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Yo-yo

A yo-yo (also spelled yoyo) is a toy consisting of an axle connected to two disks, and a string looped around the axle, similar to a spool. It is an ancient toy with proof of existence since 440 BC. The yo-yo was also called a bandalore in the 17th century.

It is played by holding the free end of the string known as the handle (by inserting one fingerusually the middle or ring fingerinto a slip knot), allowing gravity (or the force of a throw and gravity) to spin the yo-yo and unwind the string (similar to how a pullstring works). The player then allows the yo-yo to wind itself back to the player's hand, exploiting its spin (and the associated rotational energy). This is often called "yo-yoing" or "playing yo-yo".

In the simplest play, the string is intended to be wound on the spool by hand; the yo-yo is thrown downward, hits the end of the string then winds up the string toward the hand, and finally the yo-yo is grabbed, ready to be thrown again. One of the most basic tricks is called the sleeper, where the yo-yo spins at the end of the string for a noticeable amount of time before returning to the hand.

Etymology and history
The word yo-yo probably comes from the Ilocano term yóyo, or a cognate word from the Philippines.

A Greek vase painting from 440 BC shows a boy playing with a yo-yo (see right). Greek records from the period describe toys made out of wood, metal, or painted terra cotta (fired clay). The terra cotta disks were used to ceremonially offer the toys of youth to certain gods when a child came of age—discs of other materials were used for actual play.

First yo-yo company

In 1928, Pedro Flores, a Filipino immigrant to the United States, opened the Yo-yo Manufacturing Company in Santa Barbara, California. The business started with a dozen handmade toys; by November 1929, Flores was operating two additional factories in Los Angeles and Hollywood, which all together employed 600 workers and produced 300,000 units daily.

The principal distinction between the Filipino design popularized by Flores and the more traditional yo-yos is in the way the yo-yo is strung. In older (and some remaining inexpensive) yo-yo designs, the string is tied to the axle using a knot. With this technique, the yo-yo just goes back and forth; it returns easily, but it is impossible to make it sleep. In Flores's design, one continuous piece of string, double the desired length, is twisted around something to produce a loop at one end which is fitted around the axle. Also termed a looped slip-string, this seemingly minor modification allows for a far greater variety and sophistication of motion, thanks to increased stability and suspension of movement during free spin.

Shortly thereafter (c. 1929), entrepreneur Donald F. Duncan recognized the potential of this new fad and purchased the Flores yo-yo Corporation and all its assets, including the Flores name, which was transferred to the new company in 1932.

The name "Yo-yo" was registered in 1932 as a trademark by Sam Dubiner in Vancouver, Canada, and Harvey Lowe won the first World Yo-Yo Contest in London, England. In 1932, Swedish Kalmartrissan yo-yos started to be manufactured as well.

In 1933, yo-yos were banned in Syria, because many locals superstitiously blamed the use of them for a severe drought.

In 1946, the Duncan Toys Company opened a yo-yo factory in Luck, Wisconsin. The Duncan yo-yo was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 1999.

1960s resurgence
Declining sales after World War II prompted Duncan to launch a comeback campaign for his trademarked "Yo-Yo" in 1962 with a series of television advertisements.

In a trademark case in 1965, a federal court of appeal ruled in favor of the Royal Tops Company, determining that yo-yo had become a part of common speech and that Duncan no longer had exclusive rights to the term. As a result of the expenses incurred by this legal battle as well as other financial pressures, the Duncan family sold the company name and associated trademarks in 1968 to Flambeau, Inc, which had manufactured Duncan's plastic models since 1955. , Flambeau Plastics continued to run the company.

Rise of the ball bearing
As popularity spread through the 1970s and 1980s, there were a number of innovations in yo-yo technology, primarily regarding the connection between the string and the axle. In 1979, dentist and yo-yo celebrity Tom Kuhn patented the "No Jive 3-in-1" yo-yo, creating the world's first "take-apart" yo-yo, which enabled yo-yo players to change the axle.

Swedish bearing company SKF briefly manufactured novelty yo-yos with ball bearings in 1984. In 1990, Kuhn introduced the SB-2 yo-yo that had an aluminum transaxle, making it the first successful ball-bearing yo-yo. The SB2 was originally offered only in a natural silver color, but as time went on, it became available in many different colors, with various decorative embellishments.

In all transaxle yo-yos, ball bearings significantly reduce friction when the yo-yo is spinning, enabling longer and more complex tricks. Subsequent yo-yo players used this ability to their advantage, creating new tricks that had not been possible with fixed-axle designs.

There are many new types of ball bearings in the market which deviate from the original design and/or material of the standard stainless steel ball bearing. For example, a certain type of bearing has an inward facing curved surface, to prevent the string from rubbing on the sides of the yo-yo, which would cause unwanted friction when performing intricate string tricks. Other manufacturers replicate this with a similar inwardly curved surface, but use minor modifications. Some high-end bearings use ceramic composites in the balls of the bearing, to reduce internal friction, again making for a smoother spinning yo-yo. Precious materials such as ruby have also been used as a material in prototype ball bearings for its properties such as extreme hardness. The material was first tested in a prototype bearing made by Wolf Yoyo Works in May 2018.

Modern yo-yo
The era following the yo-yo boom of the late 1990s is often referred to as the "modern" era of yo-yo. The modern era of yo-yo is characterized by markedly more complicated and sophisticated yo-yo techniques than came before in addition to a plethora of different yo-yo designs created to serve various niche purposes. This increased complexity of yo-yo play was allowed by the introduction of the ball-bearing technology to yo-yos, which enabled yo-yos to spin much longer than was previously possible. This, in addition to the advent of the bind technique and unresponsive yo-yoing equipped yo-yo players with an essentially limitless amount of freedom, with which they were able to create myriad yo-yo tricks and techniques.

In the wake of this revolution that took place in yo-yo, a landscape of yo-yo competitions tailored towards this modern style of yo-yo play emerged. One example of such competitions is the World Yo-Yo Contest. Outside of the competition scene, yo-yo players regularly share videos of their yo-yo tricks on the Internet; a common place players do so is on Instagram, using the hashtag "#trickcircle". Some yo-yo players have also found modest success outside the yo-yo community, going viral on TikTok, gaining significant YouTube followings, or being featured guests on television programs.

Sleeping
The sleeper is one of the most common yo-yo throws and is the basis for nearly all yo-yo throws other than looping. Keeping a yo-yo spinning while remaining at the end of its uncoiled string is known as sleeping. While the yo-yo is in the "sleeping" state at the end of the string, one can then execute tricks like "walk the dog", "the elevator", "around the world", or the slightly more complex "rock the baby".

The essence of the throw is that one throws the yo-yo with a very pronounced wrist action so that when the yo-yo reaches the end of the string it spins in place rather than rolling back up the string to the thrower's hand. Most modern yo-yos have a transaxle or ball bearing to assist this, but if it is a fixed axle yo-yo, the tension must be loose enough to allow this. The two main ways to do this are (1), allow the yo-yo to sit at the bottom of the string to unwind, or (2) perform lariat or UFO to loosen the tension. When one decides to end the "sleeping" state, one merely jerks the wrist and the yo-yo "catches" the string and rolls back up to the hand. Ball-bearing yo-yos with a "butterfly" shape, primarily used for string tricks, frequently have a low response or are completely unresponsive, requiring a "bind" for the yo-yo to return.

In competition, mastery of sleeping is the basis for the 1A division. Inexpensive fixed-axle yo-yos usually spin between 10 and 20 seconds, while the expensive ball bearing yo-yos can spin about 1–4 minutes depending on the throw. , the world record sleep times were 3:51.54 minutes for fixed-axle and 21:15.17 minutes for transaxle yo-yos. In 2012, the transaxle yo-yo sleep time record was broken by the C3YoyoDesign BTH, with a time of 30:28.30 minutes. A traditional sleeper throw is employed to start frontstyle combinations, whereas a sideways sleeper, or "breakaway" is used to start sidestyle combinations.

Mounts, transitions, and dismounts
Yo-yo tricks in which the yo-yo comes to be sitting a string are called mounts. Transitions are employed to move from one mount to another. Frontstyle mounts include the under and over mounts, as well as the split bottom mount. Sidestyle mounts include the man on the flying trapeze. Combinations can be produced by transitioning from one mount to another in various ways.

Combinations which can repeat indefinitely are called "repeaters".

Loops and Regens
Loops are yoyo tricks that consist of the yoyo looping around the throw hand.

A certain class of looping tricks, regens, are tricks that add spin to a yoyo without having to return it to the throwing hand. Because regens switch between frontstyle and sidestyle, they are frequently used to transition between frontstyle and sidestyle combinations.

Tricks which adjust string tension
Certain tricks, such as the UFO and Sidewinder, can alter the string tension, making it looser or tighter, thereby altering the response of the yo-yo. This also allows for a certain type of trick called slack tricks to be completed with greater ease.

Yo-yo notation
Several methods of notating yo-yo tricks have been formulated, including a system described Mark Mcbride in his work about yo-yo theory, the Yonomicon. This system is similar to Ross Levine's "Modern Yoyo Notation". Modern yo-yo notation is designed to be ambidextrous, further eschewing terms like "clockwise" and "counterclockwise".

Unresponsive (1A)
Eventually, wider string gaps and silicone response systems led to the innovation of unresponsive yoyoing, otherwise known as 1A. Traditional yoyos (responsive) would return to the hand when one would tug on the string, but unresponsive yoyos behave a little differently. Instead of returning to the hand when one tugs on the string, one has to perform a trick called a "bind" where the string is doubled over inside the string gap to increase friction on the response system. This has brought about innovation of many different kinds of tricks involving leaving slack in the string, as this would have caused a responsive yoyo to return to the hand. This style of yoyoing is the most popular and the most common, and the most yoyo tricks are done with 1A yoyos.

Looping (2A)
Looping is a yo-yo technique which emphasizes keeping the body of two yo-yos, one on each hand, in constant motion, with or without sleeping.

Yo-yos optimized for looping have weight concentrated in their centers so they may easily rotate about the string's axis without their mass contributing to resistance due to a gyroscopic effect.

In yo-yo competitions, looping both to the inside and outside of the hand with the yo-yo plays a strong role in the 2A division. Sometimes the yoyos would wrap around arms, legs, or necks.

Also known as two hands looping freestyle.

Two handed string tricks (3A)
Two handed or 3A style play involves doing string tricks with two flared bearing yo-yos. Popularized and pioneered by Mark McBride, the first modern Triple A trick appeared in Fiend Magazine and was called the Velvet Rolls. The different mounts in this style are referred to as houses (e.g. "Kink House").

Photos from as early as the late 1950s show early yo-yo demonstrators performing very basic 3A tricks, such as a Sleeper with one hand, and a Trapeze with the other. While 3A as a concept has existed for many years, it was not until the debut of Velvet Rolls, coupled with the rise of unresponsive yoyo play, that development began on what is currently considered Triple A. This is the most complex style and is the most likely to obtain knots, dings, and clangs.

In competition, two handed string tricks have the 3A division.

Off-string (4A)
In the "off-string" technique, the yo-yo's string is not tied directly to the yo-yo's axle, and the yo-yo is usually launched into the air by performing a "forward pass" to be caught again on the string. However, some players can 'throw down' off-string yo-yos and catch it on the string just as it leaves the end of the string by pivoting the string around a finger as it unwinds, so that the yo-yo is caught on the string. This is exactly the opposite of a "forward pass", but with the same result.

Yo-yos optimized for off-string tricks have flared designs, like the butterfly shape, which makes it easier to land on the string, and often have soft rubber rings on the edges, so minimum damage is inflicted on the yo-yo, the player, or anyone who happens to be standing nearby, should a trick go wrong. There are also tricks which involve the use of two off-string yoyos at the same time, thrown with the same hand, this is known as "soloham".

Yo-yo competitions have the 4A division for off-string tricks.

Freehand (5A)
In freehand tricks, the yo-yo's string is not tied to the player's hand, instead ending in a counterweight. The counterweight is then thrown from hand to hand and used as an additional element in the trick.

Developed in 1999 by Steve Brown, as of 2008 freehand is considered to be the fastest-growing style of yo-yo play. Steve Brown was awarded a patent on his freehand yo-yo system, which was assigned to Flambeau Products (Duncan's parent company). Duncan patented the counterweight, and no one was able to design a unique weight. However, since March 28, 2020, the patent has expired.

In yo-yo competitions, counterweight yo-yos are emphasized in the 5A division.

Modern Responsive (0A)
Modern responsive yo-yo can be thought of as 2A with a single yoyo, but differs from 2A in the fact that it, like 1A, has access to tricks involving the use of the free hand. Unlike 1A, modern responsive deliberately abstains from tricks that involve sleeping, frequently replacing mounts with stalls.

Physical mechanism
When the yo-yo is first released, the gravity (and the throw) give it translational kinetic energy and necessarily, since the string must unwind, much of this energy is converted into rotational kinetic energy establishing the free movement of the yo-yo, and causing it to spin rapidly. As the yo-yo unwinds downward, it also converts potential energy from gravity to translational energy in its rotation to overcome gravity all the way back up to the hand.

Because the sense of spinning does not change during the whole move, the string winds up in the opposite direction upon the return of the yo-yo. If the shaft of the yo-yo is connected to the string with a loop, there may not be enough frictional force to overcome the weight of the yo-yo, which is necessary to begin winding up the string. In this case, the yo-yo will continue to spin in the loop at the end of the string (or sleep), just being slightly braked by the small dynamic friction, instead of returning. However, if the string is jerked slightly up, or the hand is lowered, the slack created in the string will allow it to begin winding around the shaft, thereby increasing friction and allowing it to catch as the static friction force rises above the gravitation force holding the yo-yo at the bottom of the string, making the yo-yo wind up the string returning to the hand.

Patents have been issued to create more complicated mechanisms to allow tension control and an adjustable mechanism.

Purported use as weapons
There is no sound historical evidence that yo-yos were ever used as weapons; the notion is believed to have been a marketing gimmick disseminated by Duncan yo-yo demonstrators in the early years of the company. Regardless, the notion that yo-yos can be used as weapons persists to this day in pop culture, as in the Chinese television series Blazing Teens, and in the Japanese Guilty Gear franchise by the character Bridget (whose giant yo-yo's movements were a considerable challenge to animate). The popular sandbox adventure game Terraria features many yo-yo weapons.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yo-yo


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Justo José de Urquiza

Justo José de Urquiza y García (October 18, 1801 – April 11, 1870) was an Argentine general and politician who served as president of the Argentine Confederation from 1854 to 1860.

Life
Justo José de Urquiza y García was born in Entre Ríos, the son of José Narciso de Urquiza Álzaga, born in Castro Urdiales, Spain, and María Cándida García González, a Creole of Buenos Aires. He was governor of Entre Ríos during the government of Juan Manuel de Rosas, governor of Buenos Aires with powers delegated from the other provinces. Rosas presented a resignation to his charge frequently, but only as a political gesture, counting that the other governments would reject it. However, in 1851, resentful of the economic and political dominance of Buenos Aires, Urquiza accepted Rosas' resignation and resumed for Entre Rios the powers delegated in Buenos Aires. Along with the resuming of international commerce without passing through the port of Buenos Aires, Urquiza replaced the "Death to the savage unitarians!" slogan with "Death to the enemies of national organization!", requesting the making of a national constitution that Rosas had long rejected. Corrientes supported Urquiza's action, but Rosas and the other provinces condemned the "crazy, traitor, savage, unitarian" Urquiza. Supported by Brazil and the Uruguayan liberals, he created the Grand Army and forced Manuel Oribe to capitulate, ending the long siege of Montevideo in October 1851, and finally defeating Rosas on 3 February 1852 at the Battle of Caseros. The other provinces that supported Rosas against Urquiza's pronunciation changed sides and supported his project of creating a National Constitution.

Urquiza immediately began the task of national organization. He became provisional director of the Argentine Confederation in May 1852. In 1853, a constituent assembly adopted a constitution based primarily on the ideas of Juan Bautista Alberdi, and Urquiza was inaugurated president in March 1854.

During his administration, foreign relations were improved, public education was encouraged, colonization was promoted, and plans for railroad construction was initiated. His work of national organization was, however, hindered by the opposition of Buenos Aires, which seceded from the Confederation. Open war broke out in 1859. Urquiza defeated the provincial army led by Bartolomé Mitre in October 1859, at the Battle of Cepeda, and Buenos Aires agreed to re-enter the Confederation.

Constitutional amendments proposed by Buenos Aires were adopted in 1860 but the settlement was short-lived, and further difficulties culminated in civil war. Urquiza met the army of Buenos Aires, again led by Mitre, in September 1861. The battle was indecisive, but Urquiza withdrew from the field, leaving the victory with Mitre. He retired to San José Palace, his residence in Entre Ríos, where he ruled until he was assassinated at age 69 (along with his sons Justo and Waldino) by followers of dissident and political rival Ricardo López Jordán.

Like many other nineteenth century Argentine patriots, Urquiza was a freemason. His imposing Palacio San José has been interpreted as containing many masonic symbols, created "to symbolize and reflect the construction of his other work: the Argentine State".

Tributes
There are many streets, parks and squares all over Argentina that are named after Justo José de Urquiza, such as the Urquiza park in Rosario or the Urquiza park in Parana City. There is a central street in Rosario called Urquiza, and there is a commuter railway line in Buenos Aires named after him, the Urquiza Line. The Colegio del Uruguay, founded by Urquiza, was later renamed in his honor.

title: Justo José de Urquiza


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Anandamide

Anandamide (ANA), also known as N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA), an N-acylethanolamine (NAE), is a fatty acid neurotransmitter. Anandamide was the first endocannabinoid to be discovered: it participates in the body's endocannabinoid system by binding to cannabinoid receptors, the same receptors that the psychoactive compound THC in cannabis acts on. Anandamide is found in nearly all tissues in a wide range of animals. Anandamide has also been found in plants, including small amounts in chocolate. The name 'anandamide' is taken from the Sanskrit word ananda, which means "joy, bliss, delight", plus amide.

Anandamide is derived from the non-oxidative metabolism of arachidonic acid, an essential omega-6 fatty acid. It is synthesized from N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine by multiple pathways. It is degraded primarily by the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) enzyme, which converts anandamide into ethanolamine and arachidonic acid. As such, inhibitors of FAAH lead to elevated anandamide levels and are being pursued for therapeutic use.

Research
According to in vitro research, anandamide effects are mediated primarily by CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system, and CB2 cannabinoid receptors in the periphery. The latter appear to be involved in functions of the immune system. Cannabinoid receptors were originally discovered as sensitive to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, commonly called THC), which is the primary psychoactive cannabinoid found in cannabis. The discovery of anandamide came from research into CB1 and CB2, as it was inevitable that a naturally occurring (endogenous) chemical would be found to affect these receptors.

Anandamide is under research for its potential involvement in the implantation of the early stage embryo in its blastocyst form into the uterus. Therefore, cannabinoids such as Δ9-THC might influence processes during the earliest stages of human pregnancy. Peak plasma anandamide occurs at ovulation and positively correlates with peak estradiol and gonadotrophin levels, suggesting that these may be involved in the regulation of anandamide levels. Subsequently, anandamide has been proposed as a biomarker of infertility, but so far lacks any predictive values in order to be used clinically.

Behavior
Both the CB1 and CB2 receptors (the binding site of anandamide) are under research for a possible role in positive and negative interpretation of environment and setting. The binding relationship of anandamide and the CB1/CB2 may affect neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate.

Endocannabinoids may disturb homeostasis in several ways: by enhancing hunger sensations, encouraging increased food intake, and shifting energy balance towards energy storage. A resultant decrease in energy expenditure is observed.

Cortical glutamatergic transmission may be modulated by endocannabinoids during stress and fear habituation.

Obesity and liver disease
Blockade of CB1 receptors was found to improve lipid resistance and lipid profile in obese subjects with type 2 diabetes. Elevated anandamide levels are found in people with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and liver fibrosis.

Synthesis and degradation
In humans, anandamide is biosynthesized from N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). In turn, NAPE arises by transfer of arachidonic acid from lecithin to the free amine of cephalin through an N-acyltransferase enzyme. Anandamide synthesis from NAPE occurs via multiple pathways and includes enzymes such as phospholipase A2, phospholipase C and N-acetylphosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolysing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD).

The crystal structure of NAPE-PLD in complex with phosphatidylethanolamine and deoxycholate shows how the cannabinoid anandamide is generated from membrane N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs), and reveals that bile acids – which are mainly involved in the absorption of lipids in the small intestine – modulate its biogenesis.

Endogenous anandamide is present at very low levels and has a very short half-life due to the action of the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which breaks it down into free arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. Studies of piglets show that dietary levels of arachidonic acid and other essential fatty acids affect the levels of anandamide and other endocannabinoids in the brain. High fat diet feeding in mice increases levels of anandamide in the liver and increases lipogenesis. Anandamide may be relevant to the development of obesity, at least in rodents.

Paracetamol (called acetaminophen in the US and Canada) is metabolically combined with arachidonic acid by FAAH to form AM404. This metabolite of paracetamol is a potent agonist at the TRPV1 vanilloid receptor, a weak agonist at both CB1 and CB2 receptors, and an inhibitor of anandamide reuptake. As a result, anandamide levels in the body and brain are elevated. In this fashion, paracetamol acts as a pro-drug for a cannabimimetic metabolite. This action may be partially or fully responsible for the analgesic effects of paracetamol.

Endocannabinoid transporters for anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol include the heat shock proteins (Hsp70s) and fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs).

It is found that anandamide prefers cholesterol and ceramide more than other membrane lipids, and cholesterol can behave as a binding partner for it, and following an initial interaction mediated by the establishment of a hydrogen bond, the endocannabinoid is attracted towards the membrane interior, where it forms a molecular complex with cholesterol after a functional conformation adaptation to the apolar membrane milieu, and from there, the complex is further directed to the cannabinoid receptor (CB1) and out.

title: Anandamide


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Leda (moon)

Leda, also known as Jupiter XIII, is a prograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Charles T. Kowal at the Mount Palomar Observatory on September 14, 1974, after three nights' worth of photographic plates had been taken (September 11 through 13; Leda appears on all of them). It was named after Leda, who was raped by Zeus, the Greek equivalent of Jupiter (who came to her in the form of a swan). Kowal suggested the name and the IAU endorsed it in 1975.

Leda belongs to the Himalia group, moons orbiting between 11 and 13 Gm from Jupiter at an inclination of about 27.5°. The orbital elements given here are as of January 2021, but they are continuously changing due to solar and planetary perturbations.

title: Leda (moon)


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Leda (mythology)

In Greek mythology, Leda (Ancient Greek: Λήδα ) was an Aetolian princess who became a Spartan queen. According to Ovid, she was famed for her beautiful black hair and snowy skin. Her myth gave rise to the popular motif in Renaissance and later art of Leda and the Swan.

Family
Leda was the daughter of the Aetolian King Thestius hence she was also called Thestias. Her mother was possibly Leucippe, Deidameia, daughter of Perieres, Eurythemis, daughter of Cleoboea, or Laophonte, daughter of Pleuron. According to Alcman, Leda's parents were Glaucus and Laophonte while Eumelus attested that they are Sisyphus and Panteiduia or Paneidyia.

She married king Tyndareus of Sparta and by him became the mother of Helen of Troy, Clytemnestra, Castor, and Pollux (also called "Polydeuces"). Leda also had three other daughters by Tyndareus: Timandra, Phoebe, and Philonoe.

Mythology

Leda was admired by Zeus, who seduced her in the guise of a swan. As a swan, Zeus fell into her arms for protection from a pursuing eagle. Their consummation, on the same night as Leda lay with her husband Tyndareus, resulted in two eggs from which hatched Helen (later known as the beautiful "Helen of Troy"), Clytemnestra, and Castor and Pollux (also known as the Dioscuri). Which children are the progeny of Tyndareus the mortal king, and which are of Zeus and thus half-immortal, is not consistent among accounts, nor is which child hatched from which egg. The split is almost always half mortal, half divine, although the pairings do not always reflect the children's heritage pairings. Castor and Pollux are sometimes both mortal, sometimes both divine. One consistent point is that if only one of them is immortal, it is Pollux. It is also always stated that Helen is the daughter of Zeus.

In Homer's Iliad, Helen looks down from the walls of Troy and wonders why she does not see her brothers among the Achaeans. The narrator remarks that they are both already dead and buried back in their homeland of Lacedaemon, thus suggesting that at least in the Homeric tradition, both were mortal.

Another account of the myth states that Nemesis (Νέμεσις) was the mother of Helen, and was also impregnated by Zeus in the guise of a swan. A shepherd found the egg and gave it to Leda, who carefully kept it in a chest until the egg hatched. When the egg hatched, Leda adopted Helen as her daughter. Zeus also commemorated the birth of Helen by creating the constellation Cygnus (Κύκνος), the Swan, in the sky.

In art
Leda and the Swan, Leda and the Egg, and Leda with her children were popular subjects in ancient art. In the post-classical arts, it became a potent source of inspiration. It is the subject of William Butler Yeats' poem Leda and the Swan. She is also the main subject in Honoré Desmond Sharrer's "Leda & the Folks", a large painting focusing as well on the parents of entertainer Elvis Presley and currently located at the Smith College Museum of Art.

Australian artist Sidney Nolan produced at least a dozen interpretations of Leda and the Swan in the 1950s and 1960s, connected with his work on the myths of the Trojan War and World War I.

In October 2022, the myth inspired Hozier to write a song in response to the Dobbs v. Jackson decision by the Supreme Court of the United States, which repealed Roe v. Wade. The song is called Swan Upon Leda.

title: Leda (mythology)


text:
Atrocity

Atrocity or Atrocities or Atrocious may refer to:
 * Atrocity (band), a German metal band
 * Atrocities (album), the fourth album by Christian Death
 * Mass atrocity crimes, international crimes of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity
 * Atrocious (film), a 2010 Spanish film
 * Atrocity, a crime against scheduled castes or scheduled tribes in India

title: Atrocity


text:
Talk:Atrocity

2002-2005
Editors note: I would like people to add to this as much as possible and do so from the humanist perspective, rather than a nationalist one. Simply speaking, an American may object to the inclusion of the My Lai massacre as an atrocity, but it is certainly one from the point of view of most human beings, not that I speak for them all, but lets not play ignorant. -Sv 00:25, 15 October 2002

 * Amerocentrism has no defenders on Wikipedia. I question somewhat the usefulness of this article, though. --Robert Merkel (06:45, 15 October 2002, 203.45.8.43)

 * Speaking of Amerocentrism, isn't it odd to assume 'Civil War' automatically means 'American Civil War'? Practically every country in the world has had one 128.232.242.21 01:27, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

The notion that modern man killed off other species of man is not only "pre-historical" but totally without supporting evidence. It is like saying that the puma killed off the sabre-tooth tiger or the coyote killed off the dire wolf. Fredbauder 13:23 Oct 15, 2002 (UTC)

- ...I knew id get some response from that modern man vs neanderthalensis bit :>). But I did it also to illustrate a point, which is that documentation gets more and more unreliable as we go back. But the fact that nobody cares about atrocities that may or may not have happened long ago does lead to a biasing of quasi-varifiable documentation such as ould be found in our oldest, religious based text. So I did it for my own frame of mind, for the article, and the point is to unify all of these varied issues of mass killing, ina centralised article that is intelligently formed by a heirarchy. Thus there are two: Articles representing murders of Holcaust proportions, and the decending order. Or 2 Articles that go progressively backward in time and as such frame their relative irrelevance to current events. So much of these issues we deal with frame ethnically specific holocausts, regardless of time, or veracity. A Encyclopdedia should, I believe, remove this ethnic frame of mind, and work with the historical record. The caveat, of course: History has traditionally belonged to the victors. This may no longer be the case because of the modern record, provided all this information is processed. -Stevertigo 17:53, 15 October 2002

P.S. At least I didnt start getting into my theories of how competition between Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals, formed the psychic-remnant basis for our current notions of ethnic distinction and raciality. %] Stevertigo 18:00, 15 October 2002

I like this new article (although I don't "like" the stuff it's talking about). I think we can move to here -- from the genocide article -- as many as half the disputed instances of "genocide" which don't fit the definitions of genocide specified in international treaties.

To everyone who kept saying that "genocide" was the wrong word, I say you were right all along. Now let's do some fixing up. --Ed Poor 18:04, 15 October 2002

hmm I had thought the same thing, on a quick read of these other things, and am not aginst moving or copying some material. I think there should be some legitmate overlap, so that the genocide article remains in itself an article and not a stub. though, yes, murderous acts can be qualified as atrocities without being acts of genocide, which i understand to be systematic. --User:Stevertigo 17:09, 16 October 2002

-

"Atrocities are acts of mass [murder], often, but not necessarily to the degree of genocide." -- I don't think this is an accurate description. An atrocity could also be, for example: mass rape, sans murder; detainment of prisoners in intolerable conditions; torture of parents in presence of children; etc etc etc. Unfortunately humans are all too good at coming up with variations on these.

See http://www.bartleby.com/61/67/A0506700.html -- —Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.165.239.87 (talk • contribs) 23:17, 31 October 2002

interesting point. maybe this material should be moved to mass killing, as a separate, general article. atrocity, i admit has some color in it, as a word for encyclopaedic use. hmm... this would make atrocity a more generalised word encompassing all issues rel. mass killing, and then down the scale to... where is the line, do you think, whoever ye are? -Sv 08:15, 5 November 2002

Removed:

 * ===Mass killing===
 * We here use the term mass killing to refer to all of these atrocities in a non-politicized way. Regardless of the political nature of, or the justifications for them, all such acts of killing peoples en masse are mass killing. incidents.

self referential - i originlly added it thinking this would be a catchall, but this was redundant to the article. silly me. ---Sv 23:10, 7 January 2003

US internment
The US internment of Japanese-Americans in World War 2, does not meet the definition of atrocity stated in the first paragrah. Replaced with references to the firebombing of Tokyo and Dresden - which actually killed huge numbers of civilians. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.239.166.63 (talk • contribs) 19:13, 29 May 2006

Holocaust
This article used to say 'thousands of Jews were killed in the holocaust.' I changed this to 'millions'. People in central Europe have been arrested for getting this figure wrong Indigenius 01:29, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Suggestions for deletion and options regarding this "article"
I just noticed this article today and it's been on my mind all day. I almost nominated it for deletion; in fact I had already pasted the template before deciding it better to discuss it here first. IMHO, this article violates all three cardinal WP policies mentioned on Deletion policy: Neutral point of view, Verifiability, and No original research. Not only that, it doesn't lend any encyclopaedic value (or probably better said, the content could be worked a different way to give encyclopaedic value). First of all, to summarize this article, it's basically giving a definition of "atrocity" and then goes on to list certain events that fit that definition. It's not an article on the phenomenon of "atrocity" (which might be encyclopaedic if the definition could be nailed down) but merely a select list of events that fit the very broad, imprecise definition given within the article itself; this, in itself, is a logical fallacy.

Now, to get to the real problems. The definitions of "atrocity" given are so loose and vague and not based on anything academic (legal, philisophical or otherwise). This is Original Research. Consequently, almost anything could be viewed as an "atrocity"; this opens up POV issues. Atrocity is a very subjective (and loaded) word. What may be considered an atrocity by some, may be considered a great military victory by others. Therefore many things viewed as an "atrocity" may not be verifiable as such, especially considering the definition itself can't even be verified.

Suggested solutions:
 * leave the definition to Wiktionary
 * everything mentioned here as an "atrocity" already has its own page (Holocaust, The Rape of Nanking, Bombing of Dresden in World War II, etc) where it is described and discussed. Any new material can (and should) be added or merged there.  This page adds nothing new and should be deleted, IMHO.
 * if it is deemed necessary or valuable to have a "list of events considered 'atrocities' by various groups", there are two options:
 * make a page called something like List of events considered atrocities or,
 * create and label all relevent pages (start with the pages that link to this article before it is deleted).

This seems more encyclopaedic and less open to Original Research and POV. Any comments?--WilliamThweatt 02:55, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

There's already a list of 'pepsi types', I don't think wikipedia needs any more lists. Try categories Indigenius 17:56, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

Dresden
Why is Dresden listed as an American Atrocity? The UK was the main proponent in fire bombing the city... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 136.215.49.6 (talk • contribs) 11:13, 13 September 2006

I Agree: Article should be deleted or a complete reconstruction is necessary
The article is completely disorganized. It fails to provide any history or background to the act of committing atrocities. The only case study it provides is a meager overview of World War Two. As the other person has pointed out, many of the war crimes described on this page are already described in other places. The article is biased in and of itself by not including war crimes outside of World War Two, sending a confused and misleading message that atrocities only occured during WW2. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.38.182.118 (talk • contribs) 04:11, 14 September 2006

Furthermore . ..
Clicking the link to the German version of this article leads to an article titled 'Massaker', which does mean 'massacre', and clicking back to English links to 'Massacre' in English Wikipedia. Resolving this is normally easy, considering the existing issues with this article it should be left to discussion as well. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 150.135.48.107 (talk • contribs) 00:56, 8 November 2007

August 2007
Someone said the world is in a mess today, meaning it's never been as bad as this. I agree the environment is in trouble, but mankind has not changed, ever. That's why the environment is in trouble. There's always the same percentage of bad and good, and it's a moving target. People that were bad once, improve and are good. People die and new ones are born. Today we hear there are more atocities than ever before. I think there were always the same percentages of every and all kinds of human evils, as far back as we can go. I can give examples, but everyone knows what I mean if they think about history. So today, we have more people than ever before. We have world wide media coverage and the problems are overwhelming. But basically, people haven't changed. We experience, we suffer, we learn and mature. We can be very good and very bad. We somehow reach a place where we decide to choose good. Yet if someone tried to hurt our loved ones, we would do whatever it took to prevent them, including murder. We want something better for our children, however, they will make their own mistakes. It's a neverending cycle. There is not a country on earth, that does not have a good and bad history. Individually, we've all made mistakes. It happens at home, between neighbours, friends, religion, fat versus skinny, educated, versus uneducated, the haves, and the have nots. This isn't new. Bullies, and beggers since time began. We can play any role. Human nature is what it is. Comments?(74.110.132.156 07:33, 13 August 2007 (UTC))

Following on from discussion at Talk:British Empire...
This article was flouting WP's rules, as noted above. I have The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick t 13:00, 1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * removed the capital punishment section. This is an article about atrocity, not capital punishment.
 * moved the list of atrocities to List of atrocities, please see Talk:List of atrocities for my comments on that.

wiktionary:atrocity
When this article was created back in 2002 there was no wiktionary. Now that there is a wiktionary this article is redundant as the dictionary entry atrocity fulfils the same requirement. So I have been bold and I have turned this page into a disambiguation page. --Philip Baird Shearer (talk) 16:55, 1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Good stuff.  The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick t 17:04, 1 January 2008 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 19:46, 1 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Atrocity


text:
Tigris and Euphrates

Tigris and Euphrates (Euphrat und Tigris) is a tabletop eurogame designed by Reiner Knizia and first published in 1997 by Hans im Glück. Before its publication, it was highly anticipated by German gamers hearing rumors of a "gamer's game" designed by Knizia. Tigris and Euphrates won first prize in the 1998 Deutscher Spielepreis. A card game version was released in 2005.

The game is set as a clash between neighboring dynasties at the dawn of civilization and is named after the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, in the region now called the Middle East. The rivers together formed natural borders for an area which harboured several grand ancient civilizations, including Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria. The Greeks called this area Mesopotamia, which literally means "between the rivers".

Gameplay
The game can be played by two, three, or four people. Play offers both tactical and strategic objectives. As with many games, short-term objectives gain prominence when more players participate, as players have fewer chances to follow up on previous moves. Luck plays a role, as players draw tiles from a bag, but it is seldom decisive. Players may selectively discard and redraw their tiles at the cost of one "action point", of which each player has two per turn. The game does not use dice.

The board is a map of the two rivers, marked with a square grid. There are four types of tiles with corresponding leaders: temples and priests (red), farms and farmers (blue), markets and merchants (green), and settlements and kings (black). The game starts with ten isolated temple tiles already placed on the board. Players play tiles and leaders onto the board, creating and expanding regions and kingdoms. Monuments may be built on the board when four tiles of the same color are played into a square pattern.

Two leaders of the same type cannot coexist in the same kingdom. Internal conflicts are caused by players adding a second leader of a type to a kingdom. External conflicts are caused by players playing tiles to merge two existing kingdoms.

During the game, players collect points in each of the four colors as a result of playing tiles, resolving conflicts and controlling monuments. After the final round each player sorts his or her points by color, including any "treasures" which they have acquired, which count as any color the player wishes. In order to limit specialization the player with the most points in their weakest category wins.

For example:
 * Alice has 6 black, 8 red, 12 green, and 12 blue points; thus has a score of 6.
 * Bob has 9 black, 10 red, 7 green, and 15 blue points; thus has a score of 7.
 * Charlie has 14 black, 14 red, 5 green, and 20 blue points; thus has a score of 5.

Players must balance their scoring and avoid overspecializing. Knizia later used this mechanism as the basis for Ingenious.

Reception
Thomas Lehmann comments: "If you are looking for a tactically rich, intense strategy game with lots of conflict (unusual in a German game), try Tigris & Euphrates and see why so many players consider this game Reiner Knizia's masterpiece."

Reviews

 * Pyramid
 * Backstab #9

title: Tigris and Euphrates


text:
Chamber music (disambiguation)

Chamber music is a form of classical music written for a small group of instruments.

Chamber music may also refer to:

Music

 * Chamber Music (Berio), a 1953 composition by Luciano Berio

Albums

 * Chambers' Music, a 1956 album by Paul Chambers
 * Chamber Music, a 2004 album by Blueprint
 * Chamber Music (Thighpaulsandra album), 2005
 * Chamber Music (Ballake Sissoko and Vincent Segal album), 2009
 * Chamber Music (Coal Chamber album), 1999
 * Wu-Tang Chamber Music, a 2009 album by Wu-Tang Clan

Songs

 * "Chamber Music", a 2011 song by Ballake Sissoko and Vincent Segal from Chamber Music
 * "Chamber Music", a 2009 song by Paolo Nutini from Sunny Side Up
 * "Chamber Music", a 2000 song by Wu-Tang Clan from The W
 * "Chamber Music", a 1998 song by Xzibit from 40 Dayz & 40 Nightz

Other uses

 * Chamber Music Journal, a periodical for chamber music
 * Chamber Music (film), a 1925 German film
 * Chamber Music (play), a 1962 play by Arthur Kopit
 * Chamber Music (poetry collection), a 1907 collection of poems by James Joyce
 * Música de Cámara, Hispanic classical music organization

title: Chamber music (disambiguation)


text:
Salon des Refusés

The Salon des Refusés, French for "exhibition of rejects", is generally known as an exhibition of works rejected by the jury of the official Paris Salon, but the term is most famously used to refer to the Salon des Refusés of 1863.

Today, by extension, salon des refusés refers to any exhibition of works rejected from a juried art show.

Background of the Salon of 1863
The Paris Salon, sponsored by the French government and the Academy of Fine Arts, took place annually, and was a exhibition of the best academic art. A medal from the Salon was assurance of a successful artistic career; winners were given official commissions by the French government and were sought after for portraits and private commissions. Since the 18th century, the paintings were classified by genre, following a hierarchy; history paintings were ranked first, followed by the portrait, the landscape, the "genre scene" and the still life. The jury, headed by the Comte de Nieuwerkerke, the head of the Academy of Fine Arts, was very conservative; near-photographic but idealized realism was expected.

Much intrigue often went on to get acceptance, and to be given a good place in the galleries. In 1851, Gustave Courbet managed to get one painting into the Salon, Enterrement à Ornans, and in 1852 his Baigneuses was accepted, scandalizing critics and the public, who expected romanticized nudes in classical settings, but in 1855 the Salon refused all of Courbet's paintings. As early as the 1830s, Paris art galleries mounted small, private exhibitions of works rejected by the Salon jurors. Courbet was obliged to organize his own exhibit, called The Pavillon of Realism, at a private gallery. Private exhibits attracted far less attention from the press and patrons, and limited the access of the artists to a small public.

In 1863 the Salon jury refused two thirds of the paintings presented, including the works of Gustave Courbet, Édouard Manet, Camille Pissarro, Antoine Chintreuil, and Johan Jongkind. The rejected artists and their friends protested, and the protests reached Emperor Napoleon III. The Emperor's tastes in art were traditional; he commissioned and bought works by artists such as Alexandre Cabanel and Franz Xaver Winterhalter, but he was also sensitive to public opinion. His office issued a statement: "Numerous complaints have come to the Emperor on the subject of the works of art which were refused by the jury of the Exposition. His Majesty, wishing to let the public judge the legitimacy of these complaints, has decided that the works of art which were refused should be displayed in another part of the Palace of Industry."

More than a thousand visitors a day visited the Salon des Refusés. The journalist Émile Zola reported that visitors pushed to get into the crowded galleries where the refused paintings were hung, and the rooms were full of the laughter of the spectators. Critics and the public ridiculed the refusés, which included such famous paintings as Édouard Manet's Déjeuner sur l'herbe and James McNeill Whistler's Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl. The critical attention also legitimized the emerging avant-garde in painting. The Impressionists exhibited their works outside the traditional Salon beginning in 1874. Subsequent Salons des Refusés were mounted in Paris in 1874, 1875, and 1886, by which time the popularity of the Paris Salon had declined for those who were more interested in Impressionism.

Le déjeuner sur l'herbe
Rejected by the Salon jury of 1863, Manet seized the opportunity to exhibit Déjeuner sur l'herbe and two other paintings in the 1863 Salon des Refusés. Déjeuner sur l'herbe depicts the juxtaposition of a female nude and a scantily dressed female bather in the background, on a picnic with two fully dressed men in a rural setting. The painting sparked public notoriety and stirred up controversy and has remained controversial, even to this day. There is a discussion of it, from this point of view, in Proust's Remembrance of Things Past.

One interpretation of the work is that it depicts the rampant prostitution in the Bois de Boulogne, a large park at the western outskirts of Paris, at the time. This prostitution was common knowledge in Paris, but was considered a taboo subject unsuitable for a painting.

Émile Zola comments about Déjeuner sur l'herbe:

"The Luncheon on the Grass is the greatest work of Édouard Manet, one in which he realizes the dream of all painters: to place figures of natural grandeur in a landscape. We know the power with which he vanquished this difficulty. There are some leaves, some tree trunks, and, in the background, a river in which a chemise-wearing woman bathes; in the foreground, two young men are seated across from a second woman who has just exited the water and who dries her naked skin in the open air.  This nude woman has scandalized the public, who see only her in the canvas.  My God!  What indecency: a woman without the slightest covering between two clothed men!  That has never been seen.  And this belief is a gross error, for in the Louvre there are more than fifty paintings in which are found mixes of persons clothed and nude.  But no one goes to the Louvre to be scandalized.  The crowd has kept itself moreover from judging The Luncheon on the Grass like a veritable work of art should be judged; they see in it only some people who are having a picnic, finishing bathing, and they believed that the artist had placed an obscene intent in the disposition of the subject, while the artist had simply sought to obtain vibrant oppositions and a straightforward audience. Painters, especially Édouard Manet, who is an analytic painter, do not have this preoccupation with the subject which torments the crowd above all; the subject, for them, is merely a pretext to paint, while for the crowd, the subject alone exists. Thus, assuredly, the nude woman of The Luncheon on the Grass is only there to furnish the artist the occasion to paint a bit of flesh. That which must be seen in the painting is not a luncheon on the grass; it is the entire landscape, with its vigors and its finesses, with its foregrounds so large, so solid, and its backgrounds of a light delicateness; it is this firm modeled flesh under great spots of light, these tissues supple and strong, and particularly this delicious silhouette of a woman wearing a chemise who makes, in the background, an adorable dapple of white in the milieu of green leaves. It is, in short, this vast ensemble, full of atmosphere, this corner of nature rendered with a simplicity so just, all of this admirable page in which an artist has placed all the particular and rare elements which are in him."

Émile Zola incorporated a fictionalized account of the 1863 scandal in his novel L'Œuvre (The Masterpiece) (1886).

Symphony in White no 1
In 1861, after returning to Paris for a time, James Abbott McNeill Whistler painted his first famous work, Symphony in White, No. 1: The White Girl. This portrait of his mistress and business manager Joanna Hiffernan was created as a simple study in white; however, others saw it differently. The critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary thought the painting an allegory of a new bride's lost innocence. Others linked it to Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White, a popular novel of the time, or various other literary sources. In England, some considered it a painting in the Pre-Raphaelite manner. In the painting, Hiffernan holds a lily in her left hand and stands upon a wolf skin rug (interpreted by some to represent masculinity and lust) with the wolf's head staring menacingly at the viewer.

Countering criticism by traditionalists, Whistler's supporters insisted that the painting was "an apparition with a spiritual content" and that it epitomized his theory that art should be concerned essentially with the arrangement of colors in harmony, not with a literal portrayal of the natural world.

Whistler started working on The White Girl shortly after December 3, 1861, with the intention of submitting it to the prestigious annual exhibition of the Royal Academy. In spite of bouts of illness, he finished the painting by April. The white paint Whistler used contained lead, and his work on the seven-foot-high canvas had given the artist a dose of lead poisoning. The portrait was refused for exhibition at the conservative Royal Academy in London. Whistler then submitted the painting to the Paris Salon of 1863, where it was also rejected. The public was able to see the painting exhibited with other rejected works, in the Salon des Refusés. The Salon des Refusés was an event sanctioned by Emperor Napoleon III, to appease the large number of artists who joined forces to protest the harsh jury decisions in 1863 Of the over 5,000 paintings submitted in 1863, 2,217 were rejected.

In a letter to George du Maurier in early 1862 Whistler wrote of the painting:

"... a woman in a beautiful white cambric dress, standing against a window which filters the light through a transparent white muslin curtain – but the figure receives a strong light from the right and therefore the picture, barring the red hair, is one gorgeous mass of brilliant white."

Whistler submitted the painting to the Academy, but according to Joanna Hiffernan, he expected it to be rejected. The previous year, in 1861, another painting had caused a minor scandal. Edwin Henry Landseer's The Shrew Tamed showed a horse with a woman resting on the ground nearby. The model was named as Ann Gilbert, a noted equestrienne of the period, however it was soon rumored that it was actually Catherine Walters, the notorious London courtesan. Whistler's painting was reminiscent enough of Landseer's that the judges were wary of admitting it. White Girl was submitted to the Academy along with three etchings, all three of which were accepted, while the painting was not. Whistler exhibited it at the small Berners Street Gallery in London instead. The next year, Whistler tried to have the painting exhibited at the Salon in Paris – the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts – but it was rejected there as well. Instead, it was accepted at the alternative Salon des Refusés – the "exhibition of rejects" that opened on May 15, two weeks after the official Salon.

Although Whistler's painting was widely noticed, he was upstaged by Manet's more shocking painting Le déjeuner sur l'herbe. The controversy surrounding the paintings was described in Émile Zola's novel L'Œuvre (1886). The reception Whistler's painting received was mostly favourable, however, and largely vindicated him after the rejection he had experienced both in London and in Paris. The painting was greatly admired by his colleagues and friends Manet, the painter Gustave Courbet and the poet Charles Baudelaire. The art critic Théophile Thoré-Bürger saw it in the tradition of Goya and Velázquez. There were, however, those who were less favourable; certain French critics saw the English Pre-Raphaelite trend as somewhat eccentric.

Legacy
Art historian Albert Boime wrote: "The Salon des Refusés introduced the democratic concept of a multi-style system (much like a multi-party system) subject to the review of the general jury of the public."

title: Salon des Refusés


text:
Ternary form

Ternary form, sometimes called song form, is a three-part musical form consisting of an opening section (A), a following section (B) and then a repetition of the first section (A). It is usually schematized as A–B–A. Prominent examples include the da capo aria "The trumpet shall sound" from Handel's Messiah, Chopin's Prelude in D-Flat Major "Raindrop", (Op. 28) and the opening chorus of Bach's St John Passion.

Simple ternary form
In ternary form each section is self-contained both thematically as well as tonally (that is, each section contains distinct and complete themes), and ends with an authentic cadence. The B section is generally in a contrasting but closely related key, usually a perfect fifth above or the parallel minor of the home key of the A section (V or i); however, in many works of the Classical period, the B section stays in tonic but has contrasting thematic material. It usually also has a contrasting character; for example section A might be stiff and formal while the contrasting B section would be melodious and flowing.

Da capo aria
Baroque opera arias and a considerable number of baroque sacred music arias was dominated by the Da capo aria which were in the ABA form. A frequent model of the form began with a long A section in a major key, a short B section in a relative minor key mildly developing the thematic material of the A section and then a repetition of the A section. By convention in the third section (the repeat of section A after section B) soloists may add some ornamentation or short improvised variations. In later classical music such changes may have been written into the score. In these cases the last section is sometimes labeled A’ or A1 to indicate that it is slightly different from the first A section.

Compound ternary or trio form
In a trio form each section is a dance movement in binary form (two sub-sections which are each repeated) and a contrasting trio movement also in binary form with repeats. An example is the minuet and trio from Haydn's Surprise Symphony. The minuet consists of one section (1A) which is repeated and a second section (1B) which is also repeated. The trio section follows the same format (2A repeated and 2B repeated). The complete minuet is then played again at the end of the trio represented as: [(1A–1A–1B–1B) (2A–2A–2B–2B) (1A–1A–1B–1B)]. By convention in the second rendition of the minuet, the sections are not repeated with the scheme [(1A–1A–1B–1B) (2A–2A–2B–2B) (1A–1B)]. The trio may also be referred to as a double or as I/II, such as in Bach's polonaise and double (or Polonaise I/II) from his second orchestral suite and his Bourrée and double (or Bourrée I/II) from his second English Suite for harpsichord.

The scherzo and trio, which is identical in structure to other trio forms, developed in the late Classical and early Romantic periods. Examples include the scherzo and trio (second movement) from Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 and the scherzo and trio in Schubert's String Quintet. Another name for the latter is "composite ternary form".

Trio form movements (especially scherzos) written from the early romantic era sometimes include a short coda (a unique ending to complete the entire movement) and possibly a short introduction. The second movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is written in this style which can be diagrammed as [(INTRO) (1A–1A–1B–1B) (2A–2A–2B–2B) (1A–1B) (CODA)]

Quickstep military marches, in particular, many marches by John Philip Sousa follow this form, and the middle section is called the "trio".

Polkas are also often in compound-ternary form.

Quasi compound form
Occasionally the A section or B section of a dance like movement is not divided into two repeating parts. For example, in the Minuet in Haydn's String Quartet op. 76 no. 6, the Minuet is in standard binary form (section A and B) while the trio is in free form and not in two repeated sections. Haydn labeled the B section "Alternative", a label used in some Baroque pieces (though most such pieces were in proper compound ternary form).

Ternary form within a ternary form
In a complex ternary form each section is itself in ternary form in the scheme of [(A–B–A)(C–D–C)(A–B–A)] By convention each part is repeated and only on its first rendition: [(A–A–B–B–A)(C–C–D–D–C)(A–B–A)]. An example are the Impromptus (Op. 7) by Jan Voříšek.

Expanded ternary forms are especially common among Romantic-era composers; for example, Chopin's "Military" Polonaise (Op. 40, No. 1) is in the form [(A–A–B–A-B–A)(C–C–D–C-D–C)(A–B–A)], where the A and B sections and C and D sections are repeated as a group, and the original theme returning at the end without repeats.

title: Ternary form


text:
Five Points, Alabama

Five Points is a town in Chambers County, Alabama, United States. At the 2020 census, the population was 114.

History
In 1885, Five Points was named because of the five roads converging at a single point. Before this, the post office was known as "Lystra". The town was incorporated in 1915, making it Chambers County's oldest incorporated town. The Baptist Church was the first to take the name of "Five Points" on its building in 1929.

Five Points holds the distinction of being the first town of its size to receive electricity from Alabama Power in 1925. In order to receive power, citizens were required to erect their own poles from Stroud to White Plains.

Five Points is home to the first consolidated high school in Alabama. The original Five Points High School was an imposing brick building which had two floors above a full basement and a large auditorium that seated 400 people. Erected in 1916, it stood amidst an 18 acre campus, the only rural school in the state with its own electric and steam-generating plant and water works. The school building was replaced by a one-story building in 1939. In 1974 a fire destroyed that structure which was replaced by the present building.

The town elected its first African-American mayor, Geneva Bledsoe, in 1992. The current mayor is Derrick L. Wright Sr. who won the election by a vote of 50–32 in August 2012.

Geography
Five Points is located in northern Chambers County at 33°1'1.880" North, 85°21'4.349" West (33.017189, -85.351208). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 2.7 km2 all land.

2020 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 146 people, 58 households, and 41 families residing in the town. The population density was 141.8 PD/sqmi. There were 71 housing units at an average density of 68.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 52.05% Black or African American, 47.26% White and 0.68% from two or more races.

There were 58 households, out of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.3% were married couples living together, 19.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.6% were non-families. 25.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.05.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.0% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 23.3% from 25 to 44, 26.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $38,125, and the median income for a family was $41,750. Males had a median income of $21,250 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $12,764. There were 8.9% of families and 13.9% of the population living below the poverty line, including 26.3% of under eighteens and 6.1% of those over 64.

Notable persons

 * Razzy Bailey (1939–2021), country music artist
 * John McDade Howell (1922–2016), president of East Carolina University from 1982 to 1987

title: Five Points, Alabama


text:
Huguley, Alabama

Huguley is a census-designated place (CDP) and unincorporated community in Chambers County, Alabama, United States. At the 2020 census, the population was 2,470.

Geography
Huguley is located in southeastern Chambers County at 32°50'16.811" North, 85°13'59.300" West (32.838003, -85.233139). It is bordered by the city of Lanett to the east and the city of Valley to the southeast.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 21.6 km2, all land.

Demographics
At the 2010 census, there were 2,540 people, 1,029 households and 707 families residing in the community. The population density was 304 PD/sqmi. There were 1,153 housing units at an average density of 138.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the community was 73.0% White, 25.0% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. 1.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 1,029 households, of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 16.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.00.

23.8% of the population were under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 24.0% from 25 to 44, 28.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.8 males.

The median household income was $32,697 and the median family income was $46,813. Males had a median income of $33,938 compared with $35,461 for females. The per capita income was $17,886. About 9.9% of families and 10.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.9% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over.

Notable person

 * Razzy Bailey, country music artist

title: Huguley, Alabama


text:
LaFayette, Alabama

LaFayette is the county seat of Chambers County, Alabama, United States, 47 mi northwest of Columbus, Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population of the city was 3,003.

History
Chambers County was formed in 1832. The newly elected county officials opted to locate the county seat as near as possible to the center of the county. Lots for the new town were auctioned in October 1833, with proceeds from the sale financing the construction of a courthouse and jail. The town was first called "Chambersville", but by the time of incorporation on January 7, 1835, the town name had been changed to "Lafayette", named after the Marquis de Lafayette; its spelling was changed to "LaFayette" due to the influence of newspaper editor Johnson J. Hooper, who created a fictional character called Captain Simon Suggs, a backwoods southerner who pronounced the town's name as "La Fait". The city's newspaper, The LaFayette Sun, was founded under the name The Alabama Standard in April 1841 and adopted its current name on August 3, 1881.

On October 2, 1898, John Anderson, a black man, was lynched in Lafayette. Scenes from the movie Mississippi Burning were filmed at the Chambers County Courthouse and in downtown LaFayette.

LaFayette is the birthplace of heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis. An 8 ft bronze statue, executed by sculptor Casey Downing Jr. of Mobile, Alabama, was erected in Louis' honor in front of the Chambers County courthouse in 2010. It is also the hometown of Hoyt L. Sherman, one of artist Roy Lichtenstein's principal art professor/mentors at Ohio State University.

Geography
LaFayette is located at 32°53'54.859" North, 85°24'2.822" West (32.898572, -85.400784).

The city is located in east central Alabama along U.S. Route 431, which is the main north–south route through the city. U.S. 431 leads north 21 mi to Roanoke and south 23 mi to Opelika. Alabama State Route 50 also runs through the city as a southern bypass, leading east 14 mi to Lanett on the Alabama-Georgia state line, and southwest 18 mi to Camp Hill. Alabama State Route 77 begins in the northern part of the city and connects LaFayette to the town of Wadley, 20 mi to the northwest.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 23.0 sqkm, of which 0.07 sqkm, or 0.31%, is water.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, LaFayette has a humid subtropical climate (abbreviated Cfa).

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 2,684 people, 1,017 households, and 610 families residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,003 people, 1,129 households, and 749 families residing in the city. The population density was 337 PD/sqmi. There were 1,299 housing units at an average density of 145.9 sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 68.8% Black or African American, 29.3% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. 1.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 1,129 households, out of which 23.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.6% were married couples living together, 30.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.7% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.98.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 22.0% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 23.4% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 18.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 103.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $26,319, and the median income for a family was $31,629. Males had a median income of $31,842 versus $27,833 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,149. About 28.5% of families and 36.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43.2% of those under age 18 and 22.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education
The Chambers County School District provides public education for LaFayette. Within the city limits are two high schools (Lafayette High School and the Chambers County Career Technical School), one middle school (JP Powell Middle School), and one elementary school (Eastside Elementary School).

Chambers Academy (grades pre-K through 12) is a private school in LaFayette.

Notable people

 * Catharine Webb Barber, attended the Lafayette Female Seminary, at Chambers Court House; afterwards taught in the same institution
 * William B. Bowling, U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1928
 * Dave Butz, former NFL player
 * James R. Dowdell, jurist and the 20th Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court from 1909 to 1914
 * Morris Finley, professional basketball player. Graduated from LaFayette High School.
 * Hal Finney, former Major League Baseball player
 * Lou Finney, former Major League Baseball player
 * Perry Griggs, former Baltimore Colts player
 * James Thomas "Cotton Tom" Heflin, member of the United States House of Representatives and a leading proponent of white supremacy
 * Johnson J. Hooper, author and humorist
 * Jay Jacobs, former athletic director at Auburn University
 * Joe Louis, Heavyweight boxing champion
 * Leon Renfroe Meadows, president of East Carolina University from 1934 to 1944
 * Arthur W. Mitchell, U.S. Representative from Illinois and first African American to be elected to the United States Congress as a Democrat
 * Gertrude Morgan, preacher, missionary, artist, musician, and poet who worked in New Orleans in the 1960s and '70s
 * Hoyt L. Sherman, art professor and principal mentor to pop artist Roy Lichtenstein
 * Jimmy Stewart, former Major League Baseball player. Graduated from LaFayette High School in 1957.
 * James Still, poet, novelist, and folklorist
 * Mike Williams, former tight end for the Washington Commanders

title: LaFayette, Alabama


text:
Lanett, Alabama

Lanett is a city in Chambers County, Alabama, United States. At the 2010 census the population was 6,468, down from 7,897 in 2000. Lanett, originally called Bluffton, is located in eastern Alabama, on the Chattahoochee River, southwest of Atlanta. The city's name is derived from Lafayette Lanier and Theodore Bennett, founders of the West Point Manufacturing Company.

Geography
Lanett is located on the eastern edge of Chambers County at 32°51'48.326" North, 85°11'58.862" West (32.863424, -85.199684). Its eastern boundary is the Alabama–Georgia state line, with the town of West Point, Georgia, bordering Lanett to the east. Interstate 85 forms the southeast boundary of Lanett, with the city of Valley, Alabama, on the other side of the highway. The unincorporated community of Huguley is along Lanett's southwest border.

The Chattahoochee River forms the state line and eastern boundary of Lanett from I-85 north to the downtown area, at which point the state line turns north-northwest and becomes a land boundary between Lanett and West Point, Georgia.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Lanett has a total area of 16.1 km2, all land.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 6,970 people, 2,712 households, and 1,487 families residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 6,468 people, 2,723 households, and 1,746 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,040 PD/sqmi. There were 3,338 housing units at an average density of 538 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 57.5% Black or African American, 39.3% White, 0.2% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 1.4% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. 2.4% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 2,723 households, out of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.6% were married couples living together, 25.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.9% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.93.

In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 22.3% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 22.6% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 18.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $25,220, and the median income for a family was $27,487. Males had a median income of $32,386 versus $24,794 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,178. About 22.7% of families and 28.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 48.0% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over.

Notable people

 * Desi Barmore (born 1960), American-Israeli basketball player
 * Linton Lomas Barrett, educator, administrator, diplomat, editor, Hispanist and translator of Romance languages
 * Josh Cooper, professional football defensive end
 * John Copeland, former Alabama Crimson Tide All-American who played on 1992 National Champs, NFL player for the Cincinnati Bengals
 * Josh Evans, former University of Alabama at Birmingham Blazer and NFL player for the Houston Oilers, Tennessee Titans and New York Jets
 * Millard Fuller, founder of Habitat for Humanity, born in nearby Cusseta, graduate of Lanett High School
 * Fred Hatfield, former Major League Baseball player
 * Hal Herring, former Auburn University and professional football player; served as the defensive coordinator for Auburn from 1953 to 1965.
 * Dave Hill, former Auburn offensive lineman; played for Kansas City Chiefs in first Super Bowl
 * Bobby Hunt, former Auburn University and Kansas City Chiefs defensive back who played in the first Super Bowl
 * Fob James, 48th governor of Alabama, born in Lanett
 * Jimmy Johnson, cartoonist
 * Walt Landers, former NFL running back
 * Jesse Francis McClendon, chemist, zoologist and physiologist
 * Marcus Pollard, NFL executive
 * John Levi Sheppard, U.S. Representative
 * Willie Sims, basketball player
 * Charlie Starr (Gray), Musician, guitarist and lead singer of southern rock band Blackberry Smoke
 * Dick Wood, former Auburn and AFL quarterback, NFL assistant coach

title: Lanett, Alabama


text:
Valley, Alabama

Valley is a city in Chambers County, Alabama, United States. Valley was incorporated in 1980 combining the four textile mill villages of Fairfax, Langdale, River View, and Shawmut. As of the 2020 census it had a population of 10,529. The city lies on the western bank of the Chattahoochee River, the state border between Alabama and Georgia. Valley is a pilot city for the Alabama Communities of Excellence program, a non-profit that partners with governments, businesses, and universities to prepare participating communities for a more vibrant future. It is included in the LaGrange, Georgia Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Greater Atlanta Combined Statistical Area.

Geography
Valley is located in southeastern Chambers County at 32°48'40.993" North, 85°10'40.577" West (32.811387, -85.177938). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 28.6 km2, all land.

The city is located on the Alabama-Georgia state line. Interstate 85 runs through its northern city limits, with access from exits 77 and 79. Via I-85, Atlanta is 84 mi (135 km) northeast and Montgomery is 79 mi (127 km) southwest. U.S. Route 29 also runs through the city, connecting the city to Lanett and West Point, Georgia to the north and leading southwest 19 mi (31 km) to Opelika.

Valley has a larger Micropolitan Statistical Area known as the "Greater Valley Area" consisting of the three largest cities of Chambers County: Valley, Lanett, and LaFayette. It also includes the city of West Point, Georgia.

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Valley has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 10,529 people, 3,654 households, and 2,228 families residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 9,524 people, 3,878 households, and 2,561 families residing in the city. The population density was 864 PD/sqmi. There were 5,025 housing units at an average density of 457 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 64.0% White, 33.0% Black or African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. 1.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 3,878 households, out of which 26.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 18.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.0% were non-families. 30.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.02.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.9% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $31,501, and the median income for a family was $40,013. Males had a median income of $36,345 versus $29,905 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,928. About 18.2% of families and 20.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.4% of those under age 18 and 12.9% of those age 65 or over.

Media
Valley is served by the Columbus, Georgia Television Designated Market Area (DMA).

Notable people

 * Jennifer Chandler, Olympic gold medal winner in diving at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal
 * Josh Evans, former NFL player
 * Lemanski Hall, former NFL player
 * John Copeland, former NFL player
 * Bill McGhee, former player for the Philadelphia Athletics
 * Marcus Pollard, former NFL player
 * Mike Potts, former pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers
 * K. Lee Scott, Christian composer
 * Jylan Ware, NFL player
 * Drew Ferguson (born), member of the United States House of Representatives from Georgia's 3rd congressional district
 * Matt Foster, pitcher for the Chicago White Sox

title: Valley, Alabama


text:
Cedar Bluff, Alabama

Cedar Bluff is a town in Cherokee County, Alabama, United States. At the 2020 census, the population was 1,845. Unlike the rest of the county, Cedar Bluff is a wet town. Cedar Bluff is located on the north shore of Weiss Lake, noted for its crappie fishing.

History
A post office called Cedar Bluff has been in operation since 1837. Once the county seat from about 1836 to 1844 before being removed to Centre, the city was named for groves of cedar trees above the bluffs of the nearby river.

The Cornwall Furnace near Cedar Bluff is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography
Cedar Bluff is located northeast of the center of Cherokee County at 34°13'14.182" North, 85°35'45.596" West (34.220606, -85.595999).

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 13.3 sqkm, of which 13.1 km2 is land and 0.2 km2, or 1.15%, is water. The town is bordered on the north, west, and south by Weiss Lake.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 1,845 people, 876 households, and 507 families residing in the town.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,820 people, 766 households, and 521 families residing in the town. The population density was 359 PD/sqmi. There were 1,302 housing units at an average density of 255 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 86.2% White, 9.9% Black or African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.5% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. 1.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 766 households, out of which 21.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.0% were non-families. 28.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.87.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.4% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 20.0% from 25 to 44, 30.9% from 45 to 64, and 19.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.9 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $35,143, and the median income for a family was $37,500. Males had a median income of $31,016 versus $26,583 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,469. About 22.8% of families and 25.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.0% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.

Education
Cedar Bluff Public Schools are part of the Cherokee County School District. Schools in the district include Cedar Bluff School, Centre Elementary School, Gaylesville School, Sand Rock School, Centre Middle School, Cherokee County High School, Spring Garden High School and Cherokee County Career & Technology Center. Cedar Bluff School is located in Cedar Bluff.

Mike Welch is the Superintendent of Schools.

Notable people

 * John L. Burnett, U.S. Representative from 1899 to 1919
 * Tina Gordon, NASCAR driver

title: Cedar Bluff, Alabama


text:
Centre, Alabama

Centre is a city in Cherokee County, Alabama, United States. At the 2020 census, the population was 3,587. The city is the county seat of Cherokee County.

History
Cherokee County was established on January 9, 1836, and named after the Cherokee people who once lived in the area. The famous Cherokee chief, Pathkiller, lived in Turkeytown near the present town of Centre. In 1836 the newly founded town of Cedar Bluff became the county seat, but in 1844 the county seat was moved to the more centrally located town of Centre. The name was chosen, and carries the British English spelling, because of this central location in the county. In 2011, Centre began allowing the sale of alcoholic beverages, and is no longer a dry city.

Geography
Centre is located slightly west of the center of Cherokee County at 34°9'33.052" North, 85°40'29.071" West (34.159181, -85.674742). The city limits extend north to the south shore of Weiss Lake on the Coosa River.

U.S. Route 411 and Alabama State Route 68 run to the north of the city as a bypass, with US-411 leading east 22 mi to Cave Spring, Georgia, and northwest 5 mi to Leesburg. Alabama State Route 9 also runs through the city, leading northeast 6 mi to Cedar Bluff with AL-68, and south 18 mi to Piedmont.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 29.9 sqkm, of which 29.6 sqkm is land and 0.2 sqkm, or 0.81%, is water.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 3,587 people, 1,650 households, and 931 families residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 3,489 people, 1,426 households, and 880 families residing in the city. The population density was 305 PD/sqmi. There were 1,690 housing units at an average density of 147 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the city was 87.0% White, 9.9% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. 1.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 1,426 households, out of which 24.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.5% were married couples living together, 14.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.3% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.88.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 19.9% under the age of 18, 8.4% from 18 to 24, 20.4% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 24.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $40,564, and the median income for a family was $44,665. Males had a median income of $43,816 versus $24,043 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,491. About 14.7% of families and 21.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.0% of those under age 18 and 1.8% of those age 65 or over.

Education
Centre Public Schools are part of Cherokee County Schools (Alabama). Schools in the district include Cedar Bluff School, Centre Elementary School, Gaylesville School, Sand Rock School, Centre Middle School, Cherokee County High School, Spring Garden High School and Cherokee County Career & Technology Center.

The Cherokee County Board of Education provides public education for Centre.

Schools in Centre include Cherokee County High School, Cherokee County Career and Technology Center, Centre Middle School, and Centre Elementary School.

Michael Welsh is the Superintendent of Schools.

Radio stations

 * WEIS 990 AM 100.5FM (Country; gospel music after 6 and all day Sunday)
 * WKLS 105.9 FM (Rock)

Newspaper

 * Cherokee County Herald (weekly)
 * The Post (weekly)

Recreation
Centre is located near Weiss Lake, a man-made reservoir and self-proclaimed "Crappie Capital of the World".

Transportation and Infrastructure
Centre is served by Centre–Piedmont–Cherokee County Regional Airport for general aviation, though no regularly-schedules commercial aviation flies directly to Centre. The closest commercial airports are Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport and Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport, both of which are a roughly-equal distance to Centre.

No US Interstate highways pass directly though Centre. The closest Interstate highways are Interstate 759 and Interstate 59, which are accessible from the nearby city of Gadsden. Centre itself is served by Alabama State Route 58 and U.S. Route 411; the two roads intersect at the city centre.

Notable people

 * Greg Jelks, baseball player
 * Jason LaRay Keener, filmmaker
 * Benjamin A. Poore, U.S. Army major general
 * John Ross, Cherokee leader

title: Centre, Alabama


text:
Collinsville, Alabama

Collinsville is a town in DeKalb and Cherokee counties in the U.S. state of Alabama. It was incorporated in 1887. As of the 2010 census, the population was 1,983.

Collinsville's largest employer is Koch Foods. It is a poultry plant that employees approximately 800 employees.

Geography
Collinsville is located in southern DeKalb County at 34°15'55.555" North, 85°51'41.483" West (34.265432, -85.861523). A small portion extends southeast along Alabama State Route 68 into Cherokee County. The town is located in the Little Wills Valley, between Lookout Mountain to the east and the smaller Big Ridge to the west.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 10.2 km2, of which 0.05 sqkm, or 0.44%, is water.

2020 census
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 2,059 people, 685 households, and 492 families residing in the town.

2010 census
As of the 2010 census Collinsville had a population of 1,983. The racial and ethnic composition of the population was 44.9% non-Hispanic white, 9.0% black or African American, 1.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 2.1% Pacific Islander (all of whom where Guamanian or Chamorro), 36.8% reporting some other race and 3.0% from two or more races. 43.1% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race.

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,644 people, 565 households, and 367 families residing in the town. The population density was 465.8 PD/sqmi. There were 629 housing units at an average density of 178.2 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 63.32% White, 16.18% Black or African American, 1.52% Native American, 0.85% Asian, 13.99% from other races, and 4.14% from two or more races. 23.48% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 565 households, out of which 29.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.4% were married couples living together, 18.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.0% were non-families. 29.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.20.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 24.1% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 22.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.4 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $21,964, and the median income for a family was $27,500. Males had a median income of $20,114 versus $16,635 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,042. About 22.2% of families and 25.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.3% of those under age 18 and 27.0% of those age 65 or over.

Education
Collinsville Elementary (K-6) and Collinsville High (7-12), home of the Panthers. The CHS football team was the first football team in Dekalb County. The Panthers' first team was in 1920. The schedule in 1920 included a regular season game vs. Jacksonville State University. Collinsville also has a very strong tradition in other sports. For instance, the first All-American in basketball at The University of Alabama, Lindy Hood, was a Collinsville alum.

Collinsville currently competes in Class 3A.

The schools are members of the DeKalb County School System.

Collinsville High School Has Won 3 State Championships

Boys Basketball - 1975 (1A)

Boys Soccer - 2013 (1A-4A)

Girls Basketball - 2020 (2A)

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Collinsville has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Tourism
Collinsville is home to the Collinsville Trade Day, which is held every Saturday. It is estimated that 10,000 people visit the trade day each week, a number which may reach 30,000 in spring. The trade day was originally located outside the city limits, but was annexed in 2004.

Notable people

 * Jeanne Appleton Voltz

title: Collinsville, Alabama


text:
Gaylesville, Alabama

Gaylesville is a town in Cherokee County, Alabama, United States. The population was 144 at the 2010 census.

History
Gaylesville is named for George W. Gayle, an Alabama politician. However, Gayle may also be the name of a local Cherokee Indian. A post office has been in operation in Gaylesville since 1836.

Geography
Gaylesville is located in northeast Cherokee County at 34°16'4.778" North, 85°33'29.678" West (34.267994, -85.558244), on the north side of the Chattooga River where it enters Weiss Lake.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.9 km2, all land.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 140 people, 61 households, and 45 families residing in the town. The population density was 403.0 PD/sqmi. There were 65 housing units at an average density of 187.1 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 99.29% White, 0.00% Black or African American, 0.00% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.71% from two or more races. 0.00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 61 households, out of which 21.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.0% were married couples living together, 11.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.2% were non-families. 24.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.71.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 16.4% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 31.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $26,875, and the median income for a family was $33,750. Males had a median income of $32,813 versus $20,313 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,531. 13.0% of the population and 12.2% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 10.7% were under the age of 18 and 10.5% were 65 or older.

Education
Gaylesville is served by Gaylesville School (PK-12), home of the Trojans, which is a member of the Cherokee County School System.

Gaylesville Public Schools are part of the Cherokee County School District. Schools in the district include Cedar Bluff School, Centre Elementary School, Gaylesville School, Sand Rock School, Centre Middle School, Cherokee County High School, Spring Garden High School and Cherokee County Career & Technology Center.

Mitchell Guice is the Superintendent of Schools.

Notable people

 * Donald L. Cunningham, Arizona Supreme Court justice
 * James S. Davenport, former U.S. Representative from Oklahoma and a member of the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals

title: Gaylesville, Alabama