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 proved in London 16 Dec. 1659 (printed by Earwaker), Bradshaw bequeathed most of his property, which consisted of estates in Berkshire, Southampton, Wiltshire, Somerset, and Middlesex, to his wife, if she survived him, for her life, with reversion to Henry (d. 1698), his brother Henry's son. He also made charitable bequests for establishing a free school at Marple, his birthplace; for increasing the schoolmasters' stipends at Bunbury and Middleton, where he had been educated; and for maintaining good ministers at Feltham and Hatch (Wiltshire), where he had been granted property by parliament. By one codicil he left his houses and lodgings at Westminster to the governors of the school and almshouses there, and added a legacy of 10l. to John Milton, the poet. After the Restoration, however, all Bradshaw's property was confiscated to the crown under the act of attainder.

Two engraved portraits of Bradshaw are mentioned by Granger (ii. 397, iii. 71)—one in his iron hat by Vandergucht, for Clarendon's 'History,' and another in 4to, 'partly scraped and partly stippled.'

, the president's elder brother, signed a petition for the establishment of the presbyterian religion in Cheshire on 6 July 1646; acted as magistrate under the Commonwealth; held a commission of sergeant-major under Fairfax, and subsequently one of lieutenant-colonel in Colonel Ashton's regiment of foot; commanded the militia of the Macclesfield hundred at the battle of Worcester (1651), where he was wounded; sat on the court-martial which tried the Earl of Derby and other loyalists at Chester in 1652; was charged with this offence at the Restoration; was imprisoned by order of parliament from 17 July to 14 Aug. 1660; was pardoned on 23 Feb. 1660-1; and, dying at Marple, was buried at Stockport on 15 March 1660-1 ( East Cheshire, ii. 62-9;, Cheshire, pp. 408-11).

BRADSHAW, JOHN (fl. 1679), political writer, son of Alban Bradshaw, an attorney, of Maidstone, Kent, was born in that town in 1659. He was admitted a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1674, and was expelled from that society in 1677 for robbing and attempting to murder one of the senior fellows. He was tried and condemned to death, but after a year's imprisonment was released. Wood says that Bradshaw, 'who was a perfect atheist and a debauchee ad omnia, retir'd afterwards to his own country, taught a petty school, turn'd quaker, was a preacher among them, and wrote and published "The Jesuits Countermin'd; or, an Account of a new Plot, &c.," London, 1679, 4to.' When James II came to the throne, Bradshaw 'turned papist.'

BRADSHAW, RICHARD (fl. 1650), diplomatist, and a merchant of Chester, appears in December 1642 as one of the collectors of the contribution raised for the defence of that city (Hist. MSS. Comm. 8th Rep. p. 365). During the civil war he served as quartermaster-general of the horse under the command of Sir [q. v.] (Petition in Commons Journals, 23 Jan. 1651). In the year 1649 he was mayor of Chester, and in January 1650 was appointed by parliament resident at Hamburg. In November 1652 he was for a short time employed as envoy to the king of Denmark, and in April 1657 was sent on a similar mission to Russia. He returned to England in 1659, and was in January 1660 one of the commissioners of the navy (Mercurius Politicus, 28 Jan. 1660). He is said by Heath to have been the kinsman of President Bradshaw; and from the tone of his letters, and his attendance at Bradshaw's funeral, this appears to have been the case. Mr. Horwood states that he was the nephew of John Bradshaw; but the pedigree of the latter's family given in Earwaker's 'History of Cheshire' does not confirm this statement.

[Bradshaw has left a large correspondence. The Tanner MSS. in the Bodleian contain several


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or two preliminary remarks upon the establishment of the administrations of 1825 and 1829 may render some of the allusions in these speeches more intelligible to those readers who are not familiar with the political history of the day.

The election of a President of the United States for the term beginning March 4, 1825, devolved upon the House of Representatives. The whole electoral vote was 261—of which Andrew Jackson had 99, John Quincy Adams 84, William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 37. The house, by the constitution, was limited to the first three in making a choice, and the vote was by states. Until the election actually took place, there was much doubt as to the result, but on the first ballot Adams received the votes of thirteen states, Jackson seven, and Crawford four; and Adams was thus elected. The vote was so close, however, that a rumor was put in circulation of a corrupt understanding between Adams and Clay, by which the friends of the latter, who was not a constitutional candidate, voted for Adams, in consideration of the bestowal of the office of secretary of state upon Clay by Adams in forming his cabinet. This calumny was disproved by all the testimony which could be brought to bear upon a negative proposition; and although at present it is probably not credited by any body, the suspicion of such a “coalition” seriously affected the popularity of both Adams and Clay at the time, and Colonel Hayne in his speech alluded to it, intimating that Webster had hopes of the office of secretary of state himself, which were frustrated by the appointment of Clay.

At the next presidential election, that of 1828, Adams and Jackson were opposing candidates, and the latter was chosen by a large popular majority. This result was brought about by the active coöperation with Jackson’s original supporters of the friends of Mr. Calhoun and many of the friends of the other candidates of 1824. This coöperation implied the combination of the most discordant materials. The friends of Calhoun generally gave their aid, in the expectation that their favorite would be the next candidate, and in this way would receive the support of Jackson’s other present supporters. How unfounded was any such expectation was proved by the actual result, by which Jackson was elected for a second term, and after him Van Buren, Calhoun being entirely neglected. It was in prophecy of this result that Mr. Webster quoted Shakspeare to the Vice President, Calhoun, reminding him that those who had foully removed Banquo had placed

Although at the time of the speech there was the most perfect cordiality between Jackson and Calhoun and their friends and supporters. (2)


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Author:George Gordon Coulton

Works

 * Father Rhine, 1899 external scan
 * A strong army in a free state; a study of the old English and modern Swiss militias, 1900 external scan
 * Public schools and the public needs, 1901 external scan
 * Medieval Studies, 1905 vol 1
 * Pearl, 1906 external scan
 * Friar's Lantern, 1906 external scan
 * From St. Francis to Dante; a translation of all that is of primary interest in the chronicle of the Franciscan Salimbene; (1221-1288) Published 1906 external scan
 * Ten Medieval Studies, 1906 external scan
 * Chaucer and his England, 1908 external scan
 * A medieval garner; human documents from the four centuries preceding the reformation, 1910 external scan
 * Workers and war, 1914 external scan
 * Medieval studies (first series), 1915 external scan
 * French monasticism in 1503 Published 1915 external scan
 * The main illusions of pacificism, 1916 external scan
 * Democracy and military service; an abbreviated translation of the "Armée Nouvelle" by Jean Jaurès, 1916 external scan
 * The case for compulsory military service, 1917 external scan
 * Social life in Britain from the conquest to the reformation, 1918 external scan
 * Christ, St Francis and to-day, 1919 external scan
 * Infant perdition in the middle ages, 1922 external scan

title: Author:George Gordon Coulton


text: Webster and Hayne's Celebrated Speeches

title: Webster and Hayne's Celebrated Speeches


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 he undertook the additions to ‘The Malcontent’ at the request of the theatrical manager rather than of the writer of the play. With Thomas Heywood he was in closer personal intercourse, though they did not write together for the stage after 1602. In 1612 Webster joined Heywood and Cyril Tourneur in compiling the volume entitled ‘Three Elegies to the Memory of Prince Henry.’ Webster was author of the second poem which was entitled ‘A Monumental Column,’ and was dedicated to Robert Carr, viscount Rochester; there is a rare separate issue in the British Museum. It was a formal elegy, but it includes a fine compliment to the poet and dramatist George Chapman, whom Webster calls the prince's ‘sweet Homer and my friend.’ Webster also wrote prefatory verses for Heywood's ‘Apology for Actors’ (1612), and there addressed Heywood as ‘his beloved friend.’

It was only with Dekker that Webster formed, as a dramatist, any enduring literary alliance. With Dekker he wrote verses for the splendidly illustrated volume—Stephen Harrison's ‘Arches of Triumph’—which celebrated James I's formal entry into the city of London in 1604. But the most important fruits of Webster's alliance with Dekker are the two bustling and unrefined domestic comedies in prose, ‘Westward Hoe’ and ‘Northward Hoe.’ There seems reason for believing that the first piece was begun by Webster in the summer of 1603, and that after he had completed the first three acts, the remaining two were added at the end of the next year by Dekker, with some aid from Webster. The piece was acted by the children of St. Paul's just before Christmas 1604. Webster was also the larger contributor to ‘Northward Hoe,’ which was first produced, again by the children of St. Paul's, about February 1605. An allusion in act ii. sc. ii. to the fact that four years had passed since the Islands' Voyage of 1597 has been held to point to 1601 as the date of the first draft of the play (Notes and Queries, 4th ser. xi. 318), but the dates are stated loosely. Both ‘Westward Hoe’ and ‘Northward Hoe’ were published in separate quartos in 1607.

Webster's genius did not find full expression until he wholly freed himself from the trammels of partnership with men of powers inferior to his own. At an unascertained date between 1607 and 1612 he for the first time wrote a play singlehanded, and there evinced such command of tragic art and intensity as Shakespeare alone among Englishmen has surpassed. The new piece was first published in 1612, under the title of ‘The White Divel, or the Tragedy of Paulo Giordano Ursini, Duke of Brachiano, with the Life and Death of Vittoria Corombona, the famous Venetian Curtizan. Acted by the Queene's Maiesties Servants,’ London, 1612, 4to. In an address ‘to the reader’ Webster declared that the piece ‘was acted in so dull a time of winter, presented in so open and black a theatre that it wanted a full and understanding auditory.’ It was produced by the queen's company, possibly at the Curtain, in the cold winter of 1607–8, with the great actor Burbage in the part of Brachiano. ‘The White Devil’ was subsequently (after 1625) performed by Queen Henrietta's servants at the Phœnix Theatre in Drury Lane, and the fact was noted on the title-page of a new edition in 1631. The ‘White Devil’ resembles in many points the ‘Revenger's Tragedie’ of Cyril Tourneur [q. v.], which was published in 1607, and was doubtless written first. The plot, drawn from an Italian source, is compounded of a series of revolting crimes, but the piece holds the reader spellbound by the stirring intensity with which the dramatist develops the story. Rarely in tragedy has pity been more poignantly excited than by the sorrows of the high-spirited heroine Vittoria (cf., Renaissance, i. 381 seq.; , Chroniques et Nouvelles, Paris, 1855). It is doubtful if the piece were justly valued in Webster's own day. Only one panegyric has been met with. In 1651 Samuel Sheppard declared in his ‘Epigrams’ that the chief characters in the ‘White Devil’ should be ‘gazed at as comets by posteritie.’ There were later editions, in 1665 and 1672 respectively. The piece was revived by Betterton at the Theatre Royal in 1682, and Nahum Tate published in 1707 an adaptation under the title of ‘Injured Love,’ but this was not acted.

Webster followed up his success in the ‘White Devil’ with ‘Appius and Virginia: a Tragedy,’ a less notable piece, although it possessed substantial merit. The story, which belongs to Roman history, was drawn by Webster from Paynter's ‘Palace of Pleasure,’ whither it found its way from Ser Giovanni's ‘Il Pecorone.’ The dramatist invested the romance with much simple pathos, and the lucidity of the plot favourably contrasts with the obscurity that characterised Webster's more ambitious work in tragedy. Mr. Fleay doubtfully detects an allusion at the end of ‘Appius’ to Heywood's play of ‘Lucreece,’ which was published in 1608. This is the only ground suggested for assigning the composition to 1609. But it seems to have been acted by Queen Anne's


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Author:Robert Hayne

Works

 * As part of the famed Webster-Hayne debate of 1830:
 * Hayne's First Speech:
 * Hayne's Second Speech (January 21, 1830)

Works about Hayne

 * "Life, Character, and Speeches of the Late Robert Y. Hayne" in The Southern Quarterly Review, Vol. VIII, No. 16 (Oct. 1845), pp. 496–512.
 * "" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., (1879), p. 543.

title: Author:Robert Hayne


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The New International Encyclopædia/Ça Ira

ÇA IRA, sȧ ḗ'rȧ' (Fr., it will go, equivalent to our “it's all right”). A French Revolutionary song, the words by Ladre, a street singer, and the melody originally a popular carillon by Bécourt, and a favorite air of Marie Antoinette. The song is said to have been first sung when the mob marched to Versailles, October 5, 1789. At the beginning of the Revolution, when all France was wild over Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, the song ran,

but later, when the fierce passions began to stir, came the refrain, Les aristocrates à la lanterne.


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of Hamilton,' in an article for the 'Westminster Review,' January 1866 (reprinted as a little volume in 1868, and again in Minor Works, pp. 279-330). Here, besides delivering himself on a number of philosophical questions that had long possessed him, he took occasion to acknowledge with fine gratitude the intellectual debt of his life to Mill's father; as later, in 1868, he was ready to join in supplying the desirable annotations to a second edition of his old master's 'Analysis.' Fearing that he might not live to complete the exposition of his favourite thinker, he anticipated one part of his task in an account of the 'Psychology of Aristotle,' appended to a third edition of Professor Bain's 'Senses and Intellect' in 1868. Some months earlier in that year he had also contributed to the same friend's 'Mental and Moral Science' two careful dissertations on the 'History of Nominalism and Realism,' and on Aristotle's theory of knowledge, besides some pages on the Stoic and Epicurean doctrines. Though he laboured upon Aristotle to the last weeks of his life, he was able, in fact, only to complete his account of the 'Organon.' He had hardly begun, after laborious analysis of the 'Metaphysica' and the physical treatises, to put into shape the results of his study when illness and death stopped his hand. All of his Aristotelian writing, so far as then known, that could be printed to any purpose was (under the editorship of Professor Bain and the present writer) issued in two volumes in 1872, the year after his death; a second edition (in one volume) following in 1880, with inclusion of some matter on the 'Ethica' and 'Politica' found in the interval among his papers.

After publishing the first two volumes of his 'History,' Grote began again to take active interest in public education. In June 1846 he delivered an address (Minor Works, pp. 177- 194) on the coming of age of the City of London Literary and Scientific Institution, which he had joined in founding in 1825, for young men engaged by day in mercantile pursuits. In July he reappeared, after an interval of sixteen years, on his old familiar ground of the 'London University,' now become (since 1836) University College, speaking to the students (ib. pp. 197-204) with the authority of an original founder who had lost none of his sympathy with its aims. He was re-elected to the council in February 1849, and from 1850 began continuous attendance. The college could soon again rely upon him as one of its chief pillars. He undertook the responsible duties of treasurer in 1860. In 1868, when the headship of the college was vacated by the death of Brougham, there was a unanimous determination, initiated by the vice-president, Grote's old friend Lord Belper, that it should be assumed by the one survivor on the council from among the fathers of the old 'university.' As president he continued his active superintendence of every department of the college work, and within a few weeks of his death he was holding committee-meetings in his study. In 1864 he had presented to the college, for decoration of the south cloister, the 'Marmor Homericum,' a beautiful work of art by Triqueti, in coloured marbles, which represented (according to an idea of his own) the blind bard reciting before a group of typical listeners and Delian maidens, with a border of scenes and figures (some in marble relief) illustrative of the 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey.' On his death he left the reversion of 6,000l. as an endowment to the chair of philosophy of mind and logic, the filling of which had a second time given him special anxiety and trouble. The first professor retiring in 1866, it became at once Grote's earnest desire to procure a successor who might treat the subjects of the chair with direct regard to modern requirements, as they had come through his own influence to be recognised in the examinations of the now independently constituted University of London. He held if possible more strongly than ever to his old opinion that the professor of philosophy should not be a minister of religion, committed before the world to a body of fixed doctrine on subjects coming within the scope of philosophic inquiry. The only candidate of distinction was the Rev. James Martineau, who as a Unitarian divine came not the less within Grote's proscribed circle. Others, and first the professorial body of the college, now charged with the duty of recommending for the chair, did not recognise the disability; Mr. Martineau was accordingly submitted to the council as having the strongest claim to appointment. Through Grote's influence the recommendation was not accepted; but at the same meeting of council in August he was unable to carry either a general declaration that it was 'inconsistent with the principle of complete religious neutrality proclaimed and adopted by University College to appoint to the chair of mental philosophy and logic a candidate eminent as minister and preacher of one among the various sects which divide the religious world,' or the specific proposal to appoint that lay candidate whom he himself favoured, and to whom, after Mr. Martineau, the professorial report pointed as next eligible. During the vacation, when Mr. Martineau's rejection became known, there was much angry comment in the press; the action of the council


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The New International Encyclopædia/Carlyle, Thomas

CARLYLE, (1795-1881). A Scottish man of letters. He was born at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, December 4, 1795. Educated first at the village school, and afterwards at Annan, he passed, in 1809, to Edinburgh University, with a view to entering the Scottish Church. Here he studied irregularly, but with amazing avidity. The stories which are related of his immense reading are almost fabulous. About the middle of his theological curriculum, Carlyle felt wholly disinclined to become a clergyman, and, after a short period spent in teaching at Annan, and later at Kirkcaldy, where he formed a lifelong friendship with Edward Irving, he went to Edinburgh and embraced literature as a profession. His first efforts were contributions to Brewster's Encyclopædia. In 1824 he published a translation of Legendre's Geometry, to which he prefixed an essay on proportion, mathematics having, during his college years, been a favorite study with him. In 1823-24 appeared in the London Magazine his Life of Schiller; and in 1824 his translation of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister. In 1825 the Life of Schiller was recast, and published in a separate form. It was very highly praised; indeed, one can discern in the criticisms of the book a dawning recognition of the genius of Carlyle. The translation of Wilhelm Meister met with a somewhat different fate. De Quincey, in one of his acrid and capricious moods, attacked both Goethe and his translator; while Jeffrey, in the Edinburgh Review, admitting Carlyle to be “a person of talents,” slashed in cavalier fashion at the book. It is one of the most excellent translations of a foreign work in the English language. In 1826 Carlyle married Jane Baillie Welsh, a lineal descendant of John Knox, and during the same year appeared his Specimens of German Romance. From 1828 to 1834 he resided at Craigenputtoch, a small estate in Dumfriesshire, belonging to his wife — the “loneliest nook in Britain,” as he says himself in a letter to Goethe. Here Carlyle revolved in his mind the great questions in philosophy, literature, social life, and polities, to the elucidation of which — after his own singular fashion — he earnestly dedicated his whole life. Here also he continued to write, for various magazines, the splendid series of critical and biographical essays which he had begun two years before. For this work he was admirably equipped. Besides possessing an exact knowledge of the German language, he was also inspired by the conviction that the literature of Germany, in depth, truthfulness, sincerity, and earnestness of purpose, was greatly superior to what was admired and relished at home. He had, moreover, a genius for writing literary portraits. Through him England discovered Germany. One of his most beautiful, eloquent, and solid essays, written at Craigenputtoch, was that on Burns (Edinburgh Review, 1828). It has given the tone to all subsequent criticism of the Scottish poet. But his chef-d'œuvre, written on the moorland farm, was Sartor Resartus (“The Tailor Done Over,” the title of an old Scottish song). This work, which first appeared in Fraser's Magazine (1833-34), is, like most of Carlyle's later productions, an indescribable mixture of the sublime and the grotesque. It professes to be a history or biography of a certain Herr Teufelsdröckh (“Devil's Dirt”), professor in the University of Weissnichtwo (“Kennaquhair”), and contains the manifold opinions, speculations, inward agonies, and trials of that strange personage — or rather of Carlyle himself. The whole book quivers with tragic pathos, solemn aspiration, or riotous humor. In 1834 Carlyle removed to London, taking a house in Cheyne Row, Chelsea. In 1837 appeared The French Revolution. Nothing can be more gorgeous than the style of this ‘prose epic.’ A fiery enthusiasm pervades it, now softened with tenderness, and again darkened with grim mockery, making it throughout the most wonderful image of that wild epoch. Carlyle looks on the explosion of national wrath as a work of the divine Nemesis, who “in the fullness of times” destroys, with sacred fury, the accumulated falsehoods of centuries. To him, therefore, the Revolution is a “truth clad in hell-fire.” During the same year he delivered in London a series of lectures on German literature: in 1838 another series on The History of Literature, or the Successive Periods of European Culture; in 1839, another on The Revolutions of Modern Europe; and a fourth in 1840, on Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History; of these Carlyle prepared only the last for publication (1841). In the meantime he had published Chartism (1839). In 1843 followed Past and Present, which, like its predecessor, showed the deep, anxious, sorrowful interest Carlyle was taking in the actual condition of his countrymen. In 1845 he published what is considered by many his masterpiece, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, With Elucidations and a Connecting Narrative. The research displayed in this book is something marvelous, but the author was nobly rewarded for his toil by the abundant admiration given to his work. In 1850 appeared the Latter-Day Pamphlets, the fiercest, most sardonic, most

furious of all his writings. These vehement papers were followed the next year by the Life of Sterling, calm and tender in tone. For many years Carlyle had been at work on the History of Frederick the Great. The vast undertaking, resulting in six volumes, was at length carried through (1858-65). In 1865 Carlyle was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University.

The sudden death of Mrs. Carlyle, in 1866, overwhelmed her husband with grief. Henceforth his life became more and more secluded. His work was now done. In 1867 Carlyle visited Mentone, where he composed part of his personal Reminiscences; then returning to London, contributed to Macmillan's Magazine an article entitled “Shooting Niagara,” in which he gave his views of democracy. In 1875 appeared the Early Kings of Norway. In 1874 he received the Prussian royal Order Pour le Mérite in recognition of his having written the life of Frederick the Great; and in the same year he was offered by Disraeli the Grand Cross of the Bath and a liberal pension, but he declined them both. On February 4, 1881, he died at his house in Chelsea, and was buried among his kindred at Ecclefechan. His wife rests beside her father at Haddington. Carlyle appointed James Anthony Froude his literary executor, who, in conforming with the terms of the trust, published Carlyle's Reminiscences (1881); Thomas Carlyle: The First Forty Years of His Life (1882); Letters of Jane Welsh Carlyle, exhibiting her as an accomplished woman and brilliant letter-writer (1883); and Thomas Carlyle: Life in London (1884). A revulsion of feeling regarding Carlyle's character followed, the literary world being shocked by the bitterness and spite abounding in these records, and Froude was attacked with great violence for his indiscretion. But time has revived the former admiration for Carlyle's genius. In 1882 a statue was erected to his memory on the Chelsea embankment, and in 1895 his house in Cheyne Row was purchased and opened to the public. A centenary edition of his Works, 30 vols., was published (London and New York, 1896-99). Consult: The Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle with Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston, 1883); Early Letters of Thomas Carlyle (New York, 1886; second series, 1888); Correspondence Between Goethe and Carlyle (New York, 1887) — all edited by Prof. C. E. Norton; also, Copeland, Carlyle's Letters to His Youngest Sister (London, 1889). For his life and works, consult: Shepherd and Williamson, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas Carlyle (London, 1881); Wylie, Thomas Carlyle, the Man and His Books (London, 1881); Masson, Carlyle Personally and in His Writings (London, 1885); Larkin, Carlyle and the Open Secret of His Life (London, 1886); Garnett, Life (London, 1887); Nichol, Life (New York, 1894); Wilson, Froude and Carlyle (New York, 1898); Mrs. Ireland, Life of Jane Welsh Carlyle (London, 1891); and Shepherd, The Bibliography of Thomas Carlyle (London, 1882).

THOMAS CARLYLE

FROM THE PAINTING BY P. KRÄMER


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being denounced, in rather mixed fashion, as a persecution of unitarianism in favour of orthodoxy, or of theistic philosophy in favour of materialism, or as both the one and the other. In November the decision as to Mr. Martineau was re-affirmed, and a new call for candidates was ordered. Grote, in spite of renewed denunciations, decided to maintain silence and work resolutely for a lay appointment. Curiously enough, he acted in complete forgetfulness that he had taken up the very same position on the first election. Not till some two years later was the old struggle brought to his recollection by the reading of a diary-note of Mrs. Grote's (in presence of the writer of this account), and great was the aged man's surprise at his lapse of memory. His former action had only to be known, to have swept away the misrepresentations showered upon him in 1866; but his very forgetfulness gives the more striking evidence of his ingrained consistency of character. Unfortunately Mrs. Grote, though much impressed by it at the time, has not mentioned the fact in the narrative, otherwise very unsatisfactory and misleading, which she gave (in Personal Life, p. 279) of the events of the year. A second report of the professors recommended the youthful candidate whom Grote had from the first preferred, Mr. Martineau being passed over on the ground of foregone double rejection. Grote in the council (December 1866) was just able, with the help of several men of strenuous character, to bear down various pleas for delay, and then by a more decisive majority to carry the election. The excitement soon died away, and it was little more than a year afterwards that he was raised by universal acclamation to the presidentship. His provision by will of an endowment (in prospect) for the chair, dated 1869, was laden with the characteristic condition, that if a holder of the professorship should at the time of his appointment be, or should afterwards become, 'a minister of the Church of England or of any other religious persuasion,' he should not receive the annual income of the foundation, but this should be 're-invested and added to the principal until the time when the said professorship' should 'be occupied by a layman.' The endowment was made over to the college by Mrs. Grote in 1876, two years before her death.

From 1850 Grote's energies were not less devoted to the University of London, constituted by royal charter as an examining body in 1837, when the 'London University' in Gower Street had accepted incorporation as University College without degree-conferring powers. After a time of little efficiency, the new university, in 1850, had its governing senate reconstituted and strengthened by the addition of seven distinguished men, among whom was Grote. He at once began to join regularly in the senate's deliberations, and very soon took a leading part in preparing the great transformations which the university was to undergo. First, the graduates won the right to form a constituent part of the university with recognised powers, by help, from within the senate, of no one more than of Grote. By the time this right was formally conceded in a new charter (1858), the more radical change was also effected of throwing open the examinations (except in medicine) to all comers. These had been previously confined to candidates from certain affiliated institutions; the list of which, beginning with the two great London colleges (University and King's), had come to include, besides a number of dissenting theological colleges, some merely secondary schools and a place of evening instruction. When Grote joined the senate, the process of affiliation, which had long ceased to have exclusive reference to London, was going steadily forward. Afterwards, it began to be pushed on purpose by some who desired to render all restriction useless. Grote, who had worked so hard to found a teaching university in London, was at first anxious to maintain a system of ordered academic instruction in connection with the examining university. Finding, however, that the affiliation as it had been carried out had destroyed all power of directly securing this, he went over to the other side, and became foremost champion of the cause of open examinations. He essayed (1857), though in vain, to stem the opposition within University College to the proposed change, and drew up for the senate of the university the elaborate report that sought to meet the hostile arguments urged from many different quarters. This report, adopted in the end only by his own casting-vote in the chair, led, in 1857, to the final determination of the question by the new charter of 1858. He took a like decisive part in the protracted deliberations that ensued before the reformed scheme of examinations was launched, advocating in particular the claims of classical learning and of philosophy. At the same time, he was one of the readiest to welcome the idea of instituting special degrees in science (adopted in 1859), though he took care that the word 'science' should be interpreted in no narrow sense of natural as exclusive of mental and moral. Raised in April 1862 to the dignity of vice-chancellor, with chief control thence-forth of the working of the university, he was at first baulked in an effort that year to procure the admission of women to the


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examinations ; but some years later (1868) he had the satisfaction of seeing access given to them on a special footing (which ten years afterwards was changed into regular franchise). Otherwise, so long as life lasted, his chief care was to struggle against less earnest or broad-minded colleagues for maintenance of the character, at once wide and thorough, which there had been a real desire in 1858 to give to the reformed schemes of examination. With the steady increase of untaught candidates, and an ever-changing body of examiners, it became more and more difficult to resist proposals for limiting the scope, if not lowering the standard, of requirement; and that the process was not sooner carried further was due to Grote's influence, exerted with a watchfulness and pertinacity all his own. Before the end he had the other satisfaction of seeing the university at last installed in buildings of its own, with all the circumstances of royal inauguration (1870) that seemed to put seal to the labour of so many years. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that Grote left the question of academic organisation in London as other than a problem which still remains to be solved.

Grote's appointment to a trusteeship of the British Museum (in succession to his friend Hallam) involved him from 1859 in further public work, which he discharged with his wonted assiduity ; he took, in particular, a forward part in bringing about the local separation of the departments of natural history and of antiquities. Academic distinctions began to flow in upon him before the completion of the 'History.' In 1853 he was made D.C.L. of Oxford; the Cambridge degree of LL.D. followed in 1861. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1857, and in 1859 succeeded Hallam as honorary professor of ancient history to the Royal Academy. Besides receiving many other foreign honours, he became in 1857 correspondent of the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences (section of general history and philosophy), and was taken up into the small number of foreign associates in 1864, the first Englishman thus distinguished after the death of Macaulay in 1859. He was offered a peerage by Mr. Gladstone in 1869 as a tribute to his 'character, services, and attainments.' The heart of the old radical was warmed by the recognition (as he wrote in reply) of 'all useful labours' of his, coming from a minister who had 'entered on the work of reform with a sincerity and energy never hitherto paralleled.' He declined, however, without a moment's hesitation, a position that would increase the burden of public and private labours already too heavy or his declining strength at the age of seventy-five. He continued grappling with all his tasks till long after the hand of death was plainly upon him. It was in the winter of 1870-1, when he was greatly depressed by the fate of war that had overtaken his much-loved France, that unmistakable signs of approaching dissolution declared themselves. From January 1871 his last months, of lingering illness relieved by occasional gleams of hope that work might not yet be over, were spent in London, where he could still do something towards meeting his public engagements. In private he saw his more intimate friends till close upon the end, abating nothing of his intellectual interests, especially in the perennial questions of philosophy which had laid hold of him more and more as life advanced. The end came on 18 June. Six days later he was buried in Westminster Abbey, at the corner of the south transept and aisle, where afterwards was set up a bust (by Bacon) to commemorate his features. A marble profile in high relief, by Miss S. Durant, at University College, comes nearer in some respects to a true likeness. The university of London has a portrait by Millais, taken in 1870; another, painted by Thomas Stewardson in 1824, is in the National Portrait Gallery. By his own express directions, his brain was examined after death. The autopsy (by Professor John Marshall) yielded a weight (49·75 oz.) which was surprisingly small for a man of his stature and size of head.

To courage and tenacity of intellectual purpose, with single-minded devotion to public ends, Grote joined an unfailing courtesy of nature and great dignity of demeanour. A certain shyness of manner was the outward token of an unaffected modesty that was beautiful to see in one whose work of its kind, for quantity and quality taken together, has never been surpassed. Consideration for others, on a full equality with self, was his guiding principle of action. It made him, as he was in private the most conscientious and methodical of workers, a man who could be absolutely relied upon in association, punctual and regular to a proverb in everything that he undertook with others, and scrupulously fairminded in all his judgments. At the same time, under the calm exterior there lay, as those who knew him best were aware, enthusiasms and fires of passion which it took all his strength of reason and will to control.

Except a few 'Papers on Philosophy,’ placed at the end of Professor Bain's collection of the 'Minor Works of George Grote' (1873), and six essays, selected from his


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manuscript remains, published in 1876 as 'Fragments on Ethical Subjects,' all Grote's occasional writings that found their way into print have been mentioned above. Two of the 'Fragments,' dealing with Aristotle, were taken up into the second edition (1880) of his unfinished work on the philosopher; the others, of uncertain date—probably early—are of interest in connection with the development of Bentham's utilitarian theory, especial stress being laid by Grote upon the essentially reciprocal character of the moral tie. The 'Plato' was twice reprinted (1867, 1874) in 3 vols. 8vo before being thrown (by Professor Bain), with slight rearrangement, definitively into 4 vols. post 8vo. The 'History,' besides reissues of particular volumes before the work was completed, has appeared in five editions: 12 vols. 8vo 1846-1856, 8 vols. 8vo 1862, 12 vols. post 8vo 1870, 10 vols. 8vo 1872, 10 vols. post 8vo 1888 (this last to stand); it was translated into German 1850-7, into French 1864-7.

GROTE, HARRIET (1792–1878), biographer, wife of the historian George Grote [q. v.], was born at The Ridgeway, near Southampton, on 1 July 1792. Her father, Thomas Lewin, after spending some years in the Madras civil service, came back in the same ship with the divorced Madame Grand (from Pondicherry) who afterwards married Talleyrand, and remained with her for a time at Paris in the years preceding the revolution. Settling then in England, and marrying a Miss Hale (daughter of General Hale and a Miss Chaloner, descended from Thomas Chaloner, regicide [q. v.]), who brought him a large family, he lived in good style, keeping a house in town as well as in the country. Harriet Lewin grew up a high-spirited, brilliant girl, and at the age of twenty-two, her father then residing at The Hollies, near Bexley in Kent, attracted the passionate devotion of George Grote, her junior by two years, who lived with his parents not far off. When, after much trouble and long delays [see ], they were at last united in 1820, Mrs. Grote, who had been preparing herself by serious studies, under his written direction, to share Grote's intellectual interests, proved to be exactly the helpmate that he needed in life. Possessed of great vivacity and remarkable conversational powers, she sought from the first to draw him from the studious retirement to which he was inclined. Even in the more straitened circumstances of their first years she began to cultivate that intimacy with foreigners, especially French public men, that took them later so often abroad and ended by making herself one of the chief intermediaries of her time between France and England. During Grote's parliamentary period she gave no small support to his public efforts by holding together in social bonds the party of radical reformers; and, when the time of disappointment came, she was forward to strengthen his resolve to devote himself to the scholarly work which had been his first ambition. His 'History' was carefully read through by her before publication of almost every volume, but she helped him most effectually in providing favourable conditions for his labour. Having a genius for the management of landed property as well as of a household, she relieved him of all trouble on this side. After their circumstances became easy in 1830, their various places of residence, chosen by her for the promotion of Grote's public or private work but not without regard also to her own likings, deserve mention for the social use to which she was constant in turning them. From 1832 till 1837 they lived chiefly at Dulwich Wood, then, for greater convenience of parliamentary attendance, at 3 Eccleston Street, which they did not give up till 1848 for the well-known 12 Savile Row, associated with the literary fame and administrative activity of all Grote's later years. From 1838 a country-house was also established, at East Burnham (near Burnham Beeches) in Buckinghamshire, and this they maintained till 1850; replacing it by a small domicile, which they proceeded to build in the neighbourhood and occupied, under the name of 'History Hut,' from the beginning of 1853 till the end of 1857, when, for reasons detailed by Mrs. Grote in an interesting 'Account of the Hamlet of East Burnham' (privately circulated at the time), they decided to leave the region. Being then desirous of making their life in the country a more settled one, they took from 1859 the spacious Barrow Green House in Surrey, which once had been occupied by Bentham; but, this proving inconveniently situated for Grote's necessary visits to London, it was given up in 1863. In 1864 they settled finally at Shiere, Surrey, in 'The Ridgeway' as it was called by Mrs. Grote, after the place of her birth. At all these houses she exercised a hospitality which was of great benefit to Grote, distracting him from too close application to work and developing the exquisite courtesy of his nature. Herself an accomplished musician (while


text:
Author:Wilbur Lucius Cross

As editor

 * Love's Labour's Lost (1925), with Tucker Brooke, part of The Yale Shakespeare

title: Author:Wilbur Lucius Cross


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 Grote also had trained musical tastes), she cultivated friendly relations with Mendelssohn and others whether composers or performers, and undertook a certain charge of Jenny Lind in the early days of that great singer. Her first acknowledged work was a ’Memoir of the Life of Ary Scheffer,' the painter, a graphic sketch that reached a second edition in 1860, the year of its publication. Two years later she issued a volume of 'Collected Papers' (only some of which had before seen the light), partly of literary interest, partly of political, and partly of economic; these last in a sense agreeing with Grote's views from the old radical period on questions of poor-law, population, and the like. She had always been a diligent keeper of diaries and notebooks, as well as a sprightly letter-writer, and having thus an abundance of materials began to write a biographical account of her husband while he was still alive. The work was rapidly pushed forward on his death in 1871, though she had already reached her eightieth year, and was published in 1873 as 'The Personal Life of George Grote:' more lively and piquant as a composition than always quite accurate in its statements of fact. She had previously (in 1866) printed for private circulation a sketch entitled 'The Philosophical Radicals of 1832, comprising the Life of Sir William Molesworth and some Incidents connected with the Reform Movement from 1832 to 1842;' this sketch has special interest and value as regards Molesworth. Other pieces, having a bearing on Grote's life or her own, printed for private distribution in her last years, have all been referred to under, except one small pamphlet (1878), 'A brief Retrospect of the Political Events of 1831-1832, as illustrated by the Greville and Althorp Memoirs,' Though her health suffered from an almost fatal fever following upon premature delivery in 1821 of an only child (a boy), who lived but a week, she had an excellent constitution, which procured her an old age of uncommon animation and vigour; her intellectual faculties, not less remarkable than her social gifts, remaining active to the last. She died at Shiere on 29 Dec. 1878, in her eighty-seventh year, and was buried there.

GROTE, JOHN (1813–1866), philosopher, younger brother of [q. v.], was born at Beckenham in Kent on 5 May 1813. Educated privately, first with a view to Haileybury and the Indian civil service, afterwards (on his father's death in 1830) to the university, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, 'in October 1831, and, taking a high place in classics at graduation in 1835, was elected fellow of his college in 1837. Till 1845 he continued to reside in college, at first with interludes of foreign travel. The wish of his devout mother [see may have helped to direct him to the clerical profession, but there is evidence that he had early an independent religious bias. Ordained deacon in 1842 and priest in 1844, he gave occasional help in their parishes to college friends, till, at the beginning of 1847, he was appointed to the perpetual curacy of Wareside, near Ware. In the summer of the same year he succeeded to the college living of Trumpington, close to Cambridge, where he lived ever afterwards. His parochial preaching aimed chiefly at edification, and was simple and direct in expression. The native bent towards reflective thought which, alone in a large family, he shared with his famous elder brother, declared itself from his undergraduate days. In philosophy he never was a very wide reader, as he was in general literature; but he showed great independence of view, especially on all matters pertaining to human conduct. His most potent philosophical stimulus came from [q. v.], with whom he consorted much at Cambridge from about 1842; most closely in Ellis's last years (1852-1859) spent at Trumpington. The intellectual debt was warmly acknowledged in the introduction to his 'Exploratio Philosophica' (1865), and was repaid in a remarkable study of his friend's character left among his papers and printed in the 'Contemporary Review' (1872). He published a 'Commemoration Sermon' in 1849, and 'A Few Remarks on a Pamphlet by Mr. Shilleto, entitled "Thucydides or Grote?"' in 1851, forcibly repelling an unworthy attack upon his brother. Otherwise he had printed nothing except a classical article or two, though he had written much, when he was elected to succeed Whewell as Knightbridge professor of moral philosophy in 1855. Besides lecturing he now wrote copiously on philosophical subjects, but rather to clear his own mind than, for some time yet,with any definite view to publication. An essay on 'Old Studies and New' (in 'Cambridge Essays,' 1856) and a few pamphlets were his only productions until, in the spring of 1865, he hurried out his 'Exploratio Philosophica: Rough Notes on Modern Intellectual Science.' The book was announced as a first part, to be presently followed by a second, much of which was already written; but he died on 21 Aug. 1866, before anything


text: A Book of the Cevennes/Alais

title: A Book of the Cevennes/Alais


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Carmagnola

CARMAGNOLA, kär'mȧ-nyō'lȧ (from the Italian town Carmagnola) (c.1390-1432). An Italian condottiere, whose real name was . For many years he was the most important commander under Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, for whom he subdued Bergamo, Brescia, Parma, Genoa, and other cities. Having been brought by his enemies into

ill favor with the Duke, he offered his services to Venice, and led a most suceessful campaign against Milan. After the defeats of a second campaign, the Republic, suspecting treason, caused him to be beheaded. His fate has been celebrated in Manzoni's tragedy, II conte di Carmagnola (1820).


text: A Book of the Cevennes/Ganges

title: A Book of the Cevennes/Ganges


text: A Book of the Cevennes/Le Vigan

title: A Book of the Cevennes/Le Vigan


text:
Author:Henry Richard Fox Bourne

Works

 * A Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney (1862)
 * English Merchants: Memoirs in Illustration of the Progress of British Commerce (1866)
 * English Seamen Under the Tudors (1868)
 * The Story of Our Colonies: With Sketches of Their Present Condition (1869)
 * The Romance of Trade (1871)
 * The Life of John Locke (1876)
 * English Newspapers: Chapters in the History of Journalism (1887)
 * Civilisation in Congoland: A Story of International Wrong-Doing (1903)
 * Civilisation in Congoland: A Story of International Wrong-Doing (1903)

title: Author:Henry Richard Fox Bourne


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Carmagnole

CARMAGNOLE, (Fr., perhaps from the Italian town Carmagnola). The name of a popular song and dance during the French Revolution, rivaling in popularity among patriots and soldiers the “Marseillaise” and the famous “” (q.v.). It first became well known after the storming of the Tuileries, August 10, 1792. The song began with:

and every verse ended with the refrain:

The words, however, did not always remain the same; couplets were added from time to time descriptive of the famous incidents of the Revolution, so that the Carmagnole became a typical song of the streets. Fashion soon adopted the word, which was next applied to a sort of jacket, worn as a symbol of patriotism. Afterwards it was applied to the bombastic and fanatical reports of the successes and glory of the French arms. With the passing of the Reign of Terror the song practically disappeared.


text:
Author:Hampus Gustaf Wilhelm Wetterling

Works

 * "Wetterling", also called "Stilla, Ja, Allt Mera Stilla"

title: Author:Hampus Gustaf Wilhelm Wetterling


text: A Book of the Cevennes/L’Aigoual

title: A Book of the Cevennes/L’Aigoual


text: Author:Hyacinth Symonds Hooker

title: Author:Hyacinth Symonds Hooker


text: A Book of the Cevennes/The Land of Ferdinand Fabre


text: A Book of the Cevennes/The Hérault

title: A Book of the Cevennes/The Hérault


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Stagnelius, Erik Johan

STAGNELIUS, stȧg-nā'lḗ-ụs, (1793-1823). A Swedish poet born on the island of Onland, and educated at Upsala and Lund. He was deeply interested in Gnosticism and treated all sides of this question in his books. He is considered a master of form. He published the epic poem Wladimir den store (1817), the philosophico-religious Liljor i Saran (1821), Martyrene, his best drama (1821), and the tragedy Bacchanterna (1822).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Stahl, Ernst

STAHL, stäl, (1848— ). A German botanist, born near Strassburg, and educated there, at Halle, and at Würzburg. He became professor in Strassburg in 1880, and professor and director of the botanical gardens at Jena the following year. He visited Ceylon and Java in the winter of 1889-90. Among his books are Entwickelung und Anatomie der Lenticelien (1873), Einfluss des Lichtes auf den Geotropismus einiger Pflanzenorgane (1884), Zur Biologie der Myxomyceten (1884), and Regenfall und Blattgestalt (1893).


text:
United States Code/Title 42/Chapter 85/Section 7470

§ 7470. Congressional declaration of purpose CAA § 160

The purposes of this part are as follows:
 * (1) to protect public health and welfare from any actual or potential adverse effect which in the Administrator’s judgment may reasonably be anticipate to occur from air pollution or from exposures to pollutants in other media, which pollutants originate as emissions to the ambient air), notwithstanding attainment and maintenance of all national ambient air quality standards;
 * (2) to preserve, protect, and enhance the air quality in national parks, national wilderness areas, national monuments, national seashores, and other areas of special national or regional natural, recreational, scenic, or historic value;
 * (3) to insure that economic growth will occur in a manner consistent with the preservation of existing clean air resources;
 * (4) to assure that emissions from any source in any State will not interfere with any portion of the applicable implementation plan to prevent significant deterioration of air quality for any other State; and
 * (5) to assure that any decision to permit increased air pollution in any area to which this section applies is made only after careful evaluation of all the consequences of such a decision and after adequate procedural opportunities for informed public participation in the decisionmaking process.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Stahl, Friedrich Julius

STAHL, (1802-61). A German politician and political philosopher. He was born in Munich of Jewish parents, turned Protestant in 1819, studied at Würzburg, Heidelberg, and Erlangen, and in course of time became professor of law at Erlangen, Würzburg, and Berlin. In 1849 he was made a member of the Upper House of the Prussian Legislature, and in 1850 he was a member of the Erfurt Parliament. Stahl was a leader in the Lutheran Church, and became one of the most powerful influences for reaction in Germany. He stood for an absolute monarch and an absolute Church that should control the monarch. The basis of his political philosophy was the conception of the subserviency of all things lay and clerical to the will of God as expounded by the clergy. His most important work is the Philosophie des Rechts nach geschichtlicher Ansicht (1830). Some of his other works are Ueber Kirchenzucht (1845), Das monarchische Prinzip (1845), Der

christliche Staat (1847), Die Revolution und die konstitutionelle Monarchie (1848), Die lutherische Kirche und die Union (1859).


text:
United States Code/Title 42/Chapter 85/Section 7471

§ 7471. Plan requirements CAA § 161

In accordance with the policy of section 7401 (b)(1) of this title, each applicable implementation plan shall contain emission limitations and such other measures as may be necessary, as determined under regulations promulgated under this part, to prevent significant deterioration of air quality in each region (or portion thereof) designated pursuant to section 7407 of this title as attainment or unclassifiable.


text:
United States Code/Title 42/Chapter 85/Section 7472

§ 7472. Initial classifications CAA § 162

(a) Areas designated as class I
Upon the enactment of this part, all—
 * (1) international parks,
 * (2) national wilderness areas which exceed 5,000 acres in size,
 * (3) national memorial parks which exceed 5,000 acres in size, and
 * (4) national parks which exceed six thousand acres in size,

and which are in existence on August 7, 1977, shall be class I areas and may not be redesignated. All areas which were redesignated as class I under regulations promulgated before August 7, 1977, shall be class I areas which may be redesignated as provided in this part. The extent of the areas designated as Class I under this section shall conform to any changes in the boundaries of such areas which have occurred subsequent to August 7, 1977, or which may occur subsequent to November 15, 1990.

(b) Areas designated as class II
All areas in such State designated pursuant to section 7407 (d) of this title as attainment or unclassifiable which are not established as class I under subsection (a) of this section shall be class II areas unless redesignated under section 7474 of this title.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Stahl, Georg Ernest

STAHL, (1660-1734). A German physician and chemist, born at Ansbach. He was called in 1694 to the chair of medicine, anatomy, and chemistry in the newly founded university of Halle, whence he removed to Berlin in 1716, and was appointed physician to the King of Prussia. Stahl was one of the ablest chemists of his time, and destroyed numberless absurd opinions which had found their way into science, and propounded the first general theory of chemical transformations (see ), which was universally accepted till the time of Lavoisier. His works, according to Haller, number 250, the most important being Theoria Medica Vera (1707, and 1831-33), which contains his medical theory, and Experimenta, Observationes et Animadversiones Chymico-Physicæ (1731), in which his chemical opinions are set forth. An account of his opinions is found in Lemoine, Le vitalisme et l'animisme de Stahl (Paris, 1864). Consult also Lasègue, De Stahl et sa doctrine médicale (ib., 1846).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Stahr, Adolf

STAHR, stär, (1805-76). A German author, born in Prenzlau, Prussia. After study at the University of Halle he went to the gymnasium at Oldenberg, and in 1836 became professor there. While on a tour through Italy in 1845, which was afterwards described in Ein Yahr in Italien (1847-50), he met the author Fanny Lewald, whom he married in 1855, after separating from his first wife. Perhaps the most noteworthy of his writings are his classical studies, which include translations from Aristotle, Suetonius, and Tacitus, and Bilder aus dem Altertum (1863-66). His miscellaneous works, some of which have been translated into English, include: Charakteristik Immermanns (1842); Die Republikaner in Neapel (1849); Die preussische Revolution (1850); and G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Schriften (1858).


text:
United States Code/Title 42/Chapter 85/Section 7473

§ 7473. Increments and ceilings CAA § 163

(a) Sulfur oxide and particulate matter; requirement that maximum allowable increases and maximum allowable concentrations not be exceeded
In the case of sulfur oxide and particulate matter, each applicable implementation plan shall contain measures assuring that maximum allowable increases over baseline concentrations of, and maximum allowable concentrations of, such pollutant shall not be exceeded. In the case of any maximum allowable increase (except an allowable increase specified under section 7475 (d)(2)(C)(iv) of this title) for a pollutant based on concentrations permitted under national ambient air quality standards for any period other than an annual period, such regulations shall permit such maximum allowable increase to be exceeded during one such period per year.

(b) Maximum allowable increases in concentrations over baseline concentrations

 * (1) For any class I area, the maximum allowable increase in concentrations of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter over the baseline concentration of such pollutants shall not exceed the following amounts:

 * (2) For any class II area, the maximum allowable increase in concentrations of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter over the baseline concentration of such pollutants shall not exceed the following amounts:

 * (3) For any class III area, the maximum allowable increase in concentrations of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter over the baseline concentration of such pollutants shall not exceed the following amounts:

 * (4) The maximum allowable concentration of any air pollutant in any area to which this part applies shall not exceed a concentration for such pollutant for each period of exposure equal to—
 * (A) the concentration permitted under the national secondary ambient air quality standard, or
 * (B) the concentration permitted under the national primary ambient air quality standard,
 * whichever concentration is lowest for such pollutant for such period of exposure.

(c) Orders or rules for determining compliance with maximum allowable increases in ambient concentrations of air pollutants

 * (1) In the case of any State which has a plan approved by the Administrator for purposes of carrying out this part, the Governor of such State may, after notice and opportunity for public hearing, issue orders or promulgate rules providing that for purposes of determining compliance with the maximum allowable increases in ambient concentrations of an air pollutant, the following concentrations of such pollutant shall not be taken into account:
 * (A) concentrations of such pollutant attributable to the increase in emissions from stationary sources which have converted from the use of petroleum products, or natural gas, or both, by reason of an order which is in effect under the provisions of sections 792 (a) and (b) of title 15 (or any subsequent legislation which supersedes such provisions) over the emissions from such sources before the effective date of such order.
 * (B) the concentrations of such pollutant attributable to the increase in emissions from stationary sources which have converted from using natural gas by reason of a natural gas curtailment pursuant to a natural gas curtailment plan in effect pursuant to the Federal Power Act [ 16 U.S.C. 791a et seq.] over the emissions from such sources before the effective date of such plan,
 * (C) concentrations of particulate matter attributable to the increase in emissions from construction or other temporary emission-related activities, and
 * (D) the increase in concentrations attributable to new sources outside the United States over the concentrations attributable to existing sources which are included in the baseline concentration determined in accordance with section 7479 (4) of this title.
 * (2) No action taken with respect to a source under paragraph (1)(A) or (1)(B) shall apply more than five years after the effective date of the order referred to in paragraph (1)(A) or the plan referred to in paragraph (1)(B), whichever is applicable. If both such order and plan are applicable, no such action shall apply more than five years after the later of such effective dates.
 * (3) No action under this subsection shall take effect unless the Governor submits the order or rule providing for such exclusion to the Administrator and the Administrator determines that such order or rule is in compliance with the provisions of this subsection.


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Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 60.djvu/128

 company of players before 1619, and to have passed with the ‘White Devil’ to Queen Henrietta's company early in Charles I's reign. William Beeston, ‘the governor of the king and queen's young company of players at the Cock-pit at Drury Lane,’ laid a claim in 1639 to exclusive ownership in the piece; Beeston's pretension was admitted by the king. The play was first published for Humphrey Moseley in 1654. ‘Appius and Virginia’ was adapted by Cartwright for representation at the Duke's Theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1671, with the new name of the ‘Roman Virgin, or the Unjust Judge.’ The title-rôles were filled by Betterton and his wife. The play ran at the time for eight days successively, and was frequently revived in the following years (cf., i. 109). The adaptation was published in 1679 under the title of the ‘Unjust Judge.’ John Dennis in 1709 published a new piece with Webster's old title.

In the ‘Duchess of Malfi’ Webster reached as high a level of tragic art as in the ‘White Devil.’ The ‘Duchess of Malfi’ was first played by the king's men at the Blackfriars Theatre about 1616, but it was revived at the Globe Theatre in 1622, and was first printed next year. The title ran: ‘The Tragedy of the Dutchesse of Malfy. As it was presented privately at the Black-Friers and publiquely at the Globe by the King's Majesties Servants. The perfect and exact coppy with diverse things printed that the length of the play would not beare in the presentment.’ A list of actors' names is prefixed. Burbage created the part of Duke Ferdinand, and a boy, R. Sharpe, that of the Duchess. The dedication was addressed to George, lord Berkeley, and there are prefatory verses embodying vague and unqualified eulogy by Ford, Middleton, and William Rowley. Other editions appeared in 1640 and with alterations in 1678 and 1708, but the first quarto presents the best text. The piece was revived at the Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre in 1664 by Betterton, who played the villain Bosola, with Mrs. Betterton as the Duchess; it was acted for eight days successively, and proved one of the best stock tragedies (, i. 55). The ‘Duchess of Malfi’ is the only play by Webster that has been presented on a modern stage. On 20 Nov. 1851 Phelps revived it at Sadler's Wells Theatre in a revised version by Richard Hengist Horne; Miss Glyn took the part of the Duchess, and Phelps appeared as Duke Ferdinand. The play met with great success, and had a long run. It was republished at the time as part i. of Tallis's ‘Acting Drama,’ with a portrait and memoir of Miss Glyn by J. A. Heraud. Another revised version of the tragedy by Mr. William Poel was produced at the Opera Comique by the Independent Theatre Society on 21 and 25 Oct. 1892; Miss Mary Rorke played the Duchess. The play was separately edited in ‘The Temple Dramatists’ by Professor C. E. Vaughan in 1896.

The plot is based on an incident in Neapolitan history, which is narrated in Belleforest's French translation of ‘Bandello's Novels,’ No. 19; in Painter's ‘Palace of Pleasure,’ ii. 23; in Beard's ‘Theatre of God's Judgments,’ bk. ii. chap. 24; and in Goulart's ‘Histoires Admirables de notre temps,’ p. 226. Lope de Vega constructed a play out of the same materials, and gave it the title of ‘El mayordomo de la Duquesca de Amalfi.’ The theme is the vengeance wrought by Ferdinand, duke of Calabria, and his brother, the cardinal, on their sister, the Duchess of Malfi, for her defiance of the family honour in marrying Antonio, the steward of her household. Duke Ferdinand subjects his sister to almost every fantastic torture known to the writers of Italian fiction. He pays the penalty of his cruelty by going mad, and at the end of the play hardly any leading character is left alive; five men, three women, and two children come to violent ends. Webster owed the merest suggestion of the play to his authorities. His development of the plot is wholly original. The interest centres in the characterisation of the courageous and noble-hearted heroine, who is slowly murdered by her cruel brothers. It was of her character and fortunes, which move every just critic to enthusiasm, that Charles Lamb wrote: ‘To move a horror skilfully, to touch a soul to the quick, to lay upon fear as much as it can bear, to wean and weary a life till it is ready to drop, and then step in with mortal instruments to take its last forfeit; this only a Webster can do. Writers of an inferior genius may “upon horror's head horrors accumulate,” but they cannot do this. They mistake quantity for quality, they “terrify babes with painted devils,” but they know not how a soul is capable of being moved; their terrors want dignity, their affrightments are without decorum’ ( Specimens, ‘Duchess of Malfy,’ ii. 42).

Webster never reached the same heights again, and his remaining work, although at times touched with his old spirit, is, as a whole, tame when compared with either the ‘Duchess of Malfy’ or the ‘White Devil.’ ‘The Devil's Law Case; or, When Women go to law the Devil is full of business, a new trage-comœdy,’ has a few scenes that are quite worthy of their author, but the


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 disagreeable plot is inadequately relieved by artistic treatment. It was acted ‘by Queen Anne's servants,’ and therefore before 1619. It was first published in 1623 with the assurance on the title-page that it was ‘The true and perfect copie from the originall. As it was approouedly well acted by her maiesties servants.’ Webster addressed the dedication to Sir Thomas Finch, bart., and a modest appeal for a fair judgment ‘to the judicious reader.’ Dyce asserts that it was written not earlier than 1622, on the strength of a very disputable allusion to the Amboyna massacre in February of that year.

In 1624 Webster turned from play-writing to perform a piece of work for old friends. In that year Middleton, the city poet, was unable to prepare the words for the lord mayor's pageant. John Gore, the new lord mayor, was a member of the Merchant Taylors' Company, to which Webster belonged, and he appropriately undertook to fill Middleton's place. The result was a conventional ‘pageant’ entitled ‘Monuments of Honor, Derived from remarkable antiquity, and celebrated in the Honorable City of London, at the sole munificent charge and expences of the Right Worthy and Worshipfull Fraternity of the Eminent Merchant Taylors. … Invented and written by John Webster, Merchant Taylor,’ printed at London by Nicholas Okes, 1624, 4to. The work is excessively rare. A copy which formerly belonged to Heber is now the property of the Duke of Devonshire.

A year earlier Webster wrote slight commendatory verses for the ‘English Dictionarie’ of ‘his industrious friend Master Henry Cockeram’ (1623), and a year after the production of his mayoral pageant he seems to have died. It is possible, although it is by no means certain, that he was the John Webster, ‘cloth-worker,’ who made his will on 5 Aug. 1625; it was proved on 7 Oct.

Gildon in his ‘Lives of the Poets’ (1698) states that Webster was clerk of the parish of St. Andrew's, Holborn. The many references that appear in Webster's plays to tombstones and dirges have been held by Lamb and others to corroborate this theory of the dramatist's occupation. No confirmation has been found in the parochial records, and it is unlikely to be true. Webster has also been wrongly identified with John Webster, author of the ‘Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft,’ who is noticed separately.

Collier stated without authority that Webster resided among the actors in Holywell Street. Collier likewise identified him with one John Webster who married Isabell Sutton at St. Leonard's parish church, Shoreditch, on 25 July 1590, and was father of a daughter Alice (baptised at the same church on 9 May 1606).

Three extant plays were assigned to Webster after his death, but doubts as to his responsibility are justifiable. Kirkman, an enthusiastic reader and collector of plays, published in 1661 two plays—‘The Thracian Wonder’ and ‘A Cure for a Cuckold’—each of which he asserted to be from the joint pens of Webster and William Rowley. ‘The Thracian Wonder’—a very dull piece of work—was based on William Warner's pastoral story of ‘Argentile and Curan,’ and shows few traces of the known style of either of the alleged authors. The fact that one William Webster published in 1617 a new poetic version of Warner's story may account for the association of John Webster's name with ‘The Thracian Wonder.’

The authorship of ‘A Cure for a Cuckold’ seems rightly described by Kirkman. The piece naturally divides itself into two parts. One treats with some extravagance (but with a good deal of poetic feeling and dramatic power) a story in Webster's vein. The central character of this section, the perverse-tempered Clare, who is affianced to Lessingham, dares her lover to murder his best friend, Bonvile, and the ensuing complications give the dramatist an opportunity for character-studies, of which he takes for the most part good advantage. Genest first pointed out that the incident of Lessingham's threat to kill his friend Bonvile had a close parallel in Massinger's ‘Parliament of Love.’ The second part of the play treats with much ribaldry, but with comic effect, the discovery by a rough sea captain that his wife has become a mother during his four years' absence. There is no connection in style between the two parts. The coarse scenes are in prose, and may well be by William Rowley. The love story of Clare is in blank verse, which closely resembles that of Webster's acknowledged work. Mr. Edmund Gosse ingeniously suggested that Webster's alleged contribution to the piece was a self-contained and independent whole. The fantastic tale of Clare and Lessingham was privately printed with the title of ‘Love's Graduate’ under the direction of Mr. Stephen E. Spring-Rice, C.B., at Mr. Daniel's Oxford press in 1885. Mr. Edmund Gosse contributed a prefatory essay.

The third piece posthumously assigned to Webster was a comedy called ‘The Weakest goes to the Wall,’ which was first printed anonymously in 1600, and again in 1618. It was first claimed for Webster (with Dekker) in 1675 by Edward Phillips in his


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The New International Encyclopædia/Lévy, Emile

LEVY, lắ'vḗ ' , (1820-90). A French genre and portrait painter. He was born in Paris, August 29, 1826. He was a pupil of Abel de Pujol and Picot, and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. He won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1854. On his return from Italy he settled in Paris, and devoted himself to portrait painting. He exhibited in the Salon, receiving a first-class medal in 1878, and the Legion of Honor in 1867. Among the more important of his works are: “Noah Cursing Canaan” (1855); “Supper of the Martyrs” (1859); “Death of Orpheus” (1866), Luxembourg Museum; “Love and Folly” (1874); “Infancy” (1885); “The Elements,” Salon of

Ministry of State, Louvre; “Presentation of the Virgin,” Trinity Church, Paris.


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United States Code/Title 42/Chapter 85/Section 7474

§ 7474. Area redesignation CAA § 164

(a) Authority of States to redesignate areas
Except as otherwise provided under subsection (c) of this section, a State may redesignate such areas as it deems appropriate as class I areas. The following areas may be redesignated only as class I or II:
 * (1) an area which exceeds ten thousand acres in size and is a national monument, a national primitive area, a national preserve, a national recreation area, a national wild and scenic river, a national wildlife refuge, a national lakeshore or seashore, and
 * (2) a national park or national wilderness area established after August 7, 1977, which exceeds ten thousand acres in size.

The extent of the areas referred to in paragraph (1) and (2) shall conform to any changes in the boundaries of such areas which have occurred subsequent to August 7, 1977, or which may occur subsequent to November 15, 1990. Any area (other than an area referred to in paragraph (1) or (2) or an area established as class I under the first sentence of section 7472 (a) of this title) may be redesignated by the State as class III if—
 * (A) such redesignation has been specifically approved by the Governor of the State, after consultation with the appropriate Committees of the legislature if it is in session or with the leadership of the legislature if it is not in session (unless State law provides that such redesignation must be specifically approved by State legislation) and if general purpose units of local government representing a majority of the residents of the area so redesignated enact legislation (including for such units of local government resolutions where appropriate) concurring in the State’s redesignation;
 * (B) such redesignation will not cause, or contribute to, concentrations of any air pollutant which exceed any maximum allowable increase or maximum allowable concentration permitted under the classification of any other area; and
 * (C) such redesignation otherwise meets the requirements of this part.

Subparagraph (A) of this paragraph shall not apply to area redesignations by Indian tribes.

(b) Notice and hearing; notice to Federal land manager; written comments and recommendations; regulations; disapproval of redesignation

 * (1)
 * (A) Prior to redesignation of any area under this part, notice shall be afforded and public hearings shall be conducted in areas proposed to be redesignated and in areas which may be affected by the proposed redesignation. Prior to any such public hearing a satisfactory description and analysis of the health, environmental, economic, social, and energy effects of the proposed redesignation shall be prepared and made available for public inspection and prior to any such redesignation, the description and analysis of such effects shall be reviewed and examined by the redesignating authorities.
 * (B) Prior to the issuance of notice under subparagraph (A) respecting the redesignation of any area under this subsection, if such area includes any Federal lands, the State shall provide written notice to the appropriate Federal land manager and afford adequate opportunity (but not in excess of 60 days) to confer with the State respecting the intended notice of redesignation and to submit written comments and recommendations with respect to such intended notice of redesignation. In redesignating any area under this section with respect to which any Federal land manager has submitted written comments and recommendations, the State shall publish a list of any inconsistency between such redesignation and such recommendations and an explanation of such inconsistency (together with the reasons for making such redesignation against the recommendation of the Federal land manager).
 * (C) The Administrator shall promulgate regulations not later than six months after August 7, 1977, to assure, insofar as practicable, that prior to any public hearing on redesignation of any area, there shall be available for public inspection any specific plans for any new or modified major emitting facility which may be permitted to be constructed and operated only if the area in question is designated or redesignated as class III.
 * (2) The Administrator may disapprove the redesignation of any area only if he finds, after notice and opportunity for public hearing, that such redesignation does not meet the procedural requirements of this section or is inconsistent with the requirements of section 7472 (a) of this title or of subsection (a) of this section. If any such disapproval occurs, the classification of the area shall be that which was in effect prior to the redesignation which was disapproved.

(c) Indian reservations
Lands within the exterior boundaries of reservations of federally recognized Indian tribes may be redesignated only by the appropriate Indian governing body. Such Indian governing body shall be subject in all respect to the provisions of subsection (e) of this section.

(d) Review of national monuments, primitive areas, and national preserves
The Federal Land Manager shall review all national monuments, primitive areas, and national preserves, and shall recommend any appropriate areas for redesignation as class I where air quality related values are important attributes of the area. The Federal Land Manager shall report such recommendations, within supporting analysis, to the Congress and the affected States within one year after August 7, 1977. The Federal Land Manager shall consult with the appropriate States before making such recommendations.

(e) Resolution of disputes between State and Indian tribes
If any State affected by the redesignation of an area by an Indian tribe or any Indian tribe affected by the redesignation of an area by a State disagrees with such redesignation of any area, or if a permit is proposed to be issued for any new major emitting facility proposed for construction in any State which the Governor of an affected State or governing body of an affected Indian tribe determines will cause or contribute to a cumulative change in air quality in excess of that allowed in this part within the affected State or tribal reservation, the Governor or Indian ruling body may request the Administrator to enter into negotiations with the parties involved to resolve such dispute. If requested by any State or Indian tribe involved, the Administrator shall make a recommendation to resolve the dispute and protect the air quality related values of the lands involved. If the parties involved do not reach agreement, the Administrator shall resolve the dispute and his determination, or the results of agreements reached through other means, shall become part of the applicable plan and shall be enforceable as part of such plan. In resolving such disputes relating to area redesignation, the Administrator shall consider the extent to which the lands involved are of sufficient size to allow effective air quality management or have air quality related values of such an area.


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  Archer's more sober estimate in his article ‘Webster, Lamb, and Mr. Swinburne’ in New Review, 1893, viii. 96 seq.]

 WEBSTER, JOHN (1610–1682), author of ‘The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft,’ was born at Thornton in Craven on 3 Feb. 1609–10. He speaks of Cambridge as though he had received his education there, but no record can be found of him in the university registers. Subsequent to July 1632 he was ordained, and in 1634 was curate of Kildwick in Craven. Previous to his ordination he had studied chemistry under John Huniades, probably in the course of medical study. In 1643 he was master of the free grammar school at Clitheroe, but during the civil war he acted as chaplain and surgeon in the parliamentary army. He was surgeon in Colonel Shuttleworth's regiment in 1648, by which time he had apparently left the established church and become a nonconformist (cf. Saint's Rest, 1654). Towards the end of the civil war he ‘was intruded by the governing powers’ into the vicarage of Mitton in Yorkshire, and thence preached sometimes ‘gratis’ at Grindleton, four miles distant. He was still at Mitton in 1654. He was apparently officiating minister at All Hallows, Lombard Street, where, on 12 Oct. 1653, he and [q. v.] had ‘a very famous dispute’ with two ministers whose names are not known (cf. Mercurius Politicus, 13–20 Oct. 1653;, A Monstrous Dispute; , The Picture of Mercurius Politicus). At this time Webster was famous as a preacher. His attitude towards university teaching, or as he called it ‘humane or acquired learning,’ led him into some controversy, and was, he states, much misunderstood. In his endeavour to make his position clear he published in 1654 his ‘Academiarum Examen,’ in the epistle to which he asserts that he intends not ‘to traduce or calumniate the academies themselves, but only the corruptions that time and negligence hath introduced there.’ He gives vent, however, to his tendency towards mysticism in his expressed admiration of Jacob Boehmen (p. 26), and his recommendation of the study of astrology (p. 51). The book was answered by [q. v.], bishop of Salisbury, under the signature H. D., the final letters of both his names, with a prefatory epistle by [q. v.], bishop of Chester, also signed with final letters, N.S., and which has in consequence been assigned to (1606?–1678) [q. v.] (1610–1665) [q. v.] also wrote a reply entitled ‘Histrio-Mastix: a Whip for Webster,’ at the end of his ‘Vindiciæ Literarum.’ In 1654 he was occupied in a controversy with [q. v.] In 1657 Webster was residing at Clitheroe. The following year his books were seized and taken away from him, but for what cause does not appear. He now seems to have given up the ministry and to have devoted himself to the study of metallurgy and the practice of medicine.

It was at this time, as also later when his age interfered with active practice, that he prepared his ‘Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft’ (London, 1677; Halle, 1719. German translation, with preface by Christian Thomas), in which he attacked the credulous views of [q. v.], [q. v.], and (1614–1687) [q. v.]

Webster died on 18 June 1682, and was buried on the 21st at Clitheroe. His works show that his active, impressionable mind passed through many phases of religious conviction, and it is difficult to reconcile the authorship of ‘The Judgment Set’ with that of the ‘Examen’ or the ‘Displaying.’ Ward accuses Webster of ignorance (Vindiciæ Academiarum, p. 1), but he was acquainted with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, German, Italian, and French.

He was evidently married, as Thoresby (Diary, i. 393) mentions obtaining information respecting him from ‘a minister who married his widow.’

Hall, in the title to his ‘Histrio-Mastix,’ sarcastically speaks of Webster ‘as (as 'tis conceived) the Quondam Player,’ and for some time it seems to have been taken for granted that the ‘Examen’ was written by his namesake, the dramatist. On the strength of Hall's ‘conceived’ opinion, Payne Collier (Poetical Decameron, ii. 260 et seq.) absurdly accepts the ‘Examen’ as the work of the more famous John Webster, and compares passages in it with some in the ‘Duchess of Malfi’ to support his view. Thence he foolishly argues that the ‘Saint's Guide’ was also by the dramatist. He makes, however, no mention of the ‘Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft.’ The identity of the author of the ‘Examen’ with that of the ‘Displaying,’ which had been previously stated by Henry More in his attack on Webster in the ‘Præfatio Generalissima’ to the Latin edition of his works (vol. ii. pp. xvi–xvii), was finally established by Dyce in the introduction to his ‘Works of Webster the Dramatist.’ Dyce at the same time disposed of the ridiculous ascription of the ‘Examen’ and other works to the dramatist. Webster took pleasure in signing himself ‘Johannes Hyphastes,’ and the pseudonym appears on his memorial tablet in Clitheroe church.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Levy, Jakob

LEVY, lā'vḗ, (1819-92). A Jewish Orientalist, born at Dobrzyze, in Posen. He was educated at Breslau; in 1845 became Rabbi at Rosenberg, and in 1850 went to Breslau, where he taught (1871-75) in a Jewish school and later in the university. His principal works are: Chaldäisches Wörterbuch über die Targumim (1867-68), and a Neuhebräisches und chaldäisches Wörterbuch über die Talmudim und Midraschim (1876 sqq.).