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Radio wave

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with the lowest frequencies and the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, typically with frequencies below 300 gigahertz (GHz) and wavelengths greater than 1 mm, about the diameter of a grain of rice. Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light, and in the Earth's atmosphere at a slightly slower speed. Radio waves are generated by charged particles undergoing acceleration, such as time-varying electric currents. Naturally occurring radio waves are emitted by lightning and astronomical objects, and are part of the blackbody radiation emitted by all warm objects.

Radio waves are generated artificially by an electronic device called a transmitter, which is connected to an antenna which radiates the waves. They are received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver, which processes the received signal. Radio waves are very widely used in modern technology for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and radio navigation systems, communications satellites, wireless computer networks and many other applications. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves can diffract around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the Earth (ground waves), shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and return to Earth beyond the horizon (skywaves), while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and travel on a line of sight, so their propagation distances are limited to the visual horizon.

To prevent interference between different users, the artificial generation and use of radio waves is strictly regulated by law, coordinated by an international body called the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which defines radio waves as "electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than 3,000 GHz, propagated in space without artificial guide". The radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated to different uses. Higher-frequency, shorter-wavelength radio waves are called microwaves.

Discovery and exploitation
Radio waves were first predicted by the theory of electromagnetism proposed in 1867 by Scottish mathematical physicist James Clerk Maxwell. His mathematical theory, now called Maxwell's equations, predicted that a coupled electric and magnetic field could travel through space as an "electromagnetic wave". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength. In 1887, German physicist Heinrich Hertz demonstrated the reality of Maxwell's electromagnetic waves by experimentally generating radio waves in his laboratory, showing that they exhibited the same wave properties as light: standing waves, refraction, diffraction, and polarization. Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi developed the first practical radio transmitters and receivers around 1894–1895. He received the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics for his radio work. Radio communication began to be used commercially around 1900. The modern term "radio wave" replaced the original name "Hertzian wave" around 1912.

Generation and reception

Radio waves are radiated by charged particles when they are accelerated. Natural sources of radio waves include radio noise produced by lightning and other natural processes in the Earth's atmosphere, and astronomical radio sources in space such as the Sun, galaxies and nebulas. All warm objects radiate high frequency radio waves (microwaves) as part of their black body radiation.

Radio waves are produced artificially by time-varying electric currents, consisting of electrons flowing back and forth in a specially-shaped metal conductor called an antenna. An electronic device called a radio transmitter applies oscillating electric current to the antenna, and the antenna radiates the power as radio waves. Radio waves are received by another antenna attached to a radio receiver. When radio waves strike the receiving antenna they push the electrons in the metal back and forth, creating tiny oscillating currents which are detected by the receiver.

From quantum mechanics, like other electromagnetic radiation such as light, radio waves can alternatively be regarded as streams of uncharged elementary particles called photons. In an antenna transmitting radio waves, the electrons in the antenna emit the energy in discrete packets called radio photons, while in a receiving antenna the electrons absorb the energy as radio photons. An antenna is a coherent emitter of photons, like a laser, so the radio photons are all in phase. However, from Planck's relation $$E = h\nu$$ the energy of individual radio photons is extremely small, from 10−22 to 10−30 joules. So the antenna of even a very low power transmitter emits enormous numbers of photons per second. Therefore, except for certain molecular electron transition processes such as atoms in a maser emitting microwave photons, radio wave emission and absorption is usually regarded as a continuous classical process, governed by Maxwell's equations.

Properties
Radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light $$c$$. When passing through a material medium, they are slowed depending on the medium's permeability and permittivity. Air is thin enough that in the Earth's atmosphere radio waves travel very close to the speed of light.

The wavelength $$\lambda$$ is the distance from one peak (crest) of the wave's electric field to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency $$f$$ of the wave. The relation of frequency and wavelength in a radio wave traveling in vacuum or air is
 * $$\lambda = \frac{\;c \;}{f}~,$$

where
 * $$ c \approx 299.79 \times 10^6 \text{ m/s}~.$$

Equivalently, $$\;c\;$$ the distance a radio wave travels in a vacuum, in one second, is 299,792,458 m, which is the wavelength of a 1 Hertz radio signal. A 1 megahertz radio wave (mid-AM band) has a wavelength of 299.79 m.

Polarization
Like other electromagnetic waves, a radio wave has a property called polarization, which is defined as the direction of the wave's oscillating electric field perpendicular to the direction of motion. A plane polarized radio wave has an electric field which oscillates in a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. In a horizontally polarized radio wave the electric field oscillates in a horizontal direction. In a vertically polarized wave the electric field oscillates in a vertical direction. In a circularly polarized wave the electric field at any point rotates about the direction of travel, once per cycle. A right circularly polarized wave rotates in a right hand sense about the direction of travel, while a left circularly polarized wave rotates in the opposite sense. The wave's magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric field, and the electric and magnetic field are oriented in a right hand sense with respect to the direction of radiation.

An antenna emits polarized radio waves, with the polarization determined by the direction of the metal antenna elements. For example, a dipole antenna consists of two collinear metal rods. If the rods are horizontal it radiates horizontally polarized radio waves, while if the rods are vertical it radiates vertically polarized waves. An antenna receiving the radio waves must have the same polarization as the transmitting antenna, or it will suffer a severe loss of reception. Many natural sources of radio waves, such as the sun, stars and blackbody radiation from warm objects, emit unpolarized waves, consisting of incoherent short wave trains in an equal mixture of polarization states.

The polarization of radio waves is determined by a quantum mechanical property of the photons called their spin. A photon can have one of two possible values of spin; it can spin in a right hand sense about its direction of motion, or in a left hand sense. Right circularly polarized radio waves consist of photons spinning in a right hand sense. Left circularly polarized radio waves consist of photons spinning in a left hand sense. Plane polarized radio waves consist of photons in a quantum superposition of right and left hand spin states. The electric field consists of a superposition of right and left rotating fields, resulting in a plane oscillation.

Propagation characteristics
Radio waves are more widely used for communication than other electromagnetic waves mainly because of their desirable propagation properties, stemming from their large wavelength. Radio waves have the ability to pass through the atmosphere in any weather, foliage, and most building materials, and by diffraction longer wavelengths can bend around obstructions, and unlike other electromagnetic waves they tend to be scattered rather than absorbed by objects larger than their wavelength.

The study of radio propagation, how radio waves move in free space and over the surface of the Earth, is vitally important in the design of practical radio systems. Radio waves passing through different environments experience reflection, refraction, polarization, diffraction, and absorption. Different frequencies experience different combinations of these phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere, making certain radio bands more useful for specific purposes than others. Practical radio systems mainly use three different techniques of radio propagation to communicate: At microwave frequencies, atmospheric gases begin absorbing radio waves, so the range of practical radio communication systems decreases with increasing frequency. Below about 20 GHz atmospheric attenuation is mainly due to water vapor. Above 20 GHz, in the millimeter wave band, other atmospheric gases begin to absorb the waves, limiting practical transmission distances to a kilometer or less. Above 300 GHz, in the terahertz band, virtually all the power is absorbed within a few meters, so the atmosphere is effectively opaque.
 * Line of sight: This refers to radio waves that travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. It does not necessarily require a cleared sight path; at lower frequencies radio waves can pass through buildings, foliage and other obstructions. This is the only method of propagation possible at frequencies above 30 MHz. On the surface of the Earth, line of sight propagation is limited by the visual horizon to about 64 km (40 mi). This is the method used by cell phones, FM, television broadcasting and radar. By using dish antennas to transmit beams of microwaves, point-to-point microwave relay links transmit telephone and television signals over long distances up to the visual horizon. Ground stations can communicate with satellites and spacecraft billions of miles from Earth.
 * Indirect propagation: Radio waves can reach points beyond the line-of-sight by diffraction and reflection. Diffraction causes radio waves to bend around obstructions such as a building edge, a vehicle, or a turn in a hall. Radio waves also partially reflect from surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, vehicles and the ground. These propagation methods occur in short range radio communication systems such as cell phones, cordless phones, walkie-talkies, and wireless networks. A drawback of this mode is multipath propagation, in which radio waves travel from the transmitting to the receiving antenna via multiple paths. The waves interfere, often causing fading and other reception problems.
 * Ground waves: At lower frequencies below 2 MHz, in the medium wave and longwave bands, due to diffraction vertically polarized radio waves can bend over hills and mountains, and propagate beyond the horizon, traveling as surface waves which follow the contour of the Earth.  This makes it possible for mediumwave and longwave broadcasting stations to have coverage areas beyond the horizon, out to hundreds of miles. As the frequency drops, the losses decrease and the achievable range increases. Military very low frequency (VLF) and extremely low frequency (ELF) communication systems can communicate over most of the Earth.  VLF and ELF radio waves can also penetrate water to hundreds of meters depth, so they are used to communicate with submerged submarines.
 * Skywaves: At medium wave and shortwave wavelengths, radio waves reflect off conductive layers of charged particles (ions) in a part of the atmosphere called the ionosphere. So radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon; this is called "skip" or "skywave" propagation. By using multiple skips communication at intercontinental distances can be achieved. Skywave propagation is variable and dependent on atmospheric conditions; it is most reliable at night and in the winter. Widely used during the first half of the 20th century, due to its unreliability skywave communication has mostly been abandoned. Remaining uses are by military over-the-horizon (OTH) radar systems, by some automated systems, by radio amateurs, and by shortwave broadcasting stations to broadcast to other countries.

Radio communication
In radio communication systems, information is transported across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent, in the form of a time-varying electrical signal, is applied to a radio transmitter. The information, called the modulation signal, can be an audio signal representing sound from a microphone, a video signal representing moving images from a video camera, or a digital signal representing data from a computer. In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency, called the carrier wave because it creates the radio waves that "carry" the information through the air. The information signal is used to modulate the carrier, altering some aspect of it, encoding the information on the carrier. The modulated carrier is amplified and applied to an antenna. The oscillating current pushes the electrons in the antenna back and forth, creating oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which radiate the energy away from the antenna as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location.

At the receiver, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of the incoming radio wave push the electrons in the receiving antenna back and forth, creating a tiny oscillating voltage which is a weaker replica of the current in the transmitting antenna. This voltage is applied to the radio receiver, which extracts the information signal. The receiver first uses a bandpass filter to separate the desired radio station's radio signal from all the other radio signals picked up by the antenna, then amplifies the signal so it is stronger, then finally extracts the information-bearing modulation signal in a demodulator. The recovered signal is sent to a loudspeaker or earphone to produce sound, or a television display screen to produce a visible image, or other devices. A digital data signal is applied to a computer or microprocessor, which interacts with a human user.

The radio waves from many transmitters pass through the air simultaneously without interfering with each other. They can be separated in the receiver because each transmitter's radio waves oscillate at a different rate, in other words each transmitter has a different frequency, measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). The bandpass filter in the receiver consists of one or more tuned circuits which act like a resonator, similarly to a tuning fork. The tuned circuit has a natural resonant frequency at which it oscillates. The resonant frequency is set equal to the frequency of the desired radio station. The oscillating radio signal from the desired station causes the tuned circuit to oscillate in sympathy, and it passes the signal on to the rest of the receiver. Radio signals at other frequencies are blocked by the tuned circuit and not passed on.

Biological and environmental effects
Radio waves are non-ionizing radiation, which means they do not have enough energy to separate electrons from atoms or molecules, ionizing them, or break chemical bonds, causing chemical reactions or DNA damage. The main effect of absorption of radio waves by materials is to heat them, similarly to the infrared waves radiated by sources of heat such as a space heater or wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the wave causes polar molecules to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a microwave oven cooks food. Radio waves have been applied to the body for 100 years in the medical therapy of diathermy for deep heating of body tissue, to promote increased blood flow and healing. More recently they have been used to create higher temperatures in hyperthermia therapy and to kill cancer cells.

However, unlike infrared waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's resistivity and permittivity; it is given by a parameter called the skin depth of the material, which is the depth within which 63% of the energy is deposited. For example, the 2.45 GHz radio waves (microwaves) in a microwave oven penetrate most foods approximately 2.5 to 3.8 cm (1 to 1.5 inches).

Looking into a source of radio waves at close range, such as the waveguide of a working radio transmitter, can cause damage to the lens of the eye by heating. A strong enough beam of radio waves can penetrate the eye and heat the lens enough to cause cataracts.

Since the heating effect is in principle no different from other sources of heat, most research into possible health hazards of exposure to radio waves has focused on "nonthermal" effects; whether radio waves have any effect on tissues besides that caused by heating. Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields have been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as having "limited evidence" for its effects on humans and animals. There is weak mechanistic evidence of cancer risk via personal exposure to RF-EMF from mobile telephones.

Radio waves can be shielded against by a conductive metal sheet or screen, an enclosure of sheet or screen is called a Faraday cage. A metal screen shields against radio waves as well as a solid sheet as long as the holes in the screen are smaller than about $R$ of wavelength of the waves.

Measurement
Since radio frequency radiation has both an electric and a magnetic component, it is often convenient to express intensity of radiation field in terms of units specific to each component. The unit volts per meter (V/m) is used for the electric component, and the unit amperes per meter (A/m) is used for the magnetic component. One can speak of an electromagnetic field, and these units are used to provide information about the levels of electric and magnetic field strength at a measurement location.

Another commonly used unit for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field is power density. Power density is most accurately used when the point of measurement is far enough away from the RF emitter to be located in what is referred to as the far field zone of the radiation pattern. In closer proximity to the transmitter, i.e., in the "near field" zone, the physical relationships between the electric and magnetic components of the field can be complex, and it is best to use the field strength units discussed above. Power density is measured in terms of power per unit area, for example, milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm2). When speaking of frequencies in the microwave range and higher, power density is usually used to express intensity since exposures that might occur would likely be in the far field zone.

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Talk:Chippewa County, Wisconsin

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Talk:Calumet County, Wisconsin

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Need Parent County
It is very helpful to genealogy research if the parent county is shown, along with the (hopefully some day) page that shows all the counties in the state with their incorporation date and parent counties. 76.102.31.185 (talk) 06:22, 9 March 2008 (UTC)
 * The parent county is shown on every city, village, and town article in the state. You just need to click "show" on the county infobox at the bottom. It is hidden because it's fairly long. There is another hidden State of Wisconsin infobox on the very bottom that lists all the counties in the state. The county incorporation date is placed in the county article, and most counties don't have it at this time. You should be helpful and place it in each article! There are only 72 counties to do in Wisconsin. Royal broil  13:22, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

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Largest city?
On September 11, 2017, the user 50.58.179.242 listed Appleton as the largest city in Calumet County; despite being the community with the largest population, it is mostly located in Outagamie County. However, I was unsure whether to list that or Chilton (the largest community entirely within Calumet County) as the largest city, so I included both. What would be the largest city in this regards? I am also looking to know which criteria makes a city the largest in any given region. TNats 3 07:44, 23 September 2017 (UTC)
 * It may be the city having the largest population in the county, but I doubt that it has the most Calumet county residents. It's confusing and I think that the largest city shouldn't be listed.  Royal broil  03:07, 28 September 2017 (UTC)
 * I relisted Chilton as the largest city now. TNats 3 21:25, 8 October 2017 (UTC)

Idiot...
What a idiot... 197.245.225.245 (talk) 19:59, 26 April 2022 (UTC)

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Talk:Burnett County, Wisconsin

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County Seat
The actual county seat of Burnett County is the incorporated village of Siren, as cited by numerous sources referenced on the appropriate pages, and as listed in the table on the Wikipedia page "List of Counties in Wisconsin". Some confusion arose due to a .pdf document on the Burnett County website that is labeled "County Seat - Town Of Meenon Government Center", laid out in a fashion that makes it appear that the county seat is the "Town Of Meenon"; however, the actual address on this document confirms the location as Siren, Wisconsin. Without exception, county seats in Wisconsin are the incorporated municipalities, or unincorporated CDPs in a couple of cases, wherein the county courthouse resides; they are not the townships, which is what Meenon is. This information is further confirmed by all Rand-McNally and Google maps. Porterhse (talk) 08:23, 22 April 2018 (UTC)

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Talk:Buffalo County, Wisconsin

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Kitsch

Kitsch (loanword from German) is a term applied to art and design that is perceived as naïve imitation, overly eccentric, gratuitous or of banal taste.

The modern avant garde traditionally opposed kitsch for its melodramatic tendencies, its superficial relationship with the human condition and its naturalistic standards of beauty. In the first half of the 20th century, kitsch was used in reference to mass-produced, pop-cultural products that lacked the conceptual depth of fine art. However, since the emergence of Pop Art in the 1950s, kitsch has taken on newfound highbrow appeal, often wielded in knowingly ironic, humorous or earnest manners.

To brand visual art as "kitsch" is often still pejorative, though not exclusively. Art deemed kitsch may be enjoyed in an entirely positive and sincere manner. For example, it carries the ability to be quaint or "quirky" without being offensive on the surface, as in the Dogs Playing Poker paintings.

Along with visual art, the quality of kitsch can be used to describe works of music, literature or any other creative medium. Kitsch relates to camp, as they both incorporate irony and extravagance.

History
As a descriptive term, kitsch originated in the art markets of Munich, Germany in the 1860s and the 1870s, describing cheap, popular, and marketable pictures and sketches. In Das Buch vom Kitsch (The Book of Kitsch), published in 1936, Hans Reimann defined it as a professional expression "born in a painter's studio".

The study of kitsch was done almost exclusively in Germany until the 1970s, with Walter Benjamin being an important scholar in the field.

Kitsch is regarded as a modern phenomenon, coinciding with social changes in recent centuries such as the Industrial Revolution, urbanization, mass production, modern materials and media such as plastics, radio and television, the rise of the middle class and public educationall of which have factored into a perception of oversaturation of art produced for the popular taste.

Kitsch in art theory and aesthetics
Modernist writer Hermann Broch argues that the essence of kitsch is imitation: kitsch mimics its immediate predecessor with no regard to ethics—it aims to copy the beautiful, not the good. According to Walter Benjamin, kitsch, unlike art, is a utilitarian object lacking all critical distance between object and observer. According to critic Winfried Menninghaus, Benjamin's stance was that kitsch "offers instantaneous emotional gratification without intellectual effort, without the requirement of distance, without sublimation". In a short essay from 1927, Benjamin observed that an artist who engages in kitschy reproductions of things and ideas from a bygone age deserved to be called a "furnished man" (in the way that someone rents a "furnished apartment" where everything is already supplied).

Kitsch is less about the thing observed than about the observer. According to Roger Scruton, "Kitsch is fake art, expressing fake emotions, whose purpose is to deceive the consumer into thinking he feels something deep and serious."

Tomáš Kulka, in Kitsch and Art, starts from two basic facts that kitsch "has an undeniable mass-appeal" and "considered (by the art-educated elite) bad", and then proposes three essential conditions:
 * 1) Kitsch depicts a beautiful or highly emotionally charged subject;
 * 2) The depicted subject is instantly and effortlessly identifiable;
 * 3) Kitsch does not substantially enrich our associations related to the depicted subject.

Kitsch in Milan Kundera's The Unbearable Lightness of Being
The concept of kitsch is a central motif in Milan Kundera's 1984 novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being. Towards the end of the novel, the book's narrator posits that the act of defecation (and specifically, the shame that surrounds it) poses a metaphysical challenge to the theory of divine creation: "Either/or: either shit is acceptable (in which case don't lock yourself in the bathroom!) or we are created in an unacceptable manner". Thus, in order for us to continue to believe in the essential propriety and rightness of the universe (what the narrator calls "the categorical agreement with being"), we live in a world "in which shit is denied and everyone acts as though it did not exist". For Kundera's narrator, this is the definition of kitsch: an "aesthetic ideal" which "excludes everything from its purview which is essentially unacceptable in human existence".

The novel goes on to relate this definition of kitsch to politics, and specifically—given the novel's setting in Prague around the time of the 1968 invasion by the Soviet Union—to communism and totalitarianism. He gives the example of the Communist May Day ceremony, and of the sight of children running on the grass and the feeling this is supposed to provoke. This emphasis on feeling is fundamental to how kitsch operates:

"Kitsch causes two tears to flow in quick succession. The first tear says: How nice to see children running on the grass! The second tear says: How nice to be moved, together with all mankind, by children running on the grass! It is the second tear that makes kitsch kitsch."

According to the narrator, kitsch is "the aesthetic ideal of all politicians and all political parties and movements"; however, where a society is dominated by a single political movement, the result is "totalitarian kitsch":

"When I say 'totalitarian,' what I mean is that everything that infringes on kitsch must be banished for life: every display of individualism (because a deviation from the collective is a spit in the eye of the smiling brotherhood); every doubt (because anyone who starts doubting details will end by doubting life itself); all irony (because in the realm of kitsch everything must be taken quite seriously)."

Kundera's concept of "totalitarian kitsch" has since been invoked in the study of the art and culture of regimes such as Stalin's Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Iraq under Saddam Hussein. Kundera's narrator ends up condemning kitsch for its "true function" as an ideological tool under such regimes, calling it "a folding screen set up to curtain off death".

Melancholic kitsch vs. nostalgic kitsch
In her 1999 book The Artificial Kingdom: A Treasury of the Kitsch Experience, cultural historian Celeste Olalquiaga develops a theory of kitsch that situates its emergence as a specifically nineteenth-century phenomenon, relating it to the feelings of loss elicited by a world transformed by science and industry. Focusing on examples such as paperweights, aquariums, mermaids and the Crystal Palace, Olalquiaga uses Benjamin's concept of the "dialectical image" to argue for the utopian potential of "melancholic kitsch", which she differentiates from the more commonly discussed "nostalgic kitsch".

These two types of kitsch correspond to two different forms of memory. Nostalgic kitsch functions through "reminiscence", which "sacrifices the intensity of experience for a conscious or fabricated sense of continuity":

"Incapable of tolerating the intensity of the moment, reminiscence selects and consolidates an event's acceptable parts into a memory perceived as complete. […] This reconstructed experience is frozen as an emblem of itself, becoming a cultural fossil."

In contrast, melancholic kitsch functions through "remembrance", a form of memory that Olalquiaga links to the "souvenir", which attempts "to repossess the experience of intensity and immediacy through an object". While reminiscence translates a remembered event to the realm of the symbolic ("deprived of immediacy in favour of representational meaning"), remembrance is "the memory of the unconscious", which "sacrific[es] the continuity of time for the intensity of the experience". Far from denying death, melancholic kitsch can only function through a recognition of its multiple "deaths" as a fragmentary remembrance that is subsequently commodified and reproduced. It "glorifies the perishable aspect of events, seeking in their partial and decaying memory the confirmation of its own temporal dislocation".

Thus, for Olalquiaga, melancholic kitsch is able to function as a Benjaminian dialectical image: "an object whose decayed state exposes and reflects its utopian possibilities, a remnant constantly reliving its own death, a ruin".

Uses
Jewish-American author Art Spiegelman coined the term "Holo-kitsch" to describe mass-market, overly sentimental depictions of the Holocaust from the end of the Cold War onwards, including works inspired by his own graphic novel on the subject, Maus. The term is usually used to criticize works seen as relying on melodrama and mass recognition to commercialize the experiences of Holocaust survivors, such as Life Is Beautiful or The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, but also includes more positively received works like Polanski's The Pianist.

Art
The Kitsch movement is an international movement of classical painters, founded in 1998 upon a philosophy proposed by Odd Nerdrum, which he clarified in his 2001 book On Kitsch, in cooperation with Jan-Ove Tuv and others incorporating the techniques of the Old Masters with narrative, romanticism, and emotionally charged imagery.

title: Kitsch


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Talk:Bayfield County, Wisconsin

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Talk:Barron County, Wisconsin

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Talk:Ashland County, Wisconsin

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Traditions
What type of traditions do they do in Ashland WI county 24.118.109.151 (talk) 16:42, 13 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ashland County, Wisconsin


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Small-C

Small-C is both a subset of the C programming language, suitable for resource-limited microcomputers and embedded systems, and an implementation of that subset. Originally valuable as an early compiler for microcomputer systems available during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the implementation has also been useful as an example simple enough for teaching purposes.

The original compiler, written in Small-C for the Intel 8080 by Ron Cain, appeared in the May 1980 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal. James E. Hendrix improved and extended the original compiler, and wrote The Small-C Handbook. Ron bootstrapped Small-C on the SRI International PDP 11/45 Unix system with an account provided by John Bass for Small C development. The provided source code was released with management permission into the public domain. Small-C was important for tiny computers in a manner somewhat analogous to the importance of GCC for larger computers. Just like its Unix counterparts, the compiler generates assembler code, which then must be translated to machine code by an available assembler.

Small-C is a retargetable compiler. Porting Small-C requires only that the back-end code generator and the library to operating system interface calls be rewritten for the target processor.

Language subset
"In May of 1980 Dr. Dobb's Journal ran an article entitled "A Small C Compiler for the 8080s" in which Ron Cain presented a small compiler for a subset of the C language. The most interesting feature of the compiler besides its small size was the language in which it was written—the one it compiled. It was a self-compiler! (Although this is commonplace today, it was a fairly novel idea at the time.) With a simple, one-pass algorithm, his compiler generated assembly language for the 8080 processor. Being small, however, it had its limitations. It recognized only characters, integers, and single dimension arrays of either type. The only loop controlling device was the while statement. There were no Boolean operators, so the bitwise logical operators & (AND) and | (OR) were used instead. But even with these limitations, it was a very capable language and a delight to use, especially compared to assembly language.

Recognizing the need for improvements, Ron encouraged me to produce a second version, and in December 1982 it also appeared in Dr. Dobb's Journal. The new compiler augmented Small C with (1) code optimizing, (2) data initializing, (3) conditional compiling, (4) the extern storage class, (5) the for, do/while, switch, and goto statements, (6) combination assignment operators, (7) Boolean operators, (8) the ones' complement operator, (9) block local variables, and (10) various other features. Then in 1984 Ernest Payne and I developed and published a CP/M compatible run-time library for the compiler. It consisted of over 80 functions and included most of those in the UNIX C Standard I/O Library—the ones that pertained to the CP/M environment. This became version 2.1 and the subject of The Small C Handbook.

Small-C variants

 * Z88DK – Cross Small-C implementation for Z80 based microcomputers
 * cc65 – Cross Small-C implementation for 6502 computers
 * Deep Blue C – Small-C for the Atari 8-bit computers
 * A.J.Travis – Native Small-C for the BBC Micro

title: Small-C


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Talk:Adams County, Wisconsin

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Talk:Hugh J. Schonfield

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"A Jew who termed himself a "Nazarene," meaning that he believed Jesus Christ was the Messiah, he believed that Jesus did not found Christianity, that St. Paul did, because he was mentally ill and thought he was himself the Messiah."

This is ambiguous: Who was mentally ill and thought he was himself the Messiah?

S.

suggested rewrite:

"A Jew who termed himself a "Nazarene," meaning that he believed Jesus Christ was the Messiah. He believed that Jesus did not found Christianity, *but* St. Paul did. *Schonfield thought St. Paul* was mentally ill and believed himself *to be* the Messiah."

Janosabel 17:40, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Dates of Schonfield's birth and death? RDH

If Schonfield studied officially at the University of Glasgow why is he not known to them as an Alumni? They have no record of him. I asked. Check it out please. I do know he was at a Glasgow Bible College, but it was not affiliated with the University. I suspect he did not actually have a Universtiy degree, great though his self-taught knowledge may have been.

He was a Doctor of Letters (DSLitt) one of the highest doctorates you can get. He went to St Paul's School (and I have verified this) You can find more info on www.schonfield.org

SE

Schonfield's exact academic qualifications
It is no good relying on St. Paul's to say if he went to Glasgow university or not. You have to ask the University concerned. I do know he went to Glasgow Bible College as a young man in about 1921. This is now known as the International Christian College and his signature and records of his stay can be seen in the archives if you look. I was told by a Glasgow university archivist that there was no record of him. But that was only by phone. Why don't you contact them yourself and check it out? Perhaps I am wrong. This message is for Wikipedia too. I don't know what a DS.Litt is. Do you mean D. Litt? Information in public encyclopedias should be absolutely accurate.

Recantation
I read somewhere (possibly in a book by Schonfield himself) that later in life, he recanted his following of Jesus.Toddsschneider (talk) 09:06, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

Text moved from article, needs work and refs
START

Schonfield believed, furthermore, that Jesus was aware of and believed in himself as born to fulfill the role of the Jewish Messiah, and consciously made the effort to see that the prophecies were fulfilled in his daily life (and death); that Jesus did not intend to found a new religion, but intended instead to lead to the fulfillment of God's covenant with the Jewish people as documented in the Hebrew Bible; that Christianity, the religion, was the product of Jesus' followers, especially as proclaimed to "the Nations", i.e., non-Jewish people, at which point the connection to Jesus' original purpose was lost.

This disconnect from the original message occurred over a period of time, under great distress (wars, loss of nationhood, slavery, exile from Jerusalem and Palestine), and for a multitude of reasons. Among those who are mentioned as having distorted the message is Saul of Tarsus, also known as the Apostle Paul, who Schonfield depicts as mentally ill and as believing himself to be the Messiah. This is ironic given Schonfield is an Old Pauline, having been educated at a school bearing the Apostle's name. Schonfield believes that Jesus, himself, had nothing but good intentions in living his life out as predicted for the Messiah; Schonfield questions the result of the distortion at the hands of some of his followers, and at the hands of some who used this burgeoning new religion for less than honourable purposes.

Schonfield encourages believers in Jesus to take a critical view of what is told to them about him, and to endeavor to learn about the historical Jesus, how he fit into his times and land, and what was the purpose of his original message— faith in the Scriptures, living the exemplary life according to them, and for the purpose of alleviating misery, and making a difference to humanity.

END In ictu oculi (talk)

Delete tag removed, as allowed following edits
though the notability charge was justified in the form the article was in.In ictu oculi (talk) 00:17, 8 September 2011 (UTC)

 * As I was editing the article, I found you were editing at the same time, so I exited. Glad for what you have done to the article. Schonfield is certainly notable.Pete unseth (talk) 11:51, 8 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hugh J. Schonfield


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Talk:Kitsch

William-Adolphe Bouguereau as a notable example?
I was confused to find William-Adolphe Bouguereau listed as a notable example of kitsch. There are articles out there that do claim that some of his works share characteristics similar to kitsch, but there is by no means a wide consensus on the matter, at least from what I have gathered (https://www.artrenewal.org/Article/Title/the-great-bouguereau-debate for example). I think it would be better and safer to instead include somebody like Jeff Koons, whose Banality Series was created with the intent to appear as kitsch. Maybe including Bouguereau somewhere else would be acceptable, but I think including him as a notable example is misleading. Ryzcheese (talk) 20:20, 11 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree - I'm no great fan of W-A B, but this is inappropriate. Johnbod (talk) 00:15, 12 March 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ Bouguereau is not particularly kitsch, Jeff Koons' works were "created with the intent to appear as kitsch". Many observers consider them kitschy, yes, however the author has always said there's no hidden meaning in his sculptures. In interviews, Jeff Koons systematically refuses the qualifier of "kitsch". He says that's first degree for him. We can mention Koons' artworks as example here, but please be exact about the statement. -- Basile Morin (talk) 00:35, 12 March 2020 (UTC)
 * I was kind of thinking myself that even Koons is not the best example, so I agree that it might be best just to leave him out altogether. Thanks for the feedback everybody.Ryzcheese (talk) 04:18, 12 March 2020 (UTC)

Camp versus Kitsch
It would seem that Kitsch takes itself seriously, and camp recognizes itself as parody. Kitsch may offer itself as an allusion to economic success or political orthodoxy; camp is a spoof of such. Kitsch pretends either to some undeniable reality beyond judgment or to esthetic greatness; camp is more of a spoof.Pbrower2a (talk) 16:02, 11 January 2021 (UTC)

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Talk:Addison County, Vermont

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Talk:Bennington County, Vermont

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Incorporated villages
Bennington County has at least two incorporated villages, according to the articles on Manchester (village) and North Bennington, so the footnote on the list of cities (none), towns, and villages needs to be changed. 121a0012 (talk) 03:20, 18 July 2011 (UTC)

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Leofric (bishop)

Leofric (before 1016–1072) was a medieval Bishop of Exeter. Probably a native of Cornwall, he was educated on the continent. At the time Edward the Confessor was in exile before his succession to the English throne, Leofric joined his service and returned to England with him. After he became king, Edward rewarded Leofric with lands. Although a 12th-century source claims Leofric held the office of chancellor, modern historians agree he never did so.

Edward appointed Leofric as Bishop of Cornwall and Bishop of Crediton in 1046, but because Crediton was a small town, the new bishop secured papal permission to move the episcopal seat to Exeter in 1050. At Exeter, Leofric worked to increase the income and resources of his cathedral, both in lands and in ecclesiastical vestments. He was a bibliophile, and collected many manuscripts; some of these he gave to the cathedral library, including a famous manuscript of poetry, the Exeter Book. Leofric died in 1072; although his remains were moved to the new Exeter Cathedral which was built after his death, their location is no longer known and the current tomb does not mark his resting place.

Early life
Little is known about Leofric, as his cathedral town was not a centre of historical writing, and he took little part in events outside his diocese. Little notice was taken of his life and activities; only a few charters originated in his household and there is only one listing of gifts to his diocese. No official acts from his episcopate have survived, and there is just a brief death notice in the Leofric Missal, although no notice of his death occurs in the contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. He occurs as a witness to royal charters.

Leofric was probably born in Cornwall, and his parents were English. Because canon law required that a bishop be 30 years old when consecrated, it is likely that Leofric was born before 1016. The medieval chronicler Florence of Worcester referred to him as a Brytonicus, which presumably meant that he was a native of Cornwall. He had a brother, Ordmaer, who acted as his steward and administered the family estates. Leofric was educated in Lotharingia, and may have been brought up abroad. Leofric may have gone into exile either in 1013 when Sweyn Forkbeard, the king of Denmark invaded England or in 1016, when Sweyn's son Cnut became king of England. His education possibly took place at the church of St Stephen's in Toul, where the future Pope Leo IX was a canon from 1017 to 1024 and bishop after 1027.

Service to Edward the Confessor
Before Edward the Confessor became king of England, he was exiled to the continent. Leofric served as Edward's chaplain, although how or when exactly the two met is unknown. The historian Frank Barlow speculates that it may have been at Bruges in 1039. When Edward returned to England at the invitation of King Harthacnut, Edward's half-brother, Leofric accompanied him, witnessing charters during Harthacnut's lifetime along with Herman who later became Bishop of Sherborne. Leofric remained a close supporter and friend of Edward for the king's entire life. In 1044, Edward granted him lands at Dawlish in Devon.

Although a 12th-century monastic chronicler at Worcester called Leofric Edward's chancellor, this is not correct, as Edward had no chancellor at this time. Historians are divided on whether or not Edward ever had an official that could be called a chancellor, but they are agreed that Leofric did not hold such an office.

Bishop
When Bishop Lyfing died in 1046, the king made Leofric Bishop of Cornwall as well as Bishop of Crediton. The two sees, or bishoprics, held by Lyfing became the see of Exeter in 1050 when Bishop Leofric moved his episcopal seat from Crediton to Exeter and combined it with Cornwall. The move of the see received the support of Pope Leo IX, and dates from 1051. Although Leofric had been a royal clerk before he became bishop, after his elevation he managed to avoid entanglement in the various disputes taking place between the king and Godwin, Earl of Wessex. Instead he spent his energies on the administration of his diocese, but remained on good terms with the king. Leofric's penitential, the Leofric Missal, still survives, and it includes a prayer for a childless king, which probably referred to King Edward.

The abbey church of St. Peter's at Exeter became Leofric's cathedral and he was enthroned as Bishop of Exeter there on St Peter's Day in 1050 with King Edward in attendance. The king, and his wife Edith took part in the ceremony of enthronement, with both of them leading the bishop to his cathedra, or episcopal chair. Edith had dower rights to the town of Exeter, which may explain her presence at the ceremony.

Leofric replaced the monks with canons. The new community was given the Rule of Chrodegang by Leofric, which rule he had probably learned in Lotharingia before his return to England. Leofric moved the seat of his see because Crediton was too poor and rural, and Exeter was a city with protective walls and an abandoned church that could be used as the new cathedral. Leofric claimed that he found his diocese lacking in episcopal vestments and the other items required for church services, and his surviving list of gifts to the church noted that he gave vestments, crosses, chalices, censers, altar coverings, and other furnishings to the cathedral.

After the move to Exeter, Leofric worked to increase the endowment of the diocese, and especially the cathedral library, which he found almost empty upon his arrival. He later claimed that there were only five books owned by the cathedral chapter when he became bishop. He still remained on good terms with the king, for he was present at Edward's Christmas court in 1065 that saw the consecration of Edward's Westminster Abbey church at Westminster. No evidence survives that Leofric was employed by the king in any diplomatic missions, nor does Leofric appear to have attended any papal councils or synods. He was a supporter of the cult of Leo IX, who was proclaimed a saint after Leo's death.

Death and legacy
Leofric survived William the Conqueror's 1068 siege of Exeter unscathed, although there is no evidence that he was present in the city during the siege. Whether Leofric had originally supported King Harold against William or if he supported William from the start is unclear. The fact that he survived William's purge of the native English bishops in 1070 is evidence that he must not have been too outspoken against William. Leofric remained bishop until he died on 10 February or 11 February 1072. He was buried in the crypt of his cathedral. When the cathedral was rebuilt, his remains were moved to the new church, but the location of the tomb has been lost. The current tomb only dates from 1568 and does not mark Leofric's resting place.

During Leofric's bishopric, his cathedral library was the fourth largest in England, and was an important scriptorium. He gave an important manuscript of Old English poetry, the Exeter Book, to the cathedral library in 1072. Contained in the Exeter Book are a number of poems showing of all the principal types of poems composed in Old English. This manuscript is one of four main sources for modern knowledge of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Along with the Exeter Book, he also gave a number of other manuscripts and books to the cathedral upon his death. Three versions of the donation list drawn up by Leofric survive, which is one of the earliest surviving cathedral library catalogues. The list consists of 31 books used to conduct cathedral services, 24 other ecclesiastical works, and 11 works that were secular. This last group included philosophical works as well as poetry. The number of manuscripts that he owned and bequeathed to his cathedral was quite large for his time. Besides the Exeter Book and the Leofric Missal, Leofric's own copy of the Rule of Chrodegang also survives, although it is no longer at Exeter. Now it is at Cambridge University, where it is Corpus Christi College MS 191. Another surviving manuscript from Leofric's collection is a Gospel book written in Latin now in the Bodleian Library, which was probably acquired by Leofric while he was on the continent, as the manuscript was originally written for a Breton monastery. In all, about 20 of the manuscripts gifted by Leofric can be identified and are still extant, and only two remain at Exeter – including the Exeter Book.

The notice in his cathedral's records recording his death stated that Leofric was active in his diocese as a preacher, that he built many churches in his bishopric, and was noted as a teacher of his clergy. The historian Frank Barlow describes Leofric as "an able administrator and a progressive force" and one who "exemplifies the foreign prelate at his best".

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Talk:Caledonia County, Vermont

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Wondering how to edit this U.S. County Entry? The WikiProject U.S. Counties standards might help. -- The "footnote" link at the end of the first paragraph is practically useless. I am going to delete it unless someone has other ideas. We have plenty of practical ideas in Vermont. Student7 03:06, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

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Talk:Chittenden County, Vermont

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"Spread out"
I find the phrase population was "spread out" clunky. "Distributed by age" may not be perfect, but not nearly as clunky. Student7 (talk) 12:02, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

Counties that may have formerly been part of Chittenden County
The 1790 census list of towns in Chittenden County also contains the towns of Franklin County, Grand Isle County, and Lamoille County. Were these counties once part of Chittenden County? Someone the Person (talk) 20:40, 27 May 2009 (UTC)

 * There were originally a small number of counties, maybe two, in Vermont, which got split up several times over the next 30 years or so, until they reached (roughly) their current boundaries. Yes. That history should be included here, even though it is essentially the history of a good chunk of Vermont in 1790.Student7 (talk) 23:06, 27 May 2009 (UTC)
 * Just adding that the original Chittenden County also included the western parts of Orleans and Washington counties. --Polaron | Talk 21:07, 28 May 2009 (UTC)

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Ostholstein

Ostholstein (Østholsten) is a district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is bounded by (from the southwest and clockwise) the districts of Stormarn, Segeberg and Plön, the Baltic Sea and the city of Lübeck. Geographically, the district covers the vast majority of what is considered to be the peninsular of Wagria.

Geography
The district consists of the Wagria peninsula between the Bay of Lübeck and the Bay of Kiel, the island of Fehmarn, the eastern part of the region called Holstein Switzerland and the northern suburbs of Lübeck.

Holsatian Switzerland is an area full of lakes and woody hills, which is shared with the adjoining district of Plön. The Bungsberg, though only 168 m in height, is the highest elevation in Schleswig-Holstein. The island of Fehmarn is the third largest island of Germany. Since 1963, it has been connected to the mainland by a suspension bridge.

History
The district was established in 1970 by merging the former districts of Eutin and Oldenburg in Holstein. These former districts have different histories.

The District of Eutin emerged from the Principality, and later Region of Lübeck, which again emerged from the secularised prince-bishopric of Lübeck. In 1803 it became an exclave of the Duchy of Oldenburg (which confusingly has nothing to do with the Holsteinian city of Oldenburg). In 1937 it was transferred to Prussia as the district of Eutin within the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.

The region of Oldenburg was a part of the Duchy of Holstein. In 1864 Holstein became subordinate to Prussia, which soon afterwards established the district of Oldenburg in Holstein.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
 * a cross from the arms of the bishopric of Lübeck; this bishopric existed until 1535 and owned large possessions in the region
 * a tower from the city arms of Oldenburg

title: Ostholstein


text:
Talk:Essex County, Vermont

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Talk:Franklin County, Vermont

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Roger & Me

Roger & Me is a 1989 American documentary film written, produced, directed by, and starring Michael Moore, in his directorial debut. Moore portrays the regional economic impact of General Motors CEO Roger Smith's action of closing several auto plants in his hometown of Flint, Michigan, reducing GM's employees in that area from 80,000 in 1978 to about 50,000 in 1992. GM employs approximately 7,200 workers in the Flint area, according to The Detroit News, and 5,000 workers according to MSNBC.

In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".

Synopsis
Moore begins by introducing himself and his family through 8 mm archival home movies; he describes himself as the Irish American Catholic middle-class son of a General Motors employee assembling AC spark plugs. Moore chronicles how GM had previously defined his childhood in Flint, Michigan, and how the company was the primary economic and social hub of the town. He points out that Flint is the place where the Flint sit-down strike occurred, resulting in the birth of the United Auto Workers. He reveals that his heroes were the Flint natives who had escaped the oppressive life in GM's factories, including "Flint's most famous native son," game show host Bob Eubanks. Eubanks is later interviewed in the film while preparing to do a stage version of "The Newlywed Game," which sees him tell an off-color joke about Jewish women.

Initially, Moore achieves his dream of avoiding blue-collared factory life after being hired by Mother Jones magazine in San Francisco, but this venture fails for him and he ultimately travels back to Flint. As he returns (in 1986), GM announces the layoffs of thousands of Flint auto workers, whose jobs will be outsourced to cheaper, non-unionized labor in Mexico. GM makes this announcement even though the company is achieving record profits.

Disguised as a TV journalist, Moore interviews some auto workers in Flint and discovers their strong disgust for GM chairman Roger B. Smith. Moore begins seeking out Smith himself to confront him about the closing of the Flint plants. He repeatedly tries to visit Smith at the GM headquarters in Detroit, yet he is blocked by building security. Over the course of the film, Moore attempts to track down Smith at the Grosse Pointe Yacht Club and the Detroit Athletic Club, only to be told either that Smith is not there or to leave by employees and security guards.

From there, Moore begins to explore the emotional impact of the plant closings on his friends. He interviews Ben Hamper, an auto worker who suffered a nervous breakdown on the assembly line and is residing at a mental health facility. Moore also talks to the residents of the affluent suburb of Grand Blanc, who display classist attitudes about Flint's hardships.

Moore changes course and turns his camera on the Flint Convention and Visitors Bureau, which promotes a vigorously incompetent tourism policy. The bureau, in an effort to lure tourists into visiting Flint, permits the construction of a Hyatt Regency Hotel, a festival marketplace called Water Street Pavilion, and AutoWorld, hailed as the world's largest indoor theme park. All these efforts fail, as the Hyatt files for bankruptcy and is put up for sale, Water Street Pavilion sees most of its stores go out of business and AutoWorld closes six months after opening.

High-profile people are shown coming to Flint to bring hope to the unemployed, some of them interviewed by Moore. President Ronald Reagan visits the town and suggests that the unemployed auto workers find work by moving across the country, though the restaurant he visits has its cash register stolen during the event (off-camera). Pat Boone and Anita Bryant, who have supplied GM with celebrity endorsements, also come to town; Boone tells Moore that Smith is an "optimistic, can-do" kind of guy.

Moore attends the annual GM shareholder meeting, disguised as a shareholder himself. However, when he gets a turn at the microphone to air his grievances to the board, Smith appears to recognize Moore and immediately shuts him out and has the convention adjourned, despite Moore's attempts to interrupt him. Meanwhile, Moore meets and interviews more residents of Flint, who are reeling from the economic fallout of the layoffs. A former feminist radio host, Janet, joins Amway as a saleswoman to find work. Another resident, Rhonda Britton, sells rabbits for "Pets or Meat." Prevalent throughout the film is Sheriff's Deputy Fred Ross, a former factory worker whose current job now demands that he go around town carrying out record numbers of evictions on families unable to pay their rent.

During all of this, Flint's crime rate skyrockets, with shootouts and murders becoming much more common. Crime becomes so prevalent that when the ABC News program Nightline tries to do a live story on the plant closings, someone steals the network's van (along with the cables), abruptly stopping the broadcast. The county jail also fills to its maximum capacity of inmates, and a second jail is built due to the over-crowding. Living in Flint becomes so desperate that Money magazine ranks the city as the worst place to live in America.

At the film's climax, Moore finally confronts Smith at the chairman's annual 1988 Christmas message in Detroit. Smith is shown expounding about generosity during the holiday season, concurrently as Deputy Ross evicts another family from their home. After Smith's speech, Moore hounds Smith, addressing him from a distance.

After the credits, the film displays the message "This film cannot be shown within the city of Flint," followed by "All the movie theatres have closed."

Production
Moore decided to make the film after losing his job as the editor of Mother Jones and moving back to his former home town of Flint, Michigan, as it was suffering from deindustrialization due to General Motors' layoffs. After his attempt to restart the Flint Voice newspaper faltered, Moore decided to make a documentary on the city's economic crisis. Initially, he intended to make it under the title The Moores and the Motts, contrasting his working-class family with the upper-class family descended from Charles Stewart Mott, but later shifted focus to the current U.S. automobile industry. Moore intended the film as a personal statement condemning not just GM but also the economic policies and social attitudes of the Reagan era, which he felt allowed corporations to remove the largest source of income from an entire town.

At the time Moore decided to make the documentary in 1984, he had no experience in filmmaking or funds to produce the film. To get the money, he filed a successful wrongful termination lawsuit against Mother Jones for $160,000. He also mortgaged his house, sold most of his belongings, and arranged a three-year series of weekly bingo games to raise the remainder of the film's $200,000 budget. He also began teaching himself film technique, spending hours at local cinemas. Eventually Moore received grant awards from the J. Roderick MacArthur Foundation, the Channel Four Television Corporation, the Michigan Council for the Arts, and Ralph Nader. The Mackinac Center donated $5,000 to the film but later requested it to be refunded. Nader also requested that the $30,000 he donated to the production be returned. He claimed that the nonprofit group Essential Information had donated the funds with the understanding that Moore would start a newsletter that never operated, and also accused Moore of plagiarizing the film from his book The Big Boys.

Roger & Me was filmed under the working title A Humorous Look at How General Motors Destroyed Flint, Michigan. Moore and his crew decided after viewing a 15-minute bumper from the film that the depiction of mass unemployment would be too depressing for mainstream audiences, and decided to give it a humorous slant. Production began on February 11, 1987, on the 50th anniversary of the Flint sit-down strike. A large proportion of the filming was done in a 60-day period during the summer of 1988. Moore obtained interviews by pretending to be filming University of Michigan videos on poverty or booster films promoting the city. The production concluded in August 1989.

Release
The film had its worldwide premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 1989. It was well received by the Canadian audience with it winning the coveted TIFF People's Choice Award. Coincidentally, only a few weeks later, GM would announce the closing of their Toronto truck assembly plant, moving vehicle production to a plant in Flint, Michigan.

Moore briefly entered negotiations with Disney to distribute the film, meeting with CEO Michael Eisner. Warner Bros. gave Moore $3 million for distribution license, a very large amount for a first-time filmmaker and (at the time) unprecedented for any documentary. Part of the distribution deal required Warner Bros. to pay $25,000 in rent for two years for the families evicted in the film. Moore also donated 20,000 free tickets to unemployed Americans, stipulated that between 30 and 40 percent of his and the producers' profits would be donated to a new non-profit foundation supporting similar political documentaries.

To promote the film's planned national release in 965 theaters, Moore and the film's crew toured 65 GM plants around the country making demands such as a visit by Smith to Flint. During the film's marketing campaign, GM and some commentators challenged the veracity of the film's claims. GM refused to allow advertisements to its automobiles to play during television programs promoting the film, including an episode of The Phil Donahue Show filmed live at the Whiting Auditorium and an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson featuring Moore as a guest. After Moore's appearance, GM's media relations chief Bill Ott mailed guest host Jay Leno a packet of news articles challenging his claims.

The film premiered in Flint on December 19, 1989, and was released in New York City and Los Angeles one day later. It went on to become America's most successful documentary in its theatrical run and enjoyed wide critical acclaim, earning $12 million. Moore used $1 million of the film's gross to donate to charities such as the National Union of the Homeless, Earth First!, the Jewish Women's Coalition to End the Occupation, and the United Auto Workers faction New Directions. He also allocated $10,000 to rent payments or homeless shelters around Flint, and $20,000 to revive the Flint Voice.

Despite its success, the film was not nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 1990. The film's lack of a nomination was controversial; on the night of the 62nd Academy Awards, Moore attended a ceremony arranged by homelessness activists across the street which presented him with a "People's Award." Three years later, an anonymous member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences confirmed to The Los Angeles Times that the film was deliberately not nominated because the documentary committee believed it was "dishonest and unfair to its subjects."

Reaction to the film
Despite the company's public opposition to the film, its humorous and out-of-touch portrayal of Smith made it widely popular inside GM. By the time of the film's release, GM had lost 8% of its market share and was taking on significant financial losses, leading many employees and executives to become disillusioned with Smith's leadership.

By the time the film was released, Flint was making a slight economic recovery in which unemployment, violent crime, and the local government's budget deficit declined. As a result, many commentators questioned the veracity of the film, accusing Moore of falsifying or embellishing details.

Larry Stecco, a lifetime Flint area resident and personal injury lawyer, discussed positive aspects of Flint (such as the local ballet and hockey) at a Great Gatsby-themed fundraiser. Stecco, who was filmed in front of two African-American human statues, alleged that the film's unflattering portrayal of him had been unfair. Stecco filed a lawsuit against Moore and Warner Bros, claiming that Moore had falsely told him he was making a booster film for Flint's local PBS affiliate. After reviewing outtakes from the film, a jury sided with Stecco and ordered Moore to pay $6,250. Moore later expressed satisfaction with the decision since the slander charges were dismissed and because the settlement was less than the sought-after $50,000.

Legacy
Moore allowed the film to be aired on television for the first time as part of the PBS series P.O.V. in 1992. The broadcast included a new short documentary by Moore called Pets or Meat: The Return to Flint (1992), which served as a new epilogue. In this film, Moore returns to Flint two years after the release of Roger & Me to see what changes have taken place. Moore revisits Flint and its economic decline again in later films, including The Big One, Bowling for Columbine, Fahrenheit 9/11, Fahrenheit 11/9, and Capitalism: A Love Story. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant."

Critical reception
The film received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics. Film critic Pauline Kael felt the film exaggerated the social impact of GM's closing of the plant and depicted the actual events of Flint's troubles out of chronological order. Kael called the film "shallow and facetious, a piece of gonzo demagoguery that made me feel cheap for laughing". One such criticism is that the eviction at the end of the film occurred on a different day from Smith's speech, but the two events were intercut for emotional effect. Filmmaker Emile de Antonio was also critical of the film as well. Siskel and Ebert both put the film on their lists of The 10 Best Films of 1989.

One of the largest controversies over the film were the rumors that Moore had successfully filmed an interview with Smith and omitted it from the final cut. The controversy reemerged in 2007 during the promotion of his documentary Sicko and the release of the rival documentary Manufacturing Dissent, which featured a brief clip of a question-and-answer exchange between Moore and Smith at a 1987 GM shareholders' meeting. Moore subsequently acknowledged the encounter but claimed that it had concerned a separate topic unrelated to the film. He accused the critics of fabricating the event to discredit him, and claimed that if he had omitted footage of an interview with Smith, GM would have used it to discredit the film. However, in a 2014 MLive article released to commemorate the film's 25th anniversary, numerous crew members and interviewees of the film alleged that the interview actually had been filmed for the production. The film's cinematographer Bruce Schermer claimed that Smith agreed to a short interview of approximately 10 questions. He suggested that it had been cut because Smith refused to answer Moore's question of how many jobs Flint would lose as a result of GM's business strategy and because he otherwise gave "pretty boring answers".

Critic Billy Stevenson described the film as Moore's "most astonishing", arguing it represents an effort to conflate film-making and labor, and that "it's this fusion of film-making and work that allows Moore to fully convey the desecration of Flint without ever transforming it into a sublime or melancholy poverty-spectacle, thereby distancing himself from the retouristing of the town-as-simulacrum that occupies the last and most intriguing part of the film". Eubanks later described Moore as not a documentarian but a "propagandist".

Awards
The film would go on to win over 14 awards in the years since its release including:

title: Roger & Me


text:
Ka

Ka or KA may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * K.A. (Kohntarkosz Anteria), a 2004 album by Magma
 * Kà, a Cirque du Soleil show
 * Ka (Dark Tower), a plot element in Stephen King's Dark Tower series
 * Mister Mosquito, a 2001 video game, known in Japan as Ka

Businesses and organizations

 * Kappa Alpha Order, a fraternity founded in 1865 at Washington and Lee
 * Kappa Alpha Society, a fraternity founded in 1825 at Union College
 * Karenni Army, a Burmese guerilla organization
 * Knattspyrnufélag Akureyrar, an Icelandic football club
 * Kuklos Adelphon, an 1800s-era Southern fraternity
 * Khan Academy, a non-profit educational organization
 * King's Arms, Oxford, a pub known as the KA

Languages

 * Ka, a variety of the Central Banda language
 * Georgian language, by ISO 639-1 code

Characters

 * Ka (Cyrillic), a letter in the Cyrillic script
 * Ka (Indic), a group of related glyphs from the Brahmic family of scripts
 * Devanagari ka, a letter in the Devanagari script
 * Ka (Javanese) (ꦏ), a letter in the Javanese script
 * Ka (kana), a syllabic grapheme in the Japanese katakana and hiragana scripts

People

 * Ka (pharaoh) (fl. c. thirty-second century B.C.), Predynastic pharaoh of Upper Egypt
 * Ka (rapper) (born 1972), performer

Places

 * Ka Farm, Østre Toten, Norway; see List of short place names
 * Ka Island (Ka-to), North Korea
 * KA postcode area, Scotland
 * Ka River, Nigeria
 * Karlsruhe, Germany (e.g. code used on German vehicle registration plates)
 * Karnataka, India

Science and technology

 * Ka, an acid dissociation constant
 * Ka band, a microwave band
 * Ka, the absorption rate constant of a drug
 * Ka, number of non-synonymous substitutions at a DNA site, used in Ka/Ks ratio
 * Ka tree, Terminalia carolinensis
 * kiloannum or kiloannus (ka), a unit of time equal to one thousand (103) years
 * Keepalive, a computer network message
 * Kiloampere (kA), a unit of electric current

Transport

 * Ford Ka, a car
 * NZR KA class, a New Zealand steam locomotive
 * KA, IATA code of Aero Nomad Airlines, a Kyrgyz airline
 * KA, then IATA code of Cathay Dragon, formerly Dragonair
 * Kenya Airways
 * Code for products of Kamov, a Russian rotorcraft manufacturing company

Other uses

 * Ka (Bengali), a consonant character
 * Ka (cuneiform)
 * Ka or kꜣ, "double" or "vital essence", an Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul or spirit
 * Knight or Dame of St Andrew, a Barbadian award
 * Kingda Ka, a roller coaster at Six Flags Great Adventure
 * KA, a carbonated drink produced by the company A.G. Barr
 * "Ka" (song), a song composed by LeaF for Taiko no Tatsujin

title: Ka