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Island Life/XXIV

CHAPTER XXIV

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

 * The Present Volume is the Development and Application of a Theory—Statement of the Biological and Physical Causes of Dispersal—Investigation of the Facts of Dispersal—of the Means of Dispersal—of Geographical Changes Affecting Dispersal—of Climatal Changes Affecting Dispersal—The Glacial Epoch and its Causes—Alleged Ancient Glacial Epochs—Warm Polar Climates and their Causes—Conclusions as to Geological Climates—How far Different from those of Mr. Croll—Supposed Limitations of Geological Time—Time Amply Sufficient both for Geological and Biological Development—Insular Faunas and Floras—The North Atlantic Islands—The Galapagos—St. Helena and the Sandwich Islands—Great Britain as a Recent Continental Island—Borneo and Java—Japan and Formosa—Madagascar as an Ancient Continental Island—Celebes and New Zealand as Anomalous Islands—The Flora of New Zealand and its Origin—The European Element in the South Temperate Floras—Concluding Remarks.

The present volume has gone over a very wide field both of facts and theories, and it will be well to recall these to the reader's attention and point out their connection with each other, in a concluding chapter. I hope to be able to show that, although at first sight somewhat fragmentary and disconnected, this work is really the development of a clear and definite theory, and its application to the solution of a number of biological problems. That theory is, briefly, that the distribution of the various species and groups of living things over the earth's surface, and their aggregation in definite assemblages in certain areas, is the direct result and outcome of a complex set of causes, which may be grouped as "biological" and "physical." The biological causes are mainly of two kinds—firstly, the constant tendency of all organisms to increase in numbers and to occupy a wider area, and their various powers of dispersion and migration through which, when unchecked, they are enabled to spread widely over the globe; and, secondly, those laws of evolution and extinction which determine the manner in which groups of organisms arise and grow, reach their maximum, and then dwindle away, often breaking up into separate portions which long survive in very remote regions. The physical causes are also mainly of two kinds. We have, first, the geographical changes which at one time isolate a whole fauna and flora, at another time lead to their dispersal and intermixture with adjacent faunas and floras—and it was here important to ascertain and define the exact nature and extent of these changes, and to determine the question of the general stability or instability of continents and oceans; in the second place, it was necessary to determine the exact nature, extent and frequency of the changes of climate which have occurred in various parts of the earth,—because such changes are among the most powerful agents in causing the dispersal and extinction of plants and animals. Hence the importance attached to the question of geological climates and their causes, which have been here investigated at some length with the aid of the most recent researches of geologists, physicists, and explorers. These various inquiries led on to an investigation of the mode of formation of stratified deposits, with a view to fix within some limits their probable age; and also to an estimate of the probable rate of development of the organic world; and both these processes are shown to involve, so far as we can judge, periods of time less vast than have generally been thought necessary.

The numerous facts and theories established in the First Part of the work are then applied to explain the phenomena presented by the floras and faunas of the chief islands of the globe, which are classified, in accordance with their physical origin, in three groups or classes, each of which are shown to exhibit certain well-marked biological features.

Having thus shown that the work is a connected whole, founded on the principle of tracing out the more recondite causes of the distribution of organisms, we will briefly indicate the scope and object of the several chapters, by means of which this general conception has been carried out.

Beginning with simple and familiar facts relating to British and European quadrupeds and birds, I have defined and shown the exact character of "areas of distribution," as applied to species, genera, and families, and have illustrated the subject by maps showing the peculiarities of distribution of some well-known groups of birds. Taking then our British mammals and land-birds, I follow them over the whole area they inhabit, and thus obtain a foundation for the establishment of "zoological regions," and a clear insight into their character as distinct from the usual geographical divisions of the globe.

The facts thus far established are then shown to be necessary results of the "law of evolution." The nature and amount of "variation" is exhibited by a number of curious examples; the origin, growth, and decay of species and genera are traced, and all the interesting phenomena of isolated groups and discontinuous generic and specific areas are shown to follow as logical consequences.

The next subject investigated is the means by which the various groups of animals are enabled to overcome the natural barriers which often seem to limit them to very restricted areas, how far those barriers are themselves liable to be altered or abolished, and what is the exact nature and amount of the changes of sea and land which our earth has undergone in past times. This latter part of the inquiry is shown to be the most important as it is the most fundamental; and as it is still a subject of controversy, and many erroneous views prevail in regard to it, it is discussed at some length. Several distinct classes of evidence are adduced to prove that the grand features of our globe—the position of the great oceans and the chief land-areas—have remained, on the whole, unchanged throughout geological time. Our continents are shown to be built up mainly of "shore-deposits"; and even the chalk, which is so often said to be the exact equivalent of the "globigerina ooze" now forming in mid-Atlantic, is shown to be a comparatively shallow-water deposit formed in inland seas, or in the immediate vicinity of land. The general stability of continents has, however, been accompanied by constant changes of form, and insular conditions have prevailed over every part in succession; and the effect of such changes on the distribution of organisms is pointed out.

We then approach the consideration of another set of changes—those of climate—which have probably been agents of the first importance in modifying the specific forms as well as the distribution of animals. Here again we find ourselves in the midst of fierce controversies. The occurrence of a recent glacial epoch of great severity in the northern hemisphere is now universally admitted, but the causes which brought it on are matter of dispute. But unless we can arrive at these causes, as well as at those which produced the equally well demonstrated mild climate in the Arctic regions, we shall be quite unable to determine the nature and amount of the changes of climate which have occurred throughout past ages, and shall thus be left without a most important clue to the explanation of many of the anomalies in the distribution of animals and plants.

I have therefore devoted three chapters to a full investigation of this question. I have first given such a sketch of the most salient facts as to render the phenomena of the glacial epoch clear and intelligible. I then review the various suggested explanations, and, taking up the two which alone seem tenable, I endeavour to determine the true principles of each. While adopting generally Mr. Croll's views as to the causes of the "glacial epoch," I have introduced certain limitations and modifications. I have pointed out, I believe, more clearly than has hitherto been done, the very different effects on climate of water in the liquid and in the solid state; and I have shown, by a variety of evidence, that without high land there can be no permanent snow and ice. From these facts and principles the very important conclusion is reached, that the alternate phases of precession—causing the winter of each hemisphere to be in aphelion and perihelion each 10,500 years—would produce a complete change of climate only where a country was partially snow-clad; while, whenever a large area became almost wholly buried in snow and ice—as was certainly the case with Northern Europe and America during the glacial epoch—then the glacial conditions would be continued and perhaps even intensified when the sun approached nearest to the earth in winter, instead of there being at that time, as Mr. Croll maintains, an almost perpetual spring. This important result is supported by reference to the existing differences between the climates of the northern and southern hemispheres, and by what is known to have occurred during the last glacial epoch; and it is shown to be in complete harmony with the geological evidence as to interglacial mild periods.

Discussing next the evidence for glacial epochs in earlier times, it is shown that Mr. Croll's views are opposed by a vast body of facts, and that the geological evidence leads irresistibly to the conclusion that during a large portion of the Secondary and Tertiary periods, uninterrupted warm climates prevailed in the north temperate zone, and so far ameliorated the climate of the Arctic regions as to admit of the growth of a luxuriant vegetation in the highest latitudes yet explored. The geographical condition of the northern hemisphere at these periods is then investigated, and it is shown to have been probably such as to admit the warm tropical waters freely to penetrate the land, and to reach the Arctic seas by several channels; and, adopting Mr. Croll's calculations as to the enormous quantity of heat that would thus be conveyed northwards, it is maintained that the mild Arctic climates are amply accounted for. With such favourable geographical conditions, it is shown, that changes of excentricity and of the phases of precession would have no other effect than to cause greater differences of temperature between summer and winter; but, wherever there was a considerable extent of very lofty mountains the snow-line would be lowered, and the snow-collecting area being thus largely increased a considerable amount of local glaciation might result. Thus may be explained the presence of enormous ice-borne rocks in Eocene and Miocene times in Central Europe, while at the very same period all the surrounding country enjoyed a tropical or sub-tropical climate.

The general conclusion is thus reached, that geographical conditions are the essential causes of great changes of climate, and that the radically different distribution of land and sea in the northern and southern hemispheres has generally led to great diversity of climate in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The form and arrangement of the continents is shown to be such as to favour the transfer of warm oceanic currents to the north far in excess of those which move towards the south, and whenever these currents had free passage through the northern land-masses to the polar area, a mild climate must have prevailed over the whole northern hemisphere. It is only in very recent times that the great northern continents have become so completely consolidated as they now are, thus shutting out the warm water from their interiors, and rendering possible a wide-spread and intense glacial epoch. But this great climatal change was actually brought about by the high excentricity which occurred about 200,000 years ago; and it is doubtful if a similar glaciation in equally low latitudes could be produced by means of any such geographical combinations as actually occur, without the concurrence of a high excentricity.

A survey of the present condition of the earth supports this view, for though we have enormous mountain ranges in every latitude, there is no glaciated country south of Greenland in N. Lat. 61°. But directly we go back a very short period, we find the superficial evidences of glaciation to an enormous extent over three-fourths of the globe. In the Alps and Pyrenees, in the British Isles and Scandinavia, in Spain and the Atlas, in the Caucasus and the Himalayas, in Eastern North America and west of the Rocky Mountains, in the Andes of South Temperate America, in South Africa, and in New Zealand, huge moraines and other unmistakable ice-marks attest the universal descent of the snow-line for several thousand feet below its present level. If we reject the influence of high excentricity as the cause of this almost universal glaciation, we must postulate a general elevation of all these mountains about the same time, geologically speaking—for the general similarity in the state of preservation of the ice-marks and the known activity of denudation as a destroying agent, forbid the idea that they belong to widely separated epochs. It has, indeed, been suggested, that denudation alone has lowered these mountains so much during the post-tertiary epoch, that they were previously of sufficient height to account for the glaciation of all of them; but this hardly needs refutation, for it is clear that denudation could not at the same time have removed some thousands of feet of rock from many hundreds of square miles of lofty snow-collecting plateaus, and yet have left moraines, and blocks, and even glacial striæ, undisturbed and uneffaced on the slopes and in the valleys of these same mountains.

The theory of geological climates set forth in this volume, while founded on Mr. Croll's researches, differs from all that have yet been made public, in clearly tracing out the comparative influence of geographical and astronomical revolutions, showing that, while the former have been the chief, if not the exclusive, causes of the long-continued mild climates of the Arctic regions, the concurrence of the latter has been essential to the production of glacial epochs in the temperate zones, as well as of those local glaciations in low latitudes, of which there is such an abundance of evidence.

The next question discussed is that of geological time as bearing on the development of the organic world. The periods of time usually demanded by geologists have been very great, and it was often assumed that there was no occasion to limit them. But the theory of development demands far more; for the earliest fossiliferous rocks prove the existence of many and varied forms of life which require unrecorded ages for their development—ages probably far longer than those which have elapsed from that period to the present day. The physicists, however, deny that any such indefinitely long periods are available. The sun is ever losing heat far more rapidly than it can be renewed from any known or conceivable source. The earth is a cooling body, and must once have been too hot to support life; while the friction of the tides is checking the earth's rotation, and this cannot have gone on indefinitely without making our day much longer than it is. A limit is therefore placed to the age of the habitable earth, and it has been thought that the time so allowed is not sufficient for the long processes of geological change and organic development. It is therefore important to inquire whether these processes are either of them so excessively slow as has been supposed, and I devote a chapter to the inquiry.

Geologists have measured with some accuracy the maximum thickness of all the known sedimentary rocks. The rate of denudation has also been recently measured by a method which, if not precise, at all events gives results of the right order of magnitude and which err on the side of being too slow rather than too fast. If, then, the maximum thickness of the known sedimentary rocks is taken to represent the average thickness of all the sedimentary rocks, and we also know the amount of sediment carried to the sea or lakes, and the area over which that sediment is spread, we have a means of calculating the time required for the building up of all the sedimentary rocks of the geological system. I have here inquired how far the above suppositions are correct, or on which side they probably err; and the conclusion arrived at is, that the time required is very much less than has hitherto been supposed.

Another estimate is afforded by the date of the last glacial epoch if coincident with the last period of high excentricity, while the Alpine glaciation of the Miocene period is assumed to have been caused by the next earlier phase of very high excentricity. Taking these as data, the proportionate change of the species of mollusca affords a means of arriving at the whole lapse of time represented by the fossiliferous rocks; and these two estimates agree in the order of their magnitudes.

It is then argued that the changes of climate every 10,500 years during the numerous periods of high excentricity have acted as a motive power in hastening on both geological and biological change. By raising and lowering the snow-line in all mountain ranges it has caused increased denudation; while the same changes have caused much migration and disturbance in the organic world, and have thus tended to the more rapid modification of species. The present epoch being a period of very low excentricity, the earth is in a phase of exceptional stability both physical and organic; and it is from this period of exceptional stability that our notions of the very slow rate of change have been derived.

The conclusion is, on the whole, that the periods allowed by physicists are not only far in excess of such as are required for geological and organic change, but that they allow ample margin for a lapse of time anterior to the deposit of the earliest fossiliferous rocks several times longer than the time which has elapsed since their deposit to the present day.

Having thus laid the foundation for a scientific interpretation of the phenomena of distribution, we proceed to the Second Part of our work—the discussion of a series of typical Insular Faunas and Floras with a view to explain the interesting phenomena they present. Taking first two North Atlantic groups—the Azores and Bermuda—it is shown how important an agent in the dispersal of most animals and plants is a stormy atmosphere. Although 900 and 700 miles respectively from the nearest continents, their productions are very largely identical with those of Europe and America; and, what is more important, fresh arrivals of birds, insects, and plants, are now taking place almost annually. These islands afford, therefore, test examples of the great dispersive powers of certain groups of organisms, and thus serve as a basis on which to found our explanations of many anomalies of distribution. Passing on to the Galapagos we have a group less distant from a continent and of larger area, yet, owing to special conditions, of which the comparatively stormless equatorial atmosphere is the most important, exhibiting far more speciality in its productions than the more distant Azores. Still, however, its fauna and flora are as unmistakably derived from the American continent as those of the Azores are from the European.

We next take St. Helena and the Sandwich Islands, both wonderfully isolated in the midst of vast oceans, and no longer exhibiting in their productions an exclusive affinity to one continent. Here we have to recognise the results of immense antiquity, and of those changes of geography, of climate, and in the general distribution of organisms which we know have occurred in former geological epochs, and whose causes and consequences we have discussed in the first part of our volume. This concludes our review of the Oceanic Islands.

Coming now to Continental Islands we consider first those of most recent origin and offering the simplest phenomena; and begin with the British Isles as affording the best example of very recent and well known Continental Islands. Reviewing the interesting past history of Britain, we show why it is comparatively poor in species and why this poverty is still greater in Ireland. By a careful examination of its fauna and flora it is then shown that the British Isles are not so completely identical, biologically, with the continent as has been supposed. A considerable amount of speciality is shown to exist, and that this speciality is real and not apparent is supported by the fact, that small outlying islands, such as the Isle of Man, the Shetland Isles, Lundy Island, and the Isle of Wight, all possess certain species or varieties not found elsewhere.

Borneo and Java are next taken, as illustrations of tropical islands which may be not more ancient than Britain, but which, owing to their much larger area, greater distance from the continent, and the extreme richness of the equatorial fauna and flora, possess a large proportion of peculiar species, though these are in general very closely allied to those of the adjacent parts of Asia. The preliminary studies we have made enable us to afford a simpler and more definite interpretation of the peculiar relations of Java to the continent and its differences from Borneo and Sumatra, than was given in my former work (The Geographical Distribution of Animals).

Japan and Formosa are next taken, as examples of islands which are decidedly somewhat more ancient than those previously considered, and which present a number of very interesting phenomena, especially in their relations to each other, and to remote rather than to adjacent parts of the Asiatic continent.

We now pass to the group of Ancient Continental Islands, of which Madagascar is the most typical example. It is surrounded by a number of smaller islands which may be termed its satellites since they partake of many of its peculiarities; though some of these—as the Comoros and Seychelles—may be considered continental, while others—as Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez—are decidedly oceanic. In order to understand the peculiarities of the Madagascar fauna we have to consider the past history of the African and Asiatic continents, which it is shown are such as to account for all the main peculiarities of the fauna of these islands without having recourse to the hypothesis of a now-submerged Lemurian continent. Considerable evidence is further adduced to show that "Lemuria" is a myth, since not only is its existence unnecessary, but it can be proved that it would not explain the actual facts of distribution. The origin of the interesting Mascarene wingless birds is discussed, and the main peculiarities of the remarkable flora of Madagascar and the Mascarene islands pointed out; while it is shown that all these phenomena are to be explained on the general principles of the permanence of the great oceans and the comparatively slight fluctuations of the land area, and by taking account of established palæontological facts.

There remain two other islands—Celebes and New Zealand—which are classed as "anomalous," the one because it is almost impossible to place it in any of the six zoological regions, or determine whether it has ever been actually joined to a continent—the other because it combines the characteristics of continental and oceanic islands.

The peculiarities of the Celebesian fauna have already been dwelt upon in several previous works, but they are so remarkable and so unique that they cannot be omitted in a treatise on "Insular Faunas"; and here, as in the case of Borneo and Java, fuller consideration and the application of the general principles laid down in our First Part, lead to a solution of the problem at once more simple and more satisfactory than any which have been previously proposed. I now look upon Celebes as an outlying portion of the great Asiatic continent of Miocene times, which either by submergence or some other cause had lost the greater portion of its animal inhabitants, and since then has remained more or less completely isolated from every other land. It has thus preserved a fragment of a very ancient fauna along with a number of later types which have reached it from surrounding islands by the ordinary means of dispersal. This sufficiently explains all the peculiar affinities of its animals, though the peculiar and distinctive characters of some of them remain as mysterious as ever.

New Zealand is shown to be so completely continental in its geological structure, and its numerous wingless birds so clearly imply a former connection with some other land (as do its numerous lizards and its remarkable reptile, the Hatteria), that the total absence of indigenous land-mammalia was hardly to be expected. Some attention is therefore given to the curious animal which has been seen but never captured, and this is shown to be probably identical with an animal referred to by Captain Cook. The more accurate knowledge which has recently been obtained of the sea bottom around New Zealand enables us to determine that the former connection of that island with Australia was towards the north, and this is found to agree well with many of the peculiarities of its fauna.

The flora of New Zealand and that of Australia are now both so well known, and they present so many peculiarities, and relations of so anomalous a character, as to present in Sir Joseph Hooker's opinion an almost insoluble problem. Much additional information on the physical and geological history of these two countries has, however, been obtained since the appearance of Sir Joseph Hooker's works, and I therefore determined to apply to them the same method of discussion and treatment which has been usually successful with similar problems in the case of animals. The fact above noted, that New Zealand was connected with Australia in its northern and tropical portion only, of itself affords a clue to one portion of the specialities of the New Zealand flora—the presence of an unusual number of tropical families and genera, while the temperate forms consist mainly of species either identical with those found in Australia or closely allied to them. But a still more important clue is obtained in the geological structure of Australia itself, which is shown to have been for long periods divided into an eastern and a western island, in the latter of which the highly peculiar flora of temperate Australia was developed. This is found to explain with great exactness the remarkable absence from New Zealand of all the most abundant and characteristic Australian genera, both of plants and of animals, since these existed at that time only in the western island, while New Zealand was in connection with the eastern island alone and with the tropical portion of it. From these geological and physical facts, and the known powers of dispersal of plants, all the main features, and many of the detailed peculiarities of the New Zealand flora are shown necessarily to result.

Our last chapter is devoted to a wider, and if possible more interesting subject—the origin of the European element in the floras of New Zealand and Australia, and also in those of South America and South Africa. This is so especially a botanical question, that it was with some diffidence I entered upon it, yet it arose so naturally from the study of the New Zealand and Australian floras, and seemed to have so much light thrown upon it by our preliminary studies as to changes of climate and the causes which have favoured the distribution of plants, that I felt my work would be incomplete without a consideration of it. The subject will be so fresh in the reader's mind that a complete summary of it is unnecessary. I venture to think, however, that I have shown, not only the several routes by which the northern plants have reached the various southern lands, but have pointed out the special aids to their migration, and the motive power which has urged them on.

In this discussion, if nowhere else, will be found a complete justification of that lengthy investigation of the exact nature of past changes of climate, which to some readers may have seemed unnecessary and unsuited to such a work as the present. Without the clear and definite conclusions arrived at by that discussion, and those equally important views as to the permanence of the great features of the earth's surface, and the wonderful dispersive powers of plants which have been so frequently brought before us in our studies of insular floras, I should not have ventured to attack the wide and difficult problem of the northern element in southern floras.

In concluding a work dealing with subjects which have occupied my attention for many years, I trust that the reader who has followed me throughout will be imbued with the conviction that ever presses upon myself, of the complete interdependence of organic and inorganic nature. Not only does the marvellous structure of each organised being involve the whole past history of the earth, but such apparently unimportant facts as the presence of certain types of plants or animals in one island rather than in another, are now shown to be dependent on the long series of past geological changes—on those marvellous astronomical revolutions which cause a periodic variation of terrestrial climates—on the apparently fortuitous action of storms and currents in the conveyance of germs—and on the endlessly varied actions and reactions of organised beings on each other. And although these various causes are far too complex in their combined action to enable us to follow them out in the case of any one species, yet their broad results are clearly recognisable; and we are thus encouraged to study more completely every detail and every anomaly in the distribution of living things, in the firm conviction that by so doing we shall obtain a fuller and clearer insight into the course of nature, and with increased confidence that the "mighty maze" of Being we see everywhere around us is "not without a plan."

title: Island Life/XXIV


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 1

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 2


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 3


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 4


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 5


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-23/Schedule 6


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HIS not very interesting spot may be chosen as a centre whence the Avon, Erme, and Yealm river valleys may be explored. The distances are considerable, but the railway facilitates reaching starting-points—South Brent for the Avon, and Cornwood for the Yealm. It is advisable to ascend one river, cross a ridge, and descend another river.

The moors on this, the south, side are by no means so bold as are those on the other sides, but the valleys are hardly to be surpassed for beauty; and they give access to very remarkable groups of antiquities, the distance to some of which beyond inclosed land, and the absence of roads on this part of the moor has saved these latter from destruction.

In Ivybridge itself there is absolutely nothing worth seeing, but the churches of Ugborough and Ermington richly deserve a visit; and there are

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210 some old manor houses, as Fardell, Fillham, Slade, and Fowelscombe, that may be seen with interest. We will begin with the valley of the Avon.

South Brent is dominated by Brent Hill, that was formerly crowned with a chapel dedicated to S. Michael. The parish church, a foundation of S. Petrock, possessed a fine carved oak screen. The church has, however, been taken in hand by that iconoclast the "restorer," who has left it empty, swept and garnished—a thing of nakedness and a woe for ever. The screen—the one glory of the church—was cast forth into the graveyard, and there allowed to rot.

The Avon foams down from the moor through a contracted throat, affording scenes of great beauty in its ravine. It receives the Glazebrook some way below South Brent, and the Bala about the same distance above it.

The river has to be ascended for two miles and a half before Shipley Bridge is reached, and then the moor is in front of one, with Zeal Plains spread out, strewn with prehistoric settlements that have not as yet been properly investigated.

The Abbots' Way, a track from Buckfast to Tavistock, crosses the Avon at Huntingdon's Cross, a rude unchamfered stone four feet and a half high. It stands immediately within the forest bounds. The moors already traversed are the commons of Brent and Dean. The cross is romantically situated in a rocky basin, the rising ground about it covered with patches of heather, with here and there a granite boulder protruding through the turf.

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Rh "All around is still and silent, save the low murmuring of the waters as they run over their pebbly bed. The only signs of life are the furry inhabitants of the warren, and, perchance, a herd of Dartmoor ponies, wild as the country over which they roam, and a few sheep or cattle grazing on the slopes. The cross is surrounded by rushes, and a dilapidated—wall the warren enclosure—runs near it."

The Abbots' Way may here be distinctly seen ascending the left bank of the Avon.

On Quick Beam Hill, over which the Abbots' Way climbs to reach the valley of the Erme, is another cross, concerning which something must be said, as it shows that not only educated and intelligent architects are iconoclasts, but also illiterate and stupid workmen.

There is a cairn that bears the name of Whitaburrow, and till the year 1847, erect on it in the centre stood an old grey moorstone cross. In that year a company was formed to extract naphtha from the peat, and its works were established near Shipley Bridge, to which the peat was conveyed from this spot in tram-waggons.

There being no place of shelter near, the labourers erected a house on the summit of the cairn, which measures one hundred and ninety feet in circumference, and requiring a large stone as a support for their chimney-breast, they knocked off the arms of the cross and employed the shaft for that purpose. The house has disappeared with the exception of the foundations and about three feet in height of walling,

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text:
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25

as amended by

Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Amendment Act, No. 2 of 1994 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Second Amendment Act, No. 3 of 1994 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Third Amendment Act, No. 13 of 1994 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Fourth Amendment Act, No. 14 of 1994 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Fifth Amendment Act, No. 29 of 1994 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Sixth Amendment Act, No. 24 of 1994


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212 but the poor old maimed shaft stands there aloft, just as the poor old maimed church of South Brent stands on the river far below. Each has lost that which made it significant and beautiful, each mutilated by the stupidity of man.

The cross takes its name from Sir William Petre of Tor Brian, who possessed certain rights over Brent Moor. He was Secretary of State in four reigns—those of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth—and seems to have conformed to whichever religion was favoured by the Sovereign, like the Vicar of Bray. He died in 1571, and was the ancestor of the present Lord Petre.

On Ugborough Moor, that adjoins, is a third cross, called that of Hobajohn, which is planted, singularly enough, in the midst of a stone row. This row starts on Butterdon Hill, above Ivybridge, and passes within a short distance of Sharp Tor. I have not seen it, but learn that it, like most other stone rows, starts from a cairn inclosed within upright stones. It must, if really a stone row, be something like three miles in length. The cross has also been mutilated, and lies prostrate.

A fourth cross, Spurle's or Pearl's Cross, on Ugborough Moor, has lost its shaft.

The Abbots' Way from Avon valley leads to the Erme valley, where Redlake enters it at a very interesting point. Here, at the junction of this feeder, is a well-preserved blowing-house, with its wheel-pit and with its tin-moulds lying in the ruins.

The whole of Erme Plains and the valley for three miles down is simply crowded with hut circles,

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text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 1


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 2


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 3


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 4


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Rh pounds, and other remains. On the height above, Staldon Moor, is a stone row of really astounding length, of which something has been already said. It starts at the south end from a large circle, which formerly inclosed a cairn, and stretches away to the north, over hill and down dale, for two miles and a quarter, and terminates in a kistvaen. The stones are not large, but the row is fairly intact.

Due south of this, on the south side of the highest point of Stall Moor, Staldon Barrow, are two more stone rows, almost, but not quite, in a line. In the neighbourhood are many cairns and kistvaens. The stones here are larger. Taken together the rows run over 1,400 feet. They can be seen from Cornwood Station when the light is favourable.

Again another row on Burford Down, a continuation of the same moor, starts from a circle containing a kistvaen near Tristis Rock, and stretches away north to a wall and across an inclosed field, but here it has been sadly pillaged for the construction of the wall. It still runs 1,500 feet. The Erme valley has been much worked by streamers, and some of the mining operations have been carried on at a comparatively recent period.

By the side of a little lateral gully on the right hand in descending the river is a beehive hut among the streamers' mounds; it is quite intact, and shelter may be taken in it from a passing storm. It is, however, not prehistoric, but is a miners' cache.

Another, also perfect, is a little further down, on the other side of the river before reaching Piles Wood.

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text:
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 5

Appointment of commissions, committees and bodies

72. (1) The Constitutional Assembly shall, in addition to appointing committees of its members, be competent to appoint any commissions, technical committees and other advisory bodies to assist it in the performance of its functions.

(2) The Constitutional Assembly shall, subject to subsection (3), appoint an independent panel of seven South African citizens being recognised constitutional experts, not being members of Parliament or any other legislature and not holding office in any political party, to advise it, or the Chairperson, on matters pertaining to its functions, and to perform such other tasks as are provided for in this Constitution.

(3) A majority of at least two-thirds of all the members of the Constitutional Assembly shall be required for the appointment of the panel of constitutional experts, and, in the event of such majority not being achieved, a panel of constitutional experts complying with the requirements mentioned in subsection (2) and consisting of a nominee of each party which holds at least 40 seats in the Constitutional Assembly and wishes to make such a nomination, shall be appointed.


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214 Harford church, another foundation of S. Petrock, stands high. It contains nothing of interest except an altar tomb with brasses upon it, in memory of Thomas Williams, Speaker of the House of Commons, of the family of that name formerly resident at Stowford, in the parish. And in the second place, a monument to John and Agnes Prideaux, the parents of John Prideaux, Bishop of Worcester. This was set up by the latter in 1639.

Hall, not far from the church, was for some time the residence of the notorious Elizabeth Chudleigh, Duchess of Kingston, who was tried and condemned for bigamy. It was a hard case. She was born in 1726, and was the daughter of Colonel Thomas Chudleigh, who died when Elizabeth was quite a child. In 1744, when she was aged only eighteen, she visited her maternal aunt, Anne Hanmer, at Lainston, near Winchester, met at the Winchester Races Lieutenant Hervey, second son of Lord Hervey, and grandson of the Earl of Bristol, who was then aged twenty. He was invited to Lainston, and one night in a foolish frolic, at eleven o'clock, with the connivance, if not at the instigation, of Mrs. Hanmer, Elizabeth was married to Lieutenant Hervey by the rector in the little roofless ruin of a church. No registers were signed, and the bridegroom left in two days to rejoin his ship, and sailed for the West Indies.

She never after that received Lieutenant Hervey as her husband, and he instituted a suit in the Consistory Court of the Bishop of London for the jactitation of the marriage, and sentence was given

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text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 6


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 7


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 8


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Rh in 1769 declaring that the marriage form gone through in 1744 was null and void. On the strength of this Elizabeth married the Duke of Kingston, March 8, 1769.

No attempt was made during the lifetime of the Duke to dispute the legality of the union; neither he nor Elizabeth had the least doubt that the former marriage had been legally dissolved. But when the Duke left all his great fortune to Elizabeth, then his nephews were furious, and raked up against her the charge of bigamy, on the grounds that the sentence of the Consistory Court was invalid. She was tried in Westminster Hall before her peers in 1776, and the trial lasted five days.

The penalty for bigamy was death, but she could escape this sentence by claiming the benefit of a statute of William and Mary, which commuted death to branding in the hand and imprisonment. The peers found her guilty, but she escaped punishment by flying to the Continent, where she died in 1788.

Harford Hall, where she resided, has about it no architectural features; it never can have been other than a small mansion, and is now a mere farmhouse. The trees around it alone indicate that it was at one time a gentleman's seat.

If now we strike across Stall Moor to the Yealm we come on Yealm Steps, where the river falls over a mass of granite débris. Here are two

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text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 9


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 10


text:
Oliver's Advice

 * The night is gathering gloomily, the day is closing fast—
 * The tempest flaps his raven wings in loud and angry blast;
 * The thunder clouds are driving athwart the lurid sky—
 * But, “put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.” *
 * There was a day when loyalty was hail’d with honour due,
 * Out banner the protection wav’d to all the good and true—
 * And gallant hearts beneath its folds were link’d in honour’s tie,
 * We put our trust in God, my boys, and we kept our powder dry.
 * When Treason bar’d her bloody arm, and madden’d round the land,
 * For king, and laws, and order fair, we drew the ready brand;
 * Our gathering spell was William’s name—our word was, “do or die,”
 * And still we put our trust in God, and kept our powder dry.
 * But now, alas! a wondrous change has come the nation o’er,
 * And worth and gallant services remember’d are no more,
 * And, crush’d beneath oppression’s weight, in chains of grief we lie—
 * But put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * Forth starts the spawn of Treason, the ’scap’d of ninety-eight,
 * To bask in courtly favour, and seize the helm of state—
 * E’en they whose hands are reeking yet with murder’s crimson dye—
 * But put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * They come, whose deeds incarnadin’d the Slaney’s silver wave—
 * They come, who to the foreign foe the hail of welcome gave;
 * He comes, the open rebel fierce—he comes the Jesuit sly;
 * But put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * They come, whose counsels wrapp’d the land in foul rebellious flame,
 * Their hearts unchastened by remorse, their cheeks unting’d by shame.
 * Be still, be still, indignant heart—be tearless, too, each eye,
 * And put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * The Pow’r that led his chosen, by pillar’d cloud and flame,
 * Through parted sea and desert waste, that Pow’r is still the same.
 * He fails not—He, the loyal hearts that firm on him rely—
 * So put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * The Pow’r that nerv’d the stalwart arms of Gideon’s chosen few,
 * The Pow’r that led the great William, Boyne’s reddening torrent through—
 * In his protecting aid confide, and every foe defy—
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * Already see the star of hope emits its orient blaze,
 * The cheering beacon of relief it glimmers thro’ the haze.
 * It tells of better days to come, it tells of succour nigh,
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * See, see along the hills of Down its rising glories spread,
 * But brightest beams its radiance from Donard's lofty head. **
 * Clanbrassil’s vales are kindling wide, and “Roden” is the cry—
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * Then cheer ye hearts of loyalty, nor sink in dark despair
 * Our banner shall again unfold its glories to the air.
 * The storm that raves the wildest, the soonest passes by;
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * For “happy homes,” for “altars free,” we grasp the ready sword,
 * For freedom, truth, and for our God’s unmutilated word.
 * These, these the war-cry of our march, our hope the Lord on high;
 * Then put your trust in God my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * Clanbrassil’s vales are kindling wide, and “Roden” is the cry—
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * Then cheer ye hearts of loyalty, nor sink in dark despair
 * Our banner shall again unfold its glories to the air.
 * The storm that raves the wildest, the soonest passes by;
 * Then put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * For “happy homes,” for “altars free,” we grasp the ready sword,
 * For freedom, truth, and for our God’s unmutilated word.
 * These, these the war-cry of our march, our hope the Lord on high;
 * Then put your trust in God my boys, and keep your powder dry.
 * These, these the war-cry of our march, our hope the Lord on high;
 * Then put your trust in God my boys, and keep your powder dry.

Bannside, Nov. 1st. FITZ STEWART.

* There is a well-authenticated anecdote of Cromwell. On a certain occasion, when his troops were about crossing a river to attack the enemy, he concluded an address, couched in the usual fanatic terms in use among them, with these words– "put your trust in God; but mind to keep your powder dry."

** Lord Roden resides at the base of Slieve Donard.

title: Oliver's Advice


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 11


text:
Talk:Oliver's Advice

This material was moved here from the Wikipedia article on Valentine Blacker. The source cited is: Cheers! BD2412 T 19:40, 15 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Attributed to William Blacker - written and published after the death of Valentine Blacker under the name Fitz Stewart, a pseudonym employed by William Blacker. Jokestress (talk) 04:58, 10 October 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Oliver's Advice


text:
Page:A Book of Dartmoor.djvu/278

216, one above the steps and the other below. The lower house on the eastern side of the stream is a mere heap of ruins with, however, the door-jamb standing and facing the north. No wheel-pit is visible, but there are traces of a watercourse at a high level to the north-east of the hut. Near the entrance is a stone with one perfect mould in it, and another imperfect. A second mould-stone is lying near an angle in the eastern wall of the house. It has in it two moulds adjoining each other—one at a lower level than the other, and connected by a channel. The high-level cavity is 15 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 3 inches deep. At one end is a groove one inch deep, perpendicular, and running down the side of the mould three inches; that is, from top to bottom.

The low-level mould is 17 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 5 inches deep. These cavities have been used for the purification of tin, for the molten metal mixed with furnace impurities poured in on the high-level hollow would flow in a purer condition into the low-level mould.

This blowing-house has been excavated, somewhat superficially, but nothing was found in it to give token of the period to which it belonged. About a quarter of a mile further up the river, but on the western bank, is another ruin. The doorway, which is very imperfect, is on the eastern side. One mould-stone remains, containing a mould 17 inches long, 12 inches wide, and from 4 to 5 inches deep.

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text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 11A


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 12


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 13


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 14


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Rh The whole slope of Stall Moor towards the south is strewn with hut circles, and between the Yealm and Broadall Lake is a pound containing several. On the further side of the stream is another pound, at which begins a singular wall that extends for over three miles as far as the Plym at Trowlesworthy Warren. For what purpose this wall was erected—whether as a boundary, or whether for defence—cannot be determined. It is in connection with several pounds and clusters of hut circles.

In the valley of Hawns and Dendles is a pretty cascade, a great haunt of the tripper, who ravages the Yealm valley and tears up and carries off the ferns and roots of wild flowers.

A few instances of the habits of the tripper may not seem amiss, as exhibited in the Yealm valley.

Blachford was the residence of the late Lord Blachford, the friend of Gladstone.

One day my lady saw a woman—a tripper—in front of the house, where there is a rockery, tearing up ferns. Lady Blachford rushed forth to interfere.

"Oh!" said the tripper, "I only did it so as to get a sight of Lord Blachford. I thought if I executed some mischief I might draw him forth."

A peculiarly fine rhododendron grew in front of the vicarage. It attracted the tripper by its beautiful masses of flower. One evening an individual of this not uncommon species proceeded to tear it up, assisted by trowel and knife; and finally having hacked through the roots, carried it off; but finding the load burdensome at the first hill, threw it away.

A gentleman residing further down the valley was

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text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Chapter 15


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 1


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 2


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 3


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 4


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218 cultivating a rare flowering shrub. After seven years it put forth its tassels of bloom. He tarried a day or two before gathering the blossoms till they were fully out. His wife was an invalid, and he purposed showing them to her when in their full perfection. But before he carried his purpose into execution, he went to Cornwood Station to meet a friend, when he perceived a "lady" on the platform with her hands full of the flowers. He approached her and civilly inquired where she had obtained the beautiful bunches.

"Oh! they were growing in Mr. P.'s ground, so I went in and gathered them. I know Mr. P. well, and I am convinced he would not object."

"You have the advantage of me, madam. I am Mr. P. But to a lady, as to a Christian, all things are lawful, though all things may not be expedient."

A friend threw open his grounds to a great party of school teachers and their scholars. The neighbourhood had been denuded of the Osmunda regalis by the tripper, but the beautiful fern had a sanctuary in his preserves. However, the visitors dug up, tore away, and destroyed his plants wholesale, and returned to town burdened with the wreckage. The Osmunda is a slow grower, and takes many years to reach maturity.

So much for the tripper. I do not in the least suppose any of this race will see more of my book than the outside. But I write this for the intelligent visitor, to warn him against Hawns and Dendles on Plymouth early closing day (Wednesday) in summer.

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text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 3

title: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 3


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 5


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 6


text: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993/1994-11-25/Schedule 7


text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 5

title: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 5


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Rh Wisdome is the ancestral house of the Rogers family, of which the late Lord Blachford was the representative. It is a modest, picturesque old moorland mansion of a small gentle family. Slade, on the other hand, must have been a house of consequence; it still possesses a noble hall, with richly carved oak wainscotting. Steart has handsome carved armorial gates; and Fardell is remarkable as a home of the Raleigh family, and had its licensed chapel. The grandfather of the navigator lived at Fardell, and Sir Walter himself was probably there much in his early days. Here was found an ogham inscription on a stone, now in the British Museum, which shows that the Irish had conquered and colonised Devon as far south as Cornwood. Other oghams have been found at Tavistock, and at Lewannick, near Launceston.

According to local belief, the stone indicated where treasure was hid; and a jingle was current in the neighbourhood:—

The stone bore the inscription, "Fanonii Macquisini" on one side, and "Sapanni" on the other. The "Mac" in the name is conclusively Irish, as also the oghams.

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text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 12

title: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 12


text:
Page:United States Reports, Volume 545.djvu/1000

 , J., concurring Even if the absolute number of noninfringing files copied using the Grokster and StreamCast software is large, it does not follow that the products are therefore put to substantial noninfringing uses and are thus immune from liability. The number of noninfringing copies may be reflective of, and dwarfed by, the huge total volume of files shared. Further, the District Court and the Court of Appeals did not sharply distinguish between uses of Grokster’s and StreamCast’s software products (which this case is about) and uses of peer-to-peer technology generally (which this case is not about).

In sum, when the record in this case was developed, there was evidence that Grokster’s and StreamCast’s products were, and had been for some time, overwhelmingly used to infringe, ante, at 922–924; App. 434–439, 476–481, and that this infringement was the overwhelming source of revenue from the products, ante, at 925–926; 259 F. Supp. 2d, at 1043–1044. Fairly appraised, the evidence was insufficient to demonstrate, beyond genuine debate, a reasonable prospect that substantial or commercially significant noninfringing uses were likely to develop over time. On this record, the District Court should not have ruled dispositively on the contributory infringement charge by granting summary judgment to Grokster and StreamCast.

If, on remand, the case is not resolved on summary judgment in favor of MGM based on Grokster and StreamCast actively inducing infringement, the Court of Appeals, I


text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 13

title: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 13


text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 36

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text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 69

title: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 69


text: User:Phy1729/Catullus/Poem 84

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text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Realschulen

REALSCHULEN, rā-äl'shoo-lĕn, a class of institutions in the German system of secondary education characterized by the emphasis laid upon the study of the sciences, mathematics and modern languages as opposed to the gymnasia in which the classics constitute the principal feature of the curriculum. The Realschule took its rise in Germany in the early part of the 18th century, but did not attain its full development until the second half of the 19th century, when the tremendous progress of science compelled, after a long struggle, the recognition of this type of school as of equal rank with the gymnasia in the national system of education. In the struggle, however, between the classical school and the scientific school a mixed form was developed, approaching more nearly to the Realschule in the importance attached to the non-humanistic branches, but including Latin in its lists of studies. This type of school is known as the Real-gymnasium, and between it and the gymnasium the differences are growing less every year, especially since the study of Greek in the Prussian gymnasia was rendered non-obligatory in 1900. Real-gymnasia are, however, included under the general designation of Realschulen, a term which, in its broadest signification, includes the following classes: (1) Oberrealschulen (Upper Real schools), scientific schools with a nine years' course, giving no instruction in the ancient languages; (2) Realgymnasien (Real-gymnasia), scientific schools with a nine years' course, giving instruction in Latin; (3) Realschulen (in a stricter sense), the same as the Oberrealschulen, without the highest class; (4) Realprogymnasien, bearing the same relation to the Realgymnasien as the Realschulen to the Oberrealschulen; and (5) Höhere Bürgerschulen (higher middle schools), offering a six years' course without Latin. While the Real-gymnasium as been approaching the classical school in character,

the Real-schools proper have been extending their scope so as to include various forms of technical and even industrial education. Graduates of Real-schools are ineligible for adimission to various departments and faculties in the universities, the most liberal conditions prevailing in Prussia, where only the faculty of theology is closed to them. See ; and consult Bolton, F. E., ‘The Secondary School System of Germany’ (New York 1900); and Russell, J. E., ‘German Higher Schools’ ( ib. 1907).
 * ../Gymnasia and Real-gymnasia,


text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Real schools

REAL SCHOOLS (German, Realschulen), those educational institutions of Germany between the elementary school and the university having for their special object the teaching of science, art, the modern languages, etc.; in contradistinction to the ordinary grammar schools and gymnasiums, in which the classical languages hold a more important place.


text: Page:Three Books of Occult Philosophy (De Occulta Philosophia) (1651).djvu/612


text: A Study of Mexico/Advertisements

title: A Study of Mexico/Advertisements


text: Portal:Children/Featured

title: Portal:Children/Featured


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Nature Printing

NATURE PRINTING. A process by which engravings or plates are produced by taking direct impressions of the objects themselves, and printing from them. The process was invented in 1849 by Alois Auer, director of the State printing establishment of the Austrian Empire, and, though very simple, it cannot be applied to any objects except those with tolerably flat surfaces, such as dried and pressed plants, embroidery and lace, and a very few animal productions. The object is placed between a plate of steel and another of lead, both of which are smooth, and polished. They are then drawn through a pair of rollers under considerable pressure, and when the plates are separated it is found that a most beautiful and perfect impression of the object has been made in the leaden plate. This may be used directly as an engraved plate, if only a very few impressions are wanted; but it is too soft to resist the action of the presses for practical purposes; a facsimile to be used as the printing plate is made in copper by the electrotype process. The inventor published a description of his work in 1854 at Vienna, in which is given a detailed account of the method.


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Nature-study

NATURE-STUDY. A modern development of the movement of elementary education toward the study of real objects rather than symbols. It arose in response to a demand voiced as early as the year 1845 in this country by (q.v.) for early training in the inductive method of thought and in the field of nature.

According to generally accepted ideas on nature-study, it must concern itself with the common objects of the child's environment. These the child must be led to examine, to work with himself. The work must be carried on, so far as possible, to strengthen independence of thought and judgment. The beginnings of the study must be based upon the immediate surroundings of the child, and the field of inquiry may be extended further abroad as the later years of the school are approached. The tasks in the earlier years should be chiefly observational. Nevertheless, the experimental method of study should not be neglected. As far as possible, organic forms should be regarded as living things capable of activity and change; the point of view should therefore be dynamic, a matter of great pedagogic importance. The plan of the work may properly be made out so as to include the commoner animals and plants, and the everyday phenomena of inorganic nature. Duplication of work should be avoided by increasing the difficulty of the problems and basing them on different material. It is better to study the materials comparatively as far as possible, so that pupils may learn to discriminate and to form general notions. The exhaustive study of one type is of much less value. Outdoor work

should be done; in addition to gardening, studies of the habits and haunts of animals, the appearance and disappearance of the birds, the relations of insects to plant life, the appearance of trees in summer and winter dress, and numerous other similar topics may form the basis of study. It is highly important that the materials should be abundant, that the teacher be not too closely tied to a detailed plan of work, and that he be resourceful in the matter of making the most of what is available. It is important, too, that the pupils should provide their own material, and to this end both the excursion and the garden should be turned to account. It would seem best, on the whole, to devote, at any rate, two periods (one to two hours) a week, or its equivalent, throughout the course. The school garden has in some cases been provided for after-school hours, and this seems to be a reasonable adjustment of the matter.

Consult: Carss, Course in Nature Study (in the Horace Mann School); Teachers College Record, vol. i., No. 2, for March, 1900 (New York, with an extensive bibliography); Miller, Course in Nature Study for Public Schools (Ithaca, 1900, to be obtained through the State Secretary); Hodge, Nature Study and Life (New York, 1902); Jackman, Nature Study for the Common Schools (ib., 1894); id., Nature Study for the Grades (ib., 1899); Lange, Handbook of Nature Study (ib., 1899); Scott, Nature Study and the Child (Boston, 1901); Wilson, Nature Study in the Elementary School (New York, 1899); Bailey, Garden Making (ib., 1901).


text:
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Rh colonizers, acting individually or in groups, collected the ships, men and resources necessary for their enterprises, and procured from the Crown a charter. By this document the king conveyed to them a claim to the soil which would be valid in English law, gave them the right to transfer Englishmen thither as colonists, to trade with them and with the natives, and to govern the colony, subject to the conditions of allegiance and of British sovereignty in general. The rights and liberties of the colonists as British subjects, without attempt to define what they were, were guaranteed by the charters, and the grantee was prohibited from passing laws or issuing orders which were repugnant to those of England. In only a part of the charters—those chiefly which were issued subsequent to 1660—was express reference made to the calling of assemblies in the colonies. So general were the provisions of the charters that they only remotely determined the forms which government should assume under them and what the rights of the colonists should be. A considerable variety of institutions and social types existed under them. But their very indefiniteness made them valuable as objects of appeal to those who in time of controversy were upholding local rights and liberties.

5. Of the chartered colonies there were two varieties—proprietary provinces and corporate colonies. Though alike

in the fact that the patentees who founded them were mesne tenants of the Crown, they were quite unlike in their internal organization and to a considerable extent also in the character of the people who inhabited them. The proprietary province was a development from the principle of the fief, though with many variations. The early charters of discovery, those for example which were granted to John and Sebastian Cabot and to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, contemplated the founding of feudal principalities in the New World. The grant to Sir Walter Raleigh, which resulted in the abortive colonial experiment at Roanoke, was of the same character. At the period of transition from the rule of the Tudors to that of the Stuarts, trading companies and companies whose purpose was colonization were increasing in number and importance. The first half of the 17th century was distinguished by the founding of many such, in France and the Netherlands as well as in England. The joint companies which were chartered

by James I. in 1606, one to have its residence at London and the other at Plymouth, were of this character. They were granted the right to colonize, the one in northern and the other in southern “Virginia”; the intervening territory, three degrees in breadth, being left common to the two. The rights of the companies were confined to those of settlement and trade. The Plymouth patentees achieved no permanent result; but those of London founded Jamestown (1607) and other settlements along the James river, which later became the province of (q.v.).

6. But before this result had been reached the London patentees had secured in succession two new charters, one in 1609 and another in 1612. By means of these grants they had practically separated from the Plymouth Company, had secured a concession of territory 400 m. broad and extending through the continent, and had been able to perfect the organization of their company. By the grant of 1606 the right to govern the colonies had been reserved to councils of royal appointees, one resident in England and one in each distinct colony which should be founded. But by their later charters the London patentees were fully incorporated, and in connection therewith received not only the power to grant land but rights of government as well. This made the Virginia Company of London in the full sense of the word the proprietor of the province which it was founding. It now appointed resident governors, councillors and other officials for the colony, and instructed and controlled them in all ways, subject of course to the general supervision of the king in council. Under the charter of 1606, in order to facilitate colonization on a strange continent, joint management of land and trade was temporarily instituted. But under the fully organized company, as managed by Sir Thomas Smith, and especially by Sir Edwin Sandys and the Ferrars, this system was

abandoned, and private property in land and the control of trade through private “magazines” were established. A number of distinct plantations and settlements were founded which later developed into counties and parishes. From these localities, in 1619, under authority from the company, representatives were elected who met with the governor and council at Jamestown and formed the first colonial assembly held on American soil. Its acts were duly submitted to the company in London for its approval or disapproval. Other assemblies were called, the tobacco industry was established and the principles upon which traffic in that staple was to be conducted with Europe were announced. Thus Virginia assumed the form of a proprietary province, with an English trading company as its proprietor.

7. Meantime west of England men had been making fishing voyages and voyages of discovery to northern “Virginia”, which

now was coming to be known as New England. In 1620 a new charter was procured, the reorganized company being known, in brief, as the New England Council. Like the London patentees, this body was now fully incorporated and received a grant of the vast territory between 40° and 48° N. lat. and extending through to the South Sea (Pacific). Full rights of government, as well as of trade and settlement, were also bestowed. The moving spirit in this revived enterprise was (q.v.), an Anglican and royalist from the west of England. For a time (q.v.) was his most active coadjutor. Such backing as the company received came from nobles and courtiers, and it had the sympathy of the court. But lack of resources and of active interest on the part of most of the patentees, together with the development of a Puritan interest in New England, led to the failure of this enterprise. No colony was established directly by the council itself, but that part of its vast territory which lay adjacent to the coast was parcelled out among the patentees and by them a few weak and struggling settlements were founded. They were all proprietary in character, and those along the northern coast were more or less connected with Anglican and royalist interests. But, as events proved, Plymouth Colony (founded in 1620), which was Puritan and Separatist to the core, became a patentee of the New England Council; and the colony of Massachusetts Bay (founded in 1628-1630), which was to become the citadel of Puritanism in America, procured the original title to its soil from the same source. At the outset both Massachusetts and Plymouth must be classed as proprietary settlements, though far different from such in spirit and destiny. Massachusetts soon (in 1629) secured a royal charter for its territory between the Merrimac and Charles rivers, and thus took a long step towards independence of the council. At the same time the Plymouth settlers were throwing aside the system of joint management of land which, as in the case of Virginia, had been imposed upon them by adventurers who had lent money for the enterprise; were paying their debts to these same adventurers and securing control of the trade of the colony; were establishing a system of self-government similar to that of Massachusetts. Thus a strong Puritan interest grew up in the midst of the domain which had been granted to the New England Council, and in connexion therewith the type of colony to which we have given the name corporate came into existence.

8. In order to understand the nature of the corporate colony, it is necessary to explain the internal organization of that

type of company which, like the Virginia Company of London, was founded for purposes of trade and colonization. It was composed of stockholders, who became members as the result of the purchase of shares or of migration to the colony as planters, or of both acts combined. In the Virginia Company they were known as the “generality,” in the Massachusetts and other companies as the “freemen.” In them, when met as a democratically organized body under the name of “quarter court” or “general court,” was vested the governing power of the company. It

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 27.djvu/688


text:
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 {|align="center" style="font-size: 50%"
 * [[Image:1911USA.png|800px]]
 * align="right"|Emery Walker sc.
 * }
 * }

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 27.djvu/689


text: Portal:Children/Poetry

title: Portal:Children/Poetry


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Audrey


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Audrey, Saint


text:
Page:The Cambridge History of American Literature, v1.djvu/151

 impressiveness of style, a noble power of rhetorical form, and a telling incisiveness of phrase which won the instant admiration of English critics, and which stamp the political literature of American national beginnings as superior to the similar literature of any other people anywhere.

Of the first notable contribution to the literary history of the Revolution we have, unfortunately, only a second-hand report. When, in 1761, following the death of George II and the accession of George III, the surveyor-general of customs at Boston applied to the Superior Court of Massachusetts for the reissuance of writs of assistance, granting authority to search for and seize uncustomed goods, some merchants of Boston and others combined to oppose the application. James Otis the younger, for ten years past one of the leaders of the Massachusetts bar, and lately advocate-general, who, unable to support the application for the writs, had resigned his office, made the leading argument for the petitioners. In a great speech, the substance of which has survived only in notes taken at the time by John Adams, then a young lawyer, and more fully written out many years later, Otis challenged the writs as "the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the most destructive of English liberty and the fundamental principles of law, that ever was found in an English law-book." At once general in its terms and perpetual in its operation, lacking the exact specification of place and circumstance which a search-warrant ought to contain, such a writ was on both accounts illegal. The freedom of one's house was violated by it; the only precedent for it belonged to the days of arbitrary power under Charles II. "No acts of Parliament can establish such a writ. . . . An act against the constitution is void."

Otis could impede, but he could not defeat, the application, and the writs were eventually issued. He had, however, raised the important question of the application of English law to the colonies, and the nature and extent of the "rights of Englishmen" which the colonial charters, in express terms, had guaranteed. Elected a member of the House of Representatives, he presently led an attack upon Governor Bernard for fitting


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Audubon, John James


text:
Page:The Cambridge History of American Literature, v1.djvu/152

126 out an armed vessel without the approval of the House; drafted a communication in which the governor was charged with "taking from the House their most darling privilege, the right of originating all taxes"; and late in 1762 published his first political pamphlet, A Vindication of the Conduct of the House of Representatives of the Province of the Massachusetts-Bay, in which, mixed with extreme praise of the King of Great Britain and denunciation of the King of France, and vague suggestions as to the nature of human rights, the privileges of the colonies under the British constitution were stoutly maintained. Neither historically nor legally was the argument beyond question, and the claim of right was a call to the future rather than an interpretation of the past. What was said, however, was said with vigour and incisiveness, and to Otis's provincial audience carried weight.

The treaty of Paris, ceding to Great Britain all the vast possessions of France on the mainland of North America, together with Florida and other Spanish territory east of the Mississippi, was concluded 10 February, 1763. On the 23d of that month, Charles Townshend became first lord of trade, with the oversight of colonial administration, in the short-lived ministry of Bute, and some far-reaching changes in the colonial system were presently announced. The salaries of governors and judges, hitherto paid by the colonial assemblies, were now to be paid by the crown, thus insuring, it was believed, a better enforcement of the trade laws and a proper revenue from customs; and a standing army of ten thousand men was to be maintained in America, in anticipation of an attempt by France to recover what it had lost, the expense of the troops to be met by parliamentary taxation of the colonies. Grenville, who became prime minister in June, supported the plan. In March, 1764, Grenville gave notice of his intention to impose stamp duties; laying the matter over for a year, however, in order that the colonies might be consulted. In April a Sugar Act imposed new colonial customs duties.

The prospect of direct taxation by Parliament aroused widespread apprehension in America, and called forth in July the ablest and best-known of Otis's pamphlets, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved. With notable moderation and restraint, and in a tone pervadingly judicial rather than


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Aue, Hartmann von


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Aue

title: The New International Encyclopædia/Aue


text: The New International Encyclopædia/Auenbrugger, Leopold von


text:
Page:Early voyages to Terra Australis.djvu/165

Rh which lies in the Pacific Ocean, between the longitude of the coast of Peru, as far as the Baia de San Felipe y Santiago and the longitude which remains up to Bachan and Ternate, in which longitude the following most remarkable discoveries have already been made. The adelantado Alvaro Mendaña de Meyra first discovered New Guadalcanal, which is a very large island very near New Guinea; and some have imagined that what Mendaña called New Guadalcanal was part of New Guinea, but this is of no consequence whatever. New Guinea belongs also to the southern hemisphere, and was discovered some time before; and almost all of it has been since discovered on the outside [the northern side]. It is a country encompassed with water, and, according to the greater number of those who have seen it, it is seven hundred leagues in circuit: others make it much more: we do not give a close calculation here, because what has been said is sufficient for the intention of this discourse. The rest will be said in its proper place. The middle of those great islands are in from thirteen to fourteen degrees of south latitude. The adelantado Mendaña afterwards discovered the archipelago of islands which he called the Islands of Solomon, whereof, great and small, he saw thirty-three of very fine appearance, the middle of which was, according to his account, in eleven degrees south latitude. After this he discovered, in the year 1565, the island of San Christobal, not far from the said archipelago, the middle of which was in from seven


text: Portal:Children/Fairy

title: Portal:Children/Fairy


text: Portal:Children/Fiction

title: Portal:Children/Fiction


text: Portal:Children/Education

title: Portal:Children/Education


text: Category:604 works

title: Category:604 works


text:
Portal:Children's literature

0–3

 * Tommy Thumb's Song Book by Nurse Lovechild
 * The Real Mother Goose by Blanche Fisher Wright (1916)
 * Nursery Rhymes

3+

 * The Quangle Wangle's Hat by Edward Lear (1876)
 * The Tale of Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter (1902)
 * The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher by Beatrix Potter (1906)
 * The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck by Beatrix Potter (1908)
 * All other books by Beatrix Potter

5+

 * The Blue Fairy Book edited by Andrew Lang (1889)
 * A Book of Nonsense by Edward Lear (1846)
 * Czech Folk Tales, edited and translated by Josef Baudiš (1917)
 * Czechoslovak fairy tales retold by Parker Fillmore (1919)
 * The Disobedient Kids and other Czecho-Slovak fairy tales by Božena Němcová (1921)
 * The Emperor's New Clothes by Hans Christian Andersen (1837)
 * Five Nursery Tales in The Shoemaker's Apron by Parker Hoysted Fillmore (1920)
 * The Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales by Frank R. Stockton (1910)
 * The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling (1894)
 * Just So Stories by Rudyard Kipling (1902)
 * The Little Mermaid by Hans Christian Andersen (1837)
 * The Magic Fishbone by Charles Dickens (1868)
 * The Magic Pudding by Norman Lindsay (1918)
 * Susan and the Mermaid by Pamela Colman Smith (1912)
 * The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen (1843)
 * Velveteen Rabbit by Margery Williams (1922)
 * A Visit from St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore (1822)

8+

 * Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain (1884)
 * The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi (1883)
 * The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain (1876)
 * Aesop's Fables by Aesop (c. 550 BC)
 * Air Service Boys over the Rhine (1919)
 * Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll (1865)
 * Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There by Lewis Carroll (1871)
 * Anne of Green Gables by Lucy Maud Montgomery (1908)
 * Arsène Lupin, Gentleman-Burglar by Maurice Leblanc (1907)
 * Betty Gordon in Washington (1920)
 * Betty Gordon in the Land of Oil (1920)
 * Black Beauty by Anna Sewell (1877)
 * The Bobbsey Twins (1904)
 * The Bobbsey Twins at the Seashore (1907)
 * The Bobbsey Twins at Home (1916)
 * The Bobbsey Twins in Washington (1919)
 * The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night
 * The Boys of Columbia High on the River (1911)
 * Boys of the Fort (1901)
 * Bunny Brown and His Sister Sue on Grandpa's Farm (1916)
 * The Canterville Ghost by Oscar Wilde (1887)
 * Cautionary Tales for Children
 * A Christmas Carol
 * Dick Hamilton's Fortune (1909)
 * Emily of New Moon (1923)
 * Explorers of the Dawn (1922)
 * Five Children and It by E. Nesbit (1902)
 * The Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde (1888)
 * Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll
 * Little Lord Fauntleroy by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1886)
 * A Little Princess by Frances H. Burnett (1905)
 * The Lost World by Arthur Conan Doyle (1912)
 * The Man Who Was Thursday by Gilbert Keith Chesterton (1908)
 * Moonfleet by J. Meade Falkner (1898)
 * Napoleon's Young Neighbor by Helen Leah Reed (1907; nonfiction)
 * Original Stories from Real Life by Mary Wollstonecraft (1788)
 * Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1911)
 * The Pied Piper of Hamelin
 * The Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain (1881)
 * The Princess and the Goblin
 * The Prisoner of Zenda by Anthony Hope Hawkins (1884)
 * Rupert of Hentzau by Anthony Hope Hawkins (1898)
 * Ralph of the Roundhouse (1906)
 * Ralph in the Switch Tower (1907)
 * The Riddle of the Sands by Erskine Childers (1903)
 * Rootabaga Stories by Carl Sandburg (1936)
 * The Rover Boys at School (1899)
 * The Rover Boys on the Ocean (1899)
 * The Rover Boys on the Great Lakes (1901)
 * The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1909)
 * The Shoemaker's Apron by Parker Hoysted Fillmore (1920)
 * The Story of Doctor Dolittle by Hugh Lofting (1920)
 * The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle by Hugh Lofting (1922)
 * The Story of the Treasure Seekers by E. Nesbit (1899)
 * Tales from Shakspeare by Charles and Mary Lamb (1807)
 * Tarzan of the Apes by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1912)
 * The Return of Tarzan by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1913)
 * The Beasts of Tarzan by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1914)
 * The Son of Tarzan by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1914)
 * Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1916)
 * Jungle Tales of Tarzan by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1919)
 * Tarzan the Untamed by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1919-20)
 * Tarzan the Terrible by Edgar Rice Burroughs (1921)
 * The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan (1915)
 * Greenmantle by John Buchan (1916)
 * Mr Standfast by John Buchan (1919)
 * Tom Swift and His Motor Cycle (1910)
 * Tom Swift and His Airship (1910)
 * Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson
 * The Trial and Execution of the Sparrow for Killing Cock Robin (n.d.) by anonymous
 * Understood Betsy by Dorothy Canfield Fisher (1916)
 * The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame (1908)
 * The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum (1900)

12+

 * 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas by Jules Verne (1869)
 * Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne (1873)
 * The Call of the Wild by Jack London (1903)
 * The Children of the New Forest by Captain Frederick Marryat (1847)
 * Christmas Stories by Georgene Faulkner (1916)
 * The Coral Island by Robert Michael Ballantyne (1857)
 * The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas (1844)
 * Daddy-Long-Legs by Jean Webster (1912)
 * The Fifth Form at St. Dominic's by Talbot Baines Reed (1881)
 * The Grandmother by Božena Němcová (1891)
 * Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726)
 * Great Expectations by Charles Dickens (1860)
 * Heidi by Johanna Spyri (1880)
 * The Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur Conan Doyle (1902)
 * Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne (1864)
 * Kidnapped by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886)
 * Little Women by Louisa May Alcott (1868)
 * The Mystery of the Yellow Room by Gaston Leroux (1907)
 * Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens (1838)
 * The Railway Children by E. Nesbit (1906)
 * Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe (1719)
 * The Swiss Family Robinson by Johann David Wyss (1812)
 * The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas (1844)
 * Tom Brown's School Days by Thomas Hughes (1857)
 * Waverley by Walter Scott (1814)
 * White Fang by Jack London (1906)

title: Portal:Children's literature


text:
Portal:Children's fairy tales

More fairy tales

 * Beauty and the Beast by Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve (1740)
 * The Emperor's New Clothes by Hans Christian Andersen (1837)
 * The Little Mermaid by Hans Christian Andersen (1837)
 * The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen (1843)
 * Indian Fairy Tales by Maive Stokes (1879)
 * The Blue Fairy Book by Andrew Lang (1889)
 * The Japanese Fairy Book, 1908 (original: 1903) by Iwaya Sazanami, translated by Yei Theodora Ozaki
 * The Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales by Frank R. STockton (1910)
 * A Russian Garland of Fairy Tales by Robert Steele (1916)
 * Czechoslovak fairy tales by Parker Fillmore (1919)
 * The Shoemaker's Apron by Parker Hoysted Fillmore (1920)
 * The Disobedient Kids and other Czecho-Slovak fairy tales by Božena Němcová (1921)
 * Wonder Tales from Tibet by Eleanore Myers Jewett (1922)
 * A Forest Story (1923) by Josef Kožíšek, translated by Rafael De Szalatnay (1929)

Walter Crane's Shilling Series

 * All illustrated by Walter Crane

title: Portal:Children's fairy tales


text:
Portal:Children's poetry

More Poetry

 * Baa Baa Black sheep, 1880 by Edmund Caldwell
 * Baby by George MacDonald
 * The Pied Piper of Hamelin by Robert Browning
 * Try, Try Again by William Edward Hickson

title: Portal:Children's poetry


text:
Page:Shrinking the Commons.djvu/36

 court determined, with little analysis, that a television station had taken an overt act manifesting its intent to abandon copyright in its news broadcasts when it regularly destroyed its own copies of the broadcasts a week after they had aired. An appellate court declared it “questionable whether [the station] had such an intent,” but ultimately deferred to the trial court’s finding. The appellate court’s decision in Duncan adds little to an understanding of copyright abandonment, however, in light of its focus on the remedies ordered by the trial court and on the First Amendment issues implicated in the case. In Rouse v. Walter & Associates, authors of software repeatedly referred to their employer as the holder of copyright. The court suggested that the plaintiffs’ repeated disclaimers of their own copyright interests were tantamount to an abandonment of copyright. The court’s statements regarding the question of abandonment, however, were mere dicta, for it had already concluded that the plaintiffs’ employer was the true owner of the program under the work made for hire doctrine.

After excluding the cases where “abandonment” represents a mere proxy for noncompliance with formalities or where the concept is invoked merely to add weight to decisions resting on other grounds, there remains a very small number of reported decisions in which the question of copyright abandonment was both squarely raised and case-dispositive. In Hadady Corp. v. Dean Witter Reynolds, Inc., a copyright holder published a work with a notice that expressly limited the term of copyright in the work to two days. A district court held that the notice was tantamount to an abandonment of copyright in the work at the expiration of the two-day period. In Oravec v. Sunny Isles Luxury Ventures, an architect signed a letter indicating that he “reserved no patent, trademark, copyright, trade secret or other intellectual property rights” in an architectural design. Although the architect later sought to clarify that he believed the letter waived copyright protection only as against its recipient, a district court held that the letter “clearly and unambiguously manifested his intent to abandon any copyright protection” over the accompanying work.

title: Page:Shrinking the Commons.djvu/36


text:
Portal:Children's education

Works

 * Tommy Thumb's Song Book, 1744, by Nurse Lovechild
 * Original Stories from Real Life, 1788, by Mary Wollstonecraft
 * Child's picture book, circa 1840, published by Rufus Merrill
 * Tom Thumb's Picture Alphabet, circa 1850, published by J.S. Redfield
 * A Child's History of England, 1853 by Charles Dickens
 * A Little Book for A Little Cook, 1905 by L. P. Hubbard

Practice of education

 * School of Infancy (1632) by Johan Amos Comenius
 * An address on compulsory education: given before the Church of England School Teachers' Association for West Kent, February 11, 1871 (1871) by Richard Gardner
 * Hints for the improvement of village schools and the introduction of industrial work (1859) by John Fitzwygram

title: Portal:Children's education


text: Observations on Man (6th edition)/Part I/Chapter IV/Section I


text: Observations on Man (6th edition)/Part I/Chapter IV/Section II


text: Observations on Man (6th edition)/Part I/Chapter IV/Section III


text: United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/3rd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 65


text: Observations on Man (6th edition)/Part I/Chapter IV/Section IV


text:
Page:Observations on Man 1834.djvu/295

I now dispatched the history and analysis of the sensations, motions, and ideas; and endeavoured to suit them, as well as I could, to the principles laid down in the first chapter. My next business is, to inquire particularly into the rise and gradual increase of the pleasures and pains of imagination, ambition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy, and the moral sense; and to see how far these can be deduced, in the particular forms and degrees that are found to prevail, in fact, from the sensible pleasures and pains, by means of the general law of association. As to that of vibrations, it seems of little importance in this part of the work, whether it be adopted or not. If any other law can be made the foundation of association, or consistent with it, it may also be made consistent with the analysis of the intellectual pleasures and pains, which I shall here give. I do not think there is any other law that can; on the contrary, there seems to be so peculiar an aptness in the doctrine of vibrations, for explaining many of the phænomena of the passions, as almost excludes all others.

Now it will be a sufficient proof, that all the intellectual pleasures and pains are deducible ultimately from the sensible ones, if we can shew of each intellectual pleasure and pain in particular, that it takes its rise from other pleasures and pains, either sensible or intellectual. For thus none of the intellectual pleasures and pains can be original. But the sensible pleasures and pains are evidently originals. They are therefore the only ones, i.e. they are the common source from whence all the intellectual pleasures and pains are ultimately derived.

When I say, that the intellectual pleasures A and B are deducible from one another, I do not mean, that A receives back again from B that lustre which it had conferred upon it; for this would be to argue in a circle; but that whereas both A and B borrow from a variety of sources, as well as from each other, they may, and indeed must, transfer by association, part of the lustre borrowed from foreign sources upon each other.

title: Page:Observations on Man 1834.djvu/295


text:
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 If we admit the power of association, and can also shew, that associations, sufficient in kind and degree, concur, in fact, in the several instances of our intellectual pleasures and pains, this will of itself exclude all other causes for these pleasures and pains, such as instinct, for instance. If we cannot trace out associations sufficient in kind and degree, still it will not be necessary to have recourse to other causes, because great allowances are to be made for the novelty, complexness, and intricacy of the subject. However, on the other hand, analogy may perhaps lead us to conclude, that as instinct prevails much, and reason a little, in brutes, so instinct ought to prevail a little in us. Let the facts speak for themselves.

Section I
THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF IMAGINATION.

with the pleasures and pains of imagination; and shall endeavour to derive each species of them by association, either from those of sensation, ambition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy, and the moral sense, or from foreign ones of imagination. They may be distinguished into the seven kinds that follow.

First, The pleasures arising from the beauty of the natural world.

Secondly, Those from the works of art.

Thirdly, From the liberal arts of music, painting, and poetry.

Fourthly, From the sciences.

Fifthly, From the beauty of the person.

Sixthly, From wit and humour.

Seventhly, The pains which arise from gross absurdity, inconsistency, or deformity.

The Pleasures arising from the Beauty of the Natural World.

The pleasures arising from the contemplation of the beauties of the natural world seem to admit of the following analysis.

title: Page:Observations on Man 1834.djvu/296


text:
Page:Observations on Man 1834.djvu/297

 The pleasant tastes, and smells, and the fine colours of fruits and flowers, the melody of birds, and the grateful warmth or coolness of the air, in the proper seasons, transfer miniatures of these pleasures upon rural scenes, which start up instantaneously so mixed with each other, and with such as will be immediately enumerated, as to be separately indiscernible.

If there be a precipice, a cataract, a mountain of snow, &c. in one part of the scene, the nascent ideas of fear and horror magnify and enliven all the other ideas, and by degrees pass into pleasures by suggesting the security from pain.

In like manner the grandeur of some scenes, and the novelty of others, by exciting surprise and wonder, i.e. by making a great difference in the preceding and subsequent states of mind, so as to border upon, or even enter the limits of pain, may greatly enhance the pleasure.

Uniformity and variety in conjunction are also principal sources of the pleasures of beauty, being made so partly by their association with the beauties of nature, partly by that with the works of art, and with the many conveniences which we receive from the uniformity and variety of the works of nature and art. They must therefore transfer part of the lustre borrowed from the works of art, and from the head of convenience, upon the works of nature.

Poetry and painting are much employed in setting forth the beauties of the natural world, at the same time that they afford us a high degree of pleasure from many other sources. Hence the beauties of nature delight poets and painters, and such as are addicted to the study of their works, more than others. Part of this effect is indeed owing to the greater attention of such persons to the other sources; but this comes to the same thing, as far as the general theory of the factitious, associated nature of these pleasures is concerned.

The many sports and pastimes, which are peculiar to the country, and whose ideas and pleasures are revived by the view of rural scenes, in an evanescent state, and so mixed together as to be separately indiscernible, do farther augment the pleasures suggested by the beauties of nature.

To these we may add, the opposition between the offensiveness, dangers, and corruption of populous cities, and the health, tranquillity, and innocence, which the actual view, or the mental contemplation, of rural scenes introduces; also, the pleasures of sociality and mirth, which are often found in the greatest perfection in country retirements, the amorous pleasures, which have many connexions with rural scenes; and those which the opinions and encomiums of others beget in us, in this, as in other cases, by means of the contagiousness observable in mental dispositions, as well as bodily ones.

Those persons who have already formed high ideas of the power, knowledge, and goodness of the Author of nature, with

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