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Music sequencer

A music sequencer (or audio sequencer or simply sequencer) is a device or application software that can record, edit, or play back music, by handling note and performance information in several forms, typically CV/Gate, MIDI, or Open Sound Control, and possibly audio and automation data for digital audio workstations (DAWs) and plug-ins.

Modern sequencers
The advent of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and the Atari ST home computer in the 1980s gave programmers the opportunity to design software that could more easily record and play back sequences of notes played or programmed by a musician. This software also improved on the quality of the earlier sequencers which tended to be mechanical sounding and were only able to play back notes of exactly equal duration. Software-based sequencers allowed musicians to program performances that were more expressive and more human. These new sequencers could also be used to control external synthesizers, especially rackmounted sound modules, and it was no longer necessary for each synthesizer to have its own devoted keyboard.

As the technology matured, sequencers gained more features, such as the ability to record multitrack audio. Sequencers used for audio recording are called digital audio workstations (DAWs).

Many modern sequencers can be used to control virtual instruments implemented as software plug-ins. This allows musicians to replace expensive and cumbersome standalone synthesizers with their software equivalents.

Today the term "sequencer" is often used to describe software. However, hardware sequencers still exist. Workstation keyboards have their own proprietary built-in MIDI sequencers. Drum machines and some older synthesizers have their own step sequencer built in. There are still also standalone hardware MIDI sequencers, although the market demand for those has diminished greatly due to the greater feature set of their software counterparts.

Types of music sequencer
Music sequencers can be categorized by handling data types, such as:
 * MIDI data for MIDI sequencers (implemented as hardware or software)
 * CV/Gate data for analog sequencers and possibly others (via CV/Gate interfaces)
 * Automation data for mixing-automation in DAWs, and software effect / instrument plug-ins for DAWs with sequencing features
 * Audio data in audio sequencers including DAWs, loop-based music software, etc.; or phrase samplers including grooveboxs, etc.

Also, music sequencer can be categorized by its construction and supporting modes.

Analog sequencer

Analog sequencers are typically implemented with analog electronics, and play the musical notes designated by a series of knobs or sliders corresponding to each musical note (step). It is designed for both composition and live performance; users can change the musical notes at any time without regarding recording mode. And also possibly, the time interval between each musical note (length of each step) can be independently adjustable. Typically, analog sequencers are used to generate the repeated minimalistic phrases which may be reminiscent of Tangerine Dream, Giorgio Moroder or trance music.

Step sequencer (step recording mode)
On step sequencers, musical notes are rounded into steps of equal time intervals, and users can enter each musical note without exact timing; Instead, the timing and duration of each step can be designated in several different ways:
 * On the drum machines: select a trigger timing from a row of step-buttons.
 * On the bass machines: select a step note (or rest) from a chromatic keypad, then select a step duration (or tie) from a group of length-buttons, sequentially.
 * On the several home keyboards: in addition to the real-time sequencer, a pair of step trigger buttons is provided; using it, notes on the pre-recorded sequence can be triggered in arbitrary timings for the timing dedicated recordings or performances. (See )

In general, step mode, along with roughly quantized semi-realtime mode, is often supported on the drum machines, bass machines and several groove machines.

Realtime sequencer (realtime recording mode)

Realtime sequencers record the musical notes in real-time as on audio recorders, and play back musical notes with designated tempo, quantizations, and pitch. For editing, usually "punch in/punch out" features originated in the tape recording are provided, although it requires sufficient skills to obtain the desired result. For detailed editing, possibly another visual editing mode under graphical user interface may be more suitable. Anyway, this mode provides usability similar to audio recorders already familiar to musicians, and it is widely supported on software sequencers, DAWs, and built-in hardware sequencers.

Software sequencer
A software sequencer is a class of application software providing a functionality of music sequencer, and often provided as one feature of the DAW or the integrated music authoring environments. The features provided as sequencers vary widely depending on the software; even an analog sequencer can be simulated. The user may control the software sequencer either by using the graphical user interfaces or a specialized input devices, such as a MIDI controller.

Audio sequencer
Alternative subsets of audio sequencers include:

Early sequencers
The early music sequencers were sound-producing devices such as automatic musical instruments, music boxes, mechanical organs, player pianos, and Orchestrions. Player pianos, for example, had much in common with contemporary sequencers. Composers or arrangers transmitted music to piano rolls which were subsequently edited by technicians who prepared the rolls for mass duplication. Eventually consumers were able to purchase these rolls and play them back on their own player pianos.

The origin of automatic musical instruments seems remarkably old. As early as the 9th century, the Persian (Iranian) Banū Mūsā brothers invented a hydropowered organ using exchangeable cylinders with pins, and also an automatic flute-playing machine using steam power, as described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. The Banu Musa brothers' automatic flute player was the first programmable music sequencer device, and the first example of repetitive music technology, powered by hydraulics.

In 1206, Al-Jazari, an Arab engineer, invented programmable musical automata, a "robot band" which performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection." It was notably the first programmable drum machine. Among the four automaton musicians were two drummers. It was a drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.

In the 14th century, rotating cylinders with pins were used to play a carillon (steam organ) in Flanders, and at least in the 15th century, barrel organs were seen in the Netherlands.

In the late-18th or early-19th century, with technological advances of the Industrial Revolution various automatic musical instruments were invented. Some examples: music boxes, barrel organs and barrel pianos consisting of a barrel or cylinder with pins or a flat metal disc with punched holes; or mechanical organs, player pianos and orchestrions using book music / music rolls (piano rolls) with punched holes, etc. These instruments were disseminated widely as popular entertainment devices prior to the inventions of phonographs, radios, and sound films which eventually eclipsed all such home music production devices. Of them all, punched-paper-tape media had been used until the mid-20th century. The earliest programmable music synthesizers including the RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer in 1957, and the Siemens Synthesizer in 1959, were also controlled via punch tapes similar to piano rolls.

Additional inventions grew out of sound film audio technology. The drawn sound technique which appeared in the late 1920s, is notable as a precursor of today's intuitive graphical user interfaces. In this technique, notes and various sound parameters are triggered by hand-drawn black ink waveforms directly upon the film substrate, hence they resemble piano rolls (or the 'strip charts' of the modern sequencers/DAWs). Drawn soundtrack was often used in early experimental electronic music, including the Variophone developed by Yevgeny Sholpo in 1930, and the Oramics designed by Daphne Oram in 1957, and so forth.

Analog sequencers
During the 1940s–1960s, Raymond Scott, an American composer of electronic music, invented various kind of music sequencers for his electric compositions. The "Wall of Sound", once covered on the wall of his studio in New York during the 1940s–1950s, was an electro-mechanical sequencer to produce rhythmic patterns, consisting of stepping relays (used on dial pulse telephone exchange), solenoids, control switches, and tone circuits with 16 individual oscillators. Later, Robert Moog would explain it in such terms as "the whole room would go 'clack – clack – clack', and the sounds would come out all over the place". The Circle Machine, developed in 1959, had incandescent bulbs each with its own rheostat, arranged in a ring, and a rotating arm with photocell scanning over the ring, to generate an arbitrary waveform. Also, the rotating speed of the arm was controlled via the brightness of lights, and as a result, arbitrary rhythms were generated. The first electronic sequencer was invented by Raymond Scott, using thyratrons and relays.

Clavivox, developed since 1952, was a kind of keyboard synthesizer with sequencer. On its prototype, a theremin manufactured by young Robert Moog was utilized to enable portamento over 3-octave range, and on later version, it was replaced by a pair of photographic film and photocell for controlling the pitch by voltage.

In 1968, Ralph Lundsten and Leo Nilsson had a polyphonic synthesizer with sequencer called Andromatic built for them by Erkki Kurenniemi.

Step sequencers
The step sequencers played rigid patterns of notes using a grid of (usually) 16 buttons, or steps, each step being 1/16 of a measure. These patterns of notes were then chained together to form longer compositions. Sequencers of this kind are still in use, mostly built into drum machines and grooveboxes. They are monophonic by nature, although some are multi-timbral, meaning that they can control several different sounds but only play one note on each of those sounds.

Early computers
On the other hand, software sequencers were continuously utilized since the 1950s in the context of computer music, including computer-played music (software sequencer), computer-composed music (music synthesis), and computer sound generation (sound synthesis). In June 1951, the first computer music Colonel Bogey was played on CSIRAC, Australia's first digital computer. In 1956, Lejaren Hiller at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign wrote one of the earliest programs for computer music composition on ILLIAC, and collaborated on the first piece, Illiac Suite for String Quartet, with Leonard Issaction. In 1957 Max Mathews at Bell Labs wrote MUSIC, the first widely used program for sound generation, and a 17-second composition was performed by the IBM 704 computer. Subsequently, computer music was mainly researched on the expensive mainframe computers in computer centers, until the 1970s when minicomputers and then microcomputers became available in this field.

In Japan
In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when Keio University professor Sekine and Toshiba engineer Hayashi experimented with the TOSBAC computer. This resulted in a piece entitled TOSBAC Suite.

Early computer music hardware
In 1965, Max Mathews and L. Rosler developed Graphic 1, an interactive graphical sound system (that implies sequencer) on which one could draw figures using a light-pen that would be converted into sound, simplifying the process of composing computer-generated music. It used PDP-5 minicomputer for data input, and IBM 7094 mainframe computer for rendering sound.

Also in 1970, Mathews and F. R. Moore developed the GROOVE (Generated Real-time Output Operations on Voltage-controlled Equipment) system, a first fully developed music synthesis system for interactive composition (that implies sequencer) and realtime performance, using 3C/Honeywell DDP-24 (or DDP-224 ) minicomputers. It used a CRT display to simplify the management of music synthesis in realtime, 12bit D/A for realtime sound playback, an interface for CV/gate analog devices, and even several controllers including a musical keyboard, knobs, and rotating joysticks to capture realtime performance.

Digital sequencers
In 1971, Electronic Music Studios (EMS) released one of the first digital sequencer products as a module of Synthi 100, and its derivation, Synthi Sequencer series. After then, Oberheim released the DS-2 Digital Sequencer in 1974, and Sequential Circuits released Model 800 in 1977

In Japan
In 1977, Roland Corporation released the MC-8 MicroComposer, also called computer music composer by Roland. It was an early stand-alone, microprocessor-based, digital CV/gate sequencer, and an early polyphonic sequencer. It equipped a keypad to enter notes as numeric codes, 16 KB of RAM for a maximum of 5200 notes (large for the time), and a polyphony function which allocated multiple pitch CVs to a single Gate. It was capable of eight-channel polyphony, allowing the creation of polyrhythmic sequences. The MC-8 had a significant impact on popular electronic music, with the MC-8 and its descendants (such as the Roland MC-4 Microcomposer) impacting popular electronic music production in the 1970s and 1980s more than any other family of sequencers. The MC-8's earliest known users were Yellow Magic Orchestra in 1978.

Music workstations
In 1975, New England Digital (NED) released ABLE computer (microcomputer) as a dedicated data processing unit for Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer (1973), and based on it, later Synclavier series were developed.

The Synclavier I, released in September 1977, was one of the earliest digital music workstation product with multitrack sequencer. Synclavier series evolved throughout the late-1970s to the mid-1980s, and they also established integration of digital-audio and music-sequencer, on their Direct-to-Disk option in 1984, and later Tapeless Studio system.

In 1982, renewed the Fairlight CMI Series II and added new sequencer software "Page R", which combined step sequencing with sample playback.

While there were earlier microprocessor-based sequencers for digital polyphonic synthesizers, their early products tended to prefer the newer internal digital buses than the old-style analogue CV/gate interface once used on their prototype system. Then in the early-1980s, they also re-recognized the needs of CV/gate interface, and supported it along with MIDI as options.

In Japan
Yamaha's GS-1, their first FM digital synthesizer, was released in 1980. To program the synthesizer, Yamaha built a custom computer workstation. It was only available at Yamaha's headquarters in Japan (Hamamatsu) and the United States (Buena Park, California).

MIDI sequencers
In June 1981, Roland Corporation founder Ikutaro Kakehashi proposed the concept of standardization between different manufacturers' instruments as well as computers, to Oberheim Electronics founder Tom Oberheim and Sequential Circuits president Dave Smith. In October 1981, Kakehashi, Oberheim and Smith discussed the concept with representatives from Yamaha, Korg and Kawai. In 1983, the MIDI standard was unveiled by Kakehashi and Smith. The first MIDI sequencer was the Roland MSQ-700, released in 1983.

It was not until the advent of MIDI that general-purpose computers started to play a role as sequencers. Following the widespread adoption of MIDI, computer-based MIDI sequencers were developed. MIDI-to-CV/gate converters were then used to enable analogue synthesizers to be controlled by a MIDI sequencer. Since its introduction, MIDI has remained the musical instrument industry standard interface through to the present day.

Personal computers
In 1987, software sequencers called trackers were developed to realize the low-cost integration of sampling sound and interactive digital sequencer as seen on Fairlight CMI II "Page R". They became popular in the 1980s and 1990s as simple sequencers for creating computer game music, and remain popular in the demoscene and chiptune music.

Modern computer digital audio software after the 2000s, such as Ableton Live, incorporates aspects of sequencers among many other features.

In Japan
In 1978, Japanese personal computers such as the Hitachi Basic Master equipped the low-bit D/A converter to generate sound which can be sequenced using Music Macro Language (MML). This was used to produce chiptune video game music.

It was not until the advent of MIDI, introduced to the public in 1983, that general-purpose computers really started to play a role as software sequencers. NEC's personal computers, the PC-88 and PC-98, added support for MIDI sequencing with MML programming in 1982. In 1983, Yamaha modules for the MSX featured music production capabilities, real-time FM synthesis with sequencing, MIDI sequencing, and a graphical user interface for the software sequencer. Also in 1983, Roland Corporation's CMU-800 sound module introduced music synthesis and sequencing to the PC, Apple II, and Commodore 64.

The spread of MIDI on personal computers was facilitated by Roland's MPU-401, released in 1984. It was the first MIDI-equipped PC sound card, capable of MIDI sound processing and sequencing. After Roland sold MPU sound chips to other sound card manufacturers, it established a universal standard MIDI-to-PC interface. Following the widespread adoption of MIDI, computer-based MIDI software sequencers were developed.

title: Music sequencer


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DNA sequencer

A DNA sequencer is a scientific instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. Given a sample of DNA, a DNA sequencer is used to determine the order of the four bases: G (guanine), C (cytosine), A (adenine) and T (thymine). This is then reported as a text string, called a read. Some DNA sequencers can be also considered optical instruments as they analyze light signals originating from fluorochromes attached to nucleotides.

The first automated DNA sequencer, invented by Lloyd M. Smith, was introduced by Applied Biosystems in 1987. It used the Sanger sequencing method, a technology which formed the basis of the "first generation" of DNA sequencers and enabled the completion of the human genome project in 2001. This first generation of DNA sequencers are essentially automated electrophoresis systems that detect the migration of labelled DNA fragments. Therefore, these sequencers can also be used in the genotyping of genetic markers where only the length of a DNA fragment(s) needs to be determined (e.g. microsatellites, AFLPs).

The Human Genome Project spurred the development of cheaper, high throughput and more accurate platforms known as Next Generation Sequencers (NGS) to sequence the human genome. These include the 454, SOLiD and Illumina DNA sequencing platforms. Next generation sequencing machines have increased the rate of DNA sequencing substantially, as compared with the previous Sanger methods. DNA samples can be prepared automatically in as little as 90 mins, while a human genome can be sequenced at 15 times coverage in a matter of days.

More recent, third-generation DNA sequencers such as PacBio SMRT and Oxford Nanopore offer the possibility of sequencing long molecules, compared to short-read technologies such as Illumina SBS or MGI Tech's DNBSEQ.

Because of limitations in DNA sequencer technology, the reads of many of these technologies are short, compared to the length of a genome therefore the reads must be assembled into longer contigs. The data may also contain errors, caused by limitations in the DNA sequencing technique or by errors during PCR amplification. DNA sequencer manufacturers use a number of different methods to detect which DNA bases are present. The specific protocols applied in different sequencing platforms have an impact in the final data that is generated. Therefore, comparing data quality and cost across different technologies can be a daunting task. Each manufacturer provides their own ways to inform sequencing errors and scores. However, errors and scores between different platforms cannot always be compared directly. Since these systems rely on different DNA sequencing approaches, choosing the best DNA sequencer and method will typically depend on the experiment objectives and available budget.

History
The first DNA sequencing methods were developed by Gilbert (1973) and Sanger (1975). Gilbert introduced a sequencing method based on chemical modification of DNA followed by cleavage at specific bases whereas Sanger's technique is based on dideoxynucleotide chain termination. The Sanger method became popular due to its increased efficiency and low radioactivity. The first automated DNA sequencer was the AB370A, introduced in 1986 by Applied Biosystems. The AB370A was able to sequence 96 samples simultaneously, 500 kilobases per day, and reaching read lengths up to 600 bases. This was the beginning of the "first generation" of DNA sequencers, which implemented Sanger sequencing, fluorescent dideoxy nucleotides and polyacrylamide gel sandwiched between glass plates - slab gels. The next major advance was the release in 1995 of the AB310 which utilized a linear polymer in a capillary in place of the slab gel for DNA strand separation by electrophoresis. These techniques formed the base for the completion of the human genome project in 2001. The human genome project spurred the development of cheaper, high throughput and more accurate platforms known as Next Generation Sequencers (NGS). In 2005, 454 Life Sciences released the 454 sequencer, followed by Solexa Genome Analyzer and SOLiD (Supported Oligo Ligation Detection) by Agencourt in 2006. Applied Biosystems acquired Agencourt in 2006, and in 2007, Roche bought 454 Life Sciences, while Illumina purchased Solexa. Ion Torrent entered the market in 2010 and was acquired by Life Technologies (now Thermo Fisher Scientific). And BGI started manufacturing sequencers in China after acquiring Complete Genomics under their MGI arm. These are still the most common NGS systems due to their competitive cost, accuracy, and performance.

More recently, a third generation of DNA sequencers was introduced. The sequencing methods applied by these sequencers do not require DNA amplification (polymerase chain reaction – PCR), which speeds up the sample preparation before sequencing and reduces errors. In addition, sequencing data is collected from the reactions caused by the addition of nucleotides in the complementary strand in real time. Two companies introduced different approaches in their third-generation sequencers. Pacific Biosciences sequencers utilize a method called Single-molecule real-time (SMRT), where sequencing data is produced by light (captured by a camera) emitted when a nucleotide is added to the complementary strand by enzymes containing fluorescent dyes. Oxford Nanopore Technologies is another company developing third-generation sequencers using electronic systems based on nanopore sensing technologies.

Manufacturers of DNA sequencers
DNA sequencers have been developed, manufactured, and sold by the following companies, among others.

Roche
The 454 DNA sequencer was the first next-generation sequencer to become commercially successful. It was developed by 454 Life Sciences and purchased by Roche in 2007. 454 utilizes the detection of pyrophosphate released by the DNA polymerase reaction when adding a nucleotide to the template strain.

Roche currently manufactures two systems based on their pyrosequencing technology: the GS FLX+ and the GS Junior System. The GS FLX+ System promises read lengths of approximately 1000 base pairs while the GS Junior System promises 400 base pair reads. A predecessor to GS FLX+, the 454 GS FLX Titanium system was released in 2008, achieving an output of 0.7G of data per run, with 99.9% accuracy after quality filter, and a read length of up to 700bp. In 2009, Roche launched the GS Junior, a bench top version of the 454 sequencer with read length up to 400bp, and simplified library preparation and data processing.

One of the advantages of 454 systems is their running speed. Manpower can be reduced with automation of library preparation and semi-automation of emulsion PCR. A disadvantage of the 454 system is that it is prone to errors when estimating the number of bases in a long string of identical nucleotides. This is referred to as a homopolymer error and occurs when there are 6 or more identical bases in row. Another disadvantage is that the price of reagents is relatively more expensive compared with other next-generation sequencers.

In 2013 Roche announced that they would be shutting down development of 454 technology and phasing out 454 machines completely in 2016 when its technology became noncompetitive.

Roche produces a number of software tools which are optimised for the analysis of 454 sequencing data. Such as,

 * GS Run Processor converts raw images generated by a sequencing run into intensity values. The process consists of two main steps: image processing and signal processing. The software also applies normalization, signal correction, base-calling and quality scores for individual reads. The software outputs data in Standard Flowgram Format (or SFF) files to be used in data analysis applications (GS De Novo Assembler, GS Reference Mapper or GS Amplicon Variant Analyzer).
 * GS De Novo Assembler is a tool for de novo assembly of whole-genomes up to 3GB in size from shotgun reads alone or combined with paired end data generated by 454 sequencers. It also supports de novo assembly of transcripts (including analysis), and also isoform variant detection.
 * GS Reference Mapper maps short reads to a reference genome, generating a consensus sequence. The software is able to generate output files for assessment, indicating insertions, deletions and SNPs. Can handle large and complex genomes of any size.
 * Finally, the GS Amplicon Variant Analyzer aligns reads from amplicon samples against a reference, identifying variants (linked or not) and their frequencies. It can also be used to detect unknown and low-frequency variants. It includes graphical tools for analysis of alignments.

Illumina
Illumina produces a number of next-generation sequencing machines using technology acquired from Manteia Predictive Medicine and developed by Solexa. Illumina makes a number of next generation sequencing machines using this technology including the HiSeq, Genome Analyzer IIx, MiSeq and the HiScanSQ, which can also process microarrays.

The technology leading to these DNA sequencers was first released by Solexa in 2006 as the Genome Analyzer. Illumina purchased Solexa in 2007. The Genome Analyzer uses a sequencing by synthesis method. The first model produced 1G per run. During the year 2009 the output was increased from 20G per run in August to 50G per run in December. In 2010 Illumina released the HiSeq 2000 with an output of 200 and then 600G per run which would take 8 days. At its release the HiSeq 2000 provided one of the cheapest sequencing platforms at $0.02 per million bases as costed by the Beijing Genomics Institute.

In 2011 Illumina released a benchtop sequencer called the MiSeq. At its release the MiSeq could generate 1.5G per run with paired end 150bp reads. A sequencing run can be performed in 10 hours when using automated DNA sample preparation.

The Illumina HiSeq uses two software tools to calculate the number and position of DNA clusters to assess the sequencing quality: the HiSeq control system and the real-time analyzer. These methods help to assess if nearby clusters are interfering with each other.

Life Technologies
Life Technologies (now Thermo Fisher Scientific) produces DNA sequencers under the Applied Biosystems and Ion Torrent brands. Applied Biosystems makes the SOLiD next-generation sequencing platform, and Sanger-based DNA sequencers such as the 3500 Genetic Analyzer. Under the Ion Torrent brand, Applied Biosystems produces four next-generation sequencers: the Ion PGM System, Ion Proton System, Ion S5 and Ion S5xl systems. The company is also believed to be developing their new capillary DNA sequencer called SeqStudio that will be released early 2018.

SOLiD systems was acquired by Applied Biosystems in 2006. SOLiD applies sequencing by ligation and dual base encoding. The first SOLiD system was launched in 2007, generating reading lengths of 35bp and 3G data per run. After five upgrades, the 5500xl sequencing system was released in 2010, considerably increasing read length to 85bp, improving accuracy up to 99.99% and producing 30G per 7-day run.

The limited read length of the SOLiD has remained a significant shortcoming and has to some extent limited its use to experiments where read length is less vital such as resequencing and transcriptome analysis and more recently ChIP-Seq and methylation experiments. The DNA sample preparation time for SOLiD systems has become much quicker with the automation of sequencing library preparations such as the Tecan system.

The colour space data produced by the SOLiD platform can be decoded into DNA bases for further analysis, however software that considers the original colour space information can give more accurate results. Life Technologies has released BioScope, a data analysis package for resequencing, ChiP-Seq and transcriptome analysis. It uses the MaxMapper algorithm to map the colour space reads.

Beckman Coulter
Beckman Coulter (now Danaher) has previously manufactured chain termination and capillary electrophoresis-based DNA sequencers under the model name CEQ, including the CEQ 8000. The company now produces the GeXP Genetic Analysis System, which uses dye terminator sequencing. This method uses a thermocycler in much the same way as PCR to denature, anneal, and extend DNA fragments, amplifying the sequenced fragments.

Pacific Biosciences
Pacific Biosciences produces the PacBio RS and Sequel sequencing systems using a single molecule real time sequencing, or SMRT, method. This system can produce read lengths of multiple thousands of base pairs. Higher raw read errors are corrected using either circular consensus - where the same strand is read over and over again - or using optimized assembly strategies. Scientists have reported 99.9999% accuracy with these strategies. The Sequel system was launched in 2015 with an increased capacity and a lower price.

Oxford Nanopore
Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION sequencer is based on evolving nanopore sequencing technology to nucleic acid analyses. The device is four inches long and gets power from a USB port. MinION decodes DNA directly as the molecule is drawn at the rate of 450 bases/second through a nanopore suspended in a membrane. Changes in electric current indicate which base is present. Initially, the device was 60 to 85 percent accurate, compared with 99.9 percent in conventional machines. Even inaccurate results may prove useful because it produces long read lengths. In early 2021, researchers from University of British Columbia has used special molecular tags and able to reduce the five-to-15 per cent error rate of the device to less than 0.005 per cent even when sequencing many long stretches of DNA at a time. There are two more product iterations based on MinION; the first one is the GridION which is a slightly larger sequencer that processes up to five MinION flow cells at once. And, the second one is the PromethION which uses as many as 100,000 pores in parallel, more suitable for high volume sequencing.

MGI
MGI produces high-throughput sequencers for scientific research and clinical applications such as DNBSEQ-G50, DNBSEQ-G400, and DNBSEQ-T7, under a proprietary DNBSEQ technology. It is based upon DNA nanoball sequencing and combinatorial probe anchor synthesis technologies, in which DNA nanoballs (DNBs) are loaded onto a patterned array chip via the fluidic system, and later a sequencing primer is added to the adaptor region of DNBs for hybridization. DNBSEQ-T7 can generate short reads at a very large scale—up to 60 human genomes per day. DNBSEQ-T7 was used to generate 150 bp paired-end reads, sequencing 30X, to sequence the genome of SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 to identify the genetic variants predisposition in severe COVID-19 illness. Using a novel technique the researchers from China National GeneBank sequenced PCR-free libraries on MGI's PCR-free DNBSEQ arrays to obtain for the first time a true PCR-free whole genome sequencing. MGISEQ-2000 was used in single-cell RNA sequencing to study the underlying pathogenesis and recovery in COVID-19 patients, as published in Nature Medicine.

Comparison
Current offerings in DNA sequencing technology show a dominant player: Illumina (December 2019), followed by PacBio, MGI and Oxford Nanopore.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: DNA sequencer


text:
Hampton, New York

Hampton is a town in Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 938 at the 2010 census, an increase of 7.2% since the 2000 census. The town of Hampton is located in the northeastern corner of Washington County.

History
This area of New York was part of a jurisdictional dispute between New York and Vermont. The matter was not settled until after 1790.

The town was formed in 1786 and was once called "Hampton Corners" and "Greenfield." It was founded by former American Revolutionary War officer Gideon G. Warren. The first town meeting was conducted in his home. Many of the first settlers were from Massachusetts and Connecticut. The land contains parts of early land patents, including Skene's Little Patent and those issued to groups of British officers.

In 1783, the Poultney River at the eastern town line suddenly changed course and became unnavigable due to a sudden influx of water.

Red slate and other colored slates were mined here.

The William Miller Chapel and Ascension Rock was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.

Notable people

 * James Rood Doolittle (January 3, 1815 – July 27, 1897), U.S. Senator from Wisconsin from March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1869
 * William Miller (1782–1849), American Baptist preacher who is credited with beginning the mid-nineteenth century North American religious movement now known as Adventism
 * Nelson R. Norton, later a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly.
 * George W. Weeden, later a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 22.6 sqmi, of which, 22.6 sqmi of it is land and 0.1 sqmi of it (0.35%) is water.

The eastern part of the town forms a border with Vermont. Part of the boundary is marked by the Poultney River, which flows into Lake Champlain. US 4 cross the town in an east–west direction. NY 22A passes along the east side of the town.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 938 people, 326 households, and 228 families residing in the town. The population density was 38.6 PD/sqmi. There were 435 housing units at an average density of 19.3 per square mile (7.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.5% White, 0.6% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, and 0.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0% of the population.

There were 326 households, out of which 38.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.0% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.1% were non-families. 20.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.10.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.6% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 27.1% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $39,444, and the median income for a family was $46,250. Males had a median income of $29,107 versus $23,750 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,433. About 3.8% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.3% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.

Communities

 * Hampton – A hamlet in the southeastern part of the town on NY 22A near the Vermont border.
 * Hampton Corners – An historic community, once located ten miles north of Hampton hamlet.
 * Hampton Flats – A location north of Hampton hamlet on NY 22A.
 * Low Hampton – A hamlet on US 4 in the northeastern part of the town at the Vermont border.

Geographical locations

 * Crystal Lake – A small lake southwest of Hampton hamlet.
 * Hills Pond – A lake west of Crystal Lake.
 * Mirror Lake A small lake in County Route 21.
 * Reflection Lake. A small lake near Mirror Lake on County Route 21.

title: Hampton, New York


text:
Hartford, New York

Hartford is a town centrally located in Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 2,193 at the 2020 census.

History
The Provincial Patent (1766) was granted to officer veterans of the French and Indian War. The patent included, within the "Town of Westfield," the present towns of Putnam, Fort Ann, Dresden part of Kingsbury, and Hartford. The Town of Hartford was set off from Westfield in 1793. The Town of Westfield represents the Vermont claim for part of this region, which was eventually settled by the eastern part of Charlotte County being transferred from New York.

Many of the early settlers came from parts of New England. The land granted by the original patent was often sold to the new settlers.

The Hartford Baptist Church and Cemetery and Elisha Straight House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 43.5 sqmi, of which 43.4 sqmi is land and 0.04 sqmi  (0.09%) is water.

NY 40 intersects NY 149 at the community of Hartford. NY 40 intersects NY 196 at South Hartford.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,279 people, 813 households, and 639 families residing in the town. The population density was 52.5 PD/sqmi. There were 885 housing units at an average density of 20.4 per square mile (7.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.76% White, 0.57% African American, 0.48% Native American, 0.04% Asian, 0.04% from other races, and 1.10% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.79% of the population.

There were 813 households, out of which 39.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.7% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.3% were non-families. 16.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.80 and the average family size was 3.11.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $43,684, and the median income for a family was $46,600. Males had a median income of $30,734 versus $19,906 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,969. About 3.5% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.

Communities and locations in Hartford

 * Adamsville – A hamlet at the western town line on NY-196.
 * Big Creek – A small stream flowing out of the town at the western town boundary.
 * East Hartford – A hamlet south of Hartford hamlet on County Route 30.
 * Hartford – A hamlet on NY 40 and NY 149.
 * South Hartford – A hamlet south of Hartford hamlet on NY 40.

Notable person

 * Sarah Bates (1792–1881), Shaker artist

title: Hartford, New York


text:
Hebron, New York

Hebron is a town in Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 1,773 at the 2000 census. The town is named after the ancient city of Hebron, in the present-day West Bank.

Geography
Hebron's beautiful hills and valleys are part of the slate valley of the Upper Taconic Mountains (Taghkanic, meaning 'in the trees'), and part of the Great Appalachian Valley (also known as the 'Great Valley'). Thus, many of the main hills, valleys, creeks and roads run diagonally across Hebron in keeping with the general outlay of the Appalachians.

Hebron is notably at once a nexus between valley regions within the 'Great Valley', and also between mountain regions. The nexus of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys (described in greater detail below in the paragraph on watersheds) is located here. The taller peaks of the Taconics are on the Vermont side of the border, and begin to dwindle comparatively into foothills in Hebron. Hebron can be described as the foothills between the Adirondack Mountains of New York, and the Taconic and Green Mountains of Vermont. Hebron thus is at once at a high point dividing valleys, and a lowlands dividing mountain areas.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 56.4 sqmi, of which 56.2 sqmi is land and 0.2 sqmi  (0.32%) is water.

The eastern town line of Hebron is the Vermont border, and the beginning of New England proper. The town of Salem is adjacent to the south. The towns of Argyle, Hartford and Granville (famous for its colored slate) make up the remaining border on the western and northern edges.

NY Route 22 is a north–south highway through the eastern part of the town, running roughly parallel to the Vermont border. Route 30 connects Salem to Hartford through the western part of Hebron. Route 31, the longest road through Hebron, cuts across diagonally from Route 30 connecting West Hebron to West Pawlet, Vermont.

Hebron is at the threshold between two major watersheds whose waters travel great distances in opposite directions, only to rejoin in the Atlantic Ocean. The formal valleys and watersheds to which Hebron belongs are the following: Champlain Valley/Lake George Watershed—02010001 ; Hudson River Valley/Hudson-Hoosic Watershed—02020003. Waters in the northernmost part of Hebron drain via the Mettawee River north into Lake Champlain, where they mix with waters from Lake George (Horican) and then flow into the Saint Lawrence River (Kaniatarowanenneh). These Hebron waters mingle in the Saint Lawrence with waters of all the Great Lakes as they flow northeastward into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and join the Atlantic Ocean. Meanwhile, the majority of Hebron waters drain south via Black Creek into the Batten Kill (Dionondehowa) and then the Hudson River (Muh-he-kun-ne-tuk or Muhheakantuck), and flow south into the Atlantic Ocean just below New York City.

The two branches of Black Creek join in West Hebron just west of the village's main street, and after the waterfall in the West Branch of Black Creek (which is just before Patterson Road). See map. See the approximation of the watershed divide mapped in context of mountains and valleys. See Washington County for a set of contextual maps.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,773 people, 687 households, and 489 families residing in the town. The population density was 31.5 PD/sqmi. There were 906 housing units at an average density of 16.1 per square mile (6.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.18% White, 0.45% African American, 0.06% Native American, 0.45% Asian, 0.79% from other races, and 1.07% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.47% of the population.

There were 687 households, out of which 32.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.2% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.8% were non-families. 22.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.02.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.1% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 25.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.5 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $37,639, and the median income for a family was $41,680. Males had a median income of $28,150 versus $22,315 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,113. About 7.0% of families and 9.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.7% of those under age 18 and 9.4% of those age 65 or over.

History
Settled in the late 18th century, Hebron was first known as the District of Black Creek. The British Crown granted parcels of land in the area, called "patents," to soldiers who served in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) (the North American front of the Seven Years' War). Most of the grants were to members of the Highland Scottish 77th Regiment. Many of the parcels were transferred from officers and soldiers to speculators, who sold them to New England and Scotch-Irish settlers. Some of the patents that form the town are Lintot, Blundell and Sheriff. Originals of these patents are held by the National Archives.

The town of Hebron was formed March 23, 1786, and named after Hebron, Connecticut. Its namesake is the biblical Hebron, the largest city in the present-day West Bank, 30 km south of Jerusalem.

The main road running north–south through the Hebron area, now named Route 22, used to be known as the “Great Northern Turnpike” (or “the Turnpike”). Two historic milepost markers remain in the town, one at 7047 State Route 22, the second just north of Chamberlin Mills Road. A third is just south of the town line with Salem, New York. A peddler's wagon belonging to Lorenzo Levi Brown of Hebron is in the wagon collection of the Museum of Long Island at Stony Brook, New York.

The town developed as an agricultural community, which it still is today. By 1864, it was the chief potato-producing area of Washington County. Potatoes have been superseded by dairy farming. In recent decades, farms have been consolidated into larger operations. While the town has numerous residents whose families have been in the area for three generations, it also has new part-time residents who have second homes here. Others have retired here for the beauty of the area.

Hebron Volunteer Fire Company
The West Hebron Volunteer Fire Company was formed in 1947. Willard Bain, a charter member, died in February 2008. The first fire truck, BRUSH 356, was put into service in 1947 and operated until 2008. It was retired after the purchase that spring of a CAFS truck ATTACK 356. In 1978, the East Hebron Fire Company was formed after the homes of Nelson Greene and Alfred "Pug" Getty burned down. Getty donated the land and Greene led the group of volunteers who built Station Two. The two companies later merged to form the Hebron Volunteer Fire Company. www.HebronVolunteerFireCompany.com

The Hebron Volunteer Fire Company First Response Team provides emergency medical services to the town. These firefighters/emergency medical technicians (EMTs) respond to medical and trauma-related calls. All first responders are licensed as EMTs by the State of New York. David Getty, a lifelong resident of Hebron, is Fire Chief.

Hebron Preservation Society
The Hebron Preservation Society was chartered by the State of New York in 1975. The Society maintains a museum, with collections held in two historic buildings located on the east side of Route 22 in the hamlet of East Hebron. The former one-room school house built in 1845 was acquired from the Salem School District, and a small tenant farm house, built in the early 19th century, was purchased in 1990. The society published HEBRON: A Century In Review in 1988, with a second edition in 2006. The museum houses a display of school house memorabilia, varied articles, ledgers, books, and family genealogies pertaining to the residents, businesses and organizations in Hebron.

Beauty of Hebron potato
The Beauty of Hebron potato variety was promoted by a local seedsman, Edward L. Coy (E.L. Coy). Both Coy and Rachel Campbell of Hebron took credit for the discovery. The variety was a naturally fertilized seedling of Garnet Chili. The earliest published reference to the Beauty of Hebron variety is from the 1876 Annual Agricultural Society Meeting in Marblehead, Massachusetts. The next year, in 1877 the US Department of Agriculture introduced the Beauty of Hebron potato to growers in 26 states for tests. Various major seed companies of the time claimed credit for its commercial introduction, including J. M. Thornburn of New York City, JJH Gregory of Marblehead, and Peter Henderson of New Jersey.

In 1879 Coy shipped "Hebron Beauties" to London. The Beauty of Hebron was one of the varieties used to restock the British Isles after the potato blight and Great Famine of Ireland. Its use spread throughout the British Empire to localities such as New Zealand and New Caledonia. By the turn of the 20th century, it was also a favorite of market and home gardeners in the United States. In 1946, the USDA did not list it in commercial production in the United States, but the 1959 Potato Variety Handbook of the American Potato Association includes the Beauty of Hebron. Most current tissue culture stocks and tubers came from Elmer Hansen of Alberta, Canada; in 1988 he provided seed to Will Bownall and the Seedsavers organization, devoted to preserving historic varieties.

The Beauty of Hebron is listed on the RAFT list of Threatened American Foods. The Beauty of Hebron is maintained at the Canadian Potato Research Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada; the University of North Dakota Potato Breeding Program; and with a commercial breeder. As of 2008, it was not known if the potato variety was in commercial production. Due to Sally Brillion of the Hebron Preservation Society, amateur gardeners began to cultivate the Beauty of Hebron potato in 2006.

Notable people

 * Hiram Barton, former Mayor of Buffalo, New York
 * James M. Hinds, United States Representative from Arkansas's 2nd congressional district elected March 1868, assassinated in October 1868. Hinds was born in East Hebron in December 1833.
 * Kevin Monahan, convicted murderer
 * Homer Nelson, former member of the Wisconsin State Assembly
 * Solomon Northup (1808-c. 1863), born in Minerva, New York, he was a free man of color who had a farm in Hebron for a time. After moving to Saratoga Springs, New York, he was notable for having been kidnapped in 1841 and sold into slavery in Louisiana; he regained freedom in 1853 after 12 years, and wrote and published a bestselling memoir that year, Twelve Years a Slave, about his trials. He became a lecturer on the abolitionist circuit.
 * Ralph Randles Stewart, botanist

Locations
There are seven hamlets in the town: Porter, Hebron, North Hebron, East Hebron, West Hebron, Belcher, and Slateville. The Town Clerk's office is located in West Hebron on County Route 30, as is the Hebron Volunteer Fire Company FireHall and Station One. Station Two is located on NY Route 22, south of the intersection of Sheldon Rd, Chamberlain Mill Road and NY-22. Hebron has no school buildings or town center now, but there were hotels, postal offices, and many schools in the past. Students now attend schools in the surrounding towns, primarily Granville and Salem. The northeastern half of Hebron is in the Granville zipcode 12832, and the bulk of the southwestern half is in the Salem zipcode 12865. In 2008, there was only a country store located at Bedlam Corners in the hamlet of West Hebron.

Communities

 * Belcher – a hamlet near the western town line on County Road 30.
 * Castle Green – A location near the western town line.
 * East Hebron – A hamlet near the eastern town boundary on NY-22. The Hebron District School No. 16 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012.
 * Hebron - < >
 * North Hebron – A hamlet near the northern town line on County Road 31.
 * Porter – A community north of East Hebron on NY-22.
 * Slateville – A hamlet in the northeastern part of Hebron on County Road 31, east of North Hebron.
 * Tiplady – A community south of East Hebron on NY-22.
 * West Hebron (Chamberlain Mills) – A hamlet in the southwestern corner of the town on County Road 31. The Hebron Valley Grange No. 1103 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006.

Geographical features

 * Barkley's Lake – A small lake north of West Hebron.
 * Black Creek – A stream parallel to NY-22
 * Black Creek Falls – in West Hebron on the West Branch of Black Creek, just before Patterson Hill Road
 * Green Pond – A small lake northeast of Slateville.
 * Grimes Hill – An elevation in the north part of the town.
 * Hebron Mountain – A small mountain overlooking West Hebron from the northeast.
 * Irwin Road Pond – A small lake west of East Hebron.
 * Pine Hill – An elevation northeast of West Hebron.
 * Smith Pond – A small lake south of North Hebron.

title: Hebron, New York


text:
Hudson Falls, New York

Hudson Falls (formerly Sandy Hill) is a village located in Washington County, New York, United States. The village is in the southwest of the town of Kingsbury, on U.S. Route 4. Hudson Falls is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the village had a population of 7,281. It was the county seat of Washington County until 1994, when the county seat was moved to Fort Edward.

History
In 1764, Albert Baker built Kingsbury's first sawmill near what is known today as Baker's Falls. As early as 1792, the area of Kingsbury near Baker's Falls was referred to as Sandy Hill. In 1810, the hamlet incorporated as a village, keeping the name Sandy Hill. Its boundaries expanded to their current limits in the 1840s.

Around 1824, the Glens Falls Feeder Canal was constructed to bring water from the Hudson River to the Champlain Canal. With the opening of the Feeder Canal, Sandy Hill became a prosperous manufacturing center, producing lumber, paper, pianos, wagons, pulleys, and other products. The Glens Falls Feeder Canal is no longer used commercial traffic, but the route of Canal is a fourteen mile long park, with a walking & bike trail on the old tow path.

Stone quarried in Hudson Falls was used to construct the Bennington Battle Monument (1889) and the Brooklyn Bridge. The former site of the quarry has been redeveloped for use by the Washington-Saratoga-Warren-Hamilton-Essex Board of Cooperative Educational Services.

In 1851, Francis Wolle invented the first bag-making machine, and formed a company that would later become the Union Bag and Paper Company. In 1892, the company relocated from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to Hudson Falls, where it had a paper mill. In 1906, Union Paper and Bag Co. built the Fenimore Bridge (Sandy Hill Bridge), spanning the Hudson River between Hudson Falls built in Washington County and the town of Moreau in Saratoga County, since the company had plants in both locations. For a brief period of time, the closed-spandrel arch bridge was the longest multiple span, reinforced-concrete arch bridge in the world. The bridge is now closed, but local officials hope to turn it into a pedestrian walkway.

Churches

 * The First Presbyterian Church of Hudson Falls was organized in 1803. Services were held in the town courthouse until a new church building was dedicated in 1827 at the site of the Old Burying Ground. This building was demolished around 1893, to make way for a larger structure, dedicated in 1895.
 * Zion Episcopal was founded in 1817 as the Episcopal-Methodist Church. Services were held in a parishioner's home until a new building was completed in 1849 and consecrated as Zion Episcopal Church. In 1968, lightning caused a fire that gutted the interior, which was then rebuilt.
 * The first Roman Catholic church between Albany and Canada, St. Mary's, was constructed in the 1830s in Sandy Hill (later Hudson Falls) on Wall Street. It later burned down, and a new one was erected on Park Place. St. Paul's Church was founded in the 1870s to serve French Canadians in Sandy Hill. They purchased the small wooden old First Baptist Church at the top of River Street, after that congregation built a second, larger church next to the courthouse. St. Paul's erected a new, larger, brick building in the 1890s. That church was struck by lightning in 1974 and burned down. The parish subsequently merged with St. Mary's as the Church of St. Mary's/St. Paul's.

In 1910, the village's name was changed from Sandy Hill to Hudson Falls. The Glens Falls Feeder Canal, Hudson Falls Historic District, and United States Post Office are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Notable people from Hudson Falls

 * William Bronk managed a lumber business here and wrote poetry and other works, winning the National Book Award in 1982.
 * Townsend Harris, the United States' first consul-general to Japan, was born in Hudson Falls
 * Henry C. Martindale, attorney and Member of the United States House of Representatives
 * Tony DeSare, jazz singer, pianist, and songwriter
 * Gov. Nathaniel Pitcher – lived at Sandy Hill.
 * Roger Skinner, member of the New York State Senate, and Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.9 sqmi, of which 1.8 sqmi is land and 0.04 sqmi  is water. The total area is 2.13% water.

The village is on the east bank of the Hudson River at the western border of Washington County. A village green lies in the center of the commercial district.

NY Route 196 (Maple Street) and NY Route 254 (River Street) intersect US Route 4 in Hudson Falls.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,927 people, 2,876 households, and 1,760 families residing in the village. The population density was 3,763.5 PD/sqmi. There were 3,120 housing units at an average density of 1,695.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the village was 97.91% White, 0.45% African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.16% from other races, and 1.02% from two or more races. 0.68% of the population is Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 2,876 households, out of which 31.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.7% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.8% were non-families. 32.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.95.

In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.2% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 14.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.8 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $31,516, and the median income for a family was $37,628. Males had a median income of $31,107 versus $21,215 for females. The per capita income for the village was $17,575. 17.2% of the population and 12.8% of families were below the poverty line. 30.3% of those under the age of 18 and 6.3% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Rail transportation
Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Hudson Falls at the station in nearby Fort Edward, operating its Adirondack daily in both directions between Montreal and New York City, and its Ethan Allen Express in both directions daily between New York City and Rutland. Amtrak has designated the stop as Fort Edward-Glens Falls.

Freight rail service is provided along a spur line extending from Fort Edward to Glens Falls that runs through the village.

Literary references
The fictional town of Millers Kill, NY, in Julia Spencer-Fleming's mystery novels is loosely based on Hudson Falls.

title: Hudson Falls, New York


text:
Jackson, New York

Jackson is a town in southeastern Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area.

History
The town was formed from part of the town of Cambridge in 1815. Cambridge Valley Livestock is the longest running business in the town.

In March 2010, the Town Board passed a law making English the only language to be used for town business and municipal work, and is considering a law making English the town's official language.

The Rexleigh Covered Bridge and Maxwell Farm are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 37.5 sqmi, of which 37.2 sqmi is land and 0.3 sqmi  (0.83%) is water.

Much of the northern town line is defined by the Batten Kill, a tributary of the Hudson River. The eastern town line is the state border with Vermont.

NY Route 22 is a north-south highway through the middle of Jackson. NY Route 313 crosses the town toward Vermont.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,718 people, 692 households, and 489 families residing in the town. The population density was 46.2 PD/sqmi. There were 1,077 housing units at an average density of 29.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 97.26% White, 0.81% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.47% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.06% from other races, and 1.16% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.11% of the population.

There were 692 households, out of which 31.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.4% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.3% were non-families. 23.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.6% under the age of 18, 4.5% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.5 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $41,490, and the median income for a family was $43,565. Males had a median income of $33,438 versus $21,290 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,473. About 5.3% of families and 9.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.

Communities

 * Anaquassacook – a location on NY-313 in the eastern part of Jackson.
 * Eagleville – a hamlet in the eastern part of Jackson by the Batten Kill, mostly in the Town of Salem
 * The Plains – a location in the southeastern part of the town, east of Chapin Field.
 * Chapin Field (1B8) – an airport near the southern town line, with two intersecting grass strip runways.
 * Shushan – a hamlet at the Batten Kill on County Road 61, mostly in the Town of Salem.
 * Battenville, New York – a small hamlet, mostly in the Town of Greenwich.

Geographical locations

 * Cambridge Creek – A stream in the eastern part of Jackson.
 * Clark Pond – A small lake north of Hedges Lake.
 * Dead Lake – A small lake west of NY-22, south of Hedges Lake.
 * Eldgridge Swamp – A swamp north of The Plains.
 * Hedges Lake – A lake in the middle of the town, west of NY-22.
 * Lake Lauderdale – A lake in the middle of the town, east of NY-22.
 * Mount Colfax – An elevation south of Hedges Lake.
 * Owl Kill – A stream flowing out of Lake Lauderdale.
 * Schoolhouse Lake – A lake north of Lake Lauderdale.

title: Jackson, New York


text:
Kingsbury, New York

Kingsbury is a town in western Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 12,968 at the 2020 census, up from 12,671 at the 2010 census.

History
A charter for a Township of Kingsbury was granted by King George III on May 11, 1762. It was named after a small parish on the western outskirts of London. Its first settler was James Bradshaw. Albert Baker arrived second, constructing a sawmill at what is today known as Baker's Falls. John Jones built a mill in the northwest corner of town. Following his death, Edward Patten purchased Jones' land and renamed the settlement Pattens Mills, a name by which it is still known.

During the American Revolutionary War, General John Burgoyne and his troops passed through the town after the Battle of Fort Anne. In 1780, Major Christopher Carleton led a raid that set fire to everything but the homes of Loyalists.

Charlotte County, of which Kingbury was a part, was annexed by the Vermont Republic in 1781. The following year, it renounced its claim to Charlotte County, and New York officially recognized the town of Kingsbury. In 1810, the settlement near Baker's Falls incorporated as the village of Sandy Hill, though it changed its name to Hudson Falls in 1910.

In 1823, the Champlain Canal was opened, followed in 1833 by the Glens Falls Feeder Canal. Major industry consisted of farming, milling, mining, and logging. Limestone was produced at Smiths Basin.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 40.0 sqmi, of which 39.9 sqmi is land and 0.2 sqmi  (0.37%) is water.

Part of the western town line is the border of Saratoga County and the remainder is the border of Warren County.

NY 196 crosses the southern part of Kingsbury from east to west. NY 149 runs along part of the eastern town line and intersects US 4, which runs from Hudson Falls through the northeastern section of the town. The Champlain Canal, part of the NYS canal system, passes through the eastern part of the town.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 11,171 people, 4,491 households, and 2,955 families residing in the town. The population density was 280.2 PD/sqmi. There were 4,823 housing units at an average density of 121.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 98.17% White, 0.37% African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.13% from other races, and 0.84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.60% of the population.

There were 4,491 households, out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.97.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.0% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $34,919, and the median income for a family was $41,507. Males had a median income of $31,200 versus $21,425 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,433. About 9.1% of families and 12.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.3% of those under age 18 and 5.7% of those age 65 or over.

Communities

 * Adamsville – A hamlet at the eastern town line on NY 196.
 * Baldwin Corner – A hamlet in the northeastern part of the town on US 4.
 * Dunham Basin – A location east of Hudson Falls, associated with the Champlain Canal.
 * Hudson Falls – A village that once was the county seat of Washington County until 1994, when the county seat was moved to Fort Edward.
 * Kingsbury – A hamlet on US 4..
 * Pattens Mills – A hamlet in the northwestern corner of Kingsbury on CR 35.
 * Smiths Basin – A hamlet east of Kingsbury on NY 149 at the Champlain Canal.
 * Vaughns Corners – A hamlet north of Hudson Falls at the intersection of CR 35 and CR 36.

Geographical features

 * Big Creek – A stream feeding into the Champlain Canal near Smiths Basin.
 * Bond Creek – A stream feeding into the Champlain Canal near Dunham Basin.
 * Wood Creek – A stream flowing out the southern town line.

Government
The town is led by a Town Supervisor and four-member Town Board. As of 2016, Dana Hogan was the Town Supervisor.

title: Kingsbury, New York


text:
Putnam, New York

Putnam is a town in northern Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 567 at the 2020 census. The town is named after Israel Putnam, a hero of the American Revolution.

History
The town was part of the Provincial Patent (1764) made to officer veterans of the French and Indian War while the region was in Charlotte County. The town of Putnam was formed in 1806 from the town of Westfield (now Fort Ann).

The Hiram Congdon House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 35.5 sqmi, of which 33.2 sqmi is land and 2.3 sqmi  (6.49%) is water.

The northern town line is the border of Essex County. The eastern town boundary is defined by Lake Champlain and the border of Vermont. The western town line is defined by Lake George and Warren County. The town is located inside the Adirondack Park.

NY Route 22 is a north–south highway through the center of the town.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 645 people, 248 households, and 181 families residing in the town. The population density was 19.5 people per square mile (7.5/km2). There were 611 housing units at an average density of 18.4 per square mile (7.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.84% White and 0.16% Asian. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.24% of the population.

There were 248 households, out of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.3% were married couples living together, 6.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. 22.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.07.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.7% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 28.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 106.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.1 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $51,000, and the median income for a family was $56,429. Males had a median income of $32,500 versus $28,125 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,355. About 3.6% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over.

Communities and locations in Putnam

 * Adirondack Camp – A private sleepaway camp located south of Glenburnie by Lake George.
 * Glenburnie – A hamlet on Lake George at Blairs Bay.
 * Putnam – The hamlet of Putnam on NY-22 and County Road 2.
 * Putnam Station – A hamlet in the vicinity of NY-22, County Routes 2 & 3 and Mill Bay
 * Wright – A hamlet in the northeastern part of the town, on Lake Champlain.

Geographic locations

 * Blairs Bay – A bay on the eastern side of Lake George at Glenburnie, bounded on the northern end by Anthony's Nose and on the southern by the Adirondack Camp peninsula.
 * Brimstone Hill – An elevation east of Gull Bay, near the source of Charter Brook.
 * Charter Brook – A stream entering Lake Champlain in the northern part of Putnam.
 * Charter Brook Pond – A pond formed by a dam across Charter Brook, east of Blairs Bay.
 * Gull Bay – A bay of Lake George, south of Camp Adirondack.
 * Lamb Shanty Bay – A bay on Lake George in the southern part of Putnam.
 * Mill Bay – A bay on Lake Champlain.
 * Mill Brook – A stream in the southern part of the town that empties into Mill Bay.
 * Mud Pond – A lake in the southwestern part of Putnam.
 * Record Hill – An elevation north of Glenburnie.
 * Skerrey Point – A projection into Lake George, forming part of Gull Bay.
 * Smith Bay – A bay south of Skerrey Point.
 * South Mountain – An elevation north of Record Hill.

Education
Public education is provided by the Putnam Central School District, the borders of which are coterminous with the town's. The district has a five-member board of education. Putnam Central School is a K-6 school, and students of seventh grade and higher are bused to the nearby Ticonderoga Central School District in Ticonderoga.

title: Putnam, New York


text:
White Creek, New York

White Creek is a town in Washington County, New York, United States. It is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town population was 3,275 at the 2020 census. The town contains the White Creek Historic District, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

History
Settlement in the town of "White Creek began after the granting of the Cambridge Patent in 1761. The first settlers in the present hamlet of White Creek were Quakers. John Allen built the first permanent residence in 1757 with a later addition in 1770, a house which remains as one of the best-preserved structures surviving from the eighteenth century in White Creek. The Cornell House and the Christopher Allen House (both built 1772) also survive from the colonial period, reflecting a rich variety of house styles. According to local tradition, the Christopher Allen House was operated as a tavern, and its ballroom also served as a temporary hospital for wounded from the nearby Battle of Waloomsac [Bennington] in 1777.

White Creek was formed from Cambridge in 1815. It became a center of regional commerce late in the eighteenth century, and local prosperity reached its high point during the 1840s. Among the most interesting and important of White Creek's historic buildings are its commercial structures. The hotel and tavern and the harness shop are outstanding, rare Greek Revival-style rural commercial buildings whose presence in the historic district contribute to a fuller understanding of life in White Creek during the nineteenth century. The businesses housed in these and other White Creek structures prospered, enabling owners to build comfortable homes along the streets of the hamlet. Most of these residences survive within the present district, and their stylistic treatment illustrates the relationship between wealth and taste in White Creek from the 1750s to the 1880s.

Present day White Creek is made up of mostly farms, fields, small residences, and forest land. There is one small community located on Route 68 and Niles Road that is a cluster of about 20-30 homes. These residences make up the White Creek National Historic District.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 47.9 sqmi, of which 47.9 sqmi is land and 0.1 sqmi  (0.13%) is water.

The eastern town line is the state line of Vermont. The Hoosic River defines part of the southern town boundary.

NY Route 22 is a north–south highway in the western part of the town. NY Route 313 joins NY-22 at the Village of Cambridge.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 3,411 people, 1,317 households, and 907 families residing in the town. The population density was 71.3 PD/sqmi. There were 1,466 housing units at an average density of 30.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 97.51% White, 0.82% African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.50% Asian, 0.03% from other races, and 1.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.11% of the population.

There were 1,317 households, out of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.4% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.03.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 25.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.5 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $34,412, and the median income for a family was $40,402. Males had a median income of $33,237 versus $22,143 for females. The per capita income for the town was $16,439. About 6.3% of families and 6.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.7% of those under age 18 and 4.9% of those age 65 or over.

Communities

 * Ash Grove – A location in the northern part of the town on County Road 67.
 * Cambridge – A village, the eastern part of which is within the town.
 * Center White Creek – A community located on NY-22 at County Road 68 in the southwestern part of the town by Center White Creek.
 * New Skete – Three Orthodox Christian monastic communities.
 * Post Corners – A location east of Center White Creek.
 * Pumpkin Hook – A location near the eastern town line on Pumpkin Hook Creek.
 * White Creek – A hamlet located in the southeastern part of the town on County Road 68, by Little White Creek. Twenty buildings are included within the White Creek Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

Geographic locations

 * Center White Creek – A stream flowing out the southern part of the town.
 * Chestnut Woods – A location near Pumpkin Hook.
 * Goose Egg Ridge – An elevation in the northeastern corner of the town.
 * Little White Creek – A stream flowing out the southeastern part of the town.
 * Owl Kill – A tributary of the Hoosic River in the western part of White Creek.
 * Pumpkin Hook Creek – A stream in the central part of the town.
 * Sugar Loaf – An elevation south of White Creek and Goose Egg Ridge.
 * Two Tops – An elevation east of Ash Grove.
 * White Creek – A stream in the northern part of the town.

title: White Creek, New York


text:
Arcadia, New York

Arcadia is a town in Wayne County, New York, United States. The population was 14,244 at the 2010 census.

The Town of Arcadia is on the south border of the county and is east of Rochester, New York.

The primary postal district covering the Town of Arcadia is ZIP Code 14513 for Newark.

History
The town was first settled circa 1791. The Town of Arcadia was formed from the Town of Lyons in 1825.

An asylum for the mentally disabled was established in Arcadia in 1789.

Hydesville, New York was a hamlet in the Town of Arcadia. It no longer exists, but was the hometown of the spiritualist Fox Sisters.

In 1957, the Bergen Swamp Preservation Society acquired Zurich Bog for conservation.

The town is part of the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 52.1 sqmi, of which 52.0 sqmi is land and 0.1 sqmi  (0.19%) is water. The Erie Canal passes across the town and through the Village of Newark. The east end of "the Wide Waters," a wide part of the canal, is in the town.

The terrain contains many drumlins from past glaciation as well as the Zurich Bog.

The southern town line is the border of Ontario County.

New York State Route 31 (east-west) intersects New York State Route 88 in Newark, just south of the Erie Canal.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 14,244 people, 5,792 households, and 3,632 families residing in the town. The population density was 273.4 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 89.3% White, 4.6% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.2% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.8% of the population.

There were 5,792 households, out of which 26.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.2% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.3% were non-families. 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.93.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.8% under the age of 20, 5.9% from 20 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 30.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $44,993, and the median income for a family was $54,415. Males had a median income of $38,636 versus $33,172 for females. The per capita income for the town was $22,331. About 12.2% of families and 15.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.3% of those under age 18 and 10.8% of those age 65 or over.

Housing
There were 6,194 housing units at an average density of 118.9 /sqmi. 6.5% of housing units were vacant.

There were 5,792 occupied housing units in the town. 3,798 were owner-occupied units (65.6%), while 1,994 were renter-occupied (34.4%). The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.8% of total units. The rental unit vacancy rate was 6.3%.

Communities and locations in the Town of Arcadia

 * Arcadia — The former community of Arcadia is now part of the Village of Newark.
 * Austin — A hamlet containing the "Maple Ridge" and bordering with the town of Sodus. Along Maple Ridge Road and Austin Road.
 * Brantling Hill — A large drumlin in the northeast corner of the town. It is the location of a ski slope.
 * Fairville — A hamlet near the town's center along state Route 88.
 * Fairville Station — A hamlet northeast of Newark along Fairville Station Road, Heidenreich Road Coleman Hill Road and Arcadia Zurich Norris Road.
 * Hydesville — A hamlet north of Newark village on Hydesville Road and Parker Road. The hamlet is called the birthplace of Modern Spiritualism, due to the events of natives Kate and Margaret Fox.
 * Marbletown — A hamlet on Marbletown Road (County Road 336), Miller Road and Silver Hill Road near the south town line.
 * Minsteed — A hamlet in the northwest corner of the town, on Martin Road, Skinner Road, and Minsteed Road.
 * Mud Mills — A hamlet northeast of Newark on Welcher Road (County Road 234.), Mud Mills Road, and Sleight Road.
 * Newark — The Village of Newark, located on the Erie Canal and the intersection of NY-31 and NY-88.
 * Stebbins Corner — A location west of Hydesville on Tellier Road (County Road 225.)
 * Whitings Corners — A hamlet just north of Newark, southwest of Mud Mills, and east of Hydesville.
 * Zurich — A location in the northeast corner of the town on Zurich Road (County Road 237), Bramer Road, Lembke Road, Deneef Road and Layton Street Road. Has a portion in the town of Lyons.
 * Zurich Bog — A swamp west of Zurich is the lowest point in the town and a registered national landmark. It is also known as "Mud Pond," an open body of water within the bog. It was called "Big Swamp" to the early settlers and "Bottomless Pit" to natives.  The swamp is about three  miles long and a mile wide.

Notable people

 * Electa Amanda Wright Johnson (1838-1929), philanthropist, writer

title: Arcadia, New York


text:
Butler, New York

Butler is a town in Wayne County, New York, United States. The population was 2,064 at the 2010 census. It is also the town with the fewest Registered Voters in Wayne County with approximately 140 active voters.

The Town of Butler is on the east border of the county and is west of Syracuse, New York.

A post office is located in the Town of Butler although the area is covered by four postal districts. Only the immediate hamlet of South Butler uses a ZIP Code of 13154 for South Butler. Addresses in the northern section have a ZIP Code of 14590 for Wolcott and a ZIP Code of 13143 for Red Creek, while the southern section has a ZIP Code of 13146 for Savannah.

Government offices for the town are located in Butler Center.

History
Settlement began in 1803.

The Town of Butler was formed from the Town of Wolcott in 1826.

Butler Correctional Facility was a New York State medium security prison. Butler Correctional Facility was located in the northeastern part of town near the hamlet of Westbury. It closed on July 26, 2014, under the Governor Andrew Cuomo's Administration.

The Roe Cobblestone Schoolhouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.

Notable people

 * Antoinette Brown Blackwell, first woman to be ordained as a minister in the United States
 * Samuel Ringgold Ward, African-American pastor and abolitionist, ordained a decade before Antoinette Blackwell

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 37.2 sqmi, of which 37.1 sqmi is land and 0.1 sqmi  (0.16%) is water.

The eastern town line is the border of Cayuga County.

New York State Route 89 is an important north–south highway in the town, intersecting New York State Route 104 in the northwestern section of the town. The western terminus of New York State Route 370 is in the northeastern part of Butler.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,064 people, 723 households, and 525 families residing in the town. The population density was 55.5 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 92.5% White, 3.2% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 2.4% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.4% of the population.

There were 723 households, out of which 31.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.4% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.4% were non-families. 21.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.16.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.2% under the age of 20, 4.7% from 20 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $42,643, and the median income for a family was $44,851. Males had a median income of $38,036 versus $25,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,403. About 9.8% of families and 17.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.2% of those under age 18 and 6.3% of those age 65 or over.

Housing
There were 785 housing units at an average density of 21.1 per square mile (8.2/km2); a total of 7.9% of housing units were vacant.

There were 723 occupied housing units in the town, of which 579 were owner-occupied units (80.1%), while 144 were renter-occupied (19.9%). The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.9% of total units. The rental unit vacancy rate was 2.0%.

Communities and locations in Butler

 * Butler Center — a hamlet near the town center. The Methodist Episcopal Church of Butler was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.
 * Mill Pond — a small lake east of Butler Center.
 * South Butler (formerly "Harringtons Corner") — a hamlet near the south town line on NY-89. The village is the site in 1853 of the first ordination of a woman minister in the United States, Antoinette Brown.
 * West Butler — a hamlet near the west town line on Route 259. It was sometimes called "Cider Hill".
 * Westbury — a hamlet on the town line in the northeastern corner of the town on County Road 267.
 * Wolcott Creek — an important stream in the town.

title: Butler, New York


text:
Clyde, New York

Clyde is a village in Wayne County, New York, United States. The population was 2,093 at the 2010 census. It was named after the River Clyde, in Scotland, and the village sits on the Clyde River, a tributary of the Seneca River.

The Village of Clyde is in the town of Town of Galen and is northeast of Geneva, New York. Clyde is approximately equidistant between the cities of Rochester and Syracuse.

History
Prior to the French and Indian War, a French trading post and block house was located on the site of the future village. During the American Revolution it was known for its smuggling and was called the "Blockhouse."

The Smith-Ely Mansion and U.S. Post Office are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Civil War
During the American Civil War, men from Clyde served in B Company of the 111th New York Volunteer Infantry, their last company commander of the war being Philip I. Lape. The regiment commander was Colonel Clinton D. MacDougall.

The 111th New York was present at, among others, the Battle of Gettysburg, the Battle of the Wilderness, the Battle of Cold Harbor and the Appomattox Campaign. During the Battle of Gettysburg, the 111th took the second highest casualties as a regiment of the entire battle.

Throughout the war, the regiment took a total of 1803 casualties, of which 158 were KIA, 557 were WIA (490 of whom recovered to some extent), and 1088 MIA.

Clyde is part of the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor.

Geography
Clyde is located at 43.08417°N, -76.87028°W (43.084232, -76.870297).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.3 sqmi, of which 2.2 sqmi is land and 0.1 sqmi  (2.21%) is water.

Clyde is an Erie Canal village. The Clyde River was incorporated into the canal structure. The route of the canal through village was changed during canal renovations.

The village is at the intersection of state routes 31 and 414.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 2,093 people, 798 households, and 545 families residing in the village. The population density was 951.4 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of the village was 90.2% White, 4.5% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 4.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.0% of the population.

There were 798 households, out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.4% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 26.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.10.

In the village the population was spread out, with 30.1% under the age of 20, 6.3% from 20 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.1 years. For every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $41,471, and the median income for a family was $54,732. Males had a median income of $41,471 versus $34,115 for females. The per capita income for the village was $20,546. About 11.5% of families and 16.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.0% of those under age 18 and 14.2% of those age 65 or over.

Housing
There were 910 housing units at an average density of 413.6 /sqmi; a total of 12.3% of housing units were vacant.

There were 798 occupied housing units in the village, of which 555 were owner-occupied units (69.5%), while 243 were renter-occupied (30.5%). The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.6% of total units. The rental unit vacancy rate was 11.6%.

Government

 * Mayor: Jerry Fremouw
 * Deputy Mayor: Roland Kanaley
 * Village Clerk/Treasurer: Ann Fenton
 * Trustee: Roland Kanaley
 * Trustee: Paul Ferindino
 * Trustee: Mike Nicoletta
 * Trustee: Brad Shrimp

Fire services are provided by the Galen Clyde Fire District which protects the Town of Galen in its entirety. The Fire District has 3 stations and its directed by the District Chief. The department runs approximately 700 calls for service. Fire district includes 13 miles of the NYS Thruway and Del Lago Resort and Casino, several industrial conplexes and the erie canal. Disanto Propane Operate their corporate HQ and rail siding terminal in the district. The district operates 3 engine Co's. 2 Truck Co's. 1 Rescue Co. 1 Squad Co. 1 Fire Rescue boat and 1 spill.response trailer. The department has an active membership of 45 members trained to NYS standards. The Fire District also provides contractual fire protection to the Town of Tyre in Seneca County as well..

Station 1 HQ (15 Ford Street Clyde NY)

Chiefs Office

Dispatch Office

Houses Engine 49, Squad 16, Water Rescue 9, HZMT 1, Rescue 2, Ladder 10

Station 2 (11098 CR 243 Clyde NY)

Houses Engine 44

Station 3 (1152 Route 414 Seneca County)

Quint 3

Engine 48

title: Clyde, New York


text:
Galen, New York

Galen is a town in Wayne County, New York, United States. The population was 4,290 at the 2010 census. The town is named after the classical physician Galen.

The Town of Galen is on the south border of the county and west of Syracuse, New York.

The primary postal district covering the Town of Galen is ZIP Code 14433 for Clyde.

History
Before the French and Indian War, there was a French block house and trading post near Clyde.

The town was first settled around 1800 near Marengo.

The town was part of a tract set aside for physicians and surgeons of the Colonial Army as part of the Central New York Military Tract used to pay soldiers of the American Revolution. Galen was formed from the Town of Junius in Seneca County in 1812 and became part of Wayne County in 1823, but lost part of its area to form the Town of Savannah in 1824.

The glass industry was important during the early history of Galen.

Remnants of the former Enlarged Erie Canal Lock 53 (also called the Clyde Lock) are located near the corner of N.Y. Route 31 and Old Route 31, just west of the Village of Clyde. It was built in 1841 as a single-chamber lock, but doubled in 1874. The lock had a lift of 4.63 feet (1.41 m) to the west. It currently sits on private property.

The town is part of the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor. Erie Canal Lock 26 is located at the end of Lock Road, off Tyre Road (CR 372) southeast of Clyde. It was built around 1912, and has a lift of 6 feet (1.83 m) to the west.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 60.0 sqmi, of which 59.4 sqmi is land and 0.6 sqmi  (1.00%) is water.

The Erie Canal passes through the town, incorporating part of the Clyde River. During renovations of the canal, the route was altered, leaving behind remnants of the original Erie Canal.

The southern border of the town also constitutes part of the border between Wayne County and Seneca County (Town of Junius).

New York State Route 31 is an east–west highway near the Erie Canal, and it intersects New York State Route 414 in the village of Clyde.

Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 4,290 people, 1,610 households, and 1,117 families residing in the town. The population density was 72.2 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 92.8% White, 3.2% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 3.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population.

There were 1,610 households, out of which 29.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.7% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.13.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.3% under the age of 20, 5.5% from 20 to 24, 22.5% from 25 to 44, 29.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $49,028, and the median income for a family was $54,528. Males had a median income of $38,682 versus $33,984 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,692. About 6.4% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.5% of those under age 18 and 7.0% of those age 65 or over.

Housing
There were 1,811 housing units at an average density of 30.5 /sqmi; a total of 11.1% of housing units were vacant.

There were 1,610 occupied housing units in the town, of which 1,255 were owner-occupied units (78.0%), while 355 were renter-occupied (22.0%). The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.6% of total units. The rental unit vacancy rate was 10.8%.

Communities and locations in the Town of Galen

 * Angells Corners — A hamlet in the south part of the town on NY-414.
 * Clyde — The Village of Clyde at the Erie Canal and NY-31.
 * Fergusons Corners — A location in the northwest part of the town on County Road 247.
 * Hunts Corners — A location in the northeast corner of the town on County Road 269.
 * Lock Berlin — A hamlet in the west part of the town on County Road 245 by the route of the Old Erie Canal.
 * Lockpit — A location in the southeast part of the town by the old route of the Erie Canal. It was originally known as "Meadville."
 * Marengo — A hamlet in the southwest part of the town, west of Angells Corners.
 * Noble Corner — A hamlet on the east town line.
 * Pangborn Corners — A location east of Hung Corner at the east town line.
 * Shephards Corner — A hamlet northeast of Clyde on County Road 269.
 * White Schoolhouse Corners — A location near Shephards Corner at the intersection of NY-414 and County Road 249.

title: Galen, New York