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Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul

The ancient Egyptians believed that a soul (kꜣ and bꜣ; Egypt. pron. ka/ba) was made up of many parts. In addition to these components of the soul, there was the human body (called the ḥꜥ, occasionally a plural ḥꜥw, meaning approximately "sum of bodily parts").

According to ancient Egyptian creation myths, the god Atum created the world out of chaos, utilizing his own magic (ḥkꜣ). Because the earth was created with magic, Egyptians believed that the world was imbued with magic and so was every living thing upon it. When humans were created, that magic took the form of the soul, an eternal force which resided in and with every human. The concept of the soul and the parts which encompass it has varied from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom, at times changing from one dynasty to another, from five parts to more. Most ancient Egyptian funerary texts reference numerous parts of the soul:

Collectively, these spirits of a dead person were called the Akh after that person had successfully completed its transition to the afterlife. Egyptologist R. David, at the University of Manchester, explains the many facets of the soul as follows:

"The Egyptians believed that the human personality had many facets—a concept that was probably developed early in the Old Kingdom. In life, the person was a complete entity, but if he had led a virtuous life, he could also have access to a multiplicity of forms that could be used in the next world. In some instances, these forms could be employed to help those whom the deceased wished to support or, alternately, to take revenge on his enemies."

Khet (physical body)

The ẖt (Egyptological spelling: khet), or physical form, had to exist for the soul (kꜣ/bꜣ) to have intelligence or the chance to be judged by the guardians of the underworld. Therefore, it was necessary for the body to be preserved as efficiently and completely as possible and for the burial chamber to be as personalized as it could be, with paintings and statuary showing scenes and triumphs from the deceased's life. In the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh was granted mummification and, thus, a chance at an eternal and fulfilling afterlife. By the Middle Kingdom, all dead were afforded the opportunity. Herodotus, an ancient Greek scholar, observed that grieving families were given a choice as to the type and or quality of the mummification they preferred: "The best and most expensive kind is said to represent [Osiris], the next best is somewhat inferior and cheaper, while the third is cheapest of all."

Because the state of the body was tied so closely with the quality of the afterlife, by the time of the Middle Kingdom, not only were the burial chambers painted with depictions of favourite pastimes and great accomplishments of the dead, but there were also small figurines (ushabtis) of servants, slaves, and guards (and, in some cases beloved pets) included in the tombs, to serve the deceased in the afterlife.

Before a person could be judged by the gods, they had to be "awakened" through a series of funerary rites designed to reanimate their mummified remains in the afterlife. The main ceremony, the opening of the mouth ceremony, is best depicted within Pharaoh Seti I's tomb. All along the walls and statuary inside the tomb are reliefs and paintings of priests performing the sacred rituals and, below the painted images, the text of the liturgy for opening of the mouth can be found. This ritual which, presumably, would have been performed during interment, was meant to reanimate each section of the body: brain, head, limbs, etc. so that the spiritual body would be able to move in the afterlife.

Sah (spiritual body)
If all the rites, ceremonies, and preservation rituals for the ẖt were observed correctly, and the deceased was found worthy (by Osiris and the gods of the underworld) of passing through into the afterlife, the sꜥḥ (sah; spiritual representation of the physical body) forms. This spiritual body was then able to interact with the many entities extant in the afterlife. As a part of the larger construct, the ꜣḫ, the sꜥḥ was sometimes seen as an avenging spirit which would return from the underworld to seek revenge on those who had wronged the spirit in life. A well-known example was found in a tomb from the Middle Kingdom in which a man leaves a letter to his late wife who, it can be supposed, is haunting him:

"What wicked thing have I done to thee that I should have come to this evil pass? What have I done to thee? But what thou hast done to me is to have laid hands on me although I had nothing wicked to thee. From the time I lived with thee as thy husband down to today, what have I done to thee that I need hide? When thou didst sicken of the illness which thou hadst, I caused a master-physician to be fetched ... I spent eight months without eating and drinking like a man. I wept exceedingly together with my household in front of my street-quarter. I gave linen clothes to wrap thee and left no benefit undone that had to be performed for thee. And now, behold, I have spent three years alone without entering into a house, though it is not right that one like me should have to do it. This have I done for thy sake. But, behold, thou dost not know good from bad."

Ren (name, identity)
A person's name, or rn ( 𓂋𓈖 'name') was an essential aspect of individuality and central to one's survival after death. Most ancient Egyptian names embodied a meaning which was believed to have a direct relationship with its owner. Placing a name on a statue ceded the image to the dead named, providing a second body. The obliteration of a name from an object or monument destroyed this connection and in some cases was done intentionally to hinder one's prospects in the afterlife.

Ba (personality)

The bꜣ (Egyptological pronunciation: ba) 𓅽 was everything that makes an individual unique, similar to the notion of 'personality'. In this sense, inanimate objects could also have a bꜣ, a unique character, and indeed Old Kingdom pyramids often were called the bꜣ of their owner. The bꜣ is an aspect of a person that the Egyptians believed would live after the body died, and it is sometimes depicted as a human-headed bird flying out of the tomb to join with the kꜣ in the afterlife.

In the Coffin Texts, one form of the bꜣ that comes into existence after death is corporeal—eating, drinking and copulating. Egyptologist Louis Vico Žabkar argues that the bꜣ is not merely a part of the person but is the person himself, unlike the soul in Greek, or late Judaic, Christian or Muslim thought. The idea of a purely immaterial existence was so foreign to Egyptian thought that when Christianity spread in Egypt, they borrowed the Greek word ψυχή psychē to describe the concept of soul instead of the term bꜣ. Žabkar concludes that so particular was the concept of the bꜣ to ancient Egyptian thought that it ought not to be translated but instead the concept be footnoted or parenthetically explained as one of the modes of existence for a person.

In another mode of existence the bꜣ of the deceased is depicted in the Book of the Dead returning to the mummy and participating in life outside the tomb in non-corporeal form, echoing the solar theology of Ra uniting with Osiris each night.

The word bꜣw (baw), plural of the word bꜣ, meant something similar to "impressiveness", "power", and "reputation", particularly of a deity. When a deity intervened in human affairs, it was said that the bꜣw of the deity were at work.

Ka (vital essence)
The kꜣ (ka), 𓂓, was the Egyptian concept of vital essence, which distinguishes the difference between a living and a dead person, with death occurring when the kꜣ left the body. The Egyptians believed that Khnum created the bodies of children on a potter's wheel and inserted them into their mothers' bodies. Depending on the region, Egyptians believed that Heqet or Meskhenet was the creator of each person's kꜣ, breathing it into them at the instant of their birth as the part of their soul that made them be alive.

The Egyptians also believed that the kꜣ was sustained through food and drink. For this reason food and drink offerings were presented to the dead, although it was the kꜣ within the offerings that was consumed, not the physical aspect. In the Middle kingdom a form of offering tray known as a soul house was developed to facilitate this. The kꜣ was often represented in Egyptian iconography as a second image of the king, leading earlier works to attempt to translate kꜣ as double.

In the Old Kingdom private tombs, artwork depicted a "doubleworld" with essential people and objects for the owner of the ka. As Ancient Orient Curator Andrey Bolshakov explains: "The notion of the ka was a dominating concept of the next life in the Old Kingdom. In a less pure form, it lived into the Middle Kingdom, and lost much of its importance in the New Kingdom, although the ka always remained the recipient of offerings."

Ib (heart)
An important part of the Egyptian soul was thought to be the jb (ib), or heart. In the Egyptian religion, the heart was the key to the afterlife.

It was essential to surviving death in the nether world, where it gave evidence for, or against, its possessor. Like the physical body (ẖt), the heart was a necessary part of judgement in the afterlife and it was to be carefully preserved and stored within the mummified body with a heart scarab carefully secured to the body above it to prevent it from telling tales. According to the text of the Books of Breathing:
 * El_pesado_del_corazón_en_el_Papiro_de_Hunefer.jpg of Hunefer (ca. 1375 B.C.) shows Hunefer's heart being weighed on the scale of Maat against the feather of truth, by the jackal-headed Anubis. |left]]They drag Osiris into the Pool of Khonsu, ... and likewise [the Osirism Hor, justified] born of Taikhebyt, justified ... after he has grasped his heart. They bury ... the Book of Breathings which [Isis] made, which ... is written on both its inside and outside, (wrapped) in royal linen, and it is placed [under] the ... left arm near his heart.

It was thought that the heart was examined by Anubis and the deities during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony. If the heart weighed more than the feather of Maat, it was immediately eaten by the monster Ammit, and the soul became eternally restless.

Shut (shadow)
A person's shadow or silhouette, šwt (shut), is always present. Because of this, Egyptians surmised that a shadow contains something of the person it represents. Through this association, statues of people and deities were sometimes referred to as shadows.

In a commentary to The Egyptian Book of the Dead (BD), Egyptologist Ogden Goelet, Jr. discusses the forms of the shadow:

"In many BD papyri and tombs the deceased is depicted emerging from the tomb by day in shadow form, a thin, black, featureless silhouette of a person. The person in this form is, as we would put it, a mere shadow of his former existence, yet nonetheless still existing. Another form the shadow assumes in the BD, especially in connection with gods, is an ostrich-feather sun-shade, an object which would create a shadow."

Sekhem (power, form)
Little is known about the Egyptian interpretation of this portion of the soul. Many scholars define sḫm (sekhem) as the living force or life-force of the soul which exists in the afterlife after all judgement has been passed. It is defined in a Book of the Dead as the "power" and as a place within which Horus and Osiris dwell in the underworld.

Akh (intellect)

The ꜣḫ "(magically) effective one" was a concept of the dead that varied over the long history of ancient Egyptian belief. Relative to the afterlife, akh represented the deceased, who was transfigured and often identified with light.

It was associated with thought, but not as an action of the mind; rather, it was intellect as a living entity. The ꜣḫ also played a role in the afterlife. Following the death of the ẖt (physical body), the bꜣ and kꜣ were reunited to reanimate the ꜣḫ. The reanimation of the ꜣḫ was only possible if the proper funeral rites were executed and followed by constant offerings. The ritual was termed s-ꜣḫ "make (a dead person) into an (living) ꜣḫ". In this sense, it developed into a sort of roaming ghost (when the tomb was not in order any more) during the Twentieth Dynasty. An ꜣḫ could do either harm or good to persons still living, depending on the circumstances, causing, e.g., nightmares, feelings of guilt, sickness, etc. It could be invoked by prayers or written letters left in the tomb's offering chapel also in order to help living family members, e.g., by intervening in disputes, by making an appeal to other dead persons or deities with any authority to influence things on earth for the better, but also to inflict punishments.

The separation of ꜣḫ and the unification of kꜣ and bꜣ were brought about after death by having the proper offerings made and knowing the proper, efficacious spell, but there was an attendant risk of dying again. Egyptian funerary literature (such as the Coffin Texts and the Book of the Dead) were intended to aid the deceased in "not dying a second time" and to aid in becoming an ꜣḫ.

Relationships
Ancient Egyptians believed that death occurs when a person's kꜣ leaves the body. Ceremonies conducted by priests after death, including the "opening of the mouth (wp r)", aimed not only to restore a person's physical abilities in death, but also to release a Ba's attachment to the body. This allowed the bꜣ to be united with the kꜣ in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an ꜣḫ.

Egyptians conceived of an afterlife as quite similar to normal physical existence – but with a difference. The model for this new existence was the journey of the Sun. At night the Sun descended into the Duat or "underworld". Eventually the Sun meets the body of the mummified Osiris. Osiris and the Sun, re-energized by each other, rise to new life for another day. For the deceased, their body and their tomb were their personal Osiris and a personal Duat. For this reason they are often addressed as "Osiris". For this process to work, some sort of bodily preservation was required, to allow the bꜣ to return during the night, and to rise to new life in the morning. The complete ꜣḫs were also thought to appear as stars. Until the Late Period, non-royal Egyptians did not expect to unite with the Sun deity; this was reserved for royals.

The Book of the Dead, the collection of spells which aided a person in the afterlife, had the Egyptian name of the Book of going forth by day. They helped people avoid the perils of the afterlife and also aided their existence, containing spells to ensure "not dying a second time in the underworld", and to "grant memory always" to a person. In the Egyptian religion it was possible to die in the afterlife and this death was permanent.

The tomb of Paheri, an Eighteenth Dynasty nomarch of Nekhen, has an eloquent description of this existence, and is translated by James Peter Allen as:

"Your life happening again, without your ba being kept away from your divine corpse, with your ba being together with the akh ... You shall emerge each day and return each evening. A lamp will be lit for you in the night until the sunlight shines forth on your breast. You shall be told: 'Welcome, welcome, into this your house of the living!'"

title: Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul


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Archaeology of the Americas

The archaeology of the Americas is the study of the archaeology of the Western Hemisphere, including North America (Mesoamerica), Central America, South America and the Caribbean. This includes the study of pre-historic/Pre-Columbian and historic indigenous American peoples, as well as historical archaeology of more recent eras, including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade and European colonization.

Chronology
The Pre-Columbian era is the term generally used to encompass all time period subdivisions in the history of the Americas spanning the time from the original settlement of the Americas in the Upper Paleolithic until the European colonization of the Americas during the early modern period. While technically referring to the era before the voyages of Christopher Columbus from AD 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until the 18th or 19th century. In more recent decades, archaeological scholarship has extended to include enslaved Africans and European and Asian migrant populations.

The pre-Columbian archaeological record in the Americas has conventionally been divided into five phases based on an enduring system established by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips's 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Their chronology differs from old world prehistory from Europe and Asia which uses the three-age system, with the Stone Age divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic, followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age, remain in general use.

Numerous regional and sub-regional divisions have since been defined to distinguish various cultures through time and space, as later archaeologists recognized that these generalised stages did not adequately correspond to the cultural variation that existed in different locations in the Americas.
 * Lithic stage
 * Defined by the ostensible prevalence of big-game hunting. In most places, this can be dated to before 8000 BCE, starting most probably around 16,500 BCE (see Paleo-Indians). Examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups.

 * The Archaic stage
 * Defined by the increasingly intensive gathering of wild resources with the decline of the big-game hunting lifestyle. Typically, Archaic cultures can be dated from 8000 to 1000 BCE. Examples include the Archaic Southwest, the Arctic small tool tradition, the Poverty Point culture, and the Chan-Chan culture in southern Chile.

 * The Formative stage
 * Defined as "village agriculture" based. Most of these can be dated from 1000 BCE to 500 CE. Examples include the Dorset culture, Zapotec civilization, Mimbres culture, Olmec, Woodland, and Mississippian cultures.

 * The Classic stage
 * Defined as "early civilizations", and typically dating from 500 to 1200 CE. Willey and Phillips considered only cultures from Mesoamerica and Peru to have achieved this level of complexity. Examples include the early Maya and the Toltec.

 * The Post-Classic stage
 * Defined as "later prehispanic civilizations" and typically dated from 1200 CE until the advent of European colonisation. The late Maya, the Incan civilization, and the Aztec cultures were Post-Classic.

Today, for Meso- and Andean South America, the later periods are more often classified using the "Horizon" terminology, with "Early Horizon" typically broadly equating to the Late Formative stage. "Horizons" are periods of cultural stability and political unity, with "Intermediate periods" covering the politically fragmented transition between them. In the Andes, there are three Horizon periods, with two Intermediate periods between them. The Horizons, and their dominant cultures are: Early Horizon, Chavin; Middle Horizon, Tiwanaku and Wari culture; Late Horizon, Inca.

NAGPRA
Since 1990, in the United States, physical anthropology and archaeological investigations based on the study of human remains are influenced by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, (NAGPRA), which provides for the bodies of Native Americans and associated grave goods to be turned over to the recognized tribal body most legally affiliated with the remains; the law applies only to culturally identifiable remains and artefacts found on federally owned public land. In some cases, notably, that of Kennewick Man, these laws have been subject to close judicial scrutiny and great intellectual conflict.

Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Prehistoric groups in this area are characterized by agricultural villages and large ceremonial and politico-religious capitals This culture area included some of the most complex and advanced cultures of the Americas, including the Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Maya, and the Aztec, the most powerful tribe of Mesoamerica in their time.

South America
Important South American societies include the Moche, the Inca, the Wari.

Important South American archaeological sites include: Chavín de Huántar, Pikillaqta, Machu Picchu, Tiwanaku, Monte Verde, and the Upano Valley sites.

Central America
Central America is a region and cultural area in the Americas located south of Mesoamerica extending from Nicaragua to the southern border of Panama. Important sites include the Stone Spheres of Costa Rica.

Archaeogenetics
Molecular genetics study suggests that surviving Amerindian populations derived from a theoretical single founding population, possibly from only 50 to 70 genetic contributors. Preliminary research, restricted to only 9 genomic regions (or loci) have shown a genetic link between original Americas and Asia populations. The study does not address the question of separate migrations for these groups, and excludes other DNA data-sets.

The American Journal of Human Genetics released an article in 2007 stating "Here we show, by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Indigenous American haplogroups, including Haplogroup X (mtDNA), were part of a single founding population." Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples. The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the Americas. Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest at least some coastal migration events. Geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago.

Archaeological finds
In February 2021, archaeologists from the University of Buenos Aires–National Scientific and Technical Research Council announced the discovery of 12 graves dated to 6,000-1,300 years ago in Argentine Northwest. Researchers also revealed necklaces and pendants next to some of the bodies. According to archaeologist Leticia Cortés, there were many kinds of burial methods, in individual or collective graves, and also in the posture of the bodies. Some were hyperflexed, like squatting, with the shoulders touching the knees.

In 2018, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.

In September 2021, archaeologists announced the remains of eight 800-year-old bodies nearby ancient town of Chilca. Bodies included adults and children who were covered in plant material before being buried. Some dishes and musical instruments were uncovered as well. Researchers think remains belong to the Chilca culture, which was apart from other pre-Hispanic cultures in the area.

A mummy that is approximately 800 years old that is believed to be of pre-Inca cultures was found at the site of Cajamarquilla in Peru in November 2021. Researchers reported that the mummy was tied with strings, covering his face with his hands, so they assumed it was a southern Peruvian funeral custom. In February 2022, archaeologists announced the discovery of six mummified children thought to have been sacrificed, probably to accompany a dead elite man to the afterlife. According to archaeologist Pieter Van Dalen, 1,000-1,200 years old mummies were probably relatives and placed one above the other in different parts of the tomb.

In May 2022, archaeologists reported the discovery of 1,400-year-old remains of the Mayan site so-called Xiol on the outskirts of Mérida. They also uncovered a large central plaza and at least 12 buildings, workshops, burial places of adults and children, and an altar that served a ritual purpose.

In June 2022, archaeologists from the Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) announced the discovery of a 1,300-year-old nine-inch-tall plaster head statue indicating a young Hun Hunahpu, the Maya's mythological maize god. The figure's semi-shaved haircut that resembles ripe corn gives reason to the possibility that it is a young maize god. Researchers assume that the Mayan inhabitants of Palenque possibly placed a large stone statuette over a pond to represent the entrance to the underworld. According to archaeologist Arnoldo González Cruz, the Mayan people symbolically shuttered the pool by breaking up some of the plaster and filling it with animal remains, including pottery fragments, carved bone remains, shells, obsidian arrowheads, beads, vegetables, and others.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Archaeology of the Americas


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Amenhotep

Amenhotep (Ỉmn-ḥtp; "Amun is pleased" or "Amun is satisfied") is an ancient Egyptian name. Its Greek version is Amenophis (Ἀμένωφις). Its notable bearers were:

Pharaohs of the 18th dynasty

 * Amenhotep I
 * Amenhotep II
 * Amenhotep III
 * Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)

Princes

 * Amenhotep A, a son of Sobekhotep IV (13th dynasty), named on a box (now in Cairo)
 * Amenhotep D, a son of Amenhotep II (18th dynasty)
 * Amenhotep F, princely name of Akhenaten
 * Amenhotep G, a son of Ramesses II (19th dynasty), 14th on the list of princes

Nobles

 * Amenhotep (treasurer) treasurer of the 13th Dynasty
 * Amenhotep (high steward), high steward of Hatshepsut (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep son of Hapu, deified Ancient Egyptian architect (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep, Priest of Amun (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep Huy, Governor of the Northern Oasis under Thutmose III (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep-Huy, Vizier of South under Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep (Huy), the high steward of Memphis under Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep called Huy, Viceroy of Kush under Tutankhamon (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep, son of Yuti, chamberlain under Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep (Asyut), official and physician (19th Dynasty)
 * Amenhotep, Priest of Amun, High Priest from the 20th Dynasty
 * Amenhotep, father of Queen Kakat (23rd Dynasty)

Other

 * The father of Rapses in Mummies Alive! is named Amenhotep (although which one is not specified)
 * 4847 Amenhotep (the name of an asteroid)
 * Ptolemaic era owner of a Book of the Dead from the Joseph Smith Papyri collection
 * Imhotep, a similar name

title: Amenhotep


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Ament

Ament may refer to:

 * Catkin, a cylindrical flower cluster
 * Ament (surname)
 * Imentet, an ancient Egyptian funerary goddess

title: Ament


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Am-heh

In Egyptian mythology, Am-heh was a minor god from the underworld, whose name means either "devourer of millions" or "eater of eternity". He was depicted as a man with the head of a hunting dog who lived in a lake of fire. He is sometimes seen as an aspect of Ammit, the personification of divine retribution. Am-heh could only be repelled by the god Atum.

title: Am-heh


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Wolfenden report

The Report of the Departmental Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution (better known as the Wolfenden report, after Sir John Wolfenden, the chairman of the committee) was published in the United Kingdom on 4 September 1957 after a succession of well-known men, including Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, Michael Pitt-Rivers, John Gielgud, and Peter Wildeblood were convicted of homosexual offences.

Background
Under the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, any homosexual activity between males was illegal. After the Second World War, there had been an increase in arrests and prosecutions, and by the end of 1954, in England and Wales, there were 1,069 men in prison for homosexual acts, with a mean age of 37 years. During a time of several significant trials, notably that of Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, the Conservative government set up a departmental committee (in the Home Office and Scottish Home Department responsible for criminal law) under Sir John Wolfenden to consider both homosexual offences and prostitution.

Committee
The committee of 15 (4 women and 11 men) was led by Sir John Wolfenden (1906–1985), a former headmaster of both Uppingham School and of Shrewsbury School; and who in 1950 was appointed Vice Chancellor of the University of Reading. He later became Director of the British Museum.

In addition to the chairman, the committee members were the following:
 * James Adair, former Procurator-Fiscal for Glasgow
 * Mary Cohen, vice-president of the City of Glasgow Girl Guides and chairwoman of the Scottish Association of Girls' Clubs
 * Desmond Curran, senior psychiatrist at St George's Hospital, London, and psychiatric consultant to the Royal Navy
 * V. A. Demant, Anglo-Catholic priest serving as Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Moral and Pastoral Theology at the University of Oxford
 * Sir Kenneth Diplock, Recorder of Oxford and High Court judge
 * Sir Hugh Linstead, Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Putney, barrister, and pharmaceutical chemist
 * Peter Kerr, 12th Marquess of Lothian, a Foreign Office minister
 * Kathleen Lovibond, chairwoman of the Uxbridge juvenile magistrates' court and member of the Conservative women's organisation who became Mayor of Uxbridge in 1956
 * Victor Mishcon, solicitor and Labour member and chairman of the London County Council
 * Goronwy Rees, Principal of the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth (resigned from the committee in April 1956)
 * R. F. V. Scott, Presbyterian minister of St Columba's Church, London (Church of Scotland) (resigned from the committee in March 1956)
 * Lady (Lily) Stopford, ophthalmologist and magistrate
 * William Wells, Labour MP for Walsall North and barrister
 * Joseph Whitby, general practitioner with psychiatric experience

The committee first met on 15 September 1954 and met on 62 days, 32 of which were used for interviewing witnesses. Wolfenden suggested at an early stage that, for the sake of the ladies in the room, they use the terms Huntley & Palmers after the biscuit manufacturers – Huntleys for homosexuals, and Palmers for prostitutes. Evidence was heard from police and probation officers, psychiatrists, religious leaders (who in those days were at the forefront of homosexual law reform ), and gay men whose lives had been affected by the law.

The estimated cost of preparing the report was £8,046 of which £735 represented the estimated cost of printing and publication. The secretary for the committee was W. C. Roberts (Home Office) and his assistant was E. J. Freeman (Scottish Home Department).

Getting gay men to give evidence proved to be very difficult for the committee: Wolfenden considered placing an advert in a newspaper or magazine, but the committee instead decided to locate three men willing to give evidence: Peter Wildeblood, Carl Winter, and Patrick Trevor-Roper. Wildeblood had been convicted and sent to prison. Winter was director of the Fitzwilliam Museum and Trevor-Roper was a distinguished eye surgeon and brother of the famous historian Hugh Trevor-Roper. In order to protect their identities, Trevor-Roper was referred to as the "Doctor" while Winter was referred to as "Mr White".

Recommendations
The committee recommended that "homosexual behaviour between consenting adults in private should no longer be a criminal offence". All but James Adair were in favour of this and, contrary to some medical and psychiatric witnesses' evidence at that time, found that "homosexuality cannot legitimately be regarded as a disease, because in many cases it is the only symptom and is compatible with full mental health in other respects." The report added: "The law's function is to preserve public order and decency, to protect the citizen from what is offensive or injurious, and to provide sufficient safeguards against exploitation and corruption of others ... It is not, in our view, the function of the law to intervene in the private life of citizens, or to seek to enforce any particular pattern of behaviour." The recommended age of consent was 21 years (the age of majority in the UK then, though for mixed sex couples the age of consent was 16 and 16-year-olds could marry with their parents' permission).

The report also discussed the rise in street prostitution at the time, which it associated with "community instability" and "weakening of the family". As a result, there was a police crackdown on street prostitution following the report and the Street Offences Act 1959 was passed.

Aftermath
The report's recommendations attracted considerable public debate, including a famous exchange of views in publications by Lord Devlin, a leading British judge, whose ideas and publications argued against the report's philosophical basis, and H. L. A. Hart, a leading jurisprudential scholar, who provided argument in its support.

In The Enforcement of Morals, Devlin states that the Wolfenden report "is recognized to be an excellent study of two very difficult legal and social problems". Devlin attacks the principle, derived from John Stuart Mill's On Liberty, that the law ought not concern itself with "private immorality", saying that the report "requires special circumstances to be shown to justify the intervention of the law. I think that this is wrong in principle".

In late 1957, shortly after the report was published, the General Assembly of the Church of England, by a vote of 155 to 138, passed a resolution "That this Assembly generally approves the principles on which the criminal law concerned with sexual behaviour should be based as stated by the Wolfenden Committee, and also its recommendations relating to homosexuality, but considers that the recommendations relating to prostitution require further study".

The recommendations eventually led to the passage of the Sexual Offences Act 1967, applying to England and Wales only, that replaced the previous law on sodomy contained in the Offences against the Person Act 1861 and the 1885 Labouchere Amendment which outlawed every homosexual act short of sodomy. The Act did not become law until a decade after the report was published in 1957.

The historian Patrick Higgins has described a number of flaws with the report: "its failure to understand or appreciate (except in the most negative terms) the importance of the homosexual subculture".

It later became known that Wolfenden's son Jeremy Wolfenden was gay.

In 1997, John Wolfenden came 45th in the Pink Paper’s list of the “top 500 lesbian and gay heroes”.

title: Wolfenden report


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Andjety

Andjety (meaning "He of Andjet") is a local ancient Egyptian deity of the ninth nome, centered at Andjet, which was known as Busiris to the Greeks. This deity is also known by the alternative names Anezti or Anedjti. Andjety is considered one of the earliest Egyptian gods, possibly with roots in prehistoric Egypt.

Andjety is thought to have been a precursor of Osiris. Like Osiris, he is depicted holding the crook and flail and has a crown similar to Osiris's Atef crown. Pharaoh Sneferu of the Fourth Dynasty, builder of the first true pyramid, is shown wearing the crown of Andjety. In the Pyramid Texts the deceased pharaoh is identified with Andjety. In the temple of Seti I, the pharaoh is shown offering incense to Osiris-Andjety who is accompanied by Isis.

He also is shown to have fertility aspects, being known by the epithet of "bull of vultures". His name is sometimes written with a substitution of a stylized uterus for the feather in the hieroglyphs.

Writings mentioning Andjety
[Coffin Text (CT) V-385].... I immerse the waterways as Osiris, Lord of corruption, as Adjety, bull of vultures.

[CT I-255]............... "Oh Horus Lord of Life, fare downstream and upstream from Andjety, make inspection of those who are in Djedu, come and go in Rosetau, clear the vision of those who are in the underworld. Farer upstream from Rosetau to Abydos, the primeval place of the Lord of All.

[CT IV-331] ..............O Thoth vindicate Osiris against his foes in:--- the great tribunal which is in the two banks of the kite on the night of the drowning of the great god in Adjety.

[Pyramid texts (PT) 182] ..."In your name the one who is in Andjet headman of his nomes"

[PT 220] ..................May your staff be the head of the spirits, as Anubis who presides over the Westerners, and Andjety who presides over the eastern nomes

[PT 614] :..............." Horus has revived you in this your name of Andjety

title: Andjety


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Child custody laws in the United States

Child custody, conservatorship and guardianship describe the legal and practical relationship between a parent and the parent's child, such as the right of the parent to make decisions for the child, and the parent's duty to care for the child.

Custody issues typically arise in proceedings involving divorce, as well as in paternity, annulment, and other legal proceedings in which children are involved. In most jurisdictions the issue of with which parent the child will reside is determined in accordance the best interests of the child standard. In rare cases custody may be awarded to somebody other than a parent, but only after the fundamental right afforded to biological parent's has been overcome or where the third party has an established role that is in the manner of a parent. When a child's parents are not married it is necessary to establish paternity before issues of child custody or support may be determined by a court.

Family law proceedings that involve issues of custody and visitation often generate the most acrimonious disputes. In extreme cases, one parent may accuse the other of trying to "turn" the child(ren) against him or her, allege some form of emotional, physical, or even sexual abuse by the other parent, the "residential" parent may disrupt the other parent's contact or communication with the child(ren), or a parent may remove the child from the jurisdiction in violation of court orders, so as to frustrate the other parent's contact with the children.

Courts and legal professionals within the U.S. may use terms such as "parenting time" instead of custody and visitation. The goal of the newer, alternative terminology is to eliminate the distinction between custodial and noncustodial parents, and to better focus on the best interests of the children by crafting schedules that meet the developmental needs of the children. For example, small children may need shorter, more frequent time with parents, whereas older children and teenagers can tolerate and may demand less frequent shifts, but longer blocks of time with each parent.

History
In the decades leading up to the 1970s child custody battles were rare, and in most cases the mother of minor children would receive custody. Since the 1970s, as custody laws have been made gender-neutral, contested custody cases have increased as have cases in which the children are placed in the primary custody of the father.

New York
Where there are children of the marriage residing in New York State and under the age of 18, a demand for custody is mandatory in divorce actions. Whether the parents are divorced or just separated one parent cannot demand the child stays between the parents. Where the children reside outside New York State custody may not be determined, except in some instances by stipulation. Custody may not be awarded to a person other than the father or mother, except under unusual circumstances that require a hearing. In unusual circumstances, children may be placed with a third party such as a grandparent or a sibling. Children under the age of 18 must be supported by both parents to the extent that they are able to support the children under the provisions of the Child Support Standards Act.

New Jersey
New Jersey courts require all divorcing parents with minor children to complete a mandatory Parents' Education Program before granting a divorce per the Parent's Education Act. The law,, enacted in 1999, was established to promote cooperation between the parties and to assist in resolving issues that arrive during the divorce process that may impact a child. However, courts will not refer a party to the program if a restraining order has been issued pursuant to the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act or if either party is restrained from contact under the criminal or civil laws of New Jersey or any other state.

Texas
In the State of Texas, rather than using the term custody, a parent who is granted custody of a child by a court is deemed a "conservator". Conservatorship is divided into two categories, a "managing conservator" and a "possessory conservator."
 * The first time a court must make a decision about conservatorship, a court may presume that both parents should be Joint Managing Conservators. When joint managing conservatorship is awarded, the parties or the judge must decide on how to divide the rights and duties, which is written into the decree.
 * However, the court may alternatively appoint a "Sole Managing Conservator" with one or more "Possessory Conservators". In doing so, the Judge can weigh a history of domestic violence, or whether the parent has had little prior contact or relationship with the child when considering restrictions on rights and possession. The possessory conservator may be virtually eliminated from the process of making decisions concerning health, education and welfare. The sole managing conservator takes sole responsibility for a child, making all the important decisions regarding health (both mental and physical), education, and moral or religious upbringing alone.

Conservatorship orders divide various parental rights and duties, including

 * (1) the right to make major decisions regarding the children;

 * (2) the right to have physical possession of the children; and

 * (3) the duty to financially support the children among the parents after the divorce.

Rights of grandparents
In Troxel v. Granville (2000), the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that a biological parent holds a fundamental right in choosing how to raise one's children as they see fit, and that right includes limiting the children’s access to their grandparents.

In In re O'Donnell-Lamont (2004), the Oregon Supreme Court affirmed an Oregon statute requiring a presumption the parent acts in the child's best interests to be met prior to applying the best interests of the child standard, placing both parties on equal footing. Likewise, the court upheld the requirement set forth mandating that either a child-parent relationship or a long-term personal relationship existed between the child and non-blood related intervenor under the concept of the fundamental right of the parent. The court noted that the issue in itself allowed for an intervenor with a legitimate purpose to come forth, and through the statute's requirement of first showing the relationship, second showing the rebuttal of the presumption, and finally judging the choice on the best interest of the child standard, the fundamental right of the parent was being given proper Due Process Requirements under the 14th Amendment Due Process Clause.

Military parents and child custody
In the 21st century, a new body of case law for custody of children in military families is developing due to more frequent deployments of both mothers and fathers in active duty, as well as dual-career military couples.

Contrast with other countries
Following ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in most countries other than the United States (which has not ratified the convention), terms such as "custody" and "access" (known as "visitation" in the United States) have been superseded in many countries by the concepts of "residence" and "contact". Instead of a parent having "custody" of or "access" to a child, a child is now said to "reside" or have "contact" with a parent. For a discussion of the new international standards, see parental responsibility.

title: Child custody laws in the United States


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Talk:Child custody laws in the United States

Residence and the Convention on the Rights of the Child
''The outmoded terms and concepts "custody" and "visitation" were superceded years ago by "residence" and "contact", with the fundamental premise that children are not property. These principles have been ratified into law by almost every country in the world, and the amendment of the article accordingly must be given high priority. The article is irrelevant without these major clarifications. At most, references to "custody" should form a mere addendum to a "child residence" article. 222.166.160.28 7 July 2005 15:00 (UTC)''

Says who? I don't think that, in the U.S., where family law is still primarily a state (as opposed to federal) matter, many states have adopted this new terminology. Terry Thorgaard (talk) 19:30, 5 November 2015 (UTC)

I am not clear about why this U.S.-focused article would need to be prefaced with claims about what occurs in nations other than the U.S. 68.42.64.201 (talk) 20:11, 15 May 2017 (UTC)

Where?
Where does this talking about. USA, UK?

In the UK the old custody order has beeen replaced with a residence order. The idea of where the child resides and parental responsibilities is now pretty well seperate.

OK silly me it says "New York state!". What is the intention of this page? Is it to grow to cover child custody in every state and every country? If this is to be expanded for every legal concept is this too much detail for Wikipedia?

I don't understand this sentence from the "New York State" section: "Since the 1970s the divorce laws in most western nations recognized fathers as real parents and both parents are financially responsible, was the emergence of custody battles." Will someone please re-write it so that it makes sense grammatically? Terry Thorgaard (talk) 19:44, 5 November 2015 (UTC) Never mind: I changed the sentence, a minute or so ago, so as to make sense. Terry Thorgaard (talk) 14:50, 28 May 2016 (UTC)

Sounds a good idea! I have recast the page to provide more easily for state/country entries. BTW the comment below as to custody law under shari'a law would have gone well on the main page, but I hesitate to put it there myself.

Ariwara 22:37, Nov 14, 2004 (UTC)

Child Custody in Islam for Sunni Muslims (England)
If and when a marriage unfortunately comes to an end, the problems of the parties involved should not in any way affect the children. Children are a trust (amanah) from Allah and they should be treated and looked after in a proper manner.

They have many rights, of which two are of utmost importance: to receive proper care and love, and the other proper upbringing (tarbiyah). Theses rights of a child can not be fulfilled except with the joint endeavour of the parents. The love, care and attention of the mother is just as important as the upbringing and training of the farther.

In light of the above, divorce should definitely be avoided as much as possible, especially in the case where children are involved. The Messenger of Allah (Allah bless him & give him peace) said:

“Divorce is the most hated of all lawful (halal) things in the sight of Allah” (Sunan Abu Dawud, no. 2178).

However, if divorce did take place, and both parties demand their rights, then the right of custody will be in the following way. In should be remembered here that there is nothing wrong in making a mutual arrangement, as long as there is no objection from those who have a right to custody.

The mother has a right of custody for a male child until the child is capable of taking care of his own basic bodily functions and needs, such as eating, dressing and cleaning himself. This has been recognized at seven years of age.

Imam al-Haskafi (Allah have mercy on him) states:

“The custody of a male child is the right of the mother until the child is capable of taking care of his own self. This has been approximated at seven years of age, and the Fatwa (legal verdict) has been issued on this age, as normally children are able to take care of themselves at this age” (See: Radd al-Muhtar, 3/566).

In the case of a female, the mother has this right of custody until she reaches puberty. This has been declared at nine years of age. (al-Mawsili, al-Ikhtiyar li ta’lil al-mukhatr, 3/237).

The right of custody will be taken away from the mother if she:

1) Leaves Islam

2) Openly indulges in sins such as adultery and there is a fear of the child being affected

3) She does not attend to the child due to her leaving the house very often

4) She marries a non-relative (stranger) to the child by which the child may be affected

5) She demands payment for the upbringing of the child if there is another woman to raise the child without remuneration

In the above cases (when the mother no longer has the right to custody), this right then transfers to the following in order:

a) Maternal grandmother, and on up;

b) Paternal grandmother, and on up;

c) Full sisters

d) Maternal half sisters

e) Paternal half sisters

f) Maternal aunts

g) Paternal aunts

After all the avenues of the female have been exhausted as explained by the Jurists, the males have the right of custody in the following sequence:

a) Father

b) Paternal grandfather

c) Real brother

d) Paternal brother

e) Maternal brother

The reason for this is that, in the early years, the mother and the other female relatives are more suitable for raising the young child (regardless of sex) with love, mercy, attention, and motherly care. The male child after reaching the age of understanding (7) is in need of education and acquiring masculine traits, which is why he is then transferred to the farther. The female child, after reaching the age of understanding is in need of being inculcated with female traits, which she receives by living with her mother. After reaching puberty, she is in need of protection which the farther offers.

In a Hadith recorded by Imam Abu Dawud in his Sunan, the Messenger of Allah (Allah bless him & give him peace) said to a woman who complained that her husband was intending to take her child away from her: “You are more rightful of the child as long as you don’t marry” (Sunan Abu Dawud, no. 2276 & Mustadrak al-Hakim, 2/207).

It should also be remembered that after the transferral of custody from the mother to the farther, the boy remains in the custody of the farther until puberty, at which point, if he is mature and wise, he is free to choose with whom to live, or to live on his own. As for the girl, custody remains with the farther until she marries (See: Qadri pasha, Hanafi articles, 498 & 499).

Irrespective of who (mother/father) has the rights of custody, the other party has visitation rights according to mutual understanding and consent. Generally, the party having the rights of custody uses the child as a weapon to punish the other party by depriving them of visitation rights. This is totally against the concept of Islam and a grave sin. It is also very harmful to the child.

At all times the father of the child is responsible for maintaining the child; in the case of a female, until she marries; while in the case of a healthy male, until he reaches maturity. In the case of a disabled child (male or female) the father is permanently responsible.

When the mother has the rights of custody but does not have a shelter to stay in with the child, the father must provide shelter for both. (See Radd al-Muhtar of Ibn Abidin).

With the above, I hope all your questions have been answered.

And Allah Knows Best Muhammad ibn Adam Darul Iftaa Leicester, UK

Recast page
I have recast the page as essentially for the U.S., moving material to parental responsibility which is the more generally recognised area of law. David91 03:32, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

NPOV removed
The article changed significantly since Dec. 2007, I've removed the NPOV template, please use or better yet  for statements and detail issues here. This will help address them quickly. - RoyBoy 19:41, 5 February 2012 (UTC)

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Merger Proposal
I propose that Possessory conservator be merged into Possessory conservator. Although Possessory conservator presents itself as if it is a broader discussion of U.S. law, it is in fact a discussion of Texas custody law and terminology.Arllaw (talk) 16:34, 13 June 2017 (UTC)

Trying to receive partial custody of my son
Trying to receive partial custody of my son The mother is being unfair and won’t let me see my son or have any contact with him we was in a relationship and it didn’t work she’s taking it out on me and my son what can I do to have a relationship with my son. 2601:4A:C102:7FB0:147B:61D0:4CB8:C8DF (talk) 15:49, 14 March 2022 (UTC)


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Anti

Anti may refer to:

Arts and media

 * Anti- (record label), an American independent record label
 * Anti (album), by Rihanna
 * "Anti" (song), by SOB X RBE
 * ANTI – Contemporary Art Festival, a yearly international live-art festival held in Kuopio, Finland
 * Anti EP, an EP by Autechre
 * Anti, an album by T. Raumschmiere

Science and technology

 * Antiparticle, a particle with the same mass but opposite charges in particle physics
 * Anti addition, a type of bonding in organic chemistry
 * Anti conformation, an arrangement of atoms in alkane stereochemistry
 * ANTI (computer virus), a classic Mac OS computer virus

Other uses

 * A false reading of Nemty, the name of the ferryman who carried Isis to Set's island in Egyptian mythology
 * Áńt’į, or corpse powder, Navajo folkloric substance made from powdered corpses
 * Anti, an Inca name for the Asháninka people

People

 * Anti (given name), an Estonian masculine given name
 * Carlo Anti (1889–1961), Italian archaeologist
 * Karen Anette Anti (born 1972), Norwegian Sami politician
 * Michael Anti (sport shooter) (born 1964), American sport shooter
 * Michael Anti (journalist) (born 1975), Chinese journalist and political blogger

title: Anti


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Arensnuphis

Arensnuphis (in Egyptian: Iryhemesnefer, ỉrỉ-ḥms-nfr, "the good companion") is a deity from the Kingdom of Kush, first attested at Musawwarat el-Sufra in the 3rd century BC. His worship spread to the Egyptian-controlled portion of Kush in the Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BC). His mythological role is unknown; he was depicted as a lion and as a human with a crown of feathers and sometimes a spear.

Arensnuphis was worshipped at Philae, where he was called the "companion" of the Egyptian goddess Isis, as well as at Dendur. In the ancient Egyptian religion, the Egyptians syncretized him with their gods Anhur and Shu.

title: Arensnuphis


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Talk:Tegretol

Is redirecting appropriate? Is there any reason to have a separate article on Tegretol? --Daniel C. Boyer 14:51 Oct 2, 2002 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tegretol


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Alimony

Alimony, also called aliment (Scotland), maintenance (England, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Canada, New Zealand), spousal support (U.S., Canada) and spouse maintenance (Australia), is a legal obligation on a person to provide financial support to their spouse before or after marital separation or divorce. The obligation arises from the divorce law or family law of each country. In most jurisdictions, it is distinct from child support, where, after divorce, one parent is required to contribute to the support of their children by paying money to the child's other parent or guardian.

Etymology
The term alimony comes from the Latin word alimonia ("nourishment, sustenance", from alere, "to nourish"), from which the terms alimentary (of, or relating to food, nutrition, or digestion), and aliment (a Scots Law rule regarding sustenance to assure the wife's lodging, food, clothing, and other necessities after divorce) are also derived.

History
The Code of Hammurabi (1754 BC) declares that a man must provide sustenance to a woman who has borne him children so that she can raise them:

 * 137. If a man wish to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children: then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the usufruct of field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her children. When she has brought up her children, a portion of all that is given to the children, equal as that of one son, shall be given to her. She may then marry the man of her heart.

The above law only applies to women who had children with her husband. This fits more closely with the definition of child support in some jurisdictions.

Alimony is also discussed in the Code of Justinian.

The modern concept of alimony is derived from English ecclesiastical courts that awarded alimony in cases of separation and divorce. Alimony pendente lite was given until the divorce decree, based on the husband's duty to support the wife during a marriage that still continued. Post-divorce or permanent alimony was also based on the notion that the marriage continued, as ecclesiastical courts could only award a divorce a mensa et thoro, similar to a legal separation today. As divorce did not end the marriage, the husband's duty to support his wife remained intact.

Liberalization of divorce laws occurred in the 19th century, but divorce was only possible in cases of marital misconduct. As a result, the requirement to pay alimony became linked to the concept of fault in the divorce. Alimony to wives was paid because it was assumed that the marriage, and the wife's right to support, would have continued but for the misbehavior of the husband. Ending alimony on divorce would have permitted a guilty husband to profit from his own misconduct. In contrast, if the wife committed the misconduct, she was considered to have forfeited any claim to ongoing support. However, during the period, parties could rarely afford alimony, and so it was rarely awarded by courts. As husbands' incomes increased, and with it the possibility of paying alimony, the awarding of alimony increased, generally because a wife could show a need for ongoing financial support, and the husband had the ability to pay. No-fault divorce led to changes in alimony. Whereas spousal support was considered a right under the fault-based system, it became conditional under the no-fault approach. According to the American Bar Association, marital fault is a "factor" in awarding alimony in 25 states and the District of Columbia. Permanent alimony began to fall out of favor, as it prevented former spouses from beginning new lives, though in some states (e.g., Massachusetts, Mississippi, and Tennessee), permanent alimony awards continued, but with some limitations. Alimony moved beyond support to permitting the more dependent spouse to become financially independent or to have the same standard of living as during the marriage or common law marriage, though this was not possible in most cases.

In the 1970s, the United States Supreme Court ruled against gender bias in alimony awards and, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the percentage of alimony recipients who are male rose from 2.4% in 2001 to 3.6% in 2006. In states like Massachusetts and Louisiana, the salaries of new spouses may be used in determining the alimony paid to the previous partners. Most recently, in several high-profile divorces, women such as Britney Spears, Victoria Principal, and Jessica Simpson have paid multimillion-dollar settlements in lieu of alimony to ex-husbands. According to divorce lawyers, aggressive pursuit of spousal support by men is becoming more common, as the stigma associated with asking for alimony fades.

Reckoning
Once dissolution proceedings commence, either party may seek interim or pendente lite support during the course of the litigation.

Where a divorce or dissolution of marriage (civil union) is granted, either party may ask for post-marital alimony. It is not an absolute right, but may be granted, the amount and terms varying with the circumstances. If one party is already receiving support at the time of the divorce, the previous order is not automatically continued (although this can be requested), as the arguments for support during and after the marriage can be different.

Unless the parties agree on the terms of their divorce in a binding written instrument, the court will make a determination based on the legal argument and the testimony submitted by both parties. This can be modified at any future date based on a change of circumstances by either party on proper notice to the other party and application to the court. The courts are generally reluctant to modify an existing agreement unless the reasons are compelling. In some jurisdictions the court always has jurisdiction to grant maintenance should one of the former spouses become a public charge.

Canada
Types of spousal support

In Canada, spousal support may be awarded upon divorce, under the federal Divorce Act, or upon separation without divorce under provincial statutes. There are generally three different forms of spousal support awarded:

 * 1) Compensatory support – This form of support compensates an individual for her or his contributions to the relationship as well as for any losses that individual has suffered;
 * 2) Non-compensatory support – In some cases support may be awarded on a needs basis. This form of support may be awarded by a Court where an individual is sick or disabled; and
 * 3) Contractual support (divorce agreement) – This form of support upholds a contract between the parties which governs support payments.

Married spouses and common-law spouses

Both married spouses and common-law spouses may be entitled to spousal support. An important distinction between the two is that common-law spouses must start an action claiming spousal support within one year of the breakdown of the relationship. A second important distinction is that only married couples may divorce under the federal Divorce Act, common-law spouses may only separate under provincial legislation, such as Ontario's Family Law Act or British Columbia's Family Relation's Act. No such limitation arises for married individuals. In addition to being in a marriage or common-law relationship, courts will look at the conditions, means, needs and other circumstances of each spouse. This includes:

 * 1) The length of time the spouses cohabited;
 * 2) The functions performed by each spouse during the relationship; and
 * 3) Any existing orders or agreements.

This is by no means an exhaustive list of factors which the court will consider when determining entitlement. Each case is determined on its own unique set of circumstances.

Factors for awarding spousal support

The federal Divorce Act at s.15.2 (6) states that there are four objectives of spousal support orders:

 * 1) Recognize any economic advantages or disadvantages to the spouses arising from the marriage or its breakdown;
 * 2) Apportion between the spouses any financial consequences arising from the care of any child of the marriage over and above any obligation for the support of any child of the marriage;
 * 3) Relieve any economic hardship of the spouses arising from the breakdown of the marriage; and
 * 4) In so far as practicable, promote the economic self-sufficiency of each spouse within a reasonable period of time.

Amount and duration

The longer the length of cohabitation and the greater the disparity between each party’s incomes, the larger an award of spousal support will be and the longer the duration will be. Although there is no set formula to determine the exact amount and duration of spousal support, there are guidelines, referred to as the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines, which provides ranges for both. the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines calculate ranges for support after taking into account the relevant factors. Although the courts are not required to abide by the Spousal Support Advisory Guidelines, they are required to take them into account when deciding on the issue of spousal support. The length of the relationship will be taken into account when determining how long spousal support should be paid for. Awards for spousal support can be for a limited term or indefinite.

While declaring bankruptcy does not absolve Canadians of obligations to pay alimony or child support, a 2011 ruling by the Supreme Court of Canada established that under current laws "equalization payments agreed to as part of a divorce are considered debts, and are wiped off a person's balance sheet when they declare bankruptcy."

Czech Republic
Laws of the Czech Republic provide for spousal maintenance both during marriage and after divorce. As main principle, both spouses have the right for generally equal standard of living during the marriage.

The same "generally equal standard of living" applies also to post-divorce period in special cases, when the payee wasn't mostly responsible for the failure of marriage or did not agree with the divorce and the payee suffered serious harm due to the divorce and hadn't committed an act of domestic violence against the payer. In such case the payee may request alimony in amount providing "generally equal standard of living" for a period adequate to circumstances, but no longer than three years.

If those special conditions are not met, both of the divorced have mutual spousal maintenance obligation in case that one of them is not able to provide for themselves due to circumstances originating in marriage, if payment of alimony is reasonable under general circumstances that each of the divorced found themselves in.

England
English courts award spousal maintenance, either in a lump sum or in installments, when one party cannot support themselves without payments from the other party.

Under traditional English common law, a woman gave up her personal property rights on marriage (see Coverture). Upon separation from marriage, the husband retained the right to the wife's property, but, in exchange, had an ongoing responsibility to support the wife after dissolution of the marriage. English law was amended by legislation including the Married Women's Property Act 1870 and Married Women's Property Act 1882 which reformed women's property rights relating to marriage, by, for example, permitting divorced women to regain the property they owned before marriage.

India
Alimony in India is governed by personal laws based on religion:

Hindus: Governed by the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (Section 24 for pendente lite, Section 25 for permanent alimony).

Christians: Governed by the Divorce Act, 1869 (Section 36 for pendente lite, Section 37 for permanent alimony).

Parsis: Governed by the Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act (Section 39 for pendente lite, Section 40 for permanent alimony).

Secular: Special Marriage Act, 1954 (Section 36 for pendente lite, Section 37 for permanent alimony).

Italy
The duty of mutual assistance of the spouses turns into an obligation of maintenance following the personal separation. The spouse who is not responsible for the separation has, in fact, the right to receive from the other "what is necessary for its maintenance" (Article 156 of the Italian Civil Code).

In case of dissolution of the marriage, art. 5, paragraph 6, of Law 898/1970 provides for the obligation for a spouse to periodically provide the other with a check "when the latter does not have adequate means or in any case cannot obtain them for objective reasons", the determination of which it is entrusted to certain specific parameters (conditions of the spouses, reasons for the decision, personal and economic contribution given by each to the family management and to the formation of the patrimony of each or the common one, income of both, duration of marriage).

Japan
Under the Japanese Civil Code, spousal support is available while the parties are married, but terminates upon divorce. Japanese courts typically award a one-time payment of isha-ryo, or consolation money, to the "wronged" spouse in the divorce, a type of compensation which does not exist in some other jurisdictions such as most U.S. states.

United States
In the U.S., state law establishes requirements regarding alimony (and child support) payments, recovery and penalties. A spouse trying to recover back alimony sometimes may use only the collection procedures that are available to all other creditors, such as reporting the amount due to a collection agency, or seek enforcement through contempt of court proceedings against an obligor who is able to pay but has failed to do so. Alimony obligations are not dischargeable in bankruptcy.

The determination of alimony varies greatly from state to state within the U.S. Some state statutes, including those of Texas, Montana, Kansas, Utah, Kentucky and Maine, give explicit guidelines to judges on the amount and/or duration of alimony. In Texas, Mississippi and Tennessee, for example, alimony is awarded only in cases of marriage or civil union of ten years or longer and the payments are limited to three years unless there are special, extenuating circumstances. Also, in case of Texas, there is a legal presumption while dealing with a spousal maintenance case, that the alimony isn't appropriate. Once the requesting spouse can reasonably demonstrate that he/she has given the best effort in good faith to secure an independent income but failed, only then the case is taken into consideration. Furthermore, the amount of spousal support in Texas is limited to the lesser of $5,000 per month or 20% of the payee's gross income. In Delaware, spousal support is usually not awarded in marriages of less than 10 years. In Kansas, alimony awards cannot exceed 121 months. In Utah, the duration of alimony cannot exceed the length of the marriage. In Maine, Mississippi, and Tennessee alimony is awarded in marriages or civil union of 10 to 20 years and the duration is half the length of the marriage barring extenuating circumstances. Other states, including California, Nevada and New York, have relatively vague statutes which simply list the "factors" a judge should consider when determining alimony (see list of factors below). In these states, the determination of duration and amount of alimony is left to the discretion of the family court judges who must consider case law in each state. In Mississippi, Texas and Tennessee, for example, there are 135 Appellate Cases in addition to 47 sections of State Statute that shape divorce law. As a result of these Appellate Cases, for example, Mississippi judges cannot order an end date to any alimony award. In 2012, Massachusetts signed into law comprehensive alimony reform. This law sets limits on alimony and eliminates lifetime alimony. Similarly, in 2013, Colorado signed into law alimony reform, creating a standardized non-presumptive guideline upon which courts can rely.

In general, there are four types of alimony:

 * 1) Temporary alimony:  Support ordered when the parties are separated prior to divorce. Also called alimony pendente lite, which is Latin, meaning, "pending the suit".
 * 2) Rehabilitative alimony:  Support given to a lesser-earning spouse for a period of time necessary to acquire work outside the home and become self-sufficient.
 * 3) Permanent alimony:  Support paid to the lesser-earning spouse until the death of the payor, the death of the recipient, or the remarriage of the recipient.
 * 4) Reimbursement alimony:  Support given as a reimbursement for expenses incurred by a spouse during the marriage (such as educational expenses).

Some of the possible factors that bear on the amount and duration of the support are:

Prenuptial agreements
Prenuptial agreements are recognized in all fifty states and the District of Columbia, and every jurisdiction allows parties to agree to spousal support and alimony terms in a premarital or postnuptial agreement, if their marital agreement is prepared in accordance with state and federal law requirements. Divorce courts retain the discretion to refuse to enforce prenuptial agreement terms restricting a party’s right to seek alimony if that party would have to seek public assistance as a result of the alimony waiver, or if the restriction on the right to seek alimony is unconscionable or unfair when the divorce occurs. Lack of financial disclosure prior to signing a prenuptial agreement or a post-nuptial agreement by the party against whom alimony is sought may also cause a court to invalidate a waiver of alimony provision. Prenuptial Agreements with valid alimony waivers or restrictions entered into in one state should be fully enforceable by the courts of another state in the event of a divorce, unless the terms of the prenuptial agreement are in material violation of the foreign jurisdiction's laws.

California is the only state with a law that requires that the parties be represented by counsel if spousal support (alimony) is limited by the agreement.

Instead of a complete waiver of the right to seek alimony, prenuptial agreements and post-nuptial agreements can also contain terms where the parties agree to a set amount of guaranteed alimony for the lower wage earner at the time of divorce, or a cap/limit on the amount of alimony either party can seek in the event of a divorce.

Reform
In the United States, family laws and precedents as they relate to divorce, community property and alimony vary based on state law. Also, with new family models, "working couples", "working wives", "stay-at-home dads", etc., there are situations where some parties to a divorce question whether traditional economic allocations made in a divorce are fair and equitable to the facts of their individual case. Some groups have proposed various forms of legislation to reform alimony parameters (i.e. amounts and term). Alimony terms are among the most frequent issues causing litigation in family law cases. Eighty percent of divorce cases involve a request for modification of alimony.

Some states (e.g. Florida, Texas, Maine) are moving away from permanent alimony awards that are intended to maintain a spouse's standard of living enjoyed during the marriage and are moving towards durational or rehabilitative alimony. In other states, like Mississippi and Tennessee, alimony is usually awarded for life.

Some of the critical issues that proponents and opponents of alimony reform disagree upon are:
 * Whether alimony should be temporary or permanent
 * Regardless of duration, should alimony payers have the unquestionable right to retire?
 * Does the lesser earning spouse deserve alimony to meet his or her basic needs (sustenance) or enough to sustain "the lifestyle accustomed to during the civil union or marriage"?
 * Should the income and assets of a new spouse be used in determining how much alimony gets paid?
 * How clear and prescriptive should state statutes be versus allowing a larger degree of Judicial Discretion?

In 2012, bills were introduced in the New Jersey Assembly and Senate. The Assembly passed a bill calling for a Blue Ribbon Commission to address Alimony Reform. The Senate has a similar bill pending that has not yet been posted in the Judiciary Committee. The NJ Matrimonial Bar Association has been vehemently fighting against Alimony Reform, led by Patrick Judge Jr. chairman of the Family Law section of the New Jersey State Bar Association. Attorney Judge stated that the New Jersey State Bar Association ("NJSBA") objected to the inclusion of individuals with a vested interest in reforming alimony on the Blue Ribbon Commission and that the NJSBA supported the "establishment of a commission [to study alimony reform] but only as long as the commission is constituted so that a fair and unbiased review of the current alimony laws takes place…[and] should not be predisposed to an outcome…."

In 2023 Florida passed an alimony reform bill (SB 1416) which eliminated permanent alimony and established a process for allowing alimony payers to request modifications when they want to retire. The bill allowed judges to reduce or terminate alimony obligations based on a number of factors. The passage came after decades of contentious debate garnering three vetoes of similar bills. Some groups that were previously major opponents of the reform approved of the 2023 policy, such as Florida Family Fairness and The Florida Bar.

California, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Oklahoma, New York, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, and West Virginia have all passed laws that allow for the modification or termination of alimony upon demonstration that the recipient is cohabitating with another person. In April 2009, the Governor of New Jersey, Jon Corzine, signed into law changes in the alimony statutes for his state which would bar alimony payments to parents who kill, abuse, or abandon their children.

Taxation
In divorces and separation agreements signed on December 31, 2018 and earlier, alimony is tax-deductible for the payer, and treated as taxable income for the recipient. Pursuant to the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, for divorce judgments dated January 1, 2019 and later, spousal support is treated as not-taxable and non-deductible for either party.

title: Alimony


text:
Ba-Pef

Ba-Pef was a minor underworld god in Egyptian mythology. The name literally means that Ba, meaning that soul (ba). Ba-Pef is commonly portrayed as an obscure malevolent deity known from the Old Kingdom. During the Old and Middle Kingdom the priesthood of Ba-Pef was held by queens.

title: Ba-Pef


text:
Babi (mythology)

Babi, also Baba, in ancient Egyptian religion, was the deification of the hamadryas baboon, one of the animals present in ancient Egypt. His name is usually translated as "bull of the baboons", roughly meaning "chief of the baboons".

Baboons are extremely aggressive and omnivorous, and Babi was viewed as being very bloodthirsty, and living on entrails. Consequently, he was viewed as devouring the souls of the sinful after they had been weighed against Maat (the concept of truth/order), and was thus said to stand by a lake of fire, representing destruction. Since this judging of righteousness was an important part of the underworld, Babi was said to be the first-born son of Osiris, the god of the dead in the same regions in which people believed in Babi.

Baboons also have noticeably high libidos, in addition to their high level of genital marking, and so Babi was considered the god of virility of the dead. He was usually portrayed with an erection, and due to the association with the judging of souls, was sometimes depicted as using it as the mast of the ferry which conveyed the righteous to Aaru, a series of islands. One spell in a funerary text identifies the deceased person's phallus with Babi, ensuring that the deceased will be able to have sexual intercourse in the afterlife.

title: Babi (mythology)


text:
Legal separation

Legal separation (sometimes judicial separation, separate maintenance, divorce a mensa et thoro, or divorce from bed-and-board) is a legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married. A legal separation is granted in the form of a court order. In cases where children are involved, a court order of legal separation often makes child custody arrangements, specifying sole custody or shared parenting, as well as child support. Some couples obtain a legal separation as an alternative to a divorce, based on moral or religious objections to divorce.

Legal separation does not automatically lead to divorce. The couple might reconcile, in which case they do not have to do anything in order to continue their marriage.

A mensa et thoro separation
A mensa et thoro is a legal Latin phrase which means "from table and bed", often translated as "from bed and board", in which "board" is a word for "table". Separation a mensa et thoro is essentially a separation that is sanctioned by a court order, meaning that the spouses may legally live apart, but they are still legally married. The legitimacy of any future child born to the couple remains intact, and the spouses may not legally remarry. This type of separation allows the couple to live apart without concerns about being taken to court for "desertion". (In some jurisdictions, provable "desertion" is legal grounds for a divorce.)

There are several reasons why a couple might seek a mensa et thoro separation. In some legal jurisdictions, including certain countries, it can be difficult to get a full and final divorce, but if the spouses are already separated a mensa et thoro for an extended period of time (for example, three years), the court may decide to grant a full and final divorce. When the requirements of burden of proof for a divorce are difficult to meet, in most jurisdictions, an a mensa et thoro ruling assures the couple a slot in the court's schedule whenever they file for a full divorce, by showing that they were both serious about their separation.

Sometimes, an a mensa et thoro separation is used when one partner is claimed to be emotionally, verbally, or physically abusive, keeping the marriage in existence while the two spouses are physically separated. This physical separation may give the two of them a chance to work out the problems in their relationship while residing in legally sanctioned separate dwellings. Spouses may also request an a mensa et thoro separation to protect themselves from accusations of desertion or abandonment—such as in cases where one must depart from the other for an extended period of time.

Canada
In Canada, the terms "legal separation" or "judicial separation" are often used informally to describe a situation of separation where the couple has formalized certain agreements or entered into a contract. However, this situation is different from the specific legal status of legal/judicial separation that exists in some other jurisdictions and requires filing the courts for. As such, a mensa et thoro separation does not exist in Canada but the term "legal separation" has gained widespread use to describe a contract that is created between two spouses at the time of their separation. This contract is more properly referred to as a separation agreement, a legally binding written agreement voluntarily signed by two spouses (either married or common law) who have separated. In Ontario, a separation agreement is unenforceable unless it is made in writing, signed by the parties and witnessed. This written agreement usually resolves all issues arising from the separation, including custody and access, child support, spousal support and the division of property, except only a court can grant a divorce itself.

Ireland
Before the introduction of the Judicial Separation and Family Law Reform Act 1989, the only means of judicial separation available in the Republic of Ireland was to seek a decree of divorce a mensa et thoro. This could only be obtained on the grounds of adultery, cruelty, or "unnatural practices" (a concept never defined by the legislature or the courts). Post-1989 judicial separation is possible on one of six grounds, proven on the balance of probabilities:

 * 1) Respondent has committed adultery.
 * 2) Respondent has behaved in such a way that the applicant cannot reasonably be expected to live with them (mental or physical cruelty).
 * 3) The respondent has deserted for a continuous period of at least one year immediately preceding the date of application.
 * 4) Both parties have lived apart for a continuous period of at least one year immediately preceding the date of application, and the respondent consents to the decree.
 * 5) Both parties have lived apart for a continuous period of at least three years immediately preceding the date of application.
 * 6) The marriage has broken down to the extent that the court is satisfied in all the circumstances that a normal marital relationship has not existed between the spouses for a period of at least one year immediately preceding the date of the application.

Of the six grounds, the latter forms the basis of the vast majority of judicial separation decrees. A "normal marital relationship" is not defined. The court must only be satisfied that there has been the loss of an "essential ingredient of the marriage".

United States
In the United States of America, a legal separation may address the division of assets, division of debts, child custody, child support, and alimony. A separate maintenance agreement is not a legal separation and therefore child support and custody are typically not allowed to be addressed. A separate maintenance agreement is often confused with a legal separation which is filed with a court. Separate maintenance agreements are contracts between spouses and not approved by a court. They are similar to prenuptial agreements.

Under the law of some states, a separation can occur by judicial decree, or by an acknowledged ("notarized") agreement of the parties. In some states, there must be grounds or a cause of action to get a judicial decree of separation, such as "cruel and inhuman treatment ... abandonment ... neglect or refusal [to] support ... adultery by the defendant, [or] confinement of the defendant in prison ...." Reconciliation is allowed. So, therefore, separation is revocable; state laws may require "the joint application of the parties, accompanied with satisfactory evidence of their reconciliation ... by the court which rendered it, subject to such regulations and restrictions as the court thinks fit to impose."

Philippines
In the Philippines, a legal separation may only be had through a valid judicial decree. In addition, actions for legal separation shall not be tried "before six months have elapsed since the filing of the petition." During this six-month "cooling-off" period, the spouses are encouraged to find forgiveness.

Under the Civil Code, there were only two grounds for legal separation:
 * 1) For adultery on the part of the wife and for concubinage on the part of the husband as defined in the Penal Code; or
 * 2) An attempt by one spouse against the life of the other.

The grounds were later expanded under Article 55 of the Family Code: (Note that the term "child" includes a child by nature or by adoption)
 * 1) Repeated physical violence or grossly abusive conduct directed against the petitioner, a common child, or a child of the petitioner;
 * 2) Physical violence or moral pressure to compel the petitioner to change religious or political affiliation;
 * 3) Attempt of respondent to corrupt or induce the petitioner, a common child, or a child of the petitioner, to engage in prostitution, or connivance in such corruption or inducement;
 * 4) Final judgment sentencing the respondent to imprisonment of more than six years, even if pardoned;
 * 5) Drug addiction or habitual alcoholism of the respondent;
 * 6) Lesbianism or homosexuality of the respondent;
 * 7) Contracting by the respondent of a subsequent bigamous marriage, whether in the Philippines or abroad;
 * 8) Sexual infidelity or perversion;
 * 9) Attempt by the respondent against the life of the petitioner; or
 * 10) Abandonment of petitioner by respondent without justifiable cause for more than one year.

Article 63 of the Family Code enumerates the following concrete effects of a decree of legal separation:
 * 1) The spouses shall be entitled to live separately from each other, but the marriage bonds shall not be severed;
 * 2) The absolute community or the conjugal partnership shall be dissolved and liquidated but the offending spouse shall have no right to any share of the net profits earned by the absolute community or the conjugal partnership, which shall be forfeited in accordance with the provisions of Article 43(2);
 * 3) The custody of the minor children shall be awarded to the innocent spouse, subject to the provisions of Article 213 of this Code; and
 * 4) The offending spouse shall be disqualified from inheriting from the innocent spouse by intestate succession. Moreover, provisions in favor of the offending spouse made in the will of the innocent spouse shall be revoked by operation of law.

Italy
The law of Italy requires a period of legal separation (one year for contested separations, six months for consensual separations) before a decree of full and final divorce can be issued.

title: Legal separation


text:
Flora Brovina

Flora Brovina (born 30 September 1949) is a Kosovar Albanian poet, pediatrician and women's rights activist. She was born in the town of Skenderaj in the Drenica Valley of Kosovo, and was raised in Pristina, where she went to school and began studying medicine. After finishing her university studies in Zagreb, where she specialized in pediatrics, she returned to Kosovo and worked for a time as a journalist for the Albanian-language daily newspaper Rilindja. Soon thereafter, she returned to the health care profession and worked for many years in the Pediatrics Ward of the Pristina General Hospital.

Kosovo war
As the political situation in Kosovo deteriorated in the 1990s, and fighting broke out, Brovina ran a health clinic in Pristina in which she distributed health care information on matters as diverse as snake bites, dressing wounds and delivering babies. She also used the centre to shelter a number of orphaned children, many of whom had lost their parents during the fighting and expulsions. She and her fellow workers took care of as many as 25 children at a time.

On 20 April 1999 during the Kosovo War, Brovina was abducted by eight masked Serbia paramilitaries from the home she was staying in and was driven off by car to an initially unknown destination. She was thus in captivity in Serbia when NATO forces took Priština and Serb troops withdrew from the Kosovo province. The first news of her abduction broke on 24 April 1999 when her son managed to contact the international writers’ association, PEN, with an urgent appeal that the news of her abduction be made known as widely as possible. She was transferred to a Serb prison in Požarevac and, in her first month of detention, was subjected to over 200 hours of interrogation in 18 separate sessions lasting typically from 7 A.M. to 5 P.M. On 9 December 1999, in a show trial, she was accused of 'terrorist activities' under Article 136 of the Yugoslav Penal Code. She spent a year and a half in Serb prisons before being released as a result of international pressure.

Writing
As a writer, Flora Brovina is the author of three volumes of lyric verse. The first collection, Verma emrin tim (Call me by my name), containing 42 verses, was published in Pristina in 1973 when she was a mere twenty-four years old. Six years later, in 1979, the collection Bimë e zë (Plant and voice) followed. It is in this collection that some of the main themes of Brovina's poetry crystallize. Conspicuous among them is the fate of women in society, and in particular the role of women as mothers, as life-givers and nurturers. It is here that births, umbilical cords, amniotic fluid and suckling breasts begin to make their appearance. Along with plants, these are perhaps the most ubiquitous symbols of her verse production. Her third and last collection of original verse, entitled Mat e çmat (With the tape it measures), was published in Pristina in 1995. Mat e çmat appeared at a time when Kosovo was obviously gravitating towards war. Though this third collection cannot be interpreted as political verse to any great extent, there are many poems in the volume which reflect her preoccupation not only with the problems and aspirations of individuals, but also with the fate of her people, with freedom and self-determination.

In 1999, Flora Brovina was recipient of the annual Tucholsky Award of the Swedish PEN Club, a prize which has been awarded to other writers of note such as Salman Rushdie, Adam Zagajewski, Nuruddin Farah, Taslima Nasrin, Shirali Nurmuadov, and Vincent Magombe. She is also the recipient of the PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award by PEN American Center and the Human Rights Award of the Heinrich Böll Foundation in Berlin.

Despite this international recognition, it is curious to note that, as a poet, Flora Brovina has never been part of the literary establishment of Kosovo, nor has her verse found its way into the mainstream of contemporary Albanian literature. A collection of her verse has appeared in English in "Flora Brovina, Call me by my Name, Poetry from Kosova" in a bilingual Albanian-English Edition, translated by Robert Elsie, New York: Gjonlekaj 2001.

Politics
After Kosovo was proclaimed independent, Flora Brovina ran for the President of Kosovo in 2001 on the list of the Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK), a surprise candidate instead of the party's leader Hashim Thaci. Since then, she has been a Member of the Assembly of Kosovo during each of its legislation period.

title: Flora Brovina