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Piazza San Marco

Piazza San Marco (Piasa San Marco), often known in English as St Mark's Square, is the principal public square of Venice, Italy, where it is generally known just as la Piazza ("the Square"). The Piazzetta ("little Piazza/Square") is an extension of the Piazza towards San Marco basin in its southeast corner (see plan). The two spaces together form the social, religious and political centre of Venice and are referred to together. This article relates to both of them.

A remark usually attributed (though without proof) to Napoleon calls the Piazza San Marco "the drawing room of Europe".

Description
The square is dominated at its eastern end by St Mark's Basilica. It is described here by a perambulation starting from the west front of the church (facing the length of the piazza) and proceeding to the right.

St Mark's Basilica has a western façade with great arches and marble decoration, Romanesque carvings around the central doorway, and four horses which preside over the whole piazza. The four horses are potent symbols of pride and power in Venice. In 1379, the Genoese said there could be no peace between the two cities until these horses had been bridled. Four hundred years later, Napoleon, after he had conquered Venice, had them taken down and shipped to Paris.

The Piazzetta dei Leoncini is an open space on the north side of the church named after the two marble lions (presented by Doge Alvise Mocenigo in 1722), but now officially called the Piazzetta San Giovanni XXIII. The neo-classic building on the east side adjoining the Basilica is the Palazzo Patriarcale, the seat of the Patriarch of Venice.

Beyond that is St Mark's Clocktower (Torre dell'Orologio), completed in 1499, above a high archway where the street known as the Merceria (a main thoroughfare of the city) leads through shopping streets to the Rialto, the commercial and financial centre. To the right of the clock-tower is the closed church of San Basso, designed by Baldassarre Longhena (1675), sometimes open for exhibitions.

To the left is the long arcade along the north side of the piazza, the buildings on this side are known as the Procuratie Vecchie, the old procuracies, formerly the homes and offices of the Procurators of St Mark, high officers of state in the days of the republic of Venice. They were built in the early 16th century. The arcade is lined with shops and restaurants at ground level, with offices above. The restaurants include the famous Caffè Quadri, which was patronized by the Austrians when Venice was ruled by Austria in the 19th century, while the Venetians preferred Florian's on the other side of the piazza.

Turning left at the end, the arcade continues along the west end of the piazza, which was rebuilt by Napoleon about 1810 and is known as the Ala Napoleonica (Napoleonic Wing). It holds, behind the shops, a ceremonial staircase which was to have led to a royal palace but now forms the entrance to the Museo Correr (Correr Museum).

Turning left again, the arcade continues down the south side of the Piazza. The buildings on this side are known as the Procuratie Nuove (new procuracies), which were designed by Jacopo Sansovino in the mid-16th century but partly built (1582–86) after his death by Vincenzo Scamozzi apparently with alterations required by the procurators and finally completed by Baldassarre Longhena about 1640. Again, the ground floor has shops and also the Caffè Florian, a famous cafe opened in 1720 by Floriano Francesconi, which was patronised by the Venetians when the hated Austrians were at Quadri's. The upper floors were intended by Napoleon to be a palace for his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, his viceroy in Venice, and now houses the Museo Correr. At the far end the Procuratie meet the north end of Sansovino's Libreria (mid-16th century), whose main front faces the piazzetta and is described there. The arcade continues round the corner into the Piazzetta.

Opposite to this, standing free in the piazza, is St Mark's Campanile (1156–73 last restored in 1514), rebuilt in 1912 com'era, dov'era ("as it was, where it was") after the collapse of the former campanile on 14 July 1902. Adjacent to the campanile, facing towards the church, is the small building known as the Loggetta del Sansovino, built by Sansovino in 1537–46 and used as a lobby by patricians waiting to go into a meeting of the Great Council in the Doge's Palace and by guards when the council was sitting.

Across the piazza in front of the church are three large mast-like flagpoles with bronze bases decorated in high relief by Alessandro Leopardi in 1505. The Venetian flag of St Mark used to fly from them in the time of the republic of Venice and now shares them with the Italian flag.

Description of the Piazzetta
The Piazzetta di San Marco is, strictly speaking, not part of the Piazza but an adjoining open space connecting the south side of the Piazza to the waterway of the lagoon. The Piazzetta lies between the Doge's Palace on the east and Jacopo Sansovino's Biblioteca (Library) which holds the Biblioteca Marciana on the west.

At the corner near the campanile, this (west) side is occupied entirely by the Biblioteca (Library) designed by Jacopo Sansovino to hold the Biblioteca Marciana (library of St Mark). Building started in 1537 and it was extended, after the death of Sansovino, by Vincenzo Scamozzi in 1588–91. The building was said by Palladio to be "the most magnificent and ornate structure built since ancient times". The arcade continues to the end of the building with cafés and shops and also the entrances to the Archaeological Museum, the Biblioteca Marciana and the National Library, which occupy the floors above.

At the end of this building is the Molo (the quay fronting the lagoon) and the adjoining building to the right is the Zecca (mint) also by Sansovino (completed 1547) and now part of the Biblioteca Marciana. Turning to the left at the end of the Biblioteca one crosses the open end of the Piazzetta marked by two large granite columns carrying symbols of the two patron saints of Venice. The first is Saint Theodore, who was the patron of the city before St Mark, holding a spear and with a crocodile to represent the dragon which he was said to have slain. This is made up of parts of antique statues and is a copy (the original is kept in the Doge's Palace). The second (eastern) column has a creature representing a winged lion – the Lion of Venice – which is the symbol of St Mark. This has a long history, probably starting as a winged lion-griffin on a monument to the god Sandon at Tarsus in Cilicia (Southern Turkey) about 300 BC. The columns are now thought to have been erected about 1268, when the water was closer and they would have been on the edge of the lagoon, framing the entry to the city from the sea. Gambling was permitted in the space between the columns and this right was said to have been granted as a reward to the man who first raised the columns. Public executions also took place between the columns.

On the far side of the Piazzetta is the side wall of the Doge's Palace with Gothic arcades at ground level and a loggia on the floor above. Up to the seventh pillar from the front this is the building as rebuilt in 1340, while the extension towards the Basilica was added in 1424. The capitals of the columns of the extended part are mostly copies of those in the front of the Palace. The seventh pillar is marked by a tondo (circular sculpture) of Venice as Justice above the first floor loggia. To the left of this, there are two red pillars in front of the first-floor loggia, contrasting with the other pillars which are of white Istrian stone. The red pillars are made of red Verona marble. They may have framed the Doge's chair on ceremonial occasions, but it seems that important malefactors found guilty of crimes against the state would sometimes be executed there.

On the rear corner of the Doge's Palace is a sculpture of the Judgment of Solomon with the archangel Gabriel above. The sculptors are not known. Set back from this corner is the Porta della Carta, the ceremonial entrance to the palace, built in fine Gothic style in 1438–43, probably by Giovanni and Bartolomeo Bon. Again, there is at the top a figure of Venice as Justice, the theme of fair judgment and justice being much emphasised on this side of the palace. Below this, the head of Doge Francisco Foscari and the lion before which he is kneeling were replaced in 1885, the originals having been destroyed on French orders in 1797. The statues on either side of the gateway represent the cardinal virtues of Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence and Charity.

Next to this, on an outside corner of the basilica of St Mark, are four antique figures carved in porphyry, a very hard red granite. They are usually known as the Tetrarchs and said to represent the four joint rulers of the Roman Empire appointed by Diocletian and were formerly thought to be Egyptian. It is now thought probable (or, at least very possible) that they represent the sons of the Emperor Constantine, praised for their loving co-operation on his death in 337, especially as the work originally stood in the Philadelphion (Place of Brotherly Love) in Constantinople, where the missing foot of one of the figures has been found.

Beyond this, in front of the South wall of the Basilica are two rectangular pillars always known as the Pillars of Acre. They were thought to be booty taken by the Venetians from Acre after their great victory over the Genoese there in 1258, but this traditional story has also had to be revised. The pillars actually came from the church of St Polyeuktos in Constantinople (524–27), and were probably taken by the Venetians soon after the fourth crusade in 1204. The ruins of this church were discovered in 1960 and it was excavated in the 1990s, when capitals were found, which matched the pillars.

Beyond these pillars, opposite the corner of the Basilica, is a great circular stone of red porphyry known as the Pietra del Bando (Proclamation Stone) from which official proclamations used to be read. It has been suggested that this may have formed part of a column on which the so-called Tetrarchs stood.

Across the water (the Bacino di San Marco) at the end of the Piazzetta can be seen the island of San Giorgio Maggiore and the brilliant white façade of Palladio's church there.

History
The history of the Piazza San Marco can be conveniently covered in four periods, but the only pre-renaissance buildings and monuments still standing there are St Mark's, the Doge's Palace and the two great columns in the Piazzetta.

Beginnings (800–1100)
The first patron saint of Venice was St Theodore, a Greek warrior saint, and the first chapel of the Doge was dedicated to him. It was probably built about 819 and stood near the site of the present church of St Mark. In 828–829 relics of St Mark were stolen from Alexandria and brought to Venice, and in time the Venetians and the Doge adopted the apostle as their new patron. He was the missionary-apostle who was said to have converted their district; the relics of an apostle would increase the importance of the city and their acquisition was a further step in the gradual process of freeing Venice from the domination of Byzantium. The relics were temporarily placed in the palace (or castle) of the Doge, Justinian Partecipacius, who provided in his will for a new church to be built. This first church of St Mark was begun on the south side of the existing chapel; by 836 construction was sufficiently advanced for the relics to be moved there. The design of the church was based on the Church of the Twelve Apostles in Constantinople and it seems to have covered the same area as the central part of the present church. A campanile was first built in the time of Doge Pietro Tribuno (888–91).

At that time there was probably an empty space covered with grass in front of the new church, but it cannot have extended more than about 60 metres to the west, where there was a stream (the Rio Baratario) bisecting the area now occupied by the Piazza. On the other side of this stream was a small church dedicated to San Geminiano. The Doge's palace, in the same area as its modern successor, was at that time surrounded by water. The lagoon was to the south, the Rio di Palazzo (the canal beneath the Bridge of Sighs) to the east, and another stream to the north between the palace and the church. There was an inlet from the lagoon occupying much of the space now covered by the Piazzetta and this seems to have been used as a dock for the city.

In 976 there was a rebellion against the Doge and the church was set on fire. The wooden parts, including the roof and wooden dome, were probably lost, but the church was not completely destroyed and it seems to have been rebuilt much as before. In 1063 a complete rebuilding commenced. The new church was finished in the time of Doge Vitale Falier (1084–96), and in its main structure this is the present church, though the west front facing the Piazza was then in the Romanesque style with undecorated brickwork (like the exterior of the apse today). It had five domes, but their exterior profile was low, unlike the present high, onion-shaped structures.

Medieval piazza (1100–1490)
Great changes to the area came when Sebastiano Ziani was Doge (1172–78). Venice was growing in importance and the Doge was a very wealthy man. He initiated the changes which created the piazza as we know it. The Rio Baratario was filled in and the church of San Geminiano on the far side was demolished and rebuilt much farther back at the western end of what became the Piazza. An orchard which occupied part of the area was acquired from the convent of San Zaccharia and the Doge bought up a number of buildings which obstructed the site. By his will he left these buildings to the state and in due course they were demolished to clear the area. The rebuilding of the 9th-century Doge's palace also commenced in his time as Doge. The precise date of the various new buildings is not known and much must have been done in the time of his son, Pietro Ziani, who was Doge from 1205 to 1229.

The area of the piazza was now defined by the erection of buildings on the north and south sides. On the north side were the procuratie, residences and offices for the procurators of St Mark. The original procuratie were a range of two-storey buildings with a continuous arcade of stilted (i.e. tall and narrow) Byzantine arches below and a single storey above, with two windows above each arch. The ground floor rooms were let out for shops to provide an income. These buildings remained in place for about 300 years and we can see exactly how they looked in 1496 in Gentile Bellini's painting of a procession in the piazza. This painting also shows the buildings on the opposite (south) side of the Piazza, of which the most important was the Ospizio Orseolo, an inn or hostel for pilgrims going to the Holy Land. It can be seen that the piazza was then considerably narrower than it is today, because these buildings abutted directly against the west wall of the campanile.

In 1204, Constantinople was captured in the course of the 4th Crusade and, both at that time and later during the 13th century, much valuable material was taken from the city and shipped back for the adornment of Venice. This included marbles and pillars for the façade of St Mark's, the two square pillars in the piazzetta known (wrongly) as the Pillars of Acre and probably also the Pietra del Bando (near the south west corner of St Mark's) and the four porphyry figures known as the Tetrarchs, which were eventually installed near the entrance to the Doge's Palace from the piazzetta.

The two great granite columns in the Piazzetta are usually said to have been erected about 1170, but it is now thought more probable that this was done in the time of Doge Ranieri Zeno (1253–68) about 1268; the bases and capitals are 13th-century. Their origin is unknown, but Chios is suggested as possible. The lion is first mentioned in a decree of the Great Council in 1293, and the wording makes it clear that it was already on the pillar at that date. A statue of St Theodore (but not the present statue) was in place by 1329.

It was also at this time, in the later 13th century, that St Mark's was being given its new west façade embellished with marble and mosaics and trophies from Constantinople, including the four horses.

The original 9th-century Doge's palace was soon found too small for the number of patricians sitting on the Great Council after the right to do so was made hereditary in 1297, and rebuilding started in 1340. Work was held up by the Black Death in 1348 but the first stage was completed by 1365. This comprised the front part of the palace facing the lagoon, but in the Piazzetta the new building only extended to the seventh pillar back from the front corner, now marked by a circular relief of Venice as Justice on the outside of the first-floor arcade. Further back, part of the old palace, known as the Palace of Justice, remained, much as it had stood for about 200 years.

Because of the great expense involved, nothing more was done for many years, but in 1422 the Doge Tomaso Mocenigo insisted that for the honour of the city the remaining part of the old palace should be demolished and the new part extended. It was resolved that the existing façade should be continued in the same style, and work started in 1424 under the new Doge Francesco Foscari. The extended façade had reached the corner by 1438 and the point where the 15th-century part joins the 14th-century part can only be recognised by the circular relief of Justice above the seventh pillar from the front corner and the fact that that pillar is larger than the others, having held up the corner of the building for 80 years. The capitals on this façade are, for the most part, copies of the existing capitals on the front façade. The last pillar, at the north-western corner of the building, is a very large column and, continuing the theme of Justice, bears a large relief carving of the Judgment of Solomon, with the archangel Gabriel above it. The sculptor is not known, although various suggestions have been made including Bartolomeo Buon from Venice and Jacopo della Quercia from Siena and several art historians think that the sculpture of the Judgment of Solomon (which must have been made in the period 1424/38) shows influence from Tuscany. Eduardo Arslan, after reviewing all the theories in 1971, concluded that this sculpture "remains for us a great mystery".

In 1438 a contract was made with Giovanni and Bartolomeo Buon for the construction of a great ceremonial doorway into the palace. This was the Porta della Carta and connected the newly constructed wing of the palace with the south wall of St Mark's. Giovanni was nearing the end of his life and the gateway is mainly the work of Bartolomeo. It was completed by 1442 and included a sculpture of the Doge Francesco Foscari kneeling before the lion of St Mark. The statues of the cardinal virtues on either side were by another hand. Originally the whole gateway was painted and gilded. This is just visible in the right background of Gentile Bellini's painting of 1496, which shows the piazza in its state at this time, still narrow and with the old 13th-century buildings on either side.

From the Renaissance to the fall of the Republic (1490–1797)
In 1493 an astronomical clock was commissioned by Venice and it was decided to install it in a new clocktower in the Piazza with a high archway beneath it leading into the street known as the Merceria, which leads to the Rialto. The building, which was probably designed by Codussi, was started in 1496, a section of the original Procuratie being demolished for the purpose. The building was completed with the clock installed by February 1499. It can be seen, flanked by the original Procuratie building, in de Barbari's woodcut of Venice in 1500. The Procuratie then were only two storeys high and the tower stood higher above them than it does today.

Buildings on either side to support the tower were added by 1506 and in 1512, when there was a fire in the old Procuratie, it became obvious that the whole range would have to be rebuilt.

Although Venice was then at war with much of Europe (War of the League of Cambrai) the whole of the south side of the Piazza was rebuilt, starting in 1517. The new buildings, known today as the Procuratie Vecchie, were three storeys high instead of two. Like the previous Procuratie they had an arcade on the ground level with two windows above each arch, but without the high Byzantine arches and with classical details.

In 1527 Jacopo Sansovino came to Venice, fleeing from the sack of Rome, and by 1529 he had been appointed as Proto (consultant architect and buildings manager) to the Procurators of St. Mark. The Procurators wished to rebuild the old buildings on the south side of the Piazza, but Sansovino persuaded them that the opportunity should be taken to enlarge the Piazza and that these buildings should be demolished and the building line moved back clear of the campanile. He also convinced them that the old hostelries and shops on the west side of the Piazzetta opposite the Doge's Palace should be replaced by a new building worthy of the site. It was decided that the library of books and manuscripts, which had been bequeathed to the city by Cardinal Bessarion but had still not found a permanent home, should be housed there and Sansovino originally intended that the façade of this building (the Libreria) should eventually be continued along the south side of the Piazza and round the south-west corner as far as the church of San Geminiano in the middle of the west side. These changes also made it necessary to rebuild the Loggetta and at the same time the government of Venice had commissioned Sansovino to rebuild the mint (the Zecca) on the west side of the Libreria. All these works were proceeding together for many years after 1537. The new Loggetta was complete by 1545 and the Zecca by 1547 (though a third storey was added by 1566), but work on the Libreria was held up by the difficulty of finding new premises for the businesses which were displaced as well as by shortage of funds and only sixteen bays (out of twenty-one) had been finished before the death of Sansovino in 1570. By that date it had not yet been possible to start on the rebuilding of the south side of the Piazza beyond the Libreria.

Sansovino also completed the rebuilding of the old church of San Geminiano at the west end of the Piazza, facing St Mark's. Much of the work had been done before he took it over in 1557, but he was responsible for the façade in white Istrian stone. He also continued the range of Procuratie Vecchie on the north side of the Piazza round the corner as far as this church.

After the death of Sansovino funds were at last made available to start the rebuilding of the south side of the Piazza in its new position well clear of the campanile. His idea of a two-storey building continuing the façade of the Libreria had to be abandoned, as the Procurators required three storeys. However Vincenzo Scamozzi based the design on the façade of the Libreria and completed ten bays between 1582 and 1586, The Procuratie Nuove (New Procuracies), as they are called, were not completed until 1640, when the remaining bays on the south side were completed and continued round the corner to the church of San Geminiano by Baldassarre Longhena.

Napoleon and later (1797 onwards)
Venice surrendered to Napoleon on 12 May 1797. By 4 June a "Tree of Liberty" had been placed in the Piazza. Soon afterwards stonemasons were sent out on the orders of the Municipality to destroy images of the winged lion, which was seen as a symbol of Venetian independence and aristocratic rule. On the Porta della Carta in the Piazzetta the head of Doge Francesco Foscari was removed as well as that of the lion before which he was kneeling. (They were replaced by copies later in the century). The French ordered the four horses of San Marco to be taken down and sent to Paris together with the bronze lion on the column in the Piazzetta. They were removed in December 1797.

In January 1798 under the Treaty of Campoformio the Austrians moved into Venice in place of the French. This first Austrian ascendancy lasted from 1798 to 19 January 1806, when the French moved back after Napoleon's victories at Austerlitz and Jena and his establishment of the kingdom of Italy in 1804. Napoleon appointed his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais as his viceroy and in 1807 it was ordered that the Procuratie Nuove were to become the royal palace for his occupation. Napoleon himself paid a ceremonial visit to Venice later in 1807, landing at the Piazzetta on his way to the new palace.

It was decided that the new palace should extend across the whole of the west end of the Piazza and this made it necessary to demolish the church of San Geminiano, rebuilt by Sansovino, and also the buildings on either side, Sansovino's extension of the Procuratie Vecchie to the north and part of the Procuratie Nuove to the south. The original architect was Gianni Antolini from Milan, but the new building caused much controversy and in 1810 he was replaced by Giovanni Soli from Modena. The present building, known as the Ala Napoleonica (the Napoleonic Wing) was built between 1810 and 1813. The façade of the two lower storeys is in the manner of the Procuratie Nuove, but the upper storey, containing the ceremonial entrance and the ballroom, has no windows or arches and is decorated with statues and sculpture in low relief. In the centre there was originally to have been a statue of Napoleon as Jupiter with the imperial arms above, but this was abandoned after the fall of Napoleon in 1814 and there is now no focal point on the west side of the Piazza.

After the abdication of Napoleon the Austrians re-occupied Venice (under the Treaty of Fontainebleau) in April 1814. The Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, was instrumental in arranging the return to Venice of the four horses of St Mark and the lion from the Piazzetta. The horses were re-installed in front of the Basilica on 13 December 1815, but the bronze lion had been badly broken and had to be repaired. It was placed back on its pillar in April 1816.

Pavement
The Piazza was paved in the late 12th century with bricks laid in a herringbone pattern. Bands of light-colored stone ran parallel to the long axis of the main piazza. These lines were probably used in setting up market stalls and in organizing frequent ceremonial processions. This original pavement design can be seen in paintings of the late Middle Ages and through the Renaissance, such as Gentile Bellini's Procession in Piazza San Marco of 1496.

In 1723 the bricks were replaced with a more complex geometrical pavement design laid out by Venetian architect Andrea Tirali. Little is known about Tirali's reasoning for the particulars of the design. Some have speculated that the pattern was used to regulate market stalls, or to recall their former presence in the square. Others believe the pattern was drawn from oriental rugs, a popular luxury item in this trading centre.

A field of dark-colored igneous trachyte with geometrical designs executed in white Istrian stone, similar to travertine composed the design. Squares of diagonally laid blocks alternated with rectangular and oval designs along broad parallel bands. The squares were pitched to the centre, like a bowl, where a drain conducted surface water into a below-grade drainage system. The pattern connected the central portal of the Basilica with the centre of the western opening into the piazza. This line more closely parallels the façade of the Procuratie Vecchie, leaving a nearly triangular space adjacent to the Procuratie Nuove with its wider end closed off by the Campanile. The pattern continued past the campanile, stopping at a line connecting the three large flagpoles and leaving the space immediately in front of the Basilica undecorated. A smaller version of the same pattern in the Piazzetta paralleled Sansovino's Library, leaving a narrow trapezoid adjacent to the Doge's palace with the wide end closed off by the southwest corner of the Basilica. This smaller pattern had the internal squares inclined to form non-orthogonal quadrilaterals.

The overall alignment of the pavement pattern serves to visually lengthen the long axis and reinforce the position of the Basilica at its head. This arrangement mirrors the interior relationship of nave to altar within the cathedral.

As part of the design, the level of the piazza was raised by approximately one meter to mitigate flooding and allow more room for the internal drains to carry water to the Grand Canal.

In 1890, the pavement was renewed "due to wear and tear". The new work closely follows Tirali's design, but eliminated the oval shapes and cut off the west edge of the pattern to accommodate the Napoleonic wing at that end of the Piazza.

Flooding
The Piazza San Marco is not far above sea level and during the acqua alta, the "high water" from storm surges from the Adriatic or heavy rain, it is quick to flood. Water pouring into the drains in the piazza runs directly into the Grand Canal. This normally works well but, when the sea is high, it has the reverse effect, with water from the lagoon surging up into the square. A historically important flood was the 1966 Venice flood, when an abnormal occurrence of high tides, rain-swollen rivers and a severe sirocco wind caused the canals to rise to a height of 194 cm or 6 ft 4 in.

title: Piazza San Marco


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César Awards

The César Award is the national film award of France. It is delivered in the Nuit des César ceremony and was first awarded in 1976. The nominations are selected by the members of twelve categories of filmmaking professionals and supported by the French Ministry of Culture. The nationally televised award ceremony is held in Paris each year in February. The exact location has changed over the years (in the Théâtre du Châtelet from 2002 to 2016). It is an initiative of the Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinéma, which was founded in 1975.

The César Award is considered the highest film honor in France, the French film industry's equivalent to the Molière Award for theatre, and the Victoires de la Musique for music. In cinema, it is the French equivalent to the Academy Award.

The award was created by Georges Cravenne, who was also the creator of the Molière Award for theatre. The name of the award comes from the sculptor César Baldaccini (1921–1998) who designed it.

The 49th César Awards ceremony took place on 23 February 2024. Anatomy of a Fall, directed by Justine Triet, won the award for Best Film.

History
In 1974, Georges Cravenne founded the Academy of Arts and Techniques of Cinema that was, from the outset, intended to reward the achievements and the most remarkable film artwork, to have a French equivalent to the American Oscars. The first César Awards – also known as the "Night of Caesar" – were held on 3 April 1976 under the chairmanship of Jean Gabin who watched the ceremony from the front row seated in a wheelchair a few months before his death. The name of the award comes from the sculptor César, designer of the trophy awarded to the winners in each category. It is also an homage to the Raimu, the great French actor and performer of Marseille trilogy of Marcel Pagnol, in which Raimu played the character of César. The César Awards replaced the, which was awarded from 1955 to 1975. Other prizes had been awarded to French cinema in the past. From 1934 to 1986, the, established by film pioneer Louis Lumière, was given to one film a year. In the 1950s, the was awarded each June. Lacking popular enthusiasm compared to the Étoile de cristal, this award was discontinued after 1964.

At the inaugural César Awards, 13 awards were distributed. Today, there are 22 (in nine subcategories). Categories added in recent years include Most Promising Actor/Actress (Meilleur espoir), Best Documentary (Meilleur documentaire) and Best Animated Film (Meilleur film d'animation), while awards honoring the best film poster and best producer have been dropped, as they are now given at a sister ceremony, the. In September 2021, the governing association of the César Awards voted to create two new awards that were introduced in the 47th ceremony: Best Visual Effects and Best Documentary Short Film.

Beginning with the 43rd César ceremony in 2018, a new special award, the César du public, is given to the French film with the most box office receipts during the previous year and the beginning of the current year. This award responds to the need to reward French comedy films, which remain the most popular genre in France.

During the 45th ceremony in 2020, Adèle Haenel, a French actress playing the main character in Portrait of a Lady on Fire, left the room when Roman Polanski's award for best director was announced in protest against the fact that notable sexual abusers in the film industry can receive awards when their victims are reduced to silence. Polanski was convicted of unlawful sexual intercourse with a 13-year-old in California in 1978, and has additionally been accused of other incidents of rape.

The statue
The César statues are compressed sculptures of metal objects, designed in 1975 by the sculptor César Baldaccini, a friend of Georges Cravenne who gave them their name as a wink to the Oscars, the sound of the name being close to the film César by Pagnol. These forged pieces are made from polished natural bronze, unlike the Oscars which are plated in gold. The latter directly inspired the first AATC trophy in 1976, which was a reel of film encircling a silhouette. In 1977, before a mixed reception of actors, Baldaccini unveiled the current 8 by 8 cm compression, weighing 3.6 kg and cast in the Bocquel foundry in Normandy. The cost of a César has not been officially revealed, but is estimated at around 1,500 euros.

Voting process
Voting for César Awards is conducted through two ballots by mail: the first to establish nominations per category (three to five, depending on the discipline), and the second to decide the winner.

Voters are professionals in the field, numbering about 4,000, divided into 12 colleges (actors, directors, writers, technicians, producers, distributors and international vendors, operators, agents artistic, technical industries, casting directors, press officers and members associates). The criteria for voting are: demonstrate a relatively consistent career in film and get a double sponsorship in the Académie des arts et techniques du cinéma. Nominees or winners of the previous editions are exempt from these formalities.

To aid voters, the Académie identifies each year films released in France and provides a guide to the works and eligible professionals. A DVD set of French or primarily French productions produced during the year is sent in December with the catalog of films to the electors. After the nominations are revealed, at the end of January, special screenings of the nominated films are shown at the Le Balzac cinema in Paris, near the Champs-Élysées. Each year, a special lunch for nominees is held at the famous Fouquet's restaurant on the Champs-Élysées, a few weeks before the ceremony.

Merit awards

 * Best Film
 * Best Director
 * Best Actor
 * Best Actress
 * Best Supporting Actor
 * Best Supporting Actress
 * Best Male Revelation
 * Best Female Revelation
 * Best Adaptation
 * Best Original Screenplay
 * Best First Feature Film
 * Best Foreign Film

 * Best Animated Film
 * Best Documentary Film
 * Best Fiction Short Film
 * Best Animated Short Film
 * Best Cinematography
 * Best Costume Design
 * Best Editing
 * Best Music Written for a Film
 * Best Production Design
 * Best Sound
 * Best Documentary Short Film
 * Best Visual Effects

Special awards

 * Honorary Award – since 1976
 * César des Césars – between 1985 and 1995
 * Prix Daniel Toscan du Plantier – since 2008
 * Trophée César & Techniques – since 2011
 * Médaille d'Or – only in 2015
 * César & Techniques Special Award – only between 2015 and 2017
 * César & Techniques Innovation Award – since 2018
 * César du public – since 2018

Retired awards

 * Best Film from the European Union (2002–2004)
 * Best Poster (1986–1990)
 * Best Producer (1995–1996)
 * Best Writing (Adaptation or Original) (1976–2005)
 * Best French Language Film (1984–1986)
 * Best Short Film (1992–2021)

Winners

 * The Last Metro (1980)
 * 1) Best Film: François Truffaut
 * 2) Best Director: François Truffaut
 * 3) Best Actor: Gérard Depardieu
 * 4) Best Actress: Catherine Deneuve
 * 5) Best Writing: Suzanne Schiffman and François Truffaut

 * Amour (2013)
 * 1) Best Film: Michael Haneke & Margaret Ménégoz
 * 2) Best Director: Michael Haneke
 * 3) Best Actor: Jean-Louis Trintignant
 * 4) Best Actress: Emmanuelle Riva
 * 5) Best Writing: Michael Haneke

Nominees
Four awards won
 * Smoking/No Smoking (1993): Best Actress (Sabine Azéma)
 * Too Beautiful for You (1989): Best Actor (Gérard Depardieu)

Three awards won
 * Cyrano de Bergerac (1990): Best Actress (Anne Brochet) and Writing (Jean-Claude Carrière and Jean-Paul Rappeneau)
 * Same Old Song (1997): Best Actress (Sabine Azéma) and Director (Alain Resnais)
 * The Artist (2011): Best Actor (Jean Dujardin) and Writing (Michel Hazanavicius)
 * Custody (2017): Best Actor (Denis Ménochet) and Director (Xavier Legrand)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: César Awards


text:
AGA cooker

The Aga Range Cooker is a Swedish range cooker. Invented and initially produced in Sweden, since 1957 most production has been located in the UK. In 2015, the British AGA Cooker manufacturing company, AGA Rangemaster Group, was acquired by the American corporation Middleby.

History
Originally developed to burn coal or anthracite, the Aga range cooker was invented in 1922 by the Nobel Prize-winning Swedish physicist Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937), who was employed as the chief engineer of the Swedish AGA company (Swedish Svenska Aktiebolaget Gasaccumulator, English Swedish Gas Accumulator, Limited). "AGA" stands for Aktiebolaget Gas Accumulator.

Dalén lost his sight in an explosion while developing his earlier invention, a porous substrate for storing gases, Agamassan. Forced to stay at home, Dalén discovered that his wife was exhausted by cooking. Although blind, he set out to develop a new stove that was capable of a range of culinary techniques and easy to use.

Adopting the principle of heat storage, he combined a heat source, two large hotplates and two ovens into one unit: the Aga Range Cooker. The cooker was introduced to the United Kingdom in 1929, and was manufactured there under licence in the early 1930s. Its popularity in certain parts of British society (owners of medium to large country houses) led to the coining of the term 'AGA saga' in the 1990s, referring to a genre of fiction set amongst stereotypical upper-middle-class society.

David Ogilvy was initially hired as an Aga range cooker salesperson, before writing the 1935 sales manual for the product.

The cast-iron parts were cast at the Coalbrookdale foundry in the 1940s, where they were still made by the Aga Rangemaster Group until November 2017, when the new American owners Middleby closed the site with the loss of 35 jobs.

Energy use
A small, traditional "always on" two-oven model running on gas will use approximately 425kWh per week. The average standard gas oven and hob uses approximately 2.6% of the AGA range cooker's consumption. AGA's own figures for expected energy consumption for their two-oven model support this criticism, suggesting average consumption of 40 litres (9 gal. imp.) of kerosene or diesel fuel per week, 60 litres (13 gal. imp.) of propane gas per week, 425 kW⋅h of natural gas per week, or 220 kW⋅h/week for the electric models. This would indicate that the smallest traditional two-oven gas AGA range cooker providing simple cooking functions (i.e. not providing a water heater or central heating) consumes thirty-eight times as much as a standard gas oven and hob, almost as much gas in a week as a standard gas oven and hob in nine months.

AGA Rangemaster Group has provided an analysis of their own, which includes the steps taken to reduce energy consumption.

The majority of AGA range cookers still sold are programmable. The 2011 model, the Total Control, uses the same radiant heat to cook, but is designed to be switched off like a regular cooker when not in use, using far less energy. Oil burning models can be fitted with a modern pressure jet oil burner in place of the standard wick burner which burns the fuel more efficiently and so reduces oil consumption.

Models
AGA range cookers are available in 2, 3, 4 and 5 oven models with the 4 and 5 oven versions wider than the others. Traditional AGA range cookers have a boiling and simmering plate, or in newer models with one hotplate this can be set to either boiling or simmering mode.

While the classic AGA models are on all the time, the ovens and hotplates of the newer AGA range cookers (AGA 60, Total Control, 3 Series) can be switched on and off as required and the hotplates on the Dual Control cookers can be switched on and off, meaning there is heat in to the room but energy is not used unnecessarily. The AGA 60 is the smallest in the range and is just 60 cm (2') wide.

The Aga Range Cooker is known for its longevity, with many cookers still operating after more than 50 years. In 2009, in conjunction with The Daily Telegraph and to celebrate the 80th anniversary of its founding, AGA Rangemaster set up a competition to find the oldest AGA range cooker still in use. There were thousands of entries, but the winning cooker was installed in 1932 and belonged to the Hett family of Sussex.

title: AGA cooker


text:
Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture

Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA) is the third-generation Amiga graphic chipset, first used in the Amiga 4000 in 1992. Before release AGA was codenamed Pandora by Commodore International.

AGA was originally called AA for Advanced Architecture in the United States. The name was later changed to AGA for the European market to reflect that it largely improved the graphical subsystem, and to avoid trademark issues.

AGA is able to display graphics modes with a depth of up to 8 bits per pixel. This allows for 256 colors in indexed display modes and 262,144 colors (18-bit) in Hold-And-Modify (HAM-8) modes. The palette for the AGA chipset has 256 entries from 16,777,216 colors (24-bit), whereas previous chipsets, the Original Chip Set (OCS) and Enhanced Chip Set (ECS), only allow 32 colors out of 4096 or 64 colors in Amiga Extra Half-Brite (EHB mode). Other features added to AGA over ECS are super-hi-res smooth scrolling and 32-bit fast page memory fetches to supply the graphics data bandwidth for 8 bitplane graphics modes and wider sprites.

AGA is an incremental upgrade, rather than the dramatic upgrade of the other chipset that Commodore had begun in 1988, the Amiga Advanced Architecture chipset (AAA), lacking many features that would have made it competitive with other graphic chipsets of its time. Apart from the graphics data fetches, AGA still operates on 16-bit data only, meaning that significant bandwidth is wasted during register accesses and copper and blitter operations. Also the lack of a chunky graphics mode is a speed impediment to graphics operations not tailored for planar modes, resulting in ghost artifacts during the common productivity task of scrolling. In practice, the AGA HAM mode is mainly useful in paint programs, picture viewers, and for video playback. Workbench in 256 colors is much slower than ECS operation modes for normal application use; a workaround is to use multiple screens with different color depths. AGA lacks flicker free higher resolution modes, being only able to display 640 × 480 at 72 Hz flicker-free operation. 800 × 600 mode is rarely used as it can only operate at a flickering 60 Hz interlaced mode. In contrast, higher-end PC systems of this era can operate 1024 × 768 at 72 Hz with a full 256-color display. AGA's highest resolution is 1440 × 580 (262 144 colors) in interlaced 50 Hz PAL mode, when overscan is used.

These missed opportunities in the AGA upgrade contributed to the Amiga ultimately losing technical leadership in the area of multimedia. After the long-delayed AAA was finally suspended, AGA was to be succeeded by the Hombre chipset, but this was ultimately cancelled due to Commodore's bankruptcy.

AGA is present in the CD32, Amiga 1200, and Amiga 4000.

Technical details
In order to increase memory bandwidth, the Chip RAM data bus was extended to 32-bit width as in the A3000 (unlike AGA, the A3000's Chip RAM is 32-bit for CPU access only) and the Alice chip (replacing OCS/ECS Agnus) was improved to be able to support full-width access for bitplane DMA. Bandwidth was doubled again (to 4x) by using Fast Page Mode RAM. Lisa (replacing former Denise) adds support for 8-bit bitplane data fetches, 256 instances of 24-bit palette registers, and for 32-bit data transfer for bitplane graphic and sprites.

The rest of the chipset remains unchanged, as do the Blitter and Copper coprocessors in Alice, still working on 16-bit data.

title: Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture


text:
Westgate Hotel

The Westgate Hotel, Commercial Street, Newport, Wales is a hotel building dating from the 19th century. On 4 November 1839 the hotel saw the major scenes of the Newport Rising, when 3,000 Chartists, some of them armed, led by John Frost marched on Newport to attempt to secure the release of five of their number who were being held under arrest at the hotel. In the fighting between about 60 soldiers of the 45th Regiment of Foot and police on one side, and a larger number of Chartists on the other, 10-22 Chartists were killed and more than 50 wounded. The hotel is a Grade II listed building.

History
After the demolition of Newport's original West city gate, the site was reclaimed and a hotel constructed in 1779 on the site of a previous 15th-century house.

The Westgate Hotel was the location of the last large-scale armed rebellion against authority in Great Britain. On 4 November 1839, local politician and activist John Frost led a protest march of 3,000 Chartists, some of them armed, into the centre of Newport. Here he discovered that several Chartists had been arrested and were being held in the Westgate Hotel by police, who were reinforced by soldiers of the 45th Regiment of Foot. Firing began (it is unclear who fired first), and in the fighting 10-22 people were killed and more than 50 others wounded. As many as 80 shots were fired into the hotel during the rising. Small holes in the pillars at the entrance to the hotel are assumed, by some, to be bullet holes from the insurrection, although this has not been evidenced. The hotel was substantially rebuilt in 1884 but the original pillars were retained, and the present structure built in French Renaissance style. Designed by local architect E. A. Lansdowne, it incorporated six shops at ground floor level to increase the site's rental income, and placed a new five-storey hotel above, with twice the floor size of the hotel it replaced, which included an ornate ballroom. Built by local builder John Linton, it was leased from its opening in 1886 to Samuel Dean of the Castle Hotel for twenty one years.

In 2009 the building was placed on the Buildings at Risk Register as it had been substantially unoccupied for many years and the condition of its interior was beginning to cause concern. The main staircase and richly decorated public rooms are amongst the best surviving examples in the UK of their period. In 2012 Newport Unlimited announced an initiative to bring the hotel back into use. In May 2017 the property was offered for auction with a guide price of between £1.5M and £1.75M. The building was purchased in October 2017 by Rugby Property Assets Limited of Warwickshire. By 2024, little progress had been made, the building remained subject to vandalism and decay, and the council was considering enforcement action.

Chartist legacy
In 1991 three statues, titled "Union, Prudence, Energy" by sculptor Christopher Kelly, commemorating the 1839 Chartist uprising were installed on Commercial Street in front of the hotel. The hotel also featured in the 1978 Chartist Mural which was demolished during the 2013 development of Friars Walk in Newport city centre.

The story of the rebellion was reflected in the Manic Street Preachers' 2014 song "The View from Stow Hill".

In July 2019, Our Chartist Heritage announced they would re-open part of the Westgate Buildings for a temporary display. The charity worked with the consortium who own the building, and local Newport graphic artist Josh Cranton, to bring the building up to a viable state for public access, ahead of the anniversary of the Chartist Rising. The interior was repainted and a free display was organised to commemorate the events of the rising.

title: Westgate Hotel


text:
Chartist (occupation)

A chartist (also known as a technical trader or technical analyst) is one who utilizes charts to assess patterns of activity that might be helpful in making predictions. Most commonly, chartists use technical analysis in the financial world to evaluate financial securities. For example, a chartist may plot past values of stock prices in an attempt to denote a trend from which he or she might infer future stock prices. The chartist's philosophy is that "history repeats itself". Technical analysis assumes that a stock's price reflects all that is known about a company at any given point in time.

title: Chartist (occupation)


text:
Talk:Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime

Even numbers
I removed the even numbers because they are usually excluded, they are not useful, and the formula doesn't make sense for even n. AxelBoldt 20:39 Oct 8, 2002 (UTC)
 * Okay. Another thing with the definition. We do not have to say "if a and n are relatively prime", since if they would be coprime they wouldn't never satisfy the Euler's criterion.
 * I think that if a is a multiple of n, for instance, then the Euler criterion is satisfied, but we don't want to call n a pseudoprime to base a in that case. AxelBoldt 22:20 Oct 8, 2002 (UTC)
 * I wasn't quite precise. We do not need three conditions here, but just two. It is not true that for some composite numbers, which are not coprime, Euler's criterion is satisfied. So, when one composite number n for the base a satisfies the Euler's criterion and is equal to (a/n) (mod n), must be automatically coprime to a. And furthermore just these composite numbers satisfy already Euler's criterion. Euler' criterion alone is sufficient condition. We can also say:

 * An odd composite integer n is called an Euler pseudoprime to base a, if:

 * a(n-1)/2 = 1 (mod n).

The Jacobi symbol is missing here. We actually have to require that a and n are coprime; otherwise, we would have to say that 6 is an Euler pseudoprime to base 12.

Motivation
The motivation for this definition is the fact that all prime numbers n satisfy the above equation...

I don't get the idea of this sentence. Primes which satisfy the Euler's criterion (and also above equation) are for the base a just these from the set:
 * {2, 11, 13, 23, 37, 47, 59, 61, 71, 73, 83, 97, 107, 109, 131, 157, 167, 179, 181, 191, 193, ...}

and not all primes. Primes from the set:
 * {3, 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41, 43, 53, 67, 79, 89, 101, 103, 113, 127, 137, 139, 149, 151, 163, 173, 197, 199, ...}

do not satisfy above equation for base a=3. For instance:
 * 3(11-1)/2 = 1 and (3/11) (mod 11) = 1, but:
 * 3(5-1)/2 = 1 and (3/5) (mod 5) = 4.

What is wrong with the sentence than? --XJamRastafire 14:31 Oct 11, 2002 (UTC)

All primes n satisfy Euler's criterion

 * a(n-1)/2 = (a/n) (mod n).

for any number a that's relatively prime to n. In your example, you got 4, but that's the same as -1 modulo 5.

Move
Would anyone object to my moving this page to Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime? As far as I know the definitions a(n-1)/2 = + - 1 (mod n) for an Euler pseudoprime and a(n-1)/2 =  (a/n) (mod n) for an Euler-Jacobi pesudoprime are more well known. There are references on some pages on Wikipedia to both Euler and Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes and if this is our definition for Euler pseudoprime then any mention of Euler-Jacobi is essentially redundant. Also the link in the article to SIDN A006970 is incorrect as it stands as it links to a sequence of what I would define as Euler pseudoprimes and not what this article defines as Euler pseudoprimes. This is the sequence that the article as it stands should link to, a sequence described as 'Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes: 2^{(n-1)/2} == (2 / n) mod n.' Wolfram also defines these numbers as Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes but mentions that they are sometimes known as Euler pseudoprimes.

I've also just noticed that the table is in fact wrong and is giving the numbers satisfying a(n-1)/2 = + - 1 (mod n), i.e. 341 is an Euler pseudoprime but not an Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime, i.e. it doesn't satisfy 2(341-1)/2 = (2/341) (mod 341), 2(341-1)/2 = 1 (mod 341) but (2/341) = -1 (mod 341). So the table should probably stay with a new definition I guess (and I'll check the table values with a program I have to make sure that they are right, and can make a new table for the Euler-Jacobi pseudoprimes). -- Ams80 11:42 May 8, 2003 (UTC)
 * I have no objections as long as everything you've noticed is quite correct. I am also glad for your notifications. It is elementary article but in fact it isn't, so it would probably take some time to get a good and correct representation of what was meant to be in. See also a short prepared link for different types of pseudoprimes there at the bottom (and add or correct if necessary. I'll also allocate some more time for this article and watch it. Best regards. --XJamRastafire 13:29 May 8, 2003 (UTC)

 * I agree, the change makes sense and doublechecking the table is also very much appreciated. And if you can even find the time to check the links to Euler pseudoprime and Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime and make sure that everything is consistent, that would be even better. Cheers! AxelBoldt 04:37 May 9, 2003 (UTC)

Math
$$a^{\frac{n-1}{2}} \equiv 1 \mod n$$ means the same like $$(a^{\frac{n-1}{2}} \mod n) = (1 \mod n)$$, which you, because $$1 \mod n$$ is 1 for every integer greater 1, could substitute to $$a^{\frac{n-1}{2}} \mod n = 1 $$. But you shouldn't do that because you could get a contrdiction:

if a*n = b*n => a = b

but

if a mod n = b mod n !=> a = b (a is not necessarily equal b, if a mod n is equal b mod n)

let a 4, b 7 and n 3. Then it is true: 4 mod 3 = 7 mod 3, but 4 is not equal 7.

so it is better to write $$4 \equiv 7 \mod 3$$. It describe a relationship from 4 and 7 to the mod of 3. --217.233.234.42 00:05, 8 Apr 2004 (UTC)

561
561 is not the smallest absolute Euler Pseudoprime In fact 561 is Euler Pseudoprime to the primebases (2, 13, 19, 43, 47, 53, 59, 67, 83, 89, 101, 103, 127, 137, 149, 151, 157, 179, 191, 223, 229, 239, 251, 257, 263, 271, 281, 293, 307, 331, 349, 353, 359, 373, 383, 389, 409, 421, 433, 443, 457, 461, 463, 467, 491, 509, 523, 557, ). It is not epsp to 5,, 7, 23, 29, 31, ... . The smallest absolute epsp is 1729. Then follow 2465 and 15841. --Arbol01 16:11, 26 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Table corrections
There were a number of omissions in the table. I wrote some code to do the calculations myself, and have replaced the table with those results. I verified the results of my program (and thus the table) against OEIS A047713 (base 2 ejpp, checked < 10000), A048950 (base 3 ejpp, checked < 10000), A055551 (number of base 2 ejpp < 10^n, checked for n <= 8).

Here's my Haskell code: -- computes (a ^ b) `mod` n efficiently modpow :: (Integral a) => a -> a -> a -> a modpow a 1 n = mod a n modpow a b n = mod ((modpow a (div b 2) n) ^ 2 * (a ^ (mod b 2))) n -- integer sqrt: floor (sqrt n), aka the largest integer x such that x^2 <= n isqrt :: (Integral a) => a -> a isqrt n = if (g * g > n) then (g - 1) else g  where g = isqrti 1 n isqrti :: (Integral a) => a -> a -> a isqrti g n = if (abs (g - g1) <= 1) then (g) else (isqrti (div (g + g1) 2) n)   where g1 = div n g primes :: [Integer] primes = 2:[x | x <- [3,5..], (all ((/= 0). (mod x)) (takeWhile ((<=x).(^2)) primes))] isPrime :: Integer -> Bool isPrime x | x <= 1 = False isPrime x = all ((/= 0) . (mod x)) (takeWhile ((<= x). (^2)) primes) jacobi :: (Integral a) => a -> a -> a jacobi _ n | (n < 0 || even n) = error "n must be positive odd integer" jacobi a 1                    = 1 jacobi 2 n                    = if (n `mod` 8 == 1 || n `mod` 8 == 7) then 1 else -1 jacobi a n | (gcd a n /= 1)   = 0 jacobi a n | (a > n)          = jacobi (a `mod` n) n jacobi a n | (a `mod` 2 == 0)  = (jacobi 2 n) * (jacobi (a `div` 2) n) jacobi a n | (a < n)           = if ((a `mod` 4 == 3) && (n `mod` 4 == 3)) then ((-1) * j) else j   where j = jacobi n a isEJPrime :: (Integral a) => a -> a -> Bool isEJPrime a n | (gcd a n /= 1) = False isEJPrime a n | (even n)      = False isEJPrime a n                 = (modpow a ((n-1) `div` 2) n) == ((jacobi a n) `mod` n) ejPseudoPrimes :: Integer -> [Integer] ejPseudoPrimes a = [x | x <- [3,5..], isEJPrime a x, not (isPrime x)] Evand (talk) 13:15, 25 October 2009 (UTC)

Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime is really Euler pseudoprime; merge them
I recommend that this page be merged into the Euler Pseudoprime page.

In primality testing, an Euler pseudoprime base a is normally defined to be a composite number n such that
 * $$a^{(n-1)/2} \equiv (a/n)\pmod{n}$$

where (a/n) is the Jacobi symbol.

See, for example, and , or any of numerous more recent books on the subject. Wikipedia calls this an Euler-Jacobi pseudoprime.

However, Wikipedia defines an Euler pseudoprime to be a composite number n such that
 * $$a^{(n-1)/2} \equiv \pm 1 \pmod{n}$$.

As far as I know, this definition is not used anywhere in the mathematical literature.

title: Talk:Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime


text:
Horse Cave, Kentucky

Horse Cave is a home rule-class city in Hart County, Kentucky, United States. Randall Curry currently serves as mayor of the city and is assisted by a city council that is composed of six members. As of the 2010 census, the population of Horse Cave was 2,311, making it the most populous community in the county.

History
The town was settled by Major Albert Anderson in the 1840s. The landowner donated land for a Louisville and Nashville Railroad station in 1858 on the provision that it be named after nearby Horse Cave. The community around the station developed quickly, so that a post office was erected in 1860, and the city was formally incorporated by the state assembly in 1864.

The cave for which the city is named is located on the south side of Main Street. Various explanations are given for its unusual name. One is that Native Americans or outlaws hid horses in the cave; another is that an early carriage may have lost a horse when it fell into the opening by accident; a third reason involves the 19th-century use of "horse" as slang for anything big or huge, related to a similar use of the Swedish hoss. The cave has also been known as "Hidden River Cave", for an underground stream located inside. That stream was used to power a dynamo, and for a while in the late 19th century Horse Cave was the only city in Kentucky apart from Louisville and Ashland to have electric lights. Around World War I, the only air-conditioned tennis courts in the world were located near the entrance of the cave. The stream also provided the town's water supply, but mistaken development caused raw sewage to seep into the water and forced the closure of the cave for fifty years. The stench was so bad in the 1960s that pedestrians typically crossed to the other side of Main Street rather than walk near the entrance and birds would sometimes fall from the sky. The problem has been largely solved in recent years.

The town changed its name to "Caverna" in 1869 but the inability to change the name of the railroad station prompted the community to reconsider and restore the name "Horse Cave" in 1879. Owing to its early rail connection, Horse Cave was a major center of agricultural commerce for Hart, Metcalfe, Green, and Barren counties since the 1870s. Tobacco warehouses provided the majority of the income.

Since the 1970s, some factories have relocated to the area, including Dart Container Corporation, T Marzetti Company, and Sister Schubert's Bakery. Tourist attractions include Kentucky Down Under/Kentucky Caverns, Hidden River Cave/American Cave Museum, and the nearby Mammoth Cave National Park. Civil War Days are an annual tourist event, during which time parades down Main Street and reenactments of the Battle of Rowlett's Station between Horse Cave and Munfordville are staged. A local theatre formerly known as the Horse Cave Theatre and/or the Kentucky Repertory Theatre once operated in Horse Cave but is no longer in business. Horse Cave serves as filming location for several films, including "Runaway Romance" and "Never Forgive."

Artist Joseph Dudley Downing (1925–2007) was born and grew up in Horse Cave, where he graduated valedictorian of his class. In 1980, an exhibition of 150 of his paintings was held in the People's Loose Leaf Tobacco Warehouse No. 2.

Geography
Horse Cave's southern border is the Barren County line and the border of Cave City. U.S. Route 31W (Dixie Street) is the main road through Horse Cave, leading north 8 mi to Munfordville and southwest through Cave City 10 mi to Park City near the entrance to Mammoth Cave National Park. Interstate 65 passes 2 mi west of Horse Cave, with access from Exit 58. I-65 leads north 78 mi to Louisville and southwest 97 mi to Nashville, Tennessee.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city of Horse Cave has a total area of 6.9 km2, of which 0.05 sqkm, or 0.74%, are water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,252 people, 977 households, and 601 families residing in the city. The population density was 758.0 PD/sqmi. There were 1,091 housing units at an average density of 367.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 80.91% White, 17.94% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.04% from other races, and 0.84% from two or more races. 0.58% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 977 households, out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 18.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were non-families. 34.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.84.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 20.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 81.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $21,134, and the median income for a family was $28,026. Males had a median income of $25,905 versus $18,457 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,861. About 24.1% of families and 27.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36.8% of those under age 18 and 22.5% of those age 65 or over.

Arts and culture
Horse Cave has a library, the Horse Cave Public Library.

Notable people

 * Joseph Dudley Downing, artist
 * Simon Bolivar Buckner, 30th governor of Kentucky
 * Clarence Glover, former NBA player
 * Tom Moran, National Football League player
 * John Stanley Palmore Jr., former Chief Justice of Kentucky's Supreme Court

title: Horse Cave, Kentucky


text:
New Jersey Route 41

Route 41 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs 14.08 mi from the five-way intersection of Route 47 (Delsea Drive), County Route 603 (CR 603; Fairview-Sewell Road/Blackswood-Barnsboro Road), and CR 630 (Egg Harbor Road), also known as Five Points, in Deptford Township, Gloucester County, north to the southern terminus of CR 611 in Maple Shade, Burlington County, just north of the Route 41's interchanges with Route 38 and Route 73. The route is a two- to four-lane suburban road that passes through several communities, including Runnemede, Haddonfield, and Cherry Hill Township. Between the intersection with Route 168 in Runnemede and Route 154 in Cherry Hill Township, Route 41 is maintained by Camden County and is also signed as County Route 573 (CR 573).

Route 41 was legislated in 1927 to run from Route 47 in Fairview, Deptford Township to Route 38 in Moorestown. Originally, the route was intended to bypass Haddonfield, however this bypass was never fully completed and Route 41 was signed along a temporary county-maintained alignment that also became CR 573. The northern part of this bypass was completed and became Route 154 in 1953. The road has seen many changes including the replacement of the traffic circle with Routes 38 and 73 with an interchange that involved realigning Route 41 around the original circle in 1960 and the replacement of the Ellisburg Circle at Routes 70 and 154 with a signalized intersection in the early 1990s. The temporary alignment of Route 41 along CR 573 was made permanent in the early 2000s.

Route description
Route 41 heads north from the Five Points intersection with Route 47 (Delsea Drive), CR 603 (Fairview-Sewell Road/Blackswood-Barnsboro Road), and CR 630 (Egg Harbor Road) in Deptford Township, Gloucester County, on a two-lane, undivided road called Hurffville Road. The route intersects CR 621 (County House Road) and then intersects CR 534 (Good Intent Road). The route continues north and meets Deptford Center Road, which heads west and provides access to the Deptford Mall and the Route 55 freeway, and a ramp to southbound Route 42 (North–South Freeway). Route 41 comes to an interchange with the Route 42 freeway, with access provided to and from northbound Route 42. Past Route 42, Route 41 intersects CR 544 (Clements Bridge Road), with which it forms a concurrency.

The route crosses the Big Timber Creek into Camden County, running along the border of Runnemede and Gloucester Township. CR 544 veers to the right onto Evesham Road, and Route 41 continues northeast on Clements Bridge Road into Runnemede. At the intersection with Route 168 (Black Horse Pike), Route 41 becomes county-maintained and runs concurrent with CR 573. The two routes cross into Barrington, where they pass over the New Jersey Turnpike. Upon crossing Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line, Route 41 and CR 573 run along the border of Barrington and Haddon Heights, with Barrington to the southeast and Haddon Heights to the northwest. The two routes pass under Interstate 295 (I-295) before meeting U.S. Route 30 (US 30, White Horse Pike) at a modified traffic circle.

Route 41 and CR 573 continue north on Highland Avenue and cross into Haddonfield, where the road becomes Chews Landing Road. The two routes meet CR 551 Spur (Kings Highway), and they bear to the right onto Kings Highway, heading northeast. They pass over NJ Transit’s Atlantic City Line and the PATCO Speedline south of the Haddonfield PATCO station and then intersect CR 561 (Haddon Avenue) Past CR 561, the road crosses the Cooper River into Cherry Hill Township. Route 41 and CR 573 make a right turn onto a four-lane divided highway and intersect Route 154 (Brace Road). At this point, CR 573 ends and Route 41 makes a left turn onto a six-lane divided highway, becoming state-maintained again and forming a concurrency with Route 154.

At the point Route 41 crosses Route 70 (Marlton Turnpike), Route 154 ends and Route 41 continues to the northeast on Kings Highway, a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. Route 41 becomes a four-lane divided highway at the crossing of the Pennsauken Creek and enters Maple Shade Township, Burlington County. The route interchanges with Route 38 and with Route 73 a short distance later. It continues to the northeast, where Route 41 ends at the end of state maintenance and Kings Highway continues northeast as CR 611.

History
From Moorestown to Haddonfield, the road was created as part of a King's Highway legislated in 1681 to connect South Amboy and Salem. Route 41 was legislated in 1927 to run from Route 47 in Fairview in Deptford Township to Route 38 in Moorestown along its current alignment, except through Haddonfield, which it was to bypass to the east. Also legislated in 1927 was a spur of Route 41, Route S41, which was to run from the Tacony–Palmyra Bridge to Berlin. Later spurs of Route 41 included Route S41A, which was a southern extension of Route S41 from Berlin to Route 42 (now US 322) in Folsom proposed in 1938. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Routes S41 and S41A became Route 73 and Route 41 was legislated along a county-maintained temporary route between Route 168 in Runnemede and Route 70 in Cherry Hill Township, signed Route 41 Temporary, when it became apparent the bypass around Haddonfield would not be fully completed. Only the northernmost section of the bypass between CR 561 and Route 70 had been built and this eventually became Route 154. The county-maintained section of Route 41 also became known as CR 573.

Since 1953, many changes have occurred along Route 41. During reconstruction of the traffic circle between Routes 38, 41, and 73 into an interchange by the 1970s, Route 41 was relocated to a new alignment that bypassed the original traffic circle and extended north a short distance on Kings Highway to just south of the CR 608 (Lenola Road) intersection in Maple Shade Township. The Ellisburg Circle at the intersection of Routes 41, 70, and 154 was reconstructed into an intersection with jughandles and traffic lights by the 1990s. This reconstruction involved realigning Route 41 to form a brief concurrency with Route 154 just south of Route 70. In the early 2000s, the Route 41 interchange with Route 42 in Deptford Township was, along with the CR 544 interchange with Route 42, reconstructed to ease traffic movements in the area. Signs for Route 41 Temporary and CR 573 still remain along this stretch of Route 41, which today is officially considered to be a part of mainline Route 41.

title: New Jersey Route 41


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Children's television series

Children's television series (or children's television shows) are television programs designed specifically for children. They are typically characterised by easy-going content devoid of sensitive or adult themes and are normally broadcast during the morning and afternoon when children are awake, immediately before and after school schedules generally start in the country where they air. Educational themes are also prevalent, as well as the transmission of cautionary tales and narratives that teach problem-solving methods in some fashion or another, such as social disputes.

The purpose of these shows, aside from profit, is mainly to entertain or educate children, with each series targeting a certain age of child: some are aimed at infants and toddlers, some are aimed at those aged 6 to 11 years old, and others are aimed at all children.

History
Children's television is nearly as old as television itself. In the United Kingdom, the BBC's For the Children was first broadcast in 1946, and in English-speaking circles, is generally credited with being the first TV programme specifically for children.

Some authors posit television for children tended to originate from similar programs on radio. For example, the BBC's Children's Hour was launched as a radio broadcast in 1922, with BBC School Radio commencing live broadcasts in 1924.

In the early 1930s, radio adventure serials such as Little Orphan Annie began to emerge in the United States and became a staple of children's afternoon radio listening.

Evolution of style in the US and beyond
Early children's shows included Kukla, Fran and Ollie (1947), Howdy Doody, and Captain Kangaroo. Another show, Ding Dong School, aired from 1952 to 1965. Its creator and host, Frances Horwich, would sit in front of the camera and simulate small talk with the viewing audience at home, demonstrating basic skills for the camera.

This practice lives on in contemporary children's broadcasting as a genre in of itself, with Australia's ongoing program Play School one example.

At one time, a program called Winky Dink and You took a more interactive approach, prompting its viewers to affix a clear vinyl sheet to their television and draw pictures to match what was going on on-screen. This format did not persist, nor was it replicated, due to a number of factors unrelated to its popularity: children whose parents did not buy them the vinyl sheet would draw with crayons directly on the television screen itself, potentially causing expensive damage; there were also concerns that having children within arm's length of a television screen of the era could expose them to harmful radiation.

Later and more recognisably modern shows for young children include Sesame Street, The Electric Company and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. In the 1990s, more children's television series such as Barney & Friends, Blue's Clues, SpongeBob SquarePants, Bear in the Big Blue House, and The Big Comfy Couch were created.

A voluminous range of children's television programming now exists in the 2020s.

Notable successes outside the US include shows like Play School, Noggin the Nog, Clangers, Bagpuss, Teletubbies, Thunderbirds, Danger Mouse, Count Duckula, Mr. Men and Thomas & Friends originating from the UK, Le Manege Enchantè from France, The Singing Ringing Tree from Germany, and Marine Boy from Japan.

Canadian studio Nelvana is a particularly prolific producer of children's programming. Much of Nelvana's product is broadcast worldwide, especially in the US, where the similarities in dialect do not require any dubbing or localization.

Role of advertising
In the United States, early children's television was often co-opted as a platform to market products and it rarely contained any educational elements (for instance, The Magic Clown, a popular early children's program, was primarily an advertisement for Bonomo's Turkish taffy.) In the early years of television, advertising to children posed a dilemma as most children have no disposable income of their own. As such, children's television was not a particularly high priority for the networks.

This practice continued in a toned-down manner through the 1980s in the United States after the Federal Communications Commission prohibited tie-in advertising on broadcast television. These regulations did not apply to cable, which remains out of the reach of the FCC's content regulations.

Due in part to the success of He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, the 1980s saw a dramatic rise in television programs featuring characters of whom toy characters were being sold to retail consumers in bricks and mortar stores, underscoring the value potential of manufacturing merchandise for fans of children's programs. This practice remains firmly embedded in the broadcast sector's business case broadly in the 2020s.

Commercial-free children television was first introduced with Sesame Street on PBS in November 1969. It was produced by what is now known as Sesame Workshop (formerly Children's Television Workshop, known as CTW).

Saturday morning cartoon blocks
In the United States, Saturday mornings were generally scheduled with cartoons from the 1960s to 1980s.

In 1992, teen comedies and a "Today" show weekend edition were first to displace the cartoon blocks on NBC. Starting in September 2002, the networks turned to affiliated cable cartoon channels or outside programmers for their blocks.

On September 27, 2014, the last traditional Saturday network morning cartoon block, Vortexx, ended and was replaced the following week by the syndicated One Magnificent Morning on The CW.

Demographics
Children's television series can target a wide variety of key demographics based on age and gender. Few television networks target infants and toddlers under two years of age.

Preschool-oriented programming is generally more overtly educational. In a number of cases, such shows are produced in consultation with educators and child psychologists in an effort to teach age-appropriate lessons (the series Sesame Street pioneered this approach when it debuted in 1969). A format that has increased in popularity since the 1990s is the "pseudo-interactive" program, in which the action of the show stops and breaks the fourth wall to give a young viewer the opportunity to answer a question or dilemma put forth on the show, with the action continuing as if the viewer answered correctly.

Shows that target the demographic of persons 6 to 11 years old focus primarily on entertainment and can range from comedic cartoons to action series. Most children's television series targeting this age range are animated (with a few exceptions, perhaps the best-known being the Power Rangers franchise). Typically, programs are either 'for boys' or 'for girls'.

The teen demographic targets viewers 12 to 18 years of age. Live-action series that target this demographic are more dramatic and developed, including teen dramas and teen sitcoms. In some cases, they may contain more mature content that is usually not permissible on shows targeting younger viewers, and can include some profanity or suggestive dialogue.

Educational programming targeted at this demographic has historically been rare, other than on NASA TV's education block. However, some programming aimed at the demographic has had some tangential educational value in regard to social issues, such as the now-defunct TNBC block of sitcoms, which often tackled issues such as underage drinking or drug use.

Under-represented groups
According to at least one journalist, for years, Broadcast Standards and Practices departments of networks, Parental Guidelines, and campaigns by social conservatives limited "efforts to make kids animation more inclusive."

One former executive of Disney, David Levine, said that "a lot of conservative opinion" drove what was depicted on Cartoon Network, Disney Channel, and other alike channels. Some argued that cable television, which began to pick up in the 1990s, "opened the door for more representation" even though various levels of approvals remained.

Through the 2000s', advocacy group GLAAD repeatedly highlighted the lack of LGBT representation in children's programming in particular. Two years later, they recorded the highest number of LGBTQ characters they ever recorded up to that point.

In 2017, some said that LGBTQ+ characters in animated television were somewhat rare, despite the fact that GLAAD praised the number of characters in broadcast and primetime television.

From 2017 to 2019, Insider noted that there was a "more than 200% spike in queer and gender-minority characters in children's animated TV shows." In 2018 and 2019, GLAAD stated that Amazon, Hulu, and Netflix, had increased LGBTQ representation in "daytime kids and family television."

In their January 2021 report, GLAAD praised LGBTQ representation in episodes of DuckTales, The Owl House and Adventure Time: Distant Lands. Despite this, some industry practitioners state that more than 90% of LGBTQ characters in kid's animated shows within Insider's database of characters in children's animated television shows "require either a cable, satellite, streaming, or internet subscription to view them on first airing."

United States
In the United States, there are four major commercial cable networks dedicated to children's television. All three also operate secondary services with specialized scopes drawing upon their respective libraries, such as a focus on specific demographics, or a focus upon classic programming that fall within their scope and demographics; all three have also extensively franchised their brands outside the United States.
 * Nickelodeon, the first children's television channel, launched in 1979 (though its history traces back to the 1977 launch of QUBE's C-3 channel); it consists largely of original series aimed at children, preteens and young teenagers, including animated series, to live-action comedy and action series, as well as series aimed at preschoolers, and appeals to adult and adolescent audiences with a lineup of mainly live-action sitcom reruns and a limited amount of original programming on Nick at Nite.
 * Nickelodeon operates four digital cable and satellite channels separate from the main service: Nick Jr. Channel, a channel devoted to preschool programming; Nicktoons, which primarily (although not exclusively) runs animated programming; NickMusic, a pop music video service branded as "MTV Hits" prior to 2016; and TeenNick, a channel devoted to live-action programming and sometimes animated. This is in addition to a flexible number of free digital channels under the Nickelodeon brand on parent company Paramount Global's over-the-top service Pluto TV. Subscription video on demand service Paramount+ includes much of the Nickelodeon archives.
 * Cartoon Network, launched in 1992, is devoted primarily to animated programming. It primarily targets children 6–12, while its early morning Cartoonito is aimed at preschoolers and kindergarteners aged 2–6, and its overnight daypart block Adult Swim targets older teenagers and young adults, 18–34.
 * Cartoon Network operates one digital cable channel: Boomerang, a channel that specializes in programs centered around classic brands that parent company Warner Bros. Discovery owns (particularly Hanna-Barbera, MGM and Warner Bros. Animation), along with some imported programs, reruns of Cartoon Network original programs, and burn-off properties. Warner Bros. Discovery also operates Discovery Family (along with its Spanish-language counterpart Discovery Familia), a joint venture with Hasbro that Warner Bros. acquired a majority stake in along with its merger with Discovery Channel and carries animated programming in daytime along with family-oriented factual programming (including Discovery library programs) at nighttime; HBO Family, a channel in the company's premium cable suite HBO that includes a block of children's programs (Play Off) in the morning and family-friendly films the rest of the day; MeTV Toons, a joint venture with Weigel Broadcasting that operates on the digital subchannels of Weigel-owned stations and other affiliates of its parent network MeTV and carries much of the same program library as Boomerang.
 * Disney Channel launched in 1983 as a premium channel; it consists of original first-run television series, theatrically released and original made-for-cable movies, and select other third-party programming. Disney Channel – which formerly operated as a pay-TV service – originally marketed its programs towards families during the 1980s, and later at younger children by the 1990s, and primarily at teenybopper females aged 13–16 between 2006 and 2017, before returning to families.
 * Disney Channel operates two digital channels separate from the main service: Disney Jr., which launched in 2011 and primarily broadcasts animated series catered towards a preschool audience, and Disney XD, which caters primarily to an older youth audience with an action-oriented focus. Disney does not have a traditional television outlet for its archival programming, which it has historically kept in a proverbial vault with limited access; much of its programming is available through Disney+, a subscription video on demand service. Disney also operates Freeform, a channel primarily carrying live-action programming catered towards a teenage/young adult audience. Although its previous incarnations under other owners had family-oriented formats and children's programming, they have since been phased out in favor of series such as teen dramas, some coming from Disney Channel.

Under current mandates, all broadcast television stations in the United States must show a minimum of three hours per week of educational children's programming, regardless of format. Until 2019, this rule also applied to digital subchannels; as a result, digital multicast networks whose formats should not fit children's programming, such as Live Well Network and TheCoolTV, were required to carry educational programs to fit the FCC mandates. (The rule for digital subchannels was repealed in July 2019; in practice, most still carry educational programs anyway.) In 2017, there was a programming block that aired on syndication called KidsClick; it was notable as a concerted effort to program children's shows on television without regard to their educational content, one of the first such efforts since the E/I rule took effect. The transition to digital television has allowed for the debut of whole subchannels that air children's programming 24/7; examples include BabyFirst, PBS Kids, Smile, and Universal Kids. The country's only directly nationally operated TV service for public consumption, NASA TV, also includes educational programs in its schedule for use in schools.

Canada
English-language children's specialty channels in Canada are primarily owned by Corus Entertainment and WildBrain. Corus operates YTV and Treehouse, as well as localized versions of the Cartoon Network, Disney Channel, Disney Junior, Disney XD, and Nickelodeon brands. WildBrain operates Family Channel, as well as the spin-off services WildBrainTV and Family Jr. it has been majority owned and operated by British Columbia's public broadcaster Knowledge Network.

In French, Corus operates Télétoon and La chaîne Disney, WildBrain operates Télémagino (a French version of Family Jr.), TVA Group operates the preschool-oriented Yoopa, and Bell Media runs the teen-oriented Vrak. Via its majority-owned subsidiary Telelatino, Corus also operates two children and family-oriented networks in Spanish and Italian, TeleNiños and Telebimbi respectively.

On broadcast television and satellite to cable undertakings, children's television content is relegated to the country's public and designated provincial educational broadcasters, including CBC Television and Ici Radio-Canada Télé, as well as City Saskatchewan, CTV Two Alberta (formerly Access), Knowledge Network, Télé-Québec, TFO, and TVOntario (TVOKids).

Aided by the cultural similarities between Canada and the US, along with film credits and subsidies available from the Canadian government, a large number of animated children's series have been made in Canada with the intention of exporting them to the United States. Such programs carry a prominent Government of Canada wordmark in their closing credits.

United Kingdom
The BBC and ITV plc both operate children's oriented television networks on digital terrestrial television: the BBC runs CBBC as well as the preschool-oriented CBeebies, while ITV runs CITV as well as the preschool-oriented LittleBe, as a programming block on ITVBe. Both channels were spun off from children's television strands on their respective flagship channels (BBC One, BBC Two, and ITV). The BBC and ITV have largely phased out children's programming from their main channels to focus on the dedicated services; in 2012, as part of the "Delivering Quality First" initiative, the BBC announced that it would end the broadcast of CBBC programmes on BBC One following the completion of the transition to digital terrestrial television, citing low viewership in comparison to broadcasts of the programmes on the CBBC channel. Channel 5 also broadcasts a preschool-oriented block known as Milkshake!, while its owner, Paramount Networks International, also runs versions of Nickelodeon and its sister networks Nicktoons and Nick Jr.

Narrative Capital operate a number of children's channels under the Pop and Tiny Pop brands. British versions of Cartoon Network and its sister channels Boomerang and Cartoonito also operate in the country, some 25 years after the initial launch.

Ireland
Ireland has one dedicated children's TV service RTÉjr. Since 1998 RTÉ2 has provided children's programming from 07:00 to 17:30 each weekday, originally titled The Den, the service was renamed TRTÉ and RTÉjr in 2010. Irish-language service TG4 provide two strands of children's programming Cúla 4 Na nÓg and Cúla 4 during the day. Commercial broadcaster TV3 broadcast a children's strand called Gimme 3 from 1998 to 1999. And then broadcast a new strand called 3Kids.

Australia
Children's channels that exist in Australia are ABC Family, ABC Kids, and its spin-off CBeebies, Nickelodeon and its spin-off Nick Jr., and Cartoon Network and its spin-off Boomerang.

Japan
Children's channels that exist in Japan are NHK Educational TV, Kids Station, Disney Channel, Disney XD, Nickelodeon (also under a block on Animax, known as "Nick Time") and Cartoon Network (Cartoon Network's age demographic is moving towards older viewers with shows such as Hello Kitty, Regular Show and Adventure Time)

Iceland
One of the most well-known children's TV programmes comes from Iceland, LazyTown, was created by Magnus Scheving, European Gymnastics Champion and CEO of Lazytown Entertainment. The show has aired in over 180 countries, been dubbed into more than 32 languages and is the most expensive children's show of all time.

India
In 1995, Cartoon Network became the first children's channel to be launched in India. Subsequently, Disney Channel and Nickelodeon arrived. Hungama TV (2004) was the first children's channel that had local content. Pogo and BabyTV came later in 2006. By 2018, 23 channels have aired in India.

Romania
Nickelodeon was the first children's channel in Romania, launched in December 1998. Afterwards, Minimax became the first Romanian children's channel to air locally produced content, launched on Children's Day in 2001. Since then, channels like BabyTV and Disney Channel have arrived.

Turkey
Children's channels that exist in Turkey are Cartoon Network, TRT Çocuk, MinikaÇOCUK, Minika GO and Zarok TV.

title: Children's television series