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EIGHTH SITUATION 35 (or our parlor diplomats who talk of it). . .  .  Yet others "for fear" of vexing the Grand Turk!

Is it possible, notwithstanding all this, to find a single instance in which a dramatic production has brought about a national calamity such as our censors fear? The pretext is no more sincere than are those urged for excluding from the theater any frank and truthful representations of love. A rule against admitting children should be sufficient to satisfy modesty on this point; even that is little needed, since children unaccompanied by their elders rarely apply for admission. Our sentimental bourgeoisie apparently holds to the eighteenth-century opinion that it is more dangerous to listen to these things in public than to read of them in private. For our dramatic art — which, be it noted, has remained, despite its decline, the one great unrivalled means of propagating French thought throughout Europe — has been forbidden, little by little, to touch directly upon theology, politics, sociology, upon criminals or crimes, excepting (and pray why this exception?) adultery, upon which subject our theater, to its great misfortune, now lives, at least two days out of three.

The ancients had a saying that a man enslaved loses half his soul. A dramatist is a man.


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 DARING ENTERPRISE

(A Bold Leader; an Object; an Adversary)

The Conflict, which forms the framework of all dramatic situations, is, in the Ninth, clearly drawn, undisguised. A clever plan, a bold attempt, sangfroid, — and victory!

A — Preparations For War: — (In this class, as anciently treated, the action stops before the denouement, which it leaves to be imagined, in the perspective of enthusiastic prediction). Examples: — Aeschylus' "Nemea;" "The Council of the Argives" by Sophocles. Historic examples: the call to the Crusades; the Volunteers of '92.

B (1) — War: — Shakespeare's "Henry V."

(2) — A Combat: — "Glaucus Pontius," "Memnon," "Phineus" and "The Phorcides" of Aeschylus.

C (1) — Carrying Off a Desired Person or Object: — the "Prometheus" of Aeschylus; the "Laconian Women," by Sophocles. From fiction: the taking of the Zaimph in "Salammbo." Epic example: the second Homeric hymn (to Hermes).

(2) — Recapture of a Desired Object: — "The Victory of Arjuna," by Cantchana Atcharya; Wagner's "Parsifal;" the re-taking of the Zaimph.

D (1) — Adventurous Expeditions: — Lope's "Discovery of the New World;" Aeschylus' "Prometheus Unbound;" Euripides' "Theseus;" Sophocles' "Sinon;"

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NINTH SITUATION 37 the "Rhesus" attributed to Euripides. Examples from romance: the usual exploits of the heroes of fairy tales; the Labors of Hercules; the majority of Jules Verne's stories.

(2) — Adventure Undertaken for the Purpose of Obtaining a Beloved Woman: — Sophocles' and Euripides' "Œnomaus." From fiction: "Toilers of the Sea." For the purpose of saving the honor of a lover: "La Petite Caporale" (Darlay and de Gorsse, 1909).

The Ninth Situation thus summarizes the poetry of war, of robbery, of surprise, of desperate chance, — the poetry of the clear-eyed adventurer, of man beyond the restraints of artificial civilizations, of Man in the original acceptation of the term. We find, nevertheless, hardly a single French work in this class!

Lest the reader be wearied, I refrain from enumerating, under these classes so lightly touched upon, many of the plots and complications which might be evolved from them. Methods of tracking the human game — bandit or hero, — the forces conspiring for his disaster, the conditions which make him the victim of his masters, the ways in which revolt may arise, the alternatives of the struggle in a "daring enterprise," certainly would appear to be more complex today than in earlier ages; moreover, upon these themes parts borrowed from other situation.- may be engrafted with remarkable ease. Even if we desire to preserve to the said themes their archaic severity, how much may yet be drawn from them! In how many waj. to cite hut one example, might an Adventurous Expedition be changed by varying the motives or the object of the enterprise, the nature of the obstacles, the qualities of the hero, and the previous bearings Of the three indispensable elements of the drama! "Adventurous Travels" hardly been touched upon. And how many other classes are there which have not been!


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 ABDUCTION

(The Abductor; the Abducted; the Guardian)

Or, the Great Bourgeois Romance! Was it not thus that Moliere used to put an end to his comedies, when he judged that the moment had arrived for sending his audience home satisfied? Sometimes he substituted a treasure-box for a girl, as in "Tartuffe," or arranged an exchange of the one for the other, as in "L'Avare."

We find in ABDUCTION one of the situations bearing upon Rivalry, and in which Jealousy appears, although not painted with so superb a coloring as in the Twenty-fourth.

In two of the following classes (B and C) we may remark the intrusion of the situations "Adultery" and "Recovery of a Lost Loved One." The same usage is quite possible in almost all the other situations. I would point out to those who may be interested in a more detailed analysis, that love is not necessarily the motive of Abduction (in Class D will be found friendship, faith, etc.) nor the reason of the obstacles raised by the guardian.

A — Abduction of an Unwilling Woman: — Aeschylus' and Sophocles' "Orithyies;" Aeschylus' "Europa" and "The Carians." "With Fire and Sword" (after Sienkiewicz, 1904). Comedy: "Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion" (Adam de la Halle). Historic and legendary : the Sabine women ; Cassandra. There appears to me to be tragic material in cases of extreme eroticism, of premeditated violation preceded by a mania of passion


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  to the Secretary at War, containing his refusal to make such designation, be recorded in the public records of this State, as an example to persons who may hold places of distinguished trust in this Free and Independent Republic.

Resolved, That the persons holding Executive offices under this State, are restrained by the duties which they owe this State, from affording any official aid or co-operation in the execution of the Acts aforesaid—and that his Excellency the Governor be requested, as Commander-in-Chief of the Military force of this State, to cause these resolutions to be published in General Orders, and that the Secretary of this state be, and he is hereby ordered, to transmit copies of the same to the several Sheriffs and Town Clerks.

Resolved, That his Excellency the Governor be requested to communicate the foregoing Resolutions to the President of the United States, with an assurance that this assembly regrets that they are thus obliged, under a sense of paramount public duty, to assert the unquestionable rights of this State, to abstain from any agency in the exception of measures which are unconstitutional and despotic.

2d. By Convention—In exact accordance with the above Resolutions of the Legislature, were the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, which met during the war—for that body not only refused to aid in the prosecution of the war, but actually (though secretly) made arrangements to resist the United States.

See Appendix. Note D.

The proceedings of the Ohio Legislature in 1820, against the Bank of the United States, to prevent its establishment in that state avow and sustain the doctrines of nullification, as well by their able report, and their firm and energetic Resolutions, as by an act of outlawry passed against the Bank and its officers.

First—By the Resolution affirming and approving the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of '98 and '99, in these words:

"Resolved by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio, That in respect to the powers of the Governments of the several States which compose the American Union, and the powers of the Federal Government, this General Assembly do recognize and approve the doctrines asserted by the Legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, in their resolutions of November and December 1798, and January 1800—and do consider that their principles have been recognized and adopted by a majority of the American people."

On this subject, the Report which precedes the Resolutions, contains the following words:

"The States and the People recognized and affirmed the Doctrines of Kentucky and Virginia, by effecting a total change in the administration of the Federal Government. In the pardon of Callender, convicted under the Sedition Law, and in the remittance of his fine, the new administration unequivocally recognized the decision and the authority of the States and of the people.  Thus has the question whether the Federal Courts are the sole expositors of the Constitution of the United States in the last resort, or whether the States, "as in all other cases of compact among parties having no common judge," have an equal right to interpret that Constitution for themselves, where their sovereign rights are involved, but decided against the pretension of the Federal Judges, by the people themselves the true source of legitimate power."

Second—By the resolutions against the Jurisdiction of the United States Court in the case of the Bank, and all cases involving political rights; and against the powers of the General Government, establishing the Bank, in these words:

"Resolved further, That this General Assembly do protest against the doctrines of the Federal Circuit Court, sitting in this State, avowed and maintained in their proceedings against the officers of the State, upon account of their official Acts, as being in direct violation of the 11th amendment to the Constitution of the United States.

Resolved further, That this General Assembly do assert and will maintain by all legal and constitutional means, the right of the State to tax the business and property of any private corporation of trade incorporated by the Congress of the United States, and located to transact its corporate business within any State.

Resolved further, That the Bank of the United States is a private corporation of trade, the capital and business of which may be legally taxed in any State where they may be found."

"Resolved further, That this General Assembly do protest against the doctrine that the political rights of the separate States that compose the American Union, and their powers as Sovereign States, may be settled and determined in the Supreme Court of the United States, so as to conclude and bind them in cases contrived between individuals, and where they are, no one of them, parties direct.

"Resolved further, That the Governor transmit to the Governors of the several States a copy of the foregoing report and resolutions to be laid before their respective Legislatures, with a request from this Assembly that the Legislature of each State may express their opinion upon the matters therein contained.

"Resolved, That members of the Senate, and  members of the House of Representatives, be appointed to prepare and bring in Bills, pursuant to the recommendation of the foregoing report.

The report referred to, in these resolutions, and which is a most masterly one, of near forty pages in extent, (nearly approaching in ability to those of Madison and Jefferson), contains the following remarks on the subject of the penalty, laid in the shape of an enormous tax, upon the erection and operations of the United States Bank.

"It is urged by man, that the tax levied and collected is enormous in amount, and therefore unequal and unjust. It is readily admitted that this allegation is not entirely unfounded, and all must agree that it does not comport with the character of a State to afford any colour to accuse her of injustice.  Even in the assertion of a right, it is highly derogatory for a State to act oppressively—and all injustice is oppression.  It cannot be doubted, however, that the tax was levied as a penalty—and that it was not supposed the Bank would venture to incur it.  It was an act of temerity in them to do so, and although, in this view, the tax was justly, and in the opinion of the committe, legally collected—yet, under all the circumstances


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TENTH SITUATION 39 and its resulting state of overexcitation, and followed by the murder of the outraged victim, by regrets before the beautiful corpse, by the repugnant work of dismemberment or concealment of the body; then by a disgust for life and by successive blunders which lead to the discovery of the criminal.

B — Abduction of a Consenting Woman: — "The Abduction of Helen" by Sophocles, and the comedy of the same name but not upon the same subject, by Lope. Numberless other comedies and romances.

C (1) — Recapture of the Woman Without the Slaying of the Abductor: — Euripides' "Helen;" "Malati and Madhava," by Bhavabhuti (the poet "of voice divine"). Rescue of a sister: "Iphigenia in Taurus."

(2) — The Same Case, With the Slaying of the Ravisher: — "Mahaviracharita," by Bhavabhuti; "Hanouman" (a collaborative work); "Anarghara-ghava" (anonymous); "The Message of Angada," by Soubhata; "Abhirama Mani," by Soundara Misra; "Hermoine" by Sophocles.

D (1) — Rescue of a Captive Friend: — "Richard Coeur-de-Lion," by Sedaine and Gretry. A great number of escapes, historic and fictitious.

(2) — Of a Child: — "L'Homme de Proie" (Lefevre and Laporte, 1908).

(3) — Of a Soul in Captivity to Error: — "Barlaam and Josaphat," a fourteenth-century Miracle. The deeds of the Apostles, of missionaries, etc.


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 THE ENIGMA

(Interrogator, Seeker and Problem)

This situation possesses theatrical interest par excellence, since the spectator, his curiosity aroused by the problem, easily becomes so absorbed as to fancy it is himself who is actually solving it. A combat of the intelligence with opposing wills, the Eleventh Situation may be fitly symbolized by an interrogation point.

A - Search for a Person Who Must be Found on Pain of Death: - Sophocles' and Euripides' "Polyidus." Case without this danger, in which an object, not a person, is sought: Poe's "Purloined Letter."

B (1) — A Riddle to be Solved on Pain of Death: — "The Sphinx" of Aeschylus. Example from fiction (without the danger): "The Gold Bug" by Poe.

(2) — The Same Case, in Which the Riddle is Proposed by the Coveted Woman: — Partial example: the beginning of Shakespeare's "Pericles." Example from fiction: "The Travelling Companion," by Andersen. Epic example (but without the danger): the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. Partial example: Portia's coffers, in "The Merchant of Venice."

The sort of contest, preliminary to the possession of a desired one, which is vaguely sketched in this episode, is singularly alluring in its suggestive analogues. But how many fibres, ready to thrill, will the perplexities of the love contest find in us, when they are raised to


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ELEVENTH SITUATION 41 their third power by the introduction of the terrible, as in the one complete and pure example which we have, — the "Turandot" of the incomparable Gozzi; a work passionately admired, translated, produced and rendered famous in Germany by Schiller; a work which has for a century been regarded as a classic by all the world, although it remains little known in France.

The effect of B (2) is strengthened and augmented in cases in which the hero is subjected to the following:

C (1) — Temptations Offered With the Object of Discovering His Name.

(2) — Temptations Offered With the Object of Ascertaining the Sex: — "The Scyrian Women" of Sophocles and of Euripides.

(3) — Tests For the Purpose of Ascertaining the Mental Condition: — "Ulysses Furens" of Sophocles; "The Palamedes" of Aeschylus and of Euripides (according to the themes attributed to these lost works). Examinations of criminals by alienists.


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 OBTAINING

(A Solicitor and an Adversary Who Is Refusing, or an Arbitrator and Opposing Parties)

Diplomacy and eloquence here come into play. An end is to be attained, an object to be gained. What interests may not be put at stake, what weighty arguments or influences removed, what intermediaries or disguises may be used to transform anger into benevolence, rancor into renouncement; to put the Despoiler in the place of the Despoiled? What mines may be sprung, what counter-mines discovered ! — what unexpected revolts of submissive instruments! This dialectic contest which arises between reason and passion, sometimes subtile and persuasive, sometimes forceful and violent, provides a fine situation, as natural as it is original.

A — Efforts to Obtain an Object by Ruse or Force: — the "Philoctetes" of Aeschylus, of Sophocles and of Euripides; the reclamation of the Thebans in "Œdipus at Colonus;" "The Minister's Ring," by Vishakadatta. B - Endeavor by Means of Persuasive Eloquence Alone: — "The Desert Isle," by Metastasio; the father's attitude in "Le Fils Naturel" (Dumas), to which Ruse is soon afterward added; Scene 2 of Act V of Shakespeare's "Coriolanus."

C — Eloquence With an Arbitrator: — "The Judgment of Arms," by Aeschylus; "Helen Reclaimed," by Sophocles.


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TWELFTH SITUATION 43 One of the cases unused in the theater, notwithstanding its frequency, is Temptation, already introduced as a part of the preceding situation. The irritated adversary is here the Defiant; the solicitor, now the Tempter, has undertaken an unusual negotiation, one for the obtaining of an object which nothing can persuade the owner to part with; consequently the aim must be, gently, little by little, to bewilder, charm or stupefy him. Eternal role of woman toward man! — and of how many things toward the project of being a man! Does it not call to mind the hieratic attitude of the Christian toward Satan, as Flaubert has illuminated it, with a thousand sparkling lights, in his "Temptation of Saint Anthony?"


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 ENMITY OF KINSMEN

(Elements: a Malevolent Kinsman; a Hated or Reciprocally Hating Kinsman)

Antithesis, which constituted for Hugo the generative principle of art, — dramatic art in particular, — and which naturally results from the idea of Conflict which is the basis of drama, offers one of the most symmetrical of schemes in these contrasting emotions. "Hatred of one who should be loved," of which the worthy pendant is the Twenty-Ninth, "Love of one who should be hated." Such confluents necessarily give rise to stormy action.

It is easy to foresee the following laws:

First: The more closely are drawn the bonds which unite kinsmen at enmity, the more savage and dangerous their outbursts of hate are rendered.

Second: When the hatred is mutual, it will better characterize our Situation than when it exists upon one side only, in which case one of the relatives becomes Tyrant and the other Victim, the ensemble resulting in Situations V, VII, VIII, XXX, etc.

Third: The great difficulty will be to find and to represent convincingly an element of discord powerful enough to cause the breaking of the strongest human ties.


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 of an admiral at Munich, had like to have kept me in Germany all the summer.'

How different such work as this from that of the critic who learnt harmony and thorough bass in three lessons, and then thought fit to

on the merits of every new composition! But those times have probably gone by for ever, as far as the better class of London journals is concerned, though the artistic and literary criticism of country papers is at this day funny in the extreme.

We have said that the first volume of Ruskin's great work met with an indifferent reception at the hands of the literary critics of the year 1843. But the book made its way—indeed, it was impossible that it should be otherwise—and its author became famous. One axiom forms the basis of the work: 'The art is greatest which conveys the greatest number of great ideas.' The first volume shows what painters have best imitated Nature. The second treats of Beauty, typical and vital. Perhaps this volume contains the finest of Ruskin's writing. The subject, almost illimitable, is treated with a master's hand. The author of 'Modern Painters' has produced a book which has no parallel in any European language. It is impossible here to do any justice even to an outline of its contents, and we do not attempt it, but refer our readers to the book itself.

So far, we have spoken chiefly of his magnum opus. Mr. Ruskin's other works are, 'Seven Lamps of Architecture,' 1849; 'The Stones of Venice,' 1851-53; 'Construction of Sheepfolds;' 'Two Paths;' 'Harbours of England;' ' Political Economy of Art;' 'Unto this Last;' 'Sesame and Lilies;' 'Ethics of Dust;' 'Kings' Treasuries and Queens' Gardens;' 'War, Commerce, and Work;' 'Letters to a Working Man;' 'A Wreath of Wild Olives.'

There is no more honoured name in contemporary English literature than that of John Ruskin. In his books he has discharged the noblest functions of a writer; but it were enough to make him famous in his generation had he done no more than teach our Philistine art-critics what is the true standard to which art criticism should be raised.


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THIRTEENTH SITUATION 45 A — Hatred of Brothers: (1) — One Brother Hated by Several (the hatred not malignant': "The Heliades" of Aeschylus (motive, envy); "The Labors of Jacob," by Lope de Vega (motive, filial jealousy). Hated by a single brother: The "Phoenissae" of Euripides and of Seneca; "Polynices" by Alfieri (motive, tyrannical avarice); Byron's "Cain" (motive, religious jealousy); "Une Famille au Temps de Luther" by Delavigne (motive, religious dissent : "Le Duel" (Lavedan, 1905).

(2) — Reciprocal Hatred: — The "Seven Against Thebes," by Aeschylus, and "Les Freres Ennemis" by Racine (motive, greed for power); an admirable supplementary character is added in this Theban legend, the Mother, torn between the sons; "Thyestes II" of Sophocles; "Thyestes" of Seneca; the "Pelopides" by Voltaire; "Atreus and Thyestes" by Crebillon (motive, greed for power, the important role being that of the perfidious instigator).

(3) — Hatred Between Relatives for Reasons of Self-interest: — "La Maison d'Argile" Fabre, 1907). Example from fiction: "Mon Frere" (Mercereau).

B — Hatred of Father and Son: — (1) — Of the Son for the Father: — "Three Punishments in One," by Calderon. Historic example: Louis XI and Charles VII. A part of "La Terre" by Zola and of "Le Maitre" by Jean Jullien.

(2) — Mutual Hatred: — "Life is a Dream," by Calderon. Historic instance: Jerome and Victor Bonaparte (a reduction of hatred to simple disagreement). This nuance appears to me to In- our of the finest, although one of the least regarded by our writers.

(3) — Hatred of Daughter for Father: — "The Cenci," by Shelley (parricide as a means of escape from incest).

C — Hatred of Grandfather for Grandson: — Mestasio's "Cyrus;" the story of Amulius in the of Titus Livius (motive, tyrannical avarice). Hatred of uncle for nephew: "The Death Cansa," by Crichna Cavi. One of the facet of "Hamlet."

D — Hatred of Father-in-law for Son-in-law: — Aifieri's "Agis and Saul" (motive, tyrannical avarice).


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 CHAPTER I

HOW MY MOTHER GOT HER SOFT FACE

N the day I was born we bought six hair-bottomed chairs, and in our little house it was an event, the first great victory in a woman's long campaign; how they had been laboured for, the pound-note and the thirty threepenny bits they cost, what anxiety there was about the purchase, the show they made in possession of the west room, my father's unnatural coolness when he brought them in (but his face was white)—I so often heard the tale afterwards, and shared as boy and man in so many similar triumphs, that the coming of the chairs seems to be something I remember, as if I had jumped out of bed on that first day, and run ben to see how they looked. I am sure my mother's feet were ettling to be ben long before they could be trusted, and that the moment after she was left alone with me she was discovered barefooted in the west room, doctoring a scar (which she had been the first to detect) on one of the chairs, or sitting on them regally or withdrawing and re-opening the door suddenly to take the six by surprise. And then, I think, a Rh

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46 THIRTY-SIX DRAMATIC SITUATIONS Historical example: Caesar and Pompey. Hatred of two brothers-in-law, ex-rivals: "La Mer" (Jean Jullien, 1891) — the only modern drama, I may note in passing, in which one finds emotion increasing after the death of the principal character. In this respect it conforms to reality, in which we may experience shock or alarm, or cry out in dread, but in which we do not weep, nor feel sorrow to the full, until afterward, all hope being forever ended.

E — Hatred of Mother-in-law for Daughter-in-law: — Corneille's "Rodogune" (motive, tyrannical avarice).

F — Infanticide: — "Conte de Noel" (Linant, 1899). A part of the "Powers of Darkness."

I will not repeat the list of degrees of relationship into which this situation might be successively transferred. The case of hatred between sisters, one frequent enough, will offer, — even after "Le Carnaval des Enfants" (de Bouhelier) — an excellent opportunity for a study of feminine enmities, so lasting and so cruel; hatred of mother and daughter, of brother and sister, will be not less interesting; the same may be said for the converse of each class which has furnished our examples. May there not be an especially fine dramatic study in the deep subject, — heretofore so vulgar because treated by vulgar hands, — the antipathy of the mother and the husband of a young woman? Does it not represent the natural conflict between the ideal, childhood, purity, on the one hand, and on the other Life, vigorous and fertile, deceptive but irresistibly alluring?

Next the motive of hatred, changing a little, may vary from the everlasting "love of power" alleged in nearly all extant examples, and, what is worse, invariably painted in the strained attitudes of neo-classicism.

The character of the common parent, torn by affection for both adversaries in these struggles, has been


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Rh shawl was flung over her (it is strange to me to think it was not I who ran after her with the shawl), and she was escorted sternly back to bed and reminded that she had promised not to budge, to which her reply was probably that she had been gone but an instant, and the implication that therefore she had not been gone at all. Thus was one little bit of her revealed to me at once: I wonder if I took note of it. Neighbours came in to see the boy and the chairs. I wonder if she deceived me when she affected to think that there were others like us, or whether I saw through her from the first, she was so easily seen through. When she seemed to agree with them that it would be impossible to give me a college education, was I so easily taken in, or did I know already what ambitions burned behind that dear face? when they spoke of the chairs as the goal quickly reached, was I such a newcomer that her timid lips must say "They are but a beginning" before I heard the words? And when we were left together, did I laugh at the great things that were in her mind, or had she to whisper them to me first, and then did I put my arm round her and tell her that I would help? Thus it was for such a long time: it is strange to me to feel that it was not so from the beginning.

It is all guess-work for six years, and she whom I see in them is the woman who came suddenly Rh

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THIRTEENTH SITUATION 47 little modified since the day when Aeschylus led forth, from the tomb to which tradition had consigned her, his majestic Jocaste. The roles of two parents at enmity could well be revived also. And I find no one but Beaumont and Fletcher who has drawn vigorously the instigators of such impious struggles; characters whose infamy is sufficient to be well worthy of attention, nevertheless.

With the enmities of kinsmen are naturally connected the enmities which spring up between friends. This nuance will be found in the following situation.


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of the Member for Westminster have been published in various illustrated papers since he was successful in carrying off the 'blue ribbon' among electioneering contests in November 1868; and his features are now as well known to the public as those of any member of the House of Commons not a minister, ex-minister, or great party leader.

Mr. Smith was born in London in 1825, and is the head of the firm of W. H. Smith & Son, 186 Strand, whose various branch establishments, in the shape of railway book-stalls, are familiar to every traveller. The great house in the Strand was founded by the father of the subject of the present memoir. Forty years ago, when the London daily papers were fresh in the north of England forty-eight hours after their publication in the metropolis, when London and Manchester were that distance of time apart, all newspapers sent into the country passed through the Post Office. It occurred to Mr. Smith that, instead of waiting for the night mail and the agency of the Post Office, the morning papers might be sent off by the early morning coaches. As the earliest editions of the papers were often later than the times fixed for the departure of the coaches, Mr. Smith had great trouble to catch them. To overcome this difficulty, he established a system of express carts, which rattled along the turnpikes after the morning coaches till they caught them. On occasions of the greatest importance, these expresses of Mr. Smith's went the whole way at—a great expense, of course. For instance, Smith's express messenger, with newspapers conveying the news of George IV.'s death, arrived in Dublin before the king's messenger reached that city.

Coaches went out and railways came in. Mr. Smith, first in the coaching days, was first under the new régime, and from the beginning has supplied almost every traveller by railway with his newspaper and his book. The enterprise and successes of the house, culminating in the election of


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Rh into view when they were at an end. Her timid lips I have said, but they were not timid then, and when I knew her the timid lips had come. The soft face—they say the face was not so soft then. The shawl that was flung over her—we had not begun to hunt her with a shawl, nor to make our bodies a screen between her and the draughts, nor to creep into her room a score of times in the night to stand looking at her as she slept. We did not see her becoming little then, nor sharply turn our heads when she said wonderingly how small her arms had grown. In her happiest moments—and never was a happier woman—her mouth did not of a sudden begin to twitch, and tears to lie on the mute blue eyes in which I have read all I know and would ever care to write. For when you looked into my mother's eyes you knew, as if He had told you, why God sent her into the world—it was to open the minds of all who looked to beautiful thoughts. And that is the beginning and end of literature. Those eyes that I cannot see until I was six years old have guided me through life, and I pray God they may remain my only earthly judge to the last. They were never more my guide than when I helped to put her to earth, not whimpering because my mother had been taken away after seventy-six glorious years of life, but exulting in her even at the grave. Rh

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 RIVALRY OF KINSMEN

(The Preferred Kinsman; the Rejected Kinsman; the Object)

This situation seems, at first glance, to present ten times the attraction of the preceding. Does not Love, as well as Jealousy, augment its effect? Here the charms of the Beloved shine amid the blood of battles fought for her sake. What startled hesitancies, what perplexities are hers; what fears of avowing a preference, lest pitiless rage be unchained!

Yes, the Beloved one, the "Object" — to use the philosophic name applied to her in the seventeenth century — will here be added to our list of characters. But. . . the Common Parent, even if he does not disappear, must lose the greater part of his importance; the Instigators will pale and vanish in the central radiance of the fair Object. Doubtless the "love scenes" will please, by their contrast to the violence of the play; but the dramatic purist may raise his brows, and find — perhaps — these turtle-dove interludes a trifle colorless when set in the crimson frame-work of fratricide.

Furthermore, there persists in the psychologist's mind the idea that Rivalry, in such a struggle, is no more than a pretext, the mask of a darker, more ancient hatred, a physiological antipathy, one might say, derived from the parents. Two brothers, two near relatives, do not proceed, on account of a woman, to kill each other, unless predisposed. Now, if we thus reduce the motive to a mere pretext, the Object at once pales and diminishes in importance, and we find ourselves returning to the Thirteenth Situation.


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FOURTEENTH SITUATION 49 Is the Fourteenth, then, limited to but one class, a mere derivative of the preceding? No; it possesses, fortunately, some germs of savagery which permit of its development in several directions. Through them it may trend upon "Murderous Adultery," "Adultery Threatened," and especially upon "Crimes of Love" (incests, etc.). Its true form and value may be ascertained by throwing these new tendencies into relief.

A (1) — Malicious Rivalry of a Brother: — "Britannicus;" "Les Maucroix" by Delpit (the Common Parent here gives place to a pair of ex-rivals, who become almost the Instigators); "Boislaurier" (Richard, 1884). From fiction: "Pierre et Jean," by de Maupassant. Case in which rivalry is without hatred: "1812" (Nigond, 1910).

(2) — Malicious Rivalry of Two Brothers: — "Agathocle," "Don Pedre," Adleaide du Guesclin" and "Amelie," all by Voltaire, who dreamed of carving a kindgom all his own, from this sub-class of a single situation.

(3) — Rivalry of Two Brothers, With Adultery on the Part of One: "Pellets et Melisande" by Maeterlinck.

(4) — Rivalry of Sisters: — "La Souris" (Pailleron, 1887); "L'Enchantement" (Bataille, L900); "Le Demon du Foyer" (G. Sand). Of aunt and niece: "Le Risque" (Coolus, 1909).

B (1) — Rivalry of Father and Son, for an Unmarried Woman: Metastasio's "Antigone;" "Les Fossiles" (F. de Curel); "La Massiere" (Lemaitre, 1905); "La Dette" (Trarieux. 1909); "Papa" (de Flera and de Caillavet, 1911); Racine's "Mithridate," in which the rivalry is triple, between the father and each of the sons, and between the two sons. Partial example: the beginning of Dumas' "Pere Prodigue."

(2) — Rivalry of Father and Son, for a Married Woman: — "Le Vieil Homme" (Porto-Riche, 1911).

(3) — Case Similar to the Two Foregoing, But in Which the Object is Already the Wife of the Father. (This goes beyond adultery, and tends to result in incest, but the purity of the passion preserves, for dramatic effect, a fine distinction between this sub-class and


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50 THIRTY-SIX DRAMATIC SITUATIONS Situation XXVI) : — Euripides' "Phenix;" (a concubine is here the object of rivalry) ; Schiller's "Don Carlos;" Alfieri's "Philip II."

(4) — Rivalry of Mother and Daughter: — "L' Autre Danger" (Donnay, 1902).

C — Rivalry of Cousins: (which in reality falls into the following class): — "The Two Noble Kinsmen," by Beaumont and Fletcher.

D — Rivalry of Friends: — Shakespeare's "Two Gentlemen of Verona;" "Aimer sans Savoir Qui" by Lope de Vega; Lessing's "Damon;" "Le Coeur a ses Raisons" (de Flers and de Caillavet, 1902); "Une Femme Passa" (Coolus, 1910).


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 MURDEROUS ADULTERY

(Elements: Two Adulterers; a Betrayed Husband or Wife)

This, to my mind, is the only strongly appealing form in which adultery can be presented; otherwise is it not a mere species of house-breaking, the less heroic in that the Object of theft is an accomplice, and that the household door, already thrown open by treachery, requires not even a push of the shoulder? Whereas this treachery becomes at least logical and endurable in so far as it is a genuinely sincere folly, impassioned enough to prefer assassination to dissimulation and a base sharing of love.

A (1) The Slaying of a Husband by, or for, a Paramour: — The "Agamemnons" of Aeschylus, of Seneca and of Alfieri; Webster's "Vittoria Corombona;" "Pierre Pascal;" "Les Emigrants" (Hirsch, L909); "L'Impasse" Fread Amy, 1909); "Partage de Midi" (Paul Claudel) ; "Amour (Leon Hennique, 1890); the beginning of the "Powers of Darkness." Historic example, with pride and shame as motives for the crime: the legend of Gyges and Candaules. From fiction: the first part of "Therese Raquin."

(2) — The Slaying of a Trusting Lover: — "Samson et Dalila" (opera by Saint-Saens, 1890). B — Slaying of a Wife for a Paramour, and in Self-interest: — Seneca's "Octavia" and also Alfieri's; "La Lutte pour la Vie" by Daudet (in which cupidity


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52 THIRTY-SIX DRAMATIC SITUATIONS dominates adultery); "The Schism of England" by Calderon; "Zobeide" by Gozzi. Narrative example: Bluebeard. Historic: the murder of Galeswinthe.

Hints for varying and modifying this situation: —

The betrayed husband or wife may be either more or less powerful, more or less sympathetic in character, than the slayer. The blindness of the intended victim may be more or less complete at various moments of the action; if it be dispelled, partly or fully, it may be by chance, by some imprudent act of the guilty ones, by a warning, etc.

Between the victim and the intruder, ties of affection, of duty, of gratitude, may have previously existed; ties very real to one or the other of the two. They may be relatives; they may find themselves united by some work or responsibility in common. The Victim, whether he be pursued openly or secretly, will be, doubtless, the object of an old rancor, either on the part of the consort or of the intruder; the origin of this rancor may be in any one of the imaginable offenses by which a human being is wounded in his family affections, his loves, his ideals, etc., or in his pride of birth, of name, of achievement; in his interests, (money, property, power, freedom); in any one of the external radiations of life.

Of the two adulterers, one may be but an instrument — impassioned or resigned, unconscious or involuntary — of the other, and may later be rejected, the end being attained; the blow may be struck by one of the two traitors alone, or it may be that neither of them has stained his own hands with the crime, which has been committed by a new character, perhaps unintentionally, or perhaps from love of one of the two Adulterers, who has utilized and directed this passion, or has let it move of its own accord toward the desired and criminal end.

A multitude of other characters will be, in varying degrees, the means employed, the obstacles, secondary victims, and accomplices in the sinister deed; the deed itself may be brought about according to the author's choice among the numberless circumstances which the


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FIFTEENTH SITUATION 53 Law has foreseen, with divers details such as court trials suggest. If a more complicated action is desired, interweave (as Hennique has done) a rivalry of Kinsmen, an unnatural love (see Euripides' Chrysippe), an ambitious purpose and a conspiracy.


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Smith, William

Authors

 * William Smith (fl. 1596), English sonneteer
 * William Smith (1550?–1618), English playwright
 * William Smith (1743–1821), Scottish clergyman and author
 * William Smith (1813–1893), British lexicographer
 * William Smith (1816–1896), Scottish translator
 * William Benjamin Smith (1850–1934), American Biblical scholar and professor of mathematics
 * William Henry Smith (1825–1891), British statesman, politician and publisher
 * William Henry Smith (1833–1896), American journalist and politician
 * William Henry Smith (1846–1925), American herpetologist
 * William Robertson Smith (1846–1894), Scottish orientalist
 * William Smith (1853–1924), British priest

title: Smith, William


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SIXTEENTH SITUATION 55 B — Disgrace Brought Upon Oneself Through Madness: — Aeschylus' "Thracians;" Sophocles' "Ajax;" to some extent "Saul" (Gide).

C — Loss of Loved Ones Brought About by Madness: — "Sakuntala" by Kalidasa, (form, amnesia). The philtre of Hagen, in Wagner.

D — Madness Brought on by Fear of Hereditary Insanity: — "L'Etau" (Andre" Sardou, 1909).

The case of A (3), transferred to the past and treated according to a quid-pro-quo process, is that of one of the merriest comedies of the nineteenth century, "L'Affaire de la rue de Lourcine" by Labiche.

Numberless examples of this Sixteenth Situation have filled the disquieting pages of alienists' journals. Mental diseases, manias of various types, offer powerful dramatic effects which have not yet been exploited. These furnish, doubtless, but points of departure toward the Situation whose real investiture takes place at the moment of the hero's restoration to reason, — which is to say, to suffering. But if it ever happens that these three phases — the etiology of delirium, its access, and the return to a normal condition — are treated with equal strength and vigor, what an admirable work will result!

The first of the three stages, which bears upon the explanations of insanity, has been variously held to be divine (by the Greeks), demoniac (by the Church), and, in our own times, hereditary and pathological. Hypnotism has recently created another nuance; the hypnotist here forms a substitute, — a sorry one it is true, — for divinity or demon. Drunkenness furnishes us a nuance unfamiliar to Greece; what is today more commonplace, and at the same time more terrible, than the disclosure of an important secret or the committing of a criminal act, while under the influence of drink?

Is it necessary to say that all ties, all interests, all human desires, may he represented crossed and illuminated by the light of dementia?

For the rest, this situation of Madness is far from having been neglected in our theater. Shakespeare, in his most personal dramas, has made use of insanity


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56 THIRTY-SIX DRAMATIC SITUATIONS in the leading roles. Lady Macbeth is a somnambulist and dies in hysteria, her husband is a victim of hallucinations; the same may be said of Hamlet, who is a lypemaniac besides; of Timon also; Othello is an epileptic and King Lear completely deranged. It is on this account that the great William is so dangerous a model (Goethe would not read him more than once a year). He has played, to some extent, the same role as Michael-Angelo, — he has exaggerated the springs of action to the farthest limits of reality, beyond which his disciples fall immediately into mere ridiculous affectation.

On the other hand, if we except the pretext of studying insanity in itself, which "Ajax" has furnished from Astydamus to Ennius, and from Ennius to Emperor Augustus, I find nothing "Shakespearean" in the drama of antiquity except "Orestes." All other characters are in the enjoyment of their senses, and do not thereby become any less pathetic. "Œdipus" alone shows, in default of abnormality in the hero's psychologic constitution, external events of an extraordinary character (a resource since so largely used by the Romanticists of 1830 and later). But the rest of the antique dramatic types are evolved in accordance with normal passions, and under objective conditions relatively common.


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Rh She had a son who was far away at school. I remember very little about him, only that he was a merry-faced boy who ran like a squirrel up a tree and shook the cherries into my lap. When he was thirteen and I was half his age the terrible news came, and I have been told the face of my mother was awful in its calmness as she set off to get between Death and her boy. We trooped with her down the brae to the wooden station, and I think I was envying her the journey in the mysterious waggons; I know we played around her, proud of our right to be there, but I do not recall it, I only speak from hearsay. Her ticket was taken, she had bidden us good-bye with that fighting face which I cannot see, and then my father came out of the telegraph-office and said huskily "He's gone!" Then we turned very quietly and went home again up the little brae. But I speak from hearsay no longer; I knew my mother for ever now.

That is how she got her soft face and her pathetic ways and her large charity, and why other mothers ran to her when they had lost a child. "Dinna greet, poor Janet," she would say to them, and they would answer, "Ah, Margaret, but you're greeting yoursel'." Margaret Ogilvy had been her maiden name, and after the Scotch custom she was still Margaret Ogilvy to her old friends. Margaret Ogilvy I loved to name her. Often when I was a Rh

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 Rh as well as to 'Friendship's Offering.' For her he published, also in 1844 (in June), another work in two volumes, 'Our Actresses, or Glances at Stage Favourites Past and Present,' with five engravings in each volume, including portraits of Miss O'Neill, Miss Helen Faucit, and Mrs. Charles Kean. His third literary undertaking in the first year of his publishing career was of more permanent interest; it was Leigh Hunt's 'Imagination and Fancy.'

It was characteristic of Smith's whole life as a publisher that he was never content to maintain with authors merely formal business relations. From boyhood the personality of writers of repute deeply interested him, and that interest never diminished at any point of his career. In early manhood he was rarely happier than in the society of authors of all degrees of ability. With a city clerk of literary leanings, Thomas Powell, he was as a youth on friendly terms, and at Powell's house at Peckham he was first introduced to, or came to hear of, many rising men of letters. It was there that he first met Horne, and afterwards Robert Browning. It was there that he found the manuscript of Leigh Hunt's 'Imagination and Fancy,' and at once visited the author in Edwardes Square, Kensington, with a generous offer for the rights of publication which was immediately accepted. Thenceforth Leigh Hunt was a valued literary acquaintance, and Smith published for him a whole library of attractive essays or compilations. Another house at which he was a frequent guest at this early period was that of Ruskin's father at Denmark Hill. Powell introduced him to a small convivial club, called the Museum Club, which met in a street off the Strand. Douglas Jerrold and Father Prout were prominent members. There he first made the acquaintance of George Henry Lewes, who became a lifelong associate. The club, however, fell into pecuniary difficulties, from which Smith strove in vain to relieve it, and it quickly dissolved.

The grim realities of life were soon temporarily to restrict Smith's opportunities of recreation. Towards the end of 1844 a grave calamity befell his family. His father's health failed; softening of the brain declared itself; and recovery was seen to be hopeless. The elder Smith removed from Denmark Hill to Boxhill, where he acquired some eight to ten acres of land, and developed a lively interest in farming. But he was unable to attend to the work of the firm, and his place at Cornhill was taken by his son very soon after he came of age in 1845. On 3 May 1846 George Smith was admitted by patrimony a freeman of the Stationers' Company, and little more than three months later his father died, at the age of fifty-seven (21 Aug. 1846). Thereupon the whole responsibility of providing for his mother, his young brothers and sisters, devolved upon him.

Rh


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 FATAL IMPRUDENCE

(The Imprudent; the Victim or the Object Lost)

To which are sometimes added "The Counsellor," a person of widsom, who opposes the imprudence, "The Instigator," wicked, selfish or thoughtless, and the usual string of Witnesses, secondary Victims, Instruments, etc.

A (1) — Imprudence the Cause of Ones Own Misfortune: — Sophocles' "Eumele;" Euripides' "Phaeton" (here the Counsellor is blended with the Instrumental character, in which, bound by a too-hasty oath, he finds himself in Situation XXIII, A (2), — obliged to sacrifice a kinsman to keep a vow): "The Master Builder," by Ibsen. From comedy: "L'Indiscret" See, 1903).

(2) — Imprudence the Cause of Ones Own Dishonor: — "La Banque de I'Univers" (Grenet-Dancourt, 1886). From fiction: "L'Argent" by Zola. Historic: Ferdinand de Lesseps.

B (1) — Curiosity the Cause of Ones Own Misfortune: — Aeschylus' "Semele." Historic examples (which rise to the Twentieth Situation, "Sacrifices to the Ideal"): the deaths of many scholars and scientists.

(2) — Loss of the Possession of a Loved One, Through Curiousity: — "Psyche" (borrowed from the account which La Fontaine drew from Apulius, himself the debtor of Lucius of Patras, and dramatized by Corneille, Moliere, and Quinault); "Esclarmonde" (Massenet, 1889). Legendary example: Orpheus bringing back Eurydice. This nuance tends toward Situations XXXII and XXXIII, "Mistaken Jealousy" and "Judicial Error."


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58 THIRTY-SIX DRAMATIC SITUATIONS C (1) — Curiosity the Cause of Death or Misfortune to Others: — Goethe's "Pandora" and also Voltaire's; "The Wild Duck" by Ibsen. Legendary example: Eve.

(2) — Imprudence the Cause of a Relative's Death: — "La Mere Meurtriere de son Enfant" (a fourteenth-century Miracle of Notre-Dame); "On ne Badine pas avec l'Amour" (de Musset); "Renee Mauperin," by the Goncourts. Familiar instances: blunders in the care of sick persons. "Louise Leclerq," by Verlaine. The cause of another's misfortune: "Damaged Goods" (Brieux, 1905).

(3) — Imprudence the Cause of a Lover's Death: — "Samson" by Voltaire; "La Belle aux Cheveux d'Or" (Arnould, 1882).

(4) — Credulity the Cause of Kinsmen's Deaths: — "Pelias" by Sophocles and "The Peliades" by Euripides. From fiction (credulity the cause of misfortune to fellow-citizens): "Port-Tarascon."

Establish in each of the preceding sub-classes equivalents to those cases which are presented in single instances in one class only, and we have the following subjects: — By Imprudence (meaning imprudence pure and simple, unconnected with curiosity or credulity) to cause misfortune to others; to lose possession of a loved one (lover, wife or husband, friend, benefactor, protege, etc.); to cause the death of a relative (any degree of kinship may be chosen); to cause the death of a loved one. By Curiosity (unmixed with imprudence or credulity) to cause the dishonor of a relative (the various kinds of dishonor are numerous enough, touching as they do upon probity, upon courage, upon modesty, upon loyalty); to cause the dishonor of a loved one; to cause ones own dishonor. To cause these dishonors by pure Credulity (unmixed with imprudence or curiosity). An examination of the Twelfth Situation will give us a primary idea of the way in which Ruse may be used to gain this credulity. By Credulity also to cause ones own misfortune, or lose possession of a loved one, or cause misfortune to others, or cause the death of a loved one.


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SEVENTEENTH SITUATION 59 Let us now pass to the causes which may precipitate — as readily as curiosity, credulity, or pure imprudence — an overhanging catastrophe. These causes are: — the infraction of a prohibition or law previously made by a divinity; the deadly effect of the act upon him who commits it (an effect due to causes perhaps mechanical, perhaps biological, perhaps judicial, perhaps martial, etc.); the deadly consequences of the act for the kindred or the beloved of him who commits it; a sin previously committed, consciously or unconsciously, and which is about to be revealed and punished.

Besides curiosity and credulity, other motives may determine the imprudence; in "The Trachiniae," for instance, it is jealousy. The same role might be given to any one of the passions, the emotions, the desires, the needs, the tastes, the human weaknesses; — sleep, hunger, muscular activity, gluttony, lust, coquetry, childish simplicity. As to the final disaster, it may assume many aspects, since it may fall in turn upon physical, moral or social well-being, whether by the destruction of happiness or honor, of property or power.

In the present situation, the Instigator, — who nevertheless is not essential, — may become worthy of figuring even as the protagonist ; such is the case of Medea in "Pelias." This is perhaps the most favorable aspect in which the "villain" can be presented; imagine, for instance, an Iago becoming the principal character of a play (as Satan is of the world)! The difficulty will be to find a sufficient motive for him; ambition, (partly the case in Richard III; is not always a convincing one, because of its "a priori" way of proceeding; jealousy and vengeance seem a i rifle sentimental tor this demoniac figure; misanthropy is too philosophic and honorable; self-interest (the case of Pelias) is more appropriate. But envy, - envy, which in the presence of friendly solicitude feels but the more keenly the smart of its wounds, — envy studied in its dark and base endeavors, in the shame of defeat, in its cowardice, and end finally in crime, — here, it seems to me, is the ideal motive.


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Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 2, 1891.djvu/539

 AN EXPLANATION.

N Mr. E. S. Hartland’s report on "Folk-tale Research" (supra, p. 99), reference was made to charges that had been formulated against Dr. E. Veckenstedt with regard to the authenticity of certain Lithuanian myths, märchen, and legends published by him. The Council of the International Folk-lore Congress called Dr. Veckenstedt’s attention to these charges, and demanded some explanation before they could proceed to nominate Dr. Veckenstedt on the International Folk-lore Council. At the same time the pages of were thrown open to any defence Dr. Veckenstedt might desire to offer to charges repeated in its pages. A paper was ultimately sent by Dr. Veckenstedt which was felt to be unsatisfactory, and in Dr. Veckenstedt’s interest was returned to him with a request for further details on various points. This was sent with the required modifications and additions, and was put up in type in the original German for the present number of. Proof was sent early in October to Dr. Veckenstedt, with request for its speedy return. No answer was given to this, and as the time of publication of drew near. Dr. Veckenstedt was requested by telegraph to return the proof corrected. A letter dated Nov. 27th, which reached the editor’s hands Nov. 29th, absolutely refused permission to publish the defence, on the ostensible ground that he had intended it to appear before the Congress, which was already over more than six weeks. If that had been Dr. Veckenstedt’s intention, he should surely have communicated it as soon as he received the proof of his article, and his omission to do so was a grave infraction of the laws of courtesy. 112


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 532 Dr. Veckenstedt may possibly be acting in his own best interest in thus arbitrarily withdrawing his defence. Certainly our readers have not lost much by its withdrawal, except so far as it has caused some delay in the issue of the present number. But we desire to put on record that the pages of this review have been duly thrown open to a defence to charges made in it, and that after that favour had been accepted at the hands of the incriminated party, it was ungraciously refused at the last and most inconvenient moment. Every folk-lorist will be easily able to put his own construction on Dr. Veckenstedt's action.


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NSTITUTIONS, as at present undefined, cover a wide field of research, as may be gathered by a glance at the titles of the works we are called upon to examine, in order to take stock of our present position. Definition in this, as in other branches of folk-lore, is sadly needed. We should know what an institution is as distinct from custom and usage. All custom and usage is certainly not institutional in its character and scope; as certainly we think institutions are developments from custom and usage, and not vice versâ.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Williams, Isaac


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 486 Much institutional work is and has been sadly neglected by students; while some departments have been almost overwhelmingly attended to. Marriage comes under the latter category. Treatise after treatise has appeared often only to be relegated to the accumulated mass of useless literature. But the effect of this constant attention to the subject of marriage as a matter of research is, that it is lifted out of its position as one of the elements of human institutions, and made to stand by itself as something quite apart from everything else. But is this right? Has marriage no sort of relationship to other institutions? This question must be answered by noting what is going on in the studies relating to the early history of man.

It is well known that these depend upon the comparative method of study for their chief results. So much has been done by this method that it seems almost too late to suggest that a very important element in this study has been almost entirely overlooked. The work of comparison has hitherto been chiefly occupied with certain definite characteristics of early man: as, for instance, animism in the researches of Dr. Tylor; bride-capture in Mr. McLennan's great work; or with certain stages in man's social development, as, for instance, totemism. Wherever examples of these or other characteristics have been found they have been carefully considered and classified, so that we may get a sufficiently wide area of observation from which to draw some general conclusions as to the attitude of early man upon these subjects. But in thus grouping the practices of early man we lose sight of one very important source of fresh evidence. When we subtract a particular custom of a tribe to compare it with a similar custom subtracted from another tribe, we have hitherto taken but little count of the place this custom so subtracted occupies in the life of the respective peoples; we have never ascertained whether it is a dominant factor in tribal custom or a subordinate factor; whether it is on the line of further development or on the line of decay, and what relationship it bears to other


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 Rh customs of the tribe or people where it obtains. Just as in excavations of prehistoric tumuh, or in geologic formations, it is necessary to notice the strata and exact position of the various objects as they come to light, so is it necessary in every excavation into human society to note the strata and exact position of the various phenomena as they are brought into prominence. I do not suggest that such a line of inquiry is needed in order to substantiate conclusions already arrived at. I do not suggest even that before the comparison of custom with custom was undertaken the comparison of tribe with tribe should have been dealt with. I merely wish to put it forward as a proposition which is worth while considering at this stage in the history of the comparative sciences: that some attention should be given to the study of comparative custom based upon the examination of group with group.

Both Mr. Spencer and Dr. Tylor have seen the importance of this aspect of comparative custom. The compilation of the elaborate tables of Descriptive Sociology by Mr. Spencer supplies us with a very good example of the method required for such a study; and Dr. Tylor's recent attempt to elaborate a more scientific method for the study of institutions is the most valuable contribution to comparative custom which has yet been made. By the process so carefully elaborated by Dr. Tylor we are taught to classify the relationship of one custom or belief to another, to pick out what we may call the natural adhesions to any given custom or group of customs. That is to say, given a custom A, we should expect to find associated with it in close relationship customs B, C, and D. But is this all? I venture to think that we may even go a step further and declare that other customs, say, E, F, and G, cannot exist side by side in natural co-relationship with the primary group A, B, C, and D. A very important conclusion follows from this. If in any given country or land two such groups of custom are found to exist side by side the phenomenon must be due to some abnormal


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  dragoons 11 March 1762, captain in the 9th foot 10 Feb. 1770, major 28 Sept. 1781. He went on half-pay in 1784, and never rejoined the active list, hut was made lieutenant-colonel by brevet 18 Nov. 1790, colonel 21 Aug. 1795, major-general 18 June 1798, lieutenant-general 30 Oct. 1805, and general 4 June 1814. Money saw a good deal of active service. He was present at the battle of Fellinghausen in 1761 and in various skirmishes with Elliot's light dragoons. He served in Canada in 1777 in General Burgoyne's disastrous descent on Albany from the north, and was present at several engagements. He was taken prisoner in September, and does not appear to have been released till the end of the war.

Money was one of the earliest English aeronauts, making two ascents in 1785, that is, within two years of Montgolfier's first aerial voyage [cf. ]. On 22 July in that year he made an ascent from Norwich; an 'improper current' took him out to sea, and then, dipping into the water, he 'remained for seven hours struggling with his fate,' till rescued in a small boat. In 'A Treatise on the Use of Balloons and Field Observators' (1803) he advocated the use of balloons for military purposes (Royal Engineer Corps Papers, 1863).

Money offered his services to the rebel party in the Austrian Netherlands in 1790, when, after experiencing some successes, their prospects were growing critical. After a first refusal his offer was accepted. He was given a commission as major-general, and was placed in command of a force of about four or five thousand men at Tirlemont. His troops were half-hearted, and in the end, after one sharp engagement, he had to join in the general retreat on Brussels, a retreat which ended the rebellion. He utilised his knowledge of the country in his 'History of the Campaign of 1792,' 1794, 8vo. He died at Trowse Hall, Norfolk, 26 March 1817.

MONGREDIEN, AUGUSTUS (1807–1888), political economist and miscellaneous writer, born in London in 1807, was son of a French officer who fled to England after Bonaparte's coup d'etat in 1798. He was educated in the Roman catholic college at Penn, Buckinghamshire, and continued his studies long after leaving that institution. He entered commercial life at an early age, and was the owner of the first screw steamers to the Levant. In 1859 he became a member of the firm of H. J. Johnston & Co., and when it was broken up in 1864 he began as a cornbroker on his own account. In 1862 he purchased Heatherside, Surrey. Gradually he withdrew from business and devoted most of his attention to literary pursuits. He had joined the National Political Union in 1831, and in 1872 he was elected a member of the Cobden Club, under the auspices of which society several of his treatises were published. He thoroughly grasped the free-trade question, and expounded his views on the most difficult problems of political economy with great lucidity. He was a good musician and an excellent botanist, and was elected president of the Chess Club in 1839; he had a colloquial knowledge of seven languages, could recite many pages of the Koran, and spoke modern Greek like a native. Mr. Gladstone, in recognition of his merits, placed his name on the Civil Pension List. Mongredien died at Forest Hill, London, on 30 March 1888. His principal works are:
 * 1) 'Trees and Shrubs for English Plantations; a selection and description of the most Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Native and Foreign, which will flourish in the Open Air in our Climate … with Illustrations,' London, 8vo.
 * 2) 'England's Foreign Policy; an Enquiry as to whether we should continue a Policy of Intervention,' London, 8vo.
 * 3) 'The Heatherside Manual of Hardy Trees and Shrubs,' London, 1874-5, 8vo.
 * 4) 'Frank Allerton. An Autobiography,' 3 vols. London, 1878, 8vo.
 * 5) 'Free Trade and English Commerce,' 2nd edit. London [1879], 8vo; answered by F. J. B. Hooper, 1880; and in 'Half-a-pair of Scissors; or what is our (so-called) Free Trade?' (anon.), Manchester, 1885.
 * 6) 'The Western Farmer of America,' London, 1880, 8vo, reprinted 1886; replied to by T. H. Dudley and J. W. Hinton.
 * 7) 'History of the Free Trade Movement in England,' London, 1881, 8vo, translated into French by H. Gravez, Paris, 1885, 8vo.
 * 8) 'Pleas for Protection examined,' London, 1882, 8vo; reprinted 1888.
 * 9) ' Wealth-Creation,' London, 1882, 8vo.
 * 10) 'The Suez Canal Question,' 1883, 8vo.
 * 11) 'Trade Depression, recent and present' [1885], 8vo.
 * 12) 'On the Displacement of Labour and Capital,' 1886, 8vo.

MONK. [See also .]

MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784–1856), bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, born early in 1784 at Buntingford, Hertfordshire, was


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 the only son of Charles Monk, an officer of the 40th regiment, and nephew of Sir James Monk, chief justice of Montreal; his mother was the daughter of Joshua Waddington, vicar of Harworth, Nottinghamshire. He was first taught at Norwich by Dr. Foster, and in 1798 entered the Charterhouse, where, under Dr. Raine, he laid the foundation of his accurate classical scholarship. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1800, and was elected scholar in 1801. He graduated B.A. as seventh wrangler in 1804, in which year he was also second chancellor's medallist, M.A. 1807, B.D. 1818, D.D. per Lit. Reg. 1822. On 1 Oct. 1805 he was elected fellow of Trinity. In October 1807 he became assistant-tutor of his college, and during the fifteen years of his tutorship his pupils carried off the greater part of the higher classical honours at Cambridge. In January 1809, being then only twenty-five, he was elected to the regius professorship of Greek, in succession to Porson. In this position he published several tracts advocating the establishment of a classical tripos, with public examinations and honours open only to those who had obtained a place in the mathematical tripos. His first edition of the classics, the ‘Hippolytus’ of Euripides, appeared in 1811, and was favourably noticed in the ‘Quarterly Review’ by his friend [q. v.], afterwards bishop of London. In conjunction with Blomfield he edited Porson's ‘Adversaria’ in 1812, and in 1813–14 was joint editor with Blomfield of the ‘Museum Criticum,’ a publication to which several scholars of repute contributed, though only eight numbers were issued. Monk resigned his Greek professorship in June 1823.

Monk had been ordained deacon in 1809 and priest in 1810. In 1812 he was Whitehall preacher, and attracted the attention of the premier, Lord Liverpool, who afterwards bestowed on him the deanery of Peterborough, 7 March 1822. In right of his deanery Monk nominated himself to the rectory of Fiskerton, Lincolnshire, 12 July 1822, afterwards holding the rectory of Peakirk-cum-Glinton, Northamptonshire, 27 March 1829. As dean he collected 6,000l. for the restoration of Peterborough Cathedral, himself contributing liberally. In 1830 he was given a canonry at Westminster, and in the same year he published his ‘Life of Richard Bentley,’ a work which was praised in the ‘Quarterly Review’ for November 1831, and in ‘Blackwood's Magazine’ by Professor Wilson.

On 11 July 1830 Monk was consecrated bishop of Gloucester. In 1836 the see was amalgamated with that of Bristol, in accordance with the recommendation of the ecclesiastical commission, of which Monk was an original member. Monk was not a good speaker, and in the House of Lords seldom did more than record his vote in the conservative interest. He had a severe skirmish with Sydney Smith, who ridiculed his toryism in his ‘Third Letter to Archdeacon Singleton’ on the ecclesiastical commission (, Works, 1854, pp. 642–3). On religious questions Monk observed ‘a safe and cautious line, as his easy and open nature probably inclined him.’ His favour, however, was generally shown to the high-church rather than to the evangelical party, whose influence at Bristol, Clifton, and elsewhere in the diocese occasionally proved a source of trouble to him. He expressed a qualified approval of the Bristol Church Union, and supported its demand for the revival of convocation. In 1841 he severely censured Isaac Williams's ‘Tract for the Times’ on ‘Reserve in communicating Religious Knowledge’ (cp., Reminiscences of Oriel, i. 436), and was one of the bishops who in 1848 protested against the appointment of Dr. Hampden to the see of Hereford. Monk gave largely to charities, and for many years devoted part of his income to the augmentation of small livings in his diocese. For some years before his death he suffered from partial blindness, and during the last six months of his life was physically almost prostrate. He died at the Palace, Stapleton, near Bristol, on 6 June 1856, aged 72. His wife Jane, only daughter of H. Hughes of Nuneaton, rector of Hardwick, Northamptonshire, survived him. By this marriage, which took place in 1823, he had three daughters and one son, Charles James (born in 1824), who graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, became chancellor of Bristol (1855) and M.P. for Gloucester.

Monk's principal publications are:
 * 1) Euripides, ‘Hippolytus,’ with notes, 1811, 8vo; 1813, 1821, 1823, 1840.
 * 2) ‘R. Porsoni Adversaria,’ edited by Monk and C. J. Blomfield, 1812, 8vo.
 * 3) ‘Museum Criticum, or Cambridge Classical Researches,’ edited by Monk and C. J. Blomfield, 1814, 8vo.
 * 4) Euripides, ‘Alcestis,’ Greek with Latin notes, 1816, 8vo; 1818, 1823, 1826, 1837.
 * 5) ‘A Vindication of the University of Cambridge from the Reflections of Sir J. E. Smith,’ &c., London, 1818, 8vo.
 * 6) ‘A Letter … respecting an additional Examination of Students in the University of Cambridge,’ by ‘Philograntus’ (i.e. Monk), London, 1822, 8vo.
 * 7) ‘Cambridge Classical Examinations,’ edited


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 :: by Monk, &c., 1824, 8vo.
 * 1) ‘The Life of R. Bentley,’ London, 1830, 4to; 2nd edit. 1833, 8vo.
 * 2) Euripides, ‘Iphigenia in Aulis,’ 1840, 8vo.
 * 3) ‘Correspondence between [Monk] and H. Hallam,’ 1844, 8vo. Privately printed (as to a note respecting Le Clerc in Hallam's ‘Literature of Europe’).
 * 4) Euripides, ‘Iphigenia in Tauris,’ 1845, 8vo.
 * 5) Various publications relating to Horfield Manor, 1848, 1852, &c.
 * 6) Various sermons and charges published from 1832 to 1854.
 * 7) ‘Euripidis Fabulæ quatuor scilicet Hippolytus Coronifer, Alcestis, Iphigenia in Aulide, Iphigenia in Tauris,’ 1857, 8vo (posthumous).

MONK, RICHARD (fl. 1434), chronologer, described as an English chaplain, compiled at Oxford in 1434 certain chronological tables, which are preserved in Laud. MS. Misc. 594 in the Bodleian Library. They are (1) 'Tabulae de veris litteris dominicalibus et primacionibus ab origine mundi,' f. 146; (2) 'Kalendarium verum anni mundi,' ff. 15-20; (3) 'Tabulæ Solis versa atque perpetuæ,' f. 21.

MONK, WILLIAM HENRY (1823–1889), composer, son of William Monk, of an old Oxford family, was born in Brompton, London, on 16 March 1823. After studying music under Thomas Adams, J. A. Hamilton, and G. A. Griesbach, he was organist and choir-master successively of Eaton Chapel, Pimlico (1841–3), St. George's Chapel, Albemarle Street (1843–5), and Portman Chapel, Marylebone (1845–7). In 1847 he was appointed choirmaster, in 1849 organist, and in 1874 (in succession to John Hullah, with whose work of 'Popular Musical Education' he was early associated) professor of vocal music at King's College, London. In 1851 he became professor of music at the School for the Indigent Blind, and in 1853 was appointed to his last post of organist at St. Matthias', Stoke Newington, where he established a daily choral service, with a voluntary choir. He was also professor in the National Training School for Music (1876), and in Bedford College, London (1878). From 1850 to 1854 he gave lectures on music at the London Institution, and at other times lectured at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, and the Royal Institution, Manchester. In 1882 he received the honorary degree of Mus. Doc. from Durham University. He died in London on 1 March 1889, and was buried in Highgate cemetery, where a memorial cross, erected by public subscription, marks his grave.

Monk was best known as the musical editor of 'Hymns Ancient and Modern,' which has passed through several editions since its first issue in 1861, and has had a sale of about thirty million copies. He had no share in the profits of the work. He was sole musical editor of the first edition (the statement in that he was 'one of the editors' is calculated to mislead), and only when an enlarged edition was called for did he have assistance. He had just sent to press the edition of 1889 when he died. His best hymn tunes, by which he will be remembered, were written for 'Hymns Ancient and Modern,' but many appear in other collections. A few are sung everywhere, and 'Abide with me' and 'Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go' (the words of which are by Lyte and Faber respectively) are not likely to be superseded. He was musical editor of the 'Parish Choir' from the fortieth number (not the tenth, as stated in ) to its close in 1851. He also edited for the church of Scotland their Psalter, Hymnal, and Anthem Book, the tunes to Bishop Wordsworth's 'Hymns for the Holy Year,' 1865, an edition of Dr. Allon's 'Congregational Psalmist,' 'The Book of Common Prayer, with Plain Song and Appropriate Music,' and editions of Handel's 'Acis and Galatea,' fol., and 'L' Allegro,' 8vo. He composed a good deal of miscellaneous church music, mostly of an intentionally simple nature, such as anthems, chants, Te Deums, &c., some of which is widely used. He was essentially a church musician, and used the organ more for devotion than for display.

MONKSWELL,. [See, 1817–1886, judge.]

MONMOUTH,. [See, 1649–1685.]

MONMOUTH,. [See, first , 1560?–1639; , second , 1596–1661; , third , 1658–1735.]


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 BAUMGARTEN

Though reached by a different process, Burke's conclusion as to the province of poetry is, in its negative aspect, identical with Lessing's: words are ill adapted to the vivid presentation of objects by means of detailed description. And though crude and materialistic, his "Inquiry" is an excellent introduction to the study of æsthetics as a branch of psychology. The real founder of this science, however, and the philosopher from whom it derives its name, was a contemporary of Burke's in Germany, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten.

Adopting the monistic system of Leibnitz and Wolf, Baumgarten, a clear thinker and a lover of poetry, but no connoisseur of the formative arts, undertook to fill the gap left by his forerunners in the logic of the lower powers of the soul, that is, the senses. His theory of the beautiful is general; he defines beauty as the perfection of sensuous perception; but clinging to the maxim, "Like picture, like poetry," he does not, in his application of the theory, progress far beyond the treatment of poetry as the typical art, rating it, like Burke, higher than painting. Poetry he defines as perfect sensuous speech. So Milton says that poetry is more simple, sensuous, and passionate than prose. And that perfection which is the definition of beauty and of poetry is a set of harmonious relationships in the object and between the object and the sensitive soul, of which the intellect may take cognizance, but of which, above all, the senses make us conscious, being impressed with an extensive clearness separable from intensive distinctness; so that a poem is a poem not for the accuracy of any "imitation," nor for the loftiness of its idea, nor for the elegance of its forms, but for the fullness of its appeal to those functions which most immediately respond to man's contact with his material environment; that is to say, for intuitively perceptible reality.

SCHILLER

Baumgarten's doctrine was taken up by Lessing's friend, Mendelssohn; it furnished fundamental presuppositions for "Laocoön"; and it persisted to the time of Kant and Schiller. Kant, the analyst


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 of painting be lines and colors in space, and the means of poetry articulate words in time, then evidently painting most properly addresses itself to the treatment of stationary bodies, and poetry to the treatment of successive actions; so that the attempt, carried too far, to represent actions in painting and to describe bodies in poetry is a perversion of the legitimate means of painting and poetry. We should not forget the qualifications that Lessing made to this rigid principle, nor the fact that he published only the first part of his projected treatise. He referred the effect of painting as well as of poetry to the imagination. But his purpose was to establish boundaries determinable by the difference in artistic means; and his "Laocoön" is a rationalistic document based upon knowledge and observation of external facts, not upon a study of internal reactions.

BURKE

Among the many predecessors of Lessing in the realm of æsthetic speculation, two men, not philosophers by profession, are conspicuous for attention to the personal phenomena which he did not much consult; the Abbé Dubos in France and Edmund Burke in England. Dubos recognizes differences in the arts conditioned by their symbols of expression; but he compares and rates the arts according to their effect upon the senses, and so prepares the way for a purely impressionistic criticism. Burke did not agree with the Frenchman's ratings, nor did he in any manner imitate his book, however much he respected it; but he was in substantial agreement with Dubos as to the operation of æsthetic causes; and just as Dubos saw in the desire of the mind to be stimulated by something the prime motive for interest in the arts, Burke found in two of our strongest passions, love and terror, a definition of the chief ends of artistic endeavor, the beautiful and the sublime. Burke was not much affected by painting. This art, the aim of which is to represent the beautiful, has, he says, little effect on our passions. But poetry, to which he was sensitive, and which, he holds, does not depend for its effect upon the power of raising sensible images, is capable of stirring the passions with a vague sense of the sublime, and is, strictly speaking, not an art of imitation.


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 488 conditions which need explanation and investigation. The stress I am inclined to lay upon the phenomenon of inconsistency in custom and belief, as opposed to natural association of custom and belief, has never, so far as I am aware, been confirmed by other writers, but so far as my own researches have tested it in some limited spheres, it presents to the inquirer a set of facts which need to be taken into account somewhere.

What is here stated of comparative research generally is pre-eminently applicable to the case of studies on marriage institutions. After the epoch-making work of Mr. McLennan, and the laborious tabular results of Mr. Lewis Morgan, no work of such importance has been issued as that of Mr. Westermarck's. And yet Mr. Westermarck seems to approach his study of human marriage with less than usual emphasis on the adjective which he for the first time introduces, and also with less attention to the institution of marriage as a part only of the social system of humanity. He insists upon the non-gregariousness of early man, and turns for proof of this to the wretched outcasts of savage society, such as the Veddahs, Bushmen, etc., who have no trace of tribal organisation. But is the absence of tribal organisation a necessary proof of nongregariousness and of family interdependence? The use of the word family to describe the associations of the sexes among the rudest specimens of modern man seems peculiarly unfortunate, and it leaves out of consideration the local organisation which is at the bottom of these associations of human beings. Mr. Darwin has taught us the influence of locality in the development of species, so that on the biological evidence, upon which Mr. Westermarck properly lays so much stress, it is not the small separate groups of human beings, wrongly termed families, but the whole local group which must be considered as the starting point. It is the local group of Bushmen, of Veddahs, of Victorian savages, of ancient Finns, etc., which first present themselves for observation and for


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 Rh inquiry, and which make up unities in anthropological data. The smaller inside groups are formed by causes, and kept up by causes, of which at present we know but little, except that they are dependent upon the larger local group; they are not primary, but secondary phenomena in the history of institutions.

Given, then, the local group with no tribal organisation, Mr. Westermarck's evidence does not greatly alter Mr. McLennan's conception of the horde, if we cut out of the equation Mr. McLennan's unfortunate and misleading use of the term promiscuous. Temporary monandry within the local horde is the feature which Mr. Westermarck's evidence leads us to identify as the earliest form of human association.

Of the tremendous step from this to tribal society based upon blood kinship, Mr. Westermarck finds little to say, except by way of criticism of Mr. McLennan's theories. But in this criticism the point is missed, that, although the fact of blood kinship between both parents and offspring could never have been unknown to man, the use of that fact for the purposes of social organisation is altogether a different matter. At this stage human marriage enters into close and intimate relationship with other social institutions—it is, in point of fact, for the first time an institution, a custom, that is, used by man for social or political organisation. And at this stage I venture to think marriage cannot be scientifically considered apart from its surroundings in the society of which it forms a part.

If these remarks express one of the critical objections against Mr. Westermarck's method, let it not be understood that they are intended to go further than to point out what is conceived to be an omission from a work which is called History of Human Marriage—an omission which might yet be supplied from the data given by Mr. Westermarck himself All that can be said on marriage in its several forms, real and symbolical, seems to have been said


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 490 in this splendidly exhaustive treatise. The way is therefore prepared for marriage to be treated as part and parcel of a larger group of institutions. In so far as it is founded upon natural instincts in man its features may be traced through all human societies; in so far as its forms have been affected by social requirements its features must differ according to the grades of social development with which it is associated.

Mr. Westermarck lays almost too much stress upon some of the natural features of marriage, at all events in so far as they are used as materials for its history. For instance, man as the nourisher of his wife and offspring is considered at some length, and evidence is produced from a great number of savage and barbarous peoples, ranging from the Fuegians up to the Arabs. When, therefore, we meet in folk-lore such a custom as Miss Burne mentions as obtaining in Shropshire—"if a husband failed to maintain his wife she might give him back the wedding-ring, and then she would be free to marry again" (p. 295)—how are we to arrange and classify this survival? The effect of such a practice would lead us back to a state of temporary monandry, and would not account for the beginning of permanency in the marriage-tie. If the condition of man as the nourisher is put forward as a vera causa for the hypothesis that in primitive times man, woman, and children, formed a recognizable social unit, the supporters of such a hypothesis must answer the obvious objection suggested by the piece of Shropshire folk-lore, that when he ceased, either from inability or caprice, to nourish, the social unit of which he was a necessary element went to pieces.

On the other hand, some of the forms resulting from the effects of a conscious use of natural marriage for social organisation are scarcely treated with sufficient length. Thus, the bars to marriage between members of different races are set forth in some detail, and the evidence is most important; but the corresponding evidence of marriage


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 the height of human achievement, attempted in various ways to apply the canons of ancient taste to the settlement of contemporary problems. Accordingly, we find in Italy and, following the Italians, in France, England, and Germany, many writers on æsthetics only gradually emancipating themselves from the constraint of certain axioms which, being ancient, are unhesitatingly received as authoritative. Thus, all of the fine arts are, with Aristotle, regarded as arts of imitation—imitation, not of real but of ideal nature, of beautiful nature, as the French call it; and this vague and elusive conception is usually left without any very illuminating definition. Similarly, a painting is thought of, after Simonides, as a dumb poem, and a poem as a speaking picture; and, repeating a misunderstood phrase of Horace, men confidently say, "Like picture, like poetry."

The tendency is, then, to assimilate or at most to compare the several arts, and few observations penetrate beneath the surface. Artists calculated proportions and devised elaborate rules of technical procedure; writers of poetics discussed diction and rhetorical figures; but in treatises on painting and poetry alike, three "parts"—invention, disposition, and coloring—furnished the traditional subdivisions. Intelligence and industry seemed competent, if not to vie with the ancient genius, at least to follow the paths that the ancients had trod. With all their formalism, however, the critics seldom failed to insist that the end of art is to arouse emotion; to instruct, indeed, but also, as Horace had said, to please. Now pleasure is a personal reaction. We may ask what it is that pleases us in a work of art, or what there is in us that makes us sensitive to æsthetic pleasure; and the principal advance that modern theory has made beyond the point reached by the Renaissance consists in a better answer to the second question. In other words, our theory has, or seeks, a psychological foundation.

LESSING

To be sure, that modern work in which the sharpest line is drawn between the fields of painting and poetry, Lessing's "Laocoön," appears to treat the two arts in their most objective aspect, and is, in fact, far more concerned with the means than with the purpose or the substance of artistic expression. Lessing argues that if the means


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 Rh between people of different races is wholly ignored, though Mr. Crawfurd, from examples he found in the Malay Archipelago and elsewhere, deemed this intermarriage between different races to be one of the fundamental data for the proper consideration of ethnological problems, and Mr. Stuart Glennie has used the same argument, though without adducing any proof, in his racial hypothesis as to the origin of the matriarchate. One famous, though not pleasant detail in the history of marriage is dealt with by Mr. Westermarck with refreshing power, namely, the jus primæ noctis. Since Schmidt's work on the subject it has been assumed that there was nothing more to be said, but Mr. Westermarck proves that a review of this treatise is necessary in order to pick out what particular theory of feudal law Schmidt has succeeded in demolishing without necessarily destroying the evidence for a rule older than feudal law.

It is impossible to touch upon the question of the ethnology of custom and institutions without bearing in mind how much that subject came to the front at the recent Folk-lore Congress, and in the paper by Dr. Winternitz on Aryan marriage rites and ceremonies, a brave attempt was made to separate off from the collective body of marriage rules those which might with propriety be classed as Aryan. The point is one of some importance in view of such a treatise as Mr. Westermarck's. If ethnic peculiarities are stamped upon the rules of marriage, the fact supplies us with a strong argument for the position I have advanced, that marriage as an institution must be considered in conjunction with the institutions with which it is connected.

Mr. Westermarck lays great and very proper stress upon one such consideration in the history of marriage, namely, the effect of common residence in producing prohibitory laws against intermarriage. Now, close living together, in the sense supplied by Mr. Westermarck's admirably arranged evidence, is one of the most important elements in


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 492 the history of institutions, and it is the basis for the development of many of the principles underlying the formation of the village community. Worked back among the various tribes of savage man we find it incidental everywhere to the agricultural stage of economical development, though, of course, existing in varying degrees of perfection. That agricultural life is more primitive than pastoral life is one of the facts which, I think, will be proved by the history of the village community whenever that history is written. And alongside of this must be considered the history of the conception of incest—one of the most important chapters of which Mr. Westermarck has given us.

It is impossible, perhaps, to do more than touch upon some of the issues brought about by Mr. Westermarck's book. That I am concerned more with the institutional side of marriage has made me say more in apparent opposition to Mr. Westermarck's views than, perhaps, I am really prepared for. Undoubtedly he is right in stating that students of ethnography cannot be too comprehensive in their search for materials; but in analysing his evidence, as I am doing at some length without the possibility of producing the results in this review, I am struck with the remarkable manner in which he has managed to piece together in good literary form so complex a study. The power is almost to be dreaded. It carries with it something more than the bare equations of a scientific problem, and it is this "something more" which has to be guarded against by the student.

An examination of some of the details of such a work as Mr. Westermarck's is the only possible means whereby to test the value of its general conclusions. If we dispute his initial conclusion that "among our earliest human ancestors the family, not the tribe, formed the nucleus of every social group, and in many cases was itself, perhaps, the only social group", it is more, perhaps, a question of terminology than an actual difference of opinion on the


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 Rh vital question of the starting point of human society, because it is conceivable that if Mr. Westermarck had continued his view somewhat further, instead of stopping short at the temporary connection between the sexes, he would have seen that the local group was the necessary antecedent to even that temporary connection. We implicitly follow his lead to the next stage, where he detects that the “sociability of man sprang in the main from progressive intellectual and material civilisation”, and we are prepared to cut out communal marriage from the series of early developments of marriage forms, and translate it to a place where it must be considered the special outcome of marriage considered from its institutional side. On the remaining points he has considered, all we have to observe is that they belong rather to the natural history of marriage than to the institutional, and that while they exhaust all that is to be said, at all events for some time to come, under that head, they form only a part of the history of human marriage as a whole—a necessary and vital part—which must be studied and understood before the other part should be approached.

To pass from Mr. Westermarck to Mr. Stuart Glennie is to emphasise the fact that while the former bases his researches upon a wide and exhaustive series of minute details, carefully arranged and tabulated, the latter bases his researches upon brilliant suggestions coupled with an intense belief in the validity of his arguments, without the necessity of providing proofs. One should always be grateful for suggestions. That somewhere in the history of marriage Mr. Stuart Glennie’s conception of the matriarchate will find a place is, I venture to think, certain. But what place? is the all-important question. With Mr. Nutt’s and Mr. Jacobs’ criticisms in these pages I agree on the whole. Undoubtedly the facts of ethnology must be brought into the question of the origin of marriage institutions; undoubtedly the conquest and serfdom of a people is a factor to be reckoned with,


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 494 too. Mr. Stuart Glennie has struck the right line when he suggests, by means of Miss Garnett's admirable collection of folk-lore, that sex in folk-lore is a subject to be noted and taken count of, and it seems to me quite possible that the women of a conquered race, feared as they often were by their conquerors as the devotees of the local deities, might use that fear under some conditions to establish a place of power which has left its mark on the history of marriage. Beyond this it is not at present possible to go. This, I think, is the missing link in Mr. Stuart Glennie's line of argument, and he would do well to consider it. That without this essential link he should yet have chalked out the path of a new line of research is what the critic has to note, and to thank Mr. Glennie for. What we have to guard against and warn others about is the tendency to consider off-hand that this new line leads to vast stretches of undiscovered country, whereas it may only lead to a cul de sac, with the undiscovered country stretching far beyond—in view, but unattainable by this road.

It will not be surprising to those who have followed thus far that I am prepared to pass from marriage institutions to village institutions. In Mr. Wigmore's admirable treatise on the Japanese system of land tenure there is much to show the relationship between the two. The village unit of Japan is, of course, not the small monogamous family, but the group of descendants from a common ancestor under the lordship of the family head—a group produced by the long use of the fact of blood-kinship and m.arriage ties, resulting in the evolution of a political unit. Mr. Wigmore treads upon ground which is made familiar to us now by the writings of such masters as Maine, Seebohm, and others, but it is not certain whether the use of common terms in such investigations does not lead to conclusions not quite in accord with the facts. Feudalism, for instance, is a dangerous term to use outside of Europe, though it is difficult