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Llandaff Cathedral

Llandaff Cathedral (Eglwys Gadeiriol Llandaf) is an Anglican cathedral and parish church in Llandaff, Cardiff, Wales. It is the seat of the Bishop of Llandaff, head of the Church in Wales Diocese of Llandaff. It is dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and three Welsh saints: Dubricius (Dyfrig), Teilo and Oudoceus (Euddogwy). It is one of two cathedrals in Cardiff, the other being the Roman Catholic Cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral in the city centre.

The current building was constructed in the 12th century on the site of an earlier church. Severe damage was done to the church in 1400 during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr, during the English Civil War when it was overrun by Parliamentarian troops, and during the Great Storm of 1703. By 1717, the damage to the cathedral was so extensive that the church seriously considered the removal of the see. Following further storms in the early 1720s, construction of a new cathedral began in 1734, designed by John Wood, the Elder. During the Cardiff Blitz of the Second World War in January 1941, the cathedral was severely damaged when a parachute mine was dropped; blowing the roof off the nave, south aisle and chapter house. The stonework which remains from the medieval period is primarily Dundry stone from Somerset, though local blue lias constitutes most of the stonework done in the post-Reformation period. The work done on the church since World War II is primarily concrete and Pennant sandstone, and the roofs, of Welsh slate and lead, were added during the post-war rebuilding. In February 2007, the organ was damaged during a severe lightning strike, following which there was a successful appeal for £1.5 million for an entirely new organ.

For many years, the cathedral had the traditional Anglican choir of boys and men, and more recently a girls' choir, with the only dedicated choir school in the Church in Wales, the Cathedral School, Llandaff. The cathedral contains a number of notable tombs, including Dubricius, a 6th-century British saint who evangelised Ergyng (now Archenfield) and much of South-East Wales, Meurig ap Tewdrig, King of Gwent, Teilo, a 6th-century Welsh clergyman, church founder and saint, and many Bishops of Llandaff, from the 7th century Oudoceus to the 19th century Alfred Ollivant, who was bishop from 1849 to 1882.

Legendary origins
There is common consensus that the Norman cathedral was constructed on the site of an ancient Celtic church, but there is little consensus on the original church's age, importance or size.

Lucius of Britain
Welsh tradition associates the church's founding with Lucius, the legendary 2nd century King of the Britons and the first Christian convert in Britain. Lucius was believed to have beseeched the Pope (Eleutherius) to convert him to Christianity. The Pope's response was to send a Christian mission to Britain, which would include the building of Britain's first church. The Welsh Triads relate this tradition to Llandaff, stating that Lucius "made the first Church at Llandaf, which was the first in the Isle of Britain." another triad lists ""the three archbishoprics of the Isle of Britain" and states that "the first was Llandaf, of the gift of Lleirwg (Lucius), the son of Coel, the son of Cyllin, who first gave lands and civil privileges to such as first embraced the faith in Christ." Although the Lucius legend is now considered to be pseudohistory, it was recounted by Nennius, Bede and Geoffrey of Monmouth, and seems to have been widely accepted in the medieval period.

Four names are associated with the task of executing the Pope's wishes, these include the early Welsh saints Fagan, Deruvian and Elvan. Fagan is sometimes named as "the first Bishop of Llandaff" while all three became patrons of churches and villages throughout the diocese. Iolo Morgannwg also linked these early figures to Llandaff, writing extensively on this supposed early foundation. In the Iolo Manuscripts, he credits Fagan as the second Bishop of Llandaff (succeeding Dyfan, a figure Iolo conflates with Deruvian).

Saint Dubricius
In their writings on Lucius of Britain, both Geoffrey of Monmouth and Iolo Morganwg would state that the original Christian community at Llandaff was re-established by Saint Dyfrig (Dubricius) and his successor Saint Teilo. The most notable legends surrounding these two would state that Saint Dyfrig was made Archbishop by Saint Germanus of Auxerre while he travelled through Britain to oppose the Pelagian heresy, and linked both saints with King Arthur.

The Normans considered Dyfrig and Teilo as the cathedral's founders and they, along with their successor Oudoceus, are the modern Cathedral's patron saints. The continuation of a Post-Roman church is supported by the high number of ancient remains at the site (most notably an ancient Celtic cross at the Bishop's Court's well) and both secular and ecclesiastical writings.

Norman cathedral
The Normans occupied Glamorgan early in the Norman conquest, appointing Urban their first bishop in 1107. He began construction of the cathedral in 1120 and had the remains of Saint Dyfrig transferred from Bardsey. After the death of Urban, it is believed the work was completed some time in the last years of Bishop Nicholas ap Gwrgant, who died in 1183. The cathedral was dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul, Dubricius, Teilo and Oudoceus.

Bishop Henry de Abergavenny organised the Llandaff Cathedral chapter circa 1214. He appointed fourteen prebends, eight priests, four deacons and two sub-deacons. De Abergavenny also made changes to Llandaff's episcopal seal, giving more detail to the figure of the bishop depicted on it and adding the phrase "by the grace of God" to its inscription. The west front dates from 1220 and contains a statue of St Teilo. By 1266, the structure that Urban began had been altered; the cathedral was dedicated again in 1266.

The Lady Chapel was built by William de Braose, bishop from 1266 to 1287. It was built at the rear of the church constructed by Urban and the old choir area was removed in order to build the chapel. From this time on, it seemed as if the cathedral was in a constant state of repair or alterations at a slow pace. After the Lady Chapel had been completed, the two bays of the north choir aisle were rebuilt.

Severe damage was done to the church in 1400 during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr; his forces also destroyed the Bishop's Palace at Llandaff. The damage was extensive enough to cause Bishop Blethyn to notify his fellow clergymen in 1575 that he believed the cathedral to possibly be damaged beyond repair. Most of the other damage was repaired, most notably by Bishop Marshall, whose reredos partly survives. The northwest tower, the one without a spire, was added by Jasper Tudor and is now named after him. He assumed the lordship of Cardiff after the accession to the throne of his nephew, King Henry VII of England.

Late medieval tombs include that of Sir David Mathew of Llandaff (1400–1484). Sir David ap Mathew was appointed "Grand Standard Bearer of England", by King Edward IV, for saving his life at the Battle of Towton 1461 as part of the War of the Roses.

Post-medieval to Victorian period
During the English Civil War, the cathedral was overrun by Parliamentarian troops. Along with other destruction, the troops seized the books of the cathedral library, taking them to Cardiff Castle, where they were burned along with many copies of the Book of Common Prayer. Among those invited to the castle to warm themselves by the fire on that cold winter day, were the wives of some sequestered clergymen. Also during this time of unrest, a man named Milles, who claimed to be a practising Puritan, appropriated portions of the cathedral for his own gain. Milles set up a tavern in the cathedral, used part of it as a stable, turned the choir area into a pen for his calves and used the font as a trough for his pigs.

The southwest tower suffered major damage in the Great Storm of 1703 and by 1720, was in a state of collapse. The damage to the cathedral was so extensive that the church seriously considered removal of the see to Cardiff in 1717. Thomas Hancorne, a jacobite prominent in High Church circles, was prebendary of Llandaff from 1718 to 1731. Between 1720 and 1723 a series of storms proceeded to damage the cathedral further, bringing down sections of the roof as well as other destruction. The collapse of 1723 forced worship services to be confined to the Lady Chapel and closed the western entrance of the cathedral entirely. Thirty years after the cathedral roof collapsed, the chapter asked an architect, John Wood, the Elder, to prepare estimates and plans to restore the cathedral. In 1734 work began on a new cathedral, designed by Wood. Wood produced an Italian temple style edifice, working only on the eastern portion of the building, while leaving the remaining western half in ruins. What Wood was trying to build at Llandaff was not Italian, but a recreation of Solomon's Temple. Another sixteen years passed before the chapter solicited funds to repair the western half of the building. Wood's plans were to replace the western entrance of the cathedral with a tower and rustic porch. No changes were made to the western entrance until Wyatt and Prichard began their work in 1841, when the damage to the western portion of the structure was repaired and all traces of the Italian temple work by Wood had been removed from the cathedral.

During the 19th century the bishop began to reside in Llandaff for the first time in centuries; no bishops of the see resided in Llandaff for almost 300 years. In 1836 there was another unsuccessful attempt to transfer the see—this time to Bristol. After the attempt at transferring the see, the office of Dean was restored to Llandaff; the position had not been filled in 700 years. The office of Dean was separated from that of the Archdeacon of Llandaff in November 1843. The restoration of the Dean's office was the beginning of better times for the cathedral. The new Dean, William Bruce Knight, was instrumental in bringing about the much-needed restorations.

Enough restoration had been completed to allow the cathedral to be reopened for worship on 16 April 1857. The see of Gloucester lent their cathedral choir for this service, making it possible to hear choral music in Llandaff Cathedral for the first time since 1691. The restoration done up to this point was to remove all traces of the Italian temple and to repair damages caused by the attempt to transform the cathedral by Wood. Arches with beautiful moulding were hidden by walls, Sedilia were removed from their original positions and reredos had been covered with plaster or hidden with walls.

A meeting was held after the service and a detailed restoration plan was announced at the meeting along with a list for those wishing to donate to the work. The Prince of Wales (later Edward VII) and John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute were among those who pledged donations sufficient to allow the restoration work to continue immediately. The cathedral was extensively restored, the tower rebuilt and a spire added. Much of the restoration work was completed by local architect John Prichard between 1843 and 1869. A triptych by Dante Gabriel Rossetti was designed for use as a reredos, and a new stained glass window, Shipwreck of St Paul, was designed by Ford Madox Brown. Sir Edward Burne-Jones designed the porcelain panels Six Days of Creation in St Dyfrig's Chapel.

From 1691 until around 1860 there had been no choir at the cathedral. There was also no organ for some time. Browne Willis' 1719 account describes the ruins of an organ given to the cathedral by Lady Kemysh of Cefn Mably found in the organ loft at that time. In 1860, Alfred Ollivant, who was then Bishop of Landaff, published a book, Some Account of the Condition of the Fabric of Llandaff Cathedral, from 1575 to the present time, intended to raise funds to restore the cathedral's choir and to purchase a new organ. A cathedral school of some type has existed since the 9th century. Dean Vaughan reorganised the school in 1888. Since 1978 the cathedral school has accepted female pupils.

20th and 21st centuries

On the evening of 2 January 1941 during the Second World War, a parachute mine was dropped near it during the Cardiff Blitz. When it exploded, it blew the roof off the nave, south aisle and chapter house. The top of the spire also had to be reconstructed and there was also some damage to the organ. The Sunday after the bombing, worship took place in the Deanery. Work soon began to clear the Lady Chapel and the Sanctuary and to repair the roof in these areas. This was not completed until April 1942. Further work was not possible until the end of the war and the repaired areas served as a place of worship until 1957. Of British cathedrals, only Coventry Cathedral was damaged more, during the infamous Coventry Blitz. Due to its importance, it received Grade I building status on 12 February 1952.

Major restorations and reconfigurations were carried out under architect George Pace of York, and the building was back in use in June 1958. Elizabeth II attended a service celebrating the completion of the restoration on 6 August 1960. The Welch Regiment Memorial Chapel was constructed, and Jacob Epstein created the figure of Christ in Majesty which is raised above the nave on a concrete arch designed by George Pace.

Pace presented two options to replace the pulpitum which was not part of the cathedral restoration done earlier by Pritchard. One was for a baldacchino having four columns with a suitable painting beneath it. The other was for a double wishbone arch topped by a hollow drum to house the division of the organ. The figure of "Christ in Glory" would be installed on the west face of the drum. This proposal was accepted by the Dean and the cathedral chapter. They approached the War Damage Commission about whether funds initially meant for replacement of stained glass damaged in the bombing could be used for art in other media. This permission helped to finance the Majestas figure.

In February 2007 the cathedral suffered a severe lightning strike. Particular damage was caused to the electrics of the organ, which was already in poor condition. The instrument was not able to be used after the lightning damage. This prompted the 2007 launch of an appeal to raise £1.5 million for the construction of an entirely new organ.

Architecture
The original pre-Norman church was recorded in the 12th-century Book of Llandaff to have been no more than 28 ft long, 15 ft wide and 20 ft high. It contained low, narrow aisles with an apsidal porticus measuring 12 ft long. Construction began of a grander building under the orders of the second Norman bishop of Llandaff, Urban, in the 1120s, to administer power over the newly formed diocese. It doesn't appear to have lasted long as an extensive construction was ordered between 1193 and 1218 during the episcopate of Henry of Abergavenny. The western parts replaced those that Urban had built, and the nave and front of this side remain today. The fine craftsmanship and subtlety of the architecture show a clear similarity to those of Glastonbury Abbey and Wells Cathedral, so it is probable that several of the leading craftsman of Somerset were hired for the building.

Though some remodeling work was done in the 13th and 14th centuries, with a northwest tower funded by Jasper Tudor, lord of Glamorgan from 1484 to 1495, by the late 16th century the church had fallen into a state of disrepair. In 1594 the bishop complained that the cathedral was "more like a desolate and profane place than like a house of prayer and holy exercises". The church continued to exist in a poor state, so that by 1692 choral services had to be suspended in fear that the roof would collapse. The battlements of the northwestern tower blew away during a storm in 1703, and the southwest tower fell down in 1722. In 1734, John Wood of Bath was hired to restore the cathedral, but his work on the temple was still not complete by 1752 and remained that way. It was not until 1840 that in the wake of industrial development in Cardiff that the cathedral could raise the funds to commence a full restoration. T. H. Wyatt was hired to restore the Lady Chapel in 1841, but due to other commitments later left much of the work to John Prichard, who worked the most extensively on the church in the 1840s and 1850s. Prichard had restored the sanctuary by 1850, and by 1852 he had begun to work on the nave, largely demolishing much of the temple Wood had built. Together with London-based John Pollard Seddon, who was able to hire pre-Raphaelite artists Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Thomas Woolner, extensive developments were made. Morris & Co. provided the stained glass in the 1860s. Prichard was responsible for a dramatic redevelopment of the southwest tower in 1867–1869, aided by a number of talented artists and craftsmen.

In 1941, a parachute mine exploded near the south aisle of the cathedral, resulting in the roof of the nave collapsing and the shattering of the windows. Charles Nicholson was hired to rebuild the roof, and made the decision to remove the altarpiece that Rossetti had added to the north aisle. In 1949, Nicholson was replaced with George Pace of York, who in coordination with the dean at the time, Glyn Simon, saw a number of improvements in the modern style, though many fittings were clearly still influenced by the Gothic. The material of the church which remains from the medieval period is primarily Somerset Dundry stone, though Sutton stone and local blue lias also make up the stonework, with the latter constituting most of the stonework done in the post-Reformation period. The work done on the church since World War II is primarily concrete and Pennant sandstone. The roofs, added in the post-war period, are made of Welsh slate and lead. The West front of the cathedral is gabled along its length and contains the grand central doorway, higher in level than the floor of the nave. It is described as being "double lobed" with an "arched head with continuous chamfer outline, colonnettes and dripmould".

The south side of the nave is characterized by eight bays with stepped buttresses between them, with aisle windows featuring reticulated heads. At the side of the south aisle of the sanctuary is Chapter House, a small, two-story square building. It dates to the mid 13th century and is made from Chipping Camden and Bath limestone, with some local red sandstone from Radyr. The octagonal roof was the brainchild of Prichard, though it was lowered in pitch by Pace and later worked on by Donald Buttress. The buttresses of the building are made from ashlar. The seven stained-glass roundels are of 16th-century Flemish origin. In the interior is a pulpit featuring Moses. Also of note is the St David's Chapel, added by George Pace in 1953–1956, which is accessed through the Norman north door of the cathedral.

Chapter
, the Chapter — the governing body of the cathedral — consists of:

 * The Dean and Canons, the everyday clergy of the church:
 * Dean of Llandaff — Richard Peers (since 20 November 2022 installation)
 * Canon Precentor — Mark Preece (since 10 February 2019 installation)
 * Canon Chancellor — Jan van der Lely (since 5 May 2019 installation)
 * Chapter Canons (clergy): Sarah Rogers; and Michael Komor, Archdeacon of Margam
 * Lay Canons: Ceri Weatherall; and Paul Bennett
 * Chapter Treasurer: Robert Lewis

Choirs
For many years, the cathedral had the traditional Anglican choir of boys and men, and more recently the Girl Choristers. The boys and girls are educated at the Cathedral School, the only dedicated choir school in the Church in Wales,.

The Cathedral Choir consists of boys and alto, tenor and bass parts, and sing on Sundays at the Choral Eucharist and at Choral Evensong. The full choir also sings on Thursdays for Evensong, with the boys singing alone on Tuesdays and the lower voices on Fridays. The Girl Choristers and Schola Cantorum keep the choral tradition going through the week, with full SATB services for Evensong on Mondays and Wednesdays, directed by the Master of Choristers of the Cathedral School. The Girl Choristers occasionally sing with the Cathedral Choir, and have sung at large services, including a National Service of Remembrance, on Remembrance Sunday in 2018.

In addition, the parish choir sings at the weekly Parish Eucharist, and is a mixed choir of boys, girls, men and women. The cathedral has a ring of twelve bells (with an additional "flat sixth", to make thirteen in total) hung for change-ringing, located in the Jasper tower. The current bells were installed in 1992, replacing a previous ring of ten. Only one other church in Wales has a ring of twelve bells; the cathedral is the only church in Cardiff with a set of twelve bells.

In December 2013, five days before Christmas, the cathedral chapter announced that all salaried adult members of the choir (altos, tenors and basses) were being made redundant, along with the assistant organist. The cathedral was in the midst of a financial crisis, and the chapter intended to save £45,000 a year by taking these measures.

Recordings
In 2012 the cathedral premiered its own record label, with a recording called Majestas. The music focuses on the new cathedral organ and the Llandaff Cathedral choir. The recording's title was taken from the Jacob Epstein sculpture in the cathedral's nave that was part of the post-war renewal of the structure. Proceeds from sales of the record were donated to African charities.

In August 2018, a recording of the 2010–13 Nicholson Organ was released. The organ is played by the Director of Music, Stephen Moore, and is called Deo Gracias.

In December 2018, the cathedral launched a recording of its Cathedral Choir called Nadolig yn Llandaf, showcasing seasonal music for Advent to Christmas. This was the first CD of the cathedral's choir since Majestas in 2012.

Main Organs
The first organ at Llandaff was built in 1861 by Gray and Davison. In the late 1800s, this organ was antiquated, and its pipes were moved to St. Mary's Church, Usk.

The second organ was built in 1900 by Hope-Jones with Norman and Beard. This organ was rebuilt in 1937 by Hill, Norman and Beard. It received significant renovations by its builders after wartime damage to the cathedral; it was never entirely satisfactory from this point onwards, even before a 2007 lightning strike made it unusable. Originally it had been planned to install a new organ at that time, but the costs of about £1,000,000 were deemed to be too high in the austere climate of post-war Britain.

Organ manufacturer Nicholson & Co Ltd began installation of a new organ in autumn 2008 and although not fully completed, it was brought to a playable stage by Easter 2010. Its inaugural performance was the Gloria of Louis Vierne's Messe solennelle, performed at the Easter Vigil service on 3 April 2010. Proceeds from the 2011 Llandaff Festival of Music were donated to the cathedral for the completion of the new organ. The remaining stops were added in the late summer of 2013. It was the first entirely new organ for a British cathedral since the Coventry installation in the 1960s.

Lady Chapel Organs
Two chamber organs have been used in the Lady Chapel at the east end of the cathedral. The first, built in 1946 by Hill, Norman and Beard, had two manuals and pedals. This was replaced in 1960 with a single manual chamber organ built by Henry Willis & Sons, which remains there today.

Burials

 * Dubricius, 6th-century saint who evangelised Ergyng (now Archenfield) and much of South-East Wales; his body was transferred to Llandaff Cathedral in 1120
 * Teilo, 6th-century clergyman, church founder and saint
 * Henry de Abergavenny, Bishop of Llandaff (1193–1218)
 * William de Braose, Bishop of Llandaff (1266–1287)
 * John of Monmouth, Bishop of Llandaff (1297–1323)
 * Edmund de Bromfield, Bishop of Llandaff (1390–1393)
 * John Paschal, Bishop of Llandaff (1347–1361)
 * John Smith, Bishop of Llandaff (1476–1478)
 * Sir David Mathew, (1400–1484), born Dafydd ap Mathew, was Lord of Llandaff and Seneschal of Llandaff Cathedral, and one of the ten Great Barons of Glamorgan, a Marcher Lord. After saving the life of Edward IV at the Battle of Towton in 1461, he was appointed Grand Standard Bearer of England, and the King granted him the use of "Towton" on the Mathew family arms.
 * John Marshall (bishop), Bishop of Llandaff (1478–1496)
 * Miles Salley, Bishop of Llandaff (1500–1516 or 1517)
 * Hugh Lloyd (bishop), Bishop of Llandaff (1660–1667)
 * Francis Davies, Bishop of Llandaff (1667–1675)
 * Edward Copleston, Bishop of Llandaff (1828–1849)
 * Alfred Ollivant, Bishop of Llandaff (1849–1882)

title: Llandaff Cathedral


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IRC (disambiguation)

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an internet messaging protocol.

IRC may also refer to:

Businesses

 * IRC Limited, a Hong-Kong–based mining firm (founded 2010)
 * IRC Tire, a Japanese tyre manufacturer (founded 1926)

Global humanitarian charities

 * IRC (organization), a water/sanitation think tank (formed 1968 in The Hague)
 * International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (formed 1863 in Geneva)
 * International Rescue Committee, for refugees (formed 1933 in New York)
 * International Rescue Corps, for urban search and rescue (formed 1981 in Scotland)

Government and politics

 * Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (formed 1994)
 * Immigration removal centres, United Kingdom (from 2002)
 * Australian Industrial Relations Commission (1988–2010)
 * Industrial Reorganisation Corporation, United Kingdom (1966–1970)
 * Inland Regional Center, for disabled Californians (formed 1971)
 * Independence Republic of Sardinia, an Italian separatist party (formed 2002)

Events

 * International Rostrum of Composers, a contemporary classical music forum
 * Intercontinental Rally Challenge, a rally championship

Places in the United States

 * Circle City Airport, Alaska (IATA: )
 * Indian River County, Florida

Science and technology

 * IRC (sailing), a system of handicapping sailboats and yachts for the purpose of racing
 * Two-Micron Sky Survey catalogue entries have the form IRC followed by a five-digit number, standing for infrared catalogue
 * IRC -10414, a red supergiant star
 * IRC +10420, a yellow hypergiant star
 * Incrementally related carriers, a standard for video channel frequencies
 * Infrared reflective coating, on a type of incandescent light bulb
 * IRC-Galleria, a social networking website in Finland commonly called "IRC"
 * Intrinsic reaction coordinate in the analysis of the energy profile of a chemical reaction

Other uses

 * Immigration removal centre, a UK immigration detention facility
 * Infrared reflective coating, on insulated glazing
 * Internal Revenue Code, the US federal tax code
 * International reply coupon, used to post a letter to most countries
 * International Residential Code, a set of codes and standards; see International Building Code

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: IRC (disambiguation)


text: Talk:IRC (disambiguation)

title: Talk:IRC (disambiguation)


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Orbital elements

Orbital elements are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. In celestial mechanics these elements are considered in two-body systems using a Kepler orbit. There are many different ways to mathematically describe the same orbit, but certain schemes, each consisting of a set of six parameters, are commonly used in astronomy and orbital mechanics.

A real orbit and its elements change over time due to gravitational perturbations by other objects and the effects of general relativity. A Kepler orbit is an idealized, mathematical approximation of the orbit at a particular time.

Keplerian elements
The traditional orbital elements are the six Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his laws of planetary motion.

When viewed from an inertial frame, two orbiting bodies trace out distinct trajectories. Each of these trajectories has its focus at the common center of mass. When viewed from a non-inertial frame centered on one of the bodies, only the trajectory of the opposite body is apparent; Keplerian elements describe these non-inertial trajectories. An orbit has two sets of Keplerian elements depending on which body is used as the point of reference. The reference body (usually the most massive) is called the primary, the other body is called the secondary. The primary does not necessarily possess more mass than the secondary, and even when the bodies are of equal mass, the orbital elements depend on the choice of the primary.

Two elements define the shape and size of the ellipse:
 * Eccentricity ($e$) — shape of the ellipse, describing how much it is elongated compared to a circle (not marked in diagram).
 * Semi-major axis ($a$) — half the distance between the apoapsis and periapsis. The portion of the semi-major axis extending from the primary at one focus to the periapsis is shown as a purple line in the diagram; the rest (from the primary/focus to the center of the orbit ellipse) is below the reference plane and not shown.

Two elements define the orientation of the orbital plane in which the ellipse is embedded:
 * Inclination ($i$) — vertical tilt of the ellipse with respect to the reference plane, measured at the ascending node (where the orbit passes upward through the reference plane, the green angle $i$ in the diagram). Tilt angle is measured perpendicular to line of intersection between orbital plane and reference plane. Any three distinct points on an ellipse will define the ellipse orbital plane. The plane and the ellipse are both two-dimensional objects defined in three-dimensional space.
 * Longitude of the ascending node ($Ω$) — horizontally orients the ascending node of the ellipse (where the orbit passes from south to north through the reference plane, symbolized by $☊$) with respect to the reference frame's vernal point (symbolized by ♈). This is measured in the reference plane, and is shown as the green angle $Ω$ in the diagram.

The remaining two elements are as follows:
 * Argument of periapsis ($ω$) defines the orientation of the ellipse in the orbital plane, as an angle measured from the ascending node to the periapsis (the closest point the satellite body comes to the primary body around which it orbits), the purple angle $ω$ in the diagram.
 * True anomaly ($ν$, $θ$, or $f$) at epoch ($t0$) defines the position of the orbiting body along the ellipse at a specific time (the "epoch"), expressed as an angle from the periapsis.

The mean anomaly $M$ is a mathematically convenient fictitious "angle" which does not correspond to a real geometric angle, but rather varies linearly with time, one whole orbital period being represented by an "angle" of 2$\pi$ radians. It can be converted into the true anomaly $ν$, which does represent the real geometric angle in the plane of the ellipse, between periapsis (closest approach to the central body) and the position of the orbiting body at any given time. Thus, the true anomaly is shown as the red angle $ν$ in the diagram, and the mean anomaly is not shown.

The angles of inclination, longitude of the ascending node, and argument of periapsis can also be described as the Euler angles defining the orientation of the orbit relative to the reference coordinate system.

Note that non-elliptic trajectories also exist, but are not closed, and are thus not orbits. If the eccentricity is greater than one, the trajectory is a hyperbola. If the eccentricity is equal to one, the trajectory is a parabola. Regardless of eccentricity, the orbit degenerates to a radial trajectory if the angular momentum equals zero.

Required parameters
Given an inertial frame of reference and an arbitrary epoch (a specified point in time), exactly six parameters are necessary to unambiguously define an arbitrary and unperturbed orbit.

This is because the problem contains six degrees of freedom. These correspond to the three spatial dimensions which define position ($x$, $y$, $z$ in a Cartesian coordinate system), plus the velocity in each of these dimensions. These can be described as orbital state vectors, but this is often an inconvenient way to represent an orbit, which is why Keplerian elements are commonly used instead.

Sometimes the epoch is considered a "seventh" orbital parameter, rather than part of the reference frame.

If the epoch is defined to be at the moment when one of the elements is zero, the number of unspecified elements is reduced to five. (The sixth parameter is still necessary to define the orbit; it is merely numerically set to zero by convention or "moved" into the definition of the epoch with respect to real-world clock time.)

Alternative parametrizations
Keplerian elements can be obtained from orbital state vectors (a three-dimensional vector for the position and another for the velocity) by manual transformations or with computer software.

Other orbital parameters can be computed from the Keplerian elements such as the period, apoapsis, and periapsis. (When orbiting the Earth, the last two terms are known as the apogee and perigee.) It is common to specify the period instead of the semi-major axis in Keplerian element sets, as each can be computed from the other provided the standard gravitational parameter, $GM$, is given for the central body.

Instead of the mean anomaly at epoch, the mean anomaly $M$, mean longitude, true anomaly $ν_{0}$, or (rarely) the eccentric anomaly might be used.

Using, for example, the "mean anomaly" instead of "mean anomaly at epoch" means that time $t$ must be specified as a seventh orbital element. Sometimes it is assumed that mean anomaly is zero at the epoch (by choosing the appropriate definition of the epoch), leaving only the five other orbital elements to be specified.

Different sets of elements are used for various astronomical bodies. The eccentricity, $e$, and either the semi-major axis, $a$, or the distance of periapsis, $q$, are used to specify the shape and size of an orbit. The longitude of the ascending node, $Ω$, the inclination, $i$, and the argument of periapsis, $ω$, or the longitude of periapsis, $ϖ$, specify the orientation of the orbit in its plane. Either the longitude at epoch, $L_{0}$, the mean anomaly at epoch, $M_{0}$, or the time of perihelion passage, $T_{0}$, are used to specify a known point in the orbit. The choices made depend whether the vernal equinox or the node are used as the primary reference. The semi-major axis is known if the mean motion and the gravitational mass are known.

It is also quite common to see either the mean anomaly ($M$) or the mean longitude ($L$) expressed directly, without either $M_{0}$ or $L_{0}$ as intermediary steps, as a polynomial function with respect to time. This method of expression will consolidate the mean motion ($n$) into the polynomial as one of the coefficients. The appearance will be that $L$ or $M$ are expressed in a more complicated manner, but we will appear to need one fewer orbital element.

Mean motion can also be obscured behind citations of the orbital period $P$.

Euler angle transformations
The angles $e, a, i, Ω, ϖ, L_{0}$, $i$, $ω$ are the Euler angles (corresponding to $α$, $β$, $γ$ in the notation used in that article) characterizing the orientation of the coordinate system

where:
 * $e, q, i, Ω, ω, T_{0}$, $e, a, i, Ω, ω, M_{0}$ is in the equatorial plane of the central body. $e, i, Ω, ω, n, M_{0}$ is in the direction of the vernal equinox. $Ω$ is perpendicular to $x̂$ and with $ŷ$ defines the reference plane. $ẑ$ is perpendicular to the reference plane. Orbital elements of bodies (planets, comets, asteroids, ...) in the Solar System usually the ecliptic as that plane.
 * $Î$, $Ĵ$ are in the orbital plane and with $K̂$ in the direction to the pericenter (periapsis). $Î$ is perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. $Ĵ$ is mutually perpendicular to $Î$ and $Ĵ$.

Then, the transformation from the $Î$, $Î$, $K̂$ coordinate frame to the $x̂$, $ŷ$, $x̂$ frame with the Euler angles $ẑ$, $i$, $ω$ is: $$\begin{align} x_1 &= \cos \Omega \cdot \cos \omega - \sin \Omega \cdot \cos i \cdot \sin \omega\ ;\\ x_2 &= \sin \Omega \cdot \cos \omega + \cos \Omega \cdot \cos i \cdot \sin \omega\ ;\\ x_3 &= \sin i     \cdot \sin \omega ;\\ \, \\ y_1 &=-\cos \Omega \cdot \sin \omega - \sin \Omega \cdot \cos i \cdot \cos \omega\ ;\\ y_2 &=-\sin \Omega \cdot \sin \omega + \cos \Omega \cdot \cos i \cdot \cos \omega\ ;\\ y_3 &= \sin i     \cdot \cos \omega\ ;\\ \, \\ z_1 &= \sin i     \cdot \sin \Omega\ ;\\ z_2 &=-\sin i     \cdot \cos \Omega\ ;\\ z_3 &= \cos i\ ;\\ \end{align}$$ $$\begin{bmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & x_3 \\ y_1 & y_2 & y_3 \\ z_1 & z_2 & z_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\omega & \sin\omega & 0 \\ -\sin\omega & \cos\omega& 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \, \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 &0 \\ 0 & \cos i & \sin i\\ 0 & -\sin i & \cos i \end{bmatrix} \, \begin{bmatrix} \cos\Omega & \sin\Omega & 0 \\ -\sin\Omega & \cos\Omega& 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}\,; $$ where $$\begin{align} \mathbf\hat{x} &= x_1\mathbf\hat{I} + x_2\mathbf\hat{J} + x_3\mathbf\hat{K} ~;\\ \mathbf\hat{y} &= y_1\mathbf\hat{I} + y_2\mathbf\hat{J} + y_3\mathbf\hat{K} ~;\\ \mathbf\hat{z} &= z_1\mathbf\hat{I} + z_2\mathbf\hat{J} + z_3\mathbf\hat{K} ~.\\ \end{align}$$

The inverse transformation, which computes the 3 coordinates in the I-J-K system given the 3 (or 2) coordinates in the x-y-z system, is represented by the inverse matrix. According to the rules of matrix algebra, the inverse matrix of the product of the 3 rotation matrices is obtained by inverting the order of the three matrices and switching the signs of the three Euler angles.

That is,

$$\begin{bmatrix} i_1 & i_2 & i_3 \\ j_1 & j_2 & j_3 \\ k_1 & k_2 & k_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\Omega & -\sin\Omega & 0 \\ \sin\Omega & \cos\Omega& 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \, \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 &0 \\ 0 & \cos i & -\sin i\\ 0 & \sin i & \cos i \end{bmatrix} \, \begin{bmatrix} \cos\omega & -\sin\omega & 0 \\ \sin\omega & \cos\omega& 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}\,; $$ where $$\begin{align} \mathbf\hat{I} &= i_1\mathbf\hat{x} + i_2\mathbf\hat{y} + i_3\mathbf\hat{z} ~;\\ \mathbf\hat{J} &= j_1\mathbf\hat{x} + j_2\mathbf\hat{y} + j_3\mathbf\hat{z} ~;\\ \mathbf\hat{K} &= k_1\mathbf\hat{x} + k_2\mathbf\hat{y} + k_3\mathbf\hat{z} ~.\\ \end{align}$$

The transformation from $ŷ$, $x̂$, $ẑ$ to Euler angles $Î$, $i$, $ω$ is: $$\begin{align} \Omega &= \operatorname{arg}\left( -z_2, z_1 \right)\\ i &= \operatorname{arg}\left( z_3, \sqrt{{z_1}^2 + {z_2}^2} \right)\\ \omega &= \operatorname{arg}\left( y_3, x_3 \right)\\ \end{align}$$ where $Ĵ$ signifies the polar argument that can be computed with the standard function atan2(y,x) available in many programming languages.

Orbit prediction
Under ideal conditions of a perfectly spherical central body, zero perturbations and negligible relativistic effects, all orbital elements except the mean anomaly are constants. The mean anomaly changes linearly with time, scaled by the mean motion, $$n = \sqrt{\frac{\mu } {a^3}}.$$ where $K̂$ is the standard gravitational parameter. Hence if at any instant $x̂$ the orbital parameters are $ŷ$, then the elements at time $ẑ$ is given by $Ω$.

Perturbations and elemental variance
Unperturbed, two-body, Newtonian orbits are always conic sections, so the Keplerian elements define an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola. Real orbits have perturbations, so a given set of Keplerian elements accurately describes an orbit only at the epoch. Evolution of the orbital elements takes place due to the gravitational pull of bodies other than the primary, the nonsphericity of the primary, atmospheric drag, relativistic effects, radiation pressure, electromagnetic forces, and so on.

Keplerian elements can often be used to produce useful predictions at times near the epoch. Alternatively, real trajectories can be modeled as a sequence of Keplerian orbits that osculate ("kiss" or touch) the real trajectory. They can also be described by the so-called planetary equations, differential equations which come in different forms developed by Lagrange, Gauss, Delaunay, Poincaré, or Hill.

Two-line elements
Keplerian elements parameters can be encoded as text in a number of formats. The most common of them is the NASA / NORAD "two-line elements" (TLE) format, originally designed for use with 80 column punched cards, but still in use because it is the most common format, and 80-character ASCII records can be handled efficiently by modern databases.

Depending on the application and object orbit, the data derived from TLEs older than 30 days can become unreliable. Orbital positions can be calculated from TLEs through simplified perturbation models (SGP4 / SDP4 / SGP8 / SDP8).

Example of a two-line element: 1 27651U 03004A  07083.49636287  .00000119  00000-0  30706-4 0  2692 2 27651 039.9951 132.2059 0025931 073.4582 286.9047 14.81909376225249

Delaunay variables
The Delaunay orbital elements were introduced by Charles-Eugène Delaunay during his study of the motion of the Moon. Commonly called Delaunay variables, they are a set of canonical variables, which are action-angle coordinates. The angles are simple sums of some of the Keplerian angles: along with their respective conjugate momenta, $L$, $G$, and $H$. The momenta $L$, $G$, and $H$ are the action variables and are more elaborate combinations of the Keplerian elements $a$, $e$, and $i$.
 * the mean longitude: $$\ell = M + \omega + \Omega$$,
 * the longitude of periapsis: $$g = \omega + \Omega$$, and
 * the longitude of the ascending node: $$h = \Omega$$

Delaunay variables are used to simplify perturbative calculations in celestial mechanics, for example while investigating the Kozai–Lidov oscillations in hierarchical triple systems. The advantage of the Delaunay variables is that they remain well defined and non-singular (except for $h$, which can be tolerated) when $e$ and / or $i$ are very small: When the test particle's orbit is very nearly circular ($$e \approx 0$$), or very nearly "flat" ($$i \approx 0$$).

title: Orbital elements


text:
H. Carl McCall

Herman Carl McCall (born October 17, 1935) is an American politician of the Democratic Party. A former New York State Comptroller and New York State Senator, McCall was the Democratic candidate for Governor of New York in 2002. McCall was the first African-American to be elected New York State Comptroller. He is an ordained minister in the United Church of Christ, and is on the board of directors of several corporations. From October 17, 2011, until his retirement on June 30, 2019, McCall was chairman of the State University of New York Board of Trustees.

Early life and education
McCall was born in the Roxbury section of Boston, Massachusetts. He is the oldest of six children of Herman McCall and Caroleasa Ray. Herman McCall moved to Boston from Georgia and worked as a railroad porter; he abandoned the family when Carl was 11 years of age. Thereafter, the family was supported primarily by welfare and by relatives due to Carl's mother's infirmity. McCall graduated from Roxbury Memorial High School in Boston, where he was president of his class. He attended Dartmouth College on private and ROTC scholarships, graduating in 1958 with a bachelor's degree in government. McCall was also educated at the University of Edinburgh and received a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) Degree from Andover Newton Theological School.

Early career
During the 1960s, McCall worked as a high school teacher and a bank manager. He taught for six months at Jamaica Plain High School on Sumner Hill in Boston, and then joined the Army. He opened a church in the Dorchester neighborhood. By the late 1960s, McCall had moved to New York City. He was appointed by New York Mayor John Lindsay to head the Commission Against Poverty.

Political career
During the 1970s, McCall, as a member of the Harlem Clubhouse, backed by the Harlem political power of Percy Sutton, was elected to three terms as a State Senator representing Harlem and the Upper West Side of Manhattan. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1975 to 1980, sitting in the 181st, 182nd and 183rd New York State Legislatures. He left the Senate to accept an appointment from President Jimmy Carter as a member of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations with the rank of Ambassador.

In 1982, McCall was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for Lieutenant Governor of New York. Governor Mario Cuomo then appointed McCall to serve as the state's Commissioner of Human Rights (1983–84). While in the private sector as a vice president for governmental relations with Citicorp (1985–93), McCall accepted an appointment to the New York City Board of Education, where he was President of the Board from 1991 to 1993.

New York State Comptroller
In 1993, McCall was selected by the New York State Legislature to fill the unexpired term of Republican Edward Regan as state comptroller. As comptroller, McCall was responsible for serving as the state's chief fiscal officer, conducting audits of state and local entities, serving as the state's bookkeeper, investing the state's funds, overseeing the state's debt issuances, and serving as the sole trustee of the state pension fund.

McCall was elected to a full term as comptroller in 1994 (defeating Conservative Herbert London) and was re-elected in 1998 (defeating Republican Bruce Blakeman). In 1998, he announced that he would not seek election to the U.S. Senate in 2000, helping to pave the way for the successful candidacy of Hillary Clinton.

Al Sharpton was quoted as saying that "if David Dinkins has a cold in the black community, Carl McCall has pneumonia", and it has been said that McCall was a "stiff, bourgeois figure" who generally did not excite the black electorate.

2002 campaign for Governor of New York
In 2002, McCall officially announced his campaign against Republican incumbent George Pataki. After his primary opponent, former US Housing Secretary Andrew Cuomo, withdrew from the race, McCall entered the general election as the uncontested Democratic candidate, but lost to Pataki. McCall remains New York state's highest-ranking black elected official and first black major party gubernatorial candidate.

McCall was the favorite of the Democratic establishment, but he faced a tough challenge from Cuomo which almost split the party. Cuomo proved to be a better fundraiser, and McCall's own campaign war chest was heavily depleted in the primary battle. Although McCall himself did not make any negative attacks, his close supporter, US Congressman Charles B. Rangel, stated that the McCall camp would not necessarily endorse Cuomo in the general election should the latter win. This backfired as some Italian-Americans interpreted that as racism, and many of Cuomo's supporters refused to unite behind McCall after McCall won the nomination. McCall was endorsed by Senator Chuck Schumer. While Senator Hillary Clinton did not officially take sides during the primary, she loaned a staffer and a fundraiser to McCall's campaign and she marched by McCall's side at the West Indian American Day parade in New York City, as the Clinton wanted to retain strong African-American support in case she made a president run in the future. Cuomo withdrew from the primary race after McCall moved to a double-digit lead in polls.

Money would prove to be a handicap in the general election, as DNC Chairman Terry McAuliffe stated that he would not channel large sums of money to McCall's campaign unless the gap could be closed with Pataki, which McCall never managed to do. In an unusual show of support, conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh urged his listeners to donate to McCall's campaign. Limbaugh said the refusal to give the McCall campaign money was a show of racism on the part of the DNC.

Charles Rangel suggested that Andrew Cuomo's gubernatorial run in 2010 would undo years of work that Cuomo spent rebuilding his standing in the state Democratic Party after his bruising 2002 gubernatorial primary contest against Carl McCall. Rangel said "it would be immoral for the white attorney general to challenge New York's first black governor in a primary" with the "inclination for racial polarization in a primary in the state of New York. Since we have most African-Americans registered as Democrats, and since you would be making an appeal for Democrats, it would be devastating in my opinion". David Paterson, the incumbent and first African-American governor of New York, whom Rangel staunchly supported, fared poorly in polls due to several scandals and later abandoned his campaign re-election.

Letterhead controversy
In October 2002, McCall released 61 letters he had written on state letterhead to heads of companies in which the state pension fund owned large blocks of stock, asking them to review enclosed resumes of his relatives and other job-seekers.

Some of the letters referred to the size of the state's ownership interest in the corporation targeted, which critics claimed amounted to a veiled threat to punish companies that didn't hire his relatives. A Quinnipiac poll released October 16 showed that two-thirds of likely voters were aware of the letters and of those more than a fifth were less likely to vote for McCall as a result.

McCall defended the letters. Although he did issue a statement regretting the "appearance" and "impression" of the letters he wrote on government stationery, he maintained that he "never sought to leverage my public position nor mix my government role with my personal and professional relationship" in the letters. McCall's daughter, Marci, was hired by Verizon, which received such a letter, but was subsequently fired for using her company credit card to pay for substantial personal expenditures. Charges of larceny against her were dropped after some reimbursement to Verizon, and she was then hired as a marketer by McCall's running mate, Dennis Mehiel.

Results
McCall was defeated in the election for governor by the Republican incumbent, George Pataki. McCall received 33% of the vote, a low percentage for a Democratic nominee for statewide office in a state where the Democratic Party is by far the dominant party based on voter registrations. Some observers felt that this seemingly poor showing was in part due to the revelation of the above-referenced letters; others insinuated that McCall's showing was related to racism, especially in upstate New York. However, others point out that Pataki was able to make crucial inroads into traditional areas of Democratic support, such as unions and even African-American congregations. The three-way vote-split efforts of Tom Golisano, who primarily ran against Pataki on his own third-party line, also diverted much of the anti-Pataki vote away from McCall.

Other political commentators attribute McCall's defeat to the growing popularity of the Republican Party after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, along with Governor Pataki's successful administration of the state.

Later career
McCall was a recent member of the Board of the New York Stock Exchange (1999–2003), as well as the Apollo Theater Foundation, Inc. Currently, he is a member of the Fiscal Control Board for Buffalo, New York as well as the SUNY Board of Trustees. He also is on the Boards of Directors for TYCO International, New Plan Realty, TAG Entertainment Corporation, Ariel Mutual Fund, and as Chair of the New York State Public Higher Education Conference Board. He spoke at his alma mater Dartmouth College's annual Martin Luther King Jr. Day celebration in 2006 about modern civil rights and the legacy of Dr. King. He operates his own financial services fund called Convent Capital, LLC.

In January 2007, McCall was appointed to a panel, along with former New York State Comptroller Ned Regan and former New York City Comptroller Harrison Jay Goldin, to interview and recommend up to five candidates to the State Legislature to replace Alan Hevesi, who resigned as state comptroller due to scandal.

In May 2009, Convent Capital, the financial services firm run by McCall, was subpoenaed, along with other unregistered placement agents, by state Attorney General Andrew Cuomo's office as part of an inquiry into possible corruption involved in deals brokered between investment firms and the state pension fund.

McCall joined the State University of New York Board of Trustees on October 22, 2007. He was appointed to the Board by Governor Spitzer. McCall was appointed chairman on October 17, 2011, by Governor Cuomo. He announced his retirement in April 2019, effective at the end of June. He was succeeded as chair by vice chair Merryl Tisch.

Personal life
McCall's first marriage—to Cecilia McCall, the mother of his daughter Marcella (Marci)--ended in divorce. In 1983, McCall married his second wife, Joyce F. Brown; Brown is a former psychology professor, was a Deputy Mayor of New York City under Mayor David Dinkins, and is president of SUNY's Fashion Institute of Technology in New York City. They have no children.

McCall is a member of the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.

Awards
McCall is the recipient of nine honorary degrees. In 2003, he was awarded the Nelson Rockefeller Distinguished Public Service Award from the Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy at the University of Albany.

On February 14, 2020, the SUNY Plaza administrative building was renamed to the H. Carl McCall SUNY Building in honor of McCall's "long standing contributions to SUNY and New York State."

title: H. Carl McCall


text:
James H. Clark

James Henry Clark (born March 23, 1944) is an American entrepreneur and computer scientist. He founded several notable Silicon Valley technology companies, including Silicon Graphics, Netscape, myCFO, and Healtheon. His research work in computer graphics led to the development of systems for the fast rendering of three-dimensional computer images.

In 1998, Clark was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for the development of computer graphics and for technical leadership in the computer industry.

Early life and education
Clark was born in Plainview, Texas, on March 23, 1944. He dropped out of high school at 16 and spent four years in the US Navy, where he was introduced to electronics. Clark began taking night courses at Tulane University's University College where, despite his lack of a high school diploma, he was able to earn enough credits to be admitted to the University of New Orleans. There, Clark earned his bachelor's and a master's degrees in physics, followed by a Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Utah in 1974.

Academia
After completing his doctorate, Clark worked at the New York Institute of Technology's Computer Graphics Lab. He served as an assistant professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz (1974-1978) before moving to Stanford University as an associate professor of electrical engineering (1979-1982). Clark's research work concerned geometry pipelines, specialized software or hardware that accelerates the display of three dimensional images. The peak of his group's advancements was the Geometry Engine, an early hardware accelerator for rendering computer images based on geometric models which he developed in 1979 with his students at Stanford.

Silicon Graphics
In 1982, Clark along with several Stanford graduate students founded Silicon Graphics (SGI). The earliest Silicon Graphics graphical workstations were mainly terminals, but they were soon followed by stand-alone graphical Unix workstations with very fast graphics rendering hardware. In the mid-1980s, Silicon Graphics began to use the MIPS CPU as the foundation of their newest workstations, replacing the Motorola 68000.

By 1991, Silicon Graphics had become the world leader in the production of Hollywood movie visual effects and 3-D imaging. Silicon Graphics focused on the high-end market where they could charge a premium for their special hardware and graphics software.

Clark had differences of opinion with Silicon Graphics management regarding the future direction of the company, and departed in late January 1994.

Netscape
In February 1994, Clark sought out Marc Andreessen who had led the development of Mosaic, the first widely distributed and easy-to-use software for browsing the World Wide Web, while employed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). Clark and Andreessen founded Netscape, and developed the Netscape Navigator web browser. The founding of Netscape and its IPO in August 1995 launched the Internet boom on Wall Street during the mid-to-late 1990s. Clark's initial investment in Netscape was $4 million in 1994; he exited with $1.2 billion when Netscape was acquired by AOL in 1999.

Healtheon/WebMD
In 1995, Clark became interested in streamlining the paperwork associated with the health-care industry. The resulting start-up, Healtheon, was founded in early 1996 with backing from Kleiner Perkins and New Enterprise Associates. Although Clark's original idea of eliminating the paperwork and bureaucracy associated with medical care was ambitious, it did lead to successes in administrative streamlining of medical records technology. However, an Atlanta, Georgia startup company, WebMD originally focused on medical content was also making similar in-roads. Knowing WebMD had financial backing from Microsoft, Clark decided to merge Healtheon with the original WebMD to form the WebMD Corporation (NASDAQ: WBMD). WebMD is a leader in health information on the Internet.

Other affiliations
In 1999, Clark launched myCFO, a company formed to help wealthy Silicon Valley individuals manage their fortunes. In late 2002, while Clark served on the board of directors, most of myCFO's operations were sold to Harris Bank and now operate as Harris myCFO.

Clark was chairman and financial backer of network-security startup Neoteris, founded in 2000, which was acquired by NetScreen in 2003 and subsequently by Juniper Networks.

Clark was a founding director and investor in the biotechnology company DNA Sciences, founded in 1998 to unravel the genetics of common disease using volunteers recruited from the Internet launched August 1, 2000 (see The New York Times). In 2003, the company was acquired by Genaissance Pharmaceuticals Inc.

Clark was the subject of the 1999 bestseller The New New Thing: A Silicon Valley Story by U.S. author Michael Lewis.

Clark was a notable investor in Kibu.com, an Internet website for teens, which received approximately $22 million in funding. The website shut down in 2000, returning its remaining capital to investors.

Clark coproduced the 2009 movie The Cove. His funding made possible the purchase and covert installation of some high-tech camera and sound-recording equipment required to capture the film's climactic dolphin slaughter. The film addresses the problem of whale and dolphin killing in Taiji, Wakayama, Japan.

Clark sits on the board and is one of the primary investors in the mobile technology company Ibotta. Ibotta became a publicly traded company in April 2024.

In 2017, Clark announced the launch of CommandScape, a cyber secure building management and automation platform.

In 2020, Clark announced the $30M A round of funding for Beyond Identity, with a product that is a phone-resident personal certificate-based authentication and authorization solution that eliminates all passwords.

Awards
Clark received the ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics Achievement Award in 1984. In 1996, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He was a recipient of the 1997 Kilby International Awards, which honored him for his computer graphics vision and for enabling networked information exchange.

In 1988, Clark was an Award Recipient of the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award in the Northern California Region.

Clark was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science (ScD) from the University of East Anglia in 1998.

Personal life
Clark has been married four times and has four children. The divorce from his third wife of 15 years, Nancy Rutter, a Forbes journalist, is reported to have cost him $125 million in cash and assets in the settlement. Soon afterwards he began dating Australian model Kristy Hinze, 35 years his junior. Hinze became his fourth wife when they married in the British Virgin Islands on March 22, 2009. She gave birth to a daughter, Dylan Vivienne in September 2011, and later, Harper Hazelle, in August 2013. In 2000, his daughter by a previous marriage, Kathy, married Chad Hurley, a co-founder of YouTube, they were divorced in 2012.

In 2022 he made the largest residential real estate sale in Florida history, selling a 22-acre property in Manalapan, Florida to Larry Ellison for approximately $175 million. Clark had previously acquired the property in 2021 from the Ziff publishing family for $94 million.

Yachting
Clark is an enthusiastic yachtsman but cannot sail in rough ocean races such as the Sydney-Hobart due to an arthritic condition in his ankles and prefers one-day regattas on the smoother waters of the Mediterranean, the Caribbean and off Newport, Rhode Island. In 2012, however, he commented that "after 28 years of owning boats, I'm over it."

He is the past owner of two important sailing yachts:
 * Hyperion, the world's largest sloop when she was launched in 1998 at 47.5 m in length. She was designed by Germán Frers and built by Royal Huisman. With an air draught of 59 m, she briefly featured the world's longest carbon fiber spar. Clark developed her own chartplotter and SCADA system to control vessel operation remotely, as well as automate sailing operation and optimize sailing performance using a large bank of sensors and SGI processors. Clark sold Hyperion in 2004.
 * Comanche, a 30.48 m carbonfiber maxi yacht designed by VPLP and built by Hodgdon Shipbuilding for line honours victories in offshore races. She lost line honours to Wild Oats XI in the 2014 Sydney-Hobart race but returned and won in 2015. She also won line honours in the 2015 Transatlantic race in which she set a new 24-hour speed record for monohulls. In 2016 with Skipper Ken Read and Stan Honey navigating, she set the Newport to Bermuda Race record, shaving five hours off the previous fastest time recorded in the 635 mile race. In December 2017, Comanche was sold to Australian Jim Cooney.

He remains the current owner of two other large sailing yachts:
 * Athena, a 90 m three-mast gaff-rigged aluminum schooner built by Royal Huisman. Athena has been listed for sale since July 2012, originally with an asking price of US$95 million, reduced to $59 million as of February 2017.
 * Hanuman, a replica of the 42.1 m J-Class Endeavour II, built by Royal Huisman. Hanuman has been listed for sale since May 2012 with an asking price of US$14.9 million as of 2021.

Flying
Clark is a pilot who enjoys flying helicopters, gliders (built in Germany) and acrobatic aircraft (such as the Extra EA-300).

Philanthropy
Clark has contributed to Stanford University, where he was an associate electrical engineering professor. In 1999, he pledged $150 million toward construction of the James H. Clark Center for Biomedical Engineering and related programs for interdisciplinary biomedical research. At the time, it was the largest-ever contribution to Stanford, other than the university's founding grant. Construction started in 2001 and was completed in the summer of 2003, as part of Stanford's Bio-X program. In September 2001, Clark rescinded $60 million of his initial pledge, citing anger over President Bush's restrictions on stem cell research. In a New York Times opinion piece, Clark said federal funding is essential for research in the United States, and he was not interested in funding research that could be suppressed for political reasons. President Barack Obama lifted the restrictions in question in 2009. In 2013, Clark pledged an additional $60 million to Stanford for interdisciplinary research in the life sciences, technology, and engineering. His commitment was finally completely fulfilled in 2020. Clark has donated an additional $10 million to fund fellowships at the Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics.

In 2004, Clark and David Filo of Yahoo! each donated $30 million to Tulane University's School of Engineering for merit-based scholarships to provide education to deserving students regardless of financial situation in the discipline of engineering.

Clark is a board member for the national council of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and contributes towards the organization. The Perlman Music Program has recognized Clark for his continued philanthropic efforts towards their organization and their endowment fund.

title: James H. Clark


text:
Paul Conrad

Paul Francis Conrad (June 27, 1924 – September 4, 2010) was an American political cartoonist and winner of three Pulitzer Prizes for editorial cartooning. In the span of a career lasting five decades, Conrad provided a critical perspective on eleven presidential administrations in the United States. He is best known for his work as the chief editorial cartoonist for the Los Angeles Times during a time when the newspaper was in transition under the direction of publisher Otis Chandler, who recruited Conrad from the Denver Post.

At the conservative Times, Conrad brought a more liberal editorial perspective that readers both celebrated and criticized; he was also respected for his talent and his ability to speak truth to power. On a weekly basis, Conrad addressed the social justice issues of the day—poverty in America, movements for civil rights, the Vietnam War, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and corporate and political corruption were leading topics. His criticism of president Richard Nixon during the Watergate scandal landed Conrad on Nixon's Enemies List, which Conrad regarded as a badge of honor.

Early life
Conrad was born to Robert and Florence Conrad. He was raised in a conservative, Catholic family with his identical twin brother James and older brother Bob in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. He attended St. Augustin Elementary School in Des Moines, where he first began to show interest in art by writing on the bathroom wall. He was left-handed, but was forced by teachers to favor his right hand. Until the age of 12, Conrad stuttered. At an early age, Conrad was exposed to the work of Jay Norwood Darling, more popularly known as "Ding Darling", whose conservative cartoons were featured in local newspapers and who became a "childhood role model" for Conrad.

After graduating from Roosevelt High School, he and his brother spent time working construction jobs in Valdez, Alaska. Conrad also honed his talent as a musician while playing piano in a bordello. With World War II raging, Conrad and his brother enlisted. Because of his poor eyesight, Conrad was initially found to be unfit for military service, but he later served as a truck driver with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the Pacific Theater of Operations at Guam and Okinawa, where he was given the nickname of "Con". He originally planned to attend Iowa State University after the war in 1945, but instead taught himself to play bass and joined a big band.

When the band did not work out, Conrad enrolled at the University of Iowa in 1946, where he studied art. He first got the idea to become a cartoonist while hanging out at a local bar in Iowa City. At the bar, his friend Charlie Carroll, then the editor for the school's newspaper, the Daily Iowan, told Conrad that they needed a cartoonist, and he invited Conrad to give it a try. One of his first cartoons for the Daily Iowan depicted Herbert Hoover, the 31st President of the United States. Conrad was soon creating six cartoons a week. Impressed with Conrad's cartoons, his professors sent the Denver Post copies of his work.

Denver Post
After graduating from the University of Iowa with a degree in art in 1950, Conrad joined the Denver Post, where he drew cartoons for the next 14 years. Early in his career, Conrad sought out the then retired Ding Darling in Florida for advice, and showed him copies of his work from the Daily Iowan. Unimpressed, Ding told Conrad to "get into another line of work". This discouragement from his childhood role model pushed Conrad to work harder at the Post. At the newspaper he received support and encouragement from his editor, Palmer Hoyt, although he occasionally ran into trouble, especially when he attracted attention for creating critical, unflattering cartoons of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States. In 1960, Time magazine recognized Conrad's talent, saying that he was "probably the nation's hottest new cartooning property". Conrad received the Pulitzer Prize for editorial cartooning in 1964. His cartoons for the Post were distributed through the Register and Tribune Syndicate in 81 newspapers.

Previously, in December 1963, lead cartoonist Bruce Russell of the Los Angeles Times died of a heart attack. Russell had worked for the conservative paper since 1927. Publisher Otis Chandler, in an attempt to replace Russell and to improve the reputation of the Times, recruited Paul Conrad with the help of editor Nick Boddie Williams. Conrad took the offer of an initial three-year contract and was later replaced at the Post in August 1964 by Australian cartoonist Pat Oliphant from the Adelaide Advertiser. Conrad also lectured at the Denver Art Museum in 1964 under a sponsorship from the Cooke-Daniels Lecture Fund.

Los Angeles Times
Conrad moved his family to southern California, and for three decades, from 1964 to 1993, he worked as the chief editorial cartoonist for the Los Angeles Times. His cartoons were now syndicated to hundreds of newspapers worldwide. In April 1967, Conrad drew the cover for Time magazine in an issue about the potential candidates for the 1968 United States presidential election. The cover art depicts the upcoming election as a horse race with the candidates as jockey's weighing-in. Caricatures of Lyndon B. Johnson, Bobby Kennedy, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, George Romney, Nelson Rockefeller, and Charles Percy grace the cover.

During the Watergate scandal, Conrad drew numerous cartoons about Richard Nixon's downfall. One cartoon showed Nixon, during his last days as president, nailing himself to a cross. Conrad later described the cartoon as one of his all-time favorites. In 1973, the Associated Press contacted Conrad to inform him that he had been added to Nixon's Enemies List. Unperturbed, Conrad considered his place on this list as a badge of honor, but members of the list were exposed to greater scrutiny by the government and subject to investigation. His tax returns were subsequently audited by the IRS several times, but no changes were made.

Conrad accepted an early retirement from the Times on April 1, 1993, but continued to draw four cartoons a week in syndication for the Los Angeles Times Syndicate. Editorial cartoonist Michael Ramirez replaced Conrad at the Times with a conservative approach.

Sculptures
Conrad first became interested in sculpture in the mid-1970s. After working on a drawing of a crucifix depicting the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, he decided to use steel to create it. He spent time at the public library learning to make welded sculpture and three months later emerged with a 272 kg sculpture titled The Trinity, which was installed at Marymount College. Although it was made from steel, Conrad gave The Trinity a verde patina to give it the appearance of copper. The sculpture was restored in 2012.

After working with large sculpture, Conrad began creating small bronze sculptures of famous Americans, beginning with Richard Nixon. Additional sculptures followed, including caricatures of Jerry Brown, Ronald Reagan, Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, John F. Kennedy, Ted Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr. Six of these sculptures were featured in an exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1979. In the 1980s, Conrad often donated smaller bronze sculptures for fundraisers. Later sculptures included Golda Meir, Abraham Lincoln, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Writer Grady Miller of the Canyon News, who met and visited with Conrad at his home in the late 1990s, recalled that Conrad "was specially proud of his bronze sculptures, which could be taken as an illustration of both his artistic range and his political beliefs".

Conrad also created several other works of public art: Risen Christ, an altar piece located at Saint John Fisher Catholic Church in Rancho Palos Verdes, California; Otis Chandler, a bust of the publisher installed in the Los Angeles Times building; and Chain Reaction, a peace monument in the shape of a mushroom cloud located in the Santa Monica Civic Center.

Awards
Conrad earned the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning three times, once for his work at the Denver Post in 1964, and twice more for his work at the Los Angeles Times, in 1971 and 1984. The Society of Professional Journalists/Sigma Delta Chi (SDX) honored him seven times with the Distinguished Service Awards for Editorial Cartooning, in 1962, 1968, 1970, 1980, 1981, 1987, and 1996. Conrad also won two Overseas Press Club awards (1981 and 1970) and received the Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award four times, in 1985, 1990, 1992, and 1993. He received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association of American Editorial Cartoonists in 1998, and the Lifetime Public Service Award from the Edmund G. "Pat" Brown Institute of Public Affairs at California State University, Los Angeles in 2000.

Controversies
As an editorial cartoonist who openly editorialized from a liberal point of view on the issues of the day, Conrad was involved in many publicized political and religious disputes over his cartoons. In one dispute, he was sued unsuccessfully by the then-Mayor of Los Angeles, Sam Yorty, over an editorial cartoon portraying Yorty as crazy for thinking he would become Richard Nixon's Secretary of Defense. In another, he angered conservatives when he compared them to white supremacist Buford Furrow in a cartoon. Conrad's cartoons often made fun of the governorship of Ronald Reagan, leading his wife, Nancy Reagan, to phone publisher Otis Chandler and complain about how the cartoons were ruining her husband's breakfast. The calls were so frequent, Chandler had no choice but to stop taking them. In another dispute, members of the Jewish community of Los Angeles took issue with Conrad's portrayal of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

In the late 1970s, Pope Paul VI expressed his opinion against the ordination of women, saying that priests must represent the image of Christ. This led Conrad to draw a cartoon of the pope holding a baby who resembled a miniature version of the pope in his image. Cardinal Timothy Manning complained to Conrad, but Conrad defended his work, arguing that what the "human soul" has in common is far more important that its appearance in the form of a man or woman. Conrad also criticized the Catholic church for not letting priests marry and for treating their nuns poorly. "This is the type of church Christ had in mind?" he asked the National Catholic Reporter in 2001.

Personal life
Conrad was an imposing man with a powerful voice who was often seen smoking a pipe while working on his cartoons. James Rainey of the Los Angeles Times described Conrad as a "towering, practically invulnerable figure" standing at "6 feet 2, [with] his large head framed by thick, black-rimmed glasses", his demeanor "loud and often profane in person". The Library of Congress described him as "a tall Midwesterner with long hair swept straight back from his forehead [who] displayed a trait that he said he often wished for in his subjects: the ability to laugh at oneself".

Conrad married Kay King, the Post's society editor, in 1953. As his wife, Kay became one of only two people (along with his editor at the Times, Edwin O. Guthman) who could influence his work.

Although he was raised as a Republican and a Catholic, his views changed as he aged. By 1960, the media was comparing his point of view to an "Adlai Stevenson Democrat". Conrad voted for only one Republican in his life, Dwight D. Eisenhower, but said he later regretted it. He remained a devout Catholic and his belief in social justice informed his work. According to Matt Schudel of The Washington Post, "Conrad considered himself an unabashed political liberal, except for his long-held opposition to abortion. He changed his views in the 1980s, when he came to believe that it was a matter of private choice."

Death
Conrad died at home in Rancho Palos Verdes at the age of 86. His funeral was held at Saint John Fisher Catholic Church in Rancho Palos Verdes on September 11, 2010, with eulogies delivered by journalist Robert Scheer and editorial cartoonist Tony Auth. Conrad was survived by his wife, Kay King, two sons, two daughters, and one grandchild.

Legacy
Many publishers and journalists describe Conrad as one of the finest political cartoonists of the 20th century. According to the Associated Press, "Southern California political junkies for decades would start their day either outraged or delighted at a Conrad drawing." He was one of only several post-war cartoonists to have won a total of three Pulitzers for his work and he was the only cartoonist named on Nixon's Enemies List. From 1977–1978, Conrad held the Richard M. Nixon Chair at Whittier College, Nixon's alma mater.

Conrad's editorial cartoons later appeared in exhibitions at the USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism. He authored several books about his work and donated many of his original editorial cartoons to the Prints and Photographs Division of the United States Library of Congress.

His influence and legacy as an editorial cartoonist are explored in the documentary film Paul Conrad: Drawing Fire (2007). In honor of this legacy, the "Paul Conrad Scholarship" is annually awarded to journalism and mass communication students by the University of Iowa. The Huntington Library, which hosts the Conrad Collection papers, calls his body of work "a powerful record of key issues that have confronted [the United States] in the second half of the twentieth century".

Public sculptures

 * Trinity (Statue, Marymount California University)
 * Risen Christ (Altar piece, St. John Fisher Church, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA)
 * Otis Chandler (Bust, Los Angeles Times building)
 * Chain Reaction, (Monument, Santa Monica Civic Center)

Publications

 * When in the Course of Human Events (1973)
 * The King and Us (1974)
 * Pro and Conrad (1979)
 * Drawn and Quartered (1985)
 * CONartist (1993)
 * Drawing The Line (1999)

title: Paul Conrad


text:
Talk:H. Carl McCall

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Someone who has less interest in discrediting McCall than describing his past accomplishments and futures aims, really ought to expand on this stub. --Ed Poor

 * In light of the Richard Grasso article, it's possible I discredited him further.

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Needs a lot more sources
A majority of the content in this article is unsourced. I am tagging it accordingly. SunCrow (talk) 05:37, 8 December 2018 (UTC)

U.N. Ambassador
This article asserts--and the cited source (along with other sources) agrees--that McCall served as "a member of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations with the rank of Ambassador". However, the list of U.N. ambassadors at United States Ambassador to the United Nations does not include him. I am wondering which one is correct. SunCrow (talk) 03:14, 10 January 2020 (UTC)

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title: Talk:H. Carl McCall


text:
Ram

Ram, ram, or RAM most commonly refers to:
 * A male sheep
 * Random-access memory, computer memory
 * Ram Trucks, US, since 2009
 * List of vehicles named Dodge Ram, trucks and vans
 * Ram Pickup, produced by Ram Trucks

Ram, ram, or RAM may also refer to:

Animals

 * Ram cichlid, a freshwater tropical fish

People

 * Ram (given name)
 * Ram (surname)
 * Ram (director) (Ramsubramaniam), an Indian Tamil film director
 * RAM (DJ), Dutch trance producer and DJ
 * Ram Dass (Richard Alpert), American spiritual teacher and author

Religion

 * Rama (or Râm), an incarnation of the god Vishnu in Hinduism
 * Ram and Rud, progenitors of the second generation of humans in Mandaeism

Places

 * Ram, Serbia, Veliko Gradište
 * Ram Island (disambiguation), several islands with the name
 * Ram Fortress, Serbia
 * Ram Range, a mountain range in the Canadian Rockies
 * Ram River, in Alberta, Canada
 * Lake Ram, Golan Heights, Syria
 * Mizo Ram, a state in northeastern India

Transport

 * Ramingining Airport, IATA airport code "RAM"
 * Ramsgate railway station, Kent, England, National Rail station code "RAM"

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Ram (album), a 1971 album by Paul and Linda McCartney
 * Ram & Tam, a late 1970s-early 1980s reggae duo
 * RAM (band), Port-au-Prince, Haiti
 * Ram (film), an upcoming Indian film
 * Ram FM, a radio station, Derbyshire, England 1994–2010
 * RAM Records, UK
 * Random Access Memories, a 2013 album by Daft Punk
 * Rock Australia Magazine, 1975–1989
 * RAM (Rapid Action Mission), a 2024 Indian film
 * "RAM" (Person of Interest), an episode of the American television series Person of Interest

Museums

 * Rockbund Art Museum, Shanghai, China
 * Royal Alberta Museum, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Other organizations

 * Revolutionary Action Movement, a 1960s US black nationalist organization
 * Reform the Armed Forces Movement, a Philippines military cabal 1980s-1990s
 * Remote Area Medical Volunteer Corps, a US healthcare organization
 * Renew America Movement, a US political group
 * Residents Action Movement, a New Zealand political party
 * Resistencia Ancestral Mapuche, an alleged separatist organization in Argentina and Chile
 * Rise Above Movement, an American white nationalist organization
 * Royal Academy of Music, London, UK
 * Royal Air Maroc, the national airline of Morocco

Astrology

 * Aries (astrology), an astrological sign also known as the Ram
 * Goat (zodiac) or Ram, a sign of the Chinese zodiac

Computing

 * Random-access machine, a theoretical computer model
 * .ram, a file extension for the RealAudio file format

Military

 * Ram (rocket), a US Korean War anti-tank weapon
 * A device used for ramming
 * Ram tank, Canada, WWII
 * RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile, a naval surface-to-air missile

Other uses in science and technology

 * Extension ram, a hydraulic rescue tool
 * Hydraulic ram
 * Radar-absorbent material
 * Rechargeable alkaline manganese battery
 * Reliability, availability, and maintainability, in logistics
 * Root apical meristem, a plant tissue

Other uses

 * Aries (constellation), also known as the Ram
 * Ram languages, of Papua New Guinea
 * RAM Racing, F1 team 1976–1985

title: Ram