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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hoover, Herbert Clark

HOOVER, HERBERT CLARK (1874–      ), American mining engineer and public official, was born of Quaker parentage on a farm at West Branch, Ia., Aug. 10 1874. He was left an orphan at an early age, his mother dying in 1880 and his father four years later. When 14 years old he ran away from a relative's farm in Oregon and went to Portland where he worked in a real-estate office. When Leland Stanford, Jr., University was opened in 1891 he entered with the first class and specialized in geology and engineering, supporting himself by working at various jobs in free hours. On graduating in 1895 he worked for a time at a California mine to get experience. Then he went to San Francisco and secured employment in the office of a mining engineer. In 1897 he went to Australia as mining engineer for an English syndicate and developed successful mines. In 1899, when a Department of Mines was created by the Chinese Government, he was appointed Director-General of Mines. Before departing for the Orient, he married Miss Lou Henry, a fellow student at college, daughter of a banker at Monterey, Cal. In China he made extensive surveys which, however, were interrupted by the Boxer outbreak; and he, together with his wife, were among those besieged at Tientsin. After his return to America he had other offers from abroad, and thereafter was engaged in mining development throughout the world. From 1902 to 1908 he was a partner in the firm of Bewick, Moreing & Co., London, for whom he had gone to Australia in 1897. Later he was connected with several mining companies, with offices in London, and there he was when the World War broke out in 1914.

At that time thousands of Americans in Europe found their funds shut off, and Mr. Hoover headed a committee in London to give all possible assistance to those in England. The sudden invasion of Belgium by the Germans rendered a large part of the Belgian civilian population destitute, and on Oct. 22 1914 the Commission for Relief in Belgium was organized and Mr. Hoover appointed chairman. All his energies were now directed to securing food and vessels for its transportation and to directing its distribution in Belgium. This involved constant contact with officials of the warring countries, especially those of Germany, but he soon showed that the work was entirely neutral. Later the Commission's activities were extended to devastated northern France. After America's entrance into the World War the work had to be carried on by neutrals, but Mr. Hoover remained chairman of the Commission. Some idea of the business efficiency of the C.R.B., as it was familiarly called, may be gained from the fact that although almost $1,000,000,000 was expended on food and transportation, only about one-half of one per cent was required for overhead expenses. In Aug. 1917 he was appointed Federal Food Administrator. Already as chairman of the food section of the Council of National Defense he had

begun to marshal all the agencies for economizing, especially on those foods which the Allies needed. He reached every American household by enlisting the services of the women. He instituted wheatless days and meatless days, and urged the avoidance of all waste. After the Armistice, 1918, his services were extended to the destitute populations of central Europe. Storehouses of food were established at various centres and a system of food-drafts was devised whereby relatives and friends could send relief where it was needed. In 1920 Mr. Hoover was mentioned as a possible candidate for president. He himself declared that he did not desire nomination, but later agreed to take the Republican nomination if it should be offered him. The party machine, however, did not give him any support. It was declared that he had long lived in England, and in only one case (1896) had he been able to vote for a presidential candidate. Throughout he kept up his work of relief, and at the beginning of 1921 was collecting funds as chairman of the European Relief Council, for the starving children of central Europe. In March he entered the Cabinet of President Harding as Secretary of Commerce, stipulating that he be allowed to carry out his European relief work, already begun. In the autumn of 1921 he undertook the general supervision of relief work in Russia, first having exacted, as a condition, the release of all American prisoners held by the Soviet authorities.

He was the author of Principles of Mining (1909), based on lectures given at Stanford and at Columbia universities. In 1912, in collaboration with his wife, he published as a sumptuous folio, with reproductions of the illustrations of the first edition (1556), an English translation of Agricola's De Re Metallica. This Latin treatise on mining and metallurgy had remained the standard text-book for almost 200 years after its appearance; the translation, with introduction, annotations, and appendices, was a pious memorial to a pioneer contributor to the knowledge of a great profession.


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40 rides he took on her broad, safe back, because he was too small to keep up with her when he swam beside her. He mourned for her loving protection and caresses, for the mother hippopotamus is among the gentlest and most lovable of mothers.

The little Hippo waxed fat and strong. In a short time the bread and milk dinners were replaced by warm bran mash and sweet, delicious hay, with a dessert of carrots or juicy apples.

When he was six months old he was transferred from his little yard to a great boat and brought to America. The trip was attended by seasickness and many other unpleasantries; but his beloved master spoke soft and kind words of encouragement to him and helped him forget his troubles and fears. The rocking of the boat made his head throb, and the strange noises frightened him. Then they landed and were taken to one of the great parks and Caliph became the chief attraction of the menagerie.

The other great beasts were curious and un-friendly, so little Caliph stayed in the swimming

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Rh like fans, the eyes bulge, and the forehead is low and flat, with two foolish looking ears sticking up on either side of it.

The weight of this great beast averages from four thousand to eight thousand pounds.

His voice is not true to his character. It consists of a deep, hog-like grunt, followed by four sharp, high pitched, shrill squeals. One would expect a deep, resonant bass from such a sober, phlegmatic beast and is shockingly surprised by his ear-splitting tenor.

The Hippopotamus is herbivorous. He lives a great part of the time in water but is an air breathing mammal. The mothers have but one baby at a time and suckle it as a cow does her calf.

Whips and other articles of commerce are manufactured from their thick, tough hide and the flesh is eaten by the natives.

So the poor Hippo has many enemies. We hope the game laws will protect him, as we couldn't possibly spare him, he is so intensely interesting.

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Rh A crab-eating Raccoon is found on the shores of Chesapeake Bay.

The Raccoon is found throughout North America to the northern limit of trees and south into the very edge of the tropics.

His fur is warm, durable and handsome, hence fashion demands his coat. We hope he will be protected, for how barren the woods would be without him!

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 CHAPTER V

BABY ELEPHANTS

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 CHAPTER XVI

BABY CANADA LYNX

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Rh and white, brown, black and yellow, variegated, but seldom all white or all black. The wool is inferior to that of their cousin, the alpaca, and the flesh is stringy.

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 CHAPTER XVIII

BABY FOXES

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - BIRD, BEAST OR CHINESE PUZZLE.png
 * Permission of New York Zoological Society
 * This spiny Echidna has the body of a porcupine, but the bill of a bird, and lays eggs. Is it a bird or beast or a Chinese puzzle?.
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS HAS THE BODY OF AN OTTER.png
 * After the National Geographic Magazine
 * The Duck-billed Platypus has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and webbed feet; it builds a nest and lays eggs. It also has the pouch of a kangaroo and as soon as its new-born four-footed babies are hatched it picks them up with its bill and puts them in its pouch for safety. What's the answer?
 * }
 * After the National Geographic Magazine
 * The Duck-billed Platypus has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and webbed feet; it builds a nest and lays eggs. It also has the pouch of a kangaroo and as soon as its new-born four-footed babies are hatched it picks them up with its bill and puts them in its pouch for safety. What's the answer?
 * }
 * The Duck-billed Platypus has the body of an otter, the bill of a duck, and webbed feet; it builds a nest and lays eggs. It also has the pouch of a kangaroo and as soon as its new-born four-footed babies are hatched it picks them up with its bill and puts them in its pouch for safety. What's the answer?
 * }

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - The Mountain Goats are Champion Climbers.png
 * Permission of New York Zoological Society
 * Mountain Goats can climb anything, from a dizzy mountain crag to the roof of a building.
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Only an Eagle or an Aeroplane could follow a Fleet-Footed Mountain Goat.png|500px]]
 * Permission of New York Zoological Society
 * Anyone who butted in to get the little goat would, no doubt, be butted out in a hurry. The mother in the picture hasn't lost her goat and evidently doesn't intend to.
 * }
 * Permission of New York Zoological Society
 * Anyone who butted in to get the little goat would, no doubt, be butted out in a hurry. The mother in the picture hasn't lost her goat and evidently doesn't intend to.
 * }
 * Anyone who butted in to get the little goat would, no doubt, be butted out in a hurry. The mother in the picture hasn't lost her goat and evidently doesn't intend to.
 * }

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Baby Woodchucks in Clover.png
 * Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History
 * The Woodchucks are in clover, and the little 'Chucks are so excited about the sunshine and flowers and good things to eat that one little fellow sat up on his haunches and picked his brand new teeth with a blade of grass.
 * }
 * The Woodchucks are in clover, and the little 'Chucks are so excited about the sunshine and flowers and good things to eat that one little fellow sat up on his haunches and picked his brand new teeth with a blade of grass.
 * }

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 CHAPTER X

BABY SKUNKS

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 {|
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - MOTHER SKUNK WITH HER LITTLE BLACK AND WHITE CHILDREN.png|frameless|center|500px]]
 * Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History
 * Mother Skunk has led her black and white children out of the burrow to take a peep at the world and perchance to catch a few grasshoppers. Papa Skunk sneaked out early and has brought the youngsters a fat, juicy mouse for a treat.
 * }
 * Mother Skunk has led her black and white children out of the burrow to take a peep at the world and perchance to catch a few grasshoppers. Papa Skunk sneaked out early and has brought the youngsters a fat, juicy mouse for a treat.
 * }

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 {|
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - THE BABY AFRICAN RHINO HAS LONGER EARS THAN HIS INDIAN COUSIN.png|frameless|center|500px]]
 * Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society
 * The baby, white, square-nosed African Rhino is just sprouting his nose horn and looks proud of his achievement. He never will have a "coat of mail" suit, but his horn will be a longer and more formidable "sword" than his Indian Cousin's.
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - THE INDIAN RHINO WEARS A COAT-OF-MAIL SUIT.png
 * Photo by A. W. Schaad
 * This Indian Rhino, distinguishable in his "coat of mail" suit, became so "sassy" that he was deprived of his eighteen-inch horn by the judicious use of a saw. It took eight men and two hundred feet of stout manila rope to do the trick. Now he is a sadder but wiser Rhino.
 * }
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - THE INDIAN RHINO WEARS A COAT-OF-MAIL SUIT.png
 * Photo by A. W. Schaad
 * This Indian Rhino, distinguishable in his "coat of mail" suit, became so "sassy" that he was deprived of his eighteen-inch horn by the judicious use of a saw. It took eight men and two hundred feet of stout manila rope to do the trick. Now he is a sadder but wiser Rhino.
 * }
 * This Indian Rhino, distinguishable in his "coat of mail" suit, became so "sassy" that he was deprived of his eighteen-inch horn by the judicious use of a saw. It took eight men and two hundred feet of stout manila rope to do the trick. Now he is a sadder but wiser Rhino.
 * }

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 {|
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Mama Red Fox Brings Her Children Their First Chicken.png|frameless|center|500px]]
 * Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History
 * Mama Red Fox has brought her children their first chicken. I am afraid Farmer Jones will be looking for her with a gun. Can you remember your first chicken?
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - The Dear, Little, Furry, White Baby Fox.png
 * Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History
 * After knowing this dear little, furry white baby, would you care to wear a Baby Arctic Fox skin around your neck?
 * }
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - The Dear, Little, Furry, White Baby Fox.png
 * Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History
 * After knowing this dear little, furry white baby, would you care to wear a Baby Arctic Fox skin around your neck?
 * }
 * After knowing this dear little, furry white baby, would you care to wear a Baby Arctic Fox skin around your neck?
 * }

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Baby Musk Oxen are Sturdy Youngsters.png
 * Courtesy of New York Zoological Society
 * The Musk Ox kiddies are sturdy youngsters. Their short, thick necks, compact little bodies and postlike legs enable them to face the inclemencies of an Arctic winter and snort with glee in the teeth of a blizzard.
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Old Musk Ox Grows Fat on Icicles and Frozen Moss.png
 * Permission of the American Museum of Natural History
 * You can't "freeze out" old Musk Ox. He's right there, long hair, hoofs and horns, and he's here to stay. His breakfast is reindeer moss or lichens, and his dinner, lichens or reindeer moss, and he has to dig under the snow with his hoofs for that. You cannot freeze or starve him, for he grows fat on icicles and frozen moss.
 * }
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Old Musk Ox Grows Fat on Icicles and Frozen Moss.png
 * Permission of the American Museum of Natural History
 * You can't "freeze out" old Musk Ox. He's right there, long hair, hoofs and horns, and he's here to stay. His breakfast is reindeer moss or lichens, and his dinner, lichens or reindeer moss, and he has to dig under the snow with his hoofs for that. You cannot freeze or starve him, for he grows fat on icicles and frozen moss.
 * }
 * You can't "freeze out" old Musk Ox. He's right there, long hair, hoofs and horns, and he's here to stay. His breakfast is reindeer moss or lichens, and his dinner, lichens or reindeer moss, and he has to dig under the snow with his hoofs for that. You cannot freeze or starve him, for he grows fat on icicles and frozen moss.
 * }

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Baby Puma is a Darling Little Kitty.png
 * Courtesy of the New York Zoological Society
 * Baby Puma is a darling little kitty and loves his bottle just as all babies do.
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - An Ogre in Human Shape Soured Mike’s Disposition.png
 * "Mike," of Central Park Zoological Gardens
 * "Mike" was as loving and gentle as a kitten until an ogre in human shape burnt his nose with a lighted match. That act of cruelty soured his disposition. I don't wonder; do you?
 * }
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - An Ogre in Human Shape Soured Mike’s Disposition.png
 * "Mike," of Central Park Zoological Gardens
 * "Mike" was as loving and gentle as a kitten until an ogre in human shape burnt his nose with a lighted match. That act of cruelty soured his disposition. I don't wonder; do you?
 * }
 * "Mike" was as loving and gentle as a kitten until an ogre in human shape burnt his nose with a lighted match. That act of cruelty soured his disposition. I don't wonder; do you?
 * }

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Baby Porcupine Looks as if He Had been Born Old.png
 * Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History
 * Dear Prickly Porky seems to have been born old. He reminds me of a little old man who is half sad, half timid, and altogether wistfull. He cannot throw his qullls, as has been said of him, but, when attacked, rolls himself in a ball, every wonderful quill on end, so that he resembles an over-ripe chestnut burr. Note the Baby Polky in the lower right-hand corner.
 * }
 * Dear Prickly Porky seems to have been born old. He reminds me of a little old man who is half sad, half timid, and altogether wistfull. He cannot throw his qullls, as has been said of him, but, when attacked, rolls himself in a ball, every wonderful quill on end, so that he resembles an over-ripe chestnut burr. Note the Baby Polky in the lower right-hand corner.
 * }

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 {|
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - Little Dick, the Baby Leopard, is Plotting Mischief.png|frameless|center|500px]]
 * Courtesy of New York Zoological Society
 * "Little Dick," this baby leopard, is evidently plotting some mischief, for his paws are twitching and the tip of his long tail quivering. However his eyes look very innocent and that is why I am most suspicious of his good intentions.
 * }
 * "Little Dick," this baby leopard, is evidently plotting some mischief, for his paws are twitching and the tip of his long tail quivering. However his eyes look very innocent and that is why I am most suspicious of his good intentions.
 * }

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jastrow, Morris

JASTROW, MORRIS (1861-1921), American orientalist, was born in Warsaw, Russian Poland, Aug. 13 1861, but went to Philadelphia at the age of five. Educated at the schools of that city and in the university of Pennsylvania, he studied subsequently at the universities of Leipzig and Breslau, Paris and Strassburg until 1885, when he returned to the university of

Pennsylvania as professor of Semitic languages and librarian. He became president of the American Oriental Society (1914-5) and president of the Society of Biblical Literature (1916). He died June 22 1921 at Jenkintown, Pa. He published numerous works on the religions and civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, and, in connexion with the World War, The War and the Baghdad Railway (1917); The War and the Coming Peace (1918); A Gentle Cynic (1919); Zionism and the Future of Palestine (1919).


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98 home, by occupying the abandoned burrow of some friend or ancestor. Sometimes he ensconces himself in a good, old-fashioned stone wall, from which point of vantage, he can keep his weather eye on the farmer and his ever-suspicious dog.

So, we'll say "Good-bye" to our little furry friend and wish him a prosperous summer with plenty of greens and plantain, a bountiful store of fat with which to meet the cold, hard winter, and the long, beautiful, dreamless sleep, from which we hope he will awaken, refreshed, and rejuvenated, ready and eager to resume the "Battle of Life."

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 {|
 * Babyhood of Wild Beasts - The Giraffe’s Kisses are as Real as the Giraffe.png
 * After New York Zoological Society Bulletin
 * This keeper can dispute the farmer who said "There ain't no sich animal," for he has been kissed by this giraffe many, many times. He says her kisses are just as "real" as the human variety.
 * [[File:Babyhood of Wild Beasts - She Will Be Twenty Feet High When She is a Young Lady.png|500px|She Will Be Twenty Feet High When She is a Young Lady.]]
 * Courtesy of New York Zoological Society
 * With a neck like the periscope of a submarine, this baby Giraffe commands a wide angle of vision on the affairs of Life. She is "But a lassie yet," and stands only twelve feet tall, but she will be twenty feet high when she is a young lady and can "look down" on some people.
 * }
 * Courtesy of New York Zoological Society
 * With a neck like the periscope of a submarine, this baby Giraffe commands a wide angle of vision on the affairs of Life. She is "But a lassie yet," and stands only twelve feet tall, but she will be twenty feet high when she is a young lady and can "look down" on some people.
 * }
 * With a neck like the periscope of a submarine, this baby Giraffe commands a wide angle of vision on the affairs of Life. She is "But a lassie yet," and stands only twelve feet tall, but she will be twenty feet high when she is a young lady and can "look down" on some people.
 * }

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 eaten raw and sometimes cooked. When pursued by wolves, the old Musk Oxen put the babies in the centre, form a circle around them and face outward with bloodshot eyes and menacing horns. When aroused, they are a formidable company to face.

The Barren Grounds affords homes for thousands of Musk Oxen. Away back in the dim ages, the Musk Ox roamed over Europe and Asia and in North America, as far south as Kentucky, Missouri and Utah. They are not inclined to be savage unless attacked. They are of great service to the people who inhabit the Arctic countries.

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208, for they do not run well in it, and fall victims to their enemies, the wolves.

The moose is the largest cud-chewing animal on the North American continent. He is noble and beautiful and worthy of the best protection we can give him.

We want to keep him with us, and not have him exterminated by "game hogs," as were the bison. Such noble animals are a credit to creation. The now extinct Irish Elk was of the Moose family.

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226 tination was the cemetery and his mission to inter a deceased member of the family. Two Pumas came out of the woods and followed the team with its gruesome passenger over half the way; but they did not offer to attack.

The Puma is a jolly fellow; he is usually full of high spirits and playful tricks. Next to the jaguar he is the largest cat in the western hemisphere.

His food is pigs, deer, sheep, rabbits and smaller animals.

He dreads man and gives him a wide berth.

They are handsome and graceful and not terrifying like the jaguar.

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kiderlen-Wächter, Alfred von

KIDERLEN-WÄCHTER, ALFRED VON (1852-1912), German diplomatist, was born at Stallgast July 10 1852, and was the son of a banker, Robert Kiderlen, who had married Baroness Marie von Wächter. He fought as a volunteer in the Franco-German War (1870-1) and then studied at different universities, retaining throughout his subsequent career a good deal of the jovial (burschikos) manner of a German student. In 1879 he entered the German Foreign Office, where he was regarded as one of the most promising members of the small clique that gathered round the celebrated and much over-rated Herr von Holstein. After holding various diplomatic posts, among them that of Prussian minister to Hamburg, he was sent to Bucharest in 1900 and remained there for 10 years, when he was recalled to occupy the post of Foreign Secretary under the somewhat inexperienced Chancellor, Herr von Bethmann Hollweg. He was soon in the thick of the negotiations with France (1911) which arose over

the Agadir incident, and which, owing to the state of Kiderlen-Wächter's health, were partly conducted between him and the French ambassador, Jules Cambon, at the Bavarian spa of Kissingen. The mystery which Kiderlen-Wächter, with the complicity of his chief, Bethmann Hollweg, chose to maintain with regard to Germany's ultimate intentions in Morocco, was largely responsible for the crisis which arose between the Western Powers and Germany and which necessitated very plain speaking in the House of Commons by Sir Edward Grey (Nov. 27 1911), and had previously given occasion for a very firm declaration on the British attitude by Mr. Lloyd George, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, at the Mansion House (July 21 1911). French public opinion was, moreover, indignant at certain negotiations which were secretly carried on with Berlin by the French Prime Minister, M. Caillaux, behind the back of the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, de Selves. An agreement on the basis of a cession of territory in the French Congo in exchange for a German declaration of complete désintéressement in Morocco was nevertheless ultimately effected. Kiderlen-Wächter died at Stuttgart Dec. 30 1912. (G. S.)


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Author:Jan Hendrik Hessels

Contributions to EB9

 * (History)

Contributions to EB1911

 * (History)
 * (History)
 * (History)
 * (History)

title: Author:Jan Hendrik Hessels


text: Author:Gilbert Campbell Scoggin

title: Author:Gilbert Campbell Scoggin


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kielmansegg, Erich, Count

KIELMANSEGG, ERICH, (1847-       ), Austrian statesman, was born at Hanover on Feb. 13 1847, and emigrated in 1866, after the incorporation of Hanover in Prussia, to Austria, where he entered the service of the State in 1870. He became governor of Lower Austria (1880-95), carried through the union of Vienna with the suburbs (Greater Vienna), was Minister of the Interior (1895), Prime Minister (June 19-Sept. 29 1895), then again governor until 1911. He was, with the exception of the Chancellor Beust, the only Protestant minister of Austria.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kiepert, Richard

KIEPERT, RICHARD (1846-1915), German cartographer, was born at Weimar Sept. 13 1846, the son of Heinrich Kiepert, also a noted cartographer. Richard pursued geographical and historical studies at Berlin and Heidelberg universities. In 1870 he travelled in Palestine and Asia Minor, returning to take part in the Franco-Prussian War. He received the Doctorate of Philosophy at Jena in 1874; from that year until 1878 he was engaged in the compilation of Richthofen's atlas of China, and from 1875 to 1887 he edited the geographical periodical Globus. He had to do with the preparation of maps from the data collected by many well-known German travellers, such as Rohlfs, Barth, Möllendorf and Lenz. In 1893 he published a Deutscher Kolonialatlas, and subsequently, among other works, a Spezialkarte von Deutsch-Ostafrika (1:300,000), and numerous school maps, being associated with the map-publishing firm of Dietrich Reimer in Berlin for 25 years. After his father's death in 1898 he completed or brought up to date many of his maps, including such historical works as the Formae Orbis Antiqui. Perhaps his most important single work was the Spezialkarte von Kleinasien (Asia Minor), (1:400,000) (1902-8). He received the Ritter medal in 1908, and the honorary title of professor in 1913. He died in Berlin Aug. 4 1915.


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/King, Leonard William

KING, LEONARD WILLIAM (1860-1919), English archaeologist, was born in London Dec. 8 1869. Educated at Rugby and King's College, Cambridge, he obtained an appointment in the Egyptian and Assyrian department of the British Museum and conducted the Museum's excavations on the site of Nineveh. He also travelled widely in the Near East and collected rock inscriptions in Assyria, Persia and Kurdistan. He was for some years professor of Assyrian and Babylonian archaeology at King's College, London, and published a large number of works on these subjects, including Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (1896); Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum (1896-1909); Babylonian Religion and Mythology (1899) and many others. He died in London Aug. 20 1919.


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Trimleston  as the model for county floras. After having for some time assisted Dr. Berthold Seemann with the 'Journal of Botany,' Trimen became assistant editor in 1870, and on Seemann's death in 1871 succeeded him as editor. From 1875 to 1880 he issued, in conjunction with Professor Robert Bentley, his second important work, 'Medicinal Plants,' which appeared in forty-two parts, and contains coloured figures of most of the species in the 'Pharmacopœia.' Trimen acted for many years as lecturer on botany at St. Mary's Hospital; but in 1879 he was appointed to succeed [q. v.] as director of the botanical gardens at Peradeniya, Ceylon. Besides a thorough rearrangement of the plants in these gardens in scientific order, and much work at economic botany, especially quinology, which is recorded in his annual official reports, Trimen diligently explored the island, collecting materials for a flora. In 1885 he published a catalogue of the plants of the island with their vernacular names, and in 1893 the first volume of his magnum opus, 'A Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon.' This work, which is somewhat misnamed, since it occupies several bulky volumes, he did not live to complete; but his materials have been placed in the hands of Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, who has now nearly finished the work. Trimen died unmarried at Kandy on 16 Oct. 1896, and was buried near his predecessor, Dr. Thwaites, in the Mahaiyawa cemetery. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 7 June 1888, and was also a fellow of the Linnean Society. His name was given by Dr. King of Calcutta to a magnificent Cingalese banyan-like species of fig, Ficus Trimeni. In addition to the three important works above mentioned, fifty papers by him are enumerated in the Royal Society's 'Catalogue of Scientific Papers.'

 TRIMLESTON, third. [See Barnewall, John (DNB00), 1470–1538].

TRIMMER, JOSHUA (1795–1857), geologist, the eldest son of Joshua Kirkby Trimmer, was born at North Cray in Kent on 11 July 1795. When he was about four years old his parents removed to Brentford, Middlesex, to be near his grandmother, Mrs. [q. v.], the authoress. The child spent much time in her company, and she had great influence in forming his character. From 1806 he was instructed by William Davison, curate of New Brentford, and at the age of nineteen was sent to North Wales to manage a copper-mine for his father. Afterwards he was in charge of a farm in Middlesex, but returned in 1825 to oversee some slate-quarries near Bangor and Carnarvon. As he had been always fond of natural history, these occupations turned his thoughts especially to geology, and during his stay in North Wales he made the important discovery that sands containing marine-fossils of existing species lie under a boulder clay almost on the summit of Moel Tryfaen, fully 1,350 feet above sea level. Quitting Wales about 1840 he was for some time employed upon the geological survey of England, but after that spent the remainder of his life in Kent, residing, at any rate for part of the time, at Faversham.

Trimmer was elected a fellow of the Geological Society in 1832, and in 1841 published a book entitled 'Practical Geology and Mineralogy;' he was also, according to the Royal Society's catalogue, the author of twenty-four papers. These, as might be expected from his interest in agriculture, related chiefly to the more superficial deposits of the earth's crust, in the classification of which he made important advances, distinguishing them into northern drift and warp drift; dividing the former and older into a lower or boulder clay, and an upper sand and gravel; and showing that the more widely distributed warp drift rests on an eroded surface of one of these deposits or of some older rock, and is in immediate connection with the surface soil. Owing to his intimate knowledge of these subjects his advice on questions of drainage, planting, and the more scientific aspects of agriculture was much valued. While engaged in writing a book on the geology of agriculture he died, unmarried, in London on 16 Sept. 1857.

[Obituary notice Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 1858, vol. xiv. p. xxxii.]

 TRIMMER, . SARAH (1741–1810), authoress, born at Ipswich on 6 Jan. 1741, was the only daughter of [q.v.], by his wife Sarah, daughter of Mr. Bull of Framlingham. Sarah attended a school at Ipswich kept by Mrs. Justinier. In 1755 she settled with her parents in London. Her brother, who died on 13 July 1771 (cf., Life of William Kirby, p. 11), was studying painting at Ipswich under Gainsborough, who was a friend of the elder Kirby, and a correspondence was maintained between the brother and sister. The father, on reading Sarah's letters, judged her capable of literary composition. She met Dr.


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Trimmer  at the house of Reynolds, and, a dispute arising about a passage in 'Paradise Lost,' Miss Kirby produced a Milton from her pocket. Johnson was much impressed, and presented her with a copy of his 'Rambler.' This was the origin of their friendship. She knew also at this time Hogarth and Gainsborough. About 1759 the family removed to Kew, Kirby being appointed clerk of the works of the palace. There Sarah met James Trimmer of Brentford, whom she married in 1762. She led a quiet domestic life, educating her six daughters and assisting to educate her six sons.

After the publication of Mrs. Ann Letitia Barbauld's 'Early Lessons for Children (1778), Mrs. Trimmer's friends persuaded her to make a like use of the lessons she gave her children. Accordingly she published in 1782 an 'Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature.' By 1802 it was in an eleventh edition. To the first edition was appended a sketch of Scripture history. This was afterwards enlarged as 'Sacred History, selected from the Scriptures, with Annotations and Reflections adapted to the comprehension of Young Persons.' Vol. i. appeared in 1782, vols. ii. iii. and iv. in 1783, and vols. v. and vi. in 1784.

Mrs. Trimmer also interested herself in the education of the poor. Before [q. v.] started his Sunday schools in 1780 there were scarcely any schools for the poor in England. On 18 May 1786 Sunday schools were opened at Brentford, mainly through the efforts of Mrs. Trimmer. By August there were 159 children in attendance, and by June 1788 the number had reached over three hundred. Dissenters were large contributors to the institution. Queen Charlotte, wishing to set up Sunday schools at Windsor, consulted Mrs. Trimmer, who had an interview of two hours' duration with her majesty on 19 Nov. 1786. The result of the meeting was the publication in 1786 of 'The Œconomy of Charity,' a book treating of the promotion and management of Sunday schools. It passed through three editions, and in 1801 was republished, revised and enlarged. During 1787 Mrs. Trimmer set up a school of industry at Brentford, in which girls were taught to spin flax at a wheel. The perusal in that year of Mme. de Genlis's 'Adèle et Théodore' gave Mrs. Trimmer the idea of having prints engraved with subjects from sacred and profane history, to hang up in nurseries, accompanied by books of explanations. The prints were first fastened on pasteboard, afterwards bound up in a small volume, and lastly placed at the head of the explanatory chapters. The books had several editions, and were republished five times between 1814 and 1830 under the title of 'New and Comprehensive Lessons.' The plan of teaching little children from pictures is now adopted in most infant schools.

In June 1793 Mrs. Trimmer formed a connection with the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which placed two of her books—'The Abridgment of the Old Testament' and 'The Abridgment of the New Testament'—on its list in that year. They remained on it for seventy-seven years. During that period about a quarter of a million copies were sold. Other books by her were issued by the society, notably 'The Teacher's Assistant' (2 vols.) and 'The Scripture Catechism' (pts. i. and ii.)

Mrs. Trimmer died suddenly at Brentford on 15 Dec. 1810, and was buried in the family vault at Ealing. Mrs. [q. v.] wrote a poem in her memory which was published in the 'Gentleman's Magazine' for March 1811. Her husband predeceased her on 15 May 1792. None of her children survived her.

Mrs. Trimmer is best remembered for her 'Story of the Robins,' which has been continually reprinted down to the present time. It first appeared as 'Fabulous Histories' in 1786. The book was dedicated to the Princess Sophia. She also wrote many books for charity-school children and servants. They were sometimes republished with new titles and added matter. From 1788 to 1789 she conducted the 'Family Magazine' for the instruction and amusement of cottagers and servants; and from 1802 to 1806 the 'Guardian of Education,' a periodical to criticise and examine books for children and books on education, so that only good ones might spread abroad. A volume entitled 'Instructive Tales,' stories collected from the 'Family Magazine,' was published in 1810.

Mrs. Trimmer was a woman of great piety, and, inspired by the example of Dr. Johnson, kept a diary, which is a daily self-examination in his manner, interspersed with prayers of her own composition. She was of pleasing appearance, and her countenance had an intellectual expression. Her portrait (now in the National Portrait Gallery) was painted by Henry Howard, R.A. An engraving by H. Meyer forms the frontispiece to the first volume of her 'Life;' another, by E. Scriven, is in Cadell's ' Contemporary Portraits' (1812). Another portrait, painted by C. Read, was engraved by G. Watson (, p. 446).


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Category:Portals needing review

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text: Portal talk:Aboriginals

title: Portal talk:Aboriginals


text: Portal talk:Afghanistan

title: Portal talk:Afghanistan


text: Portal talk:Alabama

title: Portal talk:Alabama


text: Portal talk:Alaska

title: Portal talk:Alaska


text: Portal talk:Albania

title: Portal talk:Albania


text: Index:Story of the robins.djvu

title: Index:Story of the robins.djvu


text: Portal talk:Algeria

title: Portal talk:Algeria


text: Portal talk:American History

title: Portal talk:American History


text:
Portal talk:American Revolution

Do you have a list of other works that should be included here? Also, do you have suggestions about how to format the volumes in Portal:Niles' Weekly Register? The earliest ones cover the American revolution. Outlier59 (talk) 00:58, 13 June 2016 (UTC)
 * No, I don't have a list. It'd be great to have more material like that of the LOA's collection, particularly commentary from contemporaries.  As for Niles, it looks like the earliest ones are early 19th century, so I'm not sure how relevant they would be here.  But the things I've done that are similar include Unconstitutionality of the Fugitive Act and The Examiner, so if it were me I'd generally follow the formatting in those. Spangineer (háblame) 14:51, 13 June 2016 (UTC)

title: Portal talk:American Revolution


text: Portal talk:Ancient Egypt

title: Portal talk:Ancient Egypt


text: Portal talk:Ancient Near East

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text: Portal talk:Ancient Rome

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text: Portal talk:Ancient Greece

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text: Portal talk:Andorra

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text: Portal talk:Arizona

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text: Portal talk:Banksia sessilis

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text: Portal talk:California

title: Portal talk:California


text: Portal talk:Canada

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text:
Portal talk:Colorado

Some suggested pages for Portal
Suggested pages for the portal. Cheers, -- Cirt (talk) 09:26, 11 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Happy 150th Birthday to Weld County, Colorado (November 4, 2011)
 * Congratulations to the Colorado Teacher of the Year (November 4, 2011)
 * Recognizing Brenda Welburn (September 23, 2011)
 * Boulder, Colorado's Sesquicentennial (June 25, 2009)
 * Commemorating the Rocky Flats 1969 Fire (May 12, 2009)

title: Portal talk:Colorado


text: Portal talk:Connecticut

title: Portal talk:Connecticut


text: Portal talk:Conscription

title: Portal talk:Conscription


text: Portal talk:Crusades

title: Portal talk:Crusades


text: Portal talk:Delaware

title: Portal talk:Delaware


text:
Portal talk:Disney

Folklore (GR) classification
Folklore might not be the best match for Disney as a whole but it covers most of the source material. However, this might need to be re-classified. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 02:53, 12 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Per Eliyak, I've updated the portal review and Portal:Index from GR to PZ. - AdamBMorgan (talk) 01:02, 30 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Where a Disney film is not based on folklore, the original book may still be in copyright, e.g. Mary Poppins, so can't be here at present.--Longfellow (talk) 16:57, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

Odd format
Having been led to look at this page from the link on the Community collaboration, it's a great page but I find it an odd format. All the other portals list works on Wikisource, but this appears to be a list of entries in Wikipedia.

Would it be ok if we reversed the order of the lines so that the first, for instance, read Chris55 (talk) 06:18, 14 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Snow White (1812) by the Brothers Grimm was the primary source of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)

title: Portal talk:Disney


text: Portal talk:Environment

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text: Portal talk:History of the Romanies

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text: Portal talk:Immigration

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The Meaning of a Liberal Education

 * THE MEANING OF A LIBERAL EDUCATION

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:

I never know whether to describe myself as a liberal or as a conservative. I believe that many of the alumni of Princeton would now describe me as a radical, yet I deem myself a conservative, for I believe that life is the only thing that conserves, and life is the only thing that does not stand still or retrogress. Progress, therefore, is part of the essential process of conservation. The constant renewal which is life is a part of the constant process of change. At the same time the processes of change, being processes of life, are not susceptible to very specific intellectual analysis.

There is one sentence with which I always open my classes, a sentence quoted from Burke, in my opinion the only entirely wise writer upon public affairs in the English language. Burke says, “Institutions must be adjusted to human nature; of which reason constitutes a part, but by no means the principal part.” You cannot develop human nature by devoting yourselves entirely to the intellectual sides of it. Intellectual life is the flower of a thing much wider and richer than itself. The man whom we deem the mere man of books we reject as a counsellor, because he is separated in his thinking from the rich flow of life. It is the rich flow of life, compact of emotion, compact of all those motives which are unsusceptible of analysis, which produces the fine flower of literature and the solid products of thinking. And therefore when I think of the enormous and complex problem of education, it seems to me that it would be mere presumption to say that we can set it forth in complete analysis, to say that we can lay out a program which covers all the necessities of the growing mind, to say that we are certain at the outset of the exact means which we should use to reach the goal of which we can be only measurably certain.

I suppose that what perplexes every man to-day in every walk of life is the extraordinary complexity of modern life as compared with the life in the midst of which our grandfathers found themselves, as compared with the life in the midst of which the generation immediately preceding ours found itself. The life of the present day is incalculably complex, and so many of its complexities are of recent rise and origin that we haven't yet had time to understand just what they are or to assess the values of the new things that have come into our life. Not only is life infinitely complex in our day as compared with the previous age, but learning is correspondingly complex. In the old days of the fixed curriculum of the college and the school one could say with a degree of confidence that the elements of these curricula did contain the main bodies of knowledge, by specimen at least. But who can say that any curriculum that can be packed into the years of school life and the years of college life combined contains all the elements of modern learning? Modern learning has been so drawn into a score of consequences, has been so extended into a system of uses, that it is a sort of mirror held up to life itself, and the man of affairs now seeks in the laboratory, in the quiet places of counsel, from the scholar, those main elements which shall guide him in accomplishing the particular material tasks which lie immediately under his hand. So that life and learning are equally complex, and they are interlaced with each other, they are related as never before. There is not the scholar on the one side with his door closed and his window open, and on the other side the manufacturer and the man of commerce beating the seas with his ships and searching the distant markets of the world for new stuffs. That is not the contrast which exists to-day. The man of learning has on his table a telephone that connects him with all the activities of the world, and his windows look out on smoky chimneys; he feels that he is one of the many servants to carry on the great tasks of to-day, whether they be material or intellectual. So that these complexities interlock and are the same complexities, the complexity of knowledge and the complexity of life.

It goes without saying that there is an equal complexity of economic effort, of employment, and therefore an infinitely greater difficulty than there used to be in calculating the future orbit of any young person. When you say a young person must be prepared for his life-work, are you prepared, is he prepared, are his parents prepared, to say what that life-work is going to be? Do you know a boy is going to be a mechanic by the color of his hair? Do you know that he is going to be a lawyer by the fact that his father was a lawyer? Does any average and representative modern parent dare to say what his children are going to be? My chief quarrel with the modern parent is that he does not know, and that he hands that question over to the youngster whom he is supposed to be advising and training.

I was at a country hotel, and occupied a room in the quietest corner of the house. A balcony ran around the house, and my room opened on this balcony. Because my corner was the quietest corner, a helpless father brought his boy there to reason with him. He was a small boy, only about five years old. The conversation I overheard was about like this—if you can call that a conversation where one person does all the talking. The father said, “Are you going to be good?” No reply. “Are you going to be good?” No reply. “Are you going to be good?” No reply. Finding myself unable to stand this thing, because I am a man of nervous temperament, I said from within the window, “If you will lend me the boy a minute I will find out.” Now, that is a picture of modern life. My course of action has never occurred to the parent—that there are means known almost from the beginning of the world for finding out whether a boy will be good or not. There is a predeterminant resident outside the will of the boy himself, and one of the straightest ways to a boy's conscience is through the cuticle of the skin. This is a type of a modern parent, and when he says he wants his son's training suited to his purpose of life he must admit his son has no purpose in life. Then we are asked to suit our processes to this undestined youth.

With this complexity, what has the modern school attempted to do? It has attempted to do everything at once. It has said: Here are a lot of boys and girls whose future occupations we do not know and they do not know. They must be prepared for life. Therefore we must prepare everybody for everything that is in that life. We haven't found it amusing. We haven't found it possible. We have attempted it and we know we have failed at it. You cannot train everybody for everything. Moreover you are not competent to teach everything. There is not any body of teachers suited in gifts or training to do this impossible thing. Neither the schools nor those who guide them have attempted to make any discrimination with regard to purpose or to settle upon methods which will promise some degree of substantial success. That is the situation we are in.

I do not wonder at it. I think it is hardly just to blame those who have brought this situation about, because this change in modern life has come upon us suddenly. It has confused us. We are in an age so changeful, so transitional, I do not wonder that this confusion has come into our education, and I do not blame anybody. I do not see how it could have been avoided, how we could have avoided trying our hands at a score of things hitherto unattempted to determine at least if they were possible or not. Therefore this is not a subject for cynical comment, this is not a subject for criticism. It is a subject for self-recognition. The present need is that we should examine ourselves and see whether this be true or not; and, if it is true, ask ourselves whether the air has cleared enough, and whether our experiment has gone far enough, to make a definite program, to make a radical change, in the things we have attempted. This is the moment for counsel. The thing that is imperative upon our con-science is that we should ask ourselves whether it be possible to do it differently and better.

If we are going to do it differently or better it is imperative that we should distinguish between the two things. It is imperative that we distinguish between education and technical or industrial training. And before we distinguish between these two it is necessary that we distinguish between the individuals who are going to take the one and the individuals who are going to take the other. There is no method in American life by which the state or any public authority can pick out the persons to be educated in the one way or the other. The vitality of American life, and the vitality of all democratic life, lies in self-selection; it lies in the challenge put upon all to make up their minds as to what they want and what they intend to do with themselves. It is absolutely essential that we should start with that or we can never have any system of education.

For a system means a definite thing, it means an organic whole; it means the parts of that whole related to each other in rational fashion, some fixed kind and determined sequence of studies. You cannot get system in any other way. Miscellany cannot be jolted down into a system. If we are going to have any selection, we must have a selection of the individual by himself or herself. I think that the most fatal thing that can happen to anybody is to be taken care of by somebody else. To be carried along by somebody's suggestions from the time you begin until the time when you are thrust groping and helpless into die world is the very negation of education. By the nursing process, by the coddling process, you are sapping a race; and only loss can possibly result except upon the part of individuals hero and there, individuals who are so intrinsically strong that you cannot spoil them. There are individuals into whose ears your suggestions are received, it may be, with polite attention, bill upon whom you make no impression whatever, and those are the persons safe against the demoralizing processes you are attempting.

Let us go back and distinguish between the two things that we want to do; for we want to do two things in modern society. We want one class of persons to have a liberal education, and we want another class of persons, a very much larger class, of necessity, in every society, to forego the privileges of a liberal education and fit themselves to perform specific difficult manual tasks. You cannot train them for both in the time that you have at your disposal. They must make a selection, and you must make a selection. I do not mean to say that in the manual training there must not be an element of liberal training; neither am I hostile to the idea that in the liberal education there should be an element of the manual training. But what I am intent upon is that we should not confuse ourselves with regard to what we are trying to make of the pupils under our instruction. We are either trying to make liberally-educated persons out of them, or we are trying to make skillful servants of society along mechanical lines, or else we do not know what we are trying to do.

Now, what do I mean by education as contrasted with what I shall call training? Of course, the word training should lie on both sides of the distinction. I will use the word training, however, to indicate specific tasks, as contrasted with what is called liberal education. One of the interesting things about liberal education is that it leaves out of the view altogether the question how anyone can directly make money out of it. We boast in our own time that mind is monarch, that we analyze things before we do them; and yet we give ourselves away in every discussion of this particular thing, and show that we have not analyzed it at all. When we discuss what the elements of a practical training are, and what the elements of a liberal training are, the advocates of a practical training all, you will find, include mathematics in their list of studies. And they do not stop at Arithmetic; they include Algebra, Geometry, and Calculus, even; and they confidently maintain that these higher imaginative portions of mathematics are parts of a practical education. Now, leaving out some of the technical professions like engineering, how many professions can you name that use any mathematics above arithmetic? I do not know of any. They may occasionally. A man who is acquainted with the intricate processes of mathematics may take a short cut in some calculation, but it is not an essential part of his equipment for the business he is engaged in. I can show you a place half-way through the arithmetic where it would be perfectly feasible to stop so far as nine-tenths of your pupils are concerned if they are not going to undertake an engineering profession. Yet you tell me that this is a practical training. I take it on faith from the geometrician that there is no such thing in nature as a straight line, that it is a purely imaginary thing, and yet you tell me that this is a very practical study. Of course, I admit that the imagination plays a practical part in life. But you mean that the principles of geometry used literally are a part of the practical facts of the world. I deny it; they are not a part of the practical facts of the world. And so I say that all that you are doing in using higher mathematics (and I approve of your using them) is to train the human mind to such processes of precision as will correct that loose-jointed, wabbly, incorrect, indiscriminate reasoning to which we are naturally inclined; which will make it demand processes clearly connected with premises, and make it impatient of conclusions that do not flow from the premises. We are trying to rid the human mind of its tendency to accept vague propositions.

Take the gymnasium. I think the gymnasium is intensely practical, and that everybody ought to make more or less use of the gymnastic apparatus. But I never heard of anybody doing things in his office that he had done in a gymnasium. If he did, he would be taken for a lunatic. And when I see men doing the double trapeze with grace and precision, and then am told they are doing this in order to fit themselves for life, I take it for granted that you do not mean that they are going to do the double trapeze in the office with their partners. They are doing simply this: they are getting their nerves and muscles in such shape, they are getting the red corpuscles in the blood so encouraged and heartened, that afterwards they can stand the strains of business, can stand the impact of disappointment, can hold steady in the midst of desperate effort, can work in season and out of season and come out of the greatest trials in possession of their full resiliency and return again to health and efficiency. That is what makes the gymnasium intensely practical; it is meant that those who use it shall be in fighting trim and conquer the world so far as their bodies are concerned.

Let that serve as a figure for a liberal education. A liberal education consists in putting the mind in such shape that all its powers, like the muscles of the body, will have been called into exercise, will have been given a certain degree of development, a certain uniformity and symmetry of development, so that the mind will not find itself daunted in the midst of the tasks of the world any more than the body itself, and will be able to turn itself in the right direction, even as the athlete, quickly and gracefully, not overwhelmed by the strain, and able to accommodate the several faculties so that they will unite in carrying the strain. The thing is a mere figure of speech, but it is a figure of speech which in some degree illuminates the matter which I want to elucidate for you.

A liberal training is not a complete body of information. I have never met a man who had a complete body of information, though I have met many who thought they had. But I have never met a man who thought he had whom I would employ to do anything of importance, because I do not go into the lumber room to find a workshop. Every workshop has had rigorously shut out from it all the things that do not belong there. A man who resembles a museum or a lumber room does not resemble a workshop; and the perfectly informed individual. If you can find him, may not be an educated person. Some of the best minds, some of the minds that I have been most afraid of when it came to any kind of intellectual contest, are minds that would have to look up almost every fact they needed to use; but they had so fed upon reason based upon definite facts that the moment you presented the fact to them they would produce something like a finished work of art. The facts are the crude raw material of the mind, and for the process of training one fact will do as well as another of the same kind.

A liberal education should have the elements of modern learning in it. It should have in it the element of language, it should have the element of philosophy (I follow education to the end of the college period), it should have the element of physical science, and it should have a touch of history. Now, you can, in the school curriculum and in the college curriculum, when they are combined, have all those elements in large quantities, provided you will make up your minds to deny yourselves and not have too much of any one of them, provided you will make up your minds what is the best portion of each, and stick to it.

Establish something like a habit of thought and action in the youth under your instruction, so that if the mind thinks of the phenomena of nature it thinks in a precise way by means of the definite observation characteristic, for example, of the chemical laboratory. Do not, if you haven't the time, try to teach him both chemistry and physics. They are quite unlike each other, but the processes of the one laboratory will establish the habit of mind just as well as the processes of the other. What you are after is to establish those methods of thinking and observation which are characteristic of the modern laboratory.

In the field of mathematics, which I have just used for illustration, you have no laboratory. You have nothing that you can see; you have nothing that you have ever seen when you get into the higher regions of mathematics. Therefore, this is one of the best trainings in the world. That mind is best trained which is obliged to move independently of the easy processes of observation. The pupil can separate with a knife what you put on the table before him, and if you give him a magnifying glass he can see what is invisible to the naked eye, and after a short period of training he can pick out all there is there. But when you submit a complicated proposition nowhere to be observed in physical existence, and ask him to analyze it, then comes the tug-of-war, then you learn whether that mind has precision and discrimination.

And this invisibility of subjects lies in many fields: for instance, the field of government. Nobody ever saw a government. You may in certain places see some one who deems himself the whole government; but, quite contrary to his impressions, he does not constitute the government. There was one occasion when a government was visible,—when all the officials of a government were withdrawn from Richmond on one train. It was a government in dissolution; it was a corpse of a government; the lines had closed in upon Richmond, and this was all that was left. You never see politics. Your imagination cannot conceive it unless you have studied widely enough, and read widely enough, to understand your fellow men.

The peculiarity of a politician is that he is a fellow very much like what you would be in the same circumstances. Therefore, the beginning of your understanding of a politician is an understanding of yourself, and of the broader aspects of psychology. I use the word “psychology” with diffidence, because so many queer things are done in the name of psychology nowadays that I have stopped taking off my hat to it; it has turned into a crank, and when I see a crank I walk on the other side of the street. Psychology in its old, respectable, sedate sense I have great regard for.

The bases of our lives and of our understanding of life is the interpretation which our own experiences put upon it, and the interpretation which the experiences of others put upon it, and the experiences of others as contained in literature. The best expounders of politics I have ever read outside the pages of Burke have been some of the English poets, who have understood politics better than any systematic writer on that subject with whom I am acquainted. They have felt those great impulses of life which really constitute the consciousness of the nation. When you get into the consciousness of a nation, and see the favorite pursuits of a nation, you begin to understand its politics; and practically only the seeing poet can interpret these things to you.

You wish physical nature interpreted to you, and history interpreted to you; and the handmaid of history is literature. You wish the philosophy of life explained to you, what men have said life is, what they have surmised of its origin, what they have forecasted its end to be, and what the philosophers from the beginning have said of this complex and interesting game we are playing. That is the field of philosophy. And you cannot go forth into life with any touch of literary education unless you have heard or comprehended something of that. Here are five or six of the elements of a liberal education, and you can wisely select the representative processes which will acquaint the mind with these various pieces of the modern intellectual content. That is a liberal education, and anybody can go out from a liberal education and at once make money by means of it. The most liberally-educated man can go out and at once make money because one of the elements of making money is to have sense, to know what you are, to know where you are, to know what you want, and to be able to understand a thing when it is explained to you.

The superintendent of one of the chief branches of the Pennsylvania R. R. said to me the other day, “We can get any number of men who can do what they are told to do after it is fully explained to them; but the men we will pay anything for are the men to whom a general system of tasks can be explained and who will not afterwards come back for instructions.!” The kind of men American industrial society craves is illustrated by one of the homely stories from the repertoire of stories about Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was sending a gentleman on a very delicate mission, and this gentleman had sat up until a very late hour with Secretary Seward and the President going over all the possible contingencies of the case. When midnight came and they found themselves jaded and tired, the gentleman, rising to depart, said, “Well, Mr. President, if there is anything that we have overlooked, are there any general instructions you can give me as to what I shall do?” Lincoln answered him in this way: “When I was in Springfield I had a little girl neighbor who was presented with some beautiful alphabet blocks. She was so fascinated with them that she did not want to part with them even at bedtime, so she took them to bed with her. After she had played with them until she was very sleepy, she recollected that she had not said her prayers. So she got on her knees and said, ‘O Lord, I am too sleepy to pray, but there are the letters, spell it out for yourself.’” Now, that may serve as an illustration of a liberal education. Here are the general instructions; for the rest, spell it out for yourself. You have spelled it out in the laboratory, in the philosophy exercise, in all of these sample processes; you are a fool if you cannot spell this out, the particular case. I have been told by an eminent railway official that so far as the administrative staff of the railway was concerned he would rather have men with a classical education than men with a scientific education. They want men who can understand from a ledger the whole system of a great railway; and those are the men who have been accustomed to deal with the invisible things of thought, those are the liberally-trained men.

On the other hand, what is technical education? It is one which condemns all but the extraordinary individual to a minor part in life, to a part not of command or direction but of specific performance, to the difficult manual tasks of the world which require skill, a perfect command of the muscles, a trained eye, a definite knowledge of physical relations and of complex machinery; its pupils are men schooled precisely in the particular processes which they are to apply. One of the drawbacks to American industry is that we do not make such men because we overshoot the mark and try to make them something else besides. The consequence is that neither side of the task is completed or perfected, and we make neither liberally-educated men nor serviceable experts. It is not that we should not wish to do it, it is that no matter how hard we wish we cannot do it. It is absolutely an unpatriotic thing to waste the money devoted to education by trying to do a thing which we know is impossible. The majority of men have to be drawers of water and hewers of wood. The mechanical tasks of the world are infinite, and they must be performed; and that nation which does not perform them with skill, which has not a great body of trained mechanics, is going to fall behind in the race of modern civilization. You may build tariff walls as high as you please, and the tide will come over any wall that you build, provided the men inside of the wall cannot work as intelligently as the men outside of the wall. One of the things we ought to be ashamed of is that we have reason to prefer an article labelled “Made in Germany.” We prefer it, not because it is made in Germany, but because the Germans train men to know how to make it. America has not been so thoughtful to train men to know how to make things. We have the stuff with which to make them, but we do not give our men the skill to make them. We try to do everything at once, and do nothing well enough.

Of course, there ought to be combined with technical education just as much of the liberal education and of the book explanations of life as it is possible to combine with it without taking the efficiency out of the thing we are trying to do. I have in mind the Hampton Institute in Virginia, where the literary training is not neglected but subordinated. Where you are trying to give sufficient technical training you must subordinate the literary training, just as, when you are trying to give a liberal education, you must subordinate the technical training. Nobody ought to get married, I suppose, who isn't a bit of a carpenter and is likely to mash his thumb when he uses a hammer; because one thing that results from mashing a thumb is a mental state inconsistent with the peace of the household, and certain remarks which are highly unparliamentary result. I suppose nobody is an acceptable husband who cannot at least drive a nail on occasion, provided he drives it into things and not into persons.

There is another matter which is of as much consequence as all this. We must select the way in which we are going to do these things. I have been talking so far only of programs. We have got to communicate education; we must make up our minds as to the best way to give it. The best way to give it is to make the pupil do the work, instead of having the teacher do the work, as is the case nowadays. Our teachers are becoming more and more educated, and by the time they have turned out fifteen or twenty classes they will be extraordinarily well-trained persons. But what about the classes they have turned out? I remember speaking some years ago-doubtless to you on another occasion1—and citing with approbation the case of a teacher who made the boys in his mathematics class do all the work themselves. He refused to do any example for a pupil. He was willing to explain the rule and illustrate it; but the specific examples given out he would not assist them in solving. If a boy did not understand he had to go to one of the brighter boys of the class for assistance. This put the boy on his mettle: he did not care to go to one of his chums for assistance. Now, it happened that those boys learned mathematics, and that the boys in neighboring schools did not learn mathematics. After I had cited this case, a man approached me with a sad countenance and said, “Why that is a radical unkindness to the dull boys; it is a mild kind of torture for them; it makes the dull boy do an unreasonable amount of work.” I said, “If you want the boy to go to school to excuse him for using his mind, then using his mind should be against the rule; but if he is sent to do things, then I say if he cannot do them he ought to go to some other place and find something more suited to his intelligence. You cannot tell whether he can do it until he has made the effort. I do not know of any other way of bringing out a mind than by obliging the person who is alleged to have one to use it; that is the only way in which you can determine whether he has one.” What we are now engaged in doing is coddling undeveloped minds by developed minds; and that is not a process which develops, it is a process which smothers. I know there are some teachers who help and at the same time stimulate, but they are very rare; and most teachers are most of the time very tired, and stimulating draws blood. You cannot stimulate when you are dead tired, and if you help the pupil when you are dead tired he gets nothing out of it except to be excused from exerting his own powers.

I know that teaching would be a more difficult thing than it now is if these suggestions were acted upon. It is a great deal harder to stimulate other minds to do things than it is to do the thing yourself. If a man cannot find the means of making a subordinate do the work he wants him to do, he is not fit for the job. If a subordinate keeps asking for instructions from his superior, and the superior says, “Never mind, I will do it myself,” I think that man is unfit for the job. Never carry him beyond a certain point, for the business will break down if you do. And a teacher who cannot find a means of making a pupil do the work is unfit for the job.

I know a good deal of this is futile, that the public schools of this country are not sustained by the school boards in dropping anybody: society won't pay the taxes if you turn their sons out. Very well then, the only thing we can do is to keep the boy in the same grade for his lifetime, refuse absolutely to stultify ourselves by advancing him. We are willing to teach him this thing until he loses his teeth, but we are not going to falsify the returns and say he is ready to advance to the next grade. If the public wishes to maintain schools which will harbor their children for a lifetime, it is no concern of ours except that they will have to enlarge the schoolhouses and the teaching force.

In other words, Ladies and Gentlemen, we are now face to face with a thing just as complex and just as imperative as that which the statesman is face to face with. Here he finds- a complex society in which something is the matter, in which a great many things can be done and are done which are against the public welfare, and it is absolutely obligatory upon him to make up his mind what is wrong and, without trying to upset society, prevent the things which are wrong. And his confusion, his unfortunate experimenting in the field of legislation is due to the fact that he has not analysed to the bottom the economic changes that have come upon society. The school teacher is in the same position. He is trying to carry in his hands more than his hands can hold. He is trying to bunch all the elements of education in one process, and they cannot be bunched in one process. He cannot bunch all the elements of one process in a scheme which will readily accomplish the objects of that process. We must make an analysis of this matter, differentiate our schools, our processes; make it perfectly definite beforehand what it is we are trying to do and how we are going to do it; because education is, as I began by saying, merely a means to life, and the life of the modern world is in danger of nothing so much as the counsels of men with untrained intelligences.

Modern society depends upon the two clarifying processes of reasoning and of counsel which are to make or unmake modern society. I do not mean we are to supply the elements of counsel, but we are to supply the minds capable of discrimination, suitable for the residence of wisdom, able to find the light, responsive to the light; men who know how to think and where to find the substance upon which their thought shall be constructed. If we do not do that society will some day look back upon the history of an age of catastrophe and ask: Where were the wise teachers in those days, where were the men who should have come to the front in the face of no matter what opposition, in the face of no matter how great a body of prejudice, and have said, “We have got to begin at the bottom and analyse it, reorganize it from top to bottom”? We have all the elements, but they are not used with discrimination. We have all the ends in view, but they are not properly related to each other in value and sequence. And unless the spirit of statesmanship enters into our schools and our colleges, we shall not have an age of statesmen but an age of darkness, compared with which the dark ages shall some day seem bright; for there were men then sitting in silent and quiet places who did see the vision of truth; but we of our day, having no quiet places, overwhelmed by the dense smoke, confused by the din of modern industry, will have gone groping about nowhere, not knowing that in the midst of all that turmoil if we had but opened our windows to the right light, there would have come in the full illumination of wisdom.

title: The Meaning of a Liberal Education


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