the second season of The Osbournes, Kelly dated The Used lead singer Bert McCracken. The show was filmed in California, US. where the family has had their residence for several decades.

Both she and the Osbourne family were parodied in Channel 4 comedy Bo' Selecta in which the rubber-masked Kelly, played by Leigh Francis, has her own show and is always being censored for swearing with bleeps.

After her appearance on the reality show, Osbourne quickly began to be noted for her varied and trendy style among fashion commentators like Steven Cojocaru. In 2004, Osbourne launched her own fashion line, Stiletto Killers, with her friend and former sponsor, Ali Barone. Stiletto Killers was a rock-inspired line of tees, knickers, hoodies and sweatpants designed by Osbourne and Barone, emblazoned with cartoonish designs and punk rock phrases. There was also a more sophisticated couture branch, the SK Collection. Stiletto Killers closed in April 2006.

Her debut album, Shut Up, was released by Epic Records in 2002 to moderate US sales, but good European sales. The lead single, a cover of Madonna's "Papa Don't Preach", debuted with Houston rock band Pure Rubbish at the 2002 MTV Film Awards. The album, which debuted at No. 1 on Billboard's Heatseekers chart, was met with mixed critical reviews and, by May 2003, Osbourne was dropped from Epic Records. By autumn she was on the Sanctuary label, later recording a duet of "Changes" (a Black Sabbath song) with her father. The duet hit No. 1 on the UK charts and resulted in a reissue of Shut Up, titled Changes. "Changes" was one of a few tracks to have fallen down the charts (from 1–3) whilst selling more copies than the week it reached number 1. Osbourne was the first artists to top all three of the Billboard charts dance surveys in the same week with the "Chris Cox Club Remix" of "One Word". Her second album Sleeping in the Nothing was not without controversy, due to its reportedly heavily altered album cover, in which Osbourne appeared slimmer, despite her previous assertions of being happy with her size. Osbourne made her debut as an actress with a starring role on 7 October 2004 on the ABC high school teenage drama Life as We Know It, where she played the supporting role of Deborah Beatrice Tynan. During an interview in late 2005, Osbourne denied reports she was ending her music career, saying: "I don't know where the quit rumours came from – I've just recorded a version of 'Girls Just Want to Have Fun' with Cyndi Lauper."

On 2 April 2004, Osbourne entered the Malibu rehab facility Promises after admitting to her family that she was addicted to painkillers. Over a year later, on 2 June, she checked into Las Encinas Hospital, a drug treatment centre in Pasadena, California, after a relapse. She entered another drug treatment facility in January 2009; she stayed for a month and later acknowledged that she had a relapse of her addiction to painkillers. After 30 days, she was released; she has been quoted as saying that this was the first time she really thought rehab had helped her.

2006–2009: Acting, hosting duties, and Dancing with the Stars
In spring 2006, Osbourne modelled for Heatherette in a catwalk show. In June, she played the role of Wendy from Peter Pan in The Queen's Handbag and provided her voice for the animated film Live Freaky Die Freaky. Later that year, she became the face of the high street chain Accessorize. Osbourne co-hosted the 2006 edition of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! NOW!, a spin-off show of the main ITV programme. She hosted alongside Jeff Brazier in Australia, and Mark Durden-Smith in the London studio. Her one-off gigs include the 2002 MTV Film Awards, Top of the Pops Saturday, MTV's Isle of MTV, MTV UK and Ireland's red carpet coverage of the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards, Popworld, The Sunday Night Project, the 2005 MTV Australia Video Music Awards and Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show. In spring 2006, Osbourne was one of the judges on Making Your Mind Up. At the September 2006 Electric Picnic festival in Ireland, Osbourne and her boyfriend, Matty Derham of the band Fields, held a wedding ceremony. Her representative later denied that the ceremony was legally binding because it did not meet Irish legal requirements, as at that time in Ireland, a couple couldn't get married in an outdoor venue. She later went on to date Matt Walker, a promoter and tour manager.

In February 2006, Osbourne was a guest judge for the Season One Episode Four of Project Catwalk on Sky1. She went on to host Seasons Two and Three of Project Catwalk in 2007 and 2008 respectively. In July 2007, Osbourne portrayed the role of prison matron Mama Morton in the musical drama Chicago for seven weeks at the Cambridge Theatre. In autumn 2007, Osbourne signed to BBC Radio 1 to host the Sunday night show, The Surgery; and on 7 October 2007, she went on air for the first time with the issue of self-harm. She was scheduled to return to the show in early 2009 and whilst she was away, Aled Haydn Jones from The Chris Moyles Show presented the show. Aled subsequently became the full-time presenter. In 2008, she featured in the short musical film The Town that Boars Me by photographer Ben Charles Edwards. The film also features Sadie Frost, Jodie Harsh, Sophie Ellis-Bextor, and Zandra Rhodes, amongst others. The film debuted in late summer at the Portobello Film Festival. In 2009, she appeared in an episode of Hotel Babylon, a British TV show aired on BBC One. She played Jo, a character very similar to herself.

On 19 January 2009, Osbourne was arrested for assault after allegedly slapping Daily Mirror columnist Zoe Griffin at a club in August 2008 after Griffin wrote a story that mocked Osbourne's then-boyfriend, Luke Worrall. In March 2009, Osbourne and Worrall were engaged, but later separated in July 2010 after he had an affair with model Elle Schneider. Osbourne presented ITV2's coverage of the National Television Awards with her brother Jack, and a documentary on Japanese pop culture called Kelly Osbourne: Turning Japanese for the same channel. In March 2009, Osbourne returned to television with the rest of the Osbourne family on Osbournes: Reloaded. On 1 September 2009, Osbourne released her first autobiography, Fierce, via Virgin Books. The book contains autobiographical elements, as well as advice and guidance through tough periods.

In September 2009, she started writing a weekly column giving advice and celebrity gossip in the British magazine Closer.

On 17 August 2009, co-hosts Tom Bergeron and Samantha Harris announced the cast of stars for the 2009 autumn series of Dancing with the Stars. Osbourne was to be one of the 16 celebrity contestants. A week later, her professional partner was announced: Dutch ballroom champion Louis van Amstel. The competition, starting 21 September 2009, entailed 10 weeks of training and dancing. On 17 November 2009, the final three were announced: Osbourne, singer Mýa and pop legend Donny Osmond. In the final, Osbourne and her partner placed third.

2010–present: Fashion Police and other endeavours

In August 2010, Osbourne began filming on the comedy Should've Been Romeo, her first major role in Hollywood. She plays Nicole, a fun-loving groupie. The film was released in the US on 28 April 2012. In December 2010, it was confirmed that Osbourne would be starring alongside Disney star Miley Cyrus in So Undercover, playing a sorority sister of Cyrus'. Filming began in December 2010 and was released on 6 December 2012.

In 2010, she modeled a Chris Benz dress for Naomi Campbell's Fashion For Relief runway show for the White Ribbon Alliance to raise funds for mothers in Haiti. In 2011 Osbourne became a fashion correspondent for the cable network E!, serving as a host, with Joan Rivers, of the series Fashion Police. In June 2011, she hosted the Miss USA pageant at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino, Las Vegas, with Susie Castillo.

In 2012, she appeared as a guest judge in season 4 of RuPaul's Drag Race, and hosted the New Now Next Awards. In September 2012, US rapper Lil' Kim confirmed she and Osbourne were to join forces for a rock-rap cover of Elton John's 1974 hit "The Bitch Is Back". In 2013, Osbourne walked the runway for The Heart Truth Red Dress Fashion Show.

On 7 March 2013, while filming an episode of Fashion Police with guest Melissa Rivers, Osbourne collapsed and began experiencing a seizure that reportedly lasted thirty seconds, after which she was taken to a local Los Angeles hospital for testing.

In August 2013, Osbourne was a guest judge on the 12th season of Project Runway. She was a guest judge on the October 2014 premiere episode of Project Runway: Threads. She is a regular judge on Project Runway: Junior.

In February 2015, Osbourne exited Fashion Police after complaints about her co-host's comments on the show.

In August 2015, Osbourne garnered controversy while discussing Donald Trump's immigration policy on The View. Osbourne said, to backlash from the show's co-hosts, "If you kick every Latino out of this country, then who is going to be cleaning your toilet, Donald Trump?” Osbourne soon backtracked on this statement, which was widely condemned as racist, and later apologized on Twitter. Her comments on the show later became a widespread TikTok meme in 2024, prompting Osbourne to recall the incident in an interview with Rolling Stone as "the most cringe moment of [her] entire life" and "the worst thing [she's] ever done."

On 28 October 2015, it was confirmed that Osbourne would replace Dawn French as a judge on Australia's Got Talent for its eighth season on Channel Nine.

In 2018, Osbourne joined her father and brother in their televised global tour that is documented in the series Ozzy & Jack's World Detour.

On 13 November 2019, Osbourne competed in season two of The Masked Singer as "Ladybug".

Personal life
In September 2006, Osbourne dated musician Matty Derman of Fields. In 2008, she started dating model Luke Worrall. They were engaged in 2009, but separated in 2010. She began dating Don Broco front man Rob Damiani in 2011. In 2018, she described herself as suffering from misophonia, a neurobehavioral phenomenon associated with an intolerance of specific sounds or their associated stimuli.

In July 2013, Osbourne became engaged to Matthew Mosshart, a chef whom she met at the 2011 wedding of model Kate Moss to Jamie Hince. Osbourne and Mosshart called off the engagement in January 2014.

She is currently dating Slipknot DJ Sid Wilson, and they have a son, Sidney, born in 2022.

Activism and charity work
On 1 April 2010, Osbourne and her mother Sharon joined Cyndi Lauper in the launch of the Give a Damn campaign to bring a wider awareness of discrimination of the LGBT community, as part of Lauper's True Colours Fund. The campaign is designed to bring straight people to stand up with the gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender community and stop the discrimination. Other names included in the campaign are Whoopi Goldberg, Jason Mraz, Elton John, Judith Light, Cynthia Nixon, Kim Kardashian, Anna Paquin and Clay Aiken.

In December 2010, she appeared on the ITV gameshow The Cube, where she won £20,000 for The Prince's Trust.

In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, Osbourne joined hands with the Salvation Army in Staten Island, New York during their recovery efforts in November 2012.

Singles
Notes

title: Kelly Osbourne


text:
Talk:Dallas County, Alabama

Untitled
Wondering how to edit this U.S. County Entry? The WikiProject U.S. Counties standards might help. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ram-Man (talk • contribs) 18:24, 1 October 2002 (UTC)

External Link or Reference
Hello, there is an article here, http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1328, that might be useful. Thanks, Justin --Duboiju (talk) 19:04, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dallas County, Alabama


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Talk:DeKalb County, Alabama

Untitled
Wondering how to edit this U.S. County Entry? The WikiProject U.S. Counties standards might help. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ram-Man (talk • contribs) 18:27, 1 October 2002 (UTC)

External Link
Hello, there is an article here, http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1319, that might be of interest. Thanks, Justin --Duboiju (talk) 17:45, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

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Lyr

Lyr or LYR may refer to:

Mythology

 * Llŷr, Welsh character
 * Lir, Irish character
 * Leir of Britain, mythical king

Transport

 * Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway
 * Svalbard Airport, Longyear, Norway (by IATA code)
 * Layar LRT station, Singapore (by LRT station code)

Other uses

 * Lyra (Lyr), an astronomical constellation
 * LYR (band) or Land Yacht Regatta, a band led by British poet laureate Simon Armitage

title: Lyr


text: Talk:Roberto Formigoni

title: Talk:Roberto Formigoni