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Rh In 1796, probably before his return to Paris, Vaughan published at Strasburg a pamphlet entitled "De l'état politique et économique de la France sous sa Constitution de l'an 3." It professed to be a translation from the German, made by a foreigner who craved excuse for inaccuracies of idiom. It is an unqualified panegyric of the Directory, a system of government to be envied, according to Vaughan, even by America, much more by England, Switzerland, and Holland. There is an incidental reference to the Reign of Terror as a political inquisition whose rigour equalled that of the Spanish tribunal, and there is a very just remark attributing the atrocities of the Revolution in part to the despotism and superstition under which its leaders had been trained. Vaughan likewise observes that the mob generally respected private property, frequently yielded to the voice of reason, and were rarely intoxicated, "which"—an evident fling at the London and Birmingham rioters—"cannot be said of mobs everywhere." It is surprising, however, to find him not merely extolling the cumbrous and corrupt system of the Directory, but confidently predicting its durability and an era of peace and prosperity. He was manifestly wanting in political foresight. He was also smitten with the craze of the Revolution being a fulfilment of the Book of Daniel, and wrote a treatise on the subject, but had the good sense to suppress it, the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Broke, Richard

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Broke, Robert


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96 printer saving one copy for Grégoire. A Unitarian should have escaped the prophecy interpretation mania, but the Revolution upheaval turned merchants into fanatics and rationalists into mystics. Stone's acquittal ought to have rendered Vaughan's return to England perfectly safe, and his brother-in-law, William Manning, M.P. for Plymton and a staunch Tory, was assured by Pitt that he might resume his parliamentary duties; but Vaughan suspected a snare. This was of course absurd, but it shows the atmosphere of distrust which then prevailed. After living a year with Skipwith, the American consul in Paris, he joined his family and his brother Charles at Hallowell, where his descendants still live. He had two other brothers at Philadelphia. One of these, John, a friend of Washington and Humboldt, and secretary to the American Philosophical Society, was a bit of an oddity. Generous in other matters, he had a dislike to the non-return of borrowed umbrellas, and he printed in large letters on his own, "This umbrella was stolen from John Vaughan." A friend once took this, all unconscious of the inscription, until Vaughan's Portuguese errand-boy perceived it and claimed the article. A fourth brother William was a merchant in London, where Benjamin's third


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Huish at Brighton on 22 March 1896. In accordance with his known wishes his funeral was strictly private, and he was buried in the Brighton cemetery. Besides his wife he left six surviving children, three sons and three daughters. Two died in childhood, and a son, who was a soldier, died some years before his father after military experience in South Africa. A fine statue of Tom Hughes by Brock has been erected in the school grounds at Rugby.

There are two original portraits, both by Lowes Dickinson one painted when he was a little over forty years of age, in the possession of his daughter, Mrs. Cornish; the other when he was seventy, in the possession of Mrs. Hughes. An addition that is about to be made to the buildings of the Working Men's College is to be a memorial of his principalship and to bear his name.

In addition to the books which have been mentioned—‘Tom Brown's School Days,’ ‘Tom Brown at Oxford,’ ‘The Scouring of the White Horse,’ ‘The Memoir of a Brother,’ ‘The Manliness of Christ’—Hughes wrote Lives of Bishop Fraser (1887), of Daniel Macmillan (1882), of Livingstone (1889), and of Alfred the Great (1869), ‘The Old Church’ (1878), ‘Rugby, Tennessee’ (1881), ‘Gone to Texas’ (1884). Many of his addresses and shorter compositions were printed in pamphlet form. A series of his letters to the ‘Spectator’ were published in his lifetime by his daughter, Mrs. Cornish, under the title of ‘Vacation Rambles’ (1895). A short fragment of autobiography, which has been privately printed, contains some memories of his early youth and manhood.

[Personal knowledge and information given by friends; Hughes's Memoir of a Brother; an article by J. M. Ludlow, ‘Thomas Hughes and Septimus Hansard,’ in the Economic Review, July 1896; Life of F. D. Maurice; Brit. Mus. Cat.; Off. Ret. Members of Parl.; Lincoln's Inn Records; Foster's Alumni Oxon. 1715-1886, and Men at the Bar; Men of the Time, 13th ed.]

 HUISH, ROBERT (1777–1850), miscellaneous writer, son of Mark Huish of Nottingham, was born there in 1777. He appears to have begun his literary career by writing a readable little treatise on bee-culture, which was afterwards expanded and issued in various forms. This was the one subject on which he may perhaps be termed an expert. His other works are nearly all poor examples of anecdotal, quasi-historical bookmaking. They occasionally embellish a blank space in biography with a great quantity of loose and fragmentary gossip, but the ‘Quarterly Review’ spoke of him with no great injustice as an obscure and unscrupulous scribbler. His fecundity was remarkable, as witnessed by his voluminous compilations during 1835-6. He executed a few translations from the German, and in his later years some novels of a very low type. He died in Camberwell in April 1850.

His works comprise : 1. ‘A Treatise on the Nature, Economy, and Practical Management of Bees,’ London, 1815, 8vo. 2. ‘Memoirs of her late Royal Highness Princess Charlotte Augusta,’ 1818, 8vo, with a separately issued supplement, 1818. 3. ‘The Public and Private Life of George III,’ 1821, 4to. 4. ‘An Authentic History of the Coronation of George IV,’ 1821. 5. ‘Memoirs of Caroline, Queen of Great Britain,’ 1821, 2 vols. 12mo. 6. ‘Authentic Memoir of ... Frederick, Duke of York and Albany,’ 1827, 8vo. 7. ‘Memoirs of George IV,’ London, 1830, 2 vols. 8. ‘The Historical Galleries of Celebrated Men’ (authentic portraits), 1830; only one volume published. 9. ‘The Wonders of the Animal Kingdom,’ London, 1830. 10. ‘The Last Voyage of Captain Sir John Ross ... to the Arctic Regions in 1829-33,’ London, 1835. 11. ‘The Travels of Richard and John Lander. . . into the interior of Africa,’ 1835 (with a résumé of previous African travel). 12. ‘A Narrative of the Voyages of ... Captain Beechey to the Pacific and Behring's Straits,’ London, 1836. 13. ‘The History of the Private and Political Life of Henry Hunt, Esq., his Times and Co-temporaries,’ 1836. 14. ‘Memoirs of William Cobbett, Esq.,’ 1836, 2 vols. 15. ‘The Memoirs, Private and Political, of Daniel O'Connell,’ 1836. 16. ‘The History of the Life and Reign of William IV, the Reform Monarch of England,’ 1837. 17. ‘The Natural History and General Management of Bees,’ 1844. 18. ‘The Progress of Crime; or, Authentic Memoirs of Marie Manning,’ 1849, 8vo. Nearly all his books exhibit violent anti-Tory prejudices.

[Gent. Mag. 1850, i. 681; Quarterly Review, liv. 5; Athenæum, 1842, p. 583; Brit. Mus. Cat.]

 HULKE, JOHN WHITAKER (1830–1895), surgeon, born on 6 Nov. 1830, was fourth son of William Hulke, surgeon, living at Deal in Kent. He was from 1843 to 1845 educated at the Moravian College, Neuwied. Here he gained his intimate knowledge of the German language and the groundwork of his acquaintance with natural history; here, too, in the Eifel district, his interest


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Rh son, Petty, became his partner, and lived till 1854. A fifth brother, Samuel, settled in Jamaica. As for Benjamin, he was a Conservative in American politics; he doctored his neighbours gratuitously, was honoured and respected, and died a year after his wife, in 1835, bequeathing parts of a fine library to Harvard University and Bowdoin College. Of all the English exiles in Paris he seems to have had the peacefullest old age, but not recalling his French experiences with pleasure, was not accustomed to speak of them. "The happiest man I ever saw," says one who knew him well. Thomas Muir, a Scotch advocate, had the prospect of a prosecution for treason when he went to France in 1793, for he had been one of the leaders of the Edinburgh Convention, which, except that its sittings were opened with prayer, imitated the forms of the Paris Assembly. He boldly returned, however, denied that he had fled from prosecution, and conducted his own defence. He was sentenced to fourteen years' transportation, but escaped from Botany Bay in an American vessel in February 1796, and made his way to Paris, where he died three years afterwards. Sampson Perry's departure for France was confessedly a flight from a press prosecution. He had been fined £100 for alleging in his scurrilous Argus that the ministers had published false news for stock-jobbing purposes. In face of a conviction for


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98 libel on the House of Commons, for denying that it represented the nation, he went, in January 1793, to Paris, which he reached in time to join the British Revolutionary Club, where he must have found congenial associates. The club originated in a dinner held on November 18th, 1792, to celebrate French victories. Stone presided, Lord Edward Fitzgerald was present, and the toasts included "The speedy abolition of hereditary titles and feudal distinctions in England," "The coming Convention of Great Britain and Ireland," "The lady defenders of the Revolution, particularly Mrs. Charlotte Smith, Miss Williams, and Mrs. Barbauld;" "Paine and the new way of making good books known by a royal proclamation and King's Bench prosecution;" "The English patriots, Priestley, Fox, Sheridan, Christie, Cooper, Tooke, and Mackintosh." On the 28th the address adopted at this dinner was presented to the Convention. It stated that notwithstanding the sudden departure of the Ambassador, the British residents had uniformly experienced the utmost cordiality and friendship from the French people. A weekly gathering commenced on the 16th December, when the president of the section delivered an address in French. The "party of conspirators here," wrote Monro on December 17th, "have formed themselves into a society," prepared for the most desperate measures against their native country. They included Sir Robert Smith, a banker at Paris,


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Huish, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Brome, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Brome, Thomas


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bromfield, William (1712-1792)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bromfield, William Arnold


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 Bateman  [Burke's Landed Gentry; Worthing Gazette, 8 Dec. 1897; Times, 2 Dec. 1897; Allibone's Dict. of Engl. Lit.; Simms's Bibliotheca Stafford.]  BATEMAN, JOHN FREDERIC LA TROBE-, formerly styled (1810–1889), civil engineer, born at Lower Wyke, near Halifax, on 30 May 1810, was the eldest son of John Bateman (1772–1851), by his wife Mary Agnes, daughter of Benjamin La Trobe, a Moravian missionary at Fairfield, near Ashton-under-Lyne. At the age of seven he was sent to the Moravian school at Fairfield, and two years later to the Moravian school at Ockbrook, returning after four years more to the Fairfield school. When fifteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor and mining engineer of Oldham named Dunn, and in 1833 he commenced business on his own account as a civil engineer. In 1834 he investigated the causes of the floods in the river Medlock, which led him to study hydraulic questions more closely. In 1835 he was associated with (Sir) William Fairbairn [q. v.], who early appreciated his ability, in laying out the reservoirs on the river Bann in Ireland. From that time he was almost continually employed in the construction of reservoirs and waterworks. In all his undertakings he advocated soft water in preference to hard, and favoured gravitation schemes where they were practicable to avoid the necessity of pumping. He devoted much attention to methods of measuring rainfall, accumulated a quantity of statistics on the subject, and wrote several papers describing his observations.

The greatest system of waterworks which Bateman undertook was that connected with Manchester. In 1844 he was first consulted in regard to the Manchester and Salford water supply. About 1846 the project was formed of obtaining water from the Pennine hills; the works in Longdendale were commenced in 1848 and were finished in the spring of 1877. In 1884 Bateman published a ‘History and Description of the Manchester Waterworks’ (London and Manchester, 4to), which deals with many points of interest to the student of hydraulic engineering. The Longdendale scheme, however, had been designed to supply a population less than half that of Manchester in 1882, and it was clear that additional sources of supply must be looked for. At Bateman's suggestion the corporation resolved to construct new works at Lake Thirlmere. A bill was introduced into parliament in 1878, and, after rejection, was passed in 1879, and Bateman superintended the commencement of the new works. In this undertaking he was associated with Mr. George Hill of Manchester.

In 1852 he was requested to advise the town council of Glasgow in regard to the water supply of the city. In the parliamentary session of 1854–5, on Bateman's advice, a bill was obtained for the supply of water from Loch Katrine. The works were commenced in the spring of 1856 and were completed by March 1860. They extend over thirty-four miles, and were described by James M. Gale as worthy to ‘bear comparison with the most extensive aqueducts in the world, not excluding those of ancient Rome’ (Transactions of the Institution of Engineers in Scotland, 1863–4, vii. 27).

Among other important waterworks by Bateman may be mentioned the systems for Warrington, Accrington, Oldham, Ashton, Blackburn, Stockdale, Halifax, Dewsbury, St. Helens, Kendal, Belfast, Dublin, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Chorley, Bolton, Darwen, Macclesfield, Chester, Birkenhead, Gloucester, Aberdare, Perth, Forfar, Wolverhampton, Colne Valley, Colne and Marsden, and Cheltenham. In 1855 he prepared an important paper for the British Association ‘On the present state of our Knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns,’ enunciating the general nature of the problem, giving an historical outline of previous measures, enumerating the various sources from which towns could be supplied, and discussing their comparative merits. In 1865 he published a pamphlet ‘On the Supply of Water to London from the Sources of the River Severn’ (Westminster, 8vo), which created considerable discussion. He designed and surveyed the scheme at his own expense, at the cost of 4,000l. or 5,000l. A royal commission was held, and in 1868 it reported very much in favour of the project. It was purely a gravitation scheme, designed at an estimated outlay of 11,400,023l. to convey to London 230,000,000 gallons of water a day. Bateman was connected with various harbour and dock trusts throughout the British Isles, including the Clyde Navigation Trust, for which he was consulting engineer, and the Shannon Inundation Inquiry in 1863, on which he was employed by government.

In addition to his many undertakings at home Bateman carried out several works abroad. In 1869 he proposed, in a pamphlet entitled ‘Channel Railway,’ written in conjunction with Julian John Révy, to construct a submarine railway between France and England in a cast-iron tube. In the same year he went out as representative of the Royal Society, on the invitation of the khedive, to attend the opening of the Suez


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Rh Paine, Frost, Rayment, Sayer, Joyce, Henry Redhead Yorke, and Robert Merry, husband of the actress Miss Brunton. Dissensions soon broke out. Frost and Paine quarrelled, the latter being intolerably arrogant, and on December 31st, Monro reported:—

"Our countrymen here who have been endeavouring to ruin their country are now really beneath the notice of any one, struggling for consequence among themselves, jealous of one another, differing in opinion, and even insignificant in a body; they are, excepting a few, heartily tired of politics and addresses [to the Convention]. . . . They are now dwindling into nothing."

A second address, advocated by Paine and Merry, but opposed by Frost and Macdonald of the Morning Post, was near causing blows. The Convention, too, was tired of the nonsense of British addresses, perceiving the insignificance of the persons who presented them. Monro's despatches end in January 1793, for he had been denounced as a spy by Thompson, a bookseller, who recollected seeing him in London, and he deemed it prudent to quit Paris; but we learn from other sources that in February the club was dissolved, the majority, after a warm discussion, deciding to take no further part in politics. The two Sheares, "men of desperate designs, capable of setting fire to the dockyards," had previously gone back. Young Daniel O'Connell crossed over in the same packet, when their exultations over


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 ) such laws would be null and void, and all persons who acted under them, would be subject to actions in the State Courts.  If a court of the United States should enter a judgment against a State which refused to appear in an action brought against it by a citizen of another State, or by a foreign State, such judgment would be void and all persons who act under it would be trespassers.  These cases appear so plain that they will hardly be disputed.  It is only in considering  cases that our minds feel a difficulty in deciding.  But, if in the plainest case which can be considered, the State Courts may declare a judgment [of the U. S. Courts] to be void, the  is established."

Thus we see that this able and impartial Judge, although deciding the case before him against his own State, yet clearly and unequivocally asserts, that even the tribunals of a State have a right to annul the federal usurpations that may be brought before them. In how much higher degree, then, must this right exist in the sovereign power of the States which created not only these tribunals, but the Federal Government itself. [See Appendix. Note B.]

1st. Judge Parsons.—Having shown from the reports in the law books, the complete exemplification of this sovereign and rightful remedy of the States, on the part of Pennsylvania, citing in support of the principle the able opinion of Chief Justice Tilghman, I now proceed to exhibit sundry assertions of this doctrine in the State of Massachusetts, and first by Chief Justice Parsons whose words upon this subject, in his speech in the Massachusetts Conventions, (Jany. 1788) are as follows:—

"There is another check, founded on the nature of the Union, superior to all the parchment checks that can be invented. If there should be an usurpation, it will not be upon the farmer and merchant occupied solely with their several pursuits—It will be upon thirteen Legislatures completely organized, possessed of the confidence of the people, and having the means, as well as the inclination to oppose it successfully.  Under these circumstances none but madmen would attempt an usurpation.—But Sir, the People themselves, have it in their power effectually to resist usurpation, without being driven to an appeal to arms.  An act of usurpation is not obligatory—it is not law!! Any man may be justified in his resistance to it.  Let him be considered as a criminal by the General Government—yet his own fellow citizens alone can convict him.—They are his Jury; and if they pronounce him innocent not all the powers of Congress can hurt him—and innocent they certainly will pronounce him, if the supposed law which he resisted, was an act of usurpations."

2d. Gov. Hancock.—This stern Republican Patriarch has given one of the first instances of practical nullification on record, in his resistance to Federal usurpation, as early as 1793, by refusing to obey a summons of the U. S. Courts for the appearance of Massachusetts to a suit then commenced against her.

3d. The Embargo.—The Senate of Massachusetts in one of their official documents, dated February 3d, 1808, used the following language—"We beg leave to observe that those rights which the people have not chosen to part with, should be exercised with much delicacy, and only at times of great danger, not with distraction or confusion, not to oppose the Laws—but to prevent Acts being respected as Laws which are unwarranted by the commission given to their Rulers. On such occasions passive submission would, on the part of the people, be a breach of their allegiance, and, on our part, treachery and perjury—For the people are bound, by their allegiance, and we are additionally bound by our oaths, to support the Constitution and the State—and we are responsible to the people and to our God for the faithful execution of the trust."

Again, the Legislature of Massachusetts, in 1809, passed the following resolution:

"Resolved, That the said Act of Congress passed on the 9th of January, in the present year, for enforcing the Act laying an embargo, and the several Acts supplementary thereto, are in the opinion of this Legislature, in many respects unjust, oppressive and unconstitutional, and not legally binding on the citizens of this State."

Thus we find the Legislature of a State, whose citizens are now abusing us as traitors, absolutely and entirely absolving her citizens from obedience to this regular war measure of Congress, passed in perfect conformity with their powers under the Constitution—and thus practising most unrighteously the very doctrine, at the bare mention of which, in our case, [so fully warranting its adoption,] these worthy people pretend to be so greatly horrified. See Appendix. Note C.

CHAPTER V.

CONNECTICUT NULLIFICATION.

Having in my last Chapters given some very perfect specimens of this remedy in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, we come now to the land, most emphatically of steady habits. Here, again, we find this doctrine practised in perfection, both by the Legislature, and by convention.

We must premise, however, that in giving these instances of Nullification, which occurred at the time of the embargo; we do not present them at all in the light of a justification to ourselves for adopting these doctrines—for indeed, we require no justification in a case so palpably warrantable and correct as our own—whilst the Nullifiers of the embargo now find none so bold as to vindicate or uphold them in their unhallowed and unauthorized attempt to paralize and destroy their country in the progress of a fearful contest with a gigantic adversary—but we produce them merely to refute the unfounded and absurd declarations of our opponents, that Nullification has never been practised in our country—and to show that the very vilest species of resistance to the Federal Government, has proceeded from that quarter, which is now most abusive of the South.

1st. Nullification by the Legislature.

In the year 1809, a very useful, judicious and truly impartial war measure of the United States, passed into a law by Congress, was thus repealed and nullified by the Legislature of Connecticut.

"Resolved, That to preserve the Union, and support the Constitution of the United States, it becomes the duty of the Legislature of the States, in such a crisis of affairs, vigilantly to watch and vigilantly to maintain the powers not delegated to the United States, but reserved to the States respectively, or to the people—and that a due regard to this duty will not permit the assembly to assist or concur in giving effect to the aforesaid unconstitutional Acts.

Resolved, That this assembly highly approve the conduct of his Excellency the Governor in declining to designate persons to carry into effect, by aid of military powers, the Acts of the United States, enforcing the embargo—and that his letter,


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100 the king's fate, coupled with the excesses he had witnessed at St. Omer and Douai, rendered him a violent Tory. The Sheares were executed at Dublin in 1798. They had gone to France because Henry Sheare's motherless children were living there with their grandfather, Swete; had been intimate with Roland and Brissot, and had denounced Irish misrule at the clubs. John Sheare is said to have been enamoured of the republican heroine Théroigne de Mericourt, who, however, had given up Venus for Mars. Frost, a solicitor, was sentenced, on his return, to six months' imprisonment and an hour in the pillory, the latter punishment being remitted because he would have been applauded. Joyce was arrested in 1794 for sedition. "He was getting up in the morning," says Lady Hester Stanhope, "and was just blowing his nose, as people do the moment before they come down to breakfast, when a single knock came to the door, and in bolted two officers with a warrant, and took him off" without even my father's knowledge." Joyce, a Unitarian minister, had been acting as secretary and tutor in the Stanhope household. On the acquittal of Hardy he was discharged. Yorke, who underwent two years' imprisonment for conspiracy, changed his opinions, and in 1803 published "Letters from


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Bateman-Champain Canal, and wrote a long report of his visit, which was read to the Society on 6 Jan. 1870, and published in the ‘Proceedings.’ In the winter of 1870–1 he visited Buenos Ayres, at the request of the Argentine government, for the purpose of laying out harbour works for that city. His plans were not adopted, but he was afterwards employed to design and carry out the drainage and water supply of the city. In 1874 he prepared water schemes for Naples and Constantinople, and he was also engineer for some reclamation schemes in Spain and Majorca. The crown agents to the colonies employed him in Ceylon to design and carry out works for supplying Colombo with water.

For forty-eight years, from 1833 to 1881, Bateman directed his business alone. From 1881 to 1885 he was in partnership with George Hill, and in 1888 he took as partners his son-in-law, Richard Clere Parsons, and his son, Lee La Trobe Bateman. Bateman was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers on 23 June 1840, and a fellow of the Royal Society of London on 7 June 1860. He was president of the Institution in 1878 and 1879. He was also a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Geographical Society, the Geological Society, the Society of Arts, and the Royal Institution. In 1883 he assumed by royal license the prefix, surname, and arms of La Trobe, in compliment to his grandfather.

Bateman died on 10 June 1889 at his residence, Moor Park, Farnham, an estate which he had purchased in 1859. On 1 Sept. 1841 he married Anne, only daughter of Sir William Fairbairn. By her he had three sons and four daughters.

[Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1888–9, xcvii. 392–8; Biograph, 1881, vi. 103; Proceedings of the Royal Soc. of London, 1889, vol. xlvi. pp. xlii–xlviii; Burke's Landed Gentry.]  BATEMAN-CHAMPAIN, JOHN UNDERWOOD (1835–1887), colonel, royal (late Bengal) engineers, son of Colonel Agnew Champain of the 9th foot (d. 1876), was born in Gloucester Place, London, on 22 July 1835. Educated at Cheltenham College and for a short time in fortification and military drawing at the Edinburgh Military Academy under Lieutenant (afterwards Colonel Sir) Henry Yule [q. v.], he passed through the military college of the East India Company at Addiscombe at the head of his term, receiving the Pollock medal. He obtained a commission as second lieutenant in the Bengal engineers on 11 June 1853. His further commissions were dated: lieutenant 13 July 1857, captain 1 Sept. 1863, major 5 July 1872, lieutenant-colonel 31 Dec. 1878, and colonel 31 Dec. 1882. He assumed the name of Bateman in addition to that of Champain in 1872 on succeeding to the estate of Halton Park, Lancashire.

After the usual course of professional instruction at Chatham he went to India in 1854. While acting as assistant principal of the Thomason college at Rurki in 1857 the Indian mutiny broke out, and he at once saw active service under Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Archdale Wilson [q. v.], was adjutant of sappers and miners at the actions at Ghazi-ud-din-Nagar on the Hindun river on 30 and 31 May, at Badli-ke-Serai under Major-general Bernard on 8 June, and at the capture of the ridge in front of Delhi. During the siege of Delhi Champain took his full share of general engineer work in addition to his duties as adjutant, and one of the siege batteries was named after him by order of the chief engineer in acknowledgment of his services. He was wounded by a grape shot on 13 Sept., but, although still on the sick list, volunteered for duty on 20 Sept., and was present at the capture of the palace of Delhi.

Champain commanded the head-quarters detachment of Bengal sappers during the march to Agra, at the capture of Fathpur Sikri, and in numerous minor expedtions. He commanded a mixed force of nearly two thousand men on the march from Agra to Fathgarh, where he joined the commander-in-chief in December 1857. He commanded the sappers during the march to Cawnpore and to the Alambagh, reverting to the adjutancy in March 1858, when he joined the force under Sir James Outram [q. v.] for the siege of Lucknow by Lord Clyde. During the siege he thrice acted as orderly officer to Sir Robert Napier, afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala [q. v.], by whom he was especially thanked for holding with Captain Medley and one hundred sappers for a whole night the advanced post of Shah Najif, which had been abandoned.

After the capture of Lucknow he erected some twenty fortified posts for outlying detachments. In April he was specially employed under Brigadier-general (afterwards Sir) John Douglas in the Ghazipur and Shahabad districts, was present in fourteen minor engagements, and was thanked in despatches for his services at the action of Balia. He joined in the pursuit of the mutineers, who, after incessant marching and fighting, were driven to the Kaimur Hills and finally defeated and broken up at Salia


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Zoonomia/II.Preface

PART II.

CONTAINING

A CATALOGUE OF DISEASES

DISTRIBUTED INTO

NATURAL CLASSES ACCORDING TO THEIR PROXIMATE CAUSES,

WITH THEIR

SUBSEQUENT ORDERS, GENERA, AND SPECIES,

AND WITH

THEIR METHODS OF CURE.

 * Hæc, ut potero, explicabo; nec tamen, quasi Pythius Apollo, certa ut sint et fixa, quæ dixero; sed ut Homunculus unus e multis probabiliora conjecturâ sequens.— l. 1. 9.

All diseases originate in the exuberance, deficiency, or retrograde action, of the faculties of the sensorium, as their proximate cause; and consist in the disordered motions of the fibres of the body, as the proximate effect of the exertions of those disordered faculties.

The sensorium possesses four distinct powers, or faculties, which are occasionally exerted, and produce all the motions of the fibrous parts of the body; these are the faculties of producing fibrous motions in consequence of irritation which is excited by external bodies; in consequence of sensation which is excited by pleasure or pain; in consequence of volition which is excited by desire or aversion; and in consequence of association which is excited by other fibrous motions. We are hence supplied with four natural classes of diseases derived from their proximate causes; which we shall term those of irritation, those of sensation, those of volition, and those of association.

In the subsequent classification of diseases I have not adhered to the methods of any of those, who have preceded me; the principal of whom are the great names of Sauvages and Cullen; but have nevertheless availed myself, as much as I could, of their definitions and distinctions.

The essential characteristic of a disease consists in its proximate cause, as is well observed by Doctor Cullen, in his Nosologia Methodica, T. ii. Prolegom. p. xxix. Similitudo quidem morborum in similitudine causæ eorum proximæ, qualiscunque sit, reverâ consistit. I have taken the proximate cause for the classic character. The characters of the orders are taken from the excess, or deficiency, or retrograde action, or other properties of the proximate cause. The genus is generally derived from the proximate effect. And the species generally from the locality of the disease in the system.

Many species in this system are termed genera in the systems of other writers; and the species of those writers are in consequence here termed varieties. Thus in Dr. Cullen's Nosologia the variola or small-pox is termed a genus, and the distinct and confluent kinds are termed species. But as the infection from the distinct kind frequently produces the confluent kind, and that of the confluent kind frequently produces the distinct; it would seem more analogous to botanical arrangement, which these nosologists profess to imitate, to call the distinct and confluent small-pox varieties than species. Because the species of plants in botanical systems propagate others similar to themselves; which does not uniformly occur in such vegetable productions as are termed varieties.

In some other genera of nosologists the species have no analogy to each other, either in respect to their proximate cause, or to their proximate effect, though they may he somewhat similar in less essential properties; thus the thin and saline discharge from the nostrils on going into the cold air of a frosty morning, which is owing to the deficient action of the absorbent vessels of the nostrils, is one species; and the viscid mucus discharged from the secerning vessels of the same membrane, when inflamed, is another species of the same genus, Catarrhus. Which bear no analogy either in respect to their immediate cause or to their immediate effect.

The uses of the method here offered to the public of classing diseases according to their proximate causes are, first, more distinctly to understand their nature by comparing their essential properties. Secondly, to facilitate the knowledge of the methods of cure; since in natural classification of diseases the species of each genus, and indeed the genera of each order, a few perhaps excepted, require the same general medical treatment. And lastly, to discover the nature and the name of any disease previously unknown to the physician; which I am persuaded will be more readily and more certainly done by this natural system, than by the artificial classifications already published.

The common names of diseases are not well adapted to any kind of classification, and least of all to this from their proximate causes. Some of their names in common language are taken from the remote cause, as worms, stone of the bladder; others from the remote effect, as diarrhœa, salivation, hydrocephalus; others from some accidental symptom of the disease, as tooth-ach, head-ach, heart-burn; in which the pain is only a concomitant circumstance of the excess or deficiency of fibrous actions, and not the cause of them. Others again are taken from the deformity occasioned in consequence of the unnatural fibrous motions, which constitute diseases, as tumours, eruptions, extenuations; all these therefore improperly give names to diseases; and some difficulty is thus occasioned to the reader in endeavouring to discover to what class such disorders belong.

Another difficulty attending the names of diseases is, that one name frequently includes more than one disease, either existing at the same time or in succession. Thus the pain of the bowels from worms is caused by the increased action of the membrane from the stimulus of those animals; but the convulsions, which sometimes succeed these pains in children, are caused by the consequent volition, and belong to another class.

To discover under what class any disease should be arranged, we must first investigate the proximate cause; thus the pain of the tooth-ach is not the cause of any diseased motions, but the effect; the tooth-ach therefore does not belong to the class of Sensation. As the pain is caused by increased or decreased action of the membranes of the tooth, and these actions are owing to the increase or decrease of irritation, the disease is to be placed in the class of irritation.

To discover the order it must be inquired, whether the pain be owing to increased or defective motion of the pained membrane; which is known by the concomitant heat or coldness of the part. In tooth-ach without inflammation there is generally a coldness attends the cheek in its vicinity; as may be perceived by the hand of the patient himself, compared with the opposite cheek. Hence odontalgia is found to belong to the order of decreased irritation. The genus and species must be found by inspecting the synopsis of the second order of the class of Irritation. See Class I. 2. 4. 12.

This may be further elucidated by considering the natural operation of parturition; the pain is occasioned by the increased action or distention of the vessels of the uterus, in consequence of the stimulus of the fetus; and is therefore caused by increased irritation; but the action of the abdominal muscles in its exclusion are caused by the pain, and belong to the class of increased sensation. See Class II. 1. 1. 12. Hence the difficulty of determining, under what class of diseases parturition should be arranged, consists in there being two kinds of diseased actions comprehended under one word; which have each their different proximate cause.

In Sect. XXXIX. 8. 4. and in Class II. 1. 1. 1. we have endeavoured to give names to four links of animal causation, which conveniently apply to the classification of diseases; thus in common nictitation, or winking with the eyes without our attention to it, the increased irritation is the proximate cause; the stimulus of the air on the dry cornea is the remote cause; the closing of the eyelid is the proximate effect; and the diffusion of tears over the eye-ball is the remote effect. In some cases two more links of causation may be introduced; one of them may be termed the pre-remote cause; as the warmth or motion of the atmosphere, which causes greater exhalation from the cornea. And the other the post-remote effect; as the renewed pellucidity of the cornea; and thus six links of causation may be expressed in words.

But if amid these remote links of animal causation any of the four powers or faculties of the sensorium be introduced, the reasoning is not just according to the method here proposed; for these powers of the sensorium are always the proximate causes of the contractions of animal fibres; and therefore in true language cannot be termed their remote causes. From this criterion it may always be determined, whether more diseases than one are comprehended under one name; a circumstance which has much impeded the investigation of the causes, and cures of diseases.

Thus the term fever, is generally given to a collection of morbid symptoms; which are indeed so many distinct diseases, that sometimes appear together, and sometimes separately; hence it has no determinate meaning, except it signifies simply a quick pulse, which continues for some hours; in which sense it is here used.

In naming diseases I have endeavoured to avoid the affectation of making new compound Greek words, where others equally expressive could be procured: as a short periphrasis is easier to be understood, and less burthensome to the memory.

In the Methodus Medendi, which is marked by M.M. at the end of many of the species of diseases, the words incitantia, sorbentia, torpentia, &c. refer to the subsequent articles of the Materia Medica, explaining the operations of medicines.

The remote causes of many diseases, their periods, and many circumstances concerning them, are treated of in the preceding volume; the descriptions of many of them, which I have omitted for the sake of brevity, may be seen in the Nosologia Methodica of Sauvages, and in the Synopsis Nosologiæ of Dr. Cullen, and in the authors to which they refer.

In this arduous undertaking the author solicits the candour of the critical reader; as he cannot but foresee, that many errors will be discovered, many additional species will require to be inserted; and others to be transplanted, or erased. If he could expend another forty years in the practice of medicine, he makes no doubt, but that he could bring this work nearer perfection, and thence render it more worthy the attention of philosophers.——As it is, he is induced to hope, that some advantages will be derived from it to the science of medicine, and consequent utility to the public, and leaves the completion of his plan to the industry of future generations.

 * , Jan. 1, 1796.

PART II.

CLASSES OF DISEASES.

 * I. DISEASES OF IRRITATION.
 * II. DISEASES OF SENSATION.
 * III. DISEASES OF VOLITION.
 * IV. DISEASES OF ASSOCIATION.

title: Zoonomia/II.Preface


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Bateman, John Frederic La Trobe-


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Rh France," which were very anti-Gallic Sir Robert Smith was imprisoned more than a year in Paris, went back in November 1801, in quest of his property, returned to London, and died there in 1802. Merry went with his wife to America, and died at Baltimore in 1798. He had belonged at Florence to Madame Piozzi's literary circle, satirised by Gifford. In Paris he wrote odes on the Revolution, as also in 1793 a pamphlet in which he spoke of England as rushing towards an ignominious fall, while France was rapidly rising to a pinnacle of glory and splendour, unmatched even by Athens at the meridian of its greatness. One is reminded of Goethe's distich:—

"Seh' ich den Pilgrim, so kann ich mich nicht der Thrãnen enthalten; Wie beseliget uns Menschen ein falscher Begriff." Of Perry's imprisonment I shall speak presently.


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Zoonomia/II.I

The Orders and Genera of the First Class of Diseases.

CLASS I.

DISEASES OF IRRITATION.

ORDO I.

Increased Irritation.

GENERA.

 * 1. With increased actions of the sanguiferous system.
 * 2. With increased actions of the secerning system.
 * 3. With increased actions of the absorbent system.
 * 4. With increased actions of other cavities and membranes.
 * 5. With increased actions of the organs of sense.

ORDO II.

Decreased Irritation.

GENERA.

 * 1. With decreased actions of the sanguiferous system.
 * 2. With decreased actions of the secerning system.
 * 3. With decreased actions of the absorbent system.
 * 4. With decreased actions of other cavities and membranes.
 * 5. With decreased actions of the organs of sense.

ORDO III.

Retrograde Irritative Motions.

GENERA.

 * 1. Of the alimentary canal.
 * 2. Of the absorbent system.
 * 3. Of the sanguiferous system.

The Orders, Genera, and Species, of the First Class of Diseases.

CLASS I.

DISEASES OF IRRITATION.

ORDO I.

Increased Irritation.

GENUS I.

With Increased Actions of the Sanguiferous System.

SPECIES.

GENUS II.

With Increased Actions of the Secerning System.

SPECIES.

GENUS III.

With increased Actions of the Absorbent System.

SPECIES.

GENUS IV.

With increased Actions of other Cavities and Membranes.

SPECIES.

GENUS V.

With increased Actions of the Organs of Sense.

SPECIES.

ORDO II.

Decreased Irritation.

GENUS I.

With decreased Actions of the Sanguiferous System.

SPECIES.

GENUS II.

With decreased Actions of the Secerning System.

SPECIES.

GENUS III.

With decreased Actions of the Absorbent System.

SPECIES.

GENUS IV.

With decreased Actions of other Cavities and Membranes.

SPECIES.

GENUS V.

With decreased Actions of the Organs of Sense.

SPECIES.

ORDO III.

Retrograde Irritative Motions.

GENUS I.

Of the Alimentary Canal.

SPECIES.

GENUS II.

Of the Absorbent System.

SPECIES.

GENUS III.

Of the Sanguiferous System.

SPECIES.

title: Zoonomia/II.I


text: Englishmen in the French Revolution/Chapter VI


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 106 THE PRE-RENAISSANCE PERIOD

science of the Middle Ages may be strikingly witnessed in the Inferno of the pious Dante where Hippocrates and Galen are joined to the shades of Avicenna and even to that of the hated Averrhoes. (Canto IV l., 144.) There is a curious observation to be made casually in reading Kassel's excerpts from Averrhoes which gives one a hint of the mental vigor of the Arabian, who excited the execration of the churchman and earned a warm place in the Inferno of Dante for himself by his skepticism.

Speaking of the five senses, he declares that animals differ from men in the fact that some of them can smell without possessing the organ for that sense, this being the case with bloodless organisms. In other words, this free thinker, Averrhoes, accepted the testimony of observation even though it went against the (Talenic and Hippocratic acceptation that for voice production we must have an instrumentum vocis, for smelling an "instrumentum odoratum." This is the essence of scientific thought, this is the spark that made the conflagration in Christendom later. It has taken nearly a thousand years to make it a familiar thing to scientific men that bloodless things, like some spiders, can smell with their whole bodies even though they have no nose, but Averrhoes stands alone in the Arabian civilization. If it had lasted longer he might have had associates. It is gratifying to be able to pick out even in our subject this live thing in the dead mentality of medieval thought, one of the things that earned Averrhoes a place in Hell.1

Influence of the Church. — Neverthless, as Guizot says, it is difficult to imagine what would have happened after the downfall of the Roman Empire in Europe if the Christian Church had not been organized. It stepped in first as the handmaid and then as the mistress of the civil power, and thus, by furnishing some sort of authority, having its real foundation deep in the souls and superstitions of men, brought order out of chaos. It was Gregory the Great who was active in the destruction of learning in Italy, but who nevertheless was a great power of cohesion where all things tended to disruption. Gregory VII was the great Hildebrand who, when elected pope, substituted ecclesiastical for imperial tyranny, and in 1077 King Henry of Germany waded barefooted through the snow of the Alps to humble himself at the feet of the pope at Canossa. Again, the civil power gained the ascendancy under that liberal man of genius, Frederick II (1194-1250), king of the two Sicilies, who had imbibed much learning and freedom from superstition by his Arabian education and affiliations. He rendered the greatest service possible to the art of medicine by his decree ordering the dissection of the human body.

1 For an account of Averrliocs and his works by a sympathetic critic, see Rénan; Averroes et l'Averroisme.


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 VI.


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Rh bring out that doodle-doo myself," he said, and sped into the cabin.

"Five." How Slightly longed to say it. He wetted his lips to be ready, but Hook came staggering out, without his lantern.

"Something blew out the light," he said a little unsteadily.

"Something!" echoed Mullins.

"What of Cecco?" demanded Noodler.

"He's as dead as Jukes," said Hook shortly.

His reluctance to return to the cabin impressed them all unfavourably, and the mutinous sounds again broke forth. All pirates are superstitious, and Cookson cried, "They do say the surest sign a ship's accurst is when there's one on board more than can be accounted for."

"I've heard," muttered Mullins, "he always boards the pirate craft at last. Had he a tail, captain?"

"They say," said another, looking viciously at Hook, "that when he comes it's in the likeness of the wickedest man aboard."

"Had he a hook, captain?" asked Cookson insolently; and one after another took up the cry, "The ship's doomed!" At this the children could not resist raising a cheer. Hook had well-nigh forgotten his prisoners, but as he swung round on them now his face lit up again.

"Lads," he cried to his crew, "here's a notion. Rh

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Rh Open the cabin door and drive them in. Let them fight the doodle-doo for their lives. If they kill him, we're so much the better; if he kills them, we're none the worse."

For the last time his dogs admired Hook, and devotedly they did his bidding. The boys, pretending to struggle, were pushed into the cabin and the door was closed on them.

"Now, listen!" cried Hook, and all listened. But not one dared to face the door. Yes, one, Wendy, who all this time had been bound to the mast. It was for neither a scream nor a crow that she was watching, it was for the reappearance of Peter.

She had not long to wait. In the cabin he had found the thing for which he had gone in search: the key that would free the children of their manacles, and now they all stole forth, armed with such weapons as they could find. First signing to them to hide, Peter cut Wendy's bonds, and then nothing could have been easier than for them all to fly off together; but one thing barred the way, an oath, "Hook or me this time." So when he had freed Wendy, he whispered to her to conceal herself with the others, and himself took her place by the mast, her cloak around him so that he should pass for her. Then he took a great breath and crowed.

To the pirates it was a voice crying that all the Rh

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Translation talk:French Nursery Rhymes

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I've found a source of a part of this text. JackPotte (talk) 22:38, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

Link to index
→ Index:Frenchnurseryrhy00bcfruoft.djvu —Beleg Tâl (talk) 17:22, 8 November 2016 (UTC)

title: Translation talk:French Nursery Rhymes


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Rh boys lay slain in the cabin; and they were panic-stricken. Hook tried to hearten them, but like the dogs he had made them they showed him their fangs, and he knew that if he took his eyes off them now they would leap at him.

"Lads," he said, ready to cajole or strike as need be, but never quailing for an instant, "I've thought it out. There's a Jonah aboard."

"Ay," they snarled, "a man wi' a hook."

"No, lads, no, it's the girl. Never was luck on a pirate ship wi' a woman on board. We'll right the ship when she's gone."

Some of them remembered that this had been a saying of Flint's. "It's worth trying," they said doubtfully.

"Fling the girl overboard," cried Hook; and they made a rush at the figure in the cloak.

"There's none can save you now, missy," Mullins hissed jeeringly.

"There's one," replied the figure.

"Who's that?"

"Peter Pan the avenger!" came the terrible answer; and as he spoke Peter flung off his cloak. Then they all knew who 'twas that had been undoing them in the cabin, and twice Hook essayed to speak and twice he failed. In that frightful moment I think his fierce heart broke.

At last he cried, "Cleave him to the brisket!" but without conviction.

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Rh "Down, boys, and at them!" Peter's voice rang out; and in another moment the clash of arms was resounding through the ship. Had the pirates kept together it is certain that they would have won; but the onset came when they were all unstrung, and they ran hither and thither, striking wildly, each thinking himself the last survivor of the crew. Man to man they were the stronger; but they fought on the defensive only, which enabled the boys to hunt in pairs and choose their quarry. Some of the miscreants leapt into the sea, others hid in dark recesses, where they were found by Slightly, who did not fight, but ran about with a lantern which he flashed in their faces, so that they were half blinded and fell an easy prey to the reeking swords of the other boys. There was little sound to be heard but the clang of weapons, an occasional screech or splash, and Slightly monotonously counting—five—six—seven—eight—nine—ten—eleven.

I think all were gone when a group of savage boys surrounded Hook, who seemed to have a charmed life, as he kept them at bay in that circle of fire. They had done for his dogs, but this man alone seemed to be a match for them all. Again and again they closed upon him, and again and again he hewed a clear space. He had lifted up one boy with his hook, and was using him as a buckler, when another, who had just passed Rh

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 VI. IMMIGRANTS AND EMIGRANTS. Palmerston—Insults and Ovations—Clarkson—Wordsworth— Fugitives—Cobbett—Edgeworth.

they were shocked and alarmed by the massacre of September 1792, Paris was still resorted to by people of fashion or leisure as a necessary part of a polite education. The future Duke of Devonshire was born there in 1790, and the future Lord Cholmondeley in January 1792. The Duchess of Devonshire was at Marseilles and Aix at the latter date. The Revolution, indeed, was too unprecedented to allow of forecasts. The curiosity, enthusiasm, or abhorrence with which it inspired British visitors, as also the honours or molestations experienced by some of them, typify the various phases of the Revolution. The future Lord Palmerston, then a boy of eight, had a glimpse of the upheaval, and it would have been interesting to know what impression it made upon him, but his biographer is as silent upon it as Lord Liverpool's in similar circumstances.


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Rh his sword through Mullins, sprang into the fray.

"Put up your swords, boys," cried the newcomer, "this man is mine."

Thus suddenly Hook found himself face to face with Peter. The others drew back and formed a ring round them.

For long the two enemies looked at one another, Hook shuddering slightly, and Peter with the strange smile upon his face.

"So, Pan," said Hook at last, "this is all your doing."

"Ay, James Hook," came the stern answer, "it is all my doing."

"Proud and insolent youth," said Hook, "prepare to meet thy doom."

"Dark and sinister man," Peter answered, "have at thee."

Without more words they fell to, and for a space there was no advantage to either blade. Peter was a superb swordsman, and parried with dazzling rapidity; ever and anon he followed up a feint with a lunge that got past his foe's defence, but his shorter reach stood him in ill stead, and he could not drive the steel home. Hook, scarcely his inferior in brilliancy, but not quite so nimble in wrist play, forced him back by the weight of his onset, hoping suddenly to end all with a favourite thrust, taught him long ago by Barbecue at Rio; Rh

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Rh but to his astonishment he found this thrust turned aside again and again. Then he sought to close and give the quietus with his iron hook, which all this time had been pawing the air; but Peter doubled under it and, lunging fiercely, pierced him in the ribs. At sight of his own blood, whose peculiar colour, you remember, was offensive to him, the sword fell from Hook's hand, and he was at Peter's mercy.

"Now!" cried all the boys, but with a magnificent gesture Peter invited his opponent to pick up his sword. Hook did so instantly, but with a tragic feeling that Peter was showing good form.

Hitherto he had thought it was some fiend fighting him, but darker suspicions assailed him now.

"Pan, who and what art thou?" he cried huskily.

"I'm youth, I'm joy," Peter answered at a venture, "I'm a little bird that has broken out of the egg."

This, of course, was nonsense; but it was proof to the unhappy Hook that Peter did not know in least who or what he was, which is the very pinnacle of good form.

"To't again," he cried despairingly.

He fought now like a human flail, and every sweep of that terrible sword would have severed in twain any man or boy who obstructed it; but Rh

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 {|style="float: right;"
 * Peter and Wendy pg 213.jpg
 * "THIS MAN IS MINE"
 * }
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 A HISTORY OF SUSSEX My friend, the late Mr. H. C. Watson, in his Cybele Britannica, mapped out our island into plant provinces and enumerated the species which occur in each. What have been called types have been thus established. Certain species have been found to extend over all Britain. These are denominated as of the British type. Other species occur chiefly or exclusively in England. Some are limited to Scotland or the north of England and Wales. These are of the Scottish type with which we are not concerned. Plants which are found chiefly in the south-east of England and the counties adjacent to the German Ocean are classified as of the Germanic type. These include the chalk plants of which we have so many examples in Sussex including the insectiform Orchids. Another group of species is met with in the south-west of England and Wales, and occasionally extending far along the western and southern district. This forms what is called the Atlantic type, and is of peculiar interest to us in considering the distribution of the flora of this county. A few of them call for our special notice. One of these is the Cornish money wort (Sibthorpia Europæa), an exquisite little pink trailing flower, which, extending from the Scilly Islands into Cornwall and Devon, passes over west Sussex and occurs in east Sussex near Waldron, and no further in England eastward. This is a fact seemingly inexplicable. Scarcely less so is the case of the yellow bartsia (Bartsia viscosa), which beginning in Cornwall extends through Devon, Dorset and Hants, misses west Sussex, and reappears near Bexhill Common, where it has been established for more than fifty years. It is not found further eastward.

The question as to whether certain plants are or are not truly native is often asked, but is one on which botanists differ very widely. Mr. Watson divides our introduced plants into Denizens, Colonists, Aliens and Casuals. Denizens may be described as maintaining their habitats, as if native, but liable to the suspicion of having been originally introduced by human agency. Colonists as weeds of cultivated land, seldom found except in places where the ground has been adapted for their production and continuance by the operations of man. Aliens as certainly or very probably of foreign origin. Casuals as stragglers from cultivation. We have examples of all, which will be differentiated in our account of the Sussex botanical districts, and we need only observe that certain foreign species may be noted which are gradually taking up their abode with us, and have evidently come to stay, as for instance those farm pests, the clover dodder (Cuscuta trifolii), not long known here and very destructive; Bauxbaum's speedwell (Veronica Bauxbaumii), spreading rapidly in cornfields, and the lesser wart cress (Senebiera didyma), becoming common all along the Sussex coast, which manifests itself when trodden under foot by its pungent smell. To mention one other only, the sand mustard (Diplotaxis muralis), which is now becoming frequent, especially by the line of the London and South Coast Railway. This I first noticed but a few years ago, and observing it also near Torquay was able to add it to the flora of Devon.

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Rh Peter fluttered round him as if the very wind it made blew him out of the danger zone. And again and again he darted in and pricked.

Hook was fighting now without hope. That passionate breast no longer asked for life; but for one boon it craved: to see Peter bad form before it was cold for ever.

Abandoning the fight he rushed into the powder magazine and fired it.

"In two minutes," he cried, "the ship will be blown to pieces."

Now, now, he thought, true form will show.

But Peter issued from the powder magazine with the shell in his hands, and calmly flung it overboard.

What sort of form was Hook himself showing? Misguided man though he was, we may be glad, without sympathising with him, that in the end he was true to the traditions of his race. The other boys were flying around him now, flouting, scornful; and as he staggered about the deck striking up at them impotently, his mind was no longer with them; it was slouching in the playing fields of long ago, or being sent up for good, or watching the wall-game from a famous wall. And his shoes were right, and his waistcoat was right, and his tie was right, and his socks were right.

James Hook, thou not wholly unheroic figure, farewell. Rh

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  I

(1824-1901), publisher, the founder and proprietor of the 'Dictionary of National Biography,' was of Scottish parentage. His paternal grandfather was a small landowner and farmer in Morayshire (or Elginshire), who died young and left his family ill provided for. His father, George Smith (1789-1846), began life as an apprentice to Isaac Forsyth, a bookseller and banker in the town of Elgin. At a youthful age he migrated to London with no resources at his command beyond his abilities and powers of work. By nature industrious, conscientious, and religious, he was soon making steady and satisfactory progress. At first he found employment in the publishing house of Rivington in St. Paul's Churchyard. Subsequently he transferred his services to John Murray, the famous publisher of Albemarle Street, and while in Murray's employ was sent on one occasion to deliver proof-sheets to Lord Byron. At length, in 1816, he and another Scottish immigrant to London, Alexander Elder, a native of Banff, who was Smith's junior by a year, went into partnership, and set up in business for themselves on a modest scale. They opened premises at 158 Fenchurch Street as booksellers and stationers. The new firm was styled Smith & Elder. After three years the partners added publishing to the other branches of their business. On 2 March 1819 they were both admitted by redemption to the freedom of the Stationers' Company. Membership of the company was needful at the time for the pursuit in London of the publisher's calling. Some four months later, on 19 July 1819, Smith & Elder entered their earliest publication in the Stationers' Company's register. It was a well-printed collection of 'Sermons and Expositions of interesting Portions of Scripture,' by a popular congregational minister. Dr. John Morison of Trevor Chapel, Brompton. Thus unobtrusively did the publishing house set out on its road to fame and fortune, which it soon attained in moderate measure by dint of strenuous endeavour and skilful adaptation of means to ends.

On 12 Oct. 1820—little more than a year after the elder Smith had become a London publisher—he married. His wife, Elizabeth Murray, then twenty-three years old, and thus her husband's junior by eight years, was daughter


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106 Palmerston's father, indeed, was or had been a friend of Wilkes; he was walking with the demagogue in Paris, apparently about 1763, when Forbes, a Scotchman in the French army, challenged Wilkes to a duel as having insulted his country in the North Briton; but Forbes could not find seconds, his fellow Scots disapproving the challenge. In January 1791, moreover, Richard Burke wrote to his father from Coblenz, "Only think of Lord Palmerston being a convert" (to the Revolution), but Palmerston's diary of his visit to Paris in July 1791 is not that of a convert. It is true that he shows no sympathy for the royal family, then virtual prisoners in the Tuileries, but he was disgusted at the plaudits with which the Jacobin Club greeted Brissot's arguments for putting the king on his trial, and he predicts the dispersion of the Assembly by the mob, followed by anarchy and an eventual despotism. This forecast approximates so closely to the reality that, meagre though the diary is, it is a pity Palmerston's father kept, or preserved, no diary in 1792. We consequently know only from his mother's letter to Lady Elliot of the scene at the barrier. The gates and walls erected in 1786 by the farmers of the revenue to prevent evasion of tolls—"le mur murant Paris rend Paris murmurant"—proved a potent weapon for the Terrorists, for when the gates were shut the "aristocrats" were caught as in a trap; and


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 Sept.,1910 DISCOVERY OF NEST AND EGGS OF GRAY-CROWNED LEUCOSTICTE 157 Leucosticte with the gorgeous tints of the sunset clouds or liken its eggs to the drifted snow that characterizes its home. The student of birdlife cannot, however, indulge in any such fancy flights, if he is desirous of following the strait and narrow path of science. Thus it behooves me to simply state that the eggs are pure white, unmarkt, ovate-pyriform in shape, and in size measure in inches: .89x.62,.90x.63, .91x63, .92x.62. The sharply pointed end and the peculiarly fine texture of the shell make the eggs at once distinctive. After being carefully taken from the nest, one by one, the specimens were well wrapt in cotton and placed in a partitioned box made of heavy block tin. Our time was next devoted to the nest. To show how difficult this was to see, I may state that I pointed out the aperture to Duttke and askt him if he could see the nest within. After viewing it from seemingly every possible angle he declared he could see nothing of it and was rather amazed when it was later shown him. Altho but three feet in, yet from the fact that the passage first ran south, then south-west and then south again, the nest, being placed at the latter turn, was rendered almost invisible from without. Investigation showed the nest was situated in a small patch of soil, in a depression I 1/4 inches deep which had undoutedly been hollowed out by the birds themselves. As the nest was 2 1/2 inches high it was thus equally above and below the soil. It is a very curious fact that this spot was one of the very few places on the entire peak where soil was visible; and if in all cases the birds penetrate to the soil to bild, it would explain why they go to such great depths.

Fig. 51. GRAY-CROWNED LEUCOSTICTE IN ONE OF MANY POSES AS IT FLITTED ABOUT OVER THE ROCKS The nest is almost entirely and very compactly made of dry grass stems and roots. These have the appearance of having been uprooted and are of course of the previous season. As the nearest available grass is half a mile or more from the nesting site the reason why the bilding birds made such long trips for material is explained. Fine light-colored grass forms the lining, with the addition of a few feathers. One of the latter runs lengthwise across the bottom of the nest cavity, dividing it in half. Unfortunately a fluffy feather belonging to the nest was blown away on the peak and lost. The nest is oval in shape and the dimen- sions are as follows: top, 5x3 1/2 inches; cavity, 2 1/2x3 inches; depth of cavity, 1 inch; depth of nest over all, 2 1/2 inches.

We found the location to be 150 feet below the top of the peak. The altitude of Pyramid is 10,020 feet. We did not see Leucostictes on either trip below 9,300 and the majority were noted between 9,500 and 10,000 feet altitude. After

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Rh those who fancy that some slight circumstance may change the whole current of events may like to speculate on what would have happened had exit from Paris been unobstructed. The influence, indeed, of the Faubourg St. Antoine on the Revolution has been exaggerated, but the principal outlet from Paris was certainly in one of the most unruly quarters of the city. Lord and Lady Palmerston's carriage was not molested, but the children's carriage which followed was stopped, probably because piled with luggage, by the mob. Carriage and occupants were taken to the "section" or district committee, but after an hour and a half's delay, the crowd having dispersed, were escorted by eight mounted National Guards out of the city. The anxiety meanwhile of the parents, who had been dissuaded from returning, may be imagined. The departure might. Lady Palmerston thought, have been effected in a quieter way, but travellers were at the mercy of mob caprice. Now they might be hugged, now again threatened with hanging, and sometimes the hugging had a menacing air. Even before the tiger had tasted blood its caresses were terrifying. Mrs. Damer, writing to Miss Berry in October 1791, describes a kind of blackmail then practised by Paris fishwives. They brought her a bouquet, and she gave them six


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190 eighteen miles, to the mouth of a large fork of the river, which comes from the north, and encamped on a plain. At this encampment, the snow-topped mountains appeared to be at no great distance. Here we found beaver in plenty; and as the fur had become good, we began to trap them. One of the Indians killed a beautiful wild cat, about one half larger than the house cat. Its fur was long and exceedingly fine, covered with black and white spots on a bright yellow ground. Its belly was pale yellow, and its tail about two inches long. It is the richest looking skin I ever saw. On the 28th, we killed two grizzly bears. In the evening we had a severe storm of hail, and the hail stones which fell were larger than musket balls. Here the mountain sheep are plenty, but they keep mostly on high ridges and the tops of the inaccessible mountains. On the 30th, moved further up the river, and caught a number of the lynx, marten and ermine. The ermine is a beautiful little animal, as white as milk, except the tip of the tail, which is of a jet black. On the 2d of September, had a heavy shower of snow, after which we returned to our encampment of the 28th of August. We continued trapping here until the 12th, when we crossed the river, took a branch which comes from the southward, and followed it up about six miles, where we encamped in a small bottom. Here we found fur plenty, and caught a number of beaver, otter, marten, ermine, and two spotted wild cats.


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Rh For we have come to his last moment.

Seeing Peter slowly advancing upon him through the air with dagger poised, he sprang upon the bulwarks to cast himself into the sea. He did not know that the crocodile was waiting for him; for we purposely stopped the clock that this knowledge might be spared him: a little mark of respect from us at the end.

He had one last triumph, which I think we need not grudge him. As he stood on the bulwark looking over his shoulder at Peter gliding through the air, he invited him with a gesture to use his foot. It made Peter kick instead of stab.

At last Hook had got the boon for which he craved.

"Bad form," he cried jeeringly, and went content to the crocodile.

Thus perished James Hook.

"Seventeen," Slightly sang out; but he was not quite correct in his figures. Fifteen paid the penalty for their crimes that night; but two reached the shore: Starkey to be captured by the redskins, who made him nurse for all their papooses, a melancholy come-down for a pirate; and Smee, who henceforth wandered about the world in his spectacles, making a precarious living by saying he was the only man that Jas. Hook had feared.

Wendy, of course, had stood by taking no part in the fight, though watching Peter with glistening Rh

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Rh eyes; but now that all was over she became prominent again. She praised them equally, and shuddered delightfully when Michael showed her the place where he had killed one; and then she took them into Hook's cabin and pointed to his watch which was hanging on a nail. It said "half-past one"!

The lateness of the hour was almost the biggest thing of all. She got them to bed in the pirates' bunks pretty quickly, you may be sure; all but Peter, who strutted up and down on deck, until at last he fell asleep by the side of Long Tom. He had one of his dreams that night, and cried in his sleep for a long time, and Wendy held him tight. Rh

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FORREST—GARNER

N.B.— f.e. stands for from end and l.l. for last line


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xii of Alexander Murray, a successful glass-ware manufacturer in London, who, like her husband, was of Elginshire origin. Mrs. Smith was a woman of much shrewdness, vivacity, and sanguine temper, in whose judgment and resourcefulness her husband, and afterwards her children, placed the utmost confidence. The young couple lived, on their marriage, over Smith & Elder's shop in Fenchurch Street, and there George Smith, the eldest son and second child (of six), was born on 19 March 1824.

Very shortly after his birth the father removed his business and his family to 65 Cornhill—to that house which was fated to acquire wide repute, alike in literary and commercial circles. There, at the age of six, young George Smith suffered an attack of brain fever, and his mother, who showed him special indulgence, was warned against subjecting him to any severity of discipline. From infancy he was active and high-spirited, and domestic leniency encouraged in him an unruliness of temper which hampered the course of his education. But his parents desired him to enjoy every educational advantage that lay in their power. At first he was sent to Dr. Smith's boarding school at Rottingdean. Thence he passed at the age of ten to Merchant Taylors' School, but soon left it for a school at Blackheath, where the master, finding him intractable, advised his parents, greatly to their indignation, to send him to sea. Although he did well as far as the schoolwork was concerned, his propensity for mischievous frolic was irrepressible, and after he had spent a few terms at the City of London School his father deemed it wisest to take him into his office. He had shown an aptitude for mathematics, delighted in chemistry, and had not neglected Latin; but he was too young to have made great advance in the conventional subjects of study when in 1838, at the age of fourteen, he began a business career. Subsequently he received lessons at home in French, and showed a quick intuitive appreciation of good literature. But it was the stir of the mercantile world that first gave useful direction to his abundant mental energy.

During his boyhood his father's firm had made notable progress. On its removal to Cornhill, in 1824, Smith & Elder were joined by a third partner, and the firm assumed the permanent designation of Smith, Elder, & Co. The new partner was a man of brilliant and attractive gifts, if of weak and self-indulgent temperament. His entry into the concern greatly extended its sphere of action. His guardian, Æneas Macintosh, was chief partner in a great firm of Calcutta merchants, and this connection with India brought to the bookselling and publishing branches of Smith, Elder, & Co.'s business the new department of an Indian agency, which in course of time far outdistanced in commercial importance the rest of their work. At the outset the Indian operations were confined to the export of stationery and books to officers in the East India Company's service; but gradually all manner of commodities was dealt with, banking responsibilities were undertaken, and Smith, Elder, & Co. ultimately left most of the other Indian


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108 francs, but they required double the sum. When one of them proposed to kiss her she did not think it safe to decline, and was only thankful that the other half-dozen, to say nothing of the crowd waiting in the court, did not follow suit. Porters and servants were afraid of refusing admission to these intruders. Lady Rivers at Lyons found matters even worse, for she was told it was prudent to wait on the fishwives, who had just shown their power by making the Comtesse d'Artois turn back to Paris. She was graciously received, and dismissed with a "Nous nous reverrons." Mrs. Swinburne, returning to London in December 1789, was stopped by the fishwives of Boulogne, who took her for one of Orleans's mistresses about to rejoin him in England. She had to argue with them that she was neither young nor pretty, and that the Duke could not have such bad taste. Happily, the landlady of an English hotel, Mrs. Knowles, came up and pacified the viragoes. Mrs. Swinburne in the previous October had had information from her shoemaker of the intended march on Versailles. She went thither and gave warning to the wife of Marshal de Beauvau, but it was unheeded. William Hunter, a barrister, landing at Boulogne in February 1792, was unmolested till he reached Montreuil. His landing, by the way, was somewhat singular. Women actually carried the voyagers on their backs a quarter of a mile from


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Rh the packet to the shore. One of these waders, unequal to the weight of a stout traveller who had been reserved till the last, dropped him midway. This curious scene took place at night, dimly illuminated by lanterns. At Montreuil Hunter's carriage was surrounded by half-a-dozen drunken soldiers (National Guards?), who shouted "Voilà des aristocrates," but on being assured that the travellers were English and good patriots, they wished them a pleasant journey. Hunter, whom the Assembly reminded of an English pothouse, everybody talking and nobody listening, went on to Marseilles and Turkey. Charles Wollaston, a naval lieutenant, son of the eminent scientist, and his stepbrother, James Frampton, at the last stage before reaching Paris in October 1791, had their carriage surrounded and opened by fishwives, who hailed them as friends, shook hands with them, and had to be got rid of by a five-franc note—attentions which they by no means reciprocated, for Frampton, Wollaston wrote, was in love with the queen, and vowed he would go every day to see her pass on her way to mass; yet in August 1790 he had carried off a fragment of the Bastille.

Lingard, the future historian, driven from Douai by the revolutionary ferment, yet anxious to see something of Paris before re crossing the Channel,


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 CHAPTER XVI

THE RETURN HOME

three bells next morning they were all stirring their stumps. For there was a big sea running, and Tootles, the bo'sun, was among them, with a rope's end in his hand and chewing tobacco. They all donned pirate clothes cut off at the knee, shaved smartly, and tumbled up, with the true nautical roll and hitching their trousers.

It need not be said who was the captain. Nibs and John were first and second mate. There was a woman aboard. The rest were tars before the mast, and lived in the fo'c'sle. Peter had already lashed himself to the wheel; but he piped all hands and delivered a short address to them; said he hoped they would do their duty like gallant hearties, but that he knew they were the scum of Rio and the Gold Coast, and if they snapped at him he would tear them. His bluff strident words struck the note sailors understand, and they cheered him lustily. Then a few sharp orders were given, and they turned the ship round, and nosed her for the mainland. Rh

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IV.] Christian era. Since the introduction of Christianity and the beginnings of civilization, more than one of the High-German dialects, as they are called, the dialects of central and southern Germany, had been for a season the subject of literary culture. This was the case with the idioms, in succession, of the Alemannic, Frankish, and Bavarian divisions of the race, between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries; then, for a time, the Swabian dialect gained the preëminence, and in it was produced a rich and noble legendary literature, containing precious memorials of national heroic story, and still studied and valued wherever the German tongue is spoken. Here was a promising beginning for a truly national language, but the conditions of the times were not yet such as to give the movement lasting and assured success. Three centuries later began the grand national upheaval of the Reformation. The writings of Luther, multiplied and armed with a hundred-fold force by the new art of printing, penetrated to all parts of the land, and to nearly all ranks and classes of the people, awakening everywhere a vivid enthusiasm. The language he used was not the local dialect of a district, but one which had already a better claim than any other to the character of a general German language: it was the court and official speech of the principal kingdoms of central and southern Germany, made up of Swabian, Austrian, and other dialectic elements. To a language so accredited, the internal impulse of the religious excitement and the political revolutions accompanying it, and the external influence of the press, which brought its literature, and especially Luther's translation of the Bible, into every reading family, were enough to give a common currency, a general value. It was set before the eyes of the whole nation as the most cultivated form of German speech; it was acknowledged and accepted as the dialect of highest rank, the only fitting organ of communication among the educated and refined. From that time to the present, its influence and power have gone on increasing. It is the vehicle of literature and instruction everywhere. Whatever may be the speech of the lower classes in any section, the


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 Rh agencies in London far behind alike in the variety and extent of their transactions.

It was to the third partner, who had become a liveryman of the Clothworkers' Company on 1 March 1837, that Smith was apprenticed on beginning his business career. On 2 May 1838 the fact of his apprenticeship was duly entered in the Clothworkers' Company's records.

At the moment that Smith joined the firm it had entered into close relations with Lieutenant Waghorn, the originator of the overland route to India. While Waghorn was experimenting with his new means of communicating with the east, Smith, Elder, & Co. acted as his agents, and published from 1837 the many pamphlets in which he pressed his schemes and opinions on public notice. Some of Smith's earliest reminiscences related to Waghorn's strenuous efforts to perfect his system, with which the boy's native activity of mind enabled him to sympathise very thoroughly. All the letters that were sent to India under Waghorn's supervision across the Isthmus of Suez and through the Red Sea were despatched from Smith, Elder, & Co.'s office in Cornhill, and those reaching England from India by the same route were delivered there on arriving in London. Young Smith willingly helped his seniors to 'play at post office,' and found that part of his duties thoroughly congenial. But as a whole his labours in Cornhill were arduous. He was at work from half-past seven in the morning till eight o'clock in the evening, with very short intervals. His father wisely trained him in all the practical details of the stationery and bookselling business. He had to mend the office quills, and was taught how to bind books and even compose type. The dinner-hour in the middle of the day he often, however, contrived to spend at Dyer's riding school in Finsbury Square, where he became an expert horseman. Riding remained all his life his main recreation. In 1841, three years after his entry into the firm, his family removed to Denmark Hill.

The steady increase in the firm's general business was accompanied by marked activity in the publishing department, and early in the thirties that department won an assured reputation. For the first development of the publishing branch Mr. Elder was largely responsible, and though he applied himself to it somewhat spasmodically, and his ventures were by no means uniformly successful, some interesting results were quickly achieved. As early as 1826 Smith, Elder, & Co. issued, in partnership with Chalmers & Collins, a Glasgow firm, James Donnegan's ‘New Greek and English Lexicon,’ which was long a standard book. In 1827 they undertook single-handed the issue of Richard Thomson's ‘Chronicles of London Bridge.’ Of more popular literary work which the firm produced, the most attractive item was the fashionable annual called ‘Friendship's Offering.’ This elaborately illustrated gift-book was originally produced at the end of 1824, under the editorship of Thomas Kibble Hervey (subsequently editor of the ‘Athenæum’), by a neighbouring publisher, Lupton Relfe of 13 Cornhill. The number for 1828 was the first published by Smith, Elder, & Co., and for fourteen consecutive years they continued to make annually an addition to the series.


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164 educated, those who make up good society, speak the literary German; their children are trained in it; nothing else is written. The popular dialects are still as numerous as ever, because education is not pervading and thorough enough to extirpate them; and their existence may be prolonged for an indefinite period; but the literary language exercises a powerfully repressing and assimilating effect upon them all; it has lessened their rank and lowered their character, by withdrawing from them in great measure the countenance and aid of the cultivated; it has leavened them all with its material and its usages; and it may finally succeed in crowding them altogether out of use. Its sway extends just as far as the external influences which established it reach: it is not confined to the territory occupied by the High-German dialects, its nearest kindred; the people of the northern provinces also, speaking tongues of Low-German descent, which are much more nearly related with the Netherlandish, or even with the English, are drawn by the ties of political, social, and religious community with the rest of Germany to accept and use it. While, on the other hand, political independence, aided by diversity of social and religious usages, has given a separate existence as a literary language to the Dutch or Netherlandish, and yet more notably to the English, descendants of dialects originally undistinguished among the crowd of Low-German idioms which lined the shores of the North Sea.

The history of most other literary languages is of the same character with that which we have just been examining. Each was, at the outset, one out of a number of kindred but more or less diverse forms of speech, and the predominance which it came to gain over them was the result, not of its inherent merits as an instrument of thought and means of communication, but of outward circumstances, which made its usages worth the acquisition of a wider and wider community. Thus the parent language of the modern French was the vernacular speech of only a small part of the population of France; and it long had a rival, and almost a superior, in the early and highly cultivated dialect of southern France, the Provençal, or langue d'oc; nor,


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IV.] if the kingdom of Toulouse had maintained itself, would the latter ever have yielded to the former: but the sceptre of political supremacy over all France passed into the keeping of the northern provinces, and their speech became the rule of good usage throughout the land, while the langue d'oc lost by degrees its character as a cultivated dialect, and survives only in rude and insignificant provincial patois. The Italian was, in like manner, the popular idiom only of Tuscany, one of the innumerable local dialects which crowd and jostle one another between the Alps and Sicily, and its currency among the educated classes of the whole peninsula is the effect of literary influence and of instruction.

An illustration of a somewhat different character is afforded us by the history of the Latin, a history in many respects more remarkable than that of any other language which has ever existed. This conquering tongue—whose descendants now occupy so large and fair a part of Europe, and, along with their half-sister, the English, fill nearly all the New World, and numerous scattered tracts, coasts, and islands, on every continent and in every ocean, while its material has leavened and enriched the speech of all enlightened nations—was the vernacular idiom, not twenty-five centuries ago, of a little isolated district in middle Italy, a region which, on any map of the world not drawn upon a scale truly gigantic, one might easily cover with the end of a finger. How and when it came there, we know not; but it was one of a group of related dialects, descendants and joint representatives of an older tongue, spoken by the first immigrants, which had grown apart by the effect of the usual dissimilating processes. Remains of at least two of these sister dialects, the Oscan and the Umbrian, are still left in existence, to exercise the ingenuity of the learned, and to illustrate the ante-historic period of Italic speech. The Latin was pressed on the north by the Etruscan, and threatened from the south by the Greek, languages of much more powerful races, and the latter of them possessing a higher intrinsic character, and an infinitely superior cultivation: no one could then have dared to guess that its after career


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 xiv Hervey was succeeded in the editorship by the Scottish poet, Thomas Pringle, and ultimately by Leitch Ritchie, a well-known figure in journalism, who otherwise proved of service to the firm. The writers in ‘Friendship's Offering’ were the most distinguished of their day. They included not only veterans like Southey, Coleridge, and the Ettrick Shepherd, but also beginners like Tennyson and Ruskin. The Hon. Mrs. Norton, Miss Mitford, Miss Strickland, were regular contributors. To the volume for 1833 Macaulay contributed his ‘Ballad of the Armada.’ The numerous plates in each issue were after pictures by the greatest artists of the time, and were engraved by the best available talent. When the series was at its zenith of popularity some eight to ten thousand copies of each volume were sold at Christmas.

Another of the literary connections of the firm was Miss Louisa Henrietta Sheridan, a daughter of Captain W. B. Sheridan, a very distant relative of the well-known family. Of her personal attractions Smith cherished from boyhood admiring memories. Between 1831 and 1835 she edited for the firm five annual volumes entitled ‘The Comic Offering, or Lady's Mélange of Literary Mirth,’ which Robert Seymour, the practical originator of ‘Pickwick,’ helped to illustrate ; and in 1838 Smith, Elder, & Co. produced for her ‘The Diadem, a Book for the Boudoir,’ with some valuable plates, and contributions by various well-known hands, including Thomas Campbell, James and Horace Smith, and Agnes Strickland.

In its attitude to fiction the young firm manifested, under Leitch Ritchie's influence, an exceptional spirit of enterprise. In 1833 Smith, Elder, & Co. started a ‘Library of Romance,’ a series of original novels and romances, English, American, or translated from foreign tongues, which they published at the prophetic price of six shillings. Fifteen volumes appeared under Ritchie's editorship before the series ended in 1835. The first was ‘The Ghost Hunter and his Family,’ by John and Michael Banim, the authors of ‘The O'Hara Family;’ the fourth was John Galt's ‘Stolen Child’ (1833) ; the sixth, ‘The Slave-King,’ a translation from Victor Hugo (1833) ; and the fifteenth and last was ‘Ernesto,’ a philosophical romance of interest by William [Henry] Smith (1808-1872), who afterwards won fame as author of ‘Thorndale.’ Among Smith, Elder, & Co.'s early works in general light literature which still retain their zest were James Grant's ‘Random Recollections of the House of Commons’ and ‘Random Recollections of the House of Lords’ (1836). Nor was the firm disinclined to venture on art publications involving somewhat large risks. Clarkson Stanfield's ‘Coast Scenery,’ a collection of forty views, issued (after publication in serial parts) at the price of 32s. 6d., appeared in 1836 ; and ‘The Byron Gallery,’ thirty-six engravings of subjects from Byron's poems, followed soon afterwards at the price of 35s. These volumes met with a somewhat cool reception from the book-buying public, but an ambition to excel in the production of expensively illustrated volumes


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166 would be so much more conspicuous than theirs. Its spread began with the extension of Roman dominion, and was the plainest and most unequivocal sign of the thorough and penetrating nature of that dominion. Not content with the loose and nominal sway which the Persian sovereign exercised over the heterogeneous parts of his vast empire, or the yet laxer authority of the modern Mongol rulers over their wider conquests, the Romans infused, as it were, a new organic life into the vast body corporate of which they were the head, and made their influence felt through its every nerve and fibre. Italy they first subjected and Romanized. The yoke they imposed, and riveted by their military colonies, their laws and institutions, their culture, and their all-penetrating administration, was a bond of community against which no other proved able to maintain itself; all the languages of the peninsula, from the Gaulish of the north to the Greek of the extreme south, gave way by degrees before the tongue of the conquering city, and Italy became a country of one uniform speech. And yet not wholly uniform: relics of the ancient languages maintained themselves for a long time in certain more inaccessible districts, and their influence was doubtless to be distinctly seen in the varying local dialects of the different parts of the peninsula—as, indeed, traces of it are even now discoverable there. The common speech of Italy, too, setting aside these dialectic distinctions, was not the pure polished Latin of Cicero and Virgil, but a ruder idiom, containing already the germs of many of the changes exhibited by the modern Italian and the other Romanic tongues. The same process of conquest and incorporation into the Roman community was carried farther, upon a grand and surprising scale, into the other countries of Europe. The Celts of Gaul, the Celts and Iberians of Spain, gave up their own languages and adopted that of their rulers and civilizers, not less completely than have the Celts of Ireland, within the last few centuries, exchanged their Irish speech for English: of Celtic words ‘ and usages only scanty and unimportant traces are to be found in the modern French and Spanish. The same fate threatened Germany, had not her brave and hardy tribes


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IV.] offered too stubborn a resistance to the already waning forces of the empire; and Britain also, had not its remote situation and inferior value as a province caused the Roman hold upon it to be weak, and soon abandoned. Less considerable tracts of south-eastern Europe, stretching from the northern border of Italy to near the mouth of the Danube, yielded to the same influence: subdued by the arms, colonized from the population, organized by the policy, civilized by the culture, of the great city, they learned also to talk her language, forgetting their own. Thus arose the great and important group of the Romanic languages, as they are called; namely, the Italian, the French, the Spanish and Portuguese, the Rhæto-Romanic of southern Switzerland, and the Wallachian—each including a host of varying dialects, all lineal descendants of the Latin, all spoken by populations only in small part of Latin race.

We must not suppose, however, that a pure and classical Latin was ever the popular dialect of this wide-extended region of Europe, any more than of Italy after its first Romanization. The same counteracting causes, acting on a grander scale and with an intensified force, prevented correctness and homogeneity of speech. The populace got their Latin rather from the army and its followers, the colonists and low officials, than from educated Romans and the works of great authors. Doubtless there was not at first such a difference between the dialect of the highest and of the lowest that they could not understand one another. But, whatever it was, it rapidly became wider: while study and the imitation of unchanging models kept the scholars and ecclesiastics in possession of the classical Latin, only a little barbarized by the irresistible intrusion into it of words and constructions borrowed from vernacular use, the language of the masses grew rapidly away from it, breaking up at the same time into those innumerable local forms to whose existence we have already referred. There was no conserving and assimilating influence at work among the millions who had taken for their own the language of Rome, capable either of binding them fast to its established usages or of keeping their lines of linguistic growth parallel. Special disturbing