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Dim sum

Dim sum is a large range of small Chinese dishes that are traditionally enjoyed in restaurants for brunch, with a “selection of over 1,000 varieties of small-plate Chinese foods, usually meat or vegetables in dough or a wrapper that is steamed, deep-fried or pan-fried.” Most modern dim sum dishes are commonly associated with Cantonese cuisine, although dim sum dishes also exist in other Chinese cuisines. In the tenth century, when the city of Canton (Guangzhou) began to experience an increase in commercial travel, many frequented teahouses for small-portion meals with tea called "yum cha" (brunch). "Yum cha" includes two related concepts. The first is "jat zung loeng gin", which translates literally as "one cup, two pieces". This refers to the custom of serving teahouse customers two delicately made food items, savory or sweet, to complement their tea. The second is dim sum, which translates literally to "touch the heart", the term used to designate the small food items that accompanied the tea.

Teahouse owners gradually added various snacks called dim sum to their offerings. The practice of having tea with dim sum eventually evolved into the modern "yum cha". Cantonese dim sum culture developed rapidly during the latter half of the nineteenth century in Guangzhou. Cantonese dim sum was originally based on local foods. As dim sum continued to develop, chefs introduced influences and traditions from other regions of China. Cantonese dim sum has a very broad range of flavors, textures, cooking styles, and ingredients and can be classified into regular items, seasonal offerings, weekly specials, banquet dishes, holiday dishes, house signature dishes, and travel-friendly items, as well as breakfast or lunch foods and late-night snacks.

There are over one thousand dim sum dishes originating from Guangdong alone, a total that no other areas in China comes even close to matching. In fact, the cookbooks of most Chinese food cultures tend to lump their own variations on dim sum dishes with other local snacks. But that is not the case with Cantonese dim sum, which has developed into a separate branch of cuisine. Some estimates claim that there are at least two thousand types of dim sum in total across China, and about forty to fifty types are commonly sold outside of China.

Dim sum restaurants typically have a wide variety of dishes, usually totaling several dozen. The tea is very important, just as important as the food. Many Cantonese restaurants serve dim sum as early as five in the morning, while more traditional restaurants typically serve dim sum until mid-afternoon. Dim sum restaurants have a unique serving method where servers offer dishes to customers from steam-heated carts. It is now commonplace for restaurants to serve dim sum at dinner and sell various dim sum items à la carte for takeout. In addition to traditional dim sum, some chefs also create and prepare new fusion-based dim sum dishes. There are also variations designed for visual appeal on social media, such as dumplings and buns made to resemble animals.

Etymology
The original meaning of the term "dim sum" remains unclear and contested. Some references state that the term originated in the Eastern Jin dynasty (317 AD–420 AD). According to one legend, to show soldiers gratitude after battles, a general had civilians make buns and cakes to send to the front lines. "Gratitude" or 點點心意, later shortened to , of which dim sum is the Cantonese pronunciation, came to represent dishes made in a similar fashion.

Some versions date the legend to the Southern Song dynasty (960–1279) after the term's earliest attestation in the Book of Tang. Written in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–979), the book uses dim sum as a verb instead: 「治妝未畢, 我未及餐, 爾且可點心」, which translates to "I have not finished preparing myself and am not ready for a proper meal; therefore, you can treat yourself to some small snacks." In this context, "dim sum" means "to barely fill your stomach". Dim sum dishes are usually associated with "yum cha", which is known as the Cantonese brunch tradition.   Chinese food historian Yan-kit So has described dim sum as: "Literally translated as 'so close to the heart', they are, in reality, a large range of hors d'oeuvres Cantonese people traditionally enjoy in restaurants (previously teahouses) for breakfast and lunch but never for dinner, washed down with tea. 'Let's go yum cha' (to drink tea) is understood among the Cantonese to mean going to a restaurant for dim sum; such is the twin linkage between the food and the beverage."

Cuisine
There are at least two thousand types of dim sum in total across China, and over one thousand available in Guangdong alone. Dim sum are usually eaten as breakfast or brunch. Cantonese dim sum has a very broad range of flavors, textures, cooking styles, and ingredients, and can be classified into regular items, seasonal offerings, weekly specials, banquet dishes, holiday dishes, house signature dishes, travel-friendly, as well as breakfast or lunch foods and late night snacks.

The subtropical climate of the southeast quadrant of Guangdong partly influences dim sum's portion size. It can cause a decrease in appetite, so that people prefer eating scaled-down meals throughout the day rather than the customary three large meals. Teahouses in Guangzhou served "three teas and two meals," which included lunch and dinner, and breakfast, afternoon and evening teas with dim sum.

Many dim sum dishes are made of seafood, chopped meats, or vegetables wrapped in dough or thin wrappings and steamed, deep-fried, or pan-fried. A traditional dim sum brunch includes various types of steamed buns, such as cha siu bao (a steamed bun filled with barbecue pork), rice or wheat dumplings, and rice noodle rolls that contain a range of ingredients, including beef, chicken, pork, prawns, and vegetarian options. Many dim sum restaurants also offer plates of steamed green vegetables, stuffed eggplant, stuffed green peppers, roasted meats, congee and other soups. Dessert dim sum is also available and can be ordered at any time since there is not a set sequence for the meal.

It is customary to order "family-style", sharing the small dishes consisting of three or four pieces of dim sum among all members of the dining party. Small portion sizes allow people to try a wide variety of food.

Dishes
Dim sum restaurants typically have a wide variety of dishes, usually several dozen.

Tea

Tea is considered to be very important, so much so that it is considered just as important as the food itself. Teas served during dim sum include:

 * Chrysanthemum tea: instead of tea leaves, it is a flower-based tisane (herbal tea) made from flowers of the species Chrysanthemum morifolium or Chrysanthemum indicum, which are the most popular in East Asia. To prepare the tea, chrysanthemum flowers (usually dried) are steeped in hot water (usually 90 to 95 °C after cooling from a boil) in a teapot, cup, or glass. A common mix with pu-erh is called guk pou  from its component teas.
 * Green tea: freshly picked leaves that go through heating and drying processes but not oxidation, so keep their original green color and chemical compounds, like polyphenols and chlorophyll. Produced all over China, and the most popular category of tea, green teas include the representative Dragon Well and Biluochun from Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces, respectively.
 * Oolong tea: partially oxidizing the tea leaves imparts them with characteristics of both green and black teas. Oolong teas are closer in taste to green than black tea, yet have less of a "grassy" taste. Major oolong-tea producing areas such as Fujian, Guangdong, and Taiwan line the southeastern coast of China. Tieguanyin or Ti Kuan Yin : one of the most popular, originated in Fujian province and is a premium variety with a delightful fragrance.
 * Pounei (Cantonese) or pu-erh tea (Mandarin): usually a compressed tea, pu-erh has unique, earthy notes derived from years of fermentation.
 * Scented teas: various mixes of flowers with green, black, or oolong teas exist. Flowers used include jasmine, gardenia, magnolia, grapefruit flower, sweet-scented osmanthus and rose. Strict rules govern the proportion of flowers to tea. Jasmine tea, the most popular scented tea, is the one most often served at "yum cha" establishments.

The tea service includes several customs. Typically, the server starts by asking diners which tea to serve. According to etiquette, the person closest to the tea pot pours tea for the others. Sometimes, a younger person will serve an older person.

Those receiving tea express thanks by tapping their index and middle fingers twice on the table. According to one legend, the finger-tapping tradition evolved from an incident when an emperor poured tea for his servant in a public teahouse during a trip where the emperor concealed his identity to mingle with the commoners. Having been instructed by the emperor to not expose his identity to the public, the servant showed gratitude by improvising the finger-tapping gesture instead of what should have been a kowtow, which would have betrayed the emperor's noble status. The practice gradually evolved to represent gratitude for having tea poured by others.

Diners also flip open the lid (of hinged metal tea pots) or offset the tea pot cover (on ceramic tea pots) to signal an empty pot; servers will then refill the pot.

History
Dim sum is part of the Chinese tradition of snacks originating from the Song dynasty (960–1279), when royal chefs created various dishes such as minced pheasant, lark tongue, and desserts made from steamed milk and bean paste. Guangzhou experienced an increase in commercial travel in the tenth century At that time, travelers would frequent teahouses for small-portion meals with tea called "yum cha" or "tea" meals. Yum cha includes two related concepts. The first,, translates literally as "one cup, two pieces". This refers to the custom of serving teahouse customers two delicately made food items, savory or sweet, to complement their tea. The second,, which means dim sum, translates literally to "touch the heart" (i.e., heart touching). This is the term used to designate the small food items that accompanied the drinking of tea.

During the thirteenth century, when the Mongols invaded China, the royal court fled to southern China, bringing a royal influence to the dim sum of Guangzhou. Guangzhou was a wealthy, large port city that had international visitors, a temperate climate, and a coastline where fresh and tropical ingredients were grown, resulting in an ideal environment for food and entertainment. In Guangzhou, street vendors and teahouses sold dim sum. The practice of having tea with dim sum at tea houses eventually evolved into modern yum cha. While at the teahouses, travelers selected their preferred snacks from carts. Visitors to tea houses often socialized as they ate, and business people negotiated deals over dim sum.

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the Tea and Horses Bureau was established to monitor tea production and improve tea quality. The improvements in tea quality also led to teahouse improvements.

Cantonese dim sum culture developed rapidly during the latter half of the nineteenth century in Guangzhou. Teahouse dining areas were typically located upstairs, and initial dim sum fare included steamed buns. Eventually, these evolved into specialized dim sum restaurants, and the variety and quality of dim sum dishes rapidly followed suit. Cantonese dim sum was originally based on local foods such as sweet roast pork called "char siu" and fresh rice noodles. As dim sum continued to develop, chefs introduced influences and traditions from other regions of China, which created a starting point for the wide variety of dim sum available today. Chefs created a large range of dim sum that even today comprises most of a teahouse's dim sum offerings. Part of this development included reducing portion sizes of larger dishes originally from northern China, such as stuffed steamed buns, so they could easily be incorporated into the dim sum menu. The rapid growth in dim sum restaurants was due partly because people found the preparation of dim sum dishes to be time-consuming and preferred the convenience of dining out and eating a large variety of baked, steamed, pan-fried, deep-fried, and braised foods. Dim sum continued to develop and also spread southward to Hong Kong.

Although dim sum is normally considered Cantonese, it includes many additional influences. Over thousands of years, as people in China migrated in search of different places to live, they carried the recipes of their favorite foods and continued to prepare and serve these dishes. Many Han Chinese migrated south, seeking warmer climates. Settlements took shape in the Yangtze River Valley, the central highlands, and the coastal southeast, including Guangdong. The influence of Suzhou and Hangzhou is found in vegetarian soy skin rolls and pearl meatballs. The dessert squares flavored with red dates or wolfberries are influenced by Beijing desserts. Savory dishes, such as pot stickers and steamed dumplings, include Muslim influences because of people traveling from Central Asia across the Silk Road and into Guangdong. These are just a few examples of how a wide range of influences became incorporated into traditional Cantonese dim sum.

By 1860, foreign influences had to shape Guangdong's dim sum with culinary innovations such as ketchup, Worcestershire sauce, and curry, all of which came to be used in some savory dishes. Custard pies evolved into the miniature classics found in every teahouse. Other dim sum dishes evolved from Indian samosas, mango puddings, and Mexican conchas (snow-topped buns). Cantonese-style dim sum has an extremely broad range of tastes, textures, cooking styles, and ingredients. As a result, there are more than a thousand different varieties of dim sum.

During the 1920s, in Guangzhou, the foremost places to enjoy tea were its tea pavilions, which had refined and expansive surroundings. The customers were wealthy, and there were rather high standards for the privilege of enjoying tea pavilion service and dim sum. Upon entering a tea pavilion, customers would inspect tea leaves to ensure their quality and to verify the water temperature. Once satisfied, these guests were presented with a pencil and a booklet listing the available dim sum. A waiter would then tear their orders out of the booklet so that the kitchen could pan-fry, steam, bake, or deep-fry these dishes on demand. Customers dined upstairs in privacy and comfort. Servers carefully balanced the dishes on their arms or arranged them on trays as they climbed up and down the stairs. Eventually, dim sum carts were used to serve the steamers and plates.

People with average incomes also enjoyed tea and dim sum. Early every morning, customers visited inexpensive restaurants that offered filled steamed buns and hot tea. During the mid-morning, students and government employees ordered two or three kinds of dim sum and ate as they read their newspapers. In the late morning, people working at small businesses visited restaurants for breakfast and to use the restaurant as a small office space.

By the late 1930s, Guangzhou's teahouse culture included four high-profile dim sum chefs, with signs at the front doors of their restaurants. There was heavy competition among teahouses, and as a result, new varieties of dim sum were invented almost daily, including dishes influenced by the tea pastries of Shanghai, Beijing, and the Western world. Many new fusion dishes were also created, including puddings, baked rolls, turnovers, custard tarts, and Malay steamed cakes.

There were also significant increases in the variety of thin wrappers used in both sweet and savory items. "If we concentrate only on the changes and developments in the variety of wrappers, the main types of dim sum wrappers during the 1920s included such things as raised (for filled buns), wheat starch, shao mai (i.e., egg dough), crystal bun, crispy batter, sticky rice, and boiled dumpling wrappers. By the 1930s, the varieties of wrappers commonly used by chefs included puff pastry, Cantonese short pastry, and so on, for a total of 23 types that were prepared by pan-frying, deep-frying, steaming, baking, and roasting."As the Chinese Civil War progressed from 1927 to 1949, many dim sum chefs left China and settled in Hong Kong, resulting in further refinements and innovations of the dim sum there. Very large dim sum restaurants in major cities like Hong Kong, San Francisco, Boston, Toronto, and New York were also established.

In the nineteenth century, Cantonese immigrants brought dim sum to the west and east coasts of the United States. Some of the earliest dim sum restaurants in the U.S. still operating today opened in the 1920s in San Francisco and New York City. The history of San Francisco's Chinese community is believed to have started about 30 years before the first dim sum restaurant opened in the city's Chinatown neighborhood. The Chinese preferred to live in the present Chinatown area because of its restaurants and theatres. In the late 1930s, some early U.S. newspaper references to dim sum began to appear. While some Chinese restaurants in the U.S. had offered dim sum for decades, it was not until the late 1980s that there was a broader public awareness of dim sum.

Although there was increased awareness of dim sum around this time, one chef from Hong Kong, who immigrated to San Francisco, noted that diners in the U.S. usually focused on the food itself and not the communal aspects of eating dim sum. Although dim sum is a Chinese meal, it is a communal dining and social experience that can span hours. It is customary for large groups to enjoy dishes together as a leisurely social activity. Diners go to restaurants early, around 10:00 AM, and rather than ordering a whole table of food, they order small amounts, have a cup of tea, read the newspaper, and wait for friends and family to join them. As a result, a visit to a dim sum restaurant can last from late morning well into the afternoon. For some people in Hong Kong, eating dim sum is a daily routine and a way of life. Since this dim sum tradition is not always present in some U.S. dim sum restaurants, however, approaches to generate interest and attract customers include customized seasoning and flavors of traditional dishes, as well as creating novel dishes with an emphasis on enhanced flavors and visual appeal.

One food reviewer notes that there has been an increase in popularity in posting dim sum photos on social media feeds, and that dim sum has become so popular that every U.S. state now has at least one high-quality dim sum restaurant. There is a restaurant, bar, and highly rated dance club complex in Las Vegas, NV, that features high-end Cantonese food (including dim sum), craft cocktails, dinner parties, and prominent disc jockeys in a chic setting.

The dim sum restaurants in Chicago's Chinatown serve mainly traditional dim sum dishes, but there has been recent growth in contemporary dim sum with new fusion dishes, as well as restaurants now located outside Chinatown.

In Hong Kong, many chefs are also introducing variants based on traditional Cantonese cuisine, which generates interest and provides both Hongkongers and tourists with new, fresh dim sum dishes.

Modern dim sum
In addition to traditional dim sum, some chefs also create and prepare new fusion-based dim sum dishes. Modern versions of buns include pork belly steamed buns with cucumber, green onion, cilantro, and ginger hoisin sauce, cocoa mushroom buns, chili lamb buns. Dumplings include snow pea shoot and shrimp dumplings, and chili crab with fried garlic, siu mai with pork, shrimp, scallop, and caviar, dumplings stuffed with shrimp and peanut, dumplings with South Australian scallop, garoupa (grouper), caviar, gold leaf, and egg white, and bone marrow or beef short ribs in potstickers. Pastry puff dishes include Australian Wagyu beef puff, Assam curry chicken puff, and pumpkin puffs. Toast dishes include Hong Kong–style French toast with condensed milk and peanut butter and prawn toast. Additional examples are spring rolls filled with goat and duck skin and duck hearts cooked over a wood-fired grill and served with sesame-horseradish sauce.

One AAA four-diamond-award-winning Chinese restaurant in Miami Beach has a prix-fixe dim sum menu, prix-fixe "yum cha" menu and breakfast cocktails. Variations designed for visual appeal on social media, such as dumplings and buns made to resemble animals and fictional characters, also exist. Dim sum chefs have previously used cocoa powder as coloring to create steamed bread puffs to appear like forest mushrooms, espresso powder as both flavoring and coloring for deep-fried riblets, as well as pastry cream, and French puffs to create innovative dishes while paying tribute to the history of dim sum.

Fast food
Dim sum can often be purchased from grocery stores in major cities. They can be cooked easily by steaming, frying, or microwaving. Major grocery stores in Hong Kong, Vietnam, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Australia, the United States and Canada stock a variety of frozen or fresh dim sum. These include dumplings, shumai, pork buns, and others.

In Hong Kong and other cities in Asia, dim sum can be purchased from convenience stores, coffee shops and other eateries. Halal-certified dim sum that uses chicken instead of pork is very popular in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei.

Restaurants

Some Cantonese restaurants serve dim sum as early as five in the morning, while more traditional restaurants typically serve dim sum from mid-morning until mid-afternoon. It is common for restaurants to serve dim sum during dinner as well as for takeout.

Dim sum is served using a unique serving method whereby servers offer dishes to customers from carts, including some carts that are steam-heated. Diners often prefer tables nearest the kitchen since servers and carts pass by these tables first. Many restaurants place lazy susans on tables to help diners reach food and tea.

The pricing of dishes at these types of restaurants may vary, but traditionally they are classified as "small", "medium", "large", "extra-large", or "special". Servers record orders with a rubber stamp or an ink pen on a bill card that remains on the table. Servers in some restaurants use distinctive stamps to track sales statistics for each server. When they have finished eating, the customer calls the server over, and their bill is calculated based on the number of stamps or quantities marked in each priced section.

Another way of pricing the food that was consumed uses the number and color of the dishes left on the table. Some restaurants offer a new approach by using a conveyor belt format.

Other Cantonese restaurants may take orders from a pre-printed sheet of paper and serve à la carte, much like Spanish tapas restaurants, to provide fresh, cooked-to-order dim sum or because of real estate and resource constraints.

title: Dim sum


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Glen Hardin

Glen Dee Hardin (born April 18, 1939) is an American piano player and arranger. He has performed and recorded with such artists as Roy Orbison, Elvis Presley, Emmylou Harris, John Denver, and Ricky Nelson.

Career
Hardin was born in Wellington, Texas, a small town in the Texas panhandle. After getting out of the Navy in 1959, Hardin began his musical career in Long Beach, California, and soon joined the house band at the Palomino Club in North Hollywood, called "Country Music's most important West Coast club" by the Los Angeles Times. It featured such performers as Buck Owens, Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, Linda Ronstadt, Hoyt Axton and Willie Nelson and was also a popular hangout for other country entertainers such as Merle Haggard and Jerry Lee Lewis.

Shortly afterwards, he became a member of the Shindogs, the featured band on Shindig!, an American music variety show which aired on the ABC network from 1964 to 1966. The series house band, the Shin-diggers (later renamed the Shindogs), also featured a young Glen Campbell, James Burton, Billy Preston, Delaney Bramlett, Joey Cooper and Leon Russell. An early episode was taped in Britain with The Beatles as the guests. The series featured other "British Invasion" bands including the Who and the Rolling Stones. Shindig! would continue to broadcast episodes from London throughout its run. Many popular performers of the day played on the show including Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, Lesley Gore, Bo Diddley and Sonny and Cher. It notably featured both black and white acts during a time of racial segregation in the United States.

A native of West Texas, Hardin had grown up with drummer Jerry Allison and bassist Joe B. Mauldin, both members of Buddy Holly's band the Crickets. After Holly's death in 1959, they continued to perform and record with guitarist/songwriter Sonny Curtis. During this period Hardin was made an honorary member of the Crickets and has played with them off and on for many years. Hardin found his first success as a songwriter in 1965 with "Count Me In", recorded by Gary Lewis & the Playboys. "Where Will The Words Come From" and "My Heart's Symphony" were also hits that Hardin penned for Lewis. He soon became an in-demand session pianist and over the years has recorded with numerous artists in a variety of music genres including Bing Crosby, Nancy Sinatra, Dean Martin, Ricky Nelson, Buck Owens, John Denver, Linda Ronstadt, Kenny Rogers, Johnny Rivers, Merle Haggard, Michael Nesmith, Waylon Jennings, and Dwight Yoakam.

In 1970 Hardin got a call from Elvis Presley to replace Larry Muhoberac in the TCB Band, featuring James Burton, Jerry Scheff and Ron Tutt. Hardin remained with the band until 1976, touring and recording with Presley and appearing in the Aloha From Hawaii TV special. Hardin studied arranging and arranged many of Presley's hits such as "The Wonder of You", "Let It Be Me" and "I Just Can't Help Believin'". This high-profile position soon led to many other opportunities. In 1972 Gram Parsons, one of the founders of country rock, hired the TCB Band to record his first album, GP. Hardin played piano and was musical director on the sessions for this as well as Parsons' second album, Grievous Angel. Through his work with Parsons, Hardin was introduced to Emmylou Harris, with whom he would work after Parsons' death in the highly praised and influential Hot Band. Across several years this band included James Burton, John Ware, Rodney Crowell, Hank DeVito, Emory Gordy, Jr., Albert Lee, Larrie Londin and Ricky Skaggs. Hardin also played piano on the Roy Orbison television special, A Black and White Night.

Recent activity
Hardin toured in Sweden with the Cadillac band in 2007 and 2008. Hardin continues to tour, regularly performing in Europe. In June 2009 he played Breda in the Netherlands. In January 2010, Hardin went into RCA Studio B in Nashville with the Dutch singer Bouke. Bouke is the winner of the Dutch national TV show Waar Is Elvis (Where Is Elvis). They recorded three songs together for a CD distributed among the Dutch and Belgian members of the Elvis Matters fanclub.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Glen Hardin


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List of people in systems and control

This is an alphabetical list of people who have made significant contributions in the fields of system analysis and control theory.

Eminent researchers
The eminent researchers (born after 1920) include the winners of at least one award of the IEEE Control Systems Award, the Giorgio Quazza Medal, the Hendrik W. Bode Lecture Prize, the Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award, the Rufus Oldenburger Medal, or higher awards such as the IEEE Medal of Honor and the National Medal of Science. The earlier pioneers such as Nicolas Minorsky (1885–1970), Harry Nyquist (1889–1976), Harold Locke Hazen (1901–1980), Charles Stark Draper (1901–1987), Hendrik Wade Bode (1905–1982), Gordon S. Brown (1907–1996), John F. Coales (1907–1999), Rufus Oldenburger (1908–1969), John R. Ragazzini (1912–1988), Nathaniel B. Nichols (1914–1997), John Zaborszky (1914–2008) and Harold Chestnut (1917–2001) are not included.

Historical figures in systems and control
These people have made outstanding historical contributions to systems and control.

title: List of people in systems and control


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Full-spectrum dominance

Full-spectrum dominance also known as full-spectrum superiority, is a military entity's achievement of control over all dimensions of the battlespace, effectively possessing an overwhelming diversity of resources in such areas as terrestrial, aerial, maritime, subterranean, extraterrestrial, psychological, and bio- or cyber-technological warfare.

Full spectrum dominance includes the physical battlespace; air, surface and sub-surface as well as the electromagnetic spectrum and information space. Control implies that freedom of opposition force assets to exploit the battlespace is wholly constrained.

US military doctrine
As early as April 2001 the United States Department of Defense defined "full-spectrum superiority" (FSS) as:
 * The cumulative effect of dominance in the air, land, maritime, and space domains and information environment, which includes cyberspace, that permits the conduct of joint operations without effective opposition or prohibitive interference.

The doctrine of Full Spectrum Operations replaced the prior one, which was known as AirLand Battle. AirLand Battle had been taught in one form or another since 1982.

The United States military's doctrine espoused a strategic intent to be capable of achieving FSS state in a conflict, either alone or with allies, by defeating any adversary and controlling any situation across the range of military operations.

The stated intent implies significant investment in a range of capabilities: dominant maneuver, precision engagement, focused logistics, and full-dimensional protection.

Criticism
Critics of US imperialism have referred to the term as proof of the ambitions of policymakers in the US and their alleged desire for total control. Harold Pinter referred to the term in his 2005 Nobel Prize in Literature acceptance speech Art, Truth and Politics: I have said earlier that the United States is now totally frank about putting its cards on the table. That is the case. Its official declared policy is now defined as "full spectrum dominance". That is not my term, it is theirs. "Full spectrum dominance" means control of land, sea, air and space and all attendant resources.

Metaphorical use
Full spectrum dominance is used in a number of non-military fields to describe a comprehensive tactical effort to support a strategy.

In marketing, full spectrum dominance may refer to an integrated campaign that takes into account reaching an audience across a wide variety of platforms and media to guarantee visibility and reinforcement. That might include simultaneous integration of online promotions with direct marketing, public relations, social media and other tactical marketing vehicles.

title: Full-spectrum dominance


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Heidelberg University

Heidelberg University, officially the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg (Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg; Universitas Ruperto Carola Heidelbergensis), is a public research university in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Founded in 1386 on instruction of Pope Urban VI, Heidelberg is Germany's oldest university and one of the world's oldest surviving universities; it was the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire after Vienna and Prague. Since 1899, it has been a coeducational institution.

Heidelberg is one of the most prestigious universities in Germany. It is a German Excellence University, part of the U15, as well as a founding member of the League of European Research Universities and the Coimbra Group. The university consists of twelve faculties and offers degree programmes at undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral levels in some 100 disciplines. The language of instruction is usually German, while a considerable number of graduate degrees are offered in English as well as some in French.

57 Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with the city of Heidelberg and 33 with the university itself. Modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology, experimental psychology, psychiatric genetics, mathematical statistics, environmental physics, and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg students or faculty. Approximately 1,000 doctorates are completed every year, with more than one third of the doctoral students coming from abroad. International students from some 130 countries account for more than 20 percent of the entire student body.

Founding

The Great Schism of 1378 made it possible for Heidelberg, a relatively small city and capital of the Electorate of the Palatinate, to gain its own university. The Great Schism was initiated by the election of two popes after the death of Pope Gregory XI in the same year. One successor resided in Avignon (elected by the French) and the other in Rome (elected by the Italian cardinals). The German secular and spiritual leaders voiced their support for the successor in Rome, which had far-reaching consequences for the German students and teachers in Paris: they lost their stipends and had to leave.

Rupert I recognized the opportunity and initiated talks with the Curia, which ultimately led to a papal bull for foundation of a university. After having received, on 23 October 1385, permission from pope Urban VI to create a school of general studies (studium generale), the final decision to found the university was taken on 26 June 1386 at the behest of Rupert I, Count Palatine of the Rhine. As specified in the papal charter, the university was modelled after the University of Paris and included four faculties: philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine.

On 18 October 1386 a special Pontifical High Mass in the Heiliggeistkirche was the ceremony that established the university. On 19 October 1386 the first lecture was held, making Heidelberg the oldest university in Germany. In November 1386, Marsilius of Inghen was elected first rector of the university. The rector seal motto was semper apertus—i.e., "the book of learning is always open." The university grew quickly and in March 1390, 185 students were enrolled at the university.

Late Middle Ages
Between 1414 and 1418, theology and jurisprudence professors of the university took part in the Council of Constance and acted as counselors for Louis III, who attended this council as representative of the emperor and chief magistrate of the realm. This resulted in establishing a good reputation for the university and its professors.

Due to the influence of Marsilius, the university initially taught the nominalism or via moderna. In 1412, both realism and the teachings of John Wycliffe were forbidden at the university but later, around 1454, the university decided that realism or via antique would also be taught, thus introducing two parallel ways (ambae viae).

The transition from scholastic to humanistic culture was effected by the chancellor and bishop Johann von Dalberg in the late 15th century. Humanism was represented at Heidelberg University particularly by the founder of the older German Humanistic School Rudolph Agricola, Conrad Celtes, Jakob Wimpfeling, and Johann Reuchlin. Æneas Silvius Piccolomini was chancellor of the university in his capacity as provost of Worms, and later always favored it with his friendship and good-will as Pope Pius II. In 1482, Pope Sixtus IV permitted laymen and married men to be appointed professors in the ordinary of medicine through a papal dispensation. In 1553, Pope Julius III sanctioned the allotment of ecclesiastical benefices to secular professors.

Reformation and modern era
Martin Luther's disputation at Heidelberg in April 1518 made a lasting impact, and his adherents among the masters and scholars soon became leading Reformationists in Southwest Germany. With the Electorate of the Palatinate turn to the Reformed faith, Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, converted the university into a calvinistic institution. In 1563, the Heidelberg Catechism was created under collaboration of members of the university's divinity school.

As the 16th century was passing, the late humanism stepped beside Calvinism as a predominant school of thought; and figures like Paul Schede, Jan Gruter, Martin Opitz, and Matthäus Merian taught at the university. It attracted scholars from all over the continent and developed into a cultural and academic center. However, with the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618, the intellectual and fiscal wealth of the university declined. In 1622, the then-world-famous Bibliotheca Palatina (the library of the university) was stolen from the University Cathedral and taken to Rome. The reconstruction efforts thereafter were defeated by the troops of King Louis XIV, who destroyed Heidelberg in 1693 almost completely.

As a consequence of the late Counter-Reformation, the university lost its Protestant character, and was channeled by Jesuits. From 1712 to 1728, the Old University was constructed at University Square, then known as Domus Wilhelmina. Through the efforts of the Jesuits a preparatory seminary was established, the Seminarium ad Carolum Borromæum, whose pupils were also registered in the university. After the suppression of the Jesuit Order, most of the schools they had conducted passed into the hands of the French Congregation of Lazarists in 1773. They deteriorated from that time forward.

Meanwhile, the university itself continued to lose in prestige until the reign of the last elector Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, who established new chairs for all the faculties, founded scientific institutes such as the Electoral Academy of Science, and transferred the school of political economy from Kaiserslautern to Heidelberg, where it was combined with the university as the faculty of political economy. He also founded an observatory in the neighboring city of Mannheim, where Jesuit Christian Mayer labored as director. In connection with the four hundredth anniversary of the university, the elector approved a revised statute book that several professors had been commissioned to prepare. The financial affairs of the university, its receipts and expenditures, were put in order. At that time, the number of students varied from 300 to 400; in the jubilee year, 133 matriculated.

As a consequence of the disturbances caused by the French Revolution, and particularly because of the Treaty of Lunéville, the university lost all its property on the left bank of the Rhine, so that its complete dissolution was expected.

19th and early 20th century
This decline did not stop until 1803, when the university was reestablished as a state-owned institution by Karl Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden, to whom the part of the Palatinate situated on the right bank of the Rhine was allotted. Since then, the university bears his name together with the name of Ruprecht I. Karl Friedrich divided the university into five faculties and placed himself at its head as rector, as did also his successors. During this decade, Romanticism found expression in Heidelberg through Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, Ludwig Tieck, Joseph Görres, and Joseph von Eichendorff, and there went forth a revival of the German Middle Ages in speech, poetry, and art.

The German Students Association exerted great influence, which was at first patriotic and later political. After Romanticism had eventually died out, Heidelberg became a center of Liberalism and the movement in favor of German national unity. The historians Friedrich Christoph Schlosser and Georg Gottfried Gervinus were the guides of the nation in political history. The modern scientific schools of medicine and natural science, particularly astronomy, were models in point of construction and equipment, and Heidelberg University was especially noted for its influential law school. The university as a whole became the role model for the transformation of American liberal arts colleges into research universities, in particular for the then-newly established Johns Hopkins University. Heidelberg's professors were important supporters of the Vormärz revolution and many of them were members of the first freely elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848. During the late 19th century, the university housed a very liberal and open-minded spirit, which was deliberately fostered by Max Weber, Ernst Troeltsch and a circle of colleagues around them.

In February 1900, the Grand Duchy of Baden issued a decree that gave women the right to access universities in Baden. Thus, the universities of Freiburg and Heidelberg were the first ones to allow women to study.

In the Weimar Republic, the university was widely recognized as a center of democratic thinking, coined by professors like Karl Jaspers, Gustav Radbruch, Martin Dibelius and Alfred Weber. Unfortunately, there were also dark forces working within the university: Nazi physicist Philipp Lenard was head of the physical institute during that time. Following the assassination of the liberal German-Jewish Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau, he refused to half mast the national flag on the institute, thereby provoking its storming by communist students.

Nazi Germany
After the establishment of Nazi Germany in 1933, the university supported Adolf Hitler and the Nazis like all other German universities at the time. It dismissed a large number of staff and students for political and racial reasons. Many dissident fellows had to emigrate and most Jewish and Communist professors who did not leave Germany were deported. At least two professors directly fell victim to Nazi terror. On 17 May 1933, members of the university faculty and students took part in book burnings at Universitätsplatz ("University Square") and Heidelberg eventually became infamous as a NSDAP university. The inscription above the main entrance of the New University was changed from "The Living Spirit" to "The German Spirit", and many professors paid homage to the new motto. The university was involved in Nazi eugenics: forced sterilizations were carried out at the women's clinic and the psychiatric clinic, then directed by Carl Schneider, was involved in Action T4 Euthanasia program.

The heads of the university helped in the deportation of Jewish men, women and children directly to the gas chambers.

After the end of World War II, the university underwent an extensive denazification.

Federal Republic of Germany
Since Heidelberg was spared from destruction during World War II, the reconstruction of the university was realized rather quickly. With the foundation of the Collegium Academicum, Heidelberg University became the home of Germany's first and, until today, only self-governed student hall. Newly laid statutes obliged the university to "The Living Spirit of Truth, Justice and Humanity".

During the 1960s and 1970s, the university grew dramatically in size. At this time, it developed into one of the main scenes of the left-wing student protests in Germany. In 1975, a massive police force arrested the entire student parliament AStA. Shortly thereafter, the building of the Collegium Academicum, a progressive college in immediate vicinity to the university's main grounds, was stormed by over 700 police officers and closed once and for all. On the outskirts of the city, in the Neuenheimer Feld area, a large campus for medicine and natural sciences was constructed.

Today, about 28,000 students are enrolled for studies at Heidelberg University. There are 4,196 full-time faculty, including 476 university professors. In 2007, and again in 2012, the university was appointed University of Excellence under an initiative started by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Research Foundation. This enhanced the German university system by establishing a small network of exceptionally well-funded universities, which are expected to generate strong international appeal.

In 2022, a mass shooting occurred in the university, killing a woman and injuring three other people. The gunman then committed suicide.

Campuses
Heidelberg is a city with approximately 140,000 inhabitants. It is situated in the Rhine Neckar Triangle, a European metropolitan area with approximately 2.4 million people living there, comprising the neighboring cities of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, and a number of smaller towns in the perimeter. Heidelberg is known as the cradle of Romanticism, and its old town and castle are among the most frequented tourist destinations in Germany. Its pedestrian zone is a shopping and night life magnet for the surrounding area and beyond. Heidelberg is about 40 minutes by train away from Frankfurt International Airport. Heidelberg University's facilities are, generally speaking, separated in two parts. The faculties and institutes of humanities and social sciences are embedded in the Old Town Campus. The sciences faculties and the medical school, including three large university hospitals, are located on the New Campus in the Neuenheimer Feld on the outskirts of Heidelberg.

Old Town Campus

The so-called New University is regarded as the center of the Old Town Campus. It is situated at the Universitätsplatz (University Square) in the pedestrian zone, in direct vicinity to the University Library and to the main administration buildings. The New University was officially opened in 1931. Its erection was largely financed by donations of wealthy American families, in line with a fundraising campaign of Jacob Gould Schurman, an alumnus of Heidelberg University and former United States Ambassador to Germany. It houses the new assembly hall, the largest lecture halls, and a number of smaller seminar rooms, mostly used by faculties of humanities and social sciences. Education in humanities and social sciences takes place to a great extent in buildings spread over the ancient part of town, though most are less than ten minutes walk from University Square. The faculties maintain their own extensive libraries and work spaces for students. Seminars and tutorials are usually held in the faculty buildings.

Neuenheimer Feld – New Campus
In the 1960s the university started building a new campus near the city district Neuenheim, called the Neuenheimer Feld. It is today the largest part of the university, and the largest campus for natural sciences and life science in Germany. Almost all science faculties and institutes, the medical school, University Hospital Heidelberg, and the science branch of the University Library are situated on the New Campus. Most of the dormitories and the athletic facilities of the university can be found there as well.

Several independent research institutes, such as the German Cancer Research Center and two of the Max-Planck-Institutes have settled there. The New Campus is also the seat of several biomedical spin-off companies. The old part of town can be reached by tram and bus in about 10 minutes. The Neuenheimer Feld campus has extensive parking lots for faculty and student vehicles for long term and short term parking, as well as visitors and patients of the various university hospitals. The Faculty of Physics and Astronomy is not located on either campus, but on the Philosophers' Walk, separated from the Old Town by the River Neckar, and some 2 km away from the New Campus. It also maintains observatory facilities on the Königstuhl Mountain.

The university maintains a botanical garden at Neuenheimer Feld.

Bergheim Campus

The Bergheim Campus is located in the former Ludolf Krehl clinic (named after Ludolf von Krehl) in the inner-city suburb of Heidelberg-Bergheim. Since March 2009 it has housed the institutes economics, political science, and sociology (together the Heidelberg University Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences) that formerly resided at the Old Town campus. The Bergheim campus offers one lecture theatre, several seminar rooms, the most modern of the university libraries, and a cafe (rather than the full cafeteria present in the other campuses). Since 2019, the Bergheim Campus has also become the location of the Centre for Asian and Transcultural Studies of the Heidelberg University.

Libraries

The University Library is the main library of the university. Together with the branch libraries, serving the faculties and institutes, it forms the integral university library system comprising approximately 6.2 million printed volumes. The University Library's holdings exceeded one million in 1934. Today, it comprises about 3.2 million books, about 500,000 other media such as microfilms and video tapes, as well as 6,000 printed scientific periodicals. Moreover, it has 6,900 manuscripts, 1,800 incunabula, 110,500 autographs, and a collection of old maps, paintings, and photographs. Furthermore, the 38 branch libraries add another 3.0 million printed books. In 2022, 43,600 active users accessed 746,000 books. Additionally, the University Library provides a wide array of online resources, among them 152,000 scientific e-journals.

The origins of today's University Library date back to 1386, the year the university was founded. Surrounding the new university, the libraries of the faculty of the arts, the three higher faculties (theology, law, medicine) and the collegiate library grew. The acquisition of a box of records, which was housed in the Heiliggeistkirche, through the rector, Marsilius of Inghen, in 1388 contributed fundamentally to the development of the library. In the 16th century, Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, combined the miscellaneous book collections accrued since the foundation of the university with the princely library housed in Heidelberg Castle to form the Bibliotheca Palatina and made them publicly accessible in the galleries of the Heiliggeistkirche. Among these collections, inherited records of the Fuggers (Augsburg, Ulrich Fugger the Elder) wereof particular importance. The majority of the library holdings, which enjoyed great contemporary renown, was looted during the Thirty Years' War, transported to Rome and was gifted to Pope Gregory XV by the victorious Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria in 1622. After the secularization in 1804, the holdings of the monasteries of Salem and Petershausen formed the foundation of the reconstruction of the library collection in the 19th century. In 1816, 847 German-language manuscripts from the Bibliotheca Palatina returned to Heidelberg. As part of an exchange, the Codex Manesse, which had ended up in the Royal Library in Paris, followed in 1888. Karl Zangemeister (1837–1902) became the first full-time head of the university library in 1912. Based on the designs of architect Joseph Durum, a dedicated library building, a richly ornamented, four-winged red sandstone construction, was erected from 1901 to 1905. In 1978, a branch library opened in the Neuenheimer Feld, serving the institutes of natural sciences and medicine.

Since 2021, all manuscripts of the Bibliotheca Palatina are accessible digitally online (848 German-language Palatina manuscripts, 2,030 Latin, 423 Greek, 267 Hebrew and 20 manuscripts in other languages). Their digitization was achieved through the cooperation of Heidelberg University Library and the Vatican Library.

The university library expands its publication services: The Heidelberg document server heiDOK is an open access platform for members of the university. The university bibliography heiBIB lists all academic publications by university members. In 2015, Heidelberg University founded the publishing house Heidelberg University Publishing – heiUP, which is part of the university library. The publisher releases quality-controlled scientific publications in open access.

Facilities abroad
Heidelberg University founded a Center for Latin America in Santiago, Chile in 2001. It has the task of organizing, managing, and marketing the courses of study maintained either independently by Heidelberg University or in cooperation with the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile and the University of Chile. The center has responsibility for programs of postgraduate education. It also coordinates the activities of Heidelberg University in Latin America, and provides a platform for scientific cooperation. Heidelberg University's South Asia Institute maintains branch offices in New Delhi (India)), Islamabad (Pakistan), Kathmandu (Nepal), and Colombo (Sri Lanka).

The university is also represented by a liaison office in New York. Its main tasks include promoting existing collaborations, building up new networks, creating joint study programs, and maintaining and expanding academic contacts with American universities.

Museum
The university has its own museum, in the main building of the old campus. Visitors are able to view the Great Hall (when not in use), and the former "student jail".

Governance
The Rectorate is the 'executive body' of the university, headed by rector Bernhard Eitel. The rectorate consists of the chancellor, Holger Schroeter, who is the head of the central administration and responsible for the university's budgeting, and three pro-rectors, who are responsible for international relations, teaching and communication, and research and structure respectively.

The Senate is the 'legislative branch' of the university. The rector and the members of the rectorate are senators ex officio, as are also the deans of the faculties, as well as the medical and managing directors of the University Hospital, and the university's equal opportunities officer. Another 20 senators are elected for four-year terms, within the following quotas: eight university professors; four academic staff; four delegates of the student body; and four employees of the university administration.

The University Council is the advisory board to the aforementioned entities and encompasses, among others, the former Israeli Ambassador to Germany Avi Primor, as well as CEOs of German industries.

Faculties
After a 2003 structural reformation, the university consists of 13 faculties, which in turn comprise several disciplines, departments, and institutes. As a consequence of the Bologna process, most faculties now offer Bachelor's, Master's, and Ph.D. degrees to comply with the new European degree standard. Notable exceptions are the undergraduate programs in law, medicine, dentistry and pharmacy, from which students still graduate with the State Examination, a central examination at Master's level held by the State of Baden-Württemberg.

 * The Faculty of Behavioural Sciences and Empirical Cultural Sciences
 * The Faculty of Biosciences
 * The Faculty of Chemistry and Earth Sciences
 * The Faculty of Engineering
 * The Faculty of Law
 * The Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science
 * The Faculty of Medicine
 * The Faculty of Medicine in Mannheim
 * The Faculty of Modern Languages
 * The Faculty of Philosophy and History
 * The Faculty of Physics and Astronomy
 * The Faculty of Theology
 * The Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences

Associated institutions

 * Network for Research on Ageing
 * Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim
 * Heidelberg Center for American Studies
 * Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research,
 * Heidelberg State Observatory,
 * University Hospital Heidelberg,
 * University Hospital Mannheim

Partnerships
The university has partnerships nationally and internationally. In particular, it maintains longstanding collaborations in research and education with the following independent research institutes located in and around Heidelberg:

 * Center for Jewish Studies Heidelberg
 * European Molecular Biology Laboratory
 * German Cancer Research Center (Helmholtz Association)
 * Heavy Ion Research Center Darmstadt (Helmholtz Association),
 * Heidelberg University of Education
 * Heidelberg Academy of Sciences
 * Karlsruhe Research Center (Helmholtz Association)
 * Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (Max Planck Society)
 * Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law (Max Planck Society)
 * Max Planck Institute for Medical Research (Max Planck Society)
 * Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics (Max Planck Society)

School statistics
The university employs more than 15,000 academic staff; most of them are physicians engaged in the University Hospital. As of 2008, the faculty encompasses 4,196 full-time staff, excluding visiting professors as well as graduate research and teaching assistants. 673 faculty members have been drawn from abroad. Heidelberg University also attracts more than 500 international scholars as visiting professors each academic year. The university enrols a total of 26,741 students, including 5,118 international students. In addition there are 1,467 international exchange students at Heidelberg. 23,636 students pursue taught degrees, 4,114 of whom are international students, and 919 are international exchange students. 3,105 students pursue a doctoral degree, including 1,004 international doctoral students and 15 international exchange students. In 2007, the university awarded 994 PhD degrees.

Rankings
In the 2025 edition of the QS World University Rankings, Heidelberg ranked 84th globally and 3rd in Germany. According to the 2024 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the university was ranked 47th in the world and held the position as the 3rd best university in the country. Moreover, in the 2023 ARWU World Rankings, Heidelberg secured the 55th position worldwide and was ranked first nationally.

According to the funding report of the German Research Foundation (DFG) of 2018, which breaks down the grants from 2014 to 2016, the Heidelberg University ranked 2nd among German universities in the overall ranking, 7th in humanities and social sciences and 4th among German universities in the life sciences and natural sciences. The approvals were normalised to the size of the university. In a competitive selection process, the DFG selects the best research projects from researchers at universities and research institutes and finances them. The ranking is thus regarded as an indicator of the quality of research.

In the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities (NTU ranking) 2019, which measures the research outputs of universities, Heidelberg University is ranked 1st in Germany and 5th in Continental Europe.

In the CWTS Leiden Ranking 2019 Heidelberg University is ranked 1st in Germany and 13th in Continental Europe over all sciences according to the scientific impact (number of publications in core journals). According to the indicator "Collaboration", Heidelberg University is 1st in Germany and 10th in Europe.

Ranked by the number of Nobel Laureates affiliated with the university at the time of Nobel Prize announcement, Heidelberg was placed 1st in Germany, 4th in Europe and 13th in the world by 2013.

According to the Third European Report on Science & Technology Indicators compiled by the European Commission, Heidelberg ranked 4th nationally and 9th in Europe.

The German Center for Higher Education Development Excellence Ranking 2010, which measures academic performance of European graduate programs in biology, chemistry, economics, mathematics, physics, political sciences, and psychology, placed Heidelberg in the European excellence group for biology, chemistry, mathematics, physics, and psychology.

Measured by the number of top managers in the German economy, Heidelberg University ranked 53rd in 2019.

Organisation and length of courses
The academic year is divided into two semesters. The winter semester runs from 1 October to 31 March and the summer semester from 1 April to 30 September. Classes are held from mid-October to mid-February and mid-April to mid-July. Students can generally begin their studies either in the winter or the summer semester. However, there are several subjects students can begin only in the winter semester. The standard time required to finish a Bachelor's degree is principally six semesters, and a further four semesters for consecutive Master's degrees. The normal duration of PhD programmes for full-time students is 6 semesters. The overall period of study for an undergraduate degree is divided into two parts: a period of basic study, lasting at least four semesters, at the end of which students must sit a formal examination, and a period of advanced study, lasting at least two semesters, after which students take their final examinations.

Admission
In the winter-semester 2006/2007, the university offered 3,926 places in undergraduate programs restricted by numerus clausus, with an overall acceptance rate of 16.3%. Most selective are the undergraduate programs in clinical medicine, molecular biotechnology, political science, and law, with acceptance rates of 3.6%, 3.8%, 7.6% and 9.1% respectively. The selection is exercised by allocating the best qualified applicants to a given number of places available in the respective discipline, thus depending primarily on the chosen subjects and the grade point average of the Abitur or its equivalent. For some majors and minors in humanities—particularly for conceptually non-vocational like classics and ancient history—unrestricted admission is granted under certain criteria (e.g., relevant language proficiency), as applications regularly do not exceed the number of places available.

For prospective international undergraduate students, a language test for German—such as the DSH—is required. Admission to consecutive Master's programs always requires at least an undergraduate degree equivalent to the German grade "good" (i.e., normally B+ in American, or 2:1 in British terms). Except for the Master's programs taught in English, a language test for German must be passed as well. PhD admission prerequisite is normally a strong Master's-level degree, but specific admission procedures vary and cannot be generalized. International applicants usually make up considerably more than 20% of the applicant pool and are considered individually by the merits achieved in their respective country of origin.

Finances
The German state heavily subsidizes university study to keep higher education affordable regardless of socio-economic background. From 2007 to 2012, Heidelberg has charged tuition fees of approximately €1,200 p.a. for undergraduate, consecutive Master's, and doctoral programs, for both EU and non-EU citizens, and for any subject area. However, from spring term 2012 onwards, tuition fees have been abolished. The usual housing costs for on-campus dormitories range from €2,200 to €3,000 p.a.

In the fiscal year 2005, Heidelberg University had an overall operating budget of approximately €856 M, consisting of approximately €413 M government funds, approximately €311 M basic budget, and approximately €132 M from external grants. The university spent approximately €529 M in payroll costs and approximately €326 M in other expenditures. Additionally, the university receives another €150 M in research grants, distributed over 5 years from 2012 onwards, due to the German Universities Excellence Initiative. In the fiscal year 2007, the university for the first time raised approximately €19 M through tuition fees, exclusively to further improve the conditions of study. Only approximately €9.5 M of these were spent at the end of the year and the rectorate had to urge the faculties to make use of their additional means.

Research
Among historical scientific achievements of Heidelberg researchers features prominently the invention of spectroscopy, and of the Bunsen burner; the discovery of chemical elements Caesium and Rubidium; the identification of the absolute point of ebullition; and the identification and isolation of nicotine as the main pharmacologically active component of tobacco. Modern scientific psychiatry; psychopharmacology; psychiatric genetics; environmental physics; and modern sociology were introduced as scientific disciplines by Heidelberg faculty. Almost 800 dwarf planets, the North America Nebula, and the return of Halley's Comet have been discovered and documented at institutes of the Heidelberg Center for Astronomy. Moreover, Heidelberg researchers invented the process of plastination to preserve body tissue, conducted the first successful transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells, and recently developed a new strategy for a vaccination against certain forms of cancer, which earned Harald zur Hausen of the university the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2008.

Today, the university puts an emphasis on natural sciences and medicine, but it retains its traditions with highly ranked faculties of humanities and social sciences. The Marsilius Kolleg, named after Marsilius of Inghen, was established in 2007 as a Center for Advanced Study to promote interdisciplinary dialogue and research especially between the sciences and the humanities. Other institutes such as the Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing, the Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, the Heidelberg Center for American Studies, and the South Asia Institute also build a bridge between faculties and thus emphasize the concept of a comprehensive university.

Noted regular publications of the Center for Astronomy include the Gliese catalogue of nearby stars, the fundamental catalogues FK5 and FK6 and the annual published Apparent places, a high precision catalog with pre-calculated positions for over 3,000 stars for each day. The Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research publishes the annual Conflict Barometer, which describes the recent trends in global conflict developments, escalations, de-escalations, and settlements. Regular publications by the Max Planck Institute for International Law include the Heidelberg Journal of International Law, the Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law; the Journal of the History of International Law; the Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law; and the semi-annual bibliography Public International Law.

The German Research Foundation (DFG) currently funds twelve long-term Collaborative Research Centers (SFB) with a duration of up to 12 years at Heidelberg, four Priority Programs (SPP) with a duration of six years, two Research Units (FOR) with a duration of up to six years, as well as numerous individual projects at the university's faculties and institutes. As a result of the German Universities Excellence Initiative, two Clusters of Excellence are funded with €6.5 M each—"Cellular Networks: From Molecular Mechanisms to Quantitative Understanding of Complex Functions", and "Asia and Europe in a Global Context".

International cooperations
Heidelberg is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities, the Coimbra Group, and the European University Association. The university forms part of the German-Japanese University Consortium HeKKSaGOn, and it participates in 7 European exchange schemes for researchers and students, such as ERASMUS. Furthermore, it is actively involved in the development of the German-speaking Andrássy University of Budapest, and co-runs the school of German law at the Jagiellonian University of Kraków. The city of Heidelberg being twinned with Cambridge, England, and Montpellier, France, there are close academic ties to the University of Cambridge and the Université de Montpellier. Beyond Europe, the university and its faculties maintain specific agreements with 58 partner universities in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia and the Russian Federation. In total, the Higher Education Compass of the German Rector's Conference lists staff and student exchange agreements as well as research cooperations with 236 universities worldwide. Some of the most notable partner universities include Cornell University, Duke University, Georgetown University, Harvard University, Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po), Pantheon Sorbonne University, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Tsinghua University, and Yale University.

Sports

The university offers a broad variety of athletics, such as teams in 16 different court sports from American football to volleyball, courses in 11 different martial arts, 26 courses in physical fitness and body building, 9 courses in health sports from aquapower to yoga, and groups in 12 different dance styles. Moreover, equestrian sports, sailing, rowing, skiing in the French Alps, track and field, swimming, fencing, cycling, acrobatics, gymnastics, and much more. Most of the sports are free of charge. Heidelberg's competition teams are particularly successful in soccer, volleyball, equestrian sports, judo, karate, track and field, and basketball. The University Sports Club men's basketball team, USC Heidelberg, is the championship record holder, won 13 national championships, and is the only university team playing at a professional level in the second division of Germany's national league.

Groups
Moreover, the university supports a number of student groups in various fields of interest. Among them are four drama clubs, the university orchestra Collegium Musicum, four choirs, six student media groups, six groups of international students, nine groups of political parties and NGO's, several departments of European organizations of students in certain disciplines, four clubs dedicated to fostering international relations and cultural exchange, a chess club, a literature club, two debate societies (one focused on English debating, the other focused on German debating), one student consulting group, and four religious student groups. Student unions structure themselves as "Studierendenrat" (Student body council) as well as on department level.

Media
Heidelberg's student newspaper "ruprecht" is—with editions of more than 10,000 copies—one of Germany's largest student-run newspapers. It was recently distinguished by the MLP Pro Campus Press Award as Germany's best student newspaper. The jury of journalists from major newspapers commended its "well balanced, though critical attitude" and its "simply great" layout that "suffices highest professional demands." The ruprecht is financed entirely by advertising revenues, thus retaining independence from university management. Some renowned journalists emerged from ruprecht's editorial board.

However, the critical online student newspaper UNiMUT, which is run by the joint student council of the faculties, criticized the ruprecht often for being conformed, and exceedingly layout-oriented.

Heidelberg is also home of Germany's oldest student law review Heidelberg Law Review. The journal is published quarterly, at the beginning and end of each semester break, and is circulated throughout all of Germany.

Studentenverbindung
Heidelberg hosts 34 student corporations, which were largely founded in the 19th century. Corporations are to some extent comparable to the fraternities in the US. As traditional symbols (couleur) corporation members wear colored caps and ribbons at ceremonial occasions (Kommers) and some still practice the traditional academic fencing, a kind of duel, to "shape their members for the challenges of life." In the 19th and early 20th century, corporations played an important role in Germany's student life. Today, however, corporations include only a relatively small number of students. Their self-declared mission is to keep academic traditions alive and to create friendships for life. The corporations' often representative 19th-century mansions are present throughout the Old Town.

Nightlife
Heidelberg is not least famous for its student night life. Besides the various parties regularly organized by the student councils of the faculties, the semester opening and closing parties of the university, the dormitory parties, and the soirées of Heidelberg's 34 student fraternities, the city offers night life for any taste and budget.

Notable alumni
Alumni and faculty of the university include many founders and pioneers of academic disciplines, and a large number of internationally acclaimed philosophers, poets, jurisprudents, theologians, natural and social scientists. 33 Nobel Laureates, at least 18 Leibniz laureates, and two "Oscar" winners have been associated with Heidelberg University. Nine Nobel laureates received the award during their tenure at Heidelberg.

Besides several federal ministers of Germany and prime ministers of German states, five chancellors of Germany have attended the university, the latest being Helmut Kohl, the "Chancellor of the Reunification". Heads of state or government of Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Nicaragua, Serbia, Thailand, a British heir apparent, a secretary general of NATO and a director of the International Peace Bureau have also been educated at Heidelberg; among them Nobel Peace laureates Charles Albert Gobat and Auguste Beernaert. Former university affiliates in the field of religion include Pope Pius II, cardinals, bishops, and with Philipp Melanchthon and Zacharias Ursinus, two key leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Outstanding university affiliates in the legal profession include a president of the International Court of Justice, two presidents of the European Court of Human Rights, a president of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, a vice president of the International Criminal Court, an advocate general at the European Court of Justice, at least 16 justices of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, a president of the Federal Court of Justice, a president of the Federal Court of Finance, a president of the Federal Labor Court, two attorneys general of Germany, and a British law lord. In business, Heidelberg alumni and faculty notably founded, co-founded or presided over ABB; Astor corporate enterprises; BASF; BDA; Daimler AG; Deutsche Bank; EADS; Krupp AG; Siemens and Thyssen AG.

Alumni in the field of arts include classical composer Robert Schumann, philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach and Edmund Montgomery, poet Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff and writers Christian Friedrich Hebbel, Gottfried Keller, Irene Frisch, Heinrich Hoffmann, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, National Hero of the Philippines José Rizal, W. Somerset Maugham, Jean Paul, Literature Nobel laureate Carl Spitteler, and novelist Jagoda Marinić. Amongst Heidelberg alumni in other disciplines are the "Father of Psychology" Wilhelm Wundt, the "Father of Physical Chemistry" J. Willard Gibbs, the "Father of American Anthropology" Franz Boas, Dmitri Mendeleev, who created the periodic table of elements, inventor of the two-wheeler principle Karl Drais, Alfred Wegener, who discovered the continental drift, as well as political theorist Hannah Arendt, gender theorist Judith Butler, political scientist Carl Joachim Friedrich, and sociologists Karl Mannheim, Robert E. Park and Talcott Parsons.

Philosophers Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Jaspers, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Jürgen Habermas served as university professors, as did also the pioneering scientists Hermann von Helmholtz, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, Emil Kraepelin, the founder of scientific psychiatry, and outstanding social scientists such as Max Weber, the founding father of modern sociology.

Present faculty include Medicine Nobel Laureates Bert Sakmann (1991) and Harald zur Hausen (2008), Chemistry Nobel Laureate Stefan Hell (2014), seven Leibniz laureates, former justice of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany Paul Kirchhof, and Rüdiger Wolfrum, the former president of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.

Literature
In 1880 Mark Twain humorously detailed his impressions of Heidelberg's student life in A Tramp Abroad. He painted a picture of the university as a school for aristocrats, where students pursued a dandy's lifestyle, and described the great influence the student corporations exerted on the whole of Heidelberg's student life.

In William Somerset Maugham's 1915 masterpiece novel Of Human Bondage, he described the one-year stay of the protagonist Philip Carey at Heidelberg University, in a largely autobiographical way. Heidelberg also featured in the respective film versions of the novel, released in 1934 (starring Leslie Howard as Philip, and Bette Davis as Mildred), 1946 (with Paul Henreid and Eleanor Parker in the lead roles), and 1964 (with Laurence Harvey and Kim Novak in the lead roles).

E. C. Gordon, the hero of Robert Heinlein's 1964 novel Glory Road, mentions his desire for a degree from Heidelberg and the dueling scars to go with it.

In Bernhard Schlink's semi-autobiographical 1995 novel The Reader, Heidelberg University is one of the main scenes of Part II. Nearly a decade after his affair with an older woman came to a mysterious end, Michael Berg, a law student at the university, re-encounters his former lover as she defends herself in a war-crimes trial, which he observes as part of a seminar. The university is also featured in the Academy Award-winning 2008 film version The Reader, starring Kate Winslet, David Kross and Ralph Fiennes.

Film and television
The 1927 silent film The Student Prince in Old Heidelberg, based on Wilhelm Meyer-Förster's play Alt Heidelberg (1903), starring Ramón Novarro and Norma Shearer, continued Mark Twain's image of Heidelberg, showing the story of a German prince who comes to Heidelberg to study there, but falls in love with his innkeeper's daughter. Having been very popular in the first half of the 20th century, it presents the typical student life of the 19th and early 20th century, and it is today considered a masterpiece of the late silent film era. MGM's 1954 color remake The Student Prince, featuring the voice of Mario Lanza, is based on Sigmund Romberg's operetta version of the story. In 2000, a film named Anatomy (film) with Franka Potente was set at Heidelberg and involved a secret society called the Anti-Hyppocratic Society.

title: Heidelberg University


text:
User talk:Kent Sandvik

Hello there Kent, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. BTW, nice work on the Dalai Lama pages. Cheers! --maveric149

title: User talk:Kent Sandvik


text: User:Robert Dober

title: User:Robert Dober


text:
Baol

Baol or Bawol was a kingdom in what is now central Senegal. Founded in the 11th century, it was a vassal of the Jolof Empire before becoming independent in the mid-16th century. The ruler bore the title of Teigne (or Teeň) and reigned from the capital in Lambaye. The kingdom encompassed a strip of land extending east from the ocean and included the towns of Touba, Diourbel, and Mbacke. It was directly south of the Kingdom of Cayor and north of the Kingdom of Sine.

History
There are no written sources for the early history of Baol, and even oral traditions are sparse. Serer people moved into the region in the 11th or 12th century, fleeing Islamization in the Senegal river valley. Wolof groups gradually arrived later. The earliest recorded Teigne of Baol, despite the Serer title, was named Kayamangha and was a member of the Wagadu matrilineage, reflecting clear Soninke influence emanating from the Ghana Empire. Some of the other early Serer kings included: Kolki Faye; Mbissine Ndoumbé Ngom; Massamba Fambi Ngom; Fambi Langar Ngom; Patar Xole Joof (great-grandson of Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof).

At some point early in its history, Baol was integrated into the Jolof Empire. The legend of Ndiadiane Ndiaye, the first Buurba Jolof, claims that the ruler of Baol voluntarily submitted to him, but this is likely a later invention to celebrate the unity of the empire. Many of the earliest buurbas came from maternal lineages native to Baol, perhaps benefiting from the prestigious historical memory of Ghana. Some even used Lambaye as an imperial residence.

The Portuguese began trading on the coast of Baol in the 15th century, bringing primarily horses and iron.

Amary Ngoné Sobel Fall, Damel of Cayor, and his cousin Maguinak Joof of Baol fought together at the Battle of Danki (1549), where they defeated the Emperor of Jolof and won independence. Fall became the first Damel-Teign, reigning over both kingdoms in a personal union. This arrangement resurfaced periodically throughout the history of the two states, with frequent wars between them. Fall was son of Lingeer Ngoneh Sobel Njie and the maternal grandson of Lingeer Sobel Joof, making him a descendant of the ancient Baol royal house of Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof.

Around the turn of the 16th century, Baol, still largely Serer and animist and under the reign of Teigne Mafane Thiaw, was invaded by the nominally Islamic Cayor. Defeated in battle, some of the priests of Baol took refuge with the Maad Saloum, founding the city of Kaolack.

In 1697 Teigne Lat Sukaabe Fall conquered Cayor and built a powerful, centralized state backed by a military armed with firearms. Upon his death, however, he deeded each kingdom to a separate son, and the rivalry between them continued. During the 18th century, Damel Maïsa Teindde Ouédji of Cayor annexed Baol, but the kingdom was embroiled in a succession dispute after his death. Baol regained its independence in 1756.

The French conquest of Baol began in 1859 under Governor Louis Faidherbe. Most of Baol was conquered by 1874, but complete control of the former kingdom was only established in 1895 when it was divided into two provinces. Under colonialism, Mouridism, whose founder Amadou Bamba was a Baol-Baol, spread widely in the region.

Government
The social and political systems were basically the same as those of its larger neighbor, Cayor. The government was composed of the great electors who selected the Teigne, a crown-slave bureaucracy directly under the king, and representatives of each of the dependent communities (pastoralists, fishermen, clergy, castes and women).

Baol was ruled by a mixed dynasty: the Wagadu maternal lineage (from the Ghana Empire) along with the Serer paternal dynasties of N'Gom (or Ngum), Thiaw, Joof or Diouf, and Faye. The heir to the throne was given the title of Thialao, and ruled over the province of Salao.

Economy and Society
Baol was famous for its horses. It had unique breeds, which were faster and more robust than most of the horses on the plain. The kingdom's primary seaports were at Saly Portudal and Mbour, giving the nobles access to imported luxuries and firearms that they purchased with slaves raided from outlying villages or in war.

Baol was a Wolof kingdom, but included large communities of Serer-Safen and other Serer groups. Natives of Baol are known as 'Baol-Baol', a common formulation in Senegal (e.g. Saloum-Saloum, Waalo-Waalo, etc.)

List of kings
Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers:

 * Niokhor (c. 1550–c. 1560)
 * Amari (c. 1560–1593)
 * Mamalik Thioro (1593–?)
 * Tié N'Della (?)
 * Tié Kura (?)
 * M'Bissan Kura (?)
 * Tiande (?–c. 1664)
 * M'Bar (c. 1664–c. 1690)
 * Tié Yaasin Demba (c. 1690–c. 1693)
 * Tié Tieumbeul (c. 1693–1697)
 * Lat Sukaabe (1697–1719)
 * Mali Kumba Dyaring (1719)
 * Ma-Kodu Kumba (1719–1749)
 * Mawa (1749–c. 1752)
 * M'Bissan N'Della (c. 1752–c. 1758)
 * Ma-Kodu Kumba (c. 1758–1777)

Position vacant from 1777 to 1809

 * Tié-Yaasin Dieng (1809–1815)
 * Amadi Dyor (1815–c. 1822)
 * Birayma Fatma (c. 1822–1832)
 * Isa Tein-Dyor (1832–1855)
 * Tié-Yaasin N'Gone (1855–c. 1857)
 * Ma-Kodu Kodu Kumba (c. 1857–1859)
 * Mali Kumba N'Gone (1859–1862)
 * Tié-Yaasin Gallo (1862–1890)
 * Tanor Gogne (1890–3 July 1894)

title: Baol


text:
Talk:Mostly Harmless

Earth article reference
Whether or not a reference to this should be made in the Wikipedia's Earth entry is a topic of debate in Talk:Earth.

Transpire
transpire v. intr. To become known; come to light.  --Paul A 03:22, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Relation to Earth
I added a bit about people who try to change the Earth article. Anyone who accuses me of being a vandal is mistaken; my computer was POD'd from Bend, Oregon and I lost control of my computer for a while. I had to reinstall Windows and I removed SuSE (which was causing the problem) so now it's all good.
 * Only problem is that that addition is self-referencing, which is frowned upon, except here on talk pages. Sorry! --JohnDBuell 21:17, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Characters Section?
I think that maybe we should add a "characters" section for all the books in the series. But maybe only cover the characters that are featured in that particular book. What do you think?...

Mbatman72 03:26, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Taking a quick look at some articles in the WP:Novels project, it looks like the generally accepted topic headings are: intro (no heading; usual 2-3 paragraph intro rule of thumb applies), plot summary, characters (major ones for the novel/book in question, linking back to characters used throughout a series as necessary), discussion of themes (optionally), critical reviews (positive and negative), awards (if any), allusions/references from other works (if any), discussion of adaptations (including audiobook and audio drama, the latter of which certainly applies to MH). Then the usual References/See also/External links sections. With that in mind, I'd probably move the plot summary up, include the characters section, move the information about the title down, and let the next three sections follow in order as they do now. References: Script Book Vol. 2, by Dirk Maggs, and The Salmon of Doubt should be referenced more explicitly (i.e. with page numbers). --JohnDBuell 03:57, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

 * So do you think it would be a good idea just on MH or on the entire series? Maybe there's enough in the summary: if we add a characters section it might be a good idea to cut down on the summary.

71.38.235.214 22:06, 8 January 2007 (UTC)
 * It's ultimately been a goal of the Hitchhiker's WikiProject to get the articles about the five novels up to acceptable quality levels as defined by the Novels WikiProject (and the same for the film and the tv series), so yes, the ideas expressed here should also work their way eventually into the other four novel articles. --JohnDBuell 22:10, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

Infobox
I was looking at the infobox guidlines on wikiproject novels and it looks like they have a lot more info, do we need more or is it long enough already? Mbatman72 02:04, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

Spoiler Warnings
There is a "Spoilers end here" at the end of the Plot Summary, and yet, the Adams on Mostly Harmless section tells the entire ending. Since the very next section contains a Spoiler Warning, the warning should just be continued to the end of the article. Millancad 15:52, 11 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Speaking about spoilers, why aren't there any in this or any of the other Hitchiker's books? Looking around there aren't any on other fictionaly works.  I haven't been on wikipedia for a long time, have I missed something??

Mbatman72 20:41, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Plot?
Im not sure I agree with the plot outline.

Specifically;

"The Grebulons took Tricia to Rupert because they wanted her to make a working model of the solar system?"

"They were confused and didnt know what else to do with their guns?"

 * I completely agree with you and I have gone through it in order to make it more accurate, and understandable to those not familiar with the series. Mbatman72 20:34, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Why is Astrology and horoscopes not mentioned anywhere in this outline? The Grebulon's fascination with earth TV and culture, so much so that they come to effectively use it to fill the void left in their empty minds was one of the main points about them. They took Tricia to Rupert because she had interviewed a prominent astrologer and they were hoping she could calculate how the horoscope would work for those on Rupert instead of Earth. Likewise, they destroyed Earth because it was a spanner in the works of their avid use of astrology (because since all their info comes from Earth broadcasts naturaully Earth isn't taken into account as something in the sky) - you didnt know what to do when "earth was rising" etc. 70.189.213.149 14:23, 15 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Feel free to add any of this. --JohnDBuell 22:50, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

There are other major discrepancies and overlookings in the plot summary, but as I'm not sure myself of many of these things, I'll leave them here open for discussion, instead of editing the article. The guide 2.0 needs a lot more emphasis since it's revealed to be the one retro-engineering the timelines of possibiliy to make most of the events of the book happening, starting with saving Ford's life at the Guide building, through manipulating Random until the arguably final purpose of arriving into the earth, pulling the scattered last earthians along. Actually it's most likely that the Guide 2.0 itself was the one that, by means of sacrifice, erased the earth from the time-space-probability continuum. It's never stated in the book that the Grebulons were the ones behind it, it' just suggested they were preparing an attack in the mean time (also it's quite probable it was their former mission before their lost their memories). If it would have been a Grebulon attack, it would only have destroyed that particular earth, but as the Vogon observed, the whole existence of the earth in all possible dimensions was denied. It's therefore suggested that the Guide 2.0 was working (maybe even created) under the orders of the Vogon, who, as it's stated in the book, hates to leave a work unfinished. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Maokun (talk • contribs) 01:51, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

Erm, I'm just a visitor but I couldn't help noticing that Arthur Dent must go to some planet before he can die; but then at the end of the story most of the Main Characters die, including him. The plot summary does not include him going to that planet; is that wrong or is there a plot hole? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.236.175.113 (talk) 01:59, 21 January 2009 (UTC)

--Having just completed reading the Hitchhiker's series, I couldn't help noticing that the plot summary section of this article is inaccurate on many occasions. For example:

Random is already living with Arthur on Lamuella, when Ford's package arrives. Ford doesn't appear shortly after Random escapes with the Guide. She actually steals Ford's ship when he comes looking for his package, leaving him stranded on the planet. Also the bit about Arthur, Ford, Random and the two Tricias meeting before the scene at Stavro's doesn't seem accurate.

Oh and about the Grebulons destroying the Earth, there is a motive presented in the book: "Earth was starting to rise into Capricorn, and that, for the Grebulon leader, who showed all the character signs of being a classic Taurus, was very bad indeed. This was all very distressing for him, but he knew that he had to start taking positive action. He ordered the turrets to swivel." How this should result in the obliteration of all possible Earths on the probability axis, I couldn't find a clue, though. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.50.134.176 (talk) 00:16, 3 March 2009 (UTC)

Yes it is in fact a Vogon that destroys every possible Earth, and also no mention of Elvis Presley's appearance?- User:Zedxclon. ^That was me, I just forgot to sign in. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Zedxclon (talk • contribs) 12:09, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

The place Arthur 'has to go before he can die' is the bar he's in at the end, I believe. In the 3rd book Arthur is told someone will try to kill him, miss and kill 'the Bowl of Petunias' (can't be bothered to look for his other name). This happens in the bar. Because of time travel this has already happend for the Petunia in the first and 3rd book, while still being in Arthur's future. Dannman (talk) 11:31, 27 November 2014 (UTC)

"Hitchhiker's Guide 2.0"?
Was it ever called this in the book, or has someone just invented it as a "cool" name? 86.174.124.26 (talk) 11:44, 21 June 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mostly Harmless


text:
North Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)

North Norfolk is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2024 by Steffan Aquarone, a Liberal Democrat.

Constituency profile
The seat covers a long stretch of the Norfolk coast including the seaside towns of Cromer, Wells-next-the-Sea and Sheringham.

History
The North Division of Norfolk was first created by the Reform Act 1867 as one of three two-member divisions of the Parliamentary County of Norfolk. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the three two-member county divisions were replaced with six single-member divisions. The second version of this constituency was one of the single-member seats. It has remained as a single-member seat since then, being designated as a County Constituency from the 1950 general election.

Formerly held by Labour from 1945 to 1970, then the Conservatives from 1970 to 2001, the seat was represented by the Liberal Democrat Norman Lamb from 2001 until he stood down for the 2019 general election, when the Conservatives regained the seat from the Lib Dems with a swing of 17.5%.

The 2001 general election marked the first time that a Liberal aligned candidate had won a seat in Norfolk since 1929. This was to be followed by the election of Simon Wright in Norwich South in 2010. While Wright's success was short-lived (he was defeated in 2015), Lamb retained his seat, which at the 2015 election was one of only two Liberal Democrat seats in southern England, and one of only eight in the whole UK. At the 2017 general election, in which the Liberal Democrats lost five of their nine seats, North Norfolk was one of the four held. Although the seat had been held by Labour for the 25 years following World War II, Labour have slumped to a distant third in recent years, and came fourth in 2015, and last in a narrower field of three candidates in 2017.

North Norfolk was described by the Earl of Leicester as "the one constituency in England where, in 1964, it was so feudal that it had to be explained to the electors that the ballot was secret." Feudal is used as a metaphor, or shorthand, meaning constitutionally backward.

1868–1885

 * The Hundreds of East Flegg, West Flegg, Happing, Tunstead, Erpingham (North), Erpingham (South), Eynsford, Holt and North Greenhoe.

''The seat was formed largely from northern parts of the abolished Eastern Division, with a small part transferred from the Western Division. It also absorbed the Parliamentary Borough of Great Yarmouth, which had been disenfranchised for corruption under the Act.''

1885–1918

 * The Sessional Divisions of Eynsford, Holt, North Erpingham, and North Greenhoe; and
 * Part of the Sessional Division of South Erpingham.

''Great Yarmouth re-established as a single-member Parliamentary Borough. Eastern parts were transferred to the re-established Eastern Division.''

1918–1950

 * The Urban Districts of Cromer, Sheringham, and Wells-next-the-Sea; and
 * The Rural Districts of Aylsham, Erpingham, and Walsingham.

Gained the area around Fakenham from the abolished North-Western Division, and lost small areas in the south to the Eastern and South-Western Divisions.

1950–1974

 * The Urban Districts of Cromer, North Walsham, Sheringham, and Wells-next-the-Sea; and
 * The Rural Districts of Erpingham, Smallburgh, and Walsingham.

''Gained North Walsham and the Rural District of Smallburgh from the abolished Eastern Division. An area comprising the former Rural District of Aylsham (now part of the St Faith's and Aylsham Rural District) was transferred to the new constituency of Central Norfolk.''

1974–1983

 * The Urban Districts of Cromer, North Walsham, and Sheringham; and
 * The Rural Districts of Erpingham, St Faith's and Aylsham, and Smallburgh.

''Gained the Rural District of St Faiths and Aylsham, including Hellesdon and Sprowston, from the now abolished constituency of Central Norfolk. Wells-next-the-Sea and the Rural District of Walsingham, including Fakenham, were transferred to the re-established constituency of North West Norfolk.''

1983–2010

 * The District of North Norfolk.

''The seat was extended westwards, regaining Wells-next-the-Sea and areas comprising the former Rural District of Walsingham, including Fakenham, from North West Norfolk. Suburbs of Norwich, including Hellesdon and Sprowston, were transferred to Norwich North, and remaining southern areas, including Aylsham, to the new constituency of Mid Norfolk.''

2010–2024

 * The District of North Norfolk wards of Briston, Chaucer, Corpusty, Cromer Town, Erpingham, Gaunt, Glaven Valley, Happisburgh, High Heath, Holt, Hoveton, Mundesley, North Walsham East, North Walsham North, North Walsham West, Poppyland, Priory, Roughton, St Benet, Scottow, Sheringham North, Sheringham South, Stalham and Sutton, Suffield Park, The Runtons, Waterside, Waxham, and Worstead.

Fakenham and surrounding areas were transferred out once again to the new constituency of Broadland.

Current
Further to the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, which came into effect for the 2024 general election, the composition of the constituency is as follows (as they existed on 1 December 2020):

 * The District of North Norfolk wards of: Bacton; Beeston Regis & The Runtons; Briston; Coastal; Cromer Town; Erpingham; Gresham; Happisburgh; Hickling; Holt; Hoveton & Tunstead; Mundesley; North Walsham East; North Walsham Market Cross; North Walsham West; Poppyland; Priory; Roughton; St. Benet’s; Sheringham North; Sheringham South; Stalham; Stody; Suffield Park; Trunch; Wells with Holkham; Worstead.

Minor gain following changes to local authority ward boundaries.

MPs 1868–1885
West Norfolk and East Norfolk prior to 1868

Elections in the 2010s
Sir Norman Lamb did not stand for re-election. The seat saw the largest decrease in the Liberal Democrat vote share at the 2019 general election, and the third highest increase in vote share for the Conservatives.

Elections in the 1890s

 * Caused by Cozens-Hardy's appointment as a judge in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice.

Elections in the 1870s

 * Caused by Duff's death.

 * Caused by Walpole's death.