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National Semiconductor

National Semiconductor was an American semiconductor manufacturer which specialized in analog devices and subsystems, formerly with headquarters in Santa Clara, California. The company produced power management integrated circuits, display drivers, audio and operational amplifiers, communication interface products and data conversion solutions. National's key markets included wireless handsets, displays and a variety of broad electronics markets, including medical, automotive, industrial and test and measurement applications.

On September 23, 2011, the company formally became part of Texas Instruments as the "Silicon Valley" division.

Founding
National Semiconductor was founded in Danbury, Connecticut, by Dr. Bernard J. Rothlein on May 27, 1959, when he and seven colleagues, Edward N. Clarke, Joseph J. Gruber, Milton Schneider, Robert L. Hopkins, Robert L. Koch, Richard R. Rau and Arthur V. Siefert, left their employment at the semiconductor division of Sperry Rand Corporation.

The founding of the new company was followed by Sperry Rand filing a lawsuit against National Semiconductor for patent infringement. By 1965, as it was reaching the courts, the preliminaries of the lawsuit had caused the stock value of National to be depressed. The depressed stock values allowed Peter J Sprague to invest heavily in the company with Sprague's family funds. Sprague also relied on further financial backing from a pair of West Coast investment firms and a New York underwriter to take control as the chairman of National Semiconductor. At that time Sprague was 27 years old. Jeffrey S. Young characterized the era as the beginning of venture capitalism.

That same year National Semiconductor acquired Molectro. Molectro was founded in 1962 in Santa Clara, California, by J. Nall and D. Spittlehouse, who were formerly employed at Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corporation. The acquisition also brought to National Semiconductor two experts in linear semiconductor technologies, Robert Widlar and Dave Talbert, who were also formerly employed at Fairchild. The acquisition of Molectro provided National with the technology to launch itself in the fabrication and manufacture of monolithic integrated circuits.

In 1967, Sprague hired five top executives away from Fairchild, among whom were Charles E. Sporck and Pierre Lamond. At the time of Sporck's hiring, Robert Noyce was de facto head of semiconductor operations at Fairchild and Sporck was his operations manager.

Sporck was appointed president and CEO of National. To make the deal better for Sporck's hiring and appointment at half his former salary at Fairchild, Sporck was allotted a substantial share of National's stock. In essence, Sporck took four of his personnel from Fairchild with him as well as three others from TI, Perkin-Elmer, and Hewlett-Packard to form a new eight-man team at National Semiconductor. Incidentally, Sporck had been Widlar's superior at Fairchild before Widlar left Fairchild to join Molectro after a compensation dispute with Sporck.

In 1968, National shifted its headquarters from Danbury, Connecticut, to Santa Clara, California. However, like many companies, National retained its registration as a Delaware corporation, for legal and financial expediency.

Over the years National Semiconductor acquired several companies like Fairchild Semiconductor (1987), and Cyrix (1997). However, over time National Semiconductor spun off these acquisitions. Fairchild Semiconductor became a separate company again in 1997, and the Cyrix microprocessors division was sold to VIA Technologies of Taiwan in 1999.

From 1997 to 2002, National enjoyed a large amount of publicity and awards with the development of the Cyrix Media Center, Cyrix WebPad, WebPad Metro and National Origami PDA concept devices created by National's Conceptual Products Group. Based largely on the success of the WebPad, National formed the Information Appliance Division (highly integrated processors & "internet gadgets") in 1998. The Information Appliance Division was sold to AMD in 2003.

Other businesses dealing in such products as digital wireless chipsets, image sensors, and PC I/O chipsets have also been recently closed down or sold off as National has reincarnated itself as a high-performance analog semiconductor company.

The transformation of National Semiconductor
Peter Sprague, Pierre Lamond and the affectionately called Charlie Sporck worked hand-in-hand, with support of the board of directors to transform the company into a multinational and world-class semiconductor concern. Immediately after becoming CEO, Sporck started a historic price war among semiconductor companies, which then trimmed the number of competitors in the field. Among the casualties to exit the semiconductor business were General Electric and Westinghouse.

Cost control, overhead reduction and a focus on profits implemented by Sporck was the key element to National surviving the price war and subsequently in 1981 becoming the first semiconductor company to reach the US$1 billion annual sales mark. However, the foundation that made National successful was its expertise in analog electronics, TTL (transistor–transistor logic) and MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) integrated circuit technologies. As they had while employed in Fairchild, Sporck and Lamond directed National Semiconductor towards the growing industrial and commercial markets and began to rely less on military and aerospace contracts. Those decisions coupled with inflationary growth in use of computers provided the market for the expansion of National. Meanwhile, sources of funds associated with Sprague coupled with creative structuring of cash flow buffering due to Sporck and Lamond provided the financing required for that expansion. Lamond and Sporck had also managed to attract and extract substantial funds to finance the expansion.

Among Sporck's cost control efforts was his offshore outsourcing of labour. National Semiconductor was among the pioneers in the semiconductor industry to invest in facilities to perform final manufacturing operations of integrated circuits in developing countries, especially in Southeast Asia.

National Semiconductor's manufacturing improvements under Sporck (in collaboration with Lamond) was enabled not by emphasizing process innovation but by improving and standardizing processes already established by other companies like Fairchild and Texas Instruments, as well as by frequent raiding to hire from Fairchild's pool of talents.

Weaknesses of Sporck's leadership
National Semiconductor under Sporck was not particularly invested in marketing strategies, even though it had the vision to launch itself into new and apparent opportunities in the consumer market. Sporck had applied strategies that made National Semiconductor function as a low-cost mass manufacturer of semiconductor commodities.

A few key executives and engineers left the company in 1981. Among them was Pierre Lamond, who had been the chief IC designer (now partner at Sequoia Capital). Robert Swanson's departure in the same year to found Linear Technology was another indication of the appropriateness of organisational strategies of National Semiconductor under Sporck. "For 13 of 14 years at National, I was a gung-ho guy. Then, the company started to get big. I kept looking at all the companies whose butts we'd been kicking. And then National started organizing itself like them. It was frustrating." Swanson said in the May 13, 1991, Business Journal-San Jose.

Sporck's strategy of outsourcing sales to external sources meant National Semiconductor did not have sufficient or responsive resources to respond to requests from innovators, inventors and academic research—which would have been helpful in the technological innovation boom of the 1980s.

National Semiconductor's lack and loss of innovation meant it was producing products that were easily copied and reproducible. It may have been the cheapest manufacturer in the United States, but it was not the cheapest compared to the Asian manufacturers. This weakness in National Semiconductor was evident in its failure to compete during the globalisation of Japanese semiconductor companies in the 1980s, followed by globalisation of Taiwanese and South Korean companies.

Leadership under Gilbert F. Amelio
On May 27, 1991, Charles E. Sporck was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO and president. Amelio was then president of Rockwell International's semiconductor division and had a Ph.D. in physics from Georgia Institute of Technology. Amelio had also been formerly employed at Fairchild.

Amelio was faced with a company plagued with over-capacity and shrinking market share. Amelio found that, just prior to his taking helm, despite having spent US$1 billion over the last five years on research and development, National Semiconductor had a disappointing record in new products. The Business section of The New York Times January 11, 1991, reflected the over-capacity generated by Sporck that had to be inherited by Amelio.

Amelio disposed of the non-core products and assets in which National Semiconductor had no market motivation or expertise and turned the company towards its core expertise—analog semiconductors. National Semiconductor under Amelio emphasized on reduction of cost of sales, improving capacity utilization, scrap reduction and cycle-time reduction. Redundant facilities were sold and consolidated.

With the progress of restructuring, National Semiconductor increased revenues each year. In 1994, National Semiconductor under Amelio posted record net revenues of US$2.29 billion. It was also a time when US semiconductor companies had regained market leadership. Amelio introduced benchmarking to evaluate productivity, restructured marketing strategies and reorganised management by introducing modern management practices and workplace environments.

Amelio divided products into two divisions: Standard Products Group which comprised low-margin, logic and memory chips—commodity products which were more susceptible to cyclical demands and through which National Semiconductor had matured; and Communications & Computing Group which comprised high-margin, value-added analog and mixed-signal chips. Amelio's division of products seemed to prepare National Semiconductor for the eventual disposal of low-margin commodity products, which came to fruition later with the sale of a reconstituted Fairchild.

National Semiconductor under Amelio chose to build a brand new eight-inch (200 mm) wafer fabrication plant in South Portland, Maine. It chose to divest itself of its then somewhat new plant in Migdal HaEmek, Israel, which became Tower Semiconductor.

In 1995, Amelio was elected as the chairman of the board of directors of National Semiconductor.

In 1996, Amelio accepted an invitation from Apple Computer, a customer of National Semiconductor, to join its board of directors. Troubles at Apple later prompted the board to invite Amelio to take on the position of CEO, which he accepted in February 1996. National Semiconductor announced the resignation of Amelio as the company's president, chairman and chief executive officer on February 2, 1996.

Leadership under Brian L. Halla
National Semiconductor announced the appointment of Brian L. Halla as its chairman, president and CEO on May 3, 1996. Halla was then the head of LSI logic products division. Prior to LSI, he had been with Intel for 14 years.

Halla reinforced Amelio's emphasis on the expertise of National Semiconductor in analog technology. He also was, on occasions, an evangelist for analog technology. However, he found that National Semiconductor under Amelio had too few product offerings. Halla embarked on a diversification into personal computer and graphics business.

He advocated PC-on-a-chip (aka system-on-a-chip) as a business direction for National Semiconductor. During his tenure at LSI, LSI had successfully applied similar concepts. However, LSI had steered clear of getting involved with PC technologies that would make it a competitor with Intel. Halla held the vision that information appliances (IAs) would succeed the personal computer as a trend. He predicted that IAs would overtake sales of PCs by the year 2000.

To achieve the goal, National Semiconductor started acquiring companies that would provide the needed technological complements. Among the acquisitions were Cirrus Logic Inc's PicoPower business, for its specialised expertise in small form factor devices; Mediamatics Inc, which makes multimedia connectivity products; Future Integrated Systems Inc, a PC graphics company; Gulbransen Inc, a digital audio technology maker; ComCore Semiconductor Inc, a maker of digital signal processing for LANs; Cyrix, the maker of Intel x86 clones.

On March 11, 1997, National Semiconductor Corporation announced the US$550 million sale of a reconstituted Fairchild to the management of Fairchild with the backing of Sterling LLC, a unit of Citicorp Venture Capital. Fairchild carried with it what was mostly the Standard Products group previously segregated by Amelio. Incidentally, the effective price of acquisition of Cyrix was also US$550 million.

On November 17, 1997, National Semiconductor and Cyrix announced the merger of the companies. Cyrix would become an autonomous wholly owned subsidiary. Halla had earlier emphasized that National was after the low-end CPU market as part of the system-on-a-chip pursuit and therefore would not place emphasis on Cyrix's current development of high-end 6x86MX design. However, Cyrix later announced that its merger with National Semiconductor would not change its development or marketing plans.

The acquisition of an independent-minded Cyrix subsequently turned National Semiconductor from a collaborator into a competitor with Intel. National lost its business with Intel. Intel reinstated the relationship after the sale of Cyrix.

The acquisition of Cyrix also carried with it a business obligation to use the IBM Microelectronics Division to fabricate the Cyrix chips,, as well as technical constraint to do the same, while National Semiconductor had plans to transfer their fabrication to its South Portland fab. National incurred huge losses in its processor business and announced the sale of Cyrix to VIA in 1999.

In 1999, National Semiconductor also put out feelers for selling if not the whole, then a majority stake of, its fabrication plant in South Portland, Maine. However, that did not come to fruition.

On June 28, 2000, National Semiconductor and TSMC Taiwan signed an agreement that would allow transfer of advanced fabrication technologies from TSMC to the National Semiconductor fabrication plant in South Portland, Maine.

On March 11, 2009, National announced plans to close its assembly and test plant in Suzhou, China, and its wafer fabrication plant in Arlington, Texas.

On October 9, 2009, Brian Halla announced his retirement as National's CEO. He remains executive chairman. The company promoted Donald (Don) Macleod, who had previously served as the company's president and chief operating officer, to CEO.

Leadership under Donald Macleod
Don Macleod became National Semiconductor's chief executive officer on November 30, 2009. He was named chairman of the board on May 31, 2010.

Acquisition by Texas Instruments
On April 4, 2011, Texas Instruments announced that it had agreed to buy National Semiconductor for $6.5 billion in cash. Texas Instruments paid $25 per share of National Semiconductor stock, an 80% premium over the April 4, 2011, closing share price of $14.07. The deal made Texas Instruments one of the world's largest makers of analog technology components. On September 19, 2011, the Chinese minister approved the merger, the last one needed. The companies formally merged on September 23, 2011.

Manufacturing locations
National Semiconductor also had operations in Migdal (tower) Ha'Emeq (valley), Israel. National Semiconductor had six inch (152 mm) wafer fabrication operations there. In 1993, National Semiconductor divested to retain 19% ownership of the plant. The plant in Migdal Ha'Emeq, Israel is now constituted as Tower Semiconductor of Israel.

Products

 * analog circuits
 * operational amplifiers
 * buffers
 * comparators
 * integrated circuits
 * regulators
 * voltage references
 * audio circuits
 * microcontrollers
 * network products
 * data converters
 * interface circuits
 * display technology
 * temperature sensors
 * simple switcher

History of National Semiconductor logo and product identification

The following picture excerpts illustrate the history of identification marks of National Semiconductor.

title: National Semiconductor


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Talk:Protected area

Renaming
I have found the following list in the National park article. They are probably candidates for redirecting/renaming "Protected areas of [country]", as I already did with Australia. That way they are more inclusive and areas other than national parks can be included (see WikiProject Protected Areas).

 * National parks (Australia)
 * National parks (Brazil)
 * National parks (Canada)
 * National parks (England and Wales)
 * National parks (France)
 * National parks (Germany)
 * National parks (India)
 * National parks (Ireland)
 * National parks (Kenya)
 * National parks (New Zealand)
 * National parks (Netherlands)
 * National parks (Northern Ireland)
 * National parks (Poland)
 * National parks (Scotland)
 * National parks (Slovenia)
 * National parks (Sweden)
 * National parks (South Africa)
 * National parks (Tanzania)
 * National parks (Uganda)
 * National parks (United States)

Guy 19:33 Oct 7, 2002 (UTC)
 * I disagree. National parks are a special type of protected area that should be listed separately as they are significant areas of national and even world heritage importance -- kiwiinapanic 12:09 19 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Freshwater protected areas
Although protected area networks have been developed in terrestrial and marine environments, the concept is not well developed for freshwater environments. Few scientific papers are referenced through this phrase, and national freshwater protected area programs are under-developed in all nations. Sites protected through the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 1971 form the largest network of freshwater protected areas worldwide (www.ramsar.org) but rivers and underground freshwater ecosystems are under-represented in this system.

Please create more "Wildlife of ....." articles for all countries.
.... and kindly contribute to these new articles when you get time, and request others too.

See Wildlife of India for reference.

Thanks

Atulsnischal 18:13, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

Invitation for WikiProject Protected areas of India & Conservation
If you are interested in Environment, Wildlife, Conservation and Nature etc. please join in to contribute, even starting off with making new stub class articles will be a great contribution.

Sincerely

Atulsnischal 16:36, 5 February 2007 (UTC)
 * We need senior administrators or people who are long in Wikipedia to help us with the templates and for other further helps. Details can be seen in its talk page. IT's urgent. We want this wkiproject to be added to the exsisting WP:IND banner. Amartyabag   TALK2ME  05:02, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Statistics
I think it would be nice to add a table with total size of protected areas per country, both in km² and % of countries' area. for example:

Australia | 895 280 km² | 11.5% (http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/locations.html)

Nicaragua | 22 421 km² | 17.3%   (http://www.marena.gob.ni/areas_protegidas/estructura.htm)

If we could add columns for the different IUCN categories, it would be even better, but the data is quite hard to get. Australia's department of the environment's website is really good for that. But most countries don't provide as much detail.AtikuX (talk) 07:31, 10 May 2008 (UTC)
 * here's a start... Elekhh (talk) 05:35, 30 September 2009 (UTC)

Reference: World Database on Protected Areas: Summary of protection by Country and Territory on the 31st January 2008, retrieved 2009-09-30

Protected areas title changes

 * Many Protected areas articles have been recently renamed. Creators or major editors of any Protected areas of ... article may be interested in the discussion at Talk:Protected_areas_in_Tamil_Nadu.--Marcus (talk) 00:31, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Protected Areas vs. protected areas
There's some discussion at wt:PAREAS about definition of the term protected areas. I wonder if the use of the term in Wikipedia should be brought back to being about Protected Areas defined and listed by the IUCN only. This protected areas article used capitalized Protected Areas from its origination in 2002 until this Nov 2004 edit. doncram (talk) 01:24, 1 December 2009 (UTC)
 * You have no support anywhere for your changes. Simply you yourself repeating what say and other editors disagreeing with you does not justify any of our edits. IUCN does not own the term 'protected areas', which is a common enough English phrase of known and obvious meaning, not including silly statements. Hmains (talk) 01:23, 14 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Umm, you're simply repeating yourself. No it is not obvious what a Wikipedia article on "Protected areas" should cover.  Discussing at wt:PAREAS.  This note here is to point others to the discussion at wt:PAREAS. doncram (talk) 02:10, 14 December 2009 (UTC)
 * The article is topic is "protected area(s)". Logic dictates that the scope should be "areas" (a term that presumably could designate anything from about 1 cm2 to many thousands of km2) that are "protected" (meaning that some sort of legal arrangement exists to prevent actions in some way deleterious to the area). It's not "protected areas of ecological interest or wildlife value," nor is it "IUCN-recognized protected areas." Please refrain from editing it in a manner that suggests that Wikipedia does not deem protected areas to be "protected areas" unless they meet one of these definitions. --Orlady (talk) 02:26, 14 December 2009 (UTC)

 * It is fine to have a WikiProject Protected areas, but the scope of this article should be discussed here. This article is about legally protected geographic areas. There is already an article World Commission on Protected Areas which could use some expansion, and subcategories under Category:Protected areas by World Conservation Union category that list the IUCN areas. There is no need for the limitation proposed by doncram, and, in fact, it would be counter-productive, leaving non-IUCN protected areas orphaned. --Bejnar (talk) 17:11, 30 December 2009 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
One or more portions of this article duplicated other source(s). The material was copied from: http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/PAPS-016.pdf. Infringing material has been rewritten or removed and must not be restored, unless it is duly released under a compatible license. (For more information, please see "using copyrighted works from others" if you are not the copyright holder of this material, or "donating copyrighted materials" if you are.) For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or published material; such additions will be deleted. Contributors may use copyrighted publications as a source of information, but not as a source of sentences or phrases. Accordingly, the material may be rewritten, but only if it does not infringe on the copyright of the original or plagiarize from that source. Please see our guideline on non-free text for how to properly implement limited quotations of copyrighted text. Wikipedia takes copyright violations very seriously, and persistent violators will be blocked from editing. While we appreciate contributions, we must require all contributors to understand and comply with these policies. Thank you. Moonriddengirl (talk) 18:57, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

ref wrong
https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/PAPS-016.pdf is the correct ref for ref 14 - it does not seem easily editable like it was in wikipedia so I can only list it here — Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.244.74.200 (talk) 08:50, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

Secure Digital
someone to make article for Secure Digital's Protected area — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.5.158.45 (talk) 23:24, 27 October 2015 (UTC)

natural <-> ecological ?
In the first sentence of this article is stated: "Protected areas ...(have) .... natural, ecological or cultural values." What I want to know is: what is exactly the difference between natural and ecological in this sentence? Could anyone please explain that to me? Many thanks, --Dick Bos (talk) 07:58, 19 August 2017 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Policy Analysis
Minor Improvements to Start

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I would like to propose a few changes to this article before editing them directly.

First, under the "By area" section, notable protected areas and examples of such should be included from all regions of the Earth, including Asia and other countries as well. Protected areas for conservation are not only limited to the mentioned nations of Australia, U.S., Nicaragua, etc., and so the article should reflect that.

In the section "Effectiveness," I believe the phrase "The Asian country Bhutan" should be omitted. Instead, it might make more sense to simply say "The country of Bhutan..." and proceed with the rest of the statement.

The article seems unbiased and informational, so good work!

Within the section of "Protection of natural resources," I think the inclusion of "ecosystem services" is vital. Protected areas also serve as notable sources of ecosystem services such as the regulation of climate, air quality, and water quality. A section dedicated to the discussion of the unspoken ecosystem services provided by an ecosystem's biodiversity may be useful here.

In the "Challenges" section, it would be useful to discuss the cost and governance of large-scale implementation of protected areas, and the enforcement of such. I will include a source that discusses these challenges, but protected areas are yet to encompass a majority of the available ecological environment because of the difficulty in managing the existence of humanity alongside a protected area and what consequences the implementation of a protected area may have on a society that has previously relied on a natural resource or ecosystem service within that area. This information seems underrepresented in this article. Ijxw33 (talk) 20:19, 25 April 2022 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ijxw33 (talk • contribs) 20:08, 25 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: BSC 4052 Conservation Biology
— Assignment last updated by Marissabasi (talk) 02:37, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

Indigenous rights
Many indigenous communities roundly criticize this method of "fortress conservation", citing, primarily, violations of human rights in enforcement. Should this take a more central role in the article? I see oblique references to it, but it feels eurocentric and inaccurate not to include the indigenous respectives. 67.173.232.108 (talk) 13:39, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

 * @67.173.232.108 I believe the most high-profile and well-reported incident of this would be seen here: https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/tomwarren/wwf-world-wide-fund-nature-parks-torture-death. For further reading, Survival International has published "Decolonize Conservation", which covers the topic is much greater detail. 67.173.232.108 (talk) 13:43, 23 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I (made an account and) looked into the situation of this on Wikipedia, it appears there is an article about Fortress conservation. My intuition is that these articles cover the same topic, but from different viewpoints. Fortress conservation is incredibly useful supplementary information to Protected area from an indigenous, rather than European or American, perspective. Would it be appropriate to, at the very least, link Fortress conservation within the lead of this article as a first step to incorporating broader perspectives and maintaining a NPOV? TaliAu (talk) 14:09, 23 June 2023 (UTC)

Map colors
On "World map with percentage of each country under protection," aren't the colors a little severe? I think there should be at least one country that's some shade of green.

72.3% is still yellow. It is kind of nuts to expect any country to protect so much. LesbianTiamat (talk) 05:17, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

Are there any protected areas that are not considered nature reserves?
The distinction between protected areas (as defined by the IUCN) and nature reserves seems rather vague. If all protected areas are also nature reserves, that would imply that there is no (de facto) difference between the terms, and therefore warrant the merging of the articles. ZFT (talk) 21:56, 24 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Protected area


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Bhutamata

Bhutamata (भूतमता) is a frighful form of the Hindu goddess Parvati, sometimes also regarded to be the shakti (divine feminine energy) of the deity Kartikeya.

Legend
In the Skanda Purana, the deity Kartikeya allowed the bhutas (ghosts), pishachas, and vetalas along the banks of the river Sarasvati to consume Vedic ritual offerings that were performed incorrectly. However, these beings eventually started to consume all the offerings made to the devas, who complained to Kartikeya. Out of the deity's fury, a twelve-eyed goddess emerged from between his eyebrows and sought to serve him. Kartikeya commanded her to bring the disobedient creatures to submission and restore them to right conduct. Accompanied by a host of numerous goddesses, the goddess attacked the creatures, who quickly propitiated her. Pleased, the goddess offered a boon to the creatures. They requested that she be Bhutamata (the mother of the bhutas) and promised to never transgress the laws of Kartikeya.

title: Bhutamata


text:
User:Butik

If you want, don't bother to write to me: pbuciak@elka.pw.edu.pl

title: User:Butik


text:
Bhoot

Bhoot or Bhūta may refer to:

 * Bhoot (ghost), the ghost of a deceased person or a disembodied spirit in the Indian subcontinent
 * Bhoot (film), a 2003 Indian horror film
 * Bhoot Returns, its 2012 sequel
 * Bhoot – Part One: The Haunted Ship, a 2020 Bollywood film starring Vicky Kaushal, spinoff of the 2003 film
 * Mahābhūta, classical elements in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy also represented by the name Bhuta-Shakti or primordial states of matter and the connected spirits
 * Bhut jolokia, ghost pepper
 * Bhut, Nawanshahr, a village in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district of Punjab State, India

title: Bhoot


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Brahmani (Matrika)

Brahmani (Sanskrit: ब्रह्माणी, IAST: Brahmāṇī) or Brahmi (Sanskrit: ब्राह्मी, IAST: Brāhmī), is one of the seven Hindu mother goddesses known as Sapta Matrikas. She is a form of Saraswati and is considered as the Shakti of the creator god Brahma in Hinduism. She is an aspect of Adi Shakti, possessing the "Rajas Guna" and is therefore the source of Brahma's power.

Legends

When Brahma was in meditation for the creation of the universe, his body was divided into two parts. They then formed the gods and goddesses, whereby one part was male and the other one female. Thus female parts became Gayatri, Sati Savitri, Saraswati, and others.

Iconography
The goddess is depicted yellow in colour with four heads and four(or six) arms. Like Brahma, she holds a japamala, a kamandalu (water pot), a lotus stalk, bells, vedas and the trident while she is seated on a hamsa (identified with a swan or goose) as her vahana (mount or vehicle). Sometimes, she is shown seated on a lotus with a swan on her banner. She wears various ornaments and is distinguished by her basket-shaped crown called .

Kuldevi
She is the Kuldevi (clan goddess) of Vankar (Weaver),Golvadiyas(subcast of leuva Patels), Prajapati, nagar brahmins, darji samaj and other communities of Rajasthan and Kutch, including Dodiya Rajputs and the KGK Community.

Brahmani temples in India

 * Brahmani Mataji Temple at Baran in Rajasthan.
 * Brahmani Mataji Temple at Pallo near Hanumangarh, Rajasthan.
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Village Brahmani, Hanumanganj, near Ballia in Uttar Pradesh.
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Bharmour near Chamba, Himachal Pradesh.
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Dingucha near Kalol, Gujarat.
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Jamiyatpura, Gandhinagar
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Sorsan, Rajasthan
 * Brahmani Mata Temple at Anjar.
 * Brahmani Mata temple at Visnagar.
 * Brahmani Mata Temple
 * In Narsoli village of Bhiloda district (Gujarat) there are also 1000 year old temples of Shri Brahmani Mata and Shri Eklingji Mahadev which were destroyed in the Mughal attack, their archeological remains are still present and Eklingji temple is being rebuilt at the same place.

title: Brahmani (Matrika)


text:
User:Kent Sandvik

Email: sandvik at mac.com

Interests: Computer, Tibetan Buddhism.

title: User:Kent Sandvik


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Brahmaloka

Brahmaloka (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मालोक, IAST: Brahmāloka) or Satyaloka (Sanskrit: सत्यलोक) sometimes refers to the realm of Brahma, the creator god, a member of the Trimurti along with Vishnu and Shiva, along with his consort Saraswati. It is also referred to as Brahmapura, in the Puranas. Brahmaloka also refers to the abode of Brahman.

Brahmaloka is described to be 60,000,000 miles above the Prajapati loka and is considered to be of great soteriological significance. It is a sphere where the inhabitants never again know death, dwelling perpetually in the company of yogins, and drinking the excellent nectar of yoga.

Location
In the center of Brahmaloka is Brahmapura, a huge palace where Brahma resides.

Description
Brahmaloka is a realm composed entirely of Brahman, considered superior to the Svarga loka and full of immortal energy, knowledge and bliss. It is also known as the planet of the Bhagavān.

The above statement shows that Brahmaloka is an eternal Vaikuntha that is neither created nor located within the material realm and is a home for the Supreme Soul.

"Brahman-lokah esa atma-lokah "Brahmaloka is the planet of the Supreme Soul.""

The Chandogya Upanishad says in 8:1

""Within the Brahmapura is an abode, a small lotus-flower within which is a small space (antarakasa). What is within that, should be searched out. That, assuredly, is what one should desire to understand."" In Chandogya Upanishad 8.4.3, Brahmaloka is mentioned as a realm that one achieves by living a life of brahmacarya: "So, only those who find this world of brahman (brahmaloka) by living the life of a celibate student (brahmacarya) come to possess that world, and they obtain complete freedom of movement in all the worlds."

Buddhism
In Buddhism, Brahmaloka refers to the highest celestial worlds in existence, the abode of the Brahmas. It consists of twenty heavens, namely:

 * the three ordinary Brahma-worlds
 * the three Śubhakṛtsna worlds
 * the three Ābhāsvara worlds
 * the two Bṛhatphala worlds
 * the five Suddhāvāsā worlds,
 * the four Arūpa worlds,

All except the four Arūpa worlds are classed among the Rūpa worlds (the inhabitants of which are corporeal). The inhabitants of the Brahmaloka are free from sensual desires. Brahmaloka consists only of higher devas or higher celestial beings called Brahmas and rebirth in the Brahma world is the result of great virtue due to meditation. The Jataka tales also contain various instances of ascetics who practiced meditation, being reborn after death in Brahmaloka. Furthermore, it is believed that while the rest of the world will be destroyed at the end of a Maha-Kalpa, the Brahmaloka will survive and that the first beings to be born on Earth will come from the ābhassara Brahma world. The Brahmās here are represented as visiting earth and taking an interest in the affairs of men. This is why Nārada descends from the Brahmaloka to dispel the heresies of King Angati in the Lord Brahma-Nārada tale in the Mahanipata Jataka.

Brahmaloka in Theravada Buddhism
Arupa worlds are the highest among all divine worlds Brahma worlds. Since the beings born in these Brahman worlds with very long lifespans are formless worlds, many Buddhas were born and preached the Dhamma, even if the beings are filled to the point of Ama Maha Nirvana, they do not get to hear the Dhamma. During the time when our great Bodhisattva was performing difficult tasks, Alara Kalama and Uddakaraputta, who were teachers, were born in these worlds after giving birth to Dhyana, so they did not get nirvana in this Buddha seat.

Those who have acquired formative meditation will be born in the formless Brahman worlds after death, and those who have attained higher formless meditation will be born in the formless Brahman worlds after death. For that, the Dhyanas acquired must die without deterioration. But worldly meditation taken as Ashtasamapatti can deteriorate. Therefore, those dhyanas acquired by meditating with vigor should be preserved without deterioration.

The kirya mind was born in connection with the rupavachara and arupavachara meditations associated with Buddhas and Arhats. These rupavachara, arupavachara meditation minds are also called Mahaggata minds in Abhidhamma. Meritorious minds, meritorious minds and meritorious minds are considered for those who are not rahats. Arhats will have milky hearts. There is no power of reciprocation in the mind. In this way, like the emotional mind, the Pratishandhi mind is also a Vipaka mind. That is, what is the purpose of the mind is also the purpose of the Pratishandhi mind. And among the above-mentioned Brahma worlds, there is also a Bambalo, where the fourth Dhyana Vaduvas are born as Asanjasanta. Sages, yogis who have grown into intense meditation, are born here and have only a physical body. There is no mind. Yogis take the mind out of the body by gradually focusing the mind on one goal at the same time as the fourth meditation. For this one must have strong mental concentration. This world of Brahma is born from animals in the same posture as when it was born from the world of man. Chaturtha Dhyanaddo should resolve to be born in this world of Brahman. Even though this is a metaphorical world, it should be abandoned when the specified life span is over. The reason for this is that the impermanence that affects other worlds is common to this world of Brahma. Also, when born in the worlds of Brahma, such as Suddhavasa, the lifespan is very long, so a noble person who has all the paramitas can listen to the teachings of a Buddha and see nirvana in the worlds of Brahma.

The Buddha says so because during the lifetime of the Brahman worlds, a large number of Buddhas appear in the world. All the Buddhas who appear in this way go to the world of snakes to preach the Dhamma.

And the nature and composition of the worlds of Brahma are as follows. That is the people of the great Brahma reside in the Brahma Parisajja. In the Brahma Purohita resides the advisors of the great Brahma The Great Brahman is the world where the Great Brahman resides. Phrathabhaya is a world of Brahman with dim light. The light of appamanabha spreads immeasurably. In Abhassara resides the Brahmas whose body light is very vast. In Paritta Subha dwells the Brahmans who spread their light in a little way. Brahman, who spreads the immeasurable light of the infinite bliss, closes. Brahmas who radiate unchanging bodily light in Subha Kinha reside. The Brahmins who have attained Mahatphala Mahanisamsa in Vehappala are closed. The Dhamma also mentions the above-mentioned body light as Khyama Prabhava.

According to Buddhism, the number of Brahma worlds Twenty is more than the number of divine worlds. According to the teaching of Buddhism, the details about Brahma Loka are given below.

rupāvacara brahma lōka
1. brahma pārisadya

2. brahma purōhitaya

3. mahā brahmaya

4. parittābhaya

5. appamānābhaya

6. ābhassaraya

7. parittasubhaya

8. appamāna subhaya

9. subhakiṇhaka

10.vehapphalaya

11.asaagna talaya

śuddhāvāsa brahma lōka
12. avīhaya

13. atappaya

14. sudassaya

15. sudassiya

16. akaniṣṭaya

arūpāvacara brahma lōka
17. ākāsañacāyatanaya

18. viññāacāyatanaya

19. ākicañāyatanaya

20. nēvasaññānāsaññāyatanaya

Literature

 * Self-Realization Brahmaanubhava: The Advaitic Perspective of Shankara: Brahmaanubhava: The Advaitic Perspective of Shankara (Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series Iiib, South Asia, V. 4) von Vensus A. George von Council for Research in Values & (January 2001) - p. 103
 * Sharma, Shubhra. Life In The Upanishads. Abhinav Publications; 1 edition (February 14, 2011)
 * chhandogya upanishad as PDF
 * Twitchell, Paul (1988) The Far Country. Illuminated Way Publishing. ISBN 0-914766-91-0
 * Twitchell, The Far Country as PDF

title: Brahmaloka


text:
1st Dalai Lama

Gedun Drupa (1391–1474) was considered posthumously to have been the 1st Dalai Lama.

Biography

Gedun Drupa was born in a cow-shed in Gyurmey Rupa near Sakya in the Tsang region of central Tibet, the son of Gonpo Dorjee and Jomo Namkha Kyi, nomadic tribespeople. He was raised as a shepherd until the age of seven. His birth name (according to the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center, his personal name) was Péma Dorjee (, "Vajra Lotus").

Ordination
Later he was placed in Narthang Monastery. In 1405, he took his śrāmaṇera (novitiate) vows from the abbot of Narthang, Khenchen Drupa Sherap. When he was 20 years old, in about 1411 received the name Gedun Drupa upon taking the vows of a bhikṣu (monk) from the abbot of Narthang Monastery. Also at this age he became a student of the scholar and reformer Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), who some say was his uncle. Around this time he also became the first abbot of Ganden Monastery, founded by Tsongkhapa himself in 1409.

Career
By the middle of his life, Gedun Drupa had become one of the most esteemed scholar-saints in the country. Gedun Drupa founded the major monastery of Tashi Lhunpo at Shigatse, which later became the seat of the Panchen Lamas.

Gedun Drupa had no political power. It was in the hands of viceroys such as the Sakyas, the prince of Tsang, and the Mongolian Khagan. The political role of the Dalai Lamas only began with the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama.

He remained the abbot of Tashi Lhunpo Monastery until he died while meditating in 1474 at the age of 84 (83 by Western reckoning).

Legends
Tradition states that Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, promised the First Dalai Lama in one of her visions "...that she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas." Since the time of Gedun Gyatso, who formalized the system, monks have gone to the lake to meditate when seeking visions with guidance on finding the next reincarnation.

Notable contemporaries
The Samding Dorje Phagmo (1422–1455), the highest female incarnation in Tibet, was a contemporary of Gedun Drupa. Her teacher, the Bodongpa Panchen Chogley Namgyal was also one of his teachers; he received many teachings and empowerments from him.

Works
Some of the most famous texts Gedun Drupa wrote were:
 * Sunlight on the Path to Freedom, a commentary on Abhidharma-kosa
 * Crushing the Forces of Evil to Dust, an epic poem on the life and liberating deeds of Gautama Buddha
 * Song of the Eastern Snow Mountain, a poem dedicated to Je Tsongkhapa
 * Praise of the Venerable Lady Khadiravani Tara, an homage to Tara

title: 1st Dalai Lama


text:
Buddhi

 * In Hindu mythology, Buddhi is one of the wives of Ganesha.

Buddhi (Sanskrit: बुद्धि) refers to the intellectual faculty and the power to "form and retain concepts, reason, discern, judge, comprehend, understand".

Etymology
Buddhi (बुद्धि) is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit root Budh (बुध् ), which literally means "to wake, be awake, observe, heed, attend, learn, become aware of, to know, be conscious again". The term appears extensively in Rigveda and other Vedic literature. Buddhi means, states Monier Williams, the power to "form, retain concepts; intelligence, reason, intellect, mind", the intellectual faculty and the ability to "discern, judge, comprehend, understand" something.

Buddhi is a feminine Sanskrit noun derived from *budh, to be awake, to understand, to know. The same root is the basis for the more familiar masculine form Buddha and the abstract noun bodhi.

Buddhi contrasts from manas (मनस्) which means "mind", and ahamkara (अहंंकाऱ) which means "ego, I-sense in egotism".

Usage
In Sankhya and yogic philosophy both the mind and the ego are forms in the realm of nature (prakriti) that have emerged into materiality as a function of the three gunas (ग़ुण) through a misapprehension of purusha (पुरूष) (the consciousness-essence of the jivatman). Discriminative in nature (बुद्धि निश्चयात्मिका चित्त-वृत्ति), buddhi is that which is able to discern truth (satya) from falsehood and thereby to make wisdom possible.

The Sānkhya-Yoga view
According to the Sānkhya-Yoga view, buddhi is in essence unconscious, and as such, cannot be an object of its own consciousness. This means that it can neither apprehend an object nor manifest itself.

In the Yoga Sutra, it is explained that the buddhi cannot illuminate itself, since it itself is the object of sight, "na tat svhāsam draśhyatvāt".

title: Buddhi


text:
Budhi Pallien

In Hinduism, Budhi Pallien (pronounced BOO-dee PAL-ee-en) is a fearsome goddess of forests and jungles, who roams northern India, particularly Assam, in the form of a tiger. This wise goddess can change shape, from human to feline form and often travels with a companion tiger as she protects animals, with which she communicates.

title: Budhi Pallien


text:
San Remo conference

The San Remo conference was an international meeting of the post-World War I Allied Supreme Council as an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference, held at Castle Devachan in Sanremo, Italy, from 19 to 26 April 1920. The San Remo Resolution passed on 25 April 1920 determined the allocation of Class "A" League of Nations mandates for the administration of three then-undefined Ottoman territories in the Middle East: "Palestine", "Syria" and "Mesopotamia". The boundaries of the three territories were "to be determined [at a later date] by the Principal Allied Powers", leaving the status of outlying areas such as Zor and Transjordan unclear.

The conference was attended by the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I who were represented by the prime ministers of Britain (David Lloyd George), France (Alexandre Millerand), Italy (Francesco Nitti) and by Japan's Ambassador Keishirō Matsui.

Prior events
It was convened following the February Conference of London where the allies met to discuss the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and the negotiation of agreements that would become the Treaty of Sèvres.

On 30 September 1918 supporters of the Arab Revolt in Damascus had declared a government loyal to Sharif Hussein, who had been declared "King of the Arabs" by religious leaders and other notables in Mecca. During the meetings of the Council of Four in 1919, British Prime Minister Lloyd George stated that the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence was the basis for the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which proposed an independent Arab state or confederation of states. In July 1919 the parliament of Greater Syria had refused to acknowledge any right claimed by the French Government to any part of Syrian territory.

On 6 January 1920 Hussein's son Prince Faisal initialled an agreement with French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau which acknowledged "the right of the Syrians to unite to govern themselves as an independent nation". A Pan-Syrian Congress, meeting in Damascus, had proclaimed an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria on 8 March 1920. The new state included modern Syria and Jordan, portions of northern Mesopotamia which had been set aside under the Sykes–Picot Agreement for an independent Arab state or confederation of states, and nominally the areas of modern Israel–Palestine and Lebanon, although the latter areas were never under Faisal's control. Faisal was declared the head of state. At the same time Prince Zeid, Faisal's brother, was declared regent of Mesopotamia.

Attendees
The conference was attended by the allies, the US representative joining the meeting later in an observer capacity:

British Empire:
 * David Lloyd George, Prime Minister
 * Lord Curzon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
 * Robert Vansittart
 * Colonel Walter H. Gribbon
 * Secretaries: Maurice Hankey, Lieutenant-Colonel L. Storr

France:
 * Alexandre Millerand, President of the French Council of Ministers
 * Philippe Berthelot

Italy:
 * Francesco Saverio Nitti, Prime Minister (in the Chair)
 * Vittorio Scialoja
 * Secretaries: Signor Garbasso, Signor Galli, Signor Trombetti, Lieutenant Zanchi.

Japan:
 * Matsui Keishirō
 * Secretaries: Mr. Saito, Mr. Sawada.

Interpreter:
 * Gustave Henri Camerlynck

United States of America (as observers):

 * Robert Underwood Johnson, US Ambassador in Rome
 * Leland Harrison
 * T. Hart Anderson, Jr.

Issues addressed
The peace treaty with Turkey, the granting of League of Nation mandates in the Middle East, Germany's obligations under the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919, and the Allies' position on Soviet Russia.

Agreements reached
Asserting that not all parts of the Middle East were ready for full independence, mandates were established for the government of three territories: Syria, Mesopotamia and Palestine. In each case, one of the Allied Powers was assigned to implement the mandate until the territories in question could "stand alone." Great Britain and France agreed to recognize the provisional independence of Syria and Mesopotamia, while claiming mandates for their administration. Palestine was included within the Ottoman administrative districts of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem together with the Sanjak of Nablus and Sanjak of Akka (Acre).

The decisions of the San Remo conference confirmed the mandate allocations of the Conference of London. The San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations were the basic documents upon which the British Mandate for Palestine was constructed. Under the Balfour Declaration, the British government had undertaken to favour the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine without prejudice to the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country. Article 22, para.4 of the Covenant, classified certain populations as "communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire" as having "reached a stage of development where their existence as [an] independent nation can be provisionally recognized" (the Class A mandates under the League of Nations), and tasked the mandatory with rendering to those territories "administrative advice and assistance until such time as they are able to stand alone" . Britain received the mandate for Palestine and Iraq; France gained control of Syria, including present-day Lebanon. Following the 1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement, Britain and France also signed the San Remo Oil Agreement, whereby Britain granted France a 25 percent share of the oil production from Mosul, with the remainder going to Britain and France undertook to deliver oil to the Mediterranean. The draft peace agreement with Turkey signed at the conference became the basis for the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres. Germany was called upon to carry out its military and reparation obligations under the Versailles Treaty, and a resolution was adopted in favor of restoring trade with Russia.

Whilst Syria and Mesopotamia were provisionally recognized as states which would be given Mandatory assistance, Palestine would instead be administered by the Mandatory under an obligation to implement the Balfour Declaration and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

San Remo Resolution – 25 April 1920
It was agreed –

(a) To accept the terms of the Mandates Article as given below with reference to Palestine, on the understanding that there was inserted in the procès-verbal an undertaking by the Mandatory Power that this would not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine; this undertaking not to refer to the question of the religious protectorate of France, which had been settled earlier in the previous afternoon by the undertaking given by the French Government that they recognized this protectorate as being at an end.

(b) that the terms of the Mandates Article should be as follows:

The High Contracting Parties agree that Syria and Mesopotamia shall, in accordance with the fourth paragraph of Article 22, Part I (Covenant of the League of Nations), be provisionally recognized as independent States, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The boundaries of the said States will be determined, and the selection of the Mandatories made, by the Principal Allied Powers.

The High Contracting Parties agree to entrust, by application of the provisions of Article 22, the administration of Palestine, within such boundaries as may be determined by the Principal Allied Powers, to a Mandatory, to be selected by the said Powers. The Mandatory will be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on the 8th [2nd] November, 1917, by the British Government, and adopted by the other Allied Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.

''La Puissance mandataire s’engage à nommer dans le plus bref delai une Commission speciale pour etudier toute question et toute reclamation concernant les differentes communautes religieuses et en etablir le reglement. Il sera tenu compte dans la composition de cette Commission des interets religieux en jeu. Le President de la Commission sera nommé par le Conseil de la Societé des Nations.'' [The Mandatory undertakes to appoint in the shortest time a special commission to study any subject and any queries concerning the different religious communities and regulations. The composition of this Commission will reflect the religious interests at stake. The President of the Commission will be appointed by the Council of the League of Nations.]

The terms of the mandates in respect of the above territories will be formulated by the Principal Allied Powers and submitted to the Council of the League of Nations for approval.

Turkey hereby undertakes, in accordance with the provisions of Article [132 of the Treaty of Sèvres] to accept any decisions which may be taken in this connection.

(c) Les mandataires choisis par les principales Puissances alliés sont: la France pour la Syrie, et la Grande Bretagne pour la Mesopotamie, et la Palestine. [The officers chosen by the principal allied Powers are: France for Syria and Great Britain for Mesopotamia and Palestine.]

In reference to the above decision the Supreme Council took note of the following reservation of the Italian Delegation:

La Delegation Italienne en consideration des grands interêts economiques que l’Italie en tant que puissance exclusivement mediterranéenne possède en Asie Mineure, reserve son approbation à la presente resolution, jusqu’au reglement des interêts italiens en Turquie d’Asie. [The Italian delegation, in view of the great economic interests that Italy, as an exclusively Mediterranean power, possesses in Asia Minor, withholds its approval of this resolution until Italian interests in Turkey in Asia shall have been settled.]

Subsequent events
While Transjordan was not mentioned during the discussions, three months later, in July 1920, the French defeat of the Arab Kingdom of Syria state precipitated the British need to know 'what is the "Syria" for which the French received a mandate at San Remo?' and "does it include Transjordania?" – it subsequently decided to pursue a policy of associating Transjordan with the mandated area of Palestine but not to apply the special provisions which were intended to provide a national home for the Jewish people West of the Jordan – and the French proclaimed Greater Lebanon and other component states of its Syrian mandate on 31 August 1920. For France, the San Remo decision meant that most of its claims in Syria were internationally recognized and relations with Faisal were now subject to French military and economic considerations. The ability of Great Britain to limit French action was also significantly diminished. France issued an ultimatum and intervened militarily at the Battle of Maysalun in July 1920, deposing the Arab government and removing King Faisal from Damascus in August 1920. In 1920, Great Britain appointed Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel as high commissioner and established a mandatory government in Palestine that remained in power until 1948.

Article 22 of the League of Nations Covenant, which contained the general rules to be applied to all Mandated Territories, was written two months before the signing of the Versaille Peace Treaty. It was not known at that time to which territories paragraphs 4, 5 and 6 would relate. The territories which came under the regime set up by this article were three former parts of the Ottoman Empire and seven former overseas possessions of Germany referred to in Part IV, Section I, of the treaty of peace. Those 10 territorial areas were originally administered under 15 mandates.

title: San Remo conference


text:
Parallel port

In computing, a parallel port is a type of interface found on early computers (personal and otherwise) for connecting peripherals. The name refers to the way the data is sent; parallel ports send multiple bits of data at once (parallel communication), as opposed to serial communication, in which bits are sent one at a time. To do this, parallel ports require multiple data lines in their cables and port connectors and tend to be larger than contemporary serial ports, which only require one data line.

There are many types of parallel ports, but the term has become most closely associated with the printer port or Centronics port found on most personal computers from the 1970s through the 2000s. It was an industry de facto standard for many years, and was finally standardized as IEEE 1284 in the late 1990s, which defined the Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) and Extended Capability Port (ECP) bi-directional versions. Today, the parallel port interface is virtually non-existent in new computers because of the rise of Universal Serial Bus (USB) devices, along with network printing using Ethernet and Wi-Fi connected printers.

The parallel port interface was originally known as the Parallel Printer Adapter on IBM PC-compatible computers. It was primarily designed to operate printers that used IBM's eight-bit extended ASCII character set to print text, but could also be used to adapt other peripherals. Graphical printers, along with a host of other devices, have been designed to communicate with the system.

Centronics
An Wang, Robert Howard and Prentice Robinson began development of a low-cost printer at Centronics, a subsidiary of Wang Laboratories that produced specialty computer terminals. The printer used the dot matrix printing principle, with a print head consisting of a vertical row of seven metal pins connected to solenoids. When power was applied to the solenoids, the pin was pushed forward to strike the paper and leave a dot. To make a complete character glyph, the print head would receive power to specified pins to create a single vertical pattern, then the print head would move to the right by a small amount, and the process repeated. On their original design, a typical glyph was printed as a matrix seven high and five wide, while the "A" models used a print head with 9 pins and formed glyphs that were 9 by 7.

This left the problem of sending the ASCII data to the printer. While a serial port does so with the minimum of pins and wires, it requires the device to buffer up the data as it arrives bit by bit and turn it back into multi-bit values. A parallel port makes this simpler; the entire ASCII value is presented on the pins in complete form. In addition to the eight data pins, the system also needed various control pins as well as electrical grounds. Wang happened to have a surplus stock of 20,000 Amphenol 36-pin micro ribbon connectors that were originally used for one of their early calculators. The interface only required 21 of these pins, the rest were grounded or not connected. The connector has become so closely associated with Centronics that it is now popularly known as the "Centronics connector".

The Centronics Model 101 printer, featuring this connector, was released in 1970. The host sent ASCII characters to the printer using seven of eight data pins, pulling them high to +5V to represent a 1. When the data was ready, the host pulled the STROBE pin low, to 0 V. The printer responded by pulling the BUSY line high, printing the character, and then returning BUSY to low again. The host could then send another character. Control characters in the data caused other actions, like the  or. The host could also have the printer automatically start a new line by pulling the AUTOFEED line high, and keeping it there. The host had to carefully watch the BUSY line to ensure it did not feed data to the printer too rapidly, especially given variable-time operations like a paper feed.

The printer side of the interface quickly became an industry de facto standard, but manufacturers used various connectors on the system side, so a variety of cables were required. For example, NCR used the 36-pin micro ribbon connector on both ends of the connection, early VAX systems used a DC-37 connector, Texas Instruments used a 25-pin card edge connector and Data General used a 50-pin micro ribbon connector. When IBM implemented the parallel interface on the IBM PC, they used the DB-25F connector at the PC-end of the interface, creating the now familiar parallel cable with a DB25M at one end and a 36-pin micro ribbon connector at the other.

In theory, the Centronics port could transfer data as rapidly as 75,000 characters per second. This was far faster than the printer, which averaged about 160 characters per second, meaning the port spent much of its time idle. The performance was defined by how rapidly the host could respond to the printer's BUSY signal asking for more data. To improve performance, printers began incorporating buffers so the host could send them data more rapidly, in bursts. This not only reduced (or eliminated) delays due to latency waiting for the next character to arrive from the host, but also freed the host to perform other operations without causing a loss of performance. Performance was further improved by using the buffer to store several lines and then printing in both directions, eliminating the delay while the print head returned to the left side of the page. Such changes more than doubled the performance of an otherwise unchanged printer, as was the case on Centronics models like the 102 and 308.

IBM
IBM released the IBM Personal Computer in 1981 and included a variant of the Centronics interface— only IBM logo printers (rebranded from Epson) could be used with the IBM PC. IBM standardized the parallel cable with a DB25F connector on the PC side and the 36-pin Centronics connector on the printer side. Vendors soon released printers compatible with both standard Centronics and the IBM implementation.

The original IBM parallel printer adapter for the IBM PC of 1981 was designed to support limited bidirectionality, with 8 lines of data output and 4 lines of data input. This allowed the port to be used for other purposes, not just output to a printer. This was accomplished by allowing the data lines to be written to by devices on either end of the cable, which required the ports on the host to be bidirectional. This feature saw little use, and was removed in later revisions of the hardware. Years later, in 1987, IBM reintroduced the bidirectional interface with its IBM PS/2 series, where it could be enabled or disabled for compatibility with applications hardwired not to expect a printer port to be bidirectional.

Bi-Tronics
As the printer market expanded, new types of printing mechanisms appeared. These often supported new features and error conditions that could not be represented on the existing port's relatively few status pins. While the IBM solution could support this, it was not trivial to implement and was not at that time being supported. This led to the Bi-Tronics system, introduced by HP on their LaserJet 4Si in April 1993. This used four existing status pins, ERROR, SELECT, PE and BUSY to represent a nibble, using two transfers to send an 8-bit value. Bi-Tronics mode, now known as nibble mode, was indicated by the host pulling the SELECT line high, and data was transferred when the host toggles the AUTOFEED low. Other changes in the handshaking protocols improved performance, reaching 400,000 cps to the printer, and about 50,000 cps back to the host. A major advantage of the Bi-Tronics system is that it can be driven entirely in software in the host, and uses otherwise unmodified hardware - all the pins used for data transfer back to the host were already printer-to-host lines.

EPP and ECP
The introduction of new devices like scanners and multi-function printers demanded much more performance than either the Bi-Tronics or IBM style backchannels could handle. Two other standards have become more popular for these purposes. The Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP), originally defined by Zenith Electronics, is similar to IBM's byte mode in concept, but changes details of the handshaking to allow up to 2 MB/s. The Extended Capability Port (ECP) is essentially an entirely new port in the same physical housing that also adds direct memory access based on ISA and run-length encoding to compress the data, which is especially useful when transferring simple images like faxes or black-and-white scanned images. ECP offers performance up to 2.5 MB/s in both directions.

All of these enhancements are collected as part of the IEEE 1284 standard. The first release in 1994 included original Centronics mode ("compatibility mode"), nibble and byte modes, as well as a change to the handshaking that was already widely used; the original Centronics implementation called for the BUSY lead to toggle with each change on any line of data (busy-by-line), whereas IEEE 1284 calls for BUSY to toggle with each received character (busy-by-character). This reduces the number of BUSY toggles and the resulting interruptions on both sides. A 1997 update standardized the printer status codes. In 2000, the EPP and ECP modes were moved into the standard, as well as several connector and cable styles, and a method for daisy chaining up to eight devices from a single port.

Some host systems or print servers may use a strobe signal with a relatively low voltage output or a fast toggle. Any of these issues might cause no or intermittent printing, missing or repeated characters or garbage printing. Some printer models may have a switch or setting to set busy by character; others may require a handshake adapter.

Dataproducts
Dataproducts introduced a very different implementation of the parallel interface for their printers. It used a DC-37 connector on the host side and a 50 pin connector on the printer side—either a DD-50 (sometimes incorrectly referred to as a "DB50") or the block shaped M-50 connector; the M-50 was also referred to as Winchester. Dataproducts parallel was available in a short-line for connections up to 50 ft and a long-line version using differential signaling for connections to 500 ft. The Dataproducts interface was found on many mainframe systems up through the 1990s, and many printer manufacturers offered the Dataproducts interface as an option.

A wide variety of devices were eventually designed to operate on a parallel port. Most devices were uni-directional (one-way) devices, only meant to respond to information sent from the PC. However, some devices such as Zip drives were able to operate in bi-directional mode. Printers also eventually took up the bi-directional system, allowing various status report information to be sent.

Historical uses
Before the advent of USB, the parallel interface was adapted to access a number of peripheral devices other than printers. One early use of the parallel port was for dongles used as hardware keys which were supplied with application software as a form of software copy protection. Other uses included optical disc drives such as CD readers and writers, Zip drives, scanners, tape drives, external modems, gamepads, and joysticks. Some of the earliest portable MP3 players required a parallel port connection for transferring songs to the device. Adapters were available to run SCSI devices via parallel. Other devices such as EPROM programmers and hardware controllers could be connected via the parallel port.

Interfaces
Most PC-compatible systems in the 1980s and 1990s had one to three ports, with communication interfaces defined like this:

 * Logical parallel port 1: I/O port 0x3BC, IRQ 7 (usually in monochrome graphics adapters)
 * Logical parallel port 2: I/O port 0x378, IRQ 7 (dedicated IO cards or using a controller built into the mainboard)
 * Logical parallel port 3: I/O port 0x278, IRQ 5 (dedicated IO cards or using a controller built into the mainboard)

If no printer port is present at 0x3BC, the second port in the row (0x378) becomes logical parallel port 1 and 0x278 becomes logical parallel port 2 for the BIOS. Sometimes, printer ports are jumpered to share an interrupt despite having their own IO addresses (i.e. only one can be used interrupt-driven at a time). In some cases, the BIOS supports a fourth printer port as well, but the base address for it differs significantly between vendors. Since the reserved entry for a fourth logical printer port in the BIOS Data Area (BDA) is shared with other uses on PS/2 machines and with S3 compatible graphics cards, it typically requires special drivers in most environments. Under DR-DOS 7.02 the BIOS port assignments can be changed and overridden using the LPT1, LPT2, LPT3 (and optionally LPT4) CONFIG.SYS directives.

Access
DOS-based systems make the logical parallel ports detected by the BIOS available under device names such as LPT1, LPT2 or LPT3 (corresponding with logical parallel port 1, 2, and 3, respectively). These names derive from terms like Line Print Terminal, Local Print Terminal (both abbreviated as LPT), or Line Printer. A similar naming convention was used on ITS, DEC systems, as well as in CP/M and 86-DOS (LST).

In DOS, the parallel printers could be accessed directly on the command line. For example, the command " " would redirect the contents of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file to the printer port. A PRN device was also available as an alias for LPT1. Some operating systems (like Multiuser DOS) allow to change this fixed assignment by different means. Some DOS versions use resident driver extensions provided by MODE, or users can change the mapping internally via a CONFIG.SYS PRN=n directive (as under DR-DOS 7.02 and higher). DR-DOS 7.02 also provides optional built-in support for LPT4 if the underlying BIOS supports it.

PRN, along with CON, AUX and a few others are invalid file and directory names in DOS and Windows, even on Windows XP and later. This set of invalid file and directory names also affects Windows 95 and 98, which had an MS-DOS device in path name vulnerability in which it causes the computer to crash if the user types "C:\CON\CON", "C:\PRN\PRN" or "C:\AUX\AUX" in the Windows Explorer address bar or via the Run command. Microsoft has since released a patch to fix this issue, however fresh installs of Windows 95 and 98 are not patched with this fix and will still have this issue.

A special " " command also existed to achieve the same effect. Microsoft Windows still refers to the ports in this manner in many cases, though this is often fairly hidden.

In SCO UNIX and Linux, the first parallel port is available via the filesystem as. Linux IDE devices can use a paride (parallel port IDE) driver.

Notable consumer products

 * The Iomega ZIP drive
 * The Snappy Video SnapShot video capture device
 * MS-DOS 6.22's INTERLNK and INTERSRV drive sharing utility
 * The Covox Speech Thing audio device
 * The OPL2LPT and OPL3LPT audio devices

Current use
For consumers, USB and computer networks have replaced the parallel printer port, for connections both to printers and to other devices.

Many manufacturers of personal computers and laptops consider parallel to be a legacy port and no longer include the parallel interface. Smaller machines have less room for large parallel port connectors. USB-to-parallel adapters are available that can make parallel-only printers work with USB-only systems. There are PCI (and PCI-express) cards that provide parallel ports. There are also some print servers that provide an interface to parallel ports through a network. USB-to-EPP chips can also allow other non-printer devices to continue to work on modern computers without a parallel port.

For electronics hobbyists the parallel port is still often the easiest way to connect to an external circuit board. It is faster than the other common legacy port (serial port), requires no serial-to-parallel converter, and requires far less interface logic and software than a USB target interface. However, Microsoft operating systems later than Windows 95/98 prevent user programs from directly writing to or reading from the LPT without additional software (kernel extensions).

Older CNC Milling Machines also often make use of the parallel port to directly control the machine's motors and attachments.

Port addresses
Traditionally IBM PC systems have allocated their first three parallel ports according to the configuration in the table below (if all three printer ports exist).

If there is an unused slot, the port addresses of the others are moved up. (For example, if a port at 0x3BC does not exist, the port at 0x378 will then become the first logical parallel port.) The base address 0x3BC is typically supported by printer ports on MDA and Hercules display adapters, whereas printer ports provided by the mainboard chipset or add-on cards rarely allow to be configured to this base address. Therefore, in absence of a monochrome display adapter, a common assignment for the first logical parallel port (and therefore also for the corresponding LPT1 DOS device driver) today is 0x378, even though the default is still 0x3BC (and would be selected by the BIOS if it detects a printer port at this address). The IRQ lines are typically configurable in the hardware as well. Assigning the same interrupt to more than one printer port should be avoided and will typically cause one of the corresponding ports to work in polled mode only. The port addresses assigned to slot can be determined by reading the BIOS Data Area (BDA) at 0000h:0408h.

Bit-to-pin mapping for the Standard Parallel Port (SPP):

~ indicates a hardware inversion of the bit.

Program interface
In versions of Windows that did not use the Windows NT kernel (as well as DOS and some other operating systems), programs could access the parallel port with simple outportb and inportb subroutine commands. In operating systems such as Windows NT and Unix (NetBSD, FreeBSD, Solaris, 386BSD, etc.), the microprocessor is operated in a different security ring, and access to the parallel port is prohibited, unless using the required driver. This improves security and arbitration of device contention. On Linux, inb and outb can be used when a process is run as root and an ioperm command is used to allow access to its base address; alternatively, ppdev allows shared access and can be used from userspace if the appropriate permissions are set.

The cross-platform library for parallel port access, libieee1284, also is available on many Linux distributions and provides an abstract interface to the parallel ports of the system. Access is handled in an open-claim-release-close sequence, which allows for concurrent access in userspace.

Pinouts
The older parallel printer ports had an 8-bit data bus and four pins for control output (Strobe, Linefeed, Initialize, and Select In), and five more for control input (ACK, Busy, Select, Error, and Paper Out). Its data transfer speed is at 150 kB/s.

The newer EPPs (Enhanced Parallel Ports) have an 8-bit data bus, and the same control pins as the normal parallel printer port. Newer ports reach speeds of up to 2 MB/s.

Pinouts for parallel port connectors are: Inverted lines are true on logic low. If they are not inverted, then logic high is true.

Pin 25 on the DB25 connector might not be connected to ground on modern computers.

title: Parallel port


text:
3rd Dalai Lama

Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) was the first to be named Dalai Lama, although the title was retrospectively given to his two predecessors.

He was born near Lhasa in 1543 and was recognised as the reincarnation of Gendun Gyatso and subsequently enthroned at Drepung Monastery by Panchen Sonam Dragpa, who became his tutor. Panchen Sonam Dragpa was the 15th Ganden Tripa and his texts still serve as the core curriculum for many Gelugpa monasteries. The third Dalai Lama studied at Drepung Monastery and became its abbot. His reputation spread quickly and the monks at Sera Monastery also recognised him as their abbot.

According to Sumpa Khenpo, the great Gelug scholar, he also studied some Nyingmapa tantric doctrines.

When one of Tibet's kings, who had been supported by the Kagyupa, died in 1564, Sonam Gyatso presided over his funeral. His political power, and that of the Gelugpas, became dominant in Tibet by the 1570s.

Origin of the title "Dalai Lama"
The title "Dalai Lama" was first bestowed by Altan Khan upon Sonam Gyatsho in 1578, after Altan Khan became Shunyi Wang (顺义王) of China in 1571. Title "Dalai Lama" was derived from the Mongolian Dalai-yin qan (or Dalaiin khan) one.

Since the time of Genghis Khan, only people who were of his royal lineage were allowed to rule Mongolia. This frustrated many would-be rulers who were not of this line. Altan Khan was the most destructive of these usurpers. He perceived that through the Buddhist faith he could gain legitimacy by claiming to be a reincarnation of Kublai Khan.

Altan Khan chose the Gelug order of Tibetan Buddhism (founded by Tsongkhapa, 1357–1419). In 1577 he invited the leader of this order, Sonam Gyatsho, to come to Mongolia and teach his people.

Sonam Gyatsho proclaimed Altan Khan to be the reincarnation of Kublai Khan, and in return, Altan Khan gave the title Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatsho. Altan Khan posthumously awarded the title to his two predecessors, making Sonam Gyatsho the 3rd Dalai Lama.

Altan Khan and the conversion of Mongolia
Sonam Gyatso, a monk of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) school of Buddhism, was responsible for finding a foreign patron for Gelugpa institutions. He found this patron in the Altan Khan, ruler of numerous Mongol tribes. At the time, the Mongols were not united under a single religion. Their practices instead consisted of superstition, indigenous religious conceptions, and shamanism. However, Sonam Gyatso was against shamanism and its idols.

Altan Khan first invited Sonam Gyatso to Tümed in 1569, but apparently the Dalai Lama refused to go and sent a disciple, who reported back to the Dalai Lama about the great opportunity to spread Buddhist teachings throughout Mongolia. In 1573 Altan Khan took some Tibetan Buddhist monks prisoner.

Altan Khan invited Sonam Gyatso to Mongolia again and embraced Tibetan Buddhism. After some hesitation, with followers begging him not to go, Sonam Gyatso's party set out and was met at Ahrik Karpatang in Mongolia where a specially prepared camp had been set up to receive them. Thousands of animals were given to him as offerings and five hundred horsemen had been sent to escort him to Altan Khan's court. When they arrived there, they were greeted by over ten thousand people, including Altan Khan dressed in a white robe to symbolize his devotion to the Dharma.

Some sources say this first meeting between Sonam Gyatso and Altan Khan took place in Amdo or near (lake) Kokonor, rather than in Mongolia itself. This inconsistency may be due to some confusion in the texts or the existence of alternative accounts of this important meeting in the Tibetan literature. Besides, while Altan Khan bestowed the title Dalai on Sonam Gyatso, some claim that the latter gave the title of Brahma, the king of religion, to Altan Khan.

Altan Khan had Thegchen Chonkhor, Mongolia's first monastery, built, and a massive program of translating Tibetan texts into Mongolian was commenced. Within 50 years most Mongols had become Buddhist, with tens of thousands of monks, who were members of the Gelug order, loyal to the Dalai Lama.

Sonam Gyatso's message was that the time had come for Mongolia to embrace Buddhism, that from that time on there should be no more animal sacrifices, the images of the old gods were to be destroyed, there must be no taking of life, animal or human, military action must be given up and the immolation of women on the funeral pyres of their husbands must be abolished. He also secured an edict abolishing the Mongol custom of blood-sacrifices. "These and many other such laws were set forth by Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso and were instituted by Altan Khan."

The Third Dalai Lama publicly announced that he was a reincarnation of Phagpa, while Altan Khan was a reincarnation of Kublai Khan and they had come together again to cooperate in propagating the Buddhist religion.

The alliance with the Mongols would later prove instrumental in establishing the Gelug order as the rulers of Tibet during the reign of the Great Fifth Dalai Lama.

Altan Khan died in 1582, only four years after meeting with the Third Dalai Lama. According to legend, Abtai Sain Khan was given a Buddha relic by the third Dalai Lama to help the spread of Buddhism.

Altan Khan was succeeded by his son Sengge Düüreng who continued to diligently support Buddhism, and two years later the 3rd Dalai Lama made another visit to Mongolia. On his way, he founded the monastery of Kumbum at the birthplace of the great teacher and reformer, Je Tsongkhapa.

Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso had also founded Lithang monastery in Eastern Tibet, as well as the small monastery Phende Lekshe Ling in either 1564 or 1565, which became known as Namgyal in 1571, the personal monastery of all the subsequent Dalai Lamas. By 1585 he was back in Mongolia and converted more Mongol princes and their tribes.

In October of 1587, Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso was promoted to Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (朵儿只唱) by the emperor of China, and seal of authority was given.

The Dalai Lama was again invited to visit the Ming emperor, and this time he accepted but fell ill and died (in 1588, age 45 ) in Mongolia while returning to Tibet.

Altan Khan's great-grandson, Yonten Gyatso, was selected as the 4th Dalai Lama.

"To others give the victory and the spoils; The loss and defeat, take upon oneself" — Sonam Gyatso.

title: 3rd Dalai Lama


text:
User:Redbeard~enwiki

I have worked on and/or contributed to the following articles:

Dune Novels
Dune, Dune Messiah, Children of Dune, God Emperor of Dune, Heretics of Dune, Chapterhouse Dune

Characters from Dune, Paul Atreides

Bene Gesserit

Prescience

Misc
Psionic phenomenon (added reference to Dune), Dune (italicized link to the novel), The Foundation Series, minor fix

To Do

 * Make a Dune Universe article that links to all the sub articles (novels, characters, groups, etc.) and gives an overview of everything. It will pretty much replace the current Dune novel entry, except for the specific details for that book.
 * Expand Dune novel articles with more information, more detailed plot summaries.
 * Add more character information for the Dune universe
 * Dune time line?
 * Dune genealogy?
 * Build some background information on some of the technologies (such as glowglobes, no-ships, spice harvesters, etc.). This will probably go into the Dune Universe article or it's own Dune Technology article.

I'm by no means an expert on Dune, but I've read the original six books several times and am working through the Prelude to Dune trilogy.

I'll probably do more than Dune stuff, but I'm new here :-)

Hmmm... you might also want to see my web page: http://mdjohnson.us/michael/

title: User:Redbeard~enwiki


text:
Theodor Storm

Hans Theodor Woldsen Storm (14 September 1817 – 4 July 1888), commonly known as Theodor Storm, was a German-Frisian writer and poet. He is considered to be one of the most important figures of German realism.

Life
Storm was born in the small town of Husum, on the west coast of Schleswig, then a formally independent duchy ruled by the king of Denmark. His parents were the lawyer Johann Casimir Storm (1790–1874) and Lucie Storm, née Woldsen (1797–1879).

Storm attended school in Husum and Lübeck and studied law in Kiel and Berlin. While still a law student in Kiel he published a first volume of verse together with the brothers Tycho and Theodor Mommsen (1843).

Storm was involved in the 1848 revolutions and sympathized with the liberal goals of a united Germany under a constitutional monarchy in which every class could participate in the political process. From 1843 until his admission was revoked by Danish authorities in 1852, he worked as a lawyer in his home town of Husum. In 1853 Storm moved to Potsdam, moving on to Heiligenstadt in Thuringia in 1856. He returned to Husum in 1865 after Schleswig had come under Prussian rule and became a district magistrate ("Landvogt"). In 1880 Storm moved to Hademarschen, where he spent the last years of his life writing, and died of cancer at the age of 70.

Storm was married twice, first to Konstanze Esmarch, who died in 1864, and then to Dorothea Jensen.

Work
Storm was one of the most important authors of 19th-century German Literary realism. He wrote a number of stories, poems and novellas. His two best-known works are the novellas Immensee (1849) and Der Schimmelreiter ("The Rider on the White Horse"), first published in April 1888 in the Deutsche Rundschau. Other published works include a volume of his poems (1852), the novella Pole Poppenspäler (1874) and the novella Aquis submersus (1877).

Analysis
Like Friedrich Hebbel, Theodor Storm was a child of the North Sea plain, but, whilst in Hebbel's verse there is hardly any direct reference to his native landscape, Storm again and again revisits the chaste beauty of its expansive mudflats, menacing sea and barren pastures — and whilst Hebbel could find a home away from his native heath Storm clung to it with what may be called a jealous love. In Der Schimmelreiter, the last of his 50 novellas and widely considered Storm's culminating masterpiece, the setting of the rural North German coast is central to evoking its unnerving, superstitious atmosphere, and sets the stage for the battleground of man versus nature: the dykes and the sea.

His favourite poets were Joseph von Eichendorff and Eduard Mörike, and the influence of the former is plainly discernible even in Storm's later verse. During a summer visit to Baden-Baden in 1864, where he had been invited by his friend, the author and painter Ludwig Pietsch, he made the acquaintance of the great Russian writer Ivan Turgenev. They exchanged letters and sent each other copies of their works over a number of years.

Hungarian literary critic Georg Lukács, in Soul and Form (1911), appraised Storm as "the last representative of the great German bourgeois literary tradition," poised between Jeremias Gotthelf and Thomas Mann.

Samples
A poem about his hometown Husum, the grey town by the grey sea (Die graue Stadt am grauen Meer).

Analysis and original text of the poem from A Book of German Lyrics, ed. Friedrich Bruns, which is available in Project Gutenberg.

Translated works

 * Theodor Storm: The Rider on the White Horse and selected stories. Translated by James Wright. New York 2009.
 * Theodor Storm: Carsten the Trustee & Other Fiction. Translated by Denis Jackson. Angel Books 2009.
 * Theodor Storm: Paul the Puppeteer and Other Short Fiction. Translated by Denis Jackson. Angel Books 2004.
 * Theodor Storm: Hans and Heinz Kirch with Immensee & Journey to a Hallig. Translated by Denis Jackson & Anja Nauck. Angel Books 1999.
 * Theodor Storm: The Dykemaster. Translated by Denis Jackson. Angel Books 1996.
 * Theodor Storm: "Grieshuus: The Chronicle of a Family". Translated by Denis Jackson. Angel Books 2017.

title: Theodor Storm