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Multiple unit

A multiple-unit train or simply multiple unit (MU) is a self-propelled train composed of one or more carriages joined, which when coupled to another multiple unit can be controlled by a single driver, with multiple-unit train control.

Although multiple units consist of several carriages, single self-propelled carriages – also called railcars, rail motor coaches or railbuses – are in fact multiple-units when two or more of them are working connected through multiple-unit train control (regardless if passengers can walk between the units or not).

History

Multiple-unit train control was first used in electric multiple units in the 1890s.

The Liverpool Overhead Railway opened in 1893 with two-car electric multiple units, controllers in cabs at both ends directly controlling the traction current to motors on both cars.

The multiple-unit traction control system was developed by Frank Sprague and first applied and tested on the South Side Elevated Railroad (now part of the Chicago 'L') in 1897. In 1895, derived from his company's invention and production of direct-current elevator control systems, Frank Sprague invented a multiple-unit controller for electric train operation. This accelerated the construction of electric-traction railways and trolley systems worldwide. Each car of the train has its own traction motors: by means of motor control relays in each car energized by train-line wires from the front car, all the traction motors in the train are controlled in unison.

Design
Most MUs are powered either by traction motors, receiving their power through a third rail or overhead wire (EMU), or by a diesel engine driving a generator producing electricity to drive traction motors.

A MU has the same power and traction components as a locomotive, but instead of the components being concentrated in one car, they are spread throughout the cars that make up the unit. In many cases these cars can only propel themselves when they are part of the unit, so they are semi-permanently coupled. For example, in a DMU one car might carry the prime mover and traction motors, and another the engine for head-end power generation; an EMU might have one car carry the pantograph and transformer, and another car carry the traction motors.

MU cars can be a motor or trailer car, it is not necessary for every one to be motorized. Trailer cars can contain supplementary equipment such as air compressors, batteries, etc.; they may also be fitted with a driving cab.

In most cases, MU trains can only be driven/controlled from dedicated cab cars. However, in some MU trains, every car is equipped with a driving console, and other controls necessary to operate the train, therefore every car can be used as a cab car whether it is motorised or not, if on the end of the train. An example of this arrangement is the NJ Transit Arrows.

Passenger multiple units
Virtually all rapid-transit rolling stock, such as on the New York City Subway, the London Underground, the Paris Metro and other subway systems, are multiple-units, usually EMUs. Most trains in the Netherlands and Japan are MUs, being suitable for use in areas of high population density.

Many high-speed rail trains are also multiple-units, such as the Japanese Shinkansen and the latest-generation German Intercity-Express ICE 3 high-speed trains. A new high-speed MU, the AGV, was unveiled by France's Alstom on 5 February 2008. It has a claimed service speed of 360 km/h (220 mph). India's ICF announced the country's first high-speed engine-less train named 'train 18', which would run at 250 km/h maximum speed.

Freight multiple units
Multiple unit has been used, occasionally for freight traffic, such as carrying containers or for trains used for maintenance. The Japanese M250 series train has four front and end carriages that are EMUs, and has been operating since March 2004. The German CargoSprinter have been used in three countries since 2003.

Energy efficiency
They are more energy-efficient than locomotive-hauled trains.

Gradients
They have better adhesion, as more of the train's weight is carried on driven wheels, rather than the locomotive having to haul the dead weight of unpowered coaches.

Acceleration
They have a higher power-to-weight-ratio than a locomotive-hauled train since they don't have a heavy locomotive that does not itself carry passengers, but contributes to the total weight of the train. This is particularly important where train services make frequent stops, since the energy consumed for accelerating the train increases significantly with an increase in weight. Because of the energy efficiency and higher adhesive-weight-to-total-weight ratio values, they generally have higher acceleration ability than locomotive-type trains and are favored in urban trains and metro systems for frequent start/stop routines.

Turnaround times
Most of them have cabs at both ends, resulting in quicker turnaround times, reduced crewing costs, and enhanced safety. The faster turnaround time and the reduced size (due to higher frequencies) as compared to large locomotive-hauled trains, has made the MU a major part of suburban commuter rail services in many countries. MUs are also used by most rapid transit systems. However, the need to turn a locomotive is no longer a problem for locomotive-hauled trains due to the increasing use of push pull trains.

Failure
Multiple units may usually be quickly made up or separated into sets of varying lengths. Several multiple units may run as a single train, then be broken at a junction point into shorter trains for different destinations. As there are multiple engines/motors, the failure of one engine does not prevent the train from continuing its journey. A locomotive-drawn train typically has only one power unit, whose failure will disable the train. However, some locomotive-hauled trains may contain more than one power unit and thus be able to continue at reduced speed after the failure of one.

Axle loads
They have lighter axle loads, allowing operation on lighter tracks, where locomotives may be banned. Another side effect of this is reduced track wear, as traction forces can be provided through many axles, rather than just the four or six of a locomotive. They generally have rigid couplers instead of the flexible ones often used on locomotive-hauled trains. That means brakes/throttle can be more quickly applied without an excessive amount of jerk experienced in passenger coaches. In a locomotive-hauled train, if the number of cars is changed to meet the demand, acceleration and braking performance will also change. This calls for performance calculations to be done taking the heaviest train composition into account. This may sometimes cause some trains in off-peak periods to be overpowered with respect to the required performance. When 2 or more multiple units are coupled, train performance remains almost unchanged. However, in locomotive-hauled train compositions, using more powerful locomotives when a train is longer can solve this problem.

Maintenance
It may be easier to maintain one locomotive than many self-propelled cars. In the past, it was often safer to locate the train's power systems away from passengers. This was particularly the case for steam locomotives, but still has some relevance for casualties than one with a locomotive (where the heavy locomotive would act as a "crumple zone").

Failure
If a locomotive fails, it can be easily replaced with minimal shunting movements. There would be no need for passengers to evacuate the train. Failure of a multiple unit will often require a whole new train and time-consuming switching activities; also passengers would be asked to evacuate the failed train and board another one. However, if the train consists of more than one multiple unit they are often designed such that in the event of the failure of one unit others in the train can tow it in neutral if brakes and other safety systems are operational.

Idle trains
Idle trains do not waste expensive motive power resources. Separate locomotives mean that the costly motive power assets can be moved around as needed and also used for hauling freight trains. A multiple unit arrangement would limit these costly motive power resources to use in passenger transportation.

Passage between units
It is difficult to have gangway connections between coupled units and still retain an aerodynamic leading front end. Because of this, there is usually no passage between high-speed coupled units, though lower-speed coupled units frequently have connections between coupled units. This may require more crew members, so that ticket inspectors, for example, can be present in all of them. This leads to higher operating costs and lower use of crew resources. In a locomotive-hauled train, one crew can serve the train regardless of the number of cars in the train provided limits of individual workload are not exceeded. Likewise, in such instances, buffet cars and other shared passenger facilities may need to be duplicated in each unit, reducing efficiency.

Flexibility
Large locomotives can be used instead of small locomotives where more power is needed. Also, different types of passenger cars (such as reclining-seats, compartment cars, couchettes, sleepers, restaurant cars, buffet cars, etc.) can be easily added to or removed from a locomotive-drawn train. This is not so easy for a multiple unit, since individual cars can be attached or detached only in a maintenance facility. This also allows a loco-hauled train to be flexible in terms of number of cars. Cars can be removed or added one by one, but on multiple units two or more units have to be coupled. This is not so flexible.

Noise
The passenger environment of a multiple unit is often noticeably noisier than that of a locomotive-hauled train, due to the presence of underfloor machinery. The same applies to vibration. This is a particular problem with DMUs.

Obsolescence
Separating the motive power from the payload-carrying cars means that either can be replaced when obsolete without affecting the other.

Algeria
Algeria possesses 17 units of the Coradia El Djazaïr, a multiple unit train produced by Alstom. These units are similar to the French version of Régiolis, which belongs to the Coradia family.

South Africa
Metrorail, which provides commuter rail service in major urban areas of South Africa, operates most services using electric multiple unit train sets of the type 5M2A. These trains are being gradually refurbished and subsequently designated as 10M3 (Cape Town), 10M4 (Gauteng) or 10M5 (Durban). Metrorail services are split into four regions; Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape and Western Cape.

Gautrain, a commuter rail system in Johannesburg, operates with Bombardier Electrostar electric multiple units.

China
The concept of multiple unit has entered the horizon of the Chinese since the 6th Speed-up Campaign of China Railway in 2007. With the upgrade of Jinghu Railway, North Jingguang Railway, Jingha Railway and Hukun Railway, and the construction of new Passenger Dedicated Lines (or Passenger Railways) completed, CRH (China Railway High-speed) trains have been put into service, mainly in North and Northeast China, and East China. All these CRH trains are electric multiple units. This was the beginning of the general service of multiple unit trains in China's national railway system.

Far earlier than the introduction of CRH brand, multiple unit trains have been running on all major cities' metro lines in China.

Japan
In Japan most passenger trains, including the high-speed Shinkansen, are of the multiple-unit (MU) type, with most locomotives now used solely in freight operations. Of the locomotive-hauled passenger services still in operation, the majority are tourist-oriented, such as the numerous steam-hauled trains operated seasonally on scenic lines throughout the country, as well as some of the luxury cruise trains.

Japan is a country of high population density with a large number of railway passengers in relatively small urban areas, and frequent operation of short-distance trains has been required. Therefore, the high acceleration ability and quick turnaround times of MUs have advantages, encouraging their development in this country. Additionally, the mountainous terrain gives the MUs an advantage on grades steeper than those found in most countries, particularly on small private lines many of which run from coastal cities to small towns in the mountains.

Most long-distance trains in Japan were operated by locomotives until the 1950s, but by utilizing and enhancing the technology of short-distance urban MU trains, long-distance express MU-type vehicles were developed and widely introduced starting in the mid-1950s. This work resulted in the original Shinkansen development which optimized all of the EMU's efficiencies to maximize speed. It was introduced upon completion of the Tokaido Shinkansen (literally "new trunk line") in 1964. By the 1970s, locomotive traction was regarded as slow and inefficient, and its use is now mostly limited to freight trains.

From 1999, there have been development efforts in freight EMU technology, but it is currently used only for an express freight service on the Tokaido Main Line between Tokyo and Osaka. The government has been pushing for the adoption of freight EMU technology on energy efficiency grounds in the hope that widespread adoption could assist in meeting emissions targets. The effort has been principally targeted at express package shipping that would otherwise travel by road.

Belgium
The first EMUs have been introduced in Belgium in the 1930s. Several models have followed since then, such as the AM75.

Ireland
CIÉ introduced its first DMUs, the 2600-class, in 1951.

Russia

Elektrichka (электри́чка, електри́чка) is an informal word for elektropoezd (электропо́езд), a Soviet or post-Soviet regional (mostly suburban) electrical multiple unit passenger train. Elektrichkas are widespread in Russia, Ukraine and some other countries of the former Soviet Union. The first elektrichka ride occurred in August 1929 between Moscow and Mytishchi.

Sweden
Swedish railroads have been privatized in steps for about 25 years, and today many different companies operate different types of multiple units. A majority of passenger trains today consists of multiple unit trains of which regional traffic exclusively use them.

Switzerland
The Swiss Federal Railways use many multiple units, mainly on regional lines (S-Bahn).

 * Regional lines
 * RBDe 560
 * RABe 514
 * RABe 520 "Thurbo"
 * RABe 523 "FLIRT" and variants
 * RABe 511 "KISS"
 * Inter-City lines
 * RABDe 500 "ICN"
 * International lines
 * ETR 610
 * RABe 501

United Kingdom

In the UK the use of modern diesel multiple units was pioneered in Northern Ireland, although a number of other railway companies also experimented with early DMUs (including the Great Western and the London Midland Scottish). Notable examples include the Sprinter and Voyager families, and the newer Javelin trains.

The London Underground passenger system is operated exclusively by EMUs. Work trains on the Underground employ separate locomotives, some of which are dual battery/live rail powered.

In Northern Ireland the majority of passenger services have been operated by diesel multiple units since the mid-1950s under the tenure of both the Ulster Transport Authority (1948–1966) and Northern Ireland Railways (since 1967).

Australia
The first multiple unis in Australia were the Tait trains, wooden bodied Electric Multiple Unit train that operated in  Melbourne, Victoria. They were originally introduced as steam locomotive hauled carriages but were converted to electric traction from 1919 during Melbourne’s electrification project.

India
Indian Railways has recently introduced a semi-high-speed EMU named Vande Bharat Express, capable of running at 183 km/h. And it continues to use diesel and electrical multiple units on its national network. All suburban and rapid transit lines are served by EMUs.

Indonesia
Indonesia uses diesel since 1976 and electric MUs since 1925. Most of these MUs were built in Japan.

Philippines
The Manila Railroad Company (MRR) acquired its first multiple units in the 1930s. The locally-built MC class was initially powered by gasoline and was changed to diesel during World War II. Both the MRR and its successor, the Philippine National Railways (PNR), has since acquired various classes of diesel multiple units. All multiple units owned by MRR and all of the older MUs of the PNR were built by Japanese firms. On the other hand, its newer rolling stock were built in South Korea and Indonesia. There will also be DMUs that will be built in China.

The first electric multiple units were acquired in 1984 for the LRT Line 1 built by La Brugeoise et Nivelles in Belgium. The first EMUs to be used outside of rapid transit will enter service between 2021 and 2022.

North America

Most trains in North America are locomotive-hauled and use Multiple Unit (MU) control to control multiple locomotives. The control system of the leading locomotive connects to the other locomotives so that the engineer's control is repeated on all the additional locomotives. The locomotives are connected by multi-core cables. This does not make these locomotives MUs for the purposes of this article. See locomotive consist.

However, commuters, rapid transit, and light rail operations make extensive use of MUs. Most electrically powered trains are MUs.

The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) Regional Rail Division uses EMUs almost exclusively — the exception being some of its peak express service. New Jersey Transit service on the Northeast Corridor Line is split between electric locomotives and EMUs.

M2, M4, M6 and M8 EMUs which operate on the New Haven Line of Metro-North Railroad, are “multi-system” meaning they can draw power from either the third rail or from overhead lines. This allows operation under the wires between Pelham, NY and New Haven, CT, a section of track owned by Metro North but shared with Amtrak's Northeast Corridor service, and on third rail between Pelham and Grand Central Terminal. EMUs are used on AMT's Montreal/Deux-Montagnes line.

DMUs are less common, partly because new light rail operations are almost entirely electric, with many commuter routes already electrified, and also because of the difficulties posed by Federal Railway Administration rules limiting their use on shared passenger/freight corridors. When the Budd RDC was developed following World War II, it was adopted for many secondary passenger routes in the United States (especially on the Boston and Maine Railroad) and Canada. These operations generally survived longer in Canada, but several were abandoned in the Via Rail cutbacks of the early 1990s. One that survives is Victoria - Courtenay train on Vancouver Island. DMU use in Canada has been resurrected in recent years, beginning with the opening of Union Pearson Express in 2015.

While most DMUs need to comply with strict FRA crash requirements for simultaneous operation with freight railways, European-style DMUs are used with timesharing arrangements on several rail lines, including the RiverLINE in New Jersey. Only a handful of manufacturers in the United States produce or have produced FRA-compliant DMUs, including Colorado Railcar (now US Railcar) and Nippon Sharyo/Sumitomo Corporation. NJ Transit has experimented with this DMU on the Princeton Branch line. In August 2006 it was announced that Amtrak wants the State of Vermont to experiment with DMUs on the state-subsidized Vermonter line from New Haven north to St. Albans to replace the less efficient diesel locomotive trainsets currently used.

MU streetcars were used in Toronto by the Toronto Transportation Commission (later Toronto Transit Commission) from 1949 to 1966 using 100 PCC A-7 built by St. Louis Car Company and Canadian Car and Foundry. These two car units ran along the Bloor Street route only beginning in 1950 and ceased operations after the opening of the Bloor–Danforth subway line in 1966. The A-7 units were later converted to single use.

title: Multiple unit


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User talk:Guppie

comments from 2002
Alright, my idea wasn't to be threatening. Ya just kept editing the damn thing without talking it over much and it was being debated. Anyway, I dun really care now. I just want to debate this a bit and we can do all the editing after we've reached some kind of collective conclusion.

Some things I wanted to talk to you about:

I'll see if I can pick up a more pro-Stalin book (at least one not written by Conquest) in a few days.

It should be noted that almost nothing I recommend is "pro-Stalin." Just so you know, I am not "pro-Stalin" either. Granick, author of the Red Executive, is quite "bourgeois." His book is still very good though.

I'd like to think I'm willing to research a subject without bias or political dogma getting into my way. I had an extremely anti-Soviet bias going into the subject. I'd like to think it's gone now.

BTW, what's yor take on the Encyclopedia_of_Marxism

The Encyclopedia of Marxism is openly Trotskyist so of course they're "anti-Stalin" -- not that it really matters. The site has made some improvements though and it's not a bad place to look for texts from various well known communists and Socialists.

--Eco

--

Guppie,

I'm going to ask you nicely to remove the reference to Robert Conquest on the Soviet history page or else I will add some material in from pro-Stalin sources. This is because Robert Conquest is highly biased and I am doing my best to maintain a balance in the area of Soviet history. I will gladly call his credibility into question and prove he is one of the most unreliable sources available if you wish. We can have it either way.

Thanks, --Eco

Eco, Guppie is within his rights to add anti-Stalin sources. Please don't make veiled threats. If this edit war persists, it will eventually come to the attention of Jimbo, and he might not be as patient this time. Me? I'm nobody, just another poor guy trying to help make the world's best free encyclopedia. But let's try to be constructive here.

It's fairly well known that Stalin led the Soviet Union in killing tens of millions of people for political reasons. It should not be TOO hard to document these mass murders in Wikipedia style.

Guppie, since you probably know more Russian or Soviet history than I do, please continue as you have been. I will add this page to my watchlist and invite the attention of other old hands, and see if we can stop the historical revisionism before it gets too frustrating for you. --Ed Poor

Eco, let's try to keep this on a professional and polite level. I added the Robert Conquest reference to back up my statements, and you are more than welcome to back up yours with pro-Stalin sources, as I see you've done on Talk:History_of_the_Soviet_Union. I admit I've only read main-stream Western history books + Conquest and Solzhenitsyn about Stalin and the Gulag, so I might have a certain bias. I suggest we both gather some more backed-up facts on the talk page, and then let someone ELSE edit the article itself. --Guppie

I found your invitation (looong time ago) to help with history of Yugoslavia, but I simply do not dare to touch so hot topic. Goran

Satellite state
Another editor has added the  template to the article Satellite state, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but the editor doesn't believe it satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and has explained why in the article (see also What Wikipedia is not and Notability). Please either work to improve the article if the topic is worthy of inclusion in Wikipedia or discuss the relevant issues at its talk page. If you remove the  template, the article will not be deleted, but note that it may still be sent to Articles for deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. BJBot (talk) 00:00, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Purple Labs
I have nominated Purple Labs, an article you created, for deletion. I do not feel that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Purple Labs. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? Livitup (talk) 12:21, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Guppie! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 1 of the articles that you created  is tagged as an Unreferenced Biography of a Living Person. The biographies of living persons policy requires that all personal or potentially controversial information be sourced. In addition, to ensure verifiability, all biographies should be based on reliable sources. If you were to bring this article up to standards, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the article is adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the article:

Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 15:27, 17 January 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Ruslan Khasbulatov -

Articles for deletion nomination of Anti-capitalism
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Your user page
I found your old user page while checking out some old edits. I have history merged it, so that all edits are in one place. Hope you don't mind. Graham 87 12:06, 3 June 2010 (UTC)

Nomination of Spacedaily.com for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Spacedaily.com is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Spacedaily.com until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article. SL93 (talk) 16:32, 2 June 2012 (UTC)

 * You received this notification because you made a redirect from that title to "Spacedaily", then somebody [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spacedaily.com&diff=53253270&oldid=53252722 moved the page by cut and paste] to its current title. There's no point in notifying the actual article creator because the page was [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spacedaily.com&oldid=30007029 written by an unregistered user]. Graham 87 10:56, 3 June 2012 (UTC)

Tito
You may want to see Talk:Tito. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 18:41, 5 September 2012 (UTC)

Uragan (spaceplane) listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Uragan (spaceplane). Since you had some involvement with the Uragan (spaceplane) redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you have not already done so. —PC-XT+ 04:01, 7 August 2014 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 02:42, 9 June 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Guppie


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719 BC

The year 719 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 35 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 719 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events and trends

 * Zhou Huan Wang of the Zhou dynasty becomes ruler of China.

title: 719 BC


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718 BC

The year 718 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as year 36 Ab urbe condita . The denomination 718 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

Events and trends

 * Gyges becomes the ruler of Lydia.

title: 718 BC


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Twister (game)

Twister is a game of physical skill produced by Milton Bradley Company and Winning Moves Games USA. It is played on a large plastic mat that is spread on the floor or ground. The mat has four rows of six large colored circles on it with a different color in each row: red, yellow, green and blue. A spinner tells players where they have to place their hand or foot. The game promotes itself as "the game that ties you up in knots".

Gameplay

A spinner is attached to a square board and is used to determine where the player has to put their hand or foot. The spinner is divided into four labeled sections: left foot, right foot, left hand, and right hand. Each of those four sections are divided into the four colors (red, yellow, green, and blue). After spinning, the combination is called (for example: "right hand yellow") and players must move their matching hand or foot to a circle of the correct color.

In a two-player game, no two people can have a hand or foot on the same circle; the rules are different for more players. Owing to the scarcity of colored circles, players will often be required to put themselves in unlikely or precarious positions, eventually causing someone to fall. A person is eliminated when they fall or when their elbow or knee touches the mat.

History

In 1964, Reyn Guyer Sr. owned and managed a design company which made in-store displays for Fortune 500 companies.

Charles Foley was a respected and successful toy designer for Lakeside Industries in Minneapolis and answered an ad for an experienced toy designer by Reynolds Guyer Sr. of Guyer Company. Foley interviewed with Reyn Guyer Sr. and his son, Reyn, who were interested in product development within the toy business. After interviewing Foley, Guyer and his son discussed the possibility of starting a small division of the company in product development. His father agreed, for a short term, to support his son's idea for product development, and hired Foley, who negotiated a royalty agreement with Guyer Company for all games and toy items designed by Foley. Guyer Company agreed, and officially hired Foley. Foley hired Neil Rabens, an accomplished product design artist with an art degree from the Minneapolis School of Art and Design.

The game ideas ranged from small kids' games to word games for adults. Foley had an idea for utilizing people as game pieces as part of the game idea, "a party game". Rabens had the idea to utilize a colored mat, allowing people to interact with each other, in a game idea he had developed while a student in design school. Foley saw the idea and developed the concept for having the colored dots line up in rows, and, with a spinner, created the idea for calling out players' hands and feet to the colored dots called out from the spinner. This would create a tangled-up situation between two people, and the one that falls first would lose.

With the support of Reyn Guyer Sr., Charles Foley and Neil Rabens submitted, on 14 April 1966, and were granted on 8 July 1969, US Pat# 3,454,279, for what was originally called "Pretzel". Foley, with his extensive experience in the toy industry, called on his good friend, Mel Taft, Sr. V.P. for Milton Bradley in 1966, for a product idea presentation. Milton Bradley embraced the idea for the "Pretzel" game but renamed the game "Twister".

Twister became a major success when actress Eva Gabor played it with Johnny Carson on television's The Tonight Show on May 3, 1966. However, in its success, it was also controversial. The company that produced it, Milton Bradley, was accused by its competitors of selling "sex in a box". That accusation is speculated to be because it was the first popular American game to use human bodies as playing pieces.

In 1966, Twister was licensed to Nintendo—then a toy and board game company—for the Japanese market, where it was released as Twister Game.

In 1984, Hasbro acquired the Milton Bradley Company, becoming Twister's parent company. The Reyn Guyer Creative Group continues to work closely with Hasbro to develop and market new additions to the line of Twister products.

Co-inventor Charles Foley died on July 1, 2013, at the age of 82.

Phenomenon

Twister, much like the hula hoop, was one of the many toy fad phenomena that came about in the second half of the 20th century. Microsoft Encarta labeled Twister as being an "industry phenomenon" that "captures the public's imagination, and sells in the millions". Being one of the earliest toy fads and a "national craze for a short time", Twister was able to bring all age groups together, whether children or adults.

Accessibility
There are publicly available instructions on how to alter a Twister game to make it accessible to color-blind individuals and to completely blind individuals.

Blindfolded Twister is an accessible variant where there are four different tactile symbols on the mat, and the players are blindfolded and have to find a circle with the named symbol by feeling.

Reception
In 1967, a year after its release, 3 million Twister games were sold.

Games magazine included Twister in their "Top 100 Games of 1980", praising it as being "nearly as well known as Spin the Bottle, and ten times more enjoyable" while noting that it is "Best played on a soft surface with people you'd like to know better."

Games magazine included Twister in their "Top 100 Games of 1981", noting that "To become a grandmaster at Twister, the first requirement is agility" and that "Like any good party game, Twister can be fun or it can be humiliating."

Games magazine included Twister in their "Top 100 Games of 1982", noting that players can "Become a human pretzel in this popular party game for people who don't mind getting better acquainted" but cautioned to "watch the person with the spinner—the temptation to cheat and call the most difficult move is usually irresistible".

title: Twister (game)


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Shango

Shango (Yoruba language: Ṣàngó, also known as Changó or Xangô in Latin America; as Jakuta or Badé; and as Ṣangó in Trinidad Orisha ) is an Orisha (or spirit) in Yoruba religion. Genealogically speaking, Shango is a royal ancestor of the Yoruba as he was the third Alaafin of the Oyo Kingdom prior to his posthumous deification. Shango has numerous manifestations, including Airá, Agodo, Afonja, Lubé, and Obomin. He is known for his powerful double axe (Oṣè). He is considered to be one of the most powerful rulers that Yorubaland has ever produced.

In the New World, he is syncretized with either Saint Barbara or Saint Jerome.

Historical figure
Ṣàngó was the third Alafin of Oyo, following Oranmiyan and Ajaka. He brought prosperity to the Oyo Empire. According to Professor Mason's Mythological Account of Heroes and Kings, unlike his peaceful brother Ajaka, he was a powerful and violent ruler. He reigned for seven years which were marked by his continuous campaigns and many battles. His reign ended due to the inadvertent destruction of his palace by lightning. He had three wives, namely Queen Oshun, Queen Oba, and Queen Oya.

Some of the slaves brought to the Americas were Yoruba, one of the various ethnic groups drawn into the Atlantic slave trade, and they brought the worship of Ṣàngó to the New World as a result. Strong devotion to Ṣàngó led to Yoruba religions in Trinidad and Recife, Brazil being named after the deity.

Nigeria
Ṣàngó is viewed as the most powerful of the orisha pantheon and is often described in two differing narratives. In the first narrative, Ṣàngó casts a "thunderstone" to earth, which creates thunder and lightning, to anyone who offends him. Worshippers in Yorubaland in Nigeria do not eat cowpea because they believe that the wrath of the god of thunder and lightning would descend on them. In the second narrative, Ṣàngó is gifted with the ability to breathe fire and smoke through his nostrils and is known for being angered by his quarrelsome wives. These narratives also encapsulate the virility, bravery, and governance of Ṣàngó. While he was feared for tyranny and destructive powers, he was also highly revered for his bravery, fairness, and tremendous powers.

The Ṣàngó god necklaces are composed of varying patterns of red and white beads, usually in groupings of four or six, which are his sacred numbers. Rocks created by lightning strikes are venerated by Ṣàngó worshipers; these stones, if found, are maintained at sacred sites and used in rituals. Ṣàngó is called on during coronation ceremonies in Nigeria to the present day.

In Yorubaland, Ṣàngó is worshipped on the fifth day of the week, which is named Ojo Jakuta. Ritual worship foods include guguru, bitter cola, àmàlà, and gbegiri soup. Also, he is worshipped with the Bata drum. One significant thing about this deity is that he is worshipped using red clothing, just as he is said to have admired red attire during his lifetime.

The Americas
Ṣàngó is venerated in Santería as "Changó". As in the Yoruba religion, Changó is one of the most feared gods in Santería.

In Haïti, he is from the "Nago" Nation, and is known as Ogou Chango. Palo recognizes him as "Siete Rayos".

Candomblé
Ṣàngó is known as Xangô in the Candomblé pantheon. He is said to be the son of Oranyan, and his wives include Oya, Oshun, and Oba, as in the Yoruba tradition. Xangô took on strong importance among slaves in Brazil for his qualities of strength, resistance, and aggression. He is noted as the god of lightning and thunder. He became the patron orixa of plantations and many Candomblé terreiros. In contrast Oko, the orixá of agriculture, found little favor among slaves in Brazil and has few followers in the Americas. The main barracão of Ilê Axé Iyá Nassô Oká, or the terreiro Casa Branca, is dedicated to Xangô. Xangô is depicted with an oxê, or double-sided ax similar to a labrys; and a brass crown.

Characteristics

 * Consecrated day: Friday
 * Colors: white and red
 * Elements: thunder, lightning, fire
 * Sacred food: amalá (a stew of okra with shrimp and palm oil)
 * Instruments: oxê, a double ax; bangles; brass crown; Thunder Stones, or objects struck by lightning
 * Garment: red cloth with printed white squares or cowrie shells
 * Necklace or Elekes: white and red beads
 * Archetype: power, dominance
 * Sacred dance: alujá, the roda de Xangô. It speaks of his achievements, deeds, consorts, power, and dominion
 * Sacrificial animals: fresh water turtle, male goat, sheep

Amalá, also known as amalá de Xangô, is the ritual dish offered to the orixá. It is a stew made of chopped okra, onion, dried shrimp, and palm oil. Amalá is served on Wednesday at the pegi, or altar, on a large tray, traditionally decorated with 12 upright uncooked okra. Due to ritual prohibitions, the dish may not be offered on a wooden tray or accompanied by bitter kola. Amalá de Xangô may also be prepared with the addition of beef, specifically an ox tail. Amalá de Xangô is different than àmàlà, a dish common to Yoruba areas of Nigeria.

Popular culture

 * "Shango (Chant to the God of Thunder)" is a track from Drums of Passion, an album released by Nigerian percussionist Babatunde Olatunji in 1960.
 * "Shango" is the title of a Hugh Masekela track on his 2016 album No Borders.
 * Shango is the name of the Europa Mission vessel in season 2 of Star Trek: Picard.
 * The song "Que Viva Chango" by Celina y Reutilio refers both to Chango and to Santa Barbara.
 * Shango is a large theme in the Mighty Sparrow song "Congo Man".
 * Caliban invokes Shango in Aimé Césaire's play Une Tempête (A Tempest).
 * Shango appears as a minor character in The Iron Druid Chronicles by Kevin Hearne.
 * In episode 28 of the telenovela Celia, loosely based on the life of Celia Cruz and produced by Telemundo, the cultural ancestors of Celia's African heritage visit her in her dreams, chanting and invoking the presence of Chango.
 * "Shango" is a bonus track on Guadalcanal Diary's album 2x4.
 * Chango is portrayed by Wale in season 3 of American Gods.
 * FC Shango is an American men's recreational football club based in Minnesota and was formed in 1992. Competing in the highest division in amateur soccer in Minnesota, FC Shango won the state amateur soccer tournament in 2017, and currently has three teams: MASL D2, MSSL O40, and O50. They are the 2023 over 50 Masters League champions of the Minnesota Senior Soccer League MSSL..

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Callimachus

Callimachus (Καλλίμαχος; c. 310) was an ancient Greek poet, scholar and librarian who was active in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. A representative of Ancient Greek literature of the Hellenistic period, he wrote over 800 literary works, most of which do not survive, in a wide variety of genres. He espoused an aesthetic philosophy, known as Callimacheanism, which exerted a strong influence on the poets of the Roman Empire and, through them, on all subsequent Western literature.

Born into a prominent family in the Greek city of Cyrene in modern-day Libya, he was educated in Alexandria, the capital of the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt. After working as a schoolteacher in the city, he came under the patronage of King Ptolemy II Philadelphus and was employed at the Library of Alexandria where he compiled the Pinakes, a comprehensive catalogue of all Greek literature. He is believed to have lived into the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes.

Although Callimachus wrote prolifically in prose and poetry, only a small number of his poetical texts have been preserved. His main works are the Aetia, a four-book aetiological poem, six religious hymns, around 60 epigrams, a collection of satirical iambs, and a narrative poem entitled Hecale. Callimachus shared many characteristics with his Alexandrian contemporaries Aratus, Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus, but professed to adhere to a unique style of poetry: favouring small, recondite and even obscure topics, he dedicated himself to small-scale poetry and refused to write longwinded epic poetry, the most prominent literary art of his day.

Callimachus and his aesthetic philosophy became an important point of reference for Roman poets of the late Republic and the early Empire. Catullus, Horace, Vergil, Propertius, and Ovid saw his poetry as one of their "principal model[s]" and engaged with it in a variety of ways. Modern classical scholars view him as one of the most influential Greek poets. According to the Hellenist Kathryn Gutzwiller, he "reinvented Greek poetry for the Hellenistic age by devising a personal style that came, through its manifestations in Roman poetry, to influence the entire tradition of modern literature".

Life
An entry in the Suda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopaedia, is the main source about the life of Callimachus. Although the entry contains factual inaccuracies, it enables the re-construction of his biography by providing some otherwise unattested information. Callimachus was born into a prominent family in Cyrene, a Greek city on the coast of modern-day Libya. He refers to himself as "son of Battus" (Βαττιάδης), but this may be an allusion to the city's mythological founder Battus rather than to his father. His grandfather, also named Callimachus, had served the city as a general. His mother's name was Megatima, falsely given as Mesatma by the Suda. His unknown date of birth is placed around 310 BC.

During the 280s, Callimachus is thought to have studied under the philosopher Praxiphanes and the grammarian Hermocrates at Alexandria, an important centre of Greek culture. He appears to have experienced a period of relative poverty while working as a schoolteacher in the suburbs of the city. The truthfulness of this claim is disputed by the classicist Alan Cameron who describes it as "almost certainly outright fiction". Callimachus then entered into the patronage of the Ptolemies, the Greek ruling dynasty of Egypt, and was employed at the Library of Alexandria. According to the Suda, his career coincided with the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who became sole ruler of Egypt in 283 BC. Classicist John Ferguson puts the latest date of Callimachus's establishment at the imperial court at 270 BC.

Despite the lack of precise sources, the outlines of Callimachus's working life can be gathered from his poetry. Poems belonging to his period of economic hardship indicate that he began writing in the 280s BC, while his poem Aetia shows signs of having been composed in the reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes, who ascended to the throne in 246 BC. Ferguson writes that Callimachus stopped writing and died at some point after 240 BC.

Literary work
According to the Suda, Callimachus wrote more than 800 individual works in prose and poetry. The vast majority of his literary production, including all prose output, has been lost with the exception of his Epigrams and Hymns. All other works mentioned below have been preserved in fragments. Callimachus was an admirer of Homer, whom he regarded as impossible to imitate. This could be the reason why he focused on short poems.

Epigrams
Epigrams, brief, forceful poems originally written on stone and on votive offerings, were already an established as a form of literature by the 3rd century BC. Callimachus wrote at least 60 individual epigrams on a wide range of topics. While some of them are dedicatory or sepulchral, others touch on erotic and purely literary themes. Most of them were transmitted in the Palatine Anthology, a 10th-century manuscript discovered in 1606 at Heidelberg containing a collection of Greek epigrams and poems. Often written from a first-person perspective, the Epigrams offer a great variety of styles and draw on different branches of the epigrammatic tradition. According to the Callimachus scholar Benjamin Acosta-Hughes, "[t]heir intelligent play on language, meter, and word placement" have placed the poems among the most prominent works of the Hellenistic period.

Hymns
Among the oldest forms of religious writing, hymns were "formal addresses to a god or group of gods on behalf of a community". Cultic hymns were written and performed in honour of a particular god; examples of this genre can be found in most Greek lyric poets. A typical hymn would contain an invocation of the god, praise of his or her attributes, and a concluding prayer with a request for a favour. Callimachus wrote six such hymns, which can be divided into two groups: his Hymn to Apollo, to Demeter and to Athena are considered mimetic because they present themselves as live re-enactments of a religious ritual in which both the speaker and the audience are imagined to take part. The Hymn to Zeus, to Demeter, and to Delos are viewed as non-mimetic since they do not re-create a ritual situation.

It is contested among scholars of ancient literature whether Callimachus's hymns had any real religious significance. The dominant view holds that they were literary creations to be read exclusively as poetry, though some scholars have linked individual elements to contemporary ritual practice. This issue is further complicated by Callimachus's purposeful amalgamation of fiction and potential real-world performance.

Aetia
The Greek word αἴτιον (aition, 'cause') means an attempt to explain contemporary phenomena with a story from the mythical past. The title of Callimachus's work can be roughly translated into English as "origins". The Aetia contains a collection of origin stories. Ranging in size from a few lines to extensive narratives, they are unified by a common metre—the elegiac couplet. With few exceptions, the collection is the earliest extant source for most of the myths it presents. Throughout the work, the poet's voice repeatedly intrudes into his narratives to offer comments on the dramatic situation. This pattern is described by the Hellenist Kathryn Gutzwiller as one of the poem's most influential features.

The poem is thought to have had about 4,000 lines and is organised into four individual books, which are divided in halves on stylistic grounds. In the first book, Callimachus describes a dream in which, as a young man, he was transported by the Muses to Mount Helicon in Boeotia. The young poet interrogates the goddesses about the origins of unusual present day customs. This dialogue frames all aetiologies presented in the first book. The stories in the book include those of Linus and Coroebus, Theiodamas, king of the Dryopes and the voyage of the Argonauts. The second book continues the first's dialectic structure and may have been set at a symposium at Alexandria, where Callimachus worked as a librarian and scholar. Since most of its content has been lost, little is known about Book 2. The only aetiology commonly assumed to have been placed in the book are the stories Busiris, king of Egypt, and Phalaris, the tyrant of Akragas, who were known for their excessive cruelty.

The second half of the Aetia does not follow the pattern established in Books 1 and 2. Instead, individual aetiologies are set in a variety of dramatic situations and do not form a contiguous narrative. The books are framed by two well known narratives: Book 3 opens with the Victory of Berenice. Composed in the style of a Pindaric Ode, the self-contained poem celebrates queen Berenice's victory in the Nemean Games. Enveloped within the epinician narrative is an aetiology of the games themselves. The end of Book 4 and the Aetia as a whole is marked by another court poem, the Lock of Berenice. In it, Callimachus relates how the queen gave a lock of her hair as a votive offering which later became a constellation, the Coma Berenices ("Hair of Berenice"). Another notable story from the second half of the work is the love story of Acontius and Cydippe.

Iambs
At the close of his Aetia, Callimachus wrote that he would proceed to a more pedestrian field of poetry. By this, he referred to his collection of 13 Iambs, drawing on an established tradition of iambic poetry whose defining feature was their aggressive, satirical tone. Although the poems are poorly preserved, their content is known from a set of ancient summaries (diegeseis). In the Iambs, Callimachus critically comments on issues of interest, revolving mostly around aesthetics and personal relationships. He uses the polemical tone of the genre to defend himself against critics of his poetic style and his tendency to write in a variety of genres. This is made explicit in the final poem of the collection, where the poet compares himself to a carpenter who is praised for crafting many different objects.

The Iambs are notable for their vivid language. Callimachus couches his aesthetic criticism in vivid imagery taken from the natural and social world: rival scholars are compared to wasps swarming from the ground and to flies resting on a goatherd. He often mixes different metaphors to create effects of "wit and incongruity", such as when a laurel tree is described as "glaring like a wild bull". Ferguson also notes the poems' witty use of proverbs in dialectic passages of dialogue.

Hecale
Callimachus made only one attempt at writing a narrative poem, a mythological epic entitled Hecale. Since the poem is estimated to run to have had around 1000 lines, it constitutes an epyllion, a shorter form of epic poetry dealing with topics not traditionally present in larger-scale works. It recounts a story about the Greek hero Theseus, who, after liberating the city of Marathon from a destructive bull, was hosted by a poor but kindly old woman named Hecale. They form a friendship as she recounts her former life as a member of the upper class. At the end of the poem, Theseus establishes an annual feast and a sanctuary to Zeus in honour of his host.

Since most of Callimachus's poetry is critical of epic as a genre, there has been some speculation about why he chose to write an epic poem after all. The author of the scholia, an ancient commentary on the work of Callimachus, stated that Callimachus abandoned his reluctance after being ridiculed for not writing lengthy poems. This explanation was probably derived from the poet's own intimation at the start of the Aetia and is therefore of limited authority. According to Cameron, Callimachus may have conceived the Hecale as a model epic according to his own tastes.

Pinakes
When working at the Library of Alexandria, Callimachus was responsible for the library's cataloguing. In this function, he compiled a detailed bibliography of all existing Greek literature deriving from the library's shelf-lists. His catalogue, named Pinakes after the plural of the Greek for 'tablet' (πίναξ), amounted to 120 volumes or five times the length of Homer's Iliad. Although the Pinakes have not survived the end of antiquity, scholars have reconstructed their content from references in surviving classical literature. Authors and their works were divided into the broad categories of 'poetry' and 'prose'. Both categories were further broken down into precise subcategories. For poets, these included, among others, 'drama', 'epic', and 'lyric'; for prose writers, 'philosophy', 'oratory', 'history', and 'medicine'. Entries were sorted alphabetically, giving an author's biography and a list of his works. According to the classicist Lionel Casson, the Pinakes were the first comprehensive bibliographic resource for Greek literature and a "vital reference tool" for using the Alexandrian Library.

Callimacheanism
In his poetry, Callimachus espoused an aesthetic philosophy that has become known as Callimacheanism. He favoured small-scale topics over large and prominent ones, and refinement over long works of poetry. At the beginning of the Aetia, he summarised his poetic programme in an allegory spoken by the god Apollo: "my good poet, feed my victim as fat as possible, but keep your Muse slender. This, too, I order from you: tread the way that wagons do not trample. Do not drive in the same tracks as others or on a wide road but on an untrodden path, even if yours is more narrow." The allegory is directed against the predominant poetic form of the day: heroic epic, which could run to dozens of books in length. Contained in the allegory are two reasons why Callimachus did not write in this genre: firstly, to Callimachus, poetry required a high level of refinement which could not be sustained over the course of a drawn-out work; secondly, most of his contemporaries were writers of epic, creating an over-saturation of the genre which he sought to avoid. Instead, he was interested in recondite, experimental, learned and even obscure topics. His poetry nevertheless surpasses epic in its allusions to previous literature.

Although Callimachus attempted to differentiate himself from other poets, his aesthetic philosophy is sometimes subsumed under the term of Alexandrianism, describing the entirety of Greek literature written in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. In spite of their differences, his work shares many characteristics with that of his contemporaries including the didactic poet Aratus, the epicist Apollonius of Rhodes, and the pastoral poet Theocritus. They all interacted with earlier Greek literature, especially the poems of Homer and Hesiod. Drawing on the Library of Alexandria, they all displayed an interest in intellectual pursuits, and they all attempted to revive neglected forms of poetry.

Callimachus used both direct and indirect characterization in his works. The use of comparisons and similes is rather sparse. The use of intertextuality is observed in Hymn 6, where descriptions of other characters are offered in order to provide contrast to the characterization of the main character. Frequent allusions to the Odyssey and the Iliad appear, for example reference to Antilochus in Hymn 6. Some Homeric influences can be seen through the use of Homeric hapaxes, such as katōmadian.

Ancient
Callimachus and his aesthetic philosophy became an important point of reference for Roman poets of the late Republic and the early Empire. Catullus, Horace, Vergil, Propertius, and Ovid saw his poetry as one of their "principal model[s]". Due to the complexity of his poetic production, Roman authors did not attempt to reproduce Callimachus's poems but creatively reused them in their own work. Vergil, in his Aeneid, an epic about the wanderings of Aeneas, repeatedly alludes to Callimachus when contemplating the nature of his own poetry. Having followed Callimachus's example by rejecting traditional epic poetics in his 6th Eclogue, Vergil labels his Aeneid as a "better work". Vergil's formulation leaves open whether he sought to write an epic with the refinement called for by Callimachus or whether he had turned his back on Callimacheanism as his career progressed.

Having referred to himself as a "Roman Callimachus", the elegist Propertius follows the example of Callimachus's Aetia by introducing obscure mythological material and numerous recondite details into his erotic history of Rome. At the same time, he challenges Callimachean learnedness by depicting lowbrow details of contemporary nightlife such as strippers and dwarfs kept for entertainment purposes. Ovid described Callimachus as "lacking in genius but strong in art". His statement, though seemingly a criticism of the poet, pays homage to Callimachus's belief that technical skill and erudition were the most important attributes of a poet.

Modern
Classical scholars place Callimachus among the most influential Greek poets. According to Kathryn Gutzwiller, he "reinvented Greek poetry for the Hellenistic age by devising a personal style that came, through its manifestations in Roman poetry, to influence the entire tradition of modern literature". She also writes that his lasting importance is demonstrated by the strong reactions his poetry elicited from contemporaries and posterity. Richard L. Hunter, an expert on Greek literature of the Hellenistic period, states that the selective reception of Callimachus through Roman poets has led to a simplified picture of his poetry. Hunter writes that modern critics have drawn up a false dichotomy between the "content-laden and socially engaged poetry of the archaic and classical periods" and a sophisticated, but meaningless style proposed by Callimachus. Echoing Hunter's assessment in their 2012 book on the reception of Callimachus, the Hellenists Benjamin Acosta-Hughes and Susan Stephens comment that the scarcity of primary evidence and the reliance on Roman accounts has created a label of Callimacheanism that does not accurately represent his literary work.

title: Callimachus


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Flight surgeon

A flight surgeon is a military medical officer practicing in the clinical field of aviation medicine, which is also occasionally known as flight surgery.

Flight surgeons are medical doctors who serve as the primary care physicians for a variety of military aviation personnel, including pilots, Flight Officers, navigators, astronauts, missile combat crews, air traffic controllers, UAV operators and other aircrew members, both officer and enlisted.

Aviation medicine is essentially a form of occupational medicine, and flight surgeons are tasked with the responsibility of maintaining medical standards, especially those that apply to those on flying, controlling or airborne status. In some jurisdictions, such as the U.S military, flight surgeons are trained to fill general public health and occupational and preventive medicine roles, and only infrequently perform surgery in an operating theater sense. Flight surgeons are not required to be rated or licensed pilots. They may be called upon to provide medical consultation as members of an investigation board into a military or aviation or spaceflight mishap. Occasionally, they may serve to provide in-flight care to patients being evacuated via aeromedical evacuation.

The civilian equivalent of the flight surgeon is the Aviation Medical Examiner (AME). Some civilian AMEs have training similar to that of military flight surgeons, and some are retired military and reservist flight surgeons.

History
The roots of aviation medicine extend back to the earliest scientific discoveries of gas laws and the makeup of Earth's atmosphere as these factors relate to the human body. As aviation progressed from lighter-than-air balloons to fixed wing controlled flight to spaceflight, the disciplines of medicine and physiology were required to track with each technological advance. Physicians and physiologists, such as John Jeffries (1745–1819) and Paul Bert (1833–1886), conducted experiments on humans in flight and documented the body's response to these physiologic stressors. However, it would not be until airplanes were first used in war that the office of the first flight surgeon was established.

World War I
The term "flight surgeon" originated in the early months of 1918 when the U.S. Air Medical Service of the U.S. Army collaborated with two civilian aviation organizations—the Aero Club of America and the Aerial League of America—to manage problems of medical screening and standards for U.S. military aviators.

The term is especially associated with Colonel (later Brigadier General) Theodore C. Lyster (the first Chief Surgeon, Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, U.S. Army), and with Major Isaac H. Jones. These two officers proposed the organization of a pioneering "Care of the Flier" unit in June 1918.

The original intent was for the military and the Surgeon General to understand what was causing the high flight mishap rate. Shortly after the appointment of the first flight surgeons, research and experience led to a dramatic improvement in aircrew health as well as a significant raising of the entry medical standards for all aircrew. The early flight surgeons found that the Army's practice of assigning officers to flight duty who were not physically qualified for infantry or cavalry duty was improper. Because of the G-forces, risk of spatial disorientation, and risk of hypoxia encountered in the aviation environment, among other challenges, early flight surgeons found that aviation personnel must be scrupulously healthy and well trained in the basics of aerospace physiology.

World War II
The role of flight surgeons continued to mature and expand as the U.S. faced World War II. The 1941 movie Dive Bomber, although focused on Naval Aviation, highlighted the role of the flight surgeon just prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, and demonstrated how solving the problems of hypoxia at altitude would reduce the aircraft mishap rate.

During World War II, the head of the U.S. Army Air Forces, General of the Army (later General of the Air Force) Henry 'Hap' Arnold, directed all flight surgeons in the Army Air Forces to fly regularly with their patients in order to better understand the aviation environment. Consequently, to this day, their successor U.S. Air Force Flight Surgeons are considered "aeronautically rated" aircrew members who receive flight pay and who are required to fly a certain number of hours monthly. The same policy applies to Army Flight Surgeons and to Naval Flight Surgeons, the latter who are considered "aeronautically designated" officers like their Naval Aviator and Naval Flight Officer counterparts.

Strict racial segregation in the U.S. Army required the development of separate black flight surgeons to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen in 1941 and continued in the U.S. Army Air Forces throughout World War II. Following the establishment of an independent U.S. Air Force and the racial integration of all the U.S. armed forces following World War II, this separation was discontinued.

Cold War
Flight Surgeons were still utilized but only in garrison environments.

During the Vietnam War, USAF flight surgeons were utilized on flights.

Training
The position of flight surgeon requires additional specialized training beyond traditional medical school; training which is both military and medical in nature. Flight Surgeon training was created as distinct from other medical professionals in the armed forces because of the special, and often higher, minimum standards of fitness and physical requirements required by the extremely high responsibility positions of aviators and ancillary aviation personnel. For example, some routine treatments, such as certain antihistamines, when administered to aviation personnel, are cause for temporary grounding (loss of flying privileges) until the therapy and its effects are completed. Further, the whole "mindset" of aviation medicine practitioners is different from that of non-aviation physicians. Most medical problems on the ground are "an abnormal response to a normal environment", while in aviation the clinician must consider the "normal response to an abnormal environment."

Flight surgeon training varies depending on the branch of military service:

U.S. Air Force
In the U.S. Air Force, most flight surgeons receive initial training at the U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine (USAFSAM) at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The entry curriculum is known as the Aerospace Medicine Primary (AMP) Course, a two-week curriculum that involves aeromedical topics as well as aircrew and survival training. AMP is a combination of didactic and laboratory experiences designed to prepare USAF medical officers for basic mission qualification to perform duties in support of the objectives of the USAF Aerospace Medicine Program.

Some Air Force Flight Surgeons ultimately move on to the Residency in Aerospace Medicine (RAM), a three-year program involving a Master of Public Health, a year of aerospace medical training, and a year of either occupational or preventive medical training. Graduates of the RAM are eligible to be double-boarded in Aerospace Medicine and either Occupational or Preventive Medicine, and are generally assigned to supervise other flight surgeons or medical units. The RAM also involves Medical Officer Flight Familiarization Training (MOFFT), during which the flight surgeon receives abbreviated ground school and some basic pilot training in the T-6 Texan II. Consequently, a RAM has some actual piloting experience and some training toward initial qualification, although the aeronautical rating of USAF Pilot is not awarded.

A limited number of USAF Flight Surgeons may also perform duties as Pilot-Physicians (Air Force Specialty Code 48VX). Pilot-Physicians initially begin their USAF service as line officer pilots, later transferring to the USAF medical corps in order to attend medical school. The purpose of pilot-physicians is to provide "integrated operational and aerospace medicine guidance" in the research, development, testing, and evaluation of Air Force systems and missions to realize the greatest effectiveness and cost savings. Pilot-physicians were previously assigned only to an operational flying squadron in their respective aircraft, with their main assignment as a pilot, but also with clinical duties seeing patients, usually the aviation medicine clinic, depending on the pilot-physician's medical specialty. On 21 April 2011 the USAF Pilot-Physician Program (PPP) was completely revised to make "... the most of the special resources of Air Force officers who are simultaneously qualified both as pilots and flight surgeons...", with a senior pilot-physician selected by the Air Force Surgeon General to be Program Director, and assignment of designated command, staff, research, training, and education billets as well as duty in operational units. A P48VX Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) is assigned to those medical officers on aeronautical orders as a pilot-physician and assigned to one of these designated PPP billets. Pilot-Physicians are entitled to conditional flight pay (i.e., Aviation Career Incentive Pay or ACIP), that is, only if assigned to an active flying position and flying a prescribed number of hours monthly. In addition to being a rated pilot and a rated flight surgeon, a pilot-physician must have completed at least three years of operational flying and one year as an operational flight surgeon, with a provision for assigning applicants without flight surgeon operational experience to a base where they would likely become a "first assignment pilot-physician". The revised program allows flight surgeons access to undergraduate pilot training and remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) pilot training (one slot per year); allows participation of flight surgeons with prior experience as USAF Combat Systems Officers/Navigators/Electronic Warfare Officers/Weapons Systems Officers, RPA sensor operators, and flight test engineers as navigator-physicians or flight test-physicians; and authorizes pilot-physicians to compete for assignment to the USAF Test Pilot School. Pilot-physicians are defined by four core competencies to achieve program objectives: (1) Providing expert guidance through the synthesis of operational and medical experience; (2) Conducting research by applying operational insights to studies, basic and applied science, relevant research, development, test & evaluation (RDT&E), and operational test & evaluation (OT&E); (3) Teaching aircrew, senior Air Force leaders, and medical personnel on subjects of particular expertise, and (4) Conducting analysis to provide recommendations for operational systems, environments, and mishaps; and solutions to human performance problems. Pilot-physicians are eligible for advanced ratings as both flight surgeons and pilots. They may apply toward advanced pilot ratings any USAF pilot years of aviation service, months of operational flying duty, and total flying hours accrued before achieving flight surgeon status. After attaining status as a pilot-physician, all hours flown as a pilot, and months of operational flying duty credit accrued as a pilot, are "dual-credited" toward both advanced pilot and flight surgeon ratings as long as the officer is on aeronautical orders as an active pilot-physician.

USAF Flight Surgeons hold three different rating levels, Flight Surgeon, Senior Flight Surgeon and Chief Flight Surgeon, contingent upon years of service as a flight surgeon and total flight hours logged. Air Force Flight Surgeons serve throughout the flying activities of the U.S. Air Force, to include flight surgeons in the Air Reserve Component who serve in the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) and the Air National Guard (ANG).

 * Air Force Flight Surgeon insignia United States Air Force Flight Surgeon Badge.svg

U.S. Navy

In the U.S. Navy, initial flight surgeon training is conducted via the Flight Surgeon Primary Course at the Naval Aerospace Medical Institute (NAMI) at NAS Pensacola, Florida. The Flight Surgeon Primary Course is significantly longer than its USAF counterpart and involves a lengthier and more robust version of MOFFT for all candidates, so that all Navy flight surgeons have some formal pilot training in the T-6 Texan II aircraft, up to the "safe for solo" point in training as well as 5 flights in the Navy TH-57 training helicopter. Naval Flight Surgeons may also attend a three-year RAM training program that is distinct from the USAF program. Following training, nearly all Naval Flight Surgeons will be assigned to a deployable Navy or Marine Corps combat aviation squadron in the Fleet (USN) or Fleet Marine Force (USMC). More senior flight surgeons will later be assigned to the staff of a Naval Air Force or Marine Aircraft Wing, carrier air wings, functional/type air wings, Marine Aircraft Groups, the Medical Departments of aircraft carriers or amphibious assault ships, or the staff of Naval Hospitals or Naval Branch Clinics aboard Naval Air Stations, Marine Corps Air Stations and Naval Air Facilities. Naval Flight Surgeons are also eligible command Naval Hospitals, Naval Branch Clinics and the Medical contingent aboard naval hospital ships.

A small number of Naval Flight Surgeons are also "dual-designated" as Naval Aviators or Naval Flight Officers, having either been former unrestricted line officer pilots or NFOs who transferred to the Navy's Medical Corps, attended medical schools, and later qualified as Naval Flight Surgeons; or previously designated Naval Flight Surgeons were selected for a full flight training as Student Naval Aviators. These latter officers are also awarded Naval Aviator insignia, but remain in the Medical Corps as "dual designated" officers, qualified as either a Naval Aviator or Naval Flight Officer and as a Naval Flight Surgeon whom wear both insignia. Such officers are often assigned as research pilots.

A small number of Naval Flight Surgeons—including two dual-designated Naval Aviators/Naval Flight Surgeons: CAPT David M. Brown, MC, USN (FS) and CAPT Joseph P. Kerwin, MC, USN (FS) -- have also qualified as astronauts. CAPT Kerwin flew in 1973 as Science Pilot aboard Skylab 1, becoming the first U.S. physician to fly in space. Two of these officers, CAPT Brown and CAPT Laurel Blair Salton Clark, MC, USN (FS) were both killed during the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, mission STS-107, in 2003.

Naval Flight Surgeons provide support to aviation units and personnel of both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps, to include aviation units and personnel of the Navy Reserve and the Marine Corps Reserve.

 * Naval Aviator, Naval Flight Officer and Naval Flight Surgeon insignia Navy Aviation Warfare Insignia.png

U.S. Army
Since the separation of the U.S. Army Air Force from the Army as the U.S. Air Force in 1947, Army flight surgeons have primarily focused on the health and fitness of the Army's rotary wing aviators. Most Army flight surgeons graduate from a basic course of 6 weeks taught at the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at Fort Novosel, Alabama, and are then assigned to their units. After some experience in the field, Army flight surgeons are then eligible to participate in a RAM program as described above. In the past, most Army RAMs have participated in the USAF program, but many take part in the USN program, while a few study in the only US civilian RAM program, located at Wright State University. RAM training is the equivalent of other specialty residency training in the United States, and a graduate of the program can take board certification tests and is then considered a fully-fledged specialist. Like their USAF counterparts, Army flight surgeons also hold three different rating levels, Flight Surgeon, Senior Flight Surgeon and Master Flight Surgeon, contingent upon years of service as a flight surgeon and total flight hours logged. Army flight surgeons support all active duty Army Aviation units and personnel, as well as those in the Army Reserve and Army National Guard.

 * Army Flight Surgeon insigniaArmyFltSurg.gif

Other countries
The training requirements for military flight surgeons in countries other than the United States are different—for example, in the United Kingdom, Aviation Medicine is considered a sub-specialty of Occupational Medicine rather than a fully separate specialty. Thus, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy and British Army specialists in Aviation Medicine are usually required to be specialists in Occupational Medicine before undertaking the specialised training in Aviation Medicine.

title: Flight surgeon


text:
Signals (Rush album)

Signals is the ninth studio album by Canadian rock band Rush, released on September 9, 1982 by Anthem Records. After the release of their previous album, Moving Pictures, the band started to prepare material for a follow-up during soundchecks on their 1981 concert tour and during the mixing of their subsequent live album Exit...Stage Left. Signals demonstrates the group's continuing use of synthesizers, sequencers, and other electronic instrumentation. It is the last album produced by their longtime associate Terry Brown, who had worked with them since 1974.

The album peaked at No. 1 in Canada, No. 3 in the United Kingdom, and No. 10 in the United States. In November 1982, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling one million copies in the United States. Rush released three singles from the album: "New World Man", which became the band's highest charting single in the United States and a number-one hit in Canada, as well as "Subdivisions" and "Countdown". The group supported Signals with a concert tour from April 1982 to May 1983. Signals has been reissued several times, including a remaster with a new stereo and 5.1 surround sound mix in 2011.

Background and recording
In July 1981, Rush ended their tour in support of their previous album Moving Pictures. The album became their most commercially successful of their history, granting them their first No. 1 album in Canada and selling over one million copies in the United States at the tour's conclusion. Rush then took a three-month break, during which they oversaw the production and mixing of their second live release, Exit...Stage Left, at Le Studio in Morin-Heights, Quebec. In one of drummer and lyricist Neil Peart's diary entries written during this time, he had been cleaning a Hayman drum kit that was housed in the studio and, in September 1981, began working out a song with two members of the band's road crew, the unreleased "Tough Break". Peart was also working on lyrics, in particular a set which included "Subdivisions", a track the group would later record for Signals.

Having arranged some material for their next studio album, Rush toured North America and Europe from October to December 1981 with a setlist that contained "Subdivisions". The group had their sound man capture their soundchecks on tape which provided a method of developing new songs, which was particularly the case for "Chemistry". The majority of Signals was written and rehearsed in early 1982. Geddy Lee has said that the group were aware of how easy it would have been to "play it safe" and produce another Moving Pictures, a mindset the band was entirely against. The album displays the band continuing to incorporate the synthesizer into their songs with less emphasis on guitar-oriented riffs which had been the focus of their sound in the 1970s. Lee considered Signals as the beginning of a new era for the band. In hindsight, he said it was considerably difficult to make because it took longer than usual for the band to achieve the right feel for each song. Some ideas that Alex Lifeson and Lee had initially saved for potential solo albums were used on Signals. Writer and journalist Greg Quill noticed a "cyclical framework" in Signals, specifically the album opening in suburbia followed by contemplating escape in "The Analog Kid". Then, "universal human imponderables" are explored through humanity, sex, religion, and ageing, which ends in an actual escape in "Countdown". Quill spoke to Peart about this theory, to which the drummer replied: "You noticed that. We were hoping no one would. It's so unfashionable these days to construct grand concepts. We're being closed mouthed about it".

Recording began at Le Studio in April 1982, and ended on July 15. It is Rush's last album co-produced by their longtime associate Terry Brown, who had worked with them since 1974. He was joined by engineer Paul Northfield with assistance from Robbie Whelan. Rush intended to finish the album in June, but had to spend additional time in the studio which led to a month's reduction in their planned vacation time. Upon completion, the album was mastered by Bob Ludwig at Masterdisk.

Side one
"Subdivisions" was one of the first songs Rush had arranged for Signals. After Peart devised a set of lyrics, Lifeson and Lee wrote a collection of musical ideas to fit Peart's words. Peart recalled that his bandmates interrupted him as he was cleaning his car and set up a portable cassette player on the driveway outside the studio, and played him what they had come up with. Peart added: "I listened closely, picking up the variations on 7/8 and 3/4, the way the guitar adopts the role of rhythm section while the keyboards take the melody, returning to bass with guitar leading in the chorus, then the Mini-moog taking over again for the instrumental bridge", and told Lifeson and Lee that he liked it.

"The Analog Kid" originated during the group's stay at Virgin Gorda in the British Virgin Islands in January 1982, travelling on a yacht named Orianda. Peart had written the words to the song initially as a companion piece to "Digital Man", which Rush had started working on in late 1981, and presented it to Lee. The two discussed what could be done with the lyrics in a musical sense, deciding on the opposite on what the words may suggest, with Peart describing the track as "a very up-tempo rocker, with some kind of a dynamic contrast for the choruses".

"Chemistry" was developed during soundchecks on the Moving Pictures tour in 1981. It was during one particular session during the United States leg whereby, after each member checking each of their instruments separately, "a little spontaneous creation" came about which produced a song without the group realising it. Each member played a different part; Lee played what became the keyboard section for the bridge, Lifeson the guitar riffs heard in the verses, and Peart the drum pattern for the chorus. Upon listening to the soundcheck tapes, Lifeson and Lee took each section and arranged it into a complete track before they produced a demo which almost matched the version recorded for the album. "Chemistry" marked the first time that each member collaborated on the lyrics to a song, with Lifeson and Lee devising its title, concept, and several phrases that they wished for it to include. Peart then took their ideas and developed a set of complete lyrics. He named "Chemistry" as the easiest song to write for Signals.

"Digital Man" was one of the songs worked on during the late 1981 writing sessions at Le Studio, during which the music and lyrics for its verses, plus the ska-influenced bridge, was worked out. The song was also heavily influenced by funk, with Lee's bass line described as "so funky and fluid its almost laughable". Its instrumental break has been compared with "Walking on the Moon" by The Police. The song developed further in March 1982 during the band's one month stay at The Grange in Muskoka Lakes, Ontario. Peart wrote the remaining lyrics by an open fire in his chalet while Lifeson and Lee worked on the music in the adjacent barn. After numerous attempts they devised a combination of suitable words and music for the chorus, and Peart wrote: "We were all very pleased with the dynamic and unusual nature of the part, it was so different for us". However, Brown expressed a lack of enthusiasm to record the song and remained so until the group had continually talked about why it worked "until he got tired of hearing about it". "The Analog Kid" and "Digital Man" served as the inspiration for comic book writer Troy Hickman to create heroes of the same names in his 2004 comic Common Grounds.

Side two
"The Weapon" is the second part of Rush's "Fear" song series. During a writing session at a northern Ontario manor home in 1981, Lee and his friend Oscar devised what Peart described as the foundation of "a highly mysterious and bizarre drum pattern" with his drum machine. At a subsequent rehearsal, Peart learned to play the part on his own drum kit which required him to alter his usual technique, but took the experience as an enjoyable challenge.

"New World Man" was put together in May 1982 when the backing tracks for the album's other seven tracks were completed, and there was enough space on the vinyl for a song under four minutes. Had the track become too long, the band would have put it down and used it for a subsequent release. "New World Man" began with Peart writing lyrics that tied in themes from other songs on the album, "and came up with a straightforward, concise set of lyrics consisting of the two verses and the two choruses". The group adopted a "fast and loose" approach for its corresponding music and worked swiftly, with the song fully arranged in one day and recorded in the course of the next.

"Losing It" originated from a theme Lifeson had come up with which was used in subsequent rehearsal sessions to produce a demo with keyboards and drums. In June 1982, when the band revisited the song in the studio, they discussed the possibility of Ben Mink of the band FM playing the electric violin somewhere on Signals, and decided that "Losing It" was the best track for his contribution. To cater for the part, Rush put down the basic track for a jazz-oriented solo section and invited Mink to the studio which included him multi-tracking various notes to resemble a complete string section. The lyrics include references to the latter years of writer Ernest Hemingway–"For you the blind who once could see, the bell tolls for thee". It was not played live until 2015 when Rush performed it at five concerts on their R40 Live Tour.

"Countdown" was inspired by the band attending the launch of the STS-1 Columbia space shuttle in April 1981, the first of NASA's Space Shuttle program. They had been invited to the launch and observed it from a VIP area at an air base in Cape Kennedy, Florida. The song features samples of radio communications recorded before and during the flight.

Artwork
The sleeve was designed by Hugh Syme, who is credited with its concept, direction, and graphics, with photography from Deborah Samuel. Syme based his design upon receiving merely the album's title, and recalled a "great deal of trouble" in a cover that he and the group were satisfied with. "I decided that, with such a phenomenally important word with the kind of potency it potentially had, to go with something really dumb, really inane". He noted, however, that the cover still tied into the meaning of some of the songs on the album, in particular "Chemistry". The final concept came out from the result of several failed ideas, including one that Syme devised which would have involved Rush hooked up to electroencephalography machines as they played in the studio and a snapshot of their heartbeats and brain waves taken during a performance.

The front photograph depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing a red fire hydrant on a green lawn. Samuel shot the image on the rooftop of her studio. The lawn is a piece of AstroTurf, and the hydrant was rented from Toronto and repainted the desired colour for the cover. She recalled a search to find a Dalmatian who could sniff on command, and placed dog biscuits underneath the hydrant multiple times to get the final shot. The back cover is a pretend blueprint of a neighbourhood with what Lee described as "make believe subdivisions", detailing Warren Cromartie Secondary School, a fictional school named after Canadian baseball player Warren Cromartie. He and the Montreal Expos are thanked in the album's liner notes. Syme considered the back cover "a little subtle, perhaps over-indulgent".

Release
The album was released in September 1982. The album peaked at No. 1 in Canada, No. 3 in the United Kingdom, and No. 10 in the United States. In November 1982, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling one million copies in the United States.

Rush released five singles from Signals. "New World Man" reached No. 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart for three weeks in October and November 1982. It is the band's highest charting single in the US, and the only one to have reached the top 40.

Reception
At the time of release, Rolling Stone criticised the band's choice of "emphasizing synthesizers at the expense of Alex Lifeson's guitar," calling the album "mostly a wasted effort."

Louder called Signals the 29th best album of the 80s.

AllMusic retrospectively praised the album, complimenting the band for not simply making Moving Pictures, Pt. II, continuing their exploration of the synthesizer and introducing more contemporary themes into the lyrics.

Ultimate Classic Rock placed Signals seventh in their list of "Top 10 Rush Albums," while Stereogum placed the album third (behind Moving Pictures and 2112) in their list of "Rush Albums From Worst to Best," labelling it "the most audacious album of the band's career."

In the 2010 documentary film Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage, Trent Reznor cited Signals as an influence for incorporating keyboards into hard rock. Canadian music journalist Martin Popoff stated that Signals was his favorite Rush album because of the "creamy production."

In 2022, Guitar World named Signals the #9 greatest rock guitar album of 1982, saying that although there was a "shift to a more electro-synth sound", there was "still room for Alex Lifeson to do his thing on his six-string", and that "Geddy Lee remained the best bassist in rock".

Personnel
Credits are taken from the album's 1982 liner notes.

 * Rush
 * Geddy Lee – bass guitars, synthesizers, vocals, arrangements, production
 * Alex Lifeson – electric and acoustic guitars, Moog Taurus pedals, production
 * Neil Peart – drums, percussion, arrangements, spoken vocal on “Subdivisions”, production

 * Additional personnel
 * Ben Mink – electric violin on "Losing It"

 * Production
 * Terry Brown – arrangements, production
 * Paul Northfield – engineer
 * Robbie Whelan – engineer assistant
 * JVC – digital mastering
 * Bob Ludwig – mastering at Gateway Mastering Studios
 * Brian Lee – mastering
 * Hugh Syme – art direction, graphics, cover concept
 * Deborah Samuel – photography
 * Kineblok Inc. – photographic colour optics
 * Ray Danniels – management
 * Moon Records – executive production

title: Signals (Rush album)


text: Talk:2001 United Kingdom general election


text:
Washington

Washington most commonly refers to:

 * George Washington (1732–1799), the first president of the United States
 * Washington (state), United States
 * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States
 * A metonym for the federal government of the United States
 * Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered on Washington, D.C.

Washington may also refer to:

England

 * Washington, Tyne and Wear, a town in the City of Sunderland metropolitan borough
 * Washington Old Hall, ancestral home of the family of George Washington
 * Washington, West Sussex, a village and civil parish

Greenland

 * Cape Washington, Greenland
 * Washington Land

Philippines

 * New Washington, Aklan, a municipality
 * Washington, a barangay in Catarman, Northern Samar
 * Washington, a barangay in Escalante, Negros Occidental
 * Washington, a barangay in San Jacinto, Masbate
 * Washington, a barangay in Surigao City

United States

 * Washington, Wisconsin (disambiguation)
 * Fort Washington (disambiguation)
 * Lake Washington (disambiguation)
 * Mount Washington (disambiguation)
 * Port Washington (disambiguation)
 * Washington Avenue (disambiguation)
 * Washington Boulevard (disambiguation)
 * Washington Bridge (disambiguation)
 * Washington County (disambiguation)
 * Washington district (disambiguation)
 * Washington Island (disambiguation)
 * Washington Park (disambiguation)
 * Washington Square (disambiguation)
 * Washington Street (disambiguation)
 * Washington Township (disambiguation)
 * Washington Valley (disambiguation)

Cities and communities

 * Washington, Alabama
 * Washington, Arkansas
 * Washington, California, in Nevada County
 * Washington, Yolo County, California
 * Washington, Connecticut
 * Washington, Georgia
 * Washington, Illinois
 * Washington, Indiana
 * Washington, Iowa
 * Washington, Kansas
 * Washington, Kentucky
 * Washington, Louisiana
 * Washington, Maine
 * Washington, Massachusetts
 * Washington, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Washington Township
 * Washington, Mississippi
 * Washington, Missouri
 * Washington, Nebraska
 * Washington, New Hampshire
 * Washington, New Jersey
 * Washington, New York
 * Washington, North Carolina
 * Washington, Oklahoma
 * Washington, Pennsylvania
 * Washington, Rhode Island
 * Washington, Utah
 * Washington, Vermont
 * Washington, Virginia
 * Washington, West Virginia
 * Washington Court House, Ohio
 * Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas

Elsewhere

 * Washington Escarpment, Antarctica
 * Washington, Ontario, Canada
 * George Washington, Cuba (also known as Washington)
 * Washington Island (French Polynesia)
 * Washington Island (Kiribati)
 * Washington, Guyana, a community in Mahaica-Berbice, Guyana

In the United States

 * University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
 * George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
 * Harold Washington College, Chicago, Illinois
 * University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, Virginia
 * Washington College, merged with Jefferson College in 1865 to form Washington & Jefferson College
 * Washington College (California), formerly in Irvington, Fremont, California
 * Washington College, Chestertown, Maryland
 * Washington College, Connecticut, the original name of Trinity College
 * Washington College of Law, at American University, Washington, D.C.
 * Washington Female Seminary, Washington, Pennsylvania
 * Washington Medical College, a defunct institution formerly in Baltimore, Maryland
 * Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri

Outside of the United States

 * Washington International University, unaccredited institution in the British Virgin Islands
 * Washington University of Barbados, named as part of an international medical school scam

Secondary education

 * Lake Washington High School, Kirkland, Washington
 * Washington Academy (disambiguation)
 * Washington College Academy, Limestone, Tennessee
 * Booker T. Washington High School (disambiguation)
 * George Washington High School (disambiguation)
 * Washington County High School (disambiguation)
 * Washington High School (disambiguation)
 * Washington International School, Washington, D.C.
 * Washington School (disambiguation)

People

 * Washington (name), a given name or surname
 * Washington (musician), the stage name of Australian musician Megan Washington
 * Washington (footballer, born 1953), Brazilian football forward Washington Luiz de Paula
 * Washington (footballer, born 1 April 1975), Brazilian football manager and former striker Washington Stecanela Cerqueira
 * Washington (footballer, born 10 April 1975), Brazilian football striker Washington Luiz Pereira dos Santos
 * Washington (footballer, born August 1978), Brazilian football forward Washington Luiz Mascarenhas Silva
 * Washington (footballer, born November 1978), Brazilian football forward Washington Luigi Garcia
 * Washington (footballer, born 1985), Brazilian football striker Washington Roberto Mariano da Silva
 * Washington (footballer, born May 1986), Brazilian football striker Washington de Mesquista Ferreira
 * Washington (footballer, born November 1986), Brazilian football midfielder Cezar Washington Alves Portela
 * Washington (footballer, born 1989), Brazilian football midfielder Washington Santana da Silva

Ships

 * SS Washington (1930), an ocean liner
 * SS Washington (1941), a cargo ship
 * USS Washington, several U.S. Navy ships
 * Washington (steamboat 1851)

In the Washington D.C. metropolitan area

 * Washington Capitals, professional ice hockey team of the National Hockey League
 * Washington Nationals, professional baseball team of Major League Baseball
 * Washington Mystics, professional basketball team of the Women's National Basketball Association
 * Washington Commanders, formerly Washington Redskins, professional American football team of the National Football League
 * Washington Wizards, professional basketball team of the National Basketball Association
 * D.C. United, professional soccer team of the Major League Soccer

Division I

 * Eastern Washington Eagles, athletic teams of Eastern Washington University in Cheney, Washington
 * Washington Huskies, athletic teams of the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington
 * Washington State Cougars, athletic teams of Washington State University in Pullman, Washington

Division II

 * Central Washington Wildcats, athletic teams of Central Washington University in Ellensburg, Washington
 * Western Washington Vikings, athletic teams of Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington

Elsewhere

 * Washington F.C., a football club based in Washington, Tyne and Wear, England
 * Washington University Bears, athletic teams of Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, USA

Other uses

 * Washington station (disambiguation)
 * Washington (tree), a giant sequoia in Sequoia National Park, California, US
 * Boeing Washington, British designation for the Boeing B-29 Superfortress

title: Washington


text:
Wheaton College

Wheaton College may refer to:

 * Wheaton College (Illinois), a private Christian, coeducational, liberal arts college in Wheaton, Illinois
 * Wheaton College (Massachusetts), a private secular, coeducational, liberal arts college in Norton, Massachusetts

title: Wheaton College