text:
Augustus Pugin

Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1 March 1812 – 14 September 1852) was an English architect, designer, artist and critic with French and Swiss origins. He is principally remembered for his pioneering role in the Gothic Revival style of architecture. His work culminated in designing the interior of the Palace of Westminster in Westminster, London, and its renowned clock tower, the Elizabeth Tower (formerly St. Stephen's Tower), which houses the bell known as Big Ben. Pugin designed many churches in England, and some in Ireland and Australia. He was the son of Auguste Pugin, and the father of Edward Welby Pugin, Cuthbert Welby Pugin, and Peter Paul Pugin, who continued his architectural and interior design firm as Pugin & Pugin.

Biography
Pugin was the son of the French draughtsman Auguste Pugin, who had immigrated to England as a result of the French Revolution and had married Catherine Welby of the Welby family of Denton, Lincolnshire, England. Pugin was born on 1 March 1812 at his parents' house in Bloomsbury, London, England. Between 1821 and 1838, Pugin's father published a series of volumes of architectural drawings, the first two entitled Specimens of Gothic Architecture and the following three Examples of Gothic Architecture, that not only remained in print but were the standard references for Gothic architecture for at least the next century.

Religion
As a child, his mother took Pugin each Sunday to the services of the fashionable Scottish Presbyterian preacher Edward Irving (later the founder of the Holy Catholic Apostolic Church), at his chapel in Cross Street, Hatton Garden, Camden, London. Pugin quickly rebelled against this version of Christianity: according to Benjamin Ferrey, Pugin "always expressed unmitigated disgust at the cold and sterile forms of the Scottish church; and the moment he broke free from the trammels imposed on him by his mother, he rushed into the arms of a church which, pompous by its ceremonies, was attractive to his imaginative mind".

Education and early ventures
Pugin learned drawing from his father, and for a while attended Christ's Hospital. After leaving school, he worked in his father's office, and in 1825 and 1827 accompanied him on visits to France. His first commissions independent of his father were for designs for the goldsmiths Rundell and Bridge, and for designs for furniture of Windsor Castle from the upholsterers Morel and Seddon. Through a contact made while working at Windsor, he became interested in the design of theatrical scenery, and in 1831 obtained a commission to design the sets for the production of the new opera Kenilworth at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. He also developed an interest in sailing, and briefly commanded a small merchant schooner trading between Great Britain and Holland, which allowed him to import examples of furniture and carving from Flanders, with which he later furnished his house at Ramsgate in Kent. During one voyage in 1830, he was wrecked on the Scottish coast near Leith, as a result of which he came into contact with Edinburgh architect James Gillespie Graham, who advised him to abandon seafaring for architecture. He then established a business supplying historically accurate carved wood and stone detailing for the increasing number of buildings being constructed in the Gothic Revival style, but the enterprise quickly failed.

Marriages
In 1831, at the age of 19, Pugin married the first of his three wives, Anne Garnet. She died a few months later in childbirth, leaving him a daughter. He had a further six children, including the future architect Edward Welby Pugin, with his second wife, Louisa Burton, who died in 1844. His third wife, Jane Knill, kept a journal of their marital life, from their marriage in 1848 to Pugin's death, which was later published. Their son was the architect Peter Paul Pugin.

Salisbury
Following his second marriage in 1833, Pugin moved to Salisbury, Wiltshire, with his wife, and in 1835 bought 1/2 acres of land in Alderbury, about 1+1/2 mi outside the town. On this he built a Gothic Revival-style house for his family, which he named St Marie's Grange. Of it, Charles Eastlake said "he had not yet learned the art of combining a picturesque exterior with the ordinary comforts of an English home."

Conversion to Catholicism
In 1834, Pugin converted to Catholicism and was received into it the following year.

British society at the start of the 19th century often discriminated against dissenters from the Church of England, although things began to change during Pugin's lifetime, helping to make Pugin's eventual conversion to Catholicism more socially acceptable. For example, dissenters could not take degrees at the established universities of Oxford and Cambridge until 1871, but the University of London (later renamed University College London) was founded near Pugin's birthplace in 1826 with the express purpose of educating dissenters to degree standard (although it would not be able to confer degrees until 1836). Dissenters were also unable to serve on parish or city councils, be a member of Parliament, serve in the armed forces or be on a jury. A number of reforms across the 19th century relieved these restrictions, one of which was the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, which allowed Catholics to become members of parliament.

Pugin's conversion acquainted him with new patrons and employers. In 1832 he made the acquaintance of John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury, a Catholic sympathetic to his aesthetic theory and who employed him in alterations and additions to his residence of Alton Towers, which subsequently led to many more commissions. Shrewsbury commissioned him to build St Giles Catholic Church, Cheadle, Staffordshire, which was completed in 1846, and Pugin was also responsible for designing the oldest Catholic Church in Shropshire, St Peter and Paul Church, Newport.

Contrasts
In 1836, Pugin published Contrasts, a polemical book which argued for the revival of the medieval Gothic style, and also "a return to the faith and the social structures of the Middle Ages". The book was prompted by the passage of the Church Building Acts of 1818 and 1824, the former of which is often called the Million Pound Act due to the appropriation amount by Parliament for the construction of new Anglican churches in Britain. The new churches constructed from these funds, many of them in a Gothic Revival style due to the assertion that it was the "cheapest" style to use, were often criticised by Pugin and many others for their shoddy design and workmanship and poor liturgical standards relative to an authentic Gothic structure.

Each plate in Contrasts selected a type of urban building and contrasted the 1830 example with its 15th-century equivalent. In one example, Pugin contrasted a medieval monastic foundation, where monks fed and clothed the needy, grew food in the gardens – and gave the dead a decent burial – with "a panopticon workhouse where the poor were beaten, half-starved and sent off after death for dissection. Each structure was the built expression of a particular view of humanity: Christianity versus Utilitarianism." Pugin's biographer, Rosemary Hill, wrote: "The drawings were all calculatedly unfair. King's College London was shown from an unflatteringly skewed angle, while Christ Church, Oxford, was edited to avoid showing its famous Tom Tower because that was by Christopher Wren and so not medieval. But the cumulative rhetorical force was tremendous."

In 1841 he published his illustrated The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture, which was premised on his two fundamental principles of Christian architecture. He conceived of "Christian architecture" as synonymous with medieval, "Gothic", or "pointed", architecture. In the work, he also wrote that contemporary craftsmen seeking to emulate the style of medieval workmanship should reproduce its methods.

Ramsgate
In 1841 he left Salisbury, having found it an inconvenient base for his growing architectural practice. He sold St Marie's Grange at a considerable financial loss, and moved temporarily to Cheyne Walk in Chelsea, London. He had, however, already purchased a parcel of land at West Cliff, Ramsgate, Thanet in Kent, where he proceeded to build for himself a large house and, at his own expense, a church dedicated to St Augustine, after whom he thought himself named. He worked on this church whenever funds permitted it. His second wife died in 1844 and was buried at St Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, which he had designed.

Architectural commissions
Following the destruction by fire of the Palace of Westminster in Westminster, London, in 1834, Pugin was employed by Sir Charles Barry to supply interior designs for his entry to the architectural competition which would determine who would build the new Palace of Westminster. Pugin also supplied drawings for the entry of James Gillespie Graham. This followed a period of employment when Pugin had worked with Barry on the interior design of King Edward's School, Birmingham. Despite his conversion to Catholicism in 1834, Pugin designed and refurbished both Anglican and Catholic churches throughout England.

Other works include St. Chad's Cathedral, Erdington Abbey, and Oscott College, all in Birmingham, England. He also designed the collegiate buildings of St Patrick and St Mary in St Patrick's College, Maynooth, Ireland; though not the collegiate chapel. His original plans included both a chapel and an aula maxima (great hall), neither of which were built because of financial constraints. The college chapel was designed by a follower of Pugin, the Irish architect James Joseph McCarthy. Also in Ireland, Pugin designed St Mary's Cathedral, Killarney, St Aidan's Cathedral in Enniscorthy (renovated in 1996), and the Dominican Church of the Holy Cross in Tralee. He revised the plans for St Michael's Church, Ballinasloe, County Galway, Ireland. Bishop William Wareing also invited Pugin to design what eventually became Northampton Cathedral, a project that was completed in 1864 by one of Pugin's sons, Edward Welby Pugin.

Pugin visited Italy in 1847; his experience there confirmed his dislike of Renaissance and Baroque architecture, but he found much to admire in the medieval art of northern Italy.

Stained glass
Pugin was a prolific designer of stained glass. He worked with Thomas Willement, William Warrington and William Wailes before persuading his friend John Hardman to start stained glass production.

Illness and death
In February 1852, while travelling with his son Edward by train, Pugin had a total breakdown and arrived in London unable to recognise anyone or speak coherently. For four months he was confined to a private asylum, Kensington House. In June, he was transferred to the Royal Bethlem Hospital, popularly known as Bedlam. At that time, Bethlem Hospital was opposite St George's Cathedral, Southwark, one of Pugin's major buildings, where he had married his third wife, Jane, in 1848. Jane and a doctor removed Pugin from Bedlam and took him to a private house in Hammersmith where they attempted therapy, and he recovered sufficiently to recognise his wife. In September, Jane took her husband back to The Grange in Ramsgate, where he died on 14 September 1852. He is buried in his church next to The Grange, St. Augustine's.

On Pugin's death certificate, the cause listed was "convulsions followed by coma". Pugin's biographer, Rosemary Hill, suggests that, in the last year of his life, he had had hyperthyroidism which would account for his symptoms of exaggerated appetite, perspiration, and restlessness. Hill writes that Pugin's medical history, including eye problems and recurrent illness from his early twenties, suggests that he contracted syphilis in his late teens, and this may have been the cause of his death at the age of 40.

Palace of Westminster
In October 1834, the Palace of Westminster burned down. Subsequently, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, wanted, now that he was premier, to disassociate himself from the controversial John Wilson Croker, who was a founding member of the Athenaeum Club; a close associate of the pre-eminent neoclassical architects James Burton and Decimus Burton; an advocate of neoclassicism; and a repudiator of the gothic revival style. Consequently, Peel appointed a committee chaired by Edward Cust, a detestor of the style of John Nash and William Wilkins, which resolved that the new Houses of Parliament would have to be in either the 'gothic' or the 'Elizabethan' style. Augustus W.N. Pugin, the foremost expert on the Gothic, had to submit each of his designs through, and thus in the name of, other architects, Gillespie-Graham and Charles Barry, because he had recently openly and fervently converted to Catholicism, as a consequence of which any design submitted in his own name would certainly have been automatically rejected; the design he submitted for improvements to Balliol College, Oxford, in 1843 were rejected for this reason. The design for Parliament that Pugin submitted through Barry won the competition. Subsequent to the announcement of the design ascribed to Barry, William Richard Hamilton, who had been secretary to Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin during the acquisition of the Elgin Marbles, published a pamphlet in which he censured the fact that 'gothic barbarism' had been preferred to the masterful designs of Ancient Greece and Rome: but the judgement was not altered, and was ratified by the Commons and the Lords. The commissioners subsequently appointed Pugin to assist in the construction of the interior of the new Palace, to the design of which Pugin himself had been the foremost determiner. Pugin's biographer, Rosemary Hill, shows that Barry designed the Palace as a whole, and only he could co-ordinate such a large project and deal with its difficult paymasters, but he relied entirely on Pugin for its Gothic interiors, wallpapers and furnishings. The first stone of the new Pugin-Barry design was laid on 27 April 1840.

During the competition for the design of the new Houses of Parliament, Decimus Burton, 'the land's leading classicist', was vituperated with continuous invective, which Guy Williams has described as an 'anti-Burton campaign',  by the foremost advocate of the neo-gothic style, Augustus W.N. Pugin,  who was made enviously reproachful that Decimus "had done much more than Pugin's father (Augustus Charles Pugin) to alter the appearance of London". Pugin attempted to popularize advocacy of the neo-gothic, and repudiation of the neoclassical, by composing and illustrating books that contended the supremacy of the former and the degeneracy of the latter, which were published from 1835. In 1845, Pugin, in his Contrasts: or a Parallel Between the Noble Edifices of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries and Similar Buildings of the Present Day, which the author had to publish himself as a consequence of the extent of the defamation of society architects therein, satirized John Nash as "Mr Wash, Plasterer, who jobs out Day Work on Moderate Terms", and Decimus Burton as "Talent of No Consequence, Premium Required", and included satirical sketches of Nash's Buckingham Palace and Burton's Wellington Arch. Consequently, the number of commissions received by Decimus declined, although Decimus retained a close friendship with the aristocrats amongst his patrons, who continued to commission him.

At the end of Pugin's life, in February 1852, Barry visited him in Ramsgate and Pugin supplied a detailed design for the iconic Palace clock tower, in 2012 dubbed the Elizabeth Tower but popularly known as Big Ben. The design is very close to earlier designs by Pugin, including an unbuilt scheme for Scarisbrick Hall, Lancashire. The tower was Pugin's last design before descending into madness. In her biography, Hill quotes Pugin as writing of what is probably his best-known building: "I never worked so hard in my life [as] for Mr Barry for tomorrow I render all the designs for finishing his bell tower & it is beautiful & I am the whole machinery of the clock." Hill writes that Barry omitted to give any credit to Pugin for his huge contribution to the design of the new Houses of Parliament. In 1867, after the deaths of both Pugin and Barry, Pugin's son Edward published a pamphlet, Who Was the Art Architect of the Houses of Parliament, a statement of facts, in which he asserted that his father was the "true" architect of the building, and not Barry.

Pugin in Ireland
Pugin was invited to Ireland by the Redmond family, initially to work in County Wexford. He arrived in Ireland in 1838 at a time of greater religious tolerance, when Catholic churches were permitted to be built. Most of his work in Ireland consisted of religious buildings. Pugin demanded the highest quality of workmanship from his craftsmen, particularly the stonemasons. His subsequent visits to the country were brief and infrequent. He was the main architect of St Aidan's Cathedral for the Diocese of Ferns in Enniscorthy, County Wexford. Pugin was the architect of the Russell Library at St. Patrick's College, Maynoooth, although he did not live to see its completion. Pugin provided the initial design of St. Mary's Cathedral, Killarney.

Pugin and Australia
The first Catholic Bishop of New South Wales, Australia, John Bede Polding, met Pugin and was present when St Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham and St Giles' Catholic Church, Cheadle were officially opened. Although Pugin never visited Australia, Polding persuaded Pugin to design a series of churches for him. Although a number of churches do not survive, St. Francis Xavier's in Berrima, New South Wales, is regarded as a fine example of a Pugin church. Polding blessed the foundation stone in February 1849, and the church was completed in 1851.

St. Stephen's Chapel, now in the cathedral grounds in Elizabeth Street, Brisbane, was built to a design by Pugin. Construction began in 1848, and the first Mass in the church was celebrated on 12 May 1850. In 1859 James Quinn was appointed Bishop of Brisbane, Brisbane became a diocese, and Pugin's small church became a cathedral. When the new Cathedral of St Stephen was opened in 1874 the small Pugin church became a schoolroom, and later church offices and storage room. It was several times threatened with demolition before its restoration in the 1990s. In Sydney, there are several altered examples of his work, namely St. Benedict's, Chippendale; St Charles Borromeo, Ryde; the former church of St Augustine of Hippo (next to the existing church), Balmain; and St Patrick's Cathedral, Parramatta, which was gutted by a fire in 1996.

According to Steve Meacham writing in The Sydney Morning Herald, Pugin's legacy in Australia is particularly of the idea of what a church should look like:"Pugin's notion was that Gothic was Christian and Christian was Gothic ... It became the way people built churches and perceived churches should be. Even today if you ask someone what a church should look like, they'll describe a Gothic building with pointed windows and arches. Right across Australia, from outback towns with tiny churches made out of corrugated iron with a little pointed door and pointed windows, to our very greatest cathedrals, you have buildings which are directly related to Pugin's ideas."

After his death, Pugin's two sons, Edward Pugin and Peter Pugin, continued operating their father's architectural firm under the name Pugin & Pugin. Their work includes most of the "Pugin" buildings in Australia and New Zealand.

Reputation and influence
Charles Eastlake, writing in 1872, noted that the quality of construction in Pugin's buildings was often poor, and believed he was lacking in technical knowledge, his strength lying more in his facility as a designer of architectural detail.

Pugin's legacy began to fade immediately after his death. This was partly due to the hostility of John Ruskin. Ruskin wrote of Pugin, "he is not a great architect but one of the smallest possible or conceivable architects". Contemporaries and admirers of Pugin, including Sir Henry Cole, protested at the viciousness of the attack and pointed out that Ruskin's idea on style had much in common with Pugin's. After Pugin's death, Ruskin "outlived and out-talked him by half a century". Sir Kenneth Clark wrote, "If Ruskin had never lived, Pugin would never have been forgotten."

Nonetheless, Pugin's architectural ideas were carried forward by two young architects who admired him and had attended his funeral, W. E. Nesfield and Norman Shaw. George Gilbert Scott, William Butterfield, and George Edmund Street were influenced by Pugin's designs, and continued to work out the implication of ideas he had sketched in his writings. In Street's office, Philip Webb met William Morris and they went on to become leading members of the English Arts and Crafts Movement. Morris regarded Pugin as a prominent figure in the "first act" of the Gothic revival, in which it "triumphed as an exotic ecclesiastical style", whereas in the second act, Ruskin replaced specific religious connotations with a universal, ethical stance. When the German critic Hermann Muthesius published his admiring and influential study of English domestic architecture, Pugin was all but invisible, yet "it was he ... who invented the English House that Muthesius so admired".

An armoire that he designed (crafted by frequent collaborator John Gregory Crace) is held at the Victoria and Albert Museum. It was shown at The Great Exhibition of 1851, but was not eligible for a medal, as it was shown under Crace's name and he was a judge for the Furniture Class at the exhibition.

On 23 February 2012 the Royal Mail released a first-class stamp featuring Pugin as part of its "Britons of Distinction" series. The stamp image depicts an interior view of the Palace of Westminster. Also in 2012, the BBC broadcast an arts documentary programme on Pugin's achievements.

House designs, with approximate date of design and current condition

Source: Pugin Society

 * John Halle's Hall, Salisbury (1834) – restoration of an existing hall of 1470, largely intact but extended prior to and following the 1834 restoration; now in use as the vestibule to a cinema
 * St. Marie's Grange, Alderbury, Wiltshire, for his own occupation (1835) – altered; a private house
 * Oxburgh Hall (with J.C. Buckler, 1835) – restoration of a 15th-century fortified manor house, now owned by the National Trust
 * Derby presbytery (1838) – demolished
 * Scarisbrick Hall (1837) – largely intact; a school
 * Uttoxeter presbytery (1838) – largely intact; in use
 * Keighley presbytery (1838) – altered; in use
 * Bishop's House, Birmingham (1840) – demolished
 * Warwick Bridge presbytery (1841) – intact with minor alterations; in use
 * Clergy House, Nottingham (1841) – largely intact; in use
 * Garendon Hall scheme (1841) – not executed
 * Bilton Grange (1841) – intact; now a school
 * Oxenford Grange farm buildings (1841) – intact; private house and farm
 * Cheadle presbytery (1842) – largely intact; now a private house
 * Woolwich presbytery (1842) – largely intact; in use
 * Brewood presbytery (1842) – largely intact; in use
 * St Augustine's Grange ("The Grange"), Ramsgate (1843) – restored by the Landmark Trust
 * Alton Castle (1843) – intact; a Catholic youth centre
 * Alton Towers – largely intact; used as a theme park
 * Oswaldcroft, Liverpool (1844) – altered; a residential home
 * Dartington Hall scheme (1845) – unexecuted
 * Lanteglos-by-Camelford rectory (1846) – much altered; now a hotel
 * Rampisham rectory (1846) – unaltered; private house
 * Woodchester Park scheme (1846) – unexecuted
 * St Thomas of Canterbury Church, Fulham (1847)
 * Fulham presbytery (1847) – intact; in use
 * Leighton Hall, Powys (1847) – intact; in use
 * Banwell Castle (1847) – intact now a hotel and restaurant
 * Wilburton Manor, Cambridgeshire (1848) – largely intact
 * Stafford Grammar School
 * Pugin's Hall (1850) – intact, a private house
 * St. Edmund's College Chapel (1853) – intact, a school and chapel

Institutional designs

 * Convent of Mercy, Bermondsey (1838) – destroyed
 * Mount St Bernard Abbey, Leicestershire (1839) – largely intact; in use
 * Downside Abbey, Somerset, schemes (1839 and 1841) – unexecuted
 * Convent of Mercy, Handsworth, Staffordshire (1840) – largely intact; in use
 * St. John's Hospital, Alton, Staffordshire (1841) – intact; in use
 * Convent of St. Joseph, school and almshouses, Chelsea, London (1841) – altered; used as a school
 * Convent of Mercy, Liverpool (1841 and from 1847) – demolished
 * St. Ann's School, Spetchley, Worcestershire, and schoolmaster's house (1841) – intact, now a private house
 * Balliol College, Oxford, scheme (1843) – unexecuted
 * Ratcliffe College, Leicestershire (1843) – partially executed; largely intact; in use
 * Liverpool Orphanage (1843) – demolished
 * Magdalen College School, Oxford, schemes (1843–1844) – unexecuted
 * Convent of Mercy, Nottingham (1844) – altered; private flats
 * Mercy House and cloisters, Handsworth (1844–1845) – cloisters intact; otherwise destroyed
 * Cotton College, Staffordshire (1846) – alterations to older house for use by a religious community; now derelict
 * Faber RC Primary School – ordered by Frederick William Faber at the time that Cotton College was built; in use
 * St. Anne's Bedehouses, Lincoln, (1847) – intact; in use
 * Convent of the Good Shepherd, Hammersmith, London (1848) – demolished
 * Convent of St. Joseph's, Cheadle, Staffordshire (1848) – intact; private house
 * King Edward's School, Birmingham, design of parts of interior (1838)

Major ecclesiastical designs

 * St. James's, Reading (1837) – altered
 * St. Mary's, Derby (1837) – altered
 * Oscott College Chapel, Birmingham (1837–1838) – extant
 * Our Lady and St. Thomas of Canterbury, Dudley (1838) – altered
 * St. Anne's, Keighley (1838) – altered and extended
 * St Alban's, Macclesfield (1838) – extant
 * St. Benedict Abbey (Oulton Abbey), Stone, Staffordshire (1854) – complete and in use as a nursing home
 * St. Marie's, Ducie Street, Manchester (1838) – not executed
 * St. Augustine's, Solihull (1838) – altered and extended
 * St. Marie's, Southport (1838) – altered
 * St Mary's Catholic Church, Uttoxeter (1839) – altered
 * St. Wilfrid's, Hulme, Manchester (1839) – extant
 * Chancel of St. John's, Banbury (1839) – extant
 * St Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham (1839) – extant
 * St. Giles', Cheadle, Staffordshire (1840) – extant
 * St. Oswald's, Liverpool (1840) – only tower remains
 * St George's Cathedral, Southwark, London (1840) – almost entirely rebuilt after World War II bombing
 * Holy Trinity, Radford, Oxfordshire (1839) – extant
 * Our Lady and St. Wilfred, Warwick Bridge, Cumbria (1840) – extant
 * St. Mary's, Brewood, Staffordshire (1840) – extant
 * St. Marie's, Liverpool (1841) – demolished
 * St. Augustine's, Kenilworth, Warwickshire (1841) – extant
 * St Mary's Cathedral, Newcastle upon Tyne (1841) – extant, with tower by C. Hansom
 * St Barnabas' Cathedral, Nottingham (1841) – extant
 * St. Mary's, Stockton-on-Tees (1841) – extant
 * Jesus Chapel, Ackworth Grange, Pontefract (1841) – demolished
 * St. Peter's, Woolwich (1842) – extended
 * St. Winifrede's, Shepshed, Leicestershire (1842) – now a private house
 * Old St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Albury Park, Surrey (mortuary chapel) (1842) – extant
 * Reredos of Leeds Cathedral (1842) – transferred to rebuilt cathedral 1902; restored 2007
 * Sacred Heart, Cambridge (1843) – dismantled in 1908 and re-erected in St Ives, Cambridgeshire
 * Our Lady and St. Thomas, Northampton (1844) – Subsequently, enlarged in stages forming St Mary and St Thomas RC Northampton Cathedral
 * St. Marie's, Wymeswold, Leicestershire (restoration) (1844) – extant
 * St Wilfrid's, Cotton, Staffordshire Moorlands (1844) – extant, but redundant 2012
 * St. Peter's, Marlow (1845) – extant
 * St. John the Evangelist ("The Willows"), Kirkham, Lancashire (1845) – extant
 * St. Augustine's, Ramsgate (1845) – extant, loss of some fittings; the only church he built entirely with his own money
 * St Marie's Church, Rugby (1845) – much added to
 * St. Lawrence's, Tubney, Berkshire (1845) – extant
 * Highland Tolbooth Kirk/Victoria Hall, Edinburgh (1845) – with James Gillespie Graham, now a Festival venue
 * St. Edmund's College chapel, Old Hall Green, Hertfordshire (1846) – extant
 * St. Mary's, West Tofts, Norfolk (1845) – disused and inaccessible
 * St Thomas of Canterbury Church, Fulham (1847) – extant
 * St. Osmund's, Salisbury (1847) – much added to
 * Chancel of St Oswald's Church, Winwick, Cheshire (1847) – extant
 * Erdington Abbey, Birmingham (1848)
 * Jesus College Chapel, Cambridge (1849) – restoration, extant
 * Rolle Mortuary Chapel, Bicton Grange, Bicton, Devon (1850) – extant
 * St. Nicholas' Church, Boldmere, Sutton Coldfield (1841) – demolished
 * St. James-the-Less, Rawtenstall, Lancashire (1844) – extant; restored 1993–1995
 * Bolton Priory, North Yorkshire, set of six windows (1854) – extant

Railway cottages
Less grand than the above are the railway cottages at Windermere station in Cumbria which have been loosely attributed to Pugin or a follower. Believed to date from 1849, and probably some of the first houses to be built in Windermere, the terrace of cottages was built for railway executives. One of the fireplaces is a copy of one of his in the Palace of Westminster.

Buildings in Ireland

 * Church of Assumption of Mary, Bree, County Wexford. 1837–1839. Patronage from the Redmond family
 * Church of St. John the Baptist, Bellevue, Ballyhogue, County Wexford. 1859
 * St. Peter's College, Summerhill Road, Wexford, County Wexford. Chapel.1838–1841; 6 bay chapel integrated as part of the college; built in Wexford red sandstone. Various Pugin elements including stations of the cross, balcony, rood screen etc. were removed in the renovation of 1950.
 * Church of St. James's, Ramsgrange, County Wexford. 1838–1843
 * Chapel at Loreto Abbey, Rathfarnham, Dublin. Currently vacant and out of use
 * Church of St. Michael the Archangel, Gorey, County Wexford. 1839–1842. Cruciform plan in Romanesque style; 9 bay nave; low square tower over the crossing. The design may have been influenced by Dunbrody Abbey, County Wexford. Built in Ballyscartin limestone with Wicklow granite dressings. Spire not constructed. Patronage of Sir Thomas Esmonde, 9th Baronet and family
 * Loreto Convent, St Michael's Road, Gorey, County Wexford. 1842–1844
 * St. Mary's Cathedral, Killarney, County Kerry. 1842–1856. Cruciform early English style in limestone. Much modified. 12 bay nave and spire over the crossing completed by others.
 * Two Villas, Cobh, County Cork. 1842 for George Brodrick, 5th Viscount Midleton
 * Church of St. Mary's, Tagoat, County Wexford. 1843–1848. Cruciform plan. 5 bay nave and aisles. Contains Pugin brasses, tiles etc. Damaged in fire 1936
 * St Aidan's Cathedral, Enniscorthy, County Wexford. 1843–1860. Cruciform plan
 * Church of St. Alphonsus or Blessed Virgin Mary, Barntown, County Wexford. 1844–1848. 7 bay church with nave and aisles. Scissors roof truss. Design may be based on St Michael's Church, Longstanton, Cambridgeshire. Interior much modified
 * Houses, Midleton, County Cork. For Viscount Midleton. 1845
 * St. Patrick's College, Maynooth, County Kildare. 1845–1850. Quadrangles
 * Presentation Convent, Waterford, County Waterford. Quadrangle and internal cloister
 * Presentation Monastery, Port Road, Killarney, County Kerry. 1846–1862
 * Adare Manor, Adare, County Limerick. 1846. Alterations including hall ceiling, staircase, gallery etc.
 * St. John's Convent of Mercy, Birr, County Offaly. 1846–1856. Completed by E. W. Pugin

title: Augustus Pugin


text:
Diamantina National Park

Diamantina National Park is a national park in the Channel Country of South West Queensland, Australia, 1278 km west of Brisbane. Like the Diamantina River that flows through it, it is named for Lady Diamantina Bowen, wife of Sir George Bowen, the first Governor of Queensland.

Established in 1993 after the Queensland Government purchased Diamantina Lakes Station in 1992 and gazetted the property as a national park with an area of 507000 ha, Diamantina National Park received an award in March 2007 from the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) for being among the top 10 reserves of the decade. Recognition was given for the successful efforts to protect the bilby, an endangered mammal native to Australia.

Livestock was removed from the park in 1998.

Parts of the park contain traditional aboriginal lands. These are noted for their food resources and numerous habitation sites. Aboriginals would roam the area, moving from the sandhills and gibber country in the wet season and returning to permanent water in the dry season.

Average elevations of the terrain is 139 metres.

Birds
With Astrebla Downs National Park, Diamantina National Park forms part of the 7627 km2 Diamantina and Astrebla Grasslands Important Bird Area, identified by BirdLife International as such because it is one of few sites known for the critically endangered night parrot. It also supports globally important populations of the plains-wanderer, Australian bustard, straw-necked ibis, white-necked heron, inland dotterel, Bourke's parrot, black and pied honeyeaters, gibberbird, Hall's babbler, chestnut-breasted quail-thrush, cinnamon quail-thrush and spinifexbird.

In 2016, a population of the critically endangered night parrot was discovered in the park. The parrot is Australia's rarest bird species. This discovery significantly expanded the known range and is the largest known population of the species.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Diamantina National Park


text:
Dryander National Park

Dryander is a national park in Queensland (Australia), 938 km northwest of Brisbane, and north of Proserpine. The most prominent mountain in the park is Mount Drylander and rises to 765 metres above sea level.

Wildlife
The endangered Proserpine rock-wallaby has a refuge in the park. 52 species of plants have been recorded in the Dryander National Park.

title: Dryander National Park


text:
Dularcha National Park

Dularcha is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 78 km north of Brisbane. The park occupies a north east portion of Landsborough. It is bisected by the North Coast railway line. The park covers an area of 4.64 km2. It lies within the Mooloolah River water catchment area of the South East Queensland bioregion.

The park features the heritage-listed Dularcha railway tunnel which was built in 1891. The park was initially declared so as to ensure rail passengers were provided a decent view of Queensland's forest. Use of the tunnel halted in 1932 when the line was moved to the east. The tunnel now serves as a seasonal lodge for a variety of small bats, including large-footed myotis. The park was extended in 2010 when Mooloolah Forest Reserve was added to the national park.

The park contains a riverine wetland covering 0.4 km2. A total of nine rare of threatened species have been identified within the park.

Dularcha National Park has a mild subtropical climate.

Facilities
The only facilities provided are trails. Birdwatching, horse-riding, bush-walking and bike-riding are the main recreational activities in Dularcha. Camping is not permitted within the park. Domestic animals (with the exception of horses), fires, motorbikes and vehicles are banned.

title: Dularcha National Park


text:
Girramay National Park

Girramay is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 1269 km northwest of Brisbane. The national park is part of the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area.

The park protects part of the coastline between the mouths of the Tully River and Meunga Creek at Rockingham Bay. Waters adjacent to the park belong to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

Flora
The coastal plain contains mangrove and freshwater swamps associated with the waterways of Murray River, Dallachy Creek and Wreck Creek. Other vegetation types include low coastal rainforest, eucalyptus forest, melaleuca woodland and sedge swamp. The Arenga palm grows here, one of only a few Australian mainland locations where this occurs. The Red Beech, pandanus and melaleucas are typically found in the park.

Fauna
The endangered southern cassowary and mahogany glider are found in the park. Saltwater crocodiles are found in the creeks. The park is part of the Coastal Wet Tropics Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of lowland tropical rainforest birds. Common birds include the black butcherbird and various honeyeaters. The orange-footed scrubfowl nests in the park. Their mounds, which can be up to three m high, are the largest of all mound-building birds in Australia. Lace monitor lizards can also be seen in Girramay National Park.

Feral pigs and cattle have to be culled from the area.

History
The land was once home to the Girramay people. In 1848, explorer Edmund Kennedy and his party landed 35 km north of the park. He travelled south through the area now known as Girramay National Park in a failed attempt to find passage over the ranges behind the coast.

The Edmund Kennedy National Park was established in 1977. It was expanded in 1980 by land donated by conservation activists Margaret and Arthur Thorsborne.

In 2009, Edmund Kennedy National Park was, along with the Murray Upper National Park, subsumed into the Girramay National Park.

In 2011, Cyclone Yasi caused significant damage to the area.

Facilities
Camping is not permitted in the park. Picnic facilities including tables and toilets are available. A boardwalk through mangroves and another along Wreck Creek are graded as easy.

Access
The park can be reached by an entrance road four km north of Cardwell on the Bruce Highway.

title: Girramay National Park


text:
Michael Rosenbaum

Michael Rosenbaum (born July 11, 1972) is an American actor and podcaster. He is known for portraying Lex Luthor on the television series Smallville, a role that TV Guide included in their 2013 list of "The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time".

Rosenbaum is also known for portraying Martinex in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, Parker in Urban Legend, Adam/Adina in Sorority Boys and Dutch Nilbog on Fox's Breaking In. He also has an extensive voiceover career in animation, such as his role of Wally West / The Flash in the DC Animated Universe series Justice League (2001–2004) and its sequel Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006). Between 2015 and 2016, he played the lead role in the TV Land comedy series Impastor.

He is also the lead singer of the band Sun Spin with his friend Rob Danson. The band's first album, Best Days was released on February 9, 2021.

Early life
Rosenbaum was born in Oceanside, New York and raised in Newburgh, Indiana. His mother, Julie (née Eckstein), is a writer and his father, Mark Rosenbaum, worked in pharmaceuticals. He is one of six children with two brothers, and a sister. After his parents' divorce, his mother remarried sports reporter Gordon Engelhardt, and his father remarried Alexis Pelegrino, with whom he had two daughters, Rosenbaum's half-sisters. His uncle is pet behaviorist Warren Eckstein. Rosenbaum is Jewish, and says he was "closer to religion" in New York than in Indiana.

Rosenbaum graduated from Castle High School in Newburgh, Indiana and from Western Kentucky University in Bowling Green, Kentucky with a degree in theatre arts. Immediately after, he moved to New York City to pursue an acting career.

Career
In 2001, Rosenbaum received a Saturn Award for his portrayal of Lex Luthor on Smallville. Continuing in the superhero genre, he played Wally West (a.k.a. the Flash) in the DC Comics animated series Justice League, Static Shock, and Justice League Unlimited, as well as portraying a younger version of Wally West as Kid Flash in Teen Titans. In the third season Justice League Unlimited episode "The Great Brain Robbery", Rosenbaum reprised his role as Lex Luthor when Wally and Lex Luthor temporarily switched bodies. In February 2008, Rosenbaum confirmed that he would be leaving Smallville after the seventh season. After many months of speculation and him first turning down the contract to return, it was announced on February 11, 2011 that Rosenbaum would return to Smallville for the two-hour series finale, which aired on May 13, 2011, with Rosenbaum reprising his role as Lex Luthor.

In 2012, Rosenbaum appeared in Hit and Run, which starred Dax Shepard and Kristen Bell. Rosenbaum portrayed the character Gil, a jealous ex-boyfriend from Annie's (Bell's character) past.

Rosenbaum provided the voice work for Ghoul and Deadshot in the animated DCAU film Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker. Rosenbaum filmed the original SyFy comedy series Saved By Zeroes; yet was never picked up. He recurred in Fox's original sitcom Breaking In; the show was cancelled initially after the first season but got a second chance, and Rosenbaum was promoted to series regular. The series was cancelled again after a few episodes of the second season.

In 2014, Rosenbaum made his feature-film directorial and writing debut with the comedy Back in the Day, starring as an actor who returns to his hometown in Indiana for a class reunion. The film was filmed in Newburgh and Evansville, Indiana. Prior to the production of Back in the Day, Rosenbaum planned to direct another comedy film, titled Sorry is For Sissies. The film had a cast including Jon Heder, Colin Hanks and Jennifer Love Hewitt; however, at least half of the film's budget was lost, and the film was scrapped.

On June 17, 2014, Rosenbaum was cast as the lead in the TV Land original sitcom Impastor. The plot has been summarised as a "low-life who hides out in a small town by conning the residents into thinking he is their newly hired gay pastor".

In 2017, Rosenbaum served as narrator for the reality television show Hunted which pitted investigators against teams of ordinary citizens trying to evade capture as fugitives. Rosenbaum also starred in the Indie thriller The Neighbor opposite William Fichtner.

In 2018, Rosenbaum debuted his casual celebrity interview-based podcast called Inside of You. His first guest was his Smallville co-star Tom Welling. The two subsequently launched the podcast Talkville in July 2022, where they re-watch every episode of Smallville.

Rosenbaum reprised the role of Martinex in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, which premiered in May 2023.

On January 6, 2023, Rosenbaum's band Sun Spin released their second album, Never Is What it Is.

In October 2023 Los Angeles Daily News reported that Rosenbaum and his longtime friend Jon Heder would star in the horror-themed reality television series Scared with Michael Rosenbaum and Jon Heder. Rosenbaum said of the project, "I wanted to do a reality show because we love horror movies. We'll go to the scariest places on Earth."

title: Michael Rosenbaum


text:
Ella Bay National Park

Ella Bay is a national park beside Ella Bay and spans the localities of Wanjuru in the Cassowary Coast Region and Eubenangee in the Cairns Region, Queensland, Australia.

Geography
The park is 1329 km northwest of Brisbane. It is part of the Coastal Wet Tropics Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of lowland tropical rainforest birds. It can be reached via Flying Fish Point on Ella Bay Road. The largest and most prominent mountain in the park is Mount Arthur, which rises to 478 metres above sea level.

Wildlife
394 species of animals and 462 species of plants have been recorded in Ella Bay National Park. Of these, 12 species of animals and 13 species of plants are rare or endangered.

Amenities
Adjacent to the park are camping facilities which are closed.

title: Ella Bay National Park


text:
Endeavour River National Park

Endeavour River National Park is a national park in Queensland, Australia, gazetted to protect and preserve some of the natural and cultural resources in and around the mouth of the Endeavour River, immediately north of the small town of Cooktown. The park is located 1561 km northwest of Brisbane.

Naturalists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander collected specimens of local 'Australian' flora in 1770 from this area which were taken back to the Royal Botanic Gardens in England. Sydney Parkinson first illustrated local Australian Aboriginal people encountered nearby, plus flora collected and fauna seen; and kangaroos were first given their modern English name (borrowing from the local Guugu Yimithirr language).

HM Bark Endeavour, under the command of Lieutenant James Cook, had struck reefs and been pulled ashore for repairs along the river locally known within Guugu Yimithirr as Wabalumbaal, possibly near the present site of Cooktown. The river was renamed on James Cook's charts as the Endeavour River, after Endeavour, and the current National Park appears, in turn, to be named after the river.

The present National Park contains coastal dunes, freshwater wetlands, mangrove forests, heathlands, tropical woodlands and the estuary plus parts of the Endeavour River catchment. It is mostly accessible by boat only, and still contains flora and fauna species of the kind collected and illustrated back in 1770.

title: Endeavour River National Park


text:
Erringibba National Park

Erringibba is a national park at Glenmorgan in the far west of the Darling Downs region of southern Queensland, Australia, 329 km west of Brisbane. The park was established in 1999 and covers 8.77 km2. The park lies within the catchment area of the Condamine River and the Brigalow Belt South bioregion.

The landscape is flat and vegetated with open-forest dominated by brigalow and belah species common in the area. The park's main aim is to preserve two endangered ecosystems which have been mostly cleared for agriculture. These include an shrubby open forest dominated by Acacia harpophylla and/or Casuarina cristata on Cainozoic clay plains and open forest to woodland of Eucalyptus populnea with Acacia harpophylla and/or Casuarina cristata on Cainozoic clay plains.

A total of four rare of threatened species have been identified in Erringibba.

The average elevation of the terrain is 294 metres.

title: Erringibba National Park


text:
Eubenangee Swamp National Park

Eubenangee Swamp is a national park in Eubenangee in the Cairns Region, Queensland, Australia, 1332 km northwest of Brisbane. It is part of the Coastal Wet Tropics Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for the conservation of lowland tropical rainforest birds. It plays home to over 190 species of birds.

The national park is found within the water catchment areas of the North Johnstone and Russell Rivers and is part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland bioregion.

The average elevation of terrain is 24 metres. This national park is characterized by high annual rainfall, and this is most pronounced from December to April.

Vegetation
Eubenangee Swamp National Park represents an intricate mosaic of diverse and regionally rare vegetation types. Melaleuca woodlands and forests (Type 56a, 56d) dominate the majority of the western and eastern margins of the park whilst the central band, which spans its northern to southern boundaries, contains a variety of mesophyll vine forest communities (Types 2a, 2c) as well as feather palm dominated seasonal swamp forests (Type 4b).

Sedgelands (Types 69c, 69e) are located in semi-permanent swamp areas in a number of zones running adjacent to the northern to eastern boundary limits. Grasslands (Types 68a, 68b, 68c), including critically endangered Hemarthria uncinata dominated communities, are interspersed in pockets throughout this area growing upon seasonally inundated alluvial soils.

title: Eubenangee Swamp National Park


text:
Eudlo Creek National Park

Eudlo Creek is a national park in the south of Palmwoods in the Sunshine Coast Region local government area of South East Queensland, Australia, 85 km north of Brisbane.

456 plant species were discovered in the park, 13 of which are on the list of rare or endangered species.

The vulnerable Tusked frog has been identified within the park.

title: Eudlo Creek National Park


text:
Eungella National Park

Eungella National Park (meaning "Land of the clouds") is a protected area in Queensland, Australia. It is on the Clarke Range at the end of the Pioneer Valley 80 km west of Mackay, and 858 km northwest of Brisbane. Eungella is noted for the national park which surrounds it. It is considered to be the longest continual stretch of sub-tropical rainforest in Australia. The original inhabitants are the Wirri people. The park is covered by dense rainforest and is known for its platypuses.

Regional description
Eungella National Park is located on an isolated massif about 80 km west of Mackay in North–central Queensland. The Eungella Plateau rises to 1259m at Mt Dalrymple and to similar elevation at Mt William, forming part of the Clarke Range. The park preserves about half (30,000 ha) the area of rainforest present at the time of European settlement, which has been much reduced by logging. Rainforest in the National Park ranges from high elevation, notophyll vine forest to low elevation mesophyll forests at the base of the ranges. Notophyll vine forest with tall eucalypts such as red stringybark (Eucalyptus resinifera) is found on the ridges of eastern facing slopes and drier western slopes often contain hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii). The rainforests of the Eungella massif represent one of the most isolated patches of this vegetation type in Australia. The rainforest is bordered by eucalypt forests and woodlands across much of its extent.

History and climate
Eungella National Park was declared over 49,610 hectares in 1941. In 1986 the National Park was extended to include land at Mt Beatrice and a small area of former State Forest near Finch Hatton, so that today the park encompasses 52,900 ha.

The word Eungella is an aboriginal name meaning 'land of the cloud' and with an average annual rainfall of 2240mm, it often seems perched in a cloud. The temperature is generally around five degrees cooler than the surrounding lowlands.

Endemic species
Eungella National Park is recognised as a centre of endemism for Australian rainforest species. There were three key refuge areas in mid-east Queensland during past periods of rainforest contraction. The most important is thought to have been in the Clarke Range and Eungella National Park area, which support many endemic species, including a spiny crayfish, Euastacus eungella (Eungella spiny crayfish); a leaf-tailed gecko, Phyllurus nepthys (Eungella leaf-tailed gecko); a skink, Tumbunascincus luteilateralis (orange-spotted forest-skink); a honeyeater, Bolemoreus hindwoodi (Eungella honeyeater); and three frogs, Taudactylus liemi (Eungella tinker frog), Taudactylus eungellensis (Eungella torrent frog or Eungella dayfrog) and Rheobatrachus vitellinus (northern gastric-brooding frog).

Flora
A total of 16 species of fungi, 19 mosses, 4 conifers, 92 ferns, 299 dicots and 54 monocots are recorded as occurring in the National Park. Much of the rainforest in the National Park is complex mesophyll vine forest with pockets of simple and complex notophyll vine forests on poorer soils. Many of the vegetation communities including rainforests, vine thickets and vine forests are considered fire sensitive.

Dicots
Elaeocarpus largiflorens is a rainforest tree reaching 30 m in height which occurs in the wet tropics from sea level to 1200 m elevation and is at the southern limit of its natural range at Eungella. It produces 20 mm long fruits that are eaten and dispersed by a range of frugivorous vertebrates. The Eungella hairy daisy (Ozothamnus eriocephalus) is a shrub species with very limited range, currently listed as vulnerable at both state and federal levels. Omphalea celata is a small tree currently listed as vulnerable at a state and federal level, which was first described in 1994 and is found at Hazlewood Gorge within the park. It is a host plant for the zodiac moth (Alcides metaurus).

Ferns
In the southern half of Queensland, the giant fern (Angiopteris evecta) is found in only four widely spaced sites, including Eungella, which may indicate a past wider distribution when Queensland was much wetter. This species needs a highly-reliable water supply and high humidity to sustain its enormous fronds. The vulnerable Dryopteris sparsa is also found in the park.

Fauna
Over 175 species of mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians have been recorded in the park.

Birds
111 species of birds have been recorded in Eungella National Park. The Eungella honeyeater (Lichenostomus hindwoodi) is endemic to the highland rainforest of the Clarke Range, including the park. It can be distinguished from it is close relative and sister species the bridled honeyeater (Lichenostomus frenata) by its plumage colour and markings, size, bill colour and calls. It was first collected in 1975 and described in 1983, making it the most recently described Australian bird species. It occurs in the park, and also feeds in adjacent eucalypt woodlands.

The red-necked crake (Rallina tricolor), previously thought to only occur as far south as Townsville, was first observed in the park in 1981. The buff-breasted paradise kingfisher (Tanysiptera sylvia) and the white-browed robin (Poecilodryas superciliosa) are at the southern extent of their distribution at Eungella. The regent bowerbird (Sericulus chrysocephalus) occurs at its northern limit in the park and surrounding area, as do the brown thornbill (Acanthiza pusilla) and the glossy black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami). Australian swiftlets (Aerodramus terraereginae) breed in caves in the Finch Hatton Creek area, and one of the few Australian records of glossy swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta) was in the park.

Amphibians
A total of 16 amphibian species have been recorded in the park. Globally, amphibians have undergone rapid and extensive decline in recent decades, due in part to habitat loss and pollution, but unknown factors threaten almost half the species in decline. Amphibians are more threatened and are declining more rapidly than either birds or mammals. An exotic and highly-virulent pathogen may be contributing to the decline of rainforest frog species in eastern Australia. The causative agent may be the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, although this has not as yet been detected in stream-dwelling frogs in the park.

Eungella National Park is recognised as one of eleven areas with high levels of frog endemism. Of the three endemic frog species endemic, two are still believed to exist today, the Eungella dayfrog and the Eungella tinker frog, while one species, the northern gastric brooding frog, is believed extinct. All three species are ground dwelling and their distribution is restricted to streams or areas close to streams in mid to high elevation rainforests.

The Eungella dayfrog was previously more common, but has declined in number and distribution in recent decades, and is now considered endangered at a state and federal level. The peak breeding period for this species is between January and May, but tadpoles at all sizes and developmental stages can be found throughout the year. This frog is one of only two species known to use body language, including small hops and movements of the arms and legs, to attract the attention of other frogs; a behaviour which may have evolved due to the noise of mountain streams rushing over rocks in its habitat making calling a less effective means of communication.

The Eungella tinkerfrog is considered near threatened in Queensland. It occurs between 180 and 1250m elevation, but is sparsely distributed and rarely seen. Potential threats to this species include forest grazing, trampling by livestock, introduced species such as the cane toad (Rhinella marina) and the chytrid fungus.

The northern gastric brooding frog (Rheobatrachus vitellinus) was discovered in January 1984, but has not been seen since March 1985 and is believed to be extinct. It is one of only two species in the world known to brood its young in its stomach, with the mother swallowing fertilised eggs or early larval stages, before 'giving birth' through the mouth. Its distribution was exclusively undisturbed rainforest within Eungella National Park at altitudes of 400-1000m, before it underwent a sudden range contraction and disappeared.

Mammals
28 species of mammals have been recorded in the park. This includes several bat species including the little bent-wing bat (Miniopterus australis), eastern horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus megaphyllus), common blossom bat (Syconycteris australis), eastern forest bat (Vespadelus pumilus), eastern long-eared bat (Nyctophilus bifax) and grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus).

Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) are often seen at the viewing platform at Broken River which is the most visited location in the park. They have an unusual foraging behaviour and are the only mammal known to use electrolocation for detecting prey. Platypus are generally found in slow-moving rivers and small pools and are highly adapted to a semi-aquatic life. They have extremely dense fur, large webs on their feet extending well beyond the toenails, a broad, flat tail and excellent swimming ability, paddling with their forelegs in alternating strokes, with their hindlegs and tail trailing behind. When foraging, captured prey is stored in two cheek pouches and later masticated and swallowed when the platypus surfaces. An apparent feeding association has been noted between the azure kingfisher (Ceyx azureus) and the platypus at Eungella National Park, where the birds have been observed watching for fish disturbed by the platypus, before diving into the water in search of prey.

Reptiles
20 species of reptiles occur in the park. Three species of leaf-tailed geckos (Phyllurus ossa, P. isis and P. nepthys) occur in small rainforest patches in and around the park. P. nepthys is endemic to the Clarke Range. The recently discovered orange-sided rainforest skink (Tumbunascincus luteilateralis) is endemic to the area, and is restricted to upland rainforest above 900m in moist areas which contain rotting logs and palm fronds. The skink species Lampropholis basiliscus reaches its southern limit at Eungella.

Insects
There are several endemic or range-restricted insect species found in Eungella National Park. A study of the order Diptera (flies) in seven rainforest locations found that the long-isolated, high elevation, rain-forested massif at Eungella were a unique entity in the analyses, characterized by high numbers of Chironomidae, Psychodidae, Tipulidae and Empididae. Flies in the genus Cyamops including; C. pectinatus, C. dayi, C. delta and C. pectiatus have been collected in damp areas in the park including near streams, waterfalls and marshes. The fly species Drosophila birchii is restricted to patches of warm, wet tropical rainforest between New Guinea and Eungella.

The katydid Phricta zwicka has been collected from Eungella National Park. The Megalopteran Protochauliodes eungella is known only from the Eungella area. Two new species from the order Odonata were collected in the Eungella area; Austroaeschna christine and A. eungella. A survey of butterflies in the park undertaken in 1993 recorded 37 species with an additional 15 species known from museum and private records.

Crustaceans
The Eungella spiny crayfish is unique to the creeks on the Clarke Range. It is listed as critically endangered due to its limited range, fragmented distribution, habitat decline due to exotic species, such as feral pigs (Sus scrofa), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), feral cats (Felis catus) and cane toads, and its vulnerability to climate change.

Environmental threats
Threats to the biodiversity of Eungella National Park include habitat fragmentation, the effects of introduced species, fire and human impacts.

Pest plants and animals
Many introduced animals have been recorded in the park including the cane toad, red fox, feral cat, rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), black rat (Rattus rattus), house mouse (Mus musculus), and feral pig. Pigs disturb the ground, promoting the spread of weeds, remove natural recruitment of flora and fauna and can be vectors for pathogens such as cinnamon fungus (Phytopthera cinnamomi). Cinnamon fungus has been found on the Clarke Range, including in one area of Dalrymple Heights, where approximately 20% of the rainforest has died.

Cats, foxes and feral dogs (Canis familiaris) can threaten native fauna through predation, competition for resources and transmission of disease. In Australia, cats are known to prey on 186 native bird species, 64 mammal species, 87 species of reptile, 10 species of amphibians and numerous invertebrates. Foxes prey on possums, small dasyurids, native rats, and other mammals, birds and insects. Feral dogs hunt alone or in packs and can prey on larger mammals such as wallabies. Road construction and fragmentation of habitat can expose local populations of native animals to predation by exotic predators that may otherwise have difficulties penetrating dense forest environments. Much of Eungella National Park is accessible only by walking tracks, which may limit feral animal spread, but may make control more difficult.

Weeds including lantana (Lantana camara), blue morning glory (Ipomoea indica) and red Natal grass (Melinis repens) are common on the disturbed edges of the park and roadsides. Lantana is a Class 3 Pest in the state of Queensland, and is recognised as a weed of national significance (Mackay Regional Pest Management Group 2013). Other highly-flammable weeds common in the park include guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus), rat's tail grasses (Sporobolus spp.), para grass (Urochloa mutica) and molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora).

Fire
Fire is a key disturbing pressure on the rainforests of Eungella National Park, and can result in fragmentation of the rainforest into smaller areas less capable of maintaining the present complexity of plants and animals and increasing edge effects. The rainforest, vine thicket, vine forest and riparian communities found in the park do not require fire for regeneration, and it may irreversibly alter the species composition and community structure, simplifying ecosystems and reducing floristic and structural diversity. Fire can also reduce litter, fallen logs and hollow-bearing trees which provide critical habitat for some species.

Management
Eungella National Park is managed by the Queensland Department of National Parks, Sport and Racing. There is currently no management plan for the park. National Parks are managed to provide for the permanent preservation of the area's natural condition and the protection of the area's cultural resources and values. Other management principles for National Parks are to present the park's cultural and natural resources and their values and to ensure that park use is nature based and ecologically sustainable.

Economic benefits
National parks and other protected areas have traditionally been created and funded primarily to provide conservation benefits, but they can also provide economic benefits, particularly in rural and regional areas, through job creation and visitor spending. A visitor survey conducted in 2001 estimated that visitors to Eungella National Park spend $10.9 million in the local region annually.

Facilities
Camping is permitted at Fern Flat campground, which is accessible by walking only. The Broken River picnic area has facilities for day visitors.

There are more than 20 km of bushwalking tracks, some with scenic lookouts. A platform on the Broken River provides good viewing of platypus, eels and turtles.

title: Eungella National Park


text:
Eurimbula National Park

Eurimbula National Park is a protected area in the locality of Eurimbula, Queensland, Australia, in the Gladstone Region near Agnes Water, 411 km north of Brisbane.

Location and Features
The Park is located on the central Queensland coast, nearly 112-km north-west of Bundaberg. The first Europeans to visit the place were Captain James Cook and botanist Sir Joseph Banks. It is covered with diverse vegetation including mangroves, littoral rainforest and coastal vine thickets, freshwater paperbark swamps, eucalypt forests and much more. In addition to 757 species of plants, there is a habitat here for 430 species of animals, of which 26 are on the list of rare or endangered species.

The average elevation of the terrain is 40 metres.

Visitor facilities
Eurimbula National Park consists of three separate sections. The main section is centred on Eurimbula Creek and is accessible (4WD recommended) from the main Agnes Water road. There are camping facilities at Bustard Beach near the mouth of Eurimbula Creek. Inland, a short uphill walk leads to a lookout, known as Ganoonga Noonga, with views of the coast and paperbark swamps of the park. Further north, there is another camping ground at Middle Creek; however, there are no facilities here.

The northern section of the park includes Rodds Peninsula and Bustard Head and its lighthouse; nearby is Jenny Lind Creek. Tours from the Town of 1770 regularly visit Bustard Head; however, Rodds Peninsula is accessible only by private boat. The western section of the park is rugged and extremely difficult to reach.

title: Eurimbula National Park


text:
Expedition National Park

Expedition is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 490 km northwest of Brisbane. It is named for the Expedition Range of mountains.

The park is part of the Brigalow Belt bioregion. This area is mostly dominated by dry eucalyptus forests.

Robinson Gorge was the first section to be declared a national park in 1951.

Wildlife
145 species of animals have been recorded in the park, 2 of which are on the list of endangered or rare species and 283 species of plants, of which 2 also belong to rare or endangered species.

title: Expedition National Park


text:
Fairlies Knob National Park

Fairlies Knob is a national park in Doongul, Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia, 231 km north of Brisbane.

The estimated elevation of the terrain is 259 metres.

Wildlife
The park is home to 165 species of animals and 250 species of plants.

title: Fairlies Knob National Park


text:
Family Islands National Park

Family Islands National Park is an Australian national park comprising a group of continental islands lying a short distance off the coast, about midway between Cairns and Townsville, in Far North Queensland. Most of the area has been designated as part of the national park.

The islands were given their collective name and also English names by Captain Cook when he sailed through the area in 1770. They were part of the mainland until roughly 8,000 years ago when the sea level rose.

The Islands
The largest of the Family Islands, their Aboriginal names, and their position in the "family" are:
 * Dunk Island (Coonanglebah) – the father
 * Richards Island (Bedarra) – the mother
 * Wheeler Island (Toolgbar) and Coombe Island (Coomba) – the twins
 * Smith Island (Kurrumbah), Bowden Island (Budjoo) and Hudson Island (Coolah) – the triplets.

There are also a number of smaller islands:
 * Kumboola, which is connected to Dunk Island on particularly low tides
 * Mound Island (Purtaboi), which is protected as a sea bird nesting habitat
 * Woln Garin, a small island off Dunk Island's south east corner, known locally as "40ft Rock"
 * Battleship Rock (Pee-Rahm-Ah), named because of its distinctive shape when seen from the north
 * Thorpe Island (Ti mana), which is privately owned with one residence. This is the only Australian island which is owned freehold.

The European names of the islands reflect the names of the officers on board the survey ship HMS Paluma: Lieutenant G. Richards, commander; Lieutenants Wheeler, Combe and Bowden-Smith; Dr. Thorpe, surgeon; and Mr. Hudson, engineer.

Facilities
Camp grounds are available on Dunk, Coombe and Wheeler Islands, with permits available from Queensland Parks and Wildlife. Resorts operate on Dunk and Bedarra Islands.

title: Family Islands National Park


text:
Ferntree Creek National Park

Ferntree Creek is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 97 km north of Brisbane.

50 species of birds were recorded in the park, including the endangered gray goshawk. It is also a refuge for very unusual animals, such as the tusked frog.

The average elevation of the terrain is 57 metres.

title: Ferntree Creek National Park


text:
Fitzroy Island National Park

Fitzroy Island National Park is a gazetted protected area covering Fitzroy Island, in Far North Queensland, Queensland, Australia. Fitzroy Island (also called Koba or Gabar), is a continental island located 22 km east of Cairns on the mainland.

The Aboriginal people particularly connected to this Island are the Kobaburra (or alternatively Gaba:ra) from within the Gungganyji language group.

As a Queensland National Park the natural and cultural resources of the Island itself (down to high tide) are protected by the Nature Conservation Act 1992 and much of the island is therefore off-limits to visitors. Most visitors remain on the sheltered western side of the island, where the jetty, resort and best snorkeling can be found.

Island
Fitzroy Island is a continental island, not a coral cay. It became an island when sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age, flooding a plain between a hill that is now Fitzroy Island, and what is now Cape Grafton. Over the 10,000 years since that time, coral reefs have formed in the bay on the protected western side of the island, and lush rainforest on its shore.

Fitzroy Island has been put to many uses by humankind. It is part of the traditional lands of the Gurabana Gungandji people, who recorded its formation in myth, and was used as a hunting and fishing ground. In 1778, Lieutenant James Cook named the island after the family name of the Duke of Grafton, who was the British Prime Minister when his ship, HMB Endeavour, had set sail. Through the 1800s, a pearling and beche-de-mer industry operated from the island. In 1876, a quarantine station was established on Fitzroy Island for Chinese "coolies" en route to the Palmer River Goldfields. A giant clam research station remains in operation on Welcome Bay. The Island has also served as part an aboriginal mission in the early 1900s, an artillery gun emplacement in World War II, and, more recently, a tourist resort.

The Island has also been home to lighthouses warning ships in the Grafton Passage of the reefs around the island, and a small automatic light on Little Fitzroy Island, just off the north-east point, still serves this purpose. An inactive lighthouse sits on the point above, and is part of the circuit trail that is open to tourists.

Fitzroy's isolation has resulted in a unique habitat, with few large mammals. The dominant predators on the island are reptiles; particularly pythons (brown and green), monitor lizards and the Major skink. The latter of these is particularly common and will be seen frequently as a tourist wanders around the trails. There are no venomous snakes on the island, though python bites can become infected.

Walking trails
There is a walking track that takes in the northern end of the island, the lighthouse on the north-west point which overlooks Little Fitzroy Island, and the island's peak, which offers stunning 360 degree views over the surrounding reefs and Cape Grafton. From the top, on a clear day it is possible to make out the Frankland Islands to the south. The trail then drops back down to the resort.

Nudey Beach can be accessed by heading along the trail at the southern end of the resort, and leads along the edge of the island through rainforest, with occasional glimpses out to Cape Grafton, and then descends to Nudey Beach, which was once a nude bathing beach, with some coral available for snorkelers.

Snorkeling
The fringing reef is a fair distance from the shore at the northern end of Welcome Bay, where it starts at the quite prominent 'Bird Rock'. It runs almost all the way down to the jetty before there is a small gap where the boats come in. The reef starts again near the rocks at the southern end of the beach, and runs around the corner to Nudey Beach. Along this stretch it is extremely close to shore - literally just a few steps from the shore. The snorkelling at Fitzroy is greatly underrated. Visibility can be a bit low, especially after rough weather, but the coral is excellent and the variety of fish superb. The clownfish (Amphiprion percula) can be found, as well as other anemonefish. Parrotfish and wrasses are common, and green sea turtles regularly frequent the bay.

It is unlikely that box jellyfish would be encountered at Fitzroy Island due to the 4 km passage between the island and the mainland, but they have been found there occasionally, as well as other stinging jellyfish.

Resort
Fitzroy Island Resort can be found on Welcome Bay. Fitzroy Island Resort is a 60-minute ferry ride (about 30 km) from Cairns in Queensland and is surrounded by a reef system that forms part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.

title: Fitzroy Island National Park


text:
Flinders Group National Park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal Land)

Flinders Group National Park (Cape York Peninsula Aboriginal Land) is a national park in Queensland (Australia), 1,745 km northwest of Brisbane. The national park was previously named Flinders Group National Park until it was renamed on 28 November 2013.

This national park has a tropical climate, with a humid season from December to April, when temperatures exceed 30 degrees Celsius.

Many species of land and sea birds are represented here.


text:
Wuthara Island National Park

Wuthara Island is a national park in Queensland, Australia. It is located 1,962 km northwest of Brisbane in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Queensland, about 40 km North East of Kutini-Payamu National Park and Lockhart River in the Cape Weymouth area in the Coral Sea just off the small locality of Portland Road.

From its founding in 1990 to 2011, the park was named Forbes Islands National Park.

title: Wuthara Island National Park


text:
Forest Den National Park

Forest Den is a national park in Queensland, Australia, 991 km northwest of Brisbane.

A great variety of plants is represented in the park, and the most important role of this national park is the preservation of black gidgee.

The park is located at 243 metres above sea level.

title: Forest Den National Park


text:
Fort Lytton National Park

Fort Lytton National Park is a national park in Lytton, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Its main attraction is Fort Lytton Historic Military Precinct, providing guided tours of historic Fort Lytton, a museum and re-enactments. The park was created in 1990 as Queensland's first historic national park. It initially contained only heritage-listed Fort Lytton, a colonial coastal fort that continued to operate as a military base until after the Second World War. The park was extended in 1999 to include Lytton Quarantine Station which occupied adjacent land. The Quarantine Station is also heritage-listed, but is only open to the public on special occasions.

The park is 13 km northeast of the Brisbane CBD near the mouth of the Brisbane River.

Fort Lytton
Fort Lytton was constructed in 1880–1881 to protect both the city and the port from naval attack. After the Australian colonies became a federation (the Commonwealth of Australia) in 1901, the fort and the land on which it stood were transferred to the Commonwealth. Fort Lytton continued to operate as a military base until shortly after the Second World War (WW2). It was closed down progressively, the last operation to close being the signal station which closed in 1965. The land and fort were sold to the Ampol oil company in 1963, as the site for the Lytton Oil Refinery. The land contained three parcels that had particular historic significance. These were the land containing the original fort, the land containing Lytton Hill, and the land containing the remains of a WW2 heavy anti-aircraft battery. In 1988 Ampol transferred the parcel containing the original fort to the Queensland Government, and this became Fort Lytton National Park in 1990.

Fort Lytton is open free on Sundays, most public holidays and other special occasions. It features both guided and self-guided tours of the historic fort and other military structures, a military museum and regular historic re-enactments (although not every week). Access to the park at other times is by appointment only, and is subject to fees.

Lytton Quarantine Station
The Lytton Quarantine Station was established in 1913–1914, to accommodate newly arrived immigrants and persons considered to be at risk of causing infection to the general population. The quarantine station was on land adjacent to Fort Lytton. By the late 1980s the quarantine station had closed completely. In 1988 management of part of the quarantine site and buildings, including the quarantine station jetty, was taken over by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service and was incorporated into Fort Lytton National Park in 1999. The quarantine station is only open to the public on special occasions, but visitors can always walk around the outside of the buildings. The Visitor and Information Centre (which is also the headquarters of Fort Lytton Historical Association) previously housed the quarantine station laundry.

The Quarantine Station is only open to the public on special occasions.

Fort Lytton Military Museum
The museum has a collection of over 2000 items which are distributed throughout the park including in 5 buildings, 6 gun pits, 2 shelter structures and several open air locations. Admission to the museum is free, although two of the buildings (the submarine mining building and the black powder rooms) can only be accessed on guided tours.

The Old Dining Hall houses a collection of over 10,000 artefacts pertaining to Queensland's military history. Entry to the museum is free.

Development of the national park
Soon after the creation of the national park in 1990, volunteers of the Royal Artillery Association of Queensland created a sub-branch to work with the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service to develop a historic military exhibit for the public. That sub-branch became Fort Lytton Historical Association (FLHA) in 1999. FLHA is a non-profit volunteer organization which provides free guided tours of the Fort on Sundays and public holidays. It also operates the Visitor Information Centre and sells basic refreshments. FLHA seeks donations to cover its expenses.

In 2019, the Queensland Military Historical Society relocated from its former premises at Church Street, Fortitude Valley to the old Dining Hall at Fort Lytton.

title: Fort Lytton National Park


text:
Great Exhibition

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, also known as the Great Exhibition or the Crystal Palace Exhibition (in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held), was an international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851. It was the first in a series of World's Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century. The event was organised by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom.

Famous people of the time attended the Great Exhibition, including Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, Michael Faraday (who assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits), Samuel Colt, members of the Orléanist royal family and the writers Charlotte Brontë, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, George Eliot, Alfred Tennyson, and William Makepeace Thackeray. The future Arts and Crafts proponent William Morris, then a teenager, later said he refused to attend the Exhibition on the grounds of taste. The opening music, under the superintendence of William Sterndale Bennett, was directed by George Thomas Smart. Organised by Howard Staunton, the first international chess tournament took place at the Exhibition. The world's first soft drink, Schweppes, was the official sponsor of the event.

Background
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Henry, George Wallis, Wentworth Dilke, and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce as a celebration of modern industrial technology and design. It was arguably a response to the highly effective French Industrial Exposition of 1844: indeed, its prime motive was for Britain to make "clear to the world its role as industrial leader". Prince Albert, Queen Victoria's consort, was an enthusiastic promoter of the self-financing exhibition; the government was persuaded to form the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 to establish the viability of hosting such an exhibition. Queen Victoria visited three times with her family, and 34 times on her own. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition "held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, machinery or textiles." Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just emerged from "two difficult decades of political and social upheaval," and now Britain hoped to show that technology, particularly its own, was the key to a better future.

Sophie Forgan says of the exhibition that "Large, piled-up 'trophy' exhibits in the central avenue revealed the organisers' priorities; they generally put art or colonial raw materials in the most prestigious place. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits." She also notes that visitors "could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, as well as musical, horological and surgical instruments."

A special building, or "The Great Shalimar", was built to house the show. It was designed by Joseph Paxton with support from structural engineer Charles Fox, the committee overseeing its construction including Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and went from its organisation to the grand opening in just nine months. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxton's experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a massive glass house, 1848 feet long by 454 feet wide (about 563 metres by 138 metres) and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham and Smethwick. From the interior, the building's large size was emphasized with trees and statues; this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle, but also to demonstrate man's triumph over nature. The Crystal Palace was an enormous success, considered an architectural marvel, but also an engineering triumph that showed the importance of the exhibition itself. The building was later moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London, an area that was renamed Crystal Palace. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936.

Six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with a peak of 109,915 on 7 October. Thomas Cook arranged travel to the event for 150,000 people and it was important in his company's development. The event made a surplus of £186,000 (£33,221,701.65 in 2023), which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum. They were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research; it continues to do so today.

The exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob. The English-born King Ernest Augustus I of Hanover, shortly before his death, wrote to Lord Strangford about it: The folly and absurdity of the Queen in allowing this trumpery must strike every sensible and well-thinking mind, and I am astonished the ministers themselves do not insist on her at least going to Osborne during the Exhibition, as no human being can possibly answer for what may occur on the occasion. The idea ... must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman. But it seems everything is conspiring to lower us in the eyes of Europe.

In modern times, the Great Exhibition is a symbol of the Victorian Age, and its thick catalogue, illustrated with steel engravings, is a primary source for High Victorian design. A memorial to the exhibition, crowned with a statue of Prince Albert, is located behind the Royal Albert Hall. It is inscribed with statistics from the exhibition, including the number of visitors and exhibitors (British and foreign), and the profit made.

A range of medals were produced and awarded to exhibitors, jurists and providers of services.

Exhibits
The official descriptive and illustrated catalogue of the event lists exhibitors not only from throughout Britain but also from its "Colonies and Dependencies" and 44 "Foreign States". Numbering 13,000 in total, the exhibits included a Jacquard loom, an envelope machine, kitchen appliances, steel-making displays and a reaping machine that was sent from the United States.

 * The Mintons stand exhibited ceramics including majolica which proved a world-wide success.
 * The Koh-i-Noor, meaning the "Mountain of Light", the world's largest known diamond at the time, was one of the most popular attractions of the India exhibit.
 * The Daria-i-Noor, one of the rarest pale pink diamonds in the world, was shown.
 * The early 8th-century Tara Brooch, discovered only in 1850, the finest Irish penannular brooch, was exhibited by the Dublin jeweller George Waterhouse along with a display of his fashionable Celtic Revival jewellery.
 * Alfred Charles Hobbs used the exhibition to demonstrate the inadequacy of several respected door locks.
 * Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a precursor to the fax machine.
 * Mathew Brady was awarded a medal for his daguerreotypes.
 * William Chamberlin, Jr. of Sussex exhibited what may have been the world's first voting machine, which counted votes automatically and employed an interlocking system to prevent over-voting.
 * The first modern pay toilets were installed, with 827,280 visitors paying the penny fee to use them. The toilets remained even after the exhibition was dismantled. "Spending a penny" became a euphemism for using a toilet.
 * Firearms manufacturer Samuel Colt demonstrated his prototype for the 1851 Colt Navy and also his older Walker and Dragoon revolvers.
 * The Tempest prognosticator, a barometer using leeches, was demonstrated.
 * The America's Cup yachting event was instigated with a race held in conjunction with the Great Exhibition.
 * Gold ornaments and silver enamelled handicrafts fabricated by the Sunar caste from Sind, British India.
 * C.C. Hornung of Copenhagen, Denmark, showed his single-cast iron frame for a piano, the first made in Europe.
 * "The Trophy Telescope", so called because it was considered the "trophy" of the exhibition, was shown. Its main lens of 11 inches (280 mm) aperture and 16 feet (4.9 m) focal length was manufactured by Ross of London. The German equatorial mounting was made by Ransome & May of Ipswich.
 * The instrument maker J. S. Marratt exhibited a five-foot achromatic telescope and a transit theodolite used in surveying, tunnelling, and for astronomical purposes.
 * Asprey exhibited a kingwood and ormolu mounted lady's dressing case with silver-gilt contents bearing the "Annie" cipher.
 * The emphasis of the New Zealand exhibit featured natural resources, as well as crafted items made by Māori, such as flax baskets, carved wooden objects, eel traps, mats, fish hooks and hand clubs.

Admission fees

Admission prices to the Crystal Palace varied according to the date of visit, with ticket prices decreasing as the parliamentary season drew to an end and London traditionally emptied of wealthy individuals. Prices varied from two guineas (£0 in 2015) (three guineas for a man) for a season ticket, or £1 per day (for the first two days only), then reducing to five shillings per day (until 22 May). The admission price was then further reduced to one shilling (£0 in 2015), per day—except on Fridays, when it was set at two shillings and six pence, and on Saturdays when it remained at five shillings. The one-shilling ticket proved most successful among the industrial classes, with four and a half million shillings (£0 in 2015) being taken from attendees in this manner. Two thousand five hundred tickets were printed for the opening day, all of which were bought.

To attract future customers from the working classes, the newly expanding railways offered highly discounted tickets for people to travel from distant parts of the country, and special rates were offered to parties, often led by the local vicar. Those too poor to travel lined up by the rail tracks to watch the long trains of open carriages steaming past.

Stereoscopic views
The Great Exhibition of 1851 encouraged the production of souvenirs. Several manufacturers produced stereoscope cards that provided a three-dimensional view of the exhibition. These paper souvenirs were printed lithographic cards which were hand-coloured and held together by cloth to give a three-dimensional view of the event. They offered a miniature view of the Crystal Palace when one viewed the cards through the peep holes on the front cover. Visitors purchased these souvenirs so that they could relive the experience of attending.

title: Great Exhibition


text:
Forty Mile Scrub National Park

Forty Mile Scrub is a national park in Queensland (Australia), 224 km drive southwest of Cairns.

Ancient volcanic streams, grass forests, springs, streams, and a preserved isolated pocket of semi-evergreen vines are just some of the contents of this beautiful national park.

Many species of animals have found refuge here, some permanently, and some come occasionally, like koalas. This is home to the largest cockroach in the world.

title: Forty Mile Scrub National Park