text:
Galena, Alaska

Galena (Notaalee Denh in Koyukon) is a city in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area in the U.S. state of Alaska. At the 2020 census the population was 472, slightly up from 470 in 2010. Galena was established in 1918, and a military airfield was built adjacent to the city during World War II. The city was incorporated in 1971.

Prehistory and early history
The Koyukon Athabascans had seasonal camps in the area and moved as the wild game migrated. In the summer many families floated on rafts to the Yukon River to fish for salmon. There were 12 summer fish camps located on the Yukon River between the Koyukuk River and the Nowitna River. Galena was established in 1920 near an Athabascan fish camp called Henry's Point. It became a supply and point for nearby lead ore mines that opened in 1918 and 1919, and from which Galena takes its name.

Military air base
In 1941 and 1942, during World War II, a military air field was built adjacent to the civilian airport, and the two facilities shared the runway and flight line facilities. This air field was designated Galena Air Force Station shortly after the split of the United States Air Force from the United States Army, which occurred as a result of the National Security Act of 1947. During the 1950s, the construction of additional military facilities at Galena and the nearby Campion Air Force Station, in support of Galena's mission as a forward operating base under the auspices of the 5072nd Air Base Group, headquartered at Elmendorf Air Force Base, near Anchorage, provided improvements to the airport and the local infrastructure, causing economic growth for the area.

Following the end of the Cold War, in 1993, operation of Galena Air Force Station was turned over to a contractor, and all military personnel were withdrawn with only small groups of active personnel visiting the base on an as-needed basis. The former military facility remains in use effectively as a forward operating location that is used occasionally by the military. This use came under scrutiny by the Base Realignment and Closure Committee in the late 2000s and was officially closed October 1, 2010. The Air Force retains responsibility for toxin cleanup in the area and engineers from Eielson Air Force Base in Fairbanks still visit the site on occasion. The base is now totally controlled by the City of Galena, the Galena School District and the Alaska Department of Transportation. The Alaska Wing of the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) was pursuing retaining one of the F-16 fighter hangars as a CAP facility for the CAP Wing in Galena, the "Yukon Squadron".

Modern era
The City of Galena gained notoriety in 2011 when it was noted in media reports as being the US community which received the most benefits from lobbying efforts. The town evaded bankruptcy by aggressively lobbying for state and federal funds for the GILA boarding school in the town, which produced funds that turned the city's finances around.

In May 2013, Galena suffered a catastrophic flood when the spring breakup on the Yukon River caused an ice jam approximately 20 miles downstream, backing up the river and affecting 90% of homes in the city. This flood was on a scale never seen before by Galena residents. In the part of town closest to the river, houses were submerged to the roofs in water, and properties on higher ground suffered damage as well. Most of the residents were able to evacuate in thanks to the efforts of the local airlines, volunteer missionary pilots, and the Alaska National Guard. Some of the residents chose to stay behind and took refuge in the few last remaining dry parts of town. The flood dike the Air Force built around both the runway and the GILA boarding school managed to keep the river from reaching them. Efforts were made to help Galena rebuild, with the assistance of the Federal Emergency Management Agency and volunteer groups.

Geography and climate
Galena is located at 64.74056°N, -156.88556°W (64.740643, -156.885462).

Galena is located on the north bank of the Yukon River, 45 mi east of Nulato. The Innoko National Wildlife Refuge is southwest of Galena.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.0 sqmi, of which, 17.9 sqmi of it is land and 6.1 sqmi of it (25.41%) is water.

Galena is inaccessible by road to other parts of Alaska. Residents rely on river cargo in the brief summer season for the bulk of their needs, and planes, boats, or snowmachines to access the outside world.

Demographics
Galena first appeared on the 1890 U.S. Census as the unincorporated native village of "Notaloten". It would not appear again until 1930, when it would first return as the village of Galena. It formally incorporated as a city in 1971.

As of the census of 2010, there were 470 people, 190 households, and 123 families residing in the city. The population density was 26.3 PD/sqmi. There were 264 housing units at an average density of 14.7 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 29.4% White, 0.0% Black or African American, 63.6% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 6.2% from two or more races. 2.3% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 29.3% under the age of 18, 11.0% from 20 to 29, 20.8% from 30 to 44, 27.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.8 years. There were 229 females, 166 of whom were 18 years and over, and 241 males, 171 of whom were 18 years and over.

The median income for a household in the city was $60,313, and the median income for a family was $62,917. The per capita income for the city was $26,551. About 11.5% of the population were below the poverty line and 18.9% were below 125 percent of the poverty line.

Government and public safety
The headquarters for the Koyukuk/Innoko/Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge is located in Galena.

The City of Galena is incorporated as a first-class city, governed by a city council. The city's mayor is Edward Pitka Jr.

Galena is the seat of the Galena Village, also known as the Louden Tribal Council, a Federally Recognized Tribal Government. The Tribal Council is elected to represent the local Athabascan Native community. The current council's tribal chief is Charlie Green.

The City of Galena operates a full-time police department. There is an Alaska State Troopers post in Galena with two troopers and a trooper-pilot.

Galena has a volunteer search and rescue squad, and a volunteer fire department.

Education
As Galena is incorporated as a first-class city and located in the Unorganized Borough, it is required by state law to operate its own schools, Galena City School District, apart from the Rural Education Attendance Areas which otherwise prevail outside of incorporated boroughs. Along with other such cities across Alaska, Galena's school district operates a boarding school and a correspondence study program, to increase state funding which would not otherwise be available with the local pupil base.

Galena has three schools. Galena City School is primarily for local K–12 students. There is a public library located in the Sidney C. Huntington School. Sidney Huntington (1915–2015) was a longtime resident and leader in Galena and the author of Shadows on the Koyukuk, a popular book on Alaska.

The vocational Galena Interior Learning Academy (GILA) is a boarding school which draws students from around the state. GILA is located on the site of the former Galena Air Force Station and is one of three public boarding high schools in Alaska; the second in size behind Mount Edgecumbe High School in Sitka. The third is the Nenana Living School in Nenana. GILA uses the former barracks as a dorm, the former PX and headquarters buildings as class rooms and the dining hall as a cafeteria, along with the gym and other facilities. Recently, a new STEM building was constructed to replace one of the old air force buildings that had been used for classrooms. GILA provides educational and vocational training to young men and women from all over Alaska, grades 9-12, with most students coming from remote Native Alaskan villages from the Interior, North Slope and Aleutian Islands. GILA hosts various training and regional conferences throughout the year. GILA student enrollment grew from 110 to 180 in the 2009–10 school year.

Galena's third school is Interior Distance Education of Alaska (IDEA), a statewide homeschool support program that serves 3,500 students across the state. As correspondence programs are tabulated by the Alaska Department of Education & Early Development as a single school, IDEA is considered the largest school by enrollment in all of Alaska.

Transportation, utilities and other facilities
Galena's Edward G. Pitka Sr. Airport (Code GAL) is the former Galena Air Force Station field and with a paved runway of over 8000 feet is the largest public, state-maintained airport in the Interior of Alaska. The control tower was demolished when the Air Force vacated the facility in 2007. The Airport is also the home of the "Yukon Squadron" of the AK Wing, Civil Air Patrol (CAP), which covers much of lp the interior region to the Bering Sea for Search and Rescue (SAR). A CAP Cessna-172 aircraft is stationed at Galena.

Heavy durable goods, such as oil, vehicles and building materials are transported by river barge in the summer.

The City of Galena, as a first-class city, operates various vital services such as water and sewer. The city also owns Nollner Health Clinic operated by Tanana Chiefs Conference, a Native health clinic that offers 24-hour emergency care and routine health care. Eye and dental services are provided to residents on a visiting provider basis. Medical emergencies are stabilized at Nollner Clinic and flown by air ambulance to Fairbanks or Anchorage. Dire pediatric emergencies are flown to Seattle Children's Hospital.

Public radio station KIYU-FM, based in Galena, serves the city.

Energy
Galena's remote location, apart from Alaska's urban transportation and utility distribution networks, means that the city must transport and store fuel oil in large-volume quantities. In 2004, the Galena City Council tentatively accepted a proposal from Toshiba Corporation to build the Galena Nuclear Power Plant, a small, self-contained nuclear power plant. In 2010, the plan was abandoned after local start-up costs to build a $27 million reactor core proved prohibitive for the community. The demonstration plant, the prototype for a line which Toshiba hoped to sell to similar communities in the U.S. and Canada, would have been the first civilian nuclear plant in Alaska; Fort Greely, Alaska, had a small military SM-4 reactor until the early 1970s. There is currently an attempt at a movement towards solar power for Galena, which would reduce energy costs.

Sports
The Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race goes through Galena (on even years), as does the Tesoro Iron Dog trans-Alaska snowmobile race. Galena is the halfway point of the Yukon 800, an annual summer speedboat race beginning in Fairbanks and taking place along the Tanana and Yukon Rivers.

Galena school sports include volleyball, cross-country running, basketball, swimming, skiing, and native youth Olympics (NYO).

The Galena high school boys' and girls' basketball teams were regional champions from 2004 to 2007. The boys' basketball team won the state championship in 2008.

In popular culture
Frostbite, a character from the G.I. Joe 3.5" action figure toy line, is from Galena.

In the video game Metal Gear Solid, Colonel Campbell announces to Solid Snake that two F-16 fighter jets have been dispatched from Galena as part of a diversionary tactic.

In the 1983 film WarGames, USAF General Beringer, played by Barry Corbin, scrambles two fighter jets from Galena, AK to intercept two invading radar indicated bombers. The bombers are a computer projection and once the fighters are within intercept range they disappear.

title: Galena, Alaska


text:
Grayling, Alaska

Grayling (Sixno' Xidakagg in Holikachuk language) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 194, unchanged from 2000. Since 1977, the Athabaskan village has seen a surge of interest on odd-numbered years, when it is the site of a checkpoint during the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. It is situated after the checkpoint at Anvik and before Eagle Island.

Geography
Grayling is located at 62.91056°N, -160.06722°W (62.910472, -160.067250).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.9 sqmi, of which, 10.9 sqmi of it is land and 0.09% is water.

Demographics
Grayling first appeared on the 1970 U.S. Census as a city. It incorporated in 1969.

As of the census of 2000, there were 194 people, 51 households, and 37 families residing in the city. The population density was 17.7 PD/sqmi. There were 63 housing units at an average density of 5.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 7.22% White, 88.14% Native American, 0.52% from other races, and 4.12% from two or more races. 1.03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

Of the 51 households, 47.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.1% were married couples living together, 19.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.5% were non-families. 21.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.80 and the average family size was 4.39.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 46.4% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 20 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $21,875, and the median income for a family was $18,750. Males had a median income of $21,250 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $7,049. About 62.1% of families and 64.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 82.9% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the David Louis Memorial School in Grayling.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Grayling, Alaska


text:
Holy Cross, Alaska

Holy Cross (Deloy Chet in Deg Xinag, ) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 178, down from 227 in 2000.

Geography
Holy Cross is located at 62.19806°N, -159.77333°W (62.198048, -159.773418).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 37.4 sqmi, of which, 31.3 sqmi of it is land and 6.2 sqmi of it (16.51%) is water.

Demographics
Holy Cross first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as the unincorporated Inuit village of "Askhomute." In 1890, it was reported as "Kozerevsky." In 1900 and 1910, it was called "Koserefsky." It did not report on the 1920 U.S. Census. In 1930, it was then returned as Holy Cross for the first time. It was formally incorporated in 1968.

As of the census of 2000, there were 227 people, 64 households, and 49 families residing in the city. The population density was 7.3 PD/sqmi. There were 81 housing units at an average density of 2.6 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 3.52% White and 96.48% Native American.

Of the 64 households, 43.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.4% were non-families. 17.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.55 and the average family size was 4.00.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 38.8% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 28.6% from 25 to 44, 17.2% from 45 to 64, and 7.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females, there were 136.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 127.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $21,875, and the median income for a family was $26,250. Males had a median income of $37,813 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,542. About 33.3% of families and 45.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 45.2% of those under the age of eighteen and 47.1% of those 65 or over.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the Holy Cross School in Grayling.

title: Holy Cross, Alaska


text:
Hughes, Alaska

Hughes (Hut’odlee Kkaakk’et in Koyukon) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 85 at the 2020 census, up from 77 in 2010.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.1 sqmi, all of it land.

Demographics
Hughes first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It did not appear on the 1930 census, but returned in 1940. It formally incorporated in 1973.

The majority of the town's population are ethnic Koyukon, Alaskan Athabaskans. Some of the town's population, as of the 1970s, spoke the Central Dialect of the Koyukon language.

As of the census of 2020, there were 85 people, 36 households, and 11 families residing in the city. The population density was 28.3 PD/sqmi. There were 47 housing units at an average density of 15.7 per square mile (6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 5.88% White, 89.41% Native American, and 4.7% from two or more races. 1.18% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 36 households, out of which 30.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 16.7% were non-families. 44.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 2.26.

In the city, the age distribution of the population was 12.5% under the age of 18, 70.8% from 18 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50.3 years.

The median income for a household in the city was $28,750, and the median income for a family was $37,917. The per capita income for the city was $12,126. There was 30.6% of the population living below the poverty line, including 22.2% of under eighteens and 41.7% of those over 64.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Johnny Oldman School in Hughes.

title: Hughes, Alaska


text:
Huslia, Alaska

Huslia (Ts’aateyhdenaadekk’onh Denh in Koyukon) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. Rarely known as Hussliakatna, it is inhabited by Koyukuk-hotana Athabascans. The population was 293 at the 2000 census and 275 as of the 2010 census.

Geography
Huslia is located at 65.70194°N, -156.38722°W (65.701858, -156.387134). It is in the interior of Alaska, on the Koyukuk River, near its confluence with the Huslia River. It does not have road or rail access, but is served by Huslia Airport.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 17.2 sqmi, of which, 16.4 sqmi is land and 0.7 sqmi (4.25%) is water.

Demographics
Huslia first appeared on the 1950 U.S. Census as the unincorporated village of "Cutoff." The name changed to Huslia beginning with the 1960 census and incorporated as such in 1969.

As of the census of 2000, there were 293 people, 88 households, and 63 families residing in the city. The population density was 17.8 PD/sqmi. There were 111 housing units at an average density of 6.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 4.44% White, 93.52% Native American, 0.34% Pacific Islander, and 1.71% from two or more races. 1.37% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 88 households, out of which 56.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.8% were married couples living together, 26.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.3% were non-families. 22.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.33 and the average family size was 3.83.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 43.0% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 15.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 110.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $27,000, and the median income for a family was $31,000. Males had a median income of $52,500 versus $30,313 for females. The per capita income for the city was $10,983. About 22.9% of families and 28.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.9% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Jimmy Huntington School in Huslia.

title: Huslia, Alaska


text:
Kaltag, Alaska

Kaltag (KAL-tag) (Koyukon: Ggaał Doh ; Qałtaq) is a city and village in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 190, down from 230 in 2000.

History
Kaltag was a Koyokon Athabascan area used as a cemetery for surrounding villages. It is located on an old portage trail which led west through the mountains to Unalakleet. The Athabascans had seasonal camps in the area and moved as the wild game migrated. There were 12 summer fish camps located on the Yukon River between the Koyukuk River and the Nowitna River.

Kaltag was named by Russians for a Koyokon man named Kaltaga.

There was a smallpox epidemic in 1839 that killed a large part of the population of the area.

After the Alaska Purchase, a United States military telegraph line was constructed along the north side of the Yukon River. A trading post opened around 1880, just before the gold rush of 1884–85. Steamboats on the Yukon, which supplied gold prospectors ran before and after 1900 with 46 boats in operation on the river in the peak year of 1900. A measles epidemic and food shortages during 1900 reduced the population of the area by one-third. The village Kaltag was established after the epidemic when survivors from three nearby villages moved to the area.

There was a minor gold rush in the area in the 1880s. In 1906, gold seekers left for Fairbanks or Nome; however, the Galena lead mines began operating in 1919. Kaltag was downriver from the mines and grew as a point on the transportation route for the mines. It declined in the 1940s as mining declined.

The old cemetery caved into the river around 1937. An airport and clinic were constructed during the 1960s.

Kaltag has a week long Stick Dance (memorial Potlatch) every two years that draws visitors from many neighboring villages. This Potlatch is sponsored by relatives of the recently deceased, in appreciation of those who helped during their time of mourning.

Much of the economy around Kaltag is based on subsistence hunting and fishing. Salmon, whitefish, moose, bear, waterfowl and berries are elements of the subsistence economy.

Geography
Kaltag is located at 64.32528°N, -158.72694°W (64.325145, -158.727030) and is on the west bank of the Yukon River, 120 km west of Galena of 27.4 sqmi, of which, 23.3 sqmi of it is land and 4.1 sqmi of it (14.97%) is water.

Climate
The climate is transitional between the coast and interior.

Demographics
Kaltag first reported on the 1880 U.S. Census as an unincorporated Tinneh village. The census of 1890 combined Anvik and Kaltag under Anvik (with a combined population of 191). It did not appear again on the census separately until 1910. It formally incorporated in 1969.

As of the census of 2000, there were 230 people, 69 households, and 52 families residing in the village. The population density was 9.9 PD/sqmi. There were 78 housing units at an average density of 3.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 12.61% White, 84.35% Native American, and 3.04% from two or more races.

There were 69 households, out of which 49.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.1% were married couples living together, 18.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.2% were non-families. 21.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.33 and the average family size was 3.83.

In the village the age distribution of the population shows 37.0% under the age of 18, 12.2% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 15.7% from 45 to 64, and 7.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 132.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.6 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $29,167, and the median income for a family was $25,625. Males had a median income of $20,938 versus $48,750 for females. The per capita income for the village was $9,361. About 29.8% of families and 33.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 45.7% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those 65 or over.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Kaltag School.

title: Kaltag, Alaska


text:
Koyukuk, Alaska

Koyukuk (Koyukon: Meneelghaadze’ T’oh   ) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 96, down from 101 in 2000.

, Koyukuk is one of a number of Alaskan communities threatened by erosion.

History
The Koyukon Athabascans had seasonal camps and moved when the wild game migrated. There were 12 summer fish camps located on the Yukon River between the Koyukuk River and the Nowitna River. Trading between the Koyukon and Inupiat of the Kobuk River area has occurred before the arrival of Europeans.

After the Alaska Purchase, a United States military telegraph line was constructed along the north side of the Yukon River and Koyukuk became the site of a telegraph station. A trading post opened around 1880, just before the gold rush of 1884–85. Steamboats on the Yukon, which supplied gold prospectors ran before and after 1900 with 46 boats in operation on the river in the peak year of 1900. A measles epidemic and food shortages during 1900 reduced the population of the area by one-third.

The first school in Koyukuk was constructed in 1939. After the school was built, families began to live at Koyukuk year-round.

Koyukuk was used as an Iditarod checkpoint in 2015 when the race was rerouted from Fairbanks.

Geography
Koyukuk is located at 64.88174°N, -157.70439°W.

Koyukuk is located on the Yukon River near the mouth of the Koyukuk River. It is 50 km west of Galena. It is adjacent to the Koyukuk National Wildlife Refuge and the Innoko National Wildlife Refuge.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.3 sqmi, of which, 6.2 sqmi of it is land and 0.04 sqmi of it (0.64%) is water.

Demographics
Koyukuk first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as the "Koyukuk Settlements", a Tinneh village. In 1890, it returned as "Koyukuk River Settlements." It did not appear again until 1910, then as Koyukuk. It formally incorporated in 1973.

As of the census of 2000, there were 101 people, 39 households, and 24 families residing in the city. The population density was 16.2 PD/sqmi. There were 55 housing units at an average density of 8.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 8.91% White and 91.09% Native American.

There were 39 households, out of which 41.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.8% were married couples living together, 20.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.9% were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.32.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 34.7% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 36.6% from 25 to 44, 12.9% from 45 to 64, and 6.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 144.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $19,375, and the median income for a family was $31,250. Males had a median income of $30,000 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,341. There were 20.8% of families and 35.1% of the population living below the poverty line, including 53.8% of under eighteens and 33.3% of those over 64.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Ella B. Vernetti School in Koyukuk.

Notable people
George Attla (1933–2015), champion sprint dog musher, was born in Koyukuk

title: Koyukuk, Alaska


text:
Lake Minchumina, Alaska

Lake Minchumina (Menchuh Mene’ in Koyukon; Minchu Mina’ in Dinak'i) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. As of the [https://datausa.io/profile/geo/lake-minchumina-ak/#:~:text=Lake%20Minchumina%2C%20AK%20is%20home,any%20other%20race%20or%20ethnicity. 2022 data usa], the population of the CDP is 14.

Geography
Lake Minchumina is located at 63.79025°N, -152.46182°W. It is the nearest settlement to the geographic center of Alaska. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 244.1 sqmi, of which, 216.4 sqmi of it is land and 27.7 sqmi of it (11.34%) is water.

Climate
Minchumina has a continental subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).

Demographics
Lake Minchumina first appeared as an unincorporated village on the 1950 U.S. Census. It appeared again in 1960, but did not report in 1970 or 1980. It returned again in 1990 as a census-designated place (CDP).

As of the census of 2000, there were 32 people, 16 households, and 9 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 0.1 PD/sqmi. There were 41 housing units at an average density of 0.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 84.38% White, 3.12% Native American, and 12.50% from two or more races. 6.25% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 16 households, out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.67.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 18.8% under the age of 18, 6.3% from 18 to 24, 40.6% from 25 to 44, 31.3% from 45 to 64, and 3.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 113.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.7 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $36,250, and the median income for a family was $33,750. Males had a median income of $26,250 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $26,781. None of the population and none of the families were below the poverty line.

Education
It was previously served by the Minchumina School of the Iditarod Area School District.

title: Lake Minchumina, Alaska


text:
Livengood, Alaska

Livengood is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 16 at the 2020 census, compared to 13 in 2010 and 29 in 2000.

History
Gold was discovered in 1914, on Livengood Creek by N.R. Hudson and Jay Livengood. The village was founded near the Hudson/Livengood claim as a mining camp during the winter of 1914-1915, when hundreds of people came into the district.

A post office was established in 1915 and was discontinued in 1957.

A construction camp was located near Livengood during the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline.

Livengood was the last operating location of the antiquated 2600 Hz telephone trunk system. It was switched to the modern system in March 2011.

Geography
Livengood is located at 65.49°N, -148.54667°W (65.489993, -148.546629).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 267.8 sqmi, of which 265.7 sqmi is land and 2.2 sqmi (0.81%) is water.

Climate
Livengood has a dry-winter continental subarctic climate (Köppen Dwc).

Demographics

Livengood first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It continued to appear until 1950. It did not return again until 2000, when it was made a census-designated place (CDP).

As of the census of 2000, there were 29 people, 13 households, and 6 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 0.1 PD/sqmi. There were 31 housing units at an average density of 0.11/sq mi (0.04/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 83% White, 7% Native American, 3% Asian, and 7% from two or more races.

There were 13 households, out of which 15% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40% were married couples living together, and 55% were non-families. 45% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.2 and the average family size was 3.2.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 31% under the age of 18, 21% from 25 to 44, 45% from 45 to 64, and 3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 107 males [14 females, 15 males]. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 150 males [8 females, 12 males].

The median income for a household in the CDP was $26,250, and the median income for a family was $26,250. Males had a median income of $51,250 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $21,215. There were no families and 15% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64.

title: Livengood, Alaska


text:
Manley Hot Springs, Alaska

Manley Hot Springs (Too Naaleł Denh  in Koyukon) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2020 census the population was 169, up from 89 in 2010.

Geography
Manley Hot Springs is located at 65.00778°N, -150.62667°W (65.007773, -150.626732).

Manley Hot Springs is located about 8 km north of the Tanana River on Hot Springs Slough, at the end of the Elliott Highway, 260 km west of Fairbanks.

The CDP has a total area of 54.3 sqmi according to the United States Census Bureau. All of it is land.

History
Traditional lands of the Cosna Band of the Upper Koyukon Dene.

In 1902 a prospector, John Karshner, discovered several hot springs in the area. He began a homestead and vegetable farm. In the same year, the United States Army built a telegraph station. The area became a service and supply point for miners in the Tofty and Eureka mining districts. It was known as Baker's Hot Springs, after nearby Baker Creek.

Farming and livestock operations in the area produced fresh meat, poultry, and produce for sale. In 1903, Sam's Rooms and Meals, now called the Manley Roadhouse, opened. The Manley Roadhouse was owned by Robert E. Lee, who was also the town's postmaster until his death in 2010. In 1907 a miner named Frank Manley built the Hot Springs Resort Hotel. The resort was a four-story building with 45 guest rooms, steam heat, electric lights, hot baths, a bar, a restaurant, a billiard room, a bowling alley, a barber shop, and an Olympic-size indoor swimming pool which used heated water from the hot springs. During the summer, the hotel's private boat transported guests from steamers on the Tanana River. In the winter, an overland stagecoach trip from Fairbanks took two days. The town was renamed Hot Springs.

The resort and the mining in the area caused the town to prosper. It had a store, a newspaper, a bakery, clothing stores and other businesses. The population of the area in 1910 was more than 500. In 1913 the resort burned to the ground. Mining activity was also in decline and by 1920 only 29 residents lived in Hot Springs.

The town's name was changed to Manley Hot Springs in 1957.

In May 1984, a newcomer to the town, Michael Silka, killed nine people in the area.

Since 1950, the population of Manley Hot Springs has slowly increased. In the 2020 census, the population of Manley Hot Springs was 169, up 90 percent from 89 in 2010 census.

In May 2022, the second worst flood to hit the community caused power outages and the displacement of 60 people. No injuries occurred. The flooding was caused by an ice jam on the Tanana River, approximately 12 miles downriver from the community.

Climate
Manley Hot Springs has a continental subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).

Demographics
Manley Hot Springs first reported on the 1910 U.S. Census as "Hot Springs", an unincorporated village. It was formally changed to Manley Hot Springs in 1957. It became a census-designated place (CDP) in 1980.

At the 2000 census, there were 72 people, 36 households and 19 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1.3 /sqmi. There were 105 housing units at an average density of 1.9 /sqmi. The racial make-up of the CDP was 73.61% White, 23.61% Native American and 2.78% from other races.

There were 36 households, of which 19.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.2% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present and 47.2% were non-families. 38.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.58.

15.3% of the population were under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 37.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 125.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 110.3 males.

The median household income was $29,000 and the median family income was $59,583. Males had a median income of $36,250 and females $16,250. The per capita income was $21,751. There were no families and 9.7% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Gladys Dart School in Manley Hot Springs.

Transportation
The Elliott Highway (Alaska Route 2), completed in 1959, gives Manley Hot Springs road access from Fairbanks year-round. Before 1982 it was not plowed by the state and closed during the winter.

The Manley Hot Springs Airport has scheduled flights to Fairbanks International Airport operated by Warbelow's Air Ventures.

title: Manley Hot Springs, Alaska


text:
McGrath, Alaska

McGrath (Tochak’ in Upper Kuskokwim, Digenegh in Deg Xinag) is a city and village on the Kuskokwim River in Alaska, United States. The population was 301 at the 2020 census. Despite its small population, the village is an important transportation and economic hub for the area.

History
The Old Town McGrath site, across the river from present-day McGrath, was a meeting and trading place for Big River, Nikolai, Telida, and Lake Minchumina villagers.

In 1904, Abraham Appel established a trading post in Old Town. In 1906, gold was discovered in the Innoko District, and in 1907, and at Ganes Creek. Since McGrath was the northernmost point on the Kuskokwim River accessible by large riverboats, it became a regional supply center. A town was established at the site of Old McGrath in 1907, and was named for Peter McGrath, a local United States Marshal. The Iditarod Trail also contributed to McGrath's role as a supply center. From 1911 to 1920, hundreds of people walked and mushed over the trail on their way to the Ophir gold districts. Mining sharply declined after 1925.

After a major flood in 1933, some residents moved across the river. Changes in the course of the river eventually left the old site on a slough, making it useless as a river stop. In 1940, an airstrip was cleared, the United States Federal Aviation Administration built a communications complex, and a school was opened. McGrath became an important refueling stop for Lend-Lease equipment during World War II.

Geography
McGrath is located in Interior Alaska, 221 miles northwest of Anchorage and 269 miles southwest of Fairbanks. It is situated along the convergence of the Takotna River and the south bank of the Kuskokwim River.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 54.6 sqmi, of which, 48.9 sqmi of it is land and 5.7 sqmi of it (10.48%) is water.

Climate
McGrath has a continental subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).

 * Notes:

Demographics
McGrath first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It formally incorporated in 1975.

As of the census of 2000, there were 401 people, 145 households, and 99 families residing in the city. The population density was 8.2 PD/sqmi. There were 213 housing units at an average density of 4.4 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 42.64% White, 43.89% Native American, 0.75% Asian, 0.75% from other races, and 11.97% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.00% of the population.

Of the 145 household 42.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 26.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.34.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 35.9% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 25.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $43,056, and the median income for a family was $44,167. Males had a median income of $41,875 versus $41,389 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,553. About 8.7% of families and 9.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% of those under age 18 and 17.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the McGrath School.

Media
KSKO is a non-commercial NPR affiliate at 89.5 FM. KSKO simulcasts to the villages of Grayling (KGYA), Shageluk (KNKO), Holy Cross (KLOP), Nikolai (KNIB), Sleetmute (KSKP), Crooked Creek (KSKC), and Anvik (KMGS). KSKO celebrated its 40th anniversary on July 1, 2021.

title: McGrath, Alaska


text:
Phosphagen

Phosphagens, also known as macroergic compounds, are high energy storage compounds, also known as high-energy phosphate compounds, chiefly found in muscular tissue in animals. They allow a high-energy phosphate pool to be maintained in a concentration range, which, if it all were adenosine triphosphate (ATP), would create problems due to the ATP-consuming reactions in these tissues. As muscle tissues can have sudden demands for much energy, these compounds can maintain a reserve of high-energy phosphates that can be used as needed, to provide the energy that could not be immediately supplied by glycolysis or oxidative phosphorylation. Phosphagens supply immediate but limited energy.

The actual biomolecule used as a phosphagen is dependent on the organism. The majority of animals use arginine as phosphagen; however, the phylum Chordata (i.e., animals with spinal cords) use creatine. Creatine phosphate (CP), or phosphocreatine (PCr), is made from ATP by the enzyme creatine kinase in a reversible reaction:

 * Creatine + ATP creatine phosphate + ADP +  (this reaction is Mg(2+)-dependent)

However, annelids (segmented worms) use a set of unique phosphagens; for example, earthworms use the compound lombricine.

Phosphagens were discovered by Philip Eggleton and his wife Grace Eggleton.

Reactions
The Phosphagen System (ATP-PCr) occurs in the cytosol (a gel-like substance) of the sarcoplasm of skeletal muscle, and in the myocyte's cytosolic compartment of the cytoplasm of cardiac and smooth muscle. During muscle contraction:

 * + ATP → + ADP + P_{i} (Mg(2+) assisted, utilization of ATP for Muscle contraction by ATPase)
 * + ADP + CP → ATP + Creatine (Mg(2+) assisted, catalyzed by creatine kinase, ATP is used again in the above reaction for continued muscle contraction)
 * 2 ADP → ATP + AMP (catalyzed by adenylate kinase/myokinase when CP is depleted, ATP is again used for muscle contraction)Purine Nucleotide Cycle.jpg

Muscle at rest:
 * ATP + Creatine → ADP + CP + (Mg(2+) assisted, catalyzed by creatine kinase)
 * ADP + P_{i} → ATP (during anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation)

When the Phosphagen System has been depleted of phosphocreatine (creatine phosphate), the resulting AMP produced from the adenylate kinase (myokinase) reaction is primarily regulated by the Purine Nucleotide Cycle.

title: Phosphagen


text:
Minto, Alaska

Minto (Tanana: Menhti) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. As of the 2020 census, the population of the CDP is 150, down from 210 in 2010. The name is an anglicized version of the Lower Tanana Athabaskan name Menhti, meaning 'among the lakes'. After repeated flooding the village was relocated to its present location in 1969. The former village site is now known as Old Minto.

Geography
Minto is an Athabascan Indian village located at the end of the Minto Spur Road, which comes off the Elliot Highway. It is located at 65.15778°N, -149.37°W (65.157885, −149.369916). The village is located on a bluff above the Tolovana River flats, which contain several lakes formed by the flow of the river through low-lying areas.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 138.6 sqmi, of which, 135.1 sqmi of it is land and 3.6 sqmi of it (2.58%) is water.

Demographics

Minto first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census as an unincorporated native village. That village was located along the Tanana River, now known as Old Minto. It had a population of 55 in 1920, it did not report in 1930, 135 in 1940, 152 in 1950 and 161 in 1960. Following flooding of Old Minto, the new village assumed the name of "Minto" beginning with the 1970 U.S. Census. In 1980 it was made a census-designated place (CDP).

As of the census of 2000, there were 258 people, 74 households, and 54 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1.9 PD/sqmi. There were 99 housing units at an average density of 0.7 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 7.75% White, 91.86% Native American, and 0.39% from two or more races.

There were 74 households, out of which 39.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.8% were married couples living together, 21.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. 25.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.49 and the average family size was 4.15.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 38.8% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 21.7% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 113.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 129.0 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $21,250, and the median income for a family was $37,500. Males had a median income of $28,750 versus $28,125 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $9,639. About 18.2% of families and 26.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 12.5% of those 65 or over.

Transportation
Although a small community, it has a small landing strip called Minto Airport. It gives direct flights to Fairbanks. It is also served by the Old Minto Road, visible on Google Maps and on Google Earth imagery; it connects to the Elliot Highway, which itself runs between Fairbanks and Manley Hot Springs.

History
Minto is in the western part of traditional Tanana Athabaskan territory. During the late 1800s, some members of the nomadic Minto band traveled to Tanana, Rampart and Fort Yukon to trade furs for manufactured goods, tea and flour. After gold was discovered north of Fairbanks in 1902, steamboats began to travel on the Tanana River, bringing goods and people into the area. Old Minto, on the banks of the Tanana River, became a permanent settlement when some members of the Minto band built log cabins there. Other families lived there seasonally in tents. A school was established in 1937, but most families still did not live in Minto year-round until the 1950s. The people from the Minto band were eventually joined by families from Nenana, Toklat, Crossjacket and Chena.

Minto was relocated in 1969, due to repeated flooding and erosion. The present site is 65 km north of the old site. The new site had been used as a fall and winter camp since the early 1900s. New housing and a new school were completed by 1971.

The Old Minto Family Recovery Camp is a rustic treatment center operated by the Tanana Chiefs Conference relocated away from the old river edge village site. A residential program, it incorporates daily group and individual counseling for drug and alcohol addictions with traditional lifestyle activities and Athabascan cultural immersion. The old village site is used for seasonal celebrations including by the Cultural Heritage and Education Institute which provides curriculum elements in the school at New Minto.

Notable residents
Traditional Chief Peter John (1900-2003)

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Minto School.

Language
The traditional language of Minto is Lower Tanana, one of eleven Athabaskan languages spoken in Alaska. As of 2010, "Speakers who grew up with Lower Tanana as their first language can be found only in the 250-person village of Minto."

title: Minto, Alaska


text:
Nenana, Alaska

Nenana (is a home rule city in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area of the Unorganized Borough in Interior Alaska. Nenana developed as a Lower Tanana community at the confluence where the tributary Nenana River enters the Tanana. The population was 378 at the 2010 census, down from 402 in 2000.

Completed in 1923, the 700 ft Mears Memorial Bridge was built over the Tanana River as part of the territory's railroad project connecting Anchorage and Fairbanks.

History and culture
Nenana is in the westernmost portion of Tanana territory. (The Tanana are among the large Dené language family, also known as Athabascan.) The town was first known by European Americans as Tortella, a transliteration of the Indian word Toghotthele, which means "mountain that parallels the river." It was later named for the river and the Nenana people who live nearby. The Nenana people became accustomed to contact with Europeans, due to trading journeys to the Village of Tanana, where Russians bartered Western goods for furs from 1838.

The United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. Early American explorers and traders, such as Henry Tureman Allen, Arthur Harper and Bates, first entered the Tanana Valley in 1874 and 1885.

In 1902, the discovery of gold in Fairbanks brought intense activity to the region. The next year, Jim Duke built a trading post/roadhouse to supply river travelers and trade with the Nenana community.

In 1905, the Episcopal Church, which had missionaries in Alaska, built the St. Mark's Episcopal mission and Tortella School a short distance upriver. The boarding school taught about 28 children of various ages at a time. Hudson Stuck, the Archdeacon of the Yukon, regularly visited the settlement, part of the 250,000 square-acre territory of the Interior he administered. Native children from other communities, such as Minto, also attended school in Nenana.

A post office opened in 1908. In 1915, construction of the Alaska Railroad brought new settlers, who doubled Nenana's population. The railroad connected Nenana to the southern port city of Anchorage. The community incorporated as a city in 1921.

The Railroad Depot was completed in 1923. That year, United States President Warren Harding arrived to drive the final, golden spike at the north end of the 700 ft Mears Memorial Bridge built over the Tanana River as part of the state's railroad project.

This railroad truss bridge, the longest in the United States and its territories when completed, gave Nenana a rail transportation link north to Fairbanks and south to Seward, Alaska. The bridge still ranks as the longest span in Alaska and the third-longest truss bridge in the United States.

The construction had encouraged businesses and settlement in town. According to local records, 5,000 residents lived in Nenana by the early 1920s. After the railroad was completed, however, contractors and construction workers left the area. The city suffered an economic slump, and most of the residents migrated to seek work in other places. By 1930, the population had dropped to 291.

Nenana was the starting point for the 1925 serum run to Nome, after diphtheria antitoxin had been transported by rail from Anchorage. It was carried by dog sled to Nome to treat people in an epidemic.

In 1961, Clear Air Force Station was constructed 21 miles southwest. During this construction, many civilian contractors commuted from Nenana. A road was constructed south to Clear, but northbound vehicles had to be ferried across the Tanana River.

In 1967, the community was devastated by one of the largest floods ever recorded in the valley. In 1968, a $6 million bridge for vehicles was completed across the Tanana River, which gave the town a modern road link to Fairbanks and replaced the river ferry. The George Parks Highway was completed in 1971, providing a shorter, direct route to Anchorage.

The federally recognized tribe in the community is the Nenana Native Association, who traditionally spoke the Lower Tanana language. Under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971, they have rights of self-government and managing some of their traditional territory. According to the 2000 Census, 41% of the city residents were Native American (or Alaska Natives).

Residents of Nenana sponsor the Nenana Ice Classic, a nature-based lottery. Entrants buy a ticket and pick a date in April or May and a time, to the closest minute, when they think the winter ice on the Tanana River will break up. This lottery began in 1917 among a group of surveyors working for the Alaska Railroad. They formed a betting pool as they waited for the river to open and boats to arrive with needed supplies.

The competition is run as follows: a large striped tripod is placed on the frozen Tanana River and connected to a clock. The winner is whoever comes closest to guessing the precise time when the ice beneath weakens to the point that the tripod moves and stops the clock. Interest in the pool has increased and attracts bettors statewide. This lottery has paid out nearly $10 million in prize money, with the winning pool in recent years being near $300,000.

In the summer of 2008, Nenana suffered heavy damage due to flooding. The Tanana River reached its second-highest level since written record keeping began.

Geography and climate
Nenana is located at 64.56389°N, -149.09306°W, (Sec. 14, T004S, R008W, Fairbanks Meridian) in the Nenana Recording District.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.1 sqmi, of which, 6.0 sqmi of it is land and 0.1 sqmi of it (0.99%) is water.

Nenana is located 55 road miles southwest of Fairbanks on the George Parks Highway and 304 road miles north of Anchorage. It is at mile 412 of the Alaska Railroad. The river is ice-free from early May to late October.

Nenana has a transitional humid continental/subarctic climate (Köppen Dfb/Dfc) with long, cold and dry winters and warm summers with cool nights.

Demographics
Nenana first reported on the 1910 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It formally incorporated in 1921.

The Nenana native village reported separately on the 1920, 1940 and 1960 U.S. Censuses with 172, 86 & 33 residents respectively.

As of the census of 2000, there were 402 people, 171 households, and 87 families residing in the city. The population density was 66.6 PD/sqmi. There were 210 housing units at an average density of 34.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 50.75% White, 0.25% Black or African American, 41.04% Native American, 0.50% Asian, and 7.46% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.49% of the population.

There were 171 households, out of which 24.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.0% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.1% were non-families. 42.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.30.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.6% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 22.6% from 25 to 44, 28.9% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 112.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 118.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $33,333, and the median income for a family was $40,938. Males had a median income of $46,125 versus $26,094 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,334. About 13.4% of families and 17.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.9% of those under age 18 and 19.4% of those age 65 or over.

Public services
Water is drawn from wells, then treated and distributed via circulating loops. A piped gravity system collects sewage, which is treated at a secondary treatment plant. Most of the City is connected to the piped water and sewer system: 215 homes and the school are served. The remaining homes have individual wells and septic systems.

Refuse is collected by a private firm and hauled to the new Denali Borough regional landfill, located south of Anderson. Electricity is provided by Golden Valley Electric Association. A school provides education for grades kindergarten through 12 (200 students). The Nenana Student Living Center, one of three statewide boarding schools for high school students, attracts students from around the state to attend the local school. The school has an extensive arts program (music, artistic and performing programs), strong academic quality, and vocational studies.

The City has a library with a full-time librarian, internet access and full library services, including inter-library loans. Health clinic services are provided by the Nenana Native Clinic. A regional hospital is located in Fairbanks, 55 miles away. Specialized services include the Railbelt Mental Health & Addiction Services.

Emergency Services have highway, river and airport access. 911 emergency service is available in Nenana; auxiliary health care is provided by Nenana Volunteer Fire/EMS or Fairbanks hospitals. Police service is provide by the Alaska State Troopers.

Economy and transport
Over 40% of the year-round jobs are with government, including the City, Tribe, Nenana School District, Yukon–Koyukuk School District, and highway maintenance by the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. Golden Valley Electric Association has a regional office in Nenana. Nenana has a rural lifestyle but has good access to Fairbanks on the major north-south George Parks Highway.

Nenana has affordable housing and low rents. The private sector economy is based on its role as the center of rail-to-river barge transportation for the Interior. Crowley Marine is a major private employer, supplying villages along the Tanana and Yukon rivers each summer with cargo and fuel.

The City also attracts independent travelers with such attractions as the Alaska Railroad Museum, the Golden Railroad Spike Historic Park and Interpretive Center, the historical St. Mark's Episcopal Church (built in 1905), Iditarod dog kennels, and a replica of the sternwheeler Nenana. A heritage center features displays of local culture and history, and is open during the summer tourist season from May to September.

Nenana is a center of dog mushing; a number of world-class teams train in the area. It is also home to a number of artists whose works reflect the local frontier lifestyle. A number of large farms produce quality and specialized crops in some of the best growing conditions in Alaska. The Nenana Ice Classic administration provides employment for nearly 100 locals during the counting and tabulation of entries for the Tanana River ice breakup. Twenty-seven residents hold commercial fishing permits. Numerous Native and non-Native households rely on traditional subsistence foods, such as salmon, moose, caribou, bear, waterfowl and berries.

Taxes:	Sales: 4%, Property: 12.0 mills, Special: None

Nenana has air, river, road and railroad access. The George Parks Highway provides road access to Fairbanks and Anchorage. A boat landing at the end of 10th street turning west off the George Parks Highway provides free boat access to the Nenana River. A short distance north of the landing is the confluence of the Nenana and Tanana rivers, so boaters have easy access to the river system of the Tanana River and Minto Flats. The boat landing is used by hundreds of hunters and outdoor enthusiasts each year.

The railroad provides daily freight service. The Nenana Municipal Airport offers two landing areas: a lighted, asphalt runway 5,000 feet long by 100 feet wide, and an airstrip, turf, 2,520 feet long by 80 feet wide. The airport also has landing areas for float planes and ski planes. The Nenana Port Authority operates the dry cargo loading and unloading facilities, dock, bulkhead, and warehouse. The Tanana River is shallow, with a maximum draft for loaded river barges of 4.5 feet; by comparison, the Yukon River has few shallow areas.

In popular culture
Nenana and the Ice Classic were featured in the 1938 movie Call of the Yukon. Richard Arlen and Beverly Roberts played a mis-matched pair on a trek to Nenana to escape a village famine.

Nenana was also featured in the 1995 animated movie Balto and the 2019 live-action film Togo. Nenana was where the antitoxin was unloaded from the Alaska Railroad and run to Nome by dogsled.

Nenana was also featured in Season 6 of Life Below Zero 2015 depicting Jesse who lives with his 25 sled dogs and lives off the land.

Season 1 Episode 20 of Molly of Denali, 'Welcome Home Balto' is centered on the antitoxin delivery and is set mainly in Nenana.

It was also featured in the BBC World Series Alaska.

The documentary Classic, by director Tim Kaminski, was released on VOD in April 2021. The film chronicles the 100th anniversary of the Ice Classic which took place in 2016.

Nenana and the Nenana Ice Classic were featured on Last Week Tonight with John Oliver near the end of the show's March 27, 2022, episode.

title: Nenana, Alaska


text:
New Allakaket, Alaska

New Allakaket was a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 66 at the 2010 census, up from 36 in 2000. In March 2015, neighboring Allakaket annexed New Allakaket.

Geography
New Allakaket is located at 66.55111°N, -152.65167°W (66.551163, -152.651759).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 2.7 sqmi, of which, 2.2 sqmi of it is land and 0.5 sqmi of it was water. The total area was 18.32% water.

Demographics
New Allakaket first reported on the 2000 U.S. Census as a census-designated place (CDP). In 2015, it was annexed into neighboring Allakaket.

As of the census of 2000, there were 36 people, 8 households, and 7 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 16.1 PD/sqmi. There were 9 housing units at an average density of 4.0 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 100.00% Native American.

There were 8 households, out of which 75.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 75.0% were married couples living together, 0.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 12.5% were non-families. No households were made up of individuals, and 0.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.50 and the average family size was 4.57.

In the town the population was spread out, with 44.4% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 22.2% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 5.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 125.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $30,625, and the median income for a family was $30,625. The per capita income for the CDP was $5,576. 23.5% of the population and 42.9% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 26.3% of those under the age of 18 and none of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

title: New Allakaket, Alaska


text:
Nikolai, Alaska

Nikolai (Edze Dochak' in Upper Kuskokwim) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 94 as of the 2010 census, down from 100 in 2000.

Geography
Nikolai is located at 63.01083°N, -154.38389°W (63.010838, -154.383895).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.9 sqmi, of which, 4.5 sqmi of it is land and 0.3 sqmi of it (7.17%) is water.

Climate
Farewell Lake is a weather station roughly 38 miles south of Nikolai, at an elevation of 1060 ft (323.1 m). Farewell Lake has a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc).

Demographics
Nikolai first appeared on the 1950 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It formally incorporated in 1970.

As of the census of 2000, there were 100 people, 40 households, and 23 families residing in the city. The population density was 22.1 PD/sqmi. There were 47 housing units at an average density of 10.4 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 19% White and 81% Native American.

There were 40 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.5% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.5% were non-families. 42.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.35.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 27.0% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 24.0% from 25 to 44, 26.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 194.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 160.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $15,000, and the median income for a family was $15,417. The per capita income for the city was $11,029. There were 21.1% of families and 27.6% of the population living below the poverty line, including 22.2% of under eighteens and 15.8% of those over 64.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the Top of the Kuskokwim School in Nikolai.

title: Nikolai, Alaska


text:
Talk:Dictionary attack

Untitled
decoller le culot

There is a practice often use in non-english speaker to avoid dictionary attack; as many applications take ASCII as an input, one would simply "see" keyboard in non-english layout and type in non-english "dictionary" word on English keyboard. for example, word "love" translate in Thai would be "ความรัก", by type in Thai word with american keyboard layout, one's password would be "8;k,iyd"

Should this informaiton be included in the article? Currently the article said "Dictionaries for most human languages (even those no longer used) are easily accessible on the Internet, meaning even the use of foreign words is practically useless in preventing dictionary attacks." It leads reader to the believe that dictionary attack is always possible if user use "dictionary" word in any language.underexpose 06:05, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Was it the German word eins or the string eins that the Enigma researchers fixed on? The word means "one" or "one thing", but the string is in many many German words. Ortolan88

The impression I received from British accounts was that the word was most important. GABaker

Yes, it was the word eins that was so very important. This is because the Enigma machine didn't have numerals on the keyboard, so all numbers had to be spelled out. Throbbing_Monster_Cock

I've just noticed the claim about eins as a crib used at BP against Enigma traffic. While every credible reference I've seen on BP/Enigma has mentioned this and so it's certainly worth mentioning, I have another thought altogether. Is this an instance of a dictionary attack at all?

At first thought (subject to revision on second thought), a dictionary attack is the repeated trying of possibilities by running through some previously prepared list (unreleated except accidentally by the choice of some user (a password, etc)) against some needed access value (eg, an encrypted password). Thus, with origninal Unix password files, the encrypted password+salt is stored in clear, and 'everyone' knows the encryption technique, so all depends (in accordance with Shannon's Maxim that the enemy knows the system) on the secrecy of the password. If that word is in some list (eg, a dictionary), then each item in the list can be tried in turn.

That's not what's happening in the eins case. Is this a dictionary attack? ww 14:37, 1 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I think it's a "probable word" attack, rather than a dictionary attack. — Matt 09:58, 2 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Matt, Agreed. It's a variant of known plaintext attack. ww 16:57, 2 May 2004 (UTC)

Pre-computed dictionary attack
Clarification needed: the sentence, 'This requires a considerable amount of preparation time, but makes the actual attack almost instantaneous,' does not agree with the earlier statement, 'the effect of a dictionary attack can be greatly reduced by limiting the number of authentication attempts that can be performed each minute, and even blocking further attempts after a threshold of failed authentication attempts is reached'.

If a 'small' number of attempts can be made in a given time interval, or a limited number of attempts can be made before further attempts are blocked, at least one of which is standard practice in most logon situations, it is not also possible for the actual attack to be 'almost instantaneous'. Some qualification is required about the circumstances in which a pre-computed dictionary attack adds any value to the attacker.

Wordlists
We should, at some point, link to some wordlists which can be used for security auditory purposes.-- Roc VallèsTalk - 09:03, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

Leet Speak and Passphrases
How does the use of leet speak, such as using p4s50rd for password affect dictionary attacks? I've seen assertions that it doesn't help, but no citations. Also, are passphrases harder to crack than passwords and if so, is it the size of the phrase important? JDZeff (talk) 21:23, 13 November 2015 (UTC)

Confusion over Dictionary Attack vs Wordlist Attack
It is very unfortunate that 'dictionary attack' seems to have entered the common language to describe the usage of a word list. This obviously comes from the analogy with real-world dictionaries, which are indeed word lists.

However, in the original sense (the one employed in the expression 'pre-computed dictionary', and the one relevant in the context of time-memory tradeoffs, like M. Hellman's tradeoff, or P. Oechslin's rainbow tables), the 'dictionary' metaphor does not refer to the idea of listing meaningful words, but rather to the idea of organizing a set of mappings (from hash to cleartext) in an ordered way (in this case, ordered by hash) so that it is possible to lookup an entry very quickly (O(log n)) even if the dictionary is enormous. This is a completely different concept; in terms of reach, the precomputed dictionary offers the same coverage as a traditional bruteforce attack, only trading memory usage for attack speed.

If it was possible to chose, everyone should probably use 'wordlist attack' for the first concept and 'dictionary attack' for the second. It's a shame that a staggeringly amount of online resources do not seem to understand the difference between these two techniques.

213.162.22.228 (talk) 09:33, 16 June 2017 (UTC)

Pubg I'd hack
pubg I'd hack 103.170.179.5 (talk) 08:53, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

 * give me a x suit I'd in pubg 103.170.179.5 (talk) 08:54, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

instagram I'd hack 2409:40D2:59:4C38:FCC2:9BDB:B986:1CA9 (talk) 05:03, 10 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dictionary attack


text:
Nulato, Alaska

Nulato (Noolaaghe Doh "chum salmon fish camp" in Koyukon; Нулато) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2020 census, the population was 239.

History
Nulato was a location for trade between the Koyukon people and Inupiat people of the Kobuk River area before the arrival of Europeans.

In 1838, the Russian explorer Malakov established a trading post in Nulato.

The Kokukuk River people massacred a large part of the population of Nulato on February 16, 1851, during the Athapaskan uprising.

After the Alaska Purchase, a United States military telegraph line was constructed along the north side of the Yukon River. The gold rush along the Yukon River that began in 1884 brought many new diseases to the area and many people died. Our Lady of Snows Roman Catholic mission and school were opened in 1887 and many people moved to Nulato to be near the school. A measles epidemic and food shortages during 1900 reduced the population of the area by one-third. 1900 was also the peak year for steamboat travel on the Yukon River, with 46 boats in operation. That summer, two boats per day stopped at Nulato to purchase firewood.

Gold prospectors left the Yukon River area for Fairbanks and Nome in 1906. Lead mining began around neighboring Galena in 1919.

Nulato incorporated as a city in 1963. In 1981, housing was built at a new townsite 3 km from present Nulato.

Geography
Nulato is located at 64.73°N, -158.11417°W (64.730011, -158.114101).

Nulato is on the west bank of the Yukon River, 53 km west of Galena, in the Nulato Hills. It is across the Yukon River from the Innoko National Wildlife Refuge.The area experiences a cold, continental climate with extreme temperature differences. Temperatures range from -70 F to 80 F. Average precipitation is 15.6 inch, with 74 inch of snowfall annually.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 44.8 sqmi, of which, 42.7 sqmi of it is land and 2.0 sqmi of it (4.56%) is water.

Transportation
The town is serviced by Nulato Airport which has regularly scheduled flights to Galena, Kaltag and Koyukuk.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Andrew K. Demoski School in Nulato.

Culture
Every other year, the people gather in Nulato to attend the week-long Stick Dance. It is celebrated on the years that it is not held in Kaltag, Alaska. People from all over the Athabascan region gather in the small village to attend the sacred dance that is done to celebrate the lives of lost loved ones and to appreciate the people that helped the family through the mourning process. This ceremony was started by a couple that lost their family in a tragic accident centuries ago. Friday night of the stick dance is the largest and most powerful night of that week, on this particular night the attendees sing 14 sacred songs and dance. This particular dance is called in the Athabascan language Meyegha Doh Sealyihe (the dance before the stick dance) after this dance they put a decorated stick up in the center of the gathering place and chant while going around the stick (chants- Heeyo Heeyo Heeyo Hey Heeyo Heeyo Heeyo Hey). Nulato residents are predominantly Koyukon Athabascan with trapping and subsistence lifestyle.

Demographics
Nulato residents are predominantly Koyukon, an Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group.

As of the census of 2000, there were 336 people, 91 households, and 71 families residing in the city. The population density was 7.9 PD/sqmi. There were 119 housing units at an average density of 2.8 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 5.06% White, 92.86% Native American, 0.60% from other races, and 1.49% from two or more races. 0.60% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 91 households, out of which 51.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.3% were married couples living together, 27.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9% were non-families. 14.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 1.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.69 and the average family size was 4.13.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 41.7% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 25.0% from 25 to 44, 15.5% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $25,114, and the median income for a family was $26,944. Males had a median income of $24,375 versus $25,313 for females. The per capita income for the city was $8,966. About 16.7% of families and 18.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.0% of those under age 18 and 4.5% of those age 65 or over.

Koyukon Athabascans
The Koyukon Athabascans had seasonal camps in this area and moved when the wild game migrated. There were 12 summer fish camps located on the Yukon River between the Koyukuk River and the Nowitna River.

Notable people

 * Poldine Carlo (1920–2018), Koyukon Athabascan author, born in Nulato
 * Michael J. Stickman, First Chief of the Nulato Tribal Council

title: Nulato, Alaska


text:
Rampart, Alaska

Rampart (Dleł Taaneets in Koyukon) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 24 at the 2010 census, down from 45 in 2000.

History
Novelist Rex Beach (1877-1949) moved to Rampart in 1900, during the Klondike Gold Rush (1896-1899); although his prospecting efforts were of little success, the experience led to the publication of The Spoilers, one of three novels written by Beach that made it to Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 1900s. Film adaptations of The Spoilers were released in 1914, 1923, 1930, 1942, and 1955.

In the 1950s, a large hydroelectric project called the Rampart Dam was considered for the Yukon River near the village. Had the project been completed, it would have created the largest man-made reservoir in the world. Owing to popular protest, however, the project was never begun.

Geography
Rampart is located at 65.50722°N, -150.14861°W (65.507350, -150.148496). According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 168.8 sqmi, all of it land. Minook Creek is just east of Rampart. Baker Creek is to the south.

Demographics
Rampart first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as an unincorporated Tinneh village. It did not appear in 1890, but returned in 1900 following its becoming a mining boom rush town. In 1910, the census divided the unincorporated village into two separate returns: the majority White residents of Rampart (with 83) and the "Native Village" portion of Rampart (with 36). It is listed here as combined for a total of 119. From 1920 onwards, census enumerators returned it as one community again. In 1980, it was made a census-designated place (CDP).

As of the census of 2000, there were 45 people, 20 households, and 10 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 0.3 PD/sqmi. There were 46 housing units at an average density of 0.3 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 88.89% Native American, 6.67% White, 2.22% from other races, and 2.22% from two or more races.

There were 20 households, out of which 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.0% were married couples living together, 20.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.0% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.90.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 28.9% under the age of 18, 4.4% from 18 to 24, 37.8% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 114.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 113.3 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $22,813, and the median income for a family was $23,438. Males had a median income of $53,750 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $12,438. There were 18.2% of families and 17.9% of the population living below the poverty line, including 18.2% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Notable residents

 * Wyatt Earp, lawman, gambler, prospector
 * Josephine Marcus Earp, common law wife of Wyatt Earp
 * Rex Beach, novelist
 * Mary Jane Fate, Native American activist
 * Georgianna Lincoln, Alaska state Representative, Senator and Democratic party Congressional nominee

title: Rampart, Alaska


text:
Ruby, Alaska

Ruby (Koyukon: Tl'aa'ologhe) is an incorporated town in central western Alaska, situated on the south bank of the Yukon River at the northwesternmost tip of the Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge. It is accessible only by boat or air. A formerly sizeable gold-mining and lumbering town servicing the region, at the 2010 census the population was just 166, with only a general store and post office remaining as businesses, down from 188 in 2000.

It is served by Ruby Airport.

History
The town of Ruby was established in 1911 as the result of a gold rush. The amount of gold that is in the Fairbanks district is over 8 million troy ounces (250 tonnes) of gold, lodes have yielded over 4 million ounces. Gold was first discovered at the current townsite in 1906 on Ruby Creek. That discovery brought more prospectors to the area. In 1910 word leaked out about a gold strike on Long Creek, 30 miles south of Ruby, and a stampede was on. Discoveries on other nearby creeks followed and Ruby became the supply point for the mines.

At its peak the population was near 3,000, but by 1918 the town was in steep decline. Many of the men had left to fight in World War I, and several of the towns business people and their families were lost in the sinking of the Canadian passenger liner Sophia. A fire in 1929 destroyed much of the business district and a flood in 1931 took out what was left of buildings on the riverfront.

After World War II, Native Americans from near-by Kokrines relocated to Ruby to take advantage of the abandoned homes. There are currently fewer than 200 people living in Ruby.

The largest gold nugget ever found in Alaska, 294.10 ozt, was found near Ruby in 1998.

Geography
Ruby is located at 64.73722°N, -155.48778°W (64.737306, -155.487693).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.6 sqmi.

Demographics
Ruby first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It formally incorporated in 1973.

As of the census of 2000, there were 188 people, 68 households, and 42 families residing in the city. The population density was 24.9 PD/sqmi. There were 107 housing units at an average density of 14.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 82.98% Native American, 13.83% White, and 3.19% from two or more races.

There were 68 households, out of which 44.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.3% were married couples living together, 16.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.2% were non-families. 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.55.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 37.8% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 23.4% from 25 to 44, 25.5% from 45 to 64, and 5.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $24,375, and the median income for a family was $26,667. Males had a median income of $21,250 versus $24,167 for females. The per capita income for the city was $9,544. 32.3% of the population and 23.8% of families were below the poverty line. 45.3% of those under the age of 18 are living below the poverty line.

Education
The Yukon–Koyukuk School District operates the Merreline A. Kangas School in Ruby.

Notable people

 * Barry Clay (born 1955), Discovered Alaska's largest gold nugget, 294 oz (9.15 kg), in 1998 in the Ruby mining district
 * Emmitt Peters (1940–2020), Last rookie to win the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race (in 1975)

title: Ruby, Alaska


text:
Shageluk, Alaska

Shageluk (Deg Xinag: Łeggi Jitno’ ) is a city in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 83, down from 129 in 2000.

Geography
Shageluk is located at 62.65611°N, -159.53111°W (62.655998, -159.531132).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 12.0 sqmi, of which, 10.6 sqmi of it is land and 1.4 sqmi of it (11.53%) is water.

Demographics
Shageluk first appeared on the 1880 U.S. Census as the center of an unincorporated area called "Chageluk Settlements." It reported 150 residents, all of the Tinneh tribe. It would not report again on the census until 1920, when Shageluk appeared separately as an unincorporated village. In 1966, the village relocated 2 miles south to higher ground because of flooding and rebuilt. It formally incorporated in 1970. The old townsite is within the present city boundaries.

As of the census of 2000, there were 129 people, 36 households, and 29 families residing in the city. The population density was 12.2 PD/sqmi. There were 52 housing units at an average density of 4.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 3.10% White and 96.90% Native American.

There were 36 households, out of which 44.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.3% were married couples living together, 33.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.7% were non-families. 16.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.58 and the average family size was 3.83.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 42.6% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 14.7% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 124.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $26,667, and the median income for a family was $24,000. Males had a median income of $11,250 versus $22,083 for females. The per capita income for the city was $7,587.

Transportation
It is served by the Shageluk Airport.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the Innoko River School in Shageluk.

title: Shageluk, Alaska


text:
Stevens Village, Alaska

Stevens Village (Denyeet  in Koyukon) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 78 at the 2010 census, down from 87 in 2000.

The village is named for its first chief, Skidedlestalk “Old Steven” Stevens (1850-d. 1912~1920).

Geography
Stevens Village is located at 66.00528°N, -149.10306°W (66.005296, -149.103032), in the middle of the Yukon Flats.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 11.0 sqmi, of which, 10.4 sqmi of it is land and 0.6 sqmi of it (5.47%) is water.

Demographics
Stevens Village originally had been “Stevens Camp,” and was so listed in the 1900 Census. It next appeared on the 1910 U.S. Census as the unincorporated village of Stevens. It returned again in 1920, and in 1930, it returned as "Stephens." From 1940–60, it returned again as "Stevens." In 1970, and in every successive census, it has returned as Stevens Village. It was made a census-designated place (CDP) in 1980.

As of the census of 2000, there were 87 people, 35 households, and 15 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 8.4 PD/sqmi. There were 43 housing units at an average density of 4.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 3.45% White, 95.40% Native American, 1.15% from other races. 6.90% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 35 households, out of which 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 2.9% were married couples living together, 31.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.3% were non-families. 45.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.63.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 29.9% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 31.0% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 190.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 190.5 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $12,500, and the median income for a family was $11,563. Males had a median income of $11,250 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $7,113. There were 60.0% of families and 61.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including 70.8% of under eighteens and 25.0% of those over 64.

title: Stevens Village, Alaska


text:
Talk:Euler's criterion

[Untitled]

 * Valid proof?::

αi(p−1)/2 ≡ 1 (mod p). By Fermat's little theorem, p − 1 divides i(p − 1)/2

How does this follow?

- —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.131.60.104 (talk) 21:54, 6 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I think it follows not from Fermat's little thorem but from the definition of primitive roots: p-1 is the minimum k such that $$\alpha^k \equiv 1$$, so if $$\alpha^k \equiv 1$$ k should be a multiple of p-1.222.148.64.59 (talk) 14:34, 2 May 2011 (UTC)

I think the example could be improved: right now it doesn't illustrate the criterion. We should start with some number a, show that it is a quadratic residue because it can be written as a square, and then compute its (p-1)/2 power to show that the result is 1. Then use a nonresidue and show that you get -1. AxelBoldt 03:07 Oct 16, 2002 (UTC)
 * Keep in mind that this particular example took me 4-5 hours to complete it right. The example for a=17 first of all tries to show how we can figure it out which numbers are squares modulo a prime without using Euler's criterion for some small a. Then we can watch:
 * k2 ≡ 17 (mod p).
 * We get all p which solves it {2,4,8,16}. Now using Euler's criterion we see that:
 * 17(p-1)/2 ≡ 1 mod p; ,
 * for all p from {2,4,8,16}. We can also see that the latter is true for all p from {9,13,19,43,59,...}. --XJamRastafire 10:50 Oct 16, 2002 (UTC)

The second part of "Proof of Euler's criterion" is not complete. It shows that if a is not a q.r. modulo p then a^((p-1)/2) is not 1, but it doesn't prove that it is -1.

I have made a major cleansweep of this article. The first section really needed attention because the line of reasoning was somewhat unclear - this seems to be the case for most proofs of this criterion found on the net....most of them just cites Fermats little theorem like it was some magic wand. I hope the line of reasoning has become clear now. Holretz
 * Cleaned up your 'cleansweep' BlueRaja (talk) 03:57, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Jump in math
The very last example makes sense if you already know the criterion, but not if you do not. It claims 38=16. That is not true. 38=6561. Then 6561%17=16. I assume that use of % for mod in this article is not proper. What is the proper format for representing 6561%17 so that users who are attempting to understand the criterion will be able to follow this current missing step? -- k a i n a w ™ 02:22, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

 * It was just a typo, it should have read 38 ≡ 16. — Emil J. 13:57, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

Eulers Criterion
shouldn't this be "Eulers criterion?" —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.181.220.209 (talk) 21:09, 4 July 2010 (UTC)
 * No, why? It's a perfectly regular use of a possessive apostrophe.—Emil J. 12:38, 5 July 2010 (UTC)

Generalized Euler's criterion
We have been taught that the following is called the Generalized Euler's criterion:

 * Let N > 1 have a primitive root, and a co-prime to N. Then xk ≡ a (mod N) has a solution iff $$a^{\frac{\phi(N)}{\gcd(k, \phi(N))}} \equiv 1 \pmod{N}$$.

Now, I don't know whether this is the correct name of the above statement (so I'm not editing the article), but this article mentions neither the statement itself nor contains a reference to a place that does. At least the latter should be done. 08:46, 9 August 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ybungalobill (talk • contribs)
 * I've never heard it called the generalized Euler's criterion. = Virginia-American (talk) 12:22, 9 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Euler's criterion


text:
Takotna, Alaska

Takotna(Tochotno’) in Upper Kuskokwim) is a census-designated place (CDP) in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska, United States.  The population was 52 as of the 2010 Census, an increase of % from 50 at the 2000 Census.

Geography
According to the 2010 Census, Takotna is located at 62.98234°N, -156.08406°W (62.982342, -156.084059). It has a total area of 23.816 sqmi, all of which is land. As per the USGS National Elevation Dataset, the elevation is 492 ft.

Demographics
Takotna first appeared on the 1930 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It appeared on every successive census except in 1970, when it did not return a total. It returned in 1980 and was made a census-designated place (CDP).

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 50 people, 19 households, and 12 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2.1 PD/sqmi. There were 49 housing units at an average density of 2.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 58.00% White and 42.00% Native American.

There were 19 households, out of which 31.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 15.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 36.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.25.

In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 36.0% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 22.0% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $14,583, and the median income for a family was $17,500. Males had a median income of $51,250 versus $33,125 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,143. There were 20.0% of families and 16.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including 25.0% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

Transportation
Takotna Airport is a state owned, public use airport located one nautical mile (2 km) north of Takotna. In 2009, $21 million in federal funding was allotted to build a new airport to serve the community.

Education
The Iditarod Area School District operates the Takotna Community School.

title: Takotna, Alaska