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Perfume

Perfume (, ; parfum) is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), fixatives and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent. Perfumes can be defined as substances that emit and diffuse a pleasant and fragrant odor. They consist of manmade mixtures of aromatic chemicals and essential oils. The 1939 Nobel Laureate for Chemistry, Leopold Ružička stated in 1945 that "right from the earliest days of scientific chemistry up to the present time, perfumes have substantially contributed to the development of organic chemistry as regards methods, systematic classification, and theory."

Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics.

History

The word perfume is derived from the Latin perfumare, meaning "to smoke through". Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization and possibly Ancient China. It was further refined by the Romans and the Muslims.

One of the world's first-recorded chemists is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.

On the Indian subcontinent, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC).

In 2003, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes dated back more than 4,000 years. They were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 3230 sqft factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, as well as flowers. In May 2018, an ancient perfume "Rodo" (Rose) was recreated for the Greek National Archaeological Museum's anniversary show "Countless Aspects of Beauty", allowing visitors to approach antiquity through their olfaction receptors.

In the 9th century the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus) wrote the Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations, which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters, and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name. [from Greek ἄμβιξ, "cup", "beaker"]  described by Synesius in the 4th century ).

The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.

There is a controversy on whether perfumery was completely lost in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. That said, the art of perfumery in Western Europe was reinvigorated after the Islamic invasion of Spain and Southern Italy in 711 and 827. The Islamic controlled cities of Spain (Al-Andalus) became major producers of perfumes that were traded throughout the Old World. Like in the ancient world, Andalusians used fragrance in devotion to God. Perfumes added a layer of cleanliness that was needed for their devotion. Andalusian women were also offered greater freedoms than women in other Muslim controlled regions and were allowed to leave their homes and socialize outside. This freedom allowed courtship to occur outside of the home. As a result, Andalusian women used perfumes for courtship.

Recipes of perfumes from the monks of Santa Maria Delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence, Italy, were recorded from 1221. In the east, the Hungarians produced around 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de' Medici (1519–1589), René the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino), took Italian refinements to France. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and cosmetics manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France.

Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne; his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) took over the business in 1732.

By the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria (in Italy) were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design and trade.

Dilution classes and terminologies
Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The intensity and longevity of a fragrance is based on the concentration, intensity, and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used. As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent. Specific terms are used to describe a fragrance's approximate concentration by the percent of perfume oil in the volume of the final product. The most widespread terms are:
 * Parfum or extrait (P): 15–40% aromatic compounds (IFRA: typically ~20%). In English, parfum is also known as perfume extract, pure perfume, or simply perfume.
 * Esprit de parfum (ESdP): 15–30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration between EdP and parfum.
 * Eau de parfum (EdP) or parfum de toilette (PdT): 10–20% aromatic compounds (typically ~15%). It is sometimes called "eau de perfume" or "millésime." Parfum de toilette is a less common term, most popular in the 1980s, that is generally analogous to eau de parfum.
 * Eau de toilette (EdT): 5–15% aromatic compounds (typically ~10%). This is the staple for most masculine perfumes.
 * Eau de cologne (EdC): 3–8% aromatic compounds (typically ~5%). This concentration is often simply called cologne.
 * Eau fraîche: 3% or less aromatic compounds. This general term encompasses products sold as "splashes," "mists," "veils" and other imprecise terms. Such products may be diluted with water rather than oil or alcohol.

Imprecise terminology
The wide range in the percentages of aromatic compounds that may be present in each concentration means that the terminology of extrait, EdP, EdT, and EdC is quite imprecise with regard to oil concentration. Although an EdP will often be more concentrated than an EdT and in turn an EdC, this is not always the case. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in EdP dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in EdT from within a company's same range, the actual amount will vary among companies. An EdT from one house may have a higher concentration of aromatic compounds than an EdP from another.

Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. Chanel No. 5 is a good example: its parfum, EdP, EdT, and now-discontinued EdC concentrations are in fact different compositions (the parfum dates to 1921, the EdT from the 1950s, and the EdP was not developed until the 1980s). In some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate a higher aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur concentrée. This complexity adds a layer of nuance to the understanding and appreciation of perfumery, where variations in concentration and formulation can significantly alter the olfactory ("the sense of smell") experience.

History of the terms and concentrations
The terms "perfume" and "cologne" lead to much confusion in English. "Perfume" is often used as a generic, overarching term to refer to fragrances marketed to women, regardless of their exact concentration. The term "cologne" is applied to those sold to men. The actual product worn by a woman may be an eau de parfum rather than an extrait, or by a man an eau de toilette rather than an eau de cologne. The reasons why the terms "perfume" and "cologne" are often used in a generic sense is related to the modern development of perfumery in Europe since the 18th century.

The term "cologne" was first used in Europe in the 18th century to refer to a family of fresh, citrus-based fragrances distilled using extracts from citrus, floral, and woody ingredients. These "classical colognes" were supposedly first developed in Cologne, Germany, hence the name. This type of cologne, which is still in production, describes unisex compositions "which are basically citrus blends and do not have a perfume parent." Examples include Mäurer & Wirtz's 4711 (created in 1799), and Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale (1830). "Toilet water," or eau de toilette, referred to wide range of scented waters not otherwise known as colognes, and were popular throughout the 19th century.

The term "perfume" emerged in the late 19th century. The first fragrance labeled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. In the first half of the 20th century, fragrance companies began offering their products in more than one concentration, often pairing an extrait with a lighter eau de toilette suitable for day wear, which made their products available to a wider range of customers. As this process accelerated, perfume houses borrowed the term "cologne" to refer to an even more diluted interpretation of their fragrances than eau de toilette. Guerlain, for example, offered an eau de cologne version of its flagship perfume Shalimar and many of its other fragrances. In contrast to a classical eau de cologne, this type of modern cologne is a lighter, less concentrated interpretation of a more concentrated product, typically a pure parfum, and is usually the lightest concentration from a line of fragrance products.

The eau de parfum concentration and terminology is the most recent, being originally developed to offer the radiance of an EdT with the longevity of an extrait. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s. In the 21st century, EdP is probably the most widespread strength concentration. It is often the first concentration offered when a new fragrance is launched, and usually referred to generically as "perfume."

Historically, women's fragrances tended to have higher levels of aromatic compounds than men's fragrances. Fragrances marketed to men were typically sold as EdT or EdC, rarely as EdP or perfume extracts. This is changing in the modern fragrance world, especially as fragrances are becoming more unisex. Women's fragrances used to be common in all levels of concentration, but in the 21st century are mainly seen in EdP and EdT concentrations. Many modern perfumes are never offered in extrait or eau de cologne formulations, and EdP and EdT account for the vast majority of new launches.

Solvent types
Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume-oil dilution is alcohol, typically a mixture of ethanol and water or a rectified spirit. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil and almond oil.

Applying fragrances
The conventional application of pure perfume (parfum extrait) in Western cultures is behind the ears, at the nape of the neck, under the armpits and at the insides of wrists, elbows and knees, so that the pulse point will warm the perfume and release fragrance continuously. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume in order that the scent may rise. The modern perfume industry encourages the practice of layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities depending upon the time of the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points for evening. Cologne fragrance is released rapidly, lasting around 2 hours. Eau de toilette lasts from 2 to 4 hours, while perfume may last up to six hours.

A variety of factors can influence how fragrance interacts with the wearer's own physiology and affect the perception of the fragrance. Diet is one factor, as eating spicy and fatty foods can increase the intensity of a fragrance. The use of medications can also impact the character of a fragrance. The relative dryness of the wearer's skin is important, since dry skin will not hold fragrance as long as skin with more oil.

Describing a perfume

The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts.

The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.

The trail of scent left behind by a person wearing perfume is called its sillage, after the French word for "wake", as in the trail left by a boat in water.

Fragrance notes
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes; conversely, the scents of the base notes will be altered by the types of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers who publish perfume notes typically do so with the fragrance components presented as a fragrance pyramid, using imaginative and abstract terms for the components listed.
 * Top notes: Also called the head notes. The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Examples of top notes include mint, lavender and coriander.
 * Middle notes: Also referred to as heart notes. The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to the dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. Examples of middle notes include seawater, sandalwood and jasmine.
 * Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. Examples of base notes include tobacco, amber and musk.

Olfactive families
The grouping of perfumes can never be completely objective or definitive. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower" will have subtle undertones of other aromatics. There are hardly any true unitary-scent perfumes consisting of a single aromatic material.

The family classification is a starting point to describe a perfume, but does not fully characterize it.

Traditional categories
The traditional categories which emerged around 1900:

 * Citrus: The oldest fragrance family that gave birth to lightweight eau de colognes. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of more tenacious citrus fragrances. Examples: 4711, Guerlain's Eau de Cologne Impériale, Penhaligon's Quercus.
 * Single Floral: Fragrances dominated by the scent of a particular flower, i.e., rose, carnation, iris. In French this type of fragrance is called a soliflore. Example: Serge Lutens Sa Majeste La Rose.
 * Floral Bouquet: Compound of several flower scents. Examples: Houbigant Quelques Fleurs, Jean Patou Joy.
 * Amber or "Oriental": Large class featuring sweet, slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, evoking Victorian era "Oriental" imagery. Traditional examples: Guerlain Shalimar, Yves Saint Laurent Opium, Chanel Coco Mademoiselle.
 * Woody: Fragrances dominated by woody notes, typically agarwood, sandalwood, cedarwood, and vetiver. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. Traditional examples: Myrurgia Maderas De Oriente, Chanel Bois des Îles. Modern: Balenciaga Rumba.
 * Leather: A family of fragrances featuring honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in the middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples: Robert Piguet Bandit, Balmain Jolie Madame.
 * Chypre : Meaning Cyprus in French, this category is named after the François Coty's Chypre (1917), which was the first modern fragrance built on an accord of bergamot, oakmoss, and labdanum. Example: Guerlain Mitsouko, Rochas Femme.
 * Fougère : Meaning fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss, with a sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Named for Houbigant's landmark fragrance Fougère Royale, many men's fragrances belong to this family. Modern examples: Fabergé Brut, Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir, Penhaligon's Douro.

Modern
Since 1945, new categories have emerged to describe modern scents, due to great advances in the technology of compound design and synthesis, as well as the natural development of styles and tastes:

 * Bright Floral: Combining single floral and floral bouquet traditional categories. Example: Estée Lauder Beautiful.
 * Green: Lighter, more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Examples: Estée Lauder Aliage, Sisley Eau de Campagne, Calvin Klein Eternity.
 * Aquatic, Oceanic, Ozonic: The newest category, first appearing in 1988 Davidoff Cool Water (1988), Christian Dior Dune (1991). A clean smell reminiscent of the ocean, leading to many androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic discovered in 1966, or more recent synthetics. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
 * Fruity: Featuring fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. Example: Ginestet Botrytis.
 * Gourmand : Scents with "edible" or "dessert-like" qualities, often containing vanilla, tonka bean, and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet Example: Thierry Mugler's Angel (sweet).

Fragrance wheel
This newer classification method is widely used in retail and the fragrance industry, created in 1983 by the perfume consultant Michael Edwards. The new scheme simplifies classification and naming, as well as showing the relationships among the classes.

The five main families are Floral, Oriental, Woody, Aromatic Fougère, and Fresh, the first four from the classic terminology and the last from the modern oceanic category. Each of these are divided into subgroups and arranged around a wheel. In this scheme, Chanel No.5, traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, is placed under the Soft Floral sub-group, while amber scents are within the Oriental group. Chypre perfumes are more ambiguous, having affinities with both the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko is under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a more floral chypre, is under Floral Oriental.

Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.
 * Bark: Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.
 * Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
 * Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries rarely yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are more likely to be of synthetic origin. Notable exceptions include blackcurrant leaf, litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
 * Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.
 * Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, balsam of Peru, benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
 * Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
 * Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
 * Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.
 * Rom terpenes. Orchid scents

Animal sources

 * Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
 * Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
 * Civet: Also called civet musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. World Animal Protection investigated African civets caught for this purpose.
 * Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa stone", is the petrified excrement of the rock hyrax.
 * Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute.
 * Musk: Originally derived from a gland (sac or pod) located between the genitals and the umbilicus of the Himalayan male musk deer Moschus moschiferus, it has now mainly been replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk".

Other natural sources

 * Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.
 * "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics.

Synthetic sources
Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids.

One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include: Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.
 * Givaudan
 * International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)
 * Firmenich
 * Takasago
 * Symrise

Characteristics
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Obtaining natural odorants
Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product.

All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless.
 * Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include ethane, hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this process is called a "concrete."
 * Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO2. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.
 * Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction from fresh plant materials contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.
 * Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapor.
 * Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems.
 * Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired.
 * Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition process.
 * Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the essential oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible.
 * Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extraction of odorous oils with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the modern industry due to prohibitive costs and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods.

Fragrant extracts
Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes.
 * Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid.
 * Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids.
 * Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils.
 * Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.
 * Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids.

Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil".

Composing perfumes

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing.

The perfumer
The job of composing perfumes that will be sold is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition.

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume. The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance.

Technique
Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and antioxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively.

Basic framework
Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups:
 * Primary scents (Heart): Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent.
 * Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier.
 * Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal.
 * Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives.

The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively, allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.

Fragrance bases
Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like.

The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous:
 * 1) Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume
 * 2) A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology.
 * 3) A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by combining multiple bases, then present it for feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response.

Reverse engineering
Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely."

Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market.

Copyright
It is doubtful whether perfumes qualify as appropriate copyright subject matter under the US Copyright Act. The issue has not yet been addressed by any US court. A perfume's scent is not eligible for trademark protection: the scent serves as the functional purpose of the product.

In 2006 the Dutch Supreme Court granted copyright protection to Lancôme's perfume Tresor (Lancôme v. Kecofa).

The French Supreme Court has twice taken the position that perfumes lack the creativity to constitute copyrightable expressions (Bsiri-Barbir v. Haarman & Reimer, 2006; Beaute Prestige International v. Senteur Mazal, 2008).

Sometimes, a knock-off perfume would use an altered name of the original perfume (for instance, now-discontinued Freya by Oriflame perfume has a similar-designed copy produced as "Freyya").

It is still questionable if perfume's "functional purpose" can be protected with technical patent (one which lasts 15 years). Apparently, Russian "Novaya Zarya" labels their colognes as "hygienic lotions" for a similar reason. A counterexample: NovZar's more-than-century-old Shipr chypre and Troinoi cologne are being produced by other companies in Russia in similar bottles.

Numbered perfumery, "analogs"
A different kind of copying perfumes is known in ex-USSR countries as "номерная парфюмерия" (literally "numbered perfumery"):

A "number-making" company with perfumery equipment would use their own, one-style-for-all cheap bottle; de jure labeling a knock-off perfume as an "aroma in the direction of [the well-known perfume]" or a "version" of certain branded perfume. This way, the production costs of initially cheap scents are reduced, since the bottle is used neither for plain counterfeiting nor for subtle re-designing.

The questionable part of numbered perfumery naming is the idea to openly mark perfume #XXX (say, #105) as either "type" or "version", or "аромат направления" (literally "aroma in the direction of") of a well-known perfum.
 * Resellers in offline stores (in malls, airport shops) can offer "fillable" perfumery, sometimes using weasel wording to justify the price.
 * Such perfumes usually get three-digit numbers as an officially registered name, which is stickered to the bottles.
 * When it comes to propellant, a "number" usually has an alcohol base [almost] without stabilization (which may give strong "alcohol base stench", altering perfume's scent into the "smell of cheapness" phenomenon).
 * To avoid this, many "numbers" can be made with (di)propylenglicol base and come as "perfume oil(s)". PG or DPG based numbered perfumery comes in 50ml plastic bottles and is purposed for tiny rollers; (D)PG is not usable in spray bottles (while not affected by the "smell of cheapness" issue nonetheless). Some companies offer all of their own "numbers" in both alcohol based and (D)PG based variants.

In small online "bulk", however (in purchases over 5000RUB), a whole 100ml bottle of such perfume (or 50ml bottle of "scent oil" of same "direction") costs only around 6 EUR.

Health and environmental issues
Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment.

Immunological; asthma and allergy
Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma. Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions or nausea.

In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate and acetone while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Nevertheless, this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. As well, the furanocoumarin present in natural extracts of grapefruit or celery can cause severe allergic reactions and increase sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation.

Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation. However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus. It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation.

A number of national and international surveys have identified balsam of Peru, often used in perfumes, as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. A study in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it. Many perfumes contain components identical to balsam of Peru.

Balsam of Peru is used as a marker for perfume allergy. Its presence in a cosmetic is denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae. Balsam of Peru has been banned by the International Fragrance Association since 1982 from use as a fragrance compound, but may be present as an extract or distillate in other products, where mandatory labelling is not required for usage of 0.4% or less.

Carcinogenicity
There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as musk xylene could cause cancer in some specific animal tests. These reports were evaluated by the EU Scientific Committee for Consumer Safety (SCCS, formerly the SCCNFP ) and musk xylene was found to be safe for continued use in cosmetic products. It is in fact part of the procedures of the Cosmetic Regulation in Europe that materials classified as carcinogens require such a safety evaluation by the authorities to be allowed in cosmetic consumer products.

Although other ingredients such as polycyclic synthetic musks, have been reported to be positive in some in-vitro hormone assays, these reports have been reviewed by various authorities. For example, for one of the main polycyclic musks Galaxolide (HHCB) these reviews include those of the EU Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety, the EU's Priority Substances Review, the EU Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risk, and more recently also the US EPA. The outcome of all of these reviews over the past decade or so is that there are no safety concerns for human health. Reviews with similar positive outcomes also exist for another main polycyclic musk (AHTN)—for instance, on its safe use in cosmetics by the EU.

Many natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes, basil oil, rose oil and many others contain allergens or carcinogenic compounds, the safety of which is either governed by regulations (e.g. allowed methyl eugenol levels in the EU Cosmetics Regulation (Entry102, AnnexIII of the EU Cosmetics Regulation. ) or through various limitations set by the International Fragrance Association.

Pollution
Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large-scale use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk, as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes.

These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets.

Species endangerment
The demands for aromatic materials such as sandalwood, agarwood, and musk have led to the endangerment of these species, as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting.

Safety regulations
The US FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health.

In the EU, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced. The requirement to list these materials is dependent on the intended use of the final product. The limits above which the allergens are required to be declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on the skin, and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many old perfumes like chypres and fougère classes, which traditionally make use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated.

Preserving perfume

Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of heat, light, oxygen, and extraneous organic materials. Proper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. However, the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance.

Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3 –. Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

There exist several archives and museums devoted to the preservation of historical perfumes, namely the Osmothèque, which stocks over 3,000 perfumes from the past two millennia in their original formulations. All scents in their collection are preserved in non-actinic glass flasks flushed with argon gas, stored in thermally insulated compartments maintained at 12 °C in a large vault.

title: Perfume


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User talk:Panic~enwiki

Hey, Welcome to the project. You might have noticed that other users have restored the articles you deleted. Generally, we try to improve poor articles and not delete them outright. You'll get the hang of it. :) --mav

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title: User talk:Panic~enwiki


text:
Jasmine

Jasmine (botanical name: Jasminum; ) is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family of Oleaceae. It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the characteristic fragrance of their flowers. Additionally a number of unrelated species of plants or flowers contain the word "jasmine" in their common names (see Other plants called "jasmine").

Description
Jasmine can be either deciduous (leaves falling in autumn) or evergreen (green all year round), and can be erect, spreading, or climbing shrubs and vines. Their leaves are borne in opposing or alternating arrangement and can be of simple, trifoliate, or pinnate formation.

Flowers and fruit
The flowers are typically around 2.5 cm in diameter. They are white or yellow, although in rare instances they can be slightly reddish. The flowers are borne in cymose clusters with a minimum of three flowers, though they can also be solitary on the ends of branchlets. Each flower has about four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They have two stamens with very short filaments. The bracts are linear or ovate. The calyx is bell-shaped. They are usually very fragrant.

The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe.

The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However, natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac (triploid 3n=39), Jasminum flexile (tetraploid 4n=52), Jasminum mesnyi (triploid 3n=39), and Jasminum angustifolium (tetraploid 4n=52).

Distribution and habitat
Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Eurasia, Africa, Australasia within Oceania, although only one of the 200 species is native to Europe. Their center of diversity is in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Several jasmine species have become naturalized in Mediterranean Europe. For example, the so-called Spanish jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) was originally from West Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Northeast Africa, and East Africa, and is now naturalized in the Iberian peninsula.

Jasminum fluminense (which is sometimes known by the inaccurate name "Brazilian Jasmine") and Jasminum dichotomum (Gold Coast Jasmine) are invasive species in Hawaii and Florida. Jasminum polyanthum, also known as pink jasmine, is an invasive weed in Australia.

Etymology
The name comes from Old French jessemin, from which is derived from the Middle Persian word yāsaman and yāsamīn (يَاسَمِين) in Arabic. The word entered Middle French around 1570 and was first used in English in 16th century England. The Persian name is also the origin of the genus name, Jasminum.

Taxonomy
Species belonging to the genus are classified under the tribe Jasmineae of the olive family (Oleaceae). Jasminum is divided into five sections—Alternifolia, Jasminum, Primulina, Trifoliolata, and Unifoliolata.

Species
Species include:

 * J. abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. – forest jasmine
 * J. adenophyllum Wall. – bluegrape jasmine, pinwheel jasmine, princess jasmine
 * J. andamanicum N.P.Balakr. & N.G.Nair
 * J. angulare Vahl
 * J. angustifolium (L.) Willd.
 * J. auriculatum Vahl – Indian jasmine, needle-flower jasmine
 * J. azoricum L.
 * J. beesianum Forrest & Diels – red jasmine
 * J. dichotomum Vahl – Gold Coast jasmine
 * J. didymum G.Forst.
 * J. dispermum Wall.
 * J. elegans Knobl.
 * J. elongatum (P.J.Bergius) Willd.
 * J. floridum Bunge
 * J. fluminense Vell.
 * J. fruticans L.
 * J. grandiflorum L. – Catalan jasmine, jasmin odorant, royal jasmine, Spanish jasmine
 * J. grandiflorum L.Vell.
 * J. humile L. – Italian jasmine, Italian yellow jasmine
 * J. lanceolarium Roxb.
 * J. laurifolium Roxb. ex Hornem. angel-wing jasmine
 * J. malabaricum Wight
 * J. mesnyi Hance – Japanese jasmine, primrose jasmine, yellow jasmine
 * J. multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andrews – Indian jasmine, star jasmine, winter jasmine
 * J. multipartitum Hochst. – starry wild jasmine
 * J. nervosum Lour.
 * J. nobile C.B.Clarke
 * J. nudiflorum Lindl. – winter jasmine
 * J. odoratissimum L. – yellow jasmine
 * J. officinale L. – common jasmine, jasmine, jessamine, poet's jasmine, summer jasmine, white jasmine
 * J. parkeri Dunn – dwarf jasmine
 * J. polyanthum Franch.
 * J. sambac (L.) Aiton – Arabian jasmine, Sambac jasmine
 * J. simplicifolium G.Forst.
 * J. sinense Hemsl.
 * J. subhumile W.W.Sm.
 * J. subtriplinerve Blume
 * J. tortuosum Willd.
 * J. urophyllum Hemsl.
 * J. volubile Jacq..

Jasmonates
Jasmine lends its name to jasmonate plant hormones, as methyl jasmonate isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum led to the discovery of the molecular structure of jasmonates. Jasmonates occur ubiquitously across the plant kingdom, having key roles in responses to environmental cues, such as heat or cold stress, and participate in the signal transduction pathways of many plants.

Cultural importance
Jasmine is cultivated commercially for domestic and industrial uses, such as the perfume industry. It is used in rituals like marriages, religious ceremonies, and festivals. Jasmine flower vendors sell garlands of jasmine, or in the case of the thicker motiyaa (in Hindi) or mograa (in Marathi) varieties, bunches of jasmine are common. They may be found around entrances to temples, on major thoroughfares, and in major business areas.

A change in presidency in Tunisia in 1987 and the Tunisian Revolution of 2011 are both called "Jasmine revolutions" in reference to the flower.

"Jasmine" is a common female given name.

Symbolism
Several countries and states consider jasmine as a national symbol.

 * Syria: The Syrian city Damascus is called the City of Jasmine.
 * Hawaii: Jasminum sambac ("pikake") is a common flower used in leis and is the subject of many Hawaiian songs.
 * Indonesia: Jasminum sambac is the national flower, adopted in 1990. It goes by the name "melati putih" and is used in wedding ceremonies for ethnic Indonesians, especially on the island of Java.
 * Pakistan: Jasminum officinale is known as the "chambeli" or "yasmin", it is the national flower.
 * Philippines: Jasminum sambac is the national flower. Adopted in 1935, it is known as "sampaguita" in the islands. It is usually strung in garlands which are then used to adorn religious images.
 * Thailand: Jasmine flowers are used as a symbol of motherhood.
 * Tunisia: The national flower of Tunisia is jasmine. It was chosen as a symbol for the Tunisian Revolution.

Other plants called "jasmine"

 * Brazilian jasmine Mandevilla sanderi
 * Cape jasmine Gardenia
 * Carolina jasmine Gelsemium sempervirens
 * Crape jasmine Tabernaemontana divaricata
 * Chilean jasmine Mandevilla laxa
 * Jasmine rice, a type of long-grain rice
 * Madagascar jasmine Stephanotis floribunda
 * New Zealand jasmine Parsonsia capsularis
 * Night-blooming jasmine Cestrum nocturnum
 * Night-flowering jasmine Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
 * Orange jasmine Murraya paniculata
 * Red jasmine Plumeria rubra
 * Star jasmine, Confederate jasmine Trachelospermum jasminoides
 * Tree jasmine (disambiguation)

title: Jasmine


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Anya Seton

Anya Seton (January 23, 1904 – November 8, 1990), born Ann Seton, was an American author of historical fiction, or as she preferred they be called, "biographical novels".

Early life and education
Anya Seton was born Ann Seton on January 23, 1904, in New York City. Her father, Ernest Thompson Seton, was Boy Scouts of America co-founder, naturalist, and author. Ernest, an English immigrant, has notable Scottish lineage in Northumberland. Ernest and his family immigrated to Canada in 1866, later moving to America. Her mother was Grace Gallatin Seton Thompson, an author, suffragist, two-time president of the National League of American Pen Women, and founder of the Campfire Girls. The family moved to Cos Cob, Connecticut, where Seton grew up. The couple did not have any other children and divorced in 1934.

Seton was primarily educated by private tutors and graduated from Spence School, though she never attended college. The Setons were wealthy, and Seton often traveled with her parents. Despite her family's money, Seton very often moved homes. Because of this, Seton was unable to think of any place as her true home, nor any school as her true school. Ernest was often away, and even when he was around, he frequently criticized his daughter.

Career
Seton published her first novel, My Theodosia, in 1941.

Seton's historical novels were noted for how extensively she researched the historical facts, and some of them were best-sellers: Dragonwyck (1944) and Foxfire (1950) were both made into Hollywood films. Three of her books are classics in their genre and continue in their popularity to the present: Katherine (1954), the story of Katherine Swynford, the mistress and eventual wife of John of Gaunt, and their children, who were the direct ancestors of the Tudors, Stuarts, and the modern British royal family; Green Darkness (1973), the story of a modern couple plagued by their past life incarnations; and The Winthrop Woman about the notorious Elizabeth Fones, niece and daughter-in-law of John Winthrop, the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Most of her novels have been recently republished, several with forewords by Philippa Gregory. In 2003, Katherine was chosen as Britain’s 95th best-loved novel of all time in a nationwide poll conducted by the BBC.

Her 1962 novel Devil Water concerns James, the luckless Earl of Derwentwater and his involvement with the Jacobite rising of 1715. She also narrates the story of his brother Charles, beheaded after the 1745 rebellion, the last man to die for the cause. The action of the novel moves back and forth between Northumberland, Tyneside, London, and Virginia. Seton stated that the book developed out of her love for Northumberland. She certainly visited her Snowdon cousins at Felton. Billy Pigg, the celebrated Northumbrian piper played "Derwentwater's Farewell" especially for her. The novel shows her typical thorough research of events and places, though the accents are a little wayward. Seton said that her greatest debt of all was to Amy Flagg of Westoe Village in South Shields, her father's birthplace.

Personal life
Seton married twice. Her first marriage was to Hamilton Cottier, a Rhodes scholar, whom she married when she was 19 years old. They had two children, a daughter named Pamela and a son named Seton. Seton died in 1979. Her second marriage was to investment counselor Hamilton (Chan) M. Chase in 1930. Together they had one daughter, Clemency, and they divorced in 1968.

She died of heart failure at the age of 86 on November 8, 1990, in Old Greenwich, Connecticut, and was survived by Pamela and Clemency, five grandchildren, and a great-grandchild. She is interred at Putnam Cemetery in Greenwich.

Works

 * My Theodosia (1941)
 * Dragonwyck (1944)
 * The Turquoise (1946)
 * The Hearth and Eagle (1948)
 * Foxfire (1951)
 * Katherine (1954)
 * The Mistletoe and Sword: A Story of Roman Britain (1955)
 * The Winthrop Woman (1958)
 * Washington Irving (1960) illustrated by Harvé Stein
 * Devil Water (1962)
 * Avalon (1965)
 * Green Darkness (1973)
 * Smouldering Fires (1975)

title: Anya Seton


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Talk:Choi Hong-hi

Untitled
This lunar calender thing should be deleted from this page, and made into a new page. I also celerbrate my birth day according to the lunar calender. It would be the case for many Koreans or asians.

This page displays nothing about Choi Hong Hi's life or death, and is very bias against him. I think this page needs alot of work.--Tkdbee 21:27, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

NPOV
Is it just me or does this article seem to have a very clear bias against General Choi Hong Hi? And with not a single sitable reference, unfortunately I'm not up to the task of replacing the article myself allthough it clearly needs to be replaced by something more unbiased. (I myself have studyed ITF TKD so would be biased in other directions) Doctus 02:57, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

I agree with Doctus. General Choi Hong Hi studied up II Dan in Shotokan in just a few years time, and if there are doubts on these, then please provide the necessary references. There has been a lot of discussion about the differences between ranks in the S.Korean Army and the US Army, but no mention has been made of his imprisonment by the Imperial Japanese Army for standing up against them (and the fact that he was teaching his new art to the other inmates). No mention has been made of the fact that he developed the Chongs (patterns) of Taekwondo. The General had developed the art into what it is today, and was twice the President of the Korea Taekwondo Association. Please refer to the "encyclopedia of Taekwondo" that he had compiled. Yours sincerely, Sam Stephen, II Dan, UTI Taekwondo.

Sam, the old name for patterns was Hyung, not Chong. Hyung was Korean for the word Kata. Today ITF calls them as Tul. Choi Hong Hi only developed his private, personal organization which he called the ITF. He did not develop Taekwondo as known by the majority of the world.

What you have to remember is that Choi Hong Hi was a co-founder of the Oh Do Kwan. This Kwan was a split of from Chung Do Kwan. Choi was given "honorary" Dan (black belt) by the Chung Do Kwan president, Son Duk Song. A short time later, an article appeared in the main Seoul newspaper where Son Duk Song denounced Choi and striped him of that "honorary" 4th Dan.

Many Taekwondo Grandmaster's in Korea were way more senior than Choi. The Chung Do Kwan was around over 10 years before the Oh Do Kwan was even founded!

Choi claims to be the father of Taekwondo, then the founder of Taekwondo are all self promotion and should not be allowed here. The founding of Taekwondo was a larger effort by many great men, not the work of one ego driven man.

In reality, Choi was not the creator of the Chang-Hon Hyngs. That honor goes to Nam Tae Hi and Han Cha Kyo. These were the martial artist who figured out the Oh Do Kwan Hyungs to replace the Japanese Pyong-Ahn Hyung. Choi just added his own twisted version of mind control via cultural propaganda using Korea's deep addiction to anything Confucious.

"In reality, Choi was not the creator of the Chang-Hon Hyngs. That honor goes to Nam Tae Hi and Han Cha Kyo" You are half right Han Cha Kyo and Bok Man Kim created most of the patterns in Malasia 1963 Nam Tae Hi was in Vietnam at this time. Rhee ki Ha and Park Jung Soo were brought there to assist in the pattern development alsoSaboem 22:08, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

Did you know the Oh Do Kwan still exist in Korea, today? Do you know the name of the patters the Oh Do Kwan helped create and endorses as part of Taekwondo curriculum? --Bigzilla 03:55, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

I have studied ITF TKD since the early eighties, and have attended several international instructors courses with the general, as well as another KATU seminar with him. I also attended a seminar by Choi Jung Hwa shortly before his father died. Although I have always had problems with some of the general's confucian idealism and been somwhat of an odd man out in the USTF/ITF organization (they really don't like you thinking for yourself too much), the article on the general is such a one sided smear attempt, that I can't believe that it has been allowed to exist in its present form without some kind of balance included in the text. Whoever wrote it would seem to be a very insecure person with an axe to grind. Gary MorriS

I have many years of ITF teaching and training behind me and frankly some of the opinions you protray as fact are quite insulting they are so biased KMurray INTA

After all the edits do you still consider this article biased?

It disturbs me how blatantly inaccurate this article and any other page citing that General Choi "founded" Tae Kwon Do are, yet they still persist. Chung Do Kwan, the first Tae Kwon Do school (or what would come to be known as Tae Kwon Do), was founded in 1944 by Won Kuk Lee. General Choi was his student. That can be compared to one of Gichin Funakoshi's students claiming all responsibility for Shotokan Karates development.

I fully intend to correct this. - J.C., 1st Degree Black Belt, Chung Do Kwan Quietmartialartist 01:57, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

A critical element omitted in the article about General Choi's life relates to his defection to North Korea and his vigorous public support of North Korean-style communism. While this aspect of General Choi's life makes many of his devotees uncomfortable, it is certainly real and needs to be addressed, especially in regard to how he putatively placed the International Taekwon-do Federation at the disposal of North Korea. Another omitted element in the article is presentation of any evidence General Choi was an expert martial artist. High-ranked Karate-ka in 1950's South Korea who actually saw General Choi practice noted he appeared novice-level - "like a green belt", as some said. And of course there is the concern (referenced by others in this section) General Choi did very little to "create" a new martial art - in fact, many would argue the patterns used in the ITF are a product of other minds and are in any event very, very closely rtelated to Shotokan patterns.

To the person above, would it be true to say that you study WTF? Do you have a reference of your own for 'like a green belt.' This sounds like the standard propaganda used by both ITF and WTF.

After some initial editing for Wikipedia style, I have read through the article and believe that it satisfies NPOV as it currently stands. I also note that the article has received only sparse editing over the last few months, so I assume that no one sees (lack of) NPOV as a current problem for this article. Thus, I am removing the NPOV tag. I encourage anyone editing this article (from this point on) to provide detailed references for material that they add, and also to maintain a neutral tone in writing. I will be going through the article in due course to remove unverified material and add reliable references as I am able. Janggeom 15:38, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

I understand that you may be putting the information backup when you have references but was it necessary to delete all the facts (aka his early life) and leave the controversial stuff, such as Hong Hi being 'dishonourable'? I would say this article should be NPOV again because it is back to how it was a year ago. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 143.210.100.22 (talk) 13:06, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I understand your concern. I had reservations against deleting such large amounts of content as well, but in the end decided that it was for the better—with the understanding that similar detail will be restored in the future, whether by myself or others, but next time with solid references. Choi is a very controversial figure, and the nature of Wikipedia means that anyone is free to run through the article making frivolous edits or else flagging anything that he/she doesn't like, even if the information may actually be factual (just without references provided yet). As I mentioned in an earlier comment (below), I haven't had as much time to work on this article as I would have liked, but my aim is to rebuild the article with solid referencing so that it is a better Wikipedia article and, thus, less open to dispute.
 * I have not checked the state of the article as it was a year ago, but I would want to see cold, hard evidence for the claim that it is now in the same state again and that this is necessarily justification for adding an NPOV tag (or any other tag, for that matter). I am now looking at the sentence you are concerned about: "Choi is widely credited with starting the spread of taekwondo internationally by stationing South Korean taekwondo instructors around the world, but is also widely claimed (through omission or explicitly) to be either an unimportant, or even dishonourable,[1] figure in taekwondo history." This sentence expresses both positive and negative claims about Choi, to a roughly similar magnitude, so in principle I would consider it neutral. Indeed, if there were only positive things written about Choi in this article, I believe that would be an NPOV problem, since I am well aware of many people with negative views of him.
 * If you are in the pro-Choi camp (as it sounds like you might be), I encourage you to help this article along by adding factual positive statements with solid references. Likewise, if anyone reading this should be anti-Choi, feel welcome to add factual negative statements with solid references. I aim to help build up this article again in the same way (though I consider myself neutral towards Choi, so I will be adding both positive and negative information as long as I can establish that it is factual). Janggeom (talk) 10:21, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

To my fellow Wikipedia contributors (on this article on Choi Hong Hi): please read the Neutral point of view policy if you are not already familiar with it. I believe this will save us all a lot of time in wasted debate that could be better put to improving the article. Thank you. Janggeom (talk) 11:24, 11 December 2007 (UTC)
 * It really helps when we conform to Wiki policy. I think what you just did was excellent! Bigbird6 (talk) 15:10, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

Most of the stuff that was on the article before seams to come from Choi's biography - http://www.itf-information.com/information02.htm However being a university student I know that referencing from one source is a bad idea. Any thoughts on how much of this to include? 87.194.201.212 (talk) 11:56, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I would suggest caution. If you want to add things from Choi's biography (I have been adding things from his hard copy, published biography, so I don't think it's necessarily a bad thing), I would suggest considering it from a neutral point of view to help you decide whether to include it or not. This is not to say that anything pro-Choi is necessarily true or untrue (and vice versa for anything anti-Choi), just that I think most people would agree that Choi's biography is significantly biased as it stands. I think there is valuable information in Choi's biography, but that we must be careful when adding things to this article from it (and likewise with anything anti-Choi). Does the information seem plausible? Do other, credible sources corroborate the information? One of the reasons that I suggest caution is simply so that people don't waste their time adding things (in good faith) which then just get deleted due to not being referenced properly, or because they violate NPOV. For an article on someone as controversial as Choi, we have to exercise just that bit more care. Janggeom (talk) 13:19, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

 * The first edition of his biography was written just before the seperation of WTF/ITF, so I see no reason for it to be biased in the same way a modern secondary source would be. It should espically be free of any political bias. http://www.amazon.com/Taekwon-do-self-defence-Hong-Hi-Choi/dp/B0006BXKLE 86.131.219.159 (talk) 17:01, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I can see your line of reasoning, but I do not believe that we can necessarily assume Choi's biography to be unbiased, even if the version used comes from before the ITF-WTF division. The political situation around Tae Kwon-Do was already complex before 1955, let alone 1966 (ITF founding) or 1973 (WTF founding). The ITF-WTF division might not have occurred yet, but this does not mean that other political forces (and thus, reasons for publishing a biased account of events) were not already in existence. To reiterate, I suggest caution when adding to this article from Choi's biography or any other source that might be seen as strongly biased. Janggeom (talk) 15:39, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Good work on the editing. I think this article is finally balanced (from an ITF/WTF viewpoint) with full references. 143.210.53.56 (talk) 12:09, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

Article improvement
I have started working to try to improve this article. Choi is a controversial figure in a martial art plagued by political issues, so writing about him in a neutral way could be difficult, but hopefully we can end up with a solid Wikipedia article despite the controversies. Being neither ITF- nor WTF-affiliated, my perception is that Choi is less important than the ITF make him out to be, but also more important than the WTF make him out to be. Janggeom 14:52, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

I have not had as much time to research and edit this article as I would have liked over the last few months. Some parts of the article have been unsourced for some time and, as no one else has made the effort to locate sources and I have not had the time to do so, I have deleted them all. To avoid further problems, I encourage everyone editing this article to rigorously provide sources for any additions they might make. Thank you. Janggeom (talk) 15:03, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

Over the next few weeks I intend to add more about Choi Hong Hi with sources. I believe that this article is currently too short and needs more unbiased information based on recorded facts. Chaotixnz (talk) 17:44, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

Choi is not regarded as founder
Taekwondo founder was unclear. many form of TKD based on Song Duk-ki's Taek Kyon. some korean newspaper said, He was not a founder. He just 'taekwondo' name maker. He did not exclusive work for TKD. He was a korea army general.Manacpowers (talk) 04:25, 13 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I agree that the situation about the founding of taekwondo is not clear. The article does not say that Choi was undisputedly the Founder of Taekwondo, but that many people regard him as such—and that is a fact. One only needs to look up any ITF source to verify that. I agree that Choi appears to have been responsible (in large part, at least) for bringing forth the name 'taekwondo,' and in that context might be called 'name maker' (although this is an unusual phrase in English). I am not clear what you are trying to say when you write, "He did not exclusive work for TKD." Please specify exactly what you mean. Thank you. Janggeom (talk) 15:08, 14 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I forgot to mention: if you are going to be working on this article, please take the time to ensure that your contributions are grammatically correct and free of spelling errors. Please also ensure that you provide references for your additions. You have given Choi the title of 'name maker' but have not provided a reference in this article for that claim. Thank you. Janggeom (talk) 15:17, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

Poltical life of Choi Hong Hi and Taekwondo
There are various sources in the Wikipedia article that briefly discuss involvement of Choi Hong Hi in the 1961 Korea coup (Guardian Obituary) and the nytimes obituary also has a brief section on the political the reasons why Choi Hon Hi decided to move the ITF headquarters to Canada. Are there more reliable sources on these subjects? If so should these be included? What other factual aspects of his life should be included? Chaotixnz (talk) 18:12, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

 * As the opening paragraphs declare that SK/WTF are often critical of Choi, would it not be an idea to say why? Choi IS considered the founder of TKD by many (he was the one who thought up the name!), rightly or wrongly. However the3 page says little, if anything about his introduction of ITF TKD to North Korea in later years (the reason why many SK/WTF sources criticise him) and his son's arrest for allegedly being involved in a plot to kill the SK president. It might also mention the subsequent break-up of ITF following his death 88.156.42.247 (talk) 17:14, 1 January 2009 (UTC)

Recommendation for article protection - July 2009
Due to the subject's controversial nature, this article is the target of significant abuse or, in good faith, enthusiastic but uninformed editing. I believe that this article should be protected, at some level, if any consistent improvement is to occur. As a starting point, I am making this recommendation informally here for discussion. Janggeom (talk) 22:29, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

 * For the record, a third of a year has now passed with no expressions of interest in serious, consistent improvement of this article. Janggeom (talk) 22:44, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

 * Two thirds of a year have now passed with no expressions of interest in serious, consistent improvement of this article. I have been monitoring this article, and although the vandalism appears to have decreased, the article is still subject to people adding material that is likely to be inflammatory, such as the recent emphasis on Korea having been under Japanese rule when Choi was born. Janggeom (talk) 12:30, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Article so neutral that almost nothing is left
I understand that there were several issues with the lack of neutrality of the article. However, the current state of the article is also not acceptable. The reader is left wondering, why was Choi Hong Hi exiled from Souch Korea? What did he do in his years in Canada? Was he living in North Korea afterwards? etc.

I know that neutrality is important and difficult, but leaving the articles lacking after stripping them of all controversy is also not good. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.245.100.11 (talk) 20:01, 13 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Please feel welcome to contribute to the article by adding appropriately-written material and, of course, providing reliable references for what you have added. Janggeom (talk) 13:26, 14 October 2009 (UTC)
 * I was coming here to say the exact same thing. This article is utterly unacceptable in its current state. It is a biographical article about a person's life, yet says absolutely nothing about one of the most important events in his life, namely his exile! A brief passing mention that he moved after exile is completely insufficient. It doesn't answer the obvious question as to why he was exiled, and who imposed that upon him. If anything, the article fails NPOV completely by sweeping under the rug those facts. And to respond to a request about just that with a "feel free to add it" is obnoxious. If the person came here to ask the question, clearly they are seeking that knowledge, so telling them to add it is insulting. If you have any knowledge about these facts and are leaving it out for whatever reason, then it is you who should feel free to add it, not the person making the reasonable request. oknazevad (talk) 05:22, 26 January 2014 (UTC)
 * All Wikipedia contributors are encouraged to contribute appropriately. Personal attacks are not allowed. If, in your view, the article is "utterly unacceptable in its current state," please feel welcome to edit it yourself (following Wikipedia guidelines and policies) or take this issue up with any of the three Wikipedia project groups in which this article (through the work of several contributors) is currently rated C class. You might wish to study the subject, the editing history of this article, and everything posted on the article's talk page before commenting further. Janggeom (talk) 13:15, 26 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Exactly the response I expected. Don't lecture me about Wikipedia procedures, I've been around here for almost ten years. The point remains that this article is is in clear need of additional information, but I don't know the answers to the questions the article leaves unanswered. There is nothing wrong with asking on the talk page for a knowledgable editor to add that information (indeed, that's part of what they're for; for editors to make requests for additional information and compile a to do list). To just respond with "why don't you add it" is dismissive and rude.There is no other word for it. I have looked through the edit history and this talk page, and all I can conclude is that it is contentious as to the reasons, and that some may be embarrassed be them. Which is exactly why omitting them fails NPOV; it serves to hide negative information. Not within Wikipedia policy at all. So as it stands, the article should be downgraded in assessment to start class at best, and tagged for lacking neutrality. oknazevad (talk) 16:38, 26 January 2014 (UTC)

Why is he titled General?
From all the sources Choi reached the rank of Major-General (ie a 2-star general). Although in spoken address, a 2-star general may be addressed as general, in written address (at least in English) he should always be titled Major-General, because the term General is reserved only for a full general (ie 4-stars or above) in writing. Koreans like to think of themselves as courteous and modest, so why did Choi and his followers exaggerate his army rank in writing? There is an astronomical difference in the responsibilities and powers of a Major-General (a divisional commander) and a full General (an army commander). Choi had never attained the rank of General and should not be titled as such. 86.178.163.150 (talk) 22:52, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

English usage of the name
Article moved from "Choi Hong Hi" to "Choi Hong-hi" (good faith contribution): "Choi Hong Hi" is the established English usage of the name (over several decades), and is how the subject used his own name in his publications. WP:NC-KO indicates that the hyphenated and lower-case usage should be applied "If there is no personal preference, and no established English spelling"—neither of which is the case here. Janggeom (talk) 14:42, 19 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Janggeom It seems like it would be no problem to change the name to Choi Hong-hi. Even some great chinese masters like Wong Fei-hung are written with a hyphen. Here you can see General Choi written as "Choi Honghi":
 * https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/taekwondo/images/c/c0/Choi_Taekwondowon.JPG/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/1389?cb=20171128001503 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:810B:43C0:396C:D9D6:538B:381B:7EA (talk) 13:43, 8 April 2022 (UTC)
 * static.wikia.nocookie.net/taekwondo/images/c/c0/Choi_Taekwondowon.JPG/revision/latest?cb=20171128001503 (if the link doesnt work, try this one, its the same foto but smaller:
 * https://itfphilippines.files.wordpress.com/2020/03/choi_taekwondowon.jpg.jpg?w=180). Here an other one:
 * https://georgevitale.files.wordpress.com/2016/09/image.jpeg?w=625&h=390&crop=1

--Alleingänger (talk) 18:38, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

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Hong Hi Choi learned Taekkyeon?
Can someone verify this book? Is there really such mention of Hong Hi Choi learning Taekkyeon? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bearberserk (talk • contribs) 16:08, 16 January 2019 (UTC) I'm told that the first 5 Gwan/gym became 9 Gwan/gym, which united to become Taekwondo in 1960's. This means Chang Moo Kwan's Gwonbub was a significant factor in Taekwondo. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bearberserk (talk • contribs) 16:23, 16 January 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Choi Hong-hi