text:
Template:Side by side pages/doc

Usage
This template calls Side by side to present a pair of pages from a given work.

Parameters

 * : The work (name of djvu file including .djvu extension)
 * : The first of the page pair
 * : The gap on both sides of each column. Defaults to 2em.
 * : The total width of the columns, including gap space. Defaults to 90%.
 * : Alignment of the left column.
 * : Alignment of the right column.

title: Template:Side by side pages/doc


text:
Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/2

AN

TO

ON BEHALF OF THE

YOUNGER BRANCH

OF

SYDNEY:

PRINTED BY J.SPILSBURY, AND J McEACHERN,

LOWER GEORGE STREET.

1839.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/2


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/240

 The second part treats of words peculiar to one group. There is no separate glossary of Wallachian.

Of the introduction to the grammar there is an English translation by C. B. Cayley. The dictionary has been published in a remodelled form for English readers by T. C. Donkin.

 DIEZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, romantically situated in the deep valley of the Lahn, here crossed by an old bridge, 30 m. E. from Coblenz on the railway to Wetzlar. Pop. 4500. It is overlooked by a former castle of the counts of Nassau-Dillenburg, now a prison. Close by, on an eminence above the river, lies the castle of Oranienstein, formerly a Benedictine nunnery and now a cadet school, with beautiful gardens. There are a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches. The new part of the town is well built and contains numerous pretty villa residences. In addition to extensive iron-works there are sawmills and tanneries. In the vicinity are Fachingen, celebrated for its mineral waters, and the majestic castle of Schaumburg belonging to the prince of Waldeck-Pyrmont.

 DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences), that branch of mathematics which deals with the successive differences of the terms of a series.

1. The most important of the cases to which mathematical methods can be applied are those in which the terms of the series are the values, taken at stated intervals (regular or irregular), of a continuously varying quantity. In these cases the formulae of finite differences enable certain quantities, whose exact value depends on the law of variation (i.e. the law which governs the relative magnitude of these terms) to be calculated, often with great accuracy, from the given terms of the series, without explicit reference to the law of variation itself. The methods used may be extended to cases where the series is a double series (series of double entry), i.e. where the value of each term depends on the values of a pair of other quantities.

2. The first differences of a series are obtained by subtracting from each term the term immediately preceding it. If these are treated as terms of a new series, the first differences of this series are the second differences of the original series; and so on. The successive differences are also called differences of the first, second, ... order. The differences of successive orders are most conveniently arranged in successive columns of a table thus:—

Algebra of Differences and Sums. 3. The formal relations between the terms of the series and the differences may be seen by comparing the arrangements (A) and (B) in fig. 1. In (A) the various terms and differences are the same as in § 2, but placed differently. In (B) we take a new series of terms, , , , commencing with the same term α, and take the successive sums of pairs of terms, instead of the successive differences, but place them to the left instead of to the right. It will be seen, in the first place, that the successive terms in (A), reading downwards to the right, and the successive terms in (B), reading downwards to the left, consist each of a series of terms whose coefficients follow the binomial law; i.e. the coefficients in b − a, c − 2b + a, d − 3c + 3b − a, ... and in α + β, α + 2β + γ, α + 3β + 3γ + δ, ... are respectively the same as in y − x, (y − x)², (y − x)³, ... and in x + y, (x + y)², (x + y)³,.... In the second place, it will be seen that the relations between the various terms in (A) are identical with the relations between the similarly placed terms in (B); e.g. β + γ is the difference of α + 2β + γ and α + β, just as c − b is the difference of c and b: and d − c is the sum of c − b and d − 2c + b, just as β + 2γ + δ is the sum of β + γ and γ + δ. Hence if we take β, γ, δ, ... of (B) as being the same as b − a, c − 2b + a, d − 3c + 3b − a, ... of (A), all corresponding terms in the two diagrams will be the same.

Thus we obtain the two principal formulae connecting terms and differences. If we provisionally describe b − a, c − 2b + a, ... as the first, second, ... differences of the particular term a (§ 7), then (i.) the nth difference of a is $l - nk + \ldots + (-1)^{n-2}\frac{n\cdot n - 1}{1\cdot 2}c + (-1)^{n-1} nb + (-1)^{n} a,$ where l, k ... are the (n + 1)th, nth, ... terms of the series a, b, c, ...; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (y − x)n: and (ii.) the (n + 1)th term of the series, i.e. the nth term after a, is $a + n\beta + \frac{n\cdot n - 1}{1\cdot 2}\gamma + \ldots$ where β, γ, ... are the first, second, ... differences of a; the coefficients being those of the terms in the expansion of (x + y)n.

4. Now suppose we treat the terms a, b, c, ... as being themselves the first differences of another series. Then, if the first term of this series is N, the subsequent terms are N + a, N + a + b, N + a + b + c, ...; i.e. the difference between the (n + 1)th term and the first term is the sum of the first n terms of the original series. The term N, in the diagram (A), will come above and to the left of a; and we see, by (ii.) of § 3, that the sum of the first n terms of the original series is $\left(N + na + \frac{n\cdot n - 1}{1\cdot 2}\beta + \ldots \right) - N = na + \frac{n\cdot n - 1}{1\cdot 2}\beta + \frac{n\cdot n - 1\cdot n - 2}{1 \cdot 2 \cdot 3}\gamma + \ldots $

5. As an example, take the arithmetical series a, a + p, a + 2p, ... The first differences are p, p, p, ... and the differences of any higher order are zero. Hence, by (ii.) of § 3, the (n + 1)th term is a + np, and, by § 4, the sum of the first n terms is na + ½n(n − 1)p = ½n{2a + (n − 1)p}.

6. As another example, take the series 1, 8, 27, ... the terms of which are the cubes of 1, 2, 3, ... The first, second and third differences of the first term are 7, 12 and 6, and it may be shown (§ 14 (i.)) that all differences of a higher order are zero. Hence the sum of the first n terms is $n + 7\frac{n\cdot n - 1}{1\cdot 2} + 12\frac{n\cdot n - 1\cdot n - 2}{1\cdot 2\cdot 3} + 6\frac{n\cdot n - 1\cdot n - 2\cdot n - 3}{1\cdot 2\cdot 3\cdot 4} = \tfrac{1}{4}n^{4} + \tfrac{1}{2}n^3 + \tfrac{1}{4}n^2 = {\tfrac{1}{2}n (n + 1)}^2$

7. In § 3 we have described b − a, c − 2b + a, ... as the first, second, ... differences of a. This ascription of the differences to particular terms of the series is quite arbitrary. If we read the differences in the table of § 2 upwards to the right instead of downwards to the right, we might describe e − d, e − 2d + c, ... as the first, second, ... differences of e. On the other hand, the term of greatest weight in c − 2b + a, i.e. the term which has the numerically greatest coefficient, is b, and therefore c − 2b + a might properly be regarded as the second difference of b, and similarly e − 4d + 6c − 4b + a might be regarded as the fourth difference of c. These three methods of regarding the differences lead to three different systems of notation, which are described in §§ 9, 10 and 11.

Notation of Differences and Sums.

8. It is convenient to denote the terms a, b, c, ... of the series by u0, u1, u2, u3, ... If we merely have the terms of the series, un may be regarded as meaning the (n + 1)th term. Usually, however, the terms are the values of a quantity u, which is a function of another quantity x, and the values of x, to which a, b, c, ... correspond, proceed by a constant difference h. If x0 and u0 are a pair of corresponding values of x and u, and if any other value x0 + mh of x and the corresponding value of u are denoted by xm and um, then the terms of the series will be ... un-2, un−1, un, un+1, un+2 ..., corresponding to values of x denoted by ... xn-2, xn−1, xn, xn+1, xn+2....

9. In the advancing-difference notation un+1 − un is denoted by Δun. The differences Δu0, Δu1, Δu2 ... may then be regarded as values of a function Δu corresponding to values of x proceeding by constant difference h; and therefore Δun+1 − Δun denoted by ΔΔun, or, more briefly, Δ²un; and so on. Hence the table of differences in § 2, with the corresponding values of x and of u placed opposite each other in the ordinary manner of mathematical tables, becomes

The terms of the series of which ... un−1, un, un+1, ... are the first differences are denoted by Σu, with proper suffixes, so

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/240


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diez, Friedrich Christian


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diez

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diez


text:
Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/24

 TO

have I gazed on the face of the Australian, desirous if possible to ascertain his origin, as well as the time and the manner of his migration to a land utterly unknown to the rest of mankind; and as often as I surveyed the copper-colored countenance of this inhabitant of the woods and lawns of a country which has undergone no change since, fresh, interesting, and lovely from the fountain of creation, it floated at the command of the Supreme on the bosom of the Pacific, so often have I imagined that I could trace in his Malayan features some resemblance to the elder branch of the family of Shem—that family through whom came the Messiah, the joy of the redeemed and the hope of the world.

There have been occasional mixtures and admixtures of the human race to a limited extent, arising out of conquest, vicinity of abode, storms, and shipwreck; but the three great families from whom they all originally sprang, remain as distinct and distinguishable as they were immediately after the flood, when the pen of inspiration described them and the localities of their respective habitations.

While the posterity of Ham migrated to Africa, and that of Japheth to Scythia, Scandinavia, and Europe, the family of Shem, having the right of inheritance, took possession of Central, Southern, and Eastern Asia.

The Iapetus of the Greeks, is unquestionably the Japheth of scripture; and the Hellespont is but a corruption of Elis-pont; while this, as well as Elis in the Peloponnesus, bears too close a resemblance to Elisha, the name of the grandson of Japheth,

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/24


text:
Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/191

Rh garb, its masquerade, with its temporary hardening, stiffening, and dogmatising—it makes the life in the ideal free once more, while it repudiates its superficial elements. These two phenomena, science and the ascetic ideal, both rest on the same basis—I have already made this clear—the basis, I say, of the same over-appreciation of truth (more accurately the same belief in the impossibility of valuing and of criticising truth), and consequently they are necessarily allies, so that, in the event of their being attacked, they must always be attacked and called into question together. A valuation of the ascetic ideal inevitably entails a valuation of science as well; lose no time in seeing this clearly, and be sharp to catch it! (Art, I am speaking provisionally, for I will treat it on some other occasion in greater detail,—art, I repeat, in which lying is sanctified and the will for deception has good conscience on its side, is much more fundamentally opposed to the ascetic ideal than is science: Plato's instinct felt this— Plato, the greatest enemy of art which Europe has produced up to the present. Plato versus Homer, that is the complete, the true antagonism—on the one side, the wholehearted "transcendental," the great defamer of life; on the other, its involuntary panegyrist, the golden nature. An artistic subservience to the service of the ascetic ideal is consequently the most absolute artistic corruption that there can be, though unfortunately it is one of the most frequent phases, for nothing is more corruptible than an artist.) Considered physiologically, moreover, science rests on the same basis as does the ascetic ideal: a certain impoverishment of life is the presupposition of the latter as of the former—add, frigidity of the emotions,

title: Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/191


text:
Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/192

168 of the tempo, the substitution of dialectic for instinct, seriousness impressed on mien and gesture (seriousness, that most unmistakable sign of strenuous metabolism, of Struggling, toiling life). Consider the periods in a nation in which the learned man comes into prominence; they are the periods of exhaustion, often of sunset, of decay— the effervescing strength, the confidence in life, the confidence in the future are no more. The preponderence of the mandarins never signifies any good, any more than does the advent of democracy, or arbitration instead of war, equal rights for women, the religion of pity, and all the other symptoms of declining life. (Science handled as a problem! what is the meaning of science?—upon this point the Preface to the Birth of Tragedy.) No! this "modern science"—mark you this well—is at times the best ally for the ascetic ideal, and for the very reason that it is the ally which is most unconscious, most automatic, most secret, and most subterranean! They have been playing into each other's hands up to the present, have these "poor in spirit" and the scientific opponents of that ideal (take care, by the bye, not to think that these opponents are the antithesis of this ideal, that they are the rich in spirit—that they are not; I have called them the hectic in spirit). As for these celebrated victories of science; there is no doubt that they are victories—but victories over what? There was not for a single minute any victory among their list over the ascetic ideal, rather was it made stronger, that is to say, more elusive, more abstract, more insidious, from the fact that a wall, an outwork, that had got built on to the main fortress and disfigured its appearance, should from time to time be

title: Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/192


text:
Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/25

Rh to be mistaken for any other. Profane history confirms the sacred. Thessaly once bore the name of Eolia; and we learn from Herodotus that one of the one hundred and twenty provinces of Persia, as they stood in the rolls of the Persian empire, was called Alysionenses; that it comprehended Eolia, which lies between Ionia and Phrygia; and that Eolus—whence Eolia—is a mere corruption of Elisha.

Egypt, one of the principal entrances into the great peninsula, now called Africa, still bears in Hebrew the name of Ham's second son. And Africa itself, called in scripture the land of Ham, was by the Greeks, apparently guided both by observation and its Hebrew name Cush, designated Ethiopia; which means literally Face-burning, and may be rendered the face-burning country. So early did the influence of climate begin to operate a change on the human frame; and so simply and intelligibly did the ancients account for that variety of complexion in the human body which, to modern philosophers, appears such a mystery.

Moses expressly tells us that the East, which points to India and China, became the inheritance of the descendants of Shem. His silence respecting the younger children of the great antediluvian patriarch,—those born to him after the flood—indicates that they had lost their distinctive character; either by being placed, for the purpose of instruction in revelation and divine things, under the guardianship and protection of the elder brother, as senior and superintending patriarch on his father's death; or, by voluntarily taking up their abode in the East among his family, to whom belonged the birthright and the supremacy. Mingling with them, both seem to have blended together, assuming by degrees, with some slight variety, the same family-likeness, and passing under the same name. Hence it is, that receiving such an accession, the family of Shem became much more numerous, than that of either Ham or Japheth.

Writers on Zoology have attempted to divide the inhabitants of the earth into five classes, insinuating as many different origins; but the fancifulness of their distinctions is equalled only by the puerility of their arguments. Even if history were silent, the distinguishing characteristics of the three great families of mankind are not darkly visible, but clear and discernible, as any other object on which the light of heaven shines. The red, bronze, or yellow colour, prevalent in Palestine, Persia, India, China, Australasia, and America; the woolly hair, black figure, flat front, and elongated visage, prevalent in Africa; and the white skin, finely formed head, and Circassian beauty, prevalent to the north of the Mediterranean and

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/25


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/255

 in positive integral powers about x = a, by = 1 + (x − a)n 2 +  + (x − a)(n−1)n n. Such a function, V, we call a variant.

Then differentiating V in regard to x, and replacing i(n) by its value a1(n−1) + + an, we can arrange dV/dx, and similarly each of d 2/dx2  d NV/dxN, where N = n2, as a linear function of the N quantities 1,  n,  1(n−1),  n(n−1), and thence by elimination obtain a linear differential equation for V of order N with rational coefficients. This we denote by F = 0. Further, each of 1 n is expressible as a linear function of V, dV/dx,  d N−1V / dxN−1, with rational coefficients not involving any of the n2 coefficients Aij, since otherwise V would satisfy a linear equation of order less than N, which is impossible, as it involves (linearly) the n2 arbitrary coefficients Aij, which would not enter into the coefficients of the supposed equation. In particular, y1,.. yn are expressible rationally as linear functions of, d/dx, d N−1 / dxN−1, where  is the particular function (y). Any solution W of the equation F = 0 is derivable from functions 1, n, which are linear functions of y1,  yn, just as V was derived from 1,  n; but it does not follow that these functions i,  n are obtained from y1,  yn by a transformation of the linear group A, B,  ; for it may happen that the determinant d(1,  n) / (dy1,  yn) is zero. In that case 1, n may be called a singular set, and W a singular solution; it satisfies an equation of lower than the N-th order. But every solution V, W, ordinary or singular, of the equation F = 0, is expressible rationally in terms of, d / dx, d N−1 / dxN−1; we shall write, simply, V = r. Consider now the rational irreducible equation of lowest order, not necessarily a linear equation, which is satisfied by ; as y1, yn are particular functions, it may quite well be of order less than N; we call it the resolvent equation, suppose it of order p, and denote it by (v). Upon it the whole theory turns. In the first place, as (v) = 0 is satisfied by the solution of F = 0, all the solutions of (v) are solutions F = 0, and are therefore rationally expressible by ; any one may then be denoted by r. If this solution of F = 0 be not singular, it corresponds to a transformation A of the linear group (A, B, ...), effected upon y1, yn. The coefficients Aij of this transformation follow from the expressions before mentioned for 1 n in terms of V, dV/dx, d 2V/dx2,  by substituting V = r; thus they depend on the p arbitrary parameters which enter into the general expression for the integral of the equation (v) = 0. Without going into further details, it is then clear enough that the resolvent equation, being irreducible and such that any solution is expressible rationally, with p parameters, in terms of the solution, enables us to define a linear homogeneous group of transformations of y1 yn depending on p parameters; and every operation of this (continuous) group corresponds to a rational transformation of the solution of the resolvent equation. This is the group called the rationality group, or the group of transformations of the original homogeneous linear differential equation.

The group must not be confounded with a subgroup of itself, the monodromy group of the equation, often called simply the group of the equation, which is a set of transformations, not depending on arbitrary variable parameters, arising for one particular fundamental set of solutions of the linear equation (see ).

The importance of the rationality group consists in three propositions. (1) Any rational function of y1, yn which is unaltered in value by the transformations of the group can be written in rational form. (2) If any rational function be changed in form, becoming a rational function of y1, yn, a transformation of the group applied to its new form will leave its value unaltered. (3) Any homogeneous linear transformation leaving unaltered the value of every rational function of y1, yn which has a rational value, belongs to the group. It follows from these that any group of linear homogeneous transformations having the properties (1) (2) is identical with the group in question. It is clear that with these properties the group must be of the greatest importance in attempting to discover what functions of x must be regarded as rational in order that the values of y1 yn may be expressed. And this is the problem of solving the equation from another point of view.

— Formal or Transformation Theories for Equations of the First Order:—E. Goursat, Leçons sur l’intégration des équations aux dérivées partielles du premier ordre (Paris, 1891); E. v. Weber, Vorlesungen über das Pfaff’sche Problem und die Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen erster Ordnung (Leipzig, 1900); S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1896); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Part i., Exact Equations and Pfaff’s Problem (Cambridge, 1890); S. Lie, “Allgemeine Untersuchungen über Differentialgleichungen, die eine continuirliche endliche Gruppe gestatten” (Memoir), ''Mathem. Annal.''xxv. (1885), pp. 71-151; S. Lie und G. Scheffers, Vorlesungen über Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen (Leipzig, 1891). A very full bibliography is given in the book of E. v. Weber referred to; those here named are perhaps sufficiently representative of modern works. Of classical works may be named: Jacobi, Vorlesungen über Dynamik (von A. Clebsch, Berlin, 1866); Werke, Supplementband; G Monge, Application de l’analyse à la géométrie (par M. Liouville, Paris, 1850); J. L. Lagrange, Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions (Paris, 1806), and Théorie des fonctions analytiques (Paris, Prairial, an V); G. Boole, A Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1859); and Supplementary Volume (London, 1865); Darboux, Leçons sur la théorie générale des surfaces, tt. i.-iv. (Paris, 1887–1896); S. Lie, Théorie der transformationsgruppen ii. (on Contact Transformations) (Leipzig, 1890).

Quantitative or Function Theories for Linear Equations:—C. Jordan, Cours d’analyse, t. iii. (Paris, 1896); E. Picard, Traité d’analyse, tt. ii. and iii. (Paris, 1893, 1896); Fuchs, Various Memoirs, beginning with that in Crelle’s Journal, Bd. lxvi. p. 121; Riemann, Werke, 2r Aufl. (1892); Schlesinger, Handbuch der Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Bde. i.-ii. (Leipzig, 1895–1898); Heffter, Einleitung in die Theorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen mit einer unabhängigen Variablen (Leipzig, 1894); Klein, Vorlesungen über lineare Differentialgleichungen der zweiten Ordnung (Autographed, Göttingen, 1894); and Vorlesungen über die hypergeometrische Function (Autographed, Göttingen, 1894); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Linear Equations.

Rationality Group (of Linear Differential Equations):—Picard, Traité d’Analyse, as above, t. iii.; Vessiot, Annales de l’École Normale, série III. t. ix. p. 199 (Memoir); S. Lie, Transformationsgruppen, as above, iii. A connected account is given in Schlesinger, as above, Bd. ii., erstes Theil.

Function Theories of Non-Linear Ordinary Equations:—Painlevé, Leçons sur la théorie analytique des équations différentielles (Paris, 1897, Autographed); Forsyth, Theory of Differential Equations, Part ii., Ordinary Equations not Linear (two volumes, ii. and iii.) (Cambridge, 1900); Königsberger, Lehrbuch der Theorie der Differentialgleichungen (Leipzig, 1889); Painlevé, Leçons sur l’intégration des équations différentielles de la mécanique et applications (Paris, 1895).

Formal Theories of Partial Equations of the Second and Higher Orders:—E. Goursat, Leçons sur l’intégration des équations aux dérivées partielles du second ordre, tt. i. and ii. (Paris, 1896, 1898); Forsyth, Treatise on Differential Equations (London, 1889); and ''Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.'' (A.), vol. cxci. (1898), pp. 1-86.

See also the six extensive articles in the second volume of the German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics.

 DIFFLUGIA (L. Leclerc), a genus of lobose Rhizopoda, characterized by a shell formed of sand granules cemented together; these are swallowed by the animal, and during the process of bud-fission they pass to the surface of the daughter-bud and are cemented there. Centropyxis (Steia) and Lecqueureuxia (Schlumberg) differ only in minor points.

 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT.—1. When light proceeding from a small source falls upon an opaque object, a shadow is cast upon a screen situated behind the obstacle, and this shadow is found to be bordered by alternations of brightness and darkness, known as “diffraction bands.” The phenomena thus presented were described by Grimaldi and by Newton. Subsequently T. Young showed that in their formation interference plays an important part, but the complete explanation was reserved for A. J. Fresnel. Later investigations by Fraunhofer, Airy and others have greatly widened the field, and under the head of “diffraction” are now usually treated all the effects dependent upon the limitation of a beam of light, as well as those which arise from irregularities of any kind at surfaces through which it is transmitted, or at which it is reflected.  2. Shadows.—In the infancy of the undulatory theory the objection most frequently urged against it was the difficulty of explaining the very existence of shadows. Thanks to Fresnel and his followers, this department of optics is now precisely the one in which the theory has gained its greatest triumphs. The principle employed in these investigations is due to C. Huygens, and may be thus formulated. If round the origin of waves an ideal closed surface be drawn, the whole action of the waves in the region beyond may be regarded as due to the motion continually propagated across the various elements of this surface. The wave motion due to any element of the surface is called a secondary wave, and in estimating the total effect regard must be paid to the phases as well as the amplitudes of the components. It is usually convenient to choose as the surface of resolution a wave-front, i.e. a surface at which the primary vibrations are in one phase. Any obscurity that may hang over Huygens’s principle is due mainly to the indefiniteness of thought and expression which we must be content to put up with if we wish to avoid pledging ourselves as to the character of the vibrations. In the application to sound, where we know what we are dealing with, the matter is simple enough in principle, although mathematical difficulties would often stand in the way of the calculations we might wish to make.

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/255


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Difflugia

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Difflugia


text: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/1

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/1


text:
Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/3

 OBJECT OF THE PUBLICATION.

moneys arising from the sale of this work are to be devoted to the support of those who may be employed in the promulgation of the Gospel among the Aboriginal inhabitants, within and beyond the Australian Colonies. The PRICE therefore to the opulent and liberal minded, will be ONE GUINEA.

To the humbler classes, whose means are more limited, five, ten, or fifteen shillings, as inclination may prompt the donor. In short, to all what they choose to give—to the rich a guinea, to the poor a shilling—that all may shed a tear over the miseries of an interesting people, pray for their salvation, and contribute to the cause of mercy, as their hearts may be moved with love to the Saviour of men and compassion for nations about perish. If I have breathed a heavenly wish, let it inspire every bosom. To Australia—Christianity apart—Britain is under a double obligation. She has received her convicts, she has enriched her people, while she herself is ruined in time and eternity.

Those who feel an interest in rescuing her from destruction, may render important service to the great work, by purchasing a number of copies for sale or distribution among their families and friends.

, how much do you spend annually in visiting the theatre, or in the purchase and reading of novels—amusing yourself only for the moment and trifling with an everlasting futurity? Perhaps ten times the amount here solicited. A guinea for a work to promote the salvation of the heathen, will intellectually profit you more, render you more happy in life, and be more grateful to your recollections on your entrance into another world, than thousands expended in scenes of gaitygaiety [sic] and dissipation, fleeting as the wind and bitter to remembrance.

, the object is, not merely to evangelize, but to save the Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia—one-fifth of the habitable globe—from extermination, and the British name from indelible infamy. Say not, with Cain, "Am I my brother's keeper?"

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/3


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/247

 REVIEW.

any apology were necessary for bringing under the notice of the readers of a work of the national importance of General Pitt-Rivers' Excavations, it would be found in the fact that the first two volumes were reviewed in the earlier series of this periodical, when it was known as The Archæological Review. There a general outline was given of the results of the excavation of two Romano-British villages on the author's property at Granborne Chase, and of an ancient camp on Winkelbury Hill. The main interest of the two former volumes undoubtedly consisted in the remarkable discoveries at Cranborne Chase. The two villages, called Woodcuts and Rotherley from the modern names of their sites, were occupied during Roman times by a people of dwarfs, who seem to have lived an agricultural and pastoral life, but whose poverty had been touched with a slight gleam of the luxury of their conquerors. Of their material civilisation the relics told something. The pottery, the bronze and other personal ornaments, the knives and spoons, the nails, the keys, locks, hinges, horse-shoes, and other articles of iron, the quern-stones, whetstones, flints—all told their tale. But of the mental and religious attainments, of the worship and the social rites and intercourse of these strange, forgotten villagers we learned absolutely nothing. No altars,


text:
Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/4

 TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

he whom seraphs adored, was, in compassion to Adam's lost race, about to manifest himself in flesh to redeem them, there was no room for him even at an inn. On the occurrence of that most interesting and extraordinary of all the events that ever happened in time, the virgin that bore the incarnate Deity—the creator of worlds unnumbered—could find no place of repose but a stable. If inspired with divine love, you will probably say, in youthful simplicity, were he to appear on earth again, I would set apart the palace of my ancestors for his reception. The thought and the feelings it indicates, are of celestial origin; but the opportunity of thus entertaining the heavenly guest, is gone, never to return—never will he in like manner visit earth again. On ascending to the primeval abode of his glory—the glory which he had with his father before the world was, and before the morning stars of creation sang together—all the wants of humanity, to which those who loved him while on earth had the privilege of ministering, for ever ceased. Still the Redeemer of men has wants. He still lives in his ministers, who are commissioned to proclaim the object of his death to the world, and to set up a kingdom for him. They, while thus employed, are often hungry, thirsty, cold, and naked; and, like to him in the days of his humiliation, know not sometimes where to lay their heads. To those therefore who for his name' sake minister to their wants, he will say at the last day: "Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of the least of these—ye did it unto me."

The author of this Appeal, anxious to obtain the means of supporting those who may be employed in erecting the Redeemer's kingdom in the Southern hemisphere, has determined to approach Your Majesty with his humble but important suit. Millions upon millions have been spent in hurrying men into perdition, merely to gain a useless crown or an empty title, while tide paramount concerns of eternity have been banished from the counsels of nations. The salvation of a continent would be the brightest gem that ever adorned the diadem of a sovereign; and its attainment, though it would really cost little, would be worth the expenditure of millions: but who could

title: Page:Australia an appeal.djvu/4


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/248

 240 no images, no funeral urns were found—nothing to enable us to

that occupied the minds and looked through the eyes wherewith they surveyed the dark wet forest and upland clearing around their rude homes of wattle and clay in those far-off times.

General Pitt-Rivers' new volume is marked by the same admirable characteristics as the previous ones. As before, we are impressed with his minute accuracy, his anxiety to lay before the reader all the facts, independently of any theory, so as to put him in a position to judge for himself on the questions disputed, his careful reasoning, and his wide anthropological learning. The volume is chiefly concerned with explorations of Bokerly Dyke (a rampart about four miles long, which yet throughout the greater part of its length forms the boundary between Dorsetshire and Wiltshire, and runs in a south-easterly direction), and of Wansdyke at places not very far from Silbury. Both these ramparts have been thrown up for purposes of defence against the north and north-east. The frontier defended by Wansdyke seems to have run along the valley of the Avon to a point above Bath, where the dyke crosses the river and appears to join the Roman road from Bath to Marlborough, running continuously with the latter until it reaches the valley of the Kennet. Before the road enters the valley the dyke parts company with it, and continues along the heights through Savernake Forest to the borders of Berkshire, where it turns to the south and is lost. In point of construction,, both Bokerly and Wansdyke are similar, consisting of a ditch with a small external mound and a higher rampart within. They are not of uniform height; and in


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/249

 Rh places both are lost, without any reason to suppose that the loss is due to effacement by agricultural operations. General Pitt-Rivers conjectures that these places may have been formerly occupied by forest, and that it was there easier to make an abattis of felled trees.

In all cases the excavations were continued down to the undisturbed chalk beneath the ditch and the mounds. They revealed, both in the rampart and on the old surface under it, pieces of Samian ware, cleats, and other objects of iron, and, in the case of Bokerly Dyke, Roman coins, which proved that both dykes were erected during, or subsequent to, Roman times. In what circumstances, or during what war, however, the dykes were built is still undetermined. The object evidently was the defence of the south-western corner of the island from enemies coming from the north and east. But who were the enemies, or who the defenders, is a problem that further researches have yet to make manifest.

But, however interesting the problems connected with the dykes may be, the student of folk-lore will naturally turn rather to the village at Woodyates. This is the third ancient village discovered in the course of the author's excavations. It will be remembered that the race who had occupied the villages described in the former volumes averaged, the men 5 feet 2.6 inches, and the women 4 feet 10.9 inches in height. The village called Woodyates, from the name of a modern cluster of buildings a short distance to the south-west of the site, was occupied by a people answering to a similar description. Bokerly Dyke runs through it at the point where the dyke crosses the Roman road from Badbury Rings to Old Sarum. The portion of the settlement examined is chiefly on the outside of the dyke; and how much of it was inside, or how much more outside, is yet unknown. The village, as indicated by the turn just here of the Roman road, appears to have been in existence before the road was made; but some of the drains bear evidence of having been cut


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/250

 242 subsequently, arguing the continued existence and prosperity of the community. Lastly, the dyke was constructed, the earliest part of it not before the reign of Maximinus II, in the beginning of the fourth century, as is shown by a coin of that emperor found beneath the rampart on the old surface-line. At or after the departure of the Romans, a change, probably to render it more defensible at this point, was made in the direction of a portion of the dyke; and we may perhaps be permitted to surmise that the renewal of troubles, which this alteration indicates, led to the final destruction or abandonment of the settlement.

Before these excavations were begun not a trace of the village was to be seen, and its very existence had been forgotten. In the Itinerary of Antoninus the name of Vindogladia occurs on this line of road, and the distance between it and Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum) is put down as twelve Roman miles. Where Vindogladia was has hitherto been a matter of conjecture. General Pitt-Rivers suggests that it was precisely Woodyates, the distance from Sorbiodunum answering the requirements as nearly as possible. And he points to the fact that preceding antiquaries, though unaware of the existence of Woodyates, have interpreted the name to mean the White Rampart, from two Celtic words, vint, white, and gladh, a ditch or rampart—a name very suitable to Bokerly Dyke when the chalk out of which it was cut was fresh.

As in the case of the former villages, the number and size of the drains are one of its most impressive features. No wells were uncovered like those at Woodcuts and Rotherley; but the drains alone bore witness to a much heavier rainfall than at present. Some of them seem to have been afterwards filled up while the occupation of the site continued. This was found to have been the case also in the other villages, and the excavator has been much puzzled to account for it. Whether these particular drains became unnecessary owing to a diminished rainfall, or whether the


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/251

 Rh ground was wanted for other purposes, must be left for the present among the many unsolved questions concerning these settlements. The general account of the civilisation of the inhabitants of Woodcuts and Rotherley given in the second volume of The Archæeological Review applies also to those of Woodyates. But their pottery, which included numerous specimens of Samian and other ornamental ware, their glass, their bronze fibulae, brooches, spoons, torques, bangles, rings, their iron scythes, cleats, nails, keys, knives, hooks, and other objects of both metals, and above all the hoards of money—1,210 coins have been found in all—though chiefly of brass, and consequently of small intrinsic value, indicate, as perhaps we might expect in a station upon an important road, more trade and somewhat more wealth than were known to the remoter villages in what is now Cranborne Chase.

It is around their burials that the principal interest of folk-lore students will concentrate; for here, if anywhere, we may look for intimations of their beliefs. The relics of material civilisation may be no more than a veneer, entering as little into their real life as the iron axes and glass beads of modern traders do into the life of the savage Papuan. The rites paid to the dead are different. The supreme importance of the three chief moments of human life—birth, marriage, and death—in the investigation of savage and barbarous culture is well recognised. We look to the ceremonies attending them for the expression of the native mind, the outcome of its inmost hopes and fears, of its dearest joys and most poignant sorrows, long after the conditions that ordinarily beset a tribe have been modified by an intrusive civilisation, and even its religion has been changed. Unfortunately, in digging up the relics of a vanished barbarism, we find no record of the ceremonies attending birth and marriage, the remains of funeral ceremonies are all that we can recover; and we seek the more eagerly for what they can disclose to us. At Woodcuts and at Rotherley we were able to learn nothing. We are


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/252

 244 somewhat better off at Woodyates. A smaller proportion of the bodies were buried in a crouching position than in either of the other villages, fifteen out of seventeen having been buried extended, some lying on the back, others on the side. Five bodies buried in a square enclosure, whose use is one of the problems left open, were in graves nearly east and west, with their heads to the west; but it is impossible to say whether this was done from regard to a religious motive, or simply from convenience of situation. Elsewhere it seems clear that convenience only was consulted. Some of the bodies were buried in coffins either of oak or of some coniferous wood, fragments of which—the only fragments left—were found adhering by rust to the nails. In several instances hobnails were found about the feet, showing that they must have been buried in boots. A bronze fibula, which had no doubt fastened the dress, was found on the thigh of one; and a portion of an iron torque was on the neck of a female skeleton, while a bronze torque was also found in the soil of the same grave.

It is quite possible that in these observances we have a belief in future life indicated. Burial in boots may have reference to the journey which the soul must take to the spirit-land; and the finery wherein the bodies were enveloped, and the care taken to preserve them as far as possible by the use of coffins, may have been due to a regard for the after-life. As much as this, however, was found in the village graves at Cranborne Chase; nor could anything beyond the barest conjecture be based upon it. But the dwellers at Woodyates, in their care for their dead, have told us more. Out of the seventeen skeletons, three had each a coin in its mouth. Under the leg of another, half a brass coin was lying. A fifth skeleton had a coin on its pelvis. Some little doubt may perhaps attach to the last case. The skeleton in question was one of two buried in a grave cut out partly from the undisturbed chalk, and partly in the filling of the ditch of a portion of the


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/253

Rh rampart. They were both buried lying on the right side; and this skeleton had both hands lying behind it, in such a position that they might have been tied. Moreover, there were at least four other coins of the same period in adjacent parts of the silting of the ditch, two of them within the limits of the grave, but far above the bodies'; so that they may all have been dropped in by accident in filling up the ditch and the grave. The other cases, however, may be taken to be undoubtedly instances of coins having been given to the corpse to pay the fare of the dead into the other world, the classic toll of Charon.

Nor is this all. Pottery, both whole and broken, was deposited with three of the bodies in the square enclosure. The skeleton of a man was found with the fragments of a small bowl, or tazza, of cream-coloured ware at its feet. The skeleton of a young person of doubtful sex had fragments of a similar vessel, but of a somewhat more elegant shape and of imitation Samian ware, at its right foot, and under its left leg a fragment of New Forest cream-coloured ware. In neither of these cases was it found possible to piece together an entire vessel out of the fragments; probably, therefore, the bowls were broken when buried. This points, of course, to the belief that it was necessary to break the vessel, so that its soul might accompany the soul of the dead into the spirit-world. On the other hand, a small pitcher, 6.8 inches high, was found entire in an adult female's grave. The lady had been buried in an unusually strong coffin, or covered bier; and the pitcher was placed either upon or beside the coffin, not inside it. It is, however, well known that it is by no


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 4, 1893.djvu/254

 246 means necessary to place the articles intended for the use of the deceased inside the coffin.

This lady was further remarkable, because upon her breast lay a comb of bone, having on one side fine teeth, and on the other coarse ones. It was evidently meant for her toilette in the next world. How necessary it was considered, we may guess from the frequency with which combs are found, both here and on the Continent, in graves of the period in question, or later. In fact, no respectable, well-to-do corpse—of a woman, at all events—would think of being buried without one. Its importance to the toilette in the next world would doubtless be measured by the requirements of this. Of such requirements we have ample proof in the habits of too many civilised peoples; and these requirements have left a large impress on the folklore of Europe. We may probably regard the owner of the comb at Woodyates as being a person of some position.

One other interment only need here be noticed. It was that of a body which had been cremated, and the ashes of which had been enclosed in a dug-out coffin and buried at the bottom of a drain after the drain had been, for some reason or other, filled up. Fragments of pottery of a fine description were found mixed with the ashes. This was a burial which could only have taken place comparatively late in the history of the settlement; and it affords evidence that the custom of cremation went on side by side with that of unburnt inhumation.

On the whole, as at Woodcuts and Rotherley, so at Woodyates, there is no proof that Christianity had been adopted by the inhabitants. This is the more remarkable, because the latter place was situated on one of the great highways. But it must be remembered that a portion only of the village has been uncovered. Further researches may reveal traces of Christian influence, though not of Christian predominance. On the other hand, we learn that the dwellers at Woodyates believed in the existence of a spirit-world, whither the departed soul must


text:
Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/193

Rh ruthlessly destroyed and broken down by science. Does any one seriously suggest that the downfall of the theological astronomy signified the downfall of that ideal?—Has, perchance, man grown less in need of a transcendental solution of his riddle of existence, because since that time this existence has become more random, casual, and superfluous in the visible order of the universe? Has there not been since the time of Copernicus an unbroken progress in the self-belittling of man and his will for belittling himself? Alas, his belief in his dignity, his uniqueness, his irreplaceableness in the scheme of existence, is gone—he has become animal, literal, unqualified, and unmitigated animal, he who in his earlier belief was almost God ("child of God," "demi-God"). Since Copernicus man seems to have fallen on to a steep plane—he rolls faster and faster away from the centre—whither? into nothingness? into the "thrilling sensation of his own nothingness"?—Well! this would be the straight way—to the old ideal?—All science (and by no means only astronomy, with regard to the humiliating and deteriorating effect of which Kant has made a remarkable confession, "it annihilates my own importance"), all science, natural as much as unnatural—-by unnatural I mean the self-critique of reason—nowadays sets out to talk man out of his present opinion of himself, as though that opinion had been nothing but a bizarre piece of conceit; you might go so far as to say that science finds its peculiar pride, its peculiar bitter form of stoical ataraxia, in preserving man's contempt of himself, that state which it took so much trouble to bring about, as man's final and most serious claim to self-appreciation (rightly so, in point of fact, for he who despises

title: Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/193


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/172

 employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his Platonic treatise, Hylas and Philonous. Landor’s Imaginary Conversations (1821–1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato, have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In our own day, the French have returned to the original application of dialogue, and the inventions of “Gyp,” of Henri Lavedan and of others, in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by English as by French readers.

 DIALYSIS (from the Gr. , through,  , to loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a “dialyser,” and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name “crystalloids,” and to the second “colloids.”  This method is particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.

 DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (Experimental Researches, vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday diamagnetics. The strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being—0·000014, and its permeability 0·9998. The diamagnetic quality of this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before the date of Faraday’s experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See .)

 DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,—a proof that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra Diamante completed in 1470 after his master’s death in 1469. Fra Filippo left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received 200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact year of his death is not known.

 DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?–1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after 1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; La Desgraciada Raquel, which was long considered to be his best play, is really Mira de Amescua’s Judía de Toledo under another title; and the earliest of Diamante’s surviving pieces, El Honrador de su padre (1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille’s Cid. Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French dramatic methods into Spain.

 DIAMANTINA (formerly called Tejuco), a mining town of the state of Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous; they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals, principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729, and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a crown reservation, known as the “forbidden district,” 42 leagues in circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at 300,000,000 francs (see ). The present name of the town was assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a cidade.

 DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in 14° 24′ 33″ S., 56° 8′ 30″ W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined. Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.

DIAMETER (from the Gr. , through,  , measure), in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section and terminated by the curve; the “principal diameters” of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the “axes”  and are at

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/172


text:
Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/194

170 is always "one who has not forgotten how to appreciate"). But does all this involve any real effort to counteract the ascetic ideal? Is it really seriously suggested that Kant's victory over the theological dogmatism about "God," "Soul," "Freedom," "Immortality," has damaged that ideal in any way (as the theologians have imagined to be the case for a long time past)?—And in this connection it does not concern us for a single minute, if Kant himself intended any such consummation. It is certain that from the time of Kant every type of transcendentalist is playing a winning game—they are emancipated from the theologians; what luck!—he has revealed to them that secret art, by which they can now pursue their "heart's desire" on their own responsibility, and with all the respectability of science. Similarly, who can grumble at the agnostics, reverers, as they are, of the unknown and the absolute mystery, if they now worship their very query as God? (Xaver Doudan talks somewhere of the ravages which l'habitude d'admirer I'inintelligible au lieu de rester tout simplement dans l'inconnu has produced—the ancients, he thinks, must have been exempt from those ravages.) Supposing that everything, "known" to man, fails to satisfy his desires, and on the contrary contradicts and horrifies them, what a divine way out of all this to be able to look for the responsibility, not in the "desiring" but in "knowing"!—"There is no knowledge. Consequently there is a God"; what a novel elegantia syllogismi! what a triumph for the ascetic ideal!

26.

Or, perchance, does the whole of modern history show

title: Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/194


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/173

 right angles; “conjugate diameters” are such that each bisects chords parallel to the other. The diameter of a quadric surface is a line at the extremities of which the tangent planes are parallel. Newton defined the diameter of a curve of any order as the locus of the centres of the mean distances of the points of intersection of a system of parallel chords with the curve; this locus may be shown to be a straight line. The word is also used as a unit of linear measurement of the magnifying power of a lens or microscope.

In architecture, the term is used to express the measure of the lower part of the shaft of a column. It is employed by Vitruvius (iii. 2) to determine the height of a column, which should vary from eight to ten diameters according to the intercolumniation: and it is generally the custom to fix the lower diameter of the shaft by the height required and the Order employed. Thus the diameter of the Roman Doric should be about one-eighth of the height, that of the Ionic one-ninth, and of the Corinthian one-tenth (see ).

 DIAMOND, a mineral universally recognized as chief among precious stones; it is the hardest, the most imperishable, and also the most brilliant of minerals. These qualities alone have made it supreme as a jewel since early times, and yet the real brilliancy of the stone is not displayed until it has been faceted by the art of the (q.v.); and this was scarcely developed before the year 1746. The consummate hardness of the diamond, in spite of its high price, has made it most useful for purposes of grinding, polishing and drilling. Numerous attempts have been made to manufacture the diamond by artificial means, and these attempts have a high scientific interest on account of the mystery which surrounds the natural origin of this remarkable mineral. Its physical and chemical properties have been the subject of much study, and have a special interest in view of the extraordinary difference between the physical characters of the diamond and those of graphite (blacklead) or charcoal, with which it is chemically identical, and into which it can be converted by the action of heat or electricity. Again, on account of the great value of the diamond, much of the romance of precious stones has centred round this mineral; and the history of some of the great diamonds of historic times has been traced through many extraordinary vicissitudes.

The name , “the invincible,” was probably applied by the Greeks to hard metals, and thence to corundum (emery) and other hard stones. According to Charles William King, the first undoubted application of the name to the diamond is found in Manilius ( 16),—Sic Adamas, punctum lapidis, pretiosior auro,—and Pliny ( 100) speaks of the rarity of the stone, “the most valuable of gems, known only to kings.” Pliny described six varieties, among which the Indian, having six pointed angles, and also resembling two pyramids (turbines, whip-tops) placed base to base, may probably be identified as the ordinary octahedral crystal (fig. 1). The “diamond” (Yahalom) in the breastplate of the high priest (Ex. xxxix. 11) was certainly some other stone, for it bore the name of a tribe, and methods of engraving the true diamond cannot have been known so early. The stone can hardly have become familiar to the Romans until introduced from India, where it was probably mined at a very early period. But one or other of the remaining varieties mentioned by Pliny (the Macedonian, the Arabian, the Cyprian, &c.) may be the true diamond, which was in great request for the tool of the gem-engraver. Later Roman authors mentioned various rivers in India as yielding the Adamas among their sands. The name Adamas became corrupted into the forms adamant, diamaunt, diamant, diamond; but the same word, owing to a medieval misinterpretation which derived it from adamare (compare the French word aimant), was also applied to the lodestone.

Like all the precious stones, the diamond was credited with many marvellous virtues; among others the power of averting insanity, and of rendering poison harmless; and in the middle ages it was known as the “pietra della reconciliazione,” as the peacemaker between husband and wife.

Scientific Characters.—The majority of minerals are found most commonly in masses which can with difficulty be recognized as aggregates of crystalline grains, and occur comparatively seldom as distinct crystals; but the diamond is almost always found in single crystals, which show no signs of previous attachment to any matrix; the stones were, until the discovery of the South African mines, almost entirely derived from sands or gravels, but owing to the hardness of the mineral it is rarely, if ever, water-worn, and the crystals are often very perfect. The crystals belong to the cubic system, generally assuming the form of the octahedron (fig. 1), but they may, in accordance with the principles of crystallography, also occur in other forms symmetrically derived from the octahedron,—for example, the cube, the 12-faced figure known as the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 2), or the 48-faced figure known as the hexakis-octahedron (fig. 3), or in combinations of these. The octahedron faces are usually smooth; most of the other faces are rounded (fig. 4). The cube faces are rough with protruding points. The cube is sometimes found in Brazil, but is very rare among the S. African stones; and the dodecahedron is perhaps more common in Brazil than elsewhere. There is often a furrow running along the edges of the octahedron, or across the edges of the cube, and this indicates that the apparently simple crystal may really consist of eight individuals meeting at the centre; or, what comes to the same thing, of two individuals interpenetrating and projecting through each other. If this be so the form of the diamond is really the tetrahedron (and the various figures derived symmetrically from it) and not the octahedron. Fig. 5 shows how the octahedron with furrowed edge may be constructed from two interpenetrating tetrahedra (shown in dotted lines). If the grooves be left out of account, the large faces which have replaced each tetrahedron corner then make up a figure which has the aspect of a simple octahedron. Such regular interpenetrations are known in crystallography as “twins.” There are also twins of diamond in which two octahedra (fig. 6) are united by contact along a surface parallel to an octahedron face without interpenetration. On account of their resemblance to the twins of the mineral spinel (which crystallizes in octahedra) these are known as “spinel twins.” They are generally flattened along the plane of union. The crystals often display triangular markings, either elevations or pits, upon the octahedron faces; the latter are particularly well defined and have the form of equilateral triangles (fig. 7). They are similar to the “etched figures” produced by moistening an octahedron of alum, and have probably been produced, like them, by the action of some solvent. Similar, but somewhat different markings are produced by the combustion of diamond in oxygen, unaccompanied by any rounding of the edges.

Diamond possesses a brilliant “adamantine” lustre, but this tends to be greasy on the surface of the natural stones and gives

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/173


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diameter

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diameter


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diamond

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diamond


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/174

 the rounded crystals somewhat the appearance of drops of gum. Absolutely colourless stones are not so common as cloudy and faintly coloured specimens; the usual tints are grey, brown, yellow or white; and as rarities, red, green, blue and black stones have been found. The colour can sometimes be removed or changed at a high temperature, but generally returns on cooling. It is therefore more probably due to metallic oxides than to hydrocarbons. Sir William Crookes has, however, changed a pale yellow diamond to a bluish-green colour by keeping it embedded in radium bromide for eleven weeks. The black coloration upon the surface produced by this process, as also by the electric bombardment in a vacuum tube, appears to be due to a conversion of the surface film into graphite. Diamond may break with a conchoidal fracture, but the crystals always cleave readily along planes parallel to the octahedron faces: of this property the diamond cutters avail themselves when reducing the stone to the most convenient form for cutting; a sawing process, has, however, now been introduced, which is preferable to that of cleavage. It is the hardest known substance (though tantalum, or an alloy of tantalum now competes with it) and is chosen as 10 in the mineralogist’s scale of hardness; but the difference in hardness between diamond (10) and corundum (9) is really greater than that between corundum (9) and talc (1); there is a difference in the hardness of the different faces; the Borneo stones are also said to be harder than those of Australia, and the Australian harder than the African, but this is by no means certain. The specific gravity ranges from 3·56 to 3·50, generally about 3·52. The coefficient of expansion increases very rapidly above 750°, and diminishes very rapidly at low temperatures; the maximum density is attained about −42° C.

The very high refractive power (index = 2·417 for sodium light) gives the stone its extraordinary brilliancy; for light incident within a diamond at a greater angle than 24° is reflected back into the stone instead of passing through it; the corresponding angle for glass is 40°. The very high dispersion (index for red light = 2·402, for blue light = 2·460) gives it the wonderful “fire” or display of spectral colours. Certain absorption bands at the blue end of the spectrum are supposed to be due to rare elements such as samarium. Unlike other cubic crystals, diamond experiences a diminution of refractive index with increase of temperature. It is very transparent for Röntgen rays, whereas paste imitations are opaque. It is a good conductor of heat, and therefore feels colder to the touch than glass and imitation stones. The diamond has also a somewhat greasy feel. The specific heat increases rapidly with rising temperature up to 60° C., and then more slowly. Crystals belonging to the cubic system should not be birefringent unless strained; diamond often displays double refraction particularly in the neighbourhood of inclusions, both liquid and solid; this is probably due to strain, and the spontaneous explosion of diamonds has often been observed. Diamond differs from graphite in being a bad conductor of electricity: it becomes positively electrified by friction. The electrical resistance is about that of ordinary glass, and is diminished by one-half during exposure by Röntgen rays; the dielectric constant (16) is greater than that which should correspond to the specific gravity.

The phosphorescence produced by friction has been known since the time of Robert Boyle (1663); the diamond becomes luminous in a dark room after exposure to sunlight or in the presence of radium; and many stones phosphoresce beautifully (generally with a pale green light) when subjected to the electric discharge in a vacuum tube. Some diamonds are more phosphorescent than others, and different faces of a crystal may display different tints. The combustibility of the diamond was predicted by Sir Isaac Newton on account of its high refractive power; it was first established experimentally by the Florentine Academicians in 1694. In oxygen or air diamond burns at about 850°, and only continues to do so if maintained at a high temperature; but in the absence of oxidising agents it may be raised to a much higher temperature. It is, however, infusible at the temperature of the electric arc, but becomes converted superficially into graphite. Experiments on the combustion of diamond were made by Smithson Tennant (1797) and Sir Humphry Davy (1816), with the object of proving that it is pure carbon; they showed that burnt in oxygen it yields exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as that produced by burning the same weight of carbon. Still more convincing experiments were made by A. Krause in 1890. Similarly Guyton de Morveau showed that, like charcoal, diamond converts soft iron into steel. Diamond is insoluble in acid and alkalis, but is oxidised on heating with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid.

Bort (or Boart) is the name given to impure crystals or fragments useless for jewels; it is also applied to the rounded crystalline aggregates, which generally have a grey colour, a rough surface, often a radial structure, and are devoid of good cleavage. They are sometimes spherical (“shot bort”). Carbonado or “black diamond,” found in Bahia (also recently in Minas Geraes), is a black material with a minutely crystalline structure somewhat porous, opaque, resembling charcoal in appearance, devoid of cleavage, rather harder than diamond, but of less specific gravity; it sometimes displays a rude cubic crystalline form. The largest specimen found (1895) weighed 3078 carats. Both bort and carbonado seem to be really aggregates of crystallized diamond, but the carbonado is so nearly structureless that it was till recently regarded as an amorphous modification of carbon.

Uses of the Diamond.—The use of the diamond for other purposes than jewelry depends upon its extreme hardness: it has always been the only material used for cutting or engraving the diamond itself. The employment of powdered bort and the lapidary’s wheel for faceting diamonds was introduced by L. von Berquen of Bruges in 1476. Diamonds are now employed not only for faceting precious stones, but also for cutting and drilling glass, porcelain, &c,; for fine engraving such as scales; in dentistry for drilling; as a turning tool for electric-light carbons, hard rubber, &c.; and occasionally for finishing accurate turning work such as the axle of a transit instrument. For these tools the stone is actually shaped to the best form: it is now electroplated before being set in its metal mount in order to secure a firm fastening. It is also used for bearings in watches and electric meters. The best glaziers’ diamonds are chosen from crystals such that a natural curved edge can be used. For rock drills, and revolving saws for stone cutting, either diamond, bort or carbonado is employed, set in steel tubes, disks or bands. Rock drilling is the most important industrial application; and for this, owing to its freedom from cleavage, the carbonado is more highly prized than diamond; it is broken into fragments about 3 carats in weight; and in 1905 the value of carbonado was no less than from £10 to £14 a carat. It has been found that the “carbons” in drills can safely be subjected to a pressure of over 60 kilograms per square millimetre, and a speed of 25 metres per second. A recent application of the diamond is for wire drawing; a hole tapering towards the centre is drilled through a diamond, and the metal is drawn through this. No other tool is so endurable, or gives such uniform thickness of wire.

Distribution and Mining.—The most important localities for diamonds have been: (1) India, where they were mined from the earliest times till the close of the 19th century; (2) South America, where they have been mined since the middle of the 18th century; and (3) South Africa, to which almost the whole of the diamond-mining industry has been transferred since 1870.

India.—The diamond is here found in ancient sandstones and conglomerates, and in the river gravels and sands derived from them. The sandstones and conglomerates belong to the Vindhyan formation and overlie the old crystalline rocks: the diamantiferous beds are well defined, often not more than 1 ft. in thickness, and contain pebbles of quartzite, jasper, sandstone, slate, &c. The mines fall into five groups situated on the eastern side of the Deccan plateau about the following places (beginning from the south), the first three being in Madras. (1) Chennur near Cuddapah on the river Pennar. (2) Kurnool near Baneganapalle between the rivers Pennar and Kistna. (3) Kollar near Bezwada on the river Kistna. (4) Sambalpur on the river Mahanadi in the Central Provinces. (5) Panna near Allahabad, in Bundelkhand. The mining has always been carried on by natives of low caste, and by primitive methods which do not differ much from those described by the French merchant Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689), who paid a prolonged visit to most

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/174


text:
Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/175

 of the mines between 1638 and 1665 as a dealer in precious stones. According to his description shallow pits were sunk, and the gravel excavated was gathered into a walled enclosure where it was crushed and water was poured over it, and it was finally sifted in baskets and sorted by hand. The buying and selling was at that period conducted by young children. In more modern times there has been the same excavation of shallow pits, and sluicing, sifting and sorting, by hand labour, the only machinery used being chain pumps made of earthen bowls to remove the water from the deeper pits.

At some of the Indian localities spasmodic mining has been carried on at different periods for centuries, at some the work which had been long abandoned was revived in recent times, at others it has long been abandoned altogether. Many of the large stones of antiquity were probably found in the Kollar group, where Tavernier found 60,000 workers in 1645 (?), the mines having, according to native accounts, been discovered about 100 years previously. Golconda was the fortress and the market for the diamond industry at this group of mines, and so gave its name to them. The old mines have now been completely abandoned, but in 1891 about 1000 carats were being raised annually in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad. The Sambalpur group appear to have been the most ancient mines of all, but they were not worked later than 1850. The Panna group were the most productive during the 19th century. India was no doubt the source of all the large stones of antiquity; a stone of 67 carats was found at Wajra Karur in the Chennur group in 1881, and one of 210 carats at Hira Khund in 1809. Other Indian localities besides those mentioned above are Simla, in the N.W. Provinces, where a few stones have been found, and a district on the Gouel and the Sunk rivers in Bengal, which V. Ball has identified with the Soumelpour mentioned by Tavernier. The mines of Golconda and Kurnool were described as early as 1677 in the twelfth volume of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. At the present time very few Indian diamonds find their way out of the country, and, so far as the world’s supply is concerned, Indian mining of diamonds may be considered extinct. The first blow to this industry was the discovery of the Brazilian mines in Minas Geraes and Bahia.

Brazil.—Diamonds were found about 1725 at Tejuco (now Diamantina) in Minas Geraes, and the mining became important about 1740. The chief districts in Minas Geraes are (1) Bagagem on the W. side of the Serra da Mata da Corda; (2) Rio Abaete on the E. side of the same range; these two districts being among the head waters of the Rio de San Francisco and its tributaries; (3) Diamantina, on and about the watershed separating the Rio de San Francisco from the Rio Jequitinhonha; and (4) Grao Mogul, nearly 200 m. to the N.E. of Diamantina on the latter river.

The Rio Abaete district was worked on a considerable scale between 1785 and 1807, but is now abandoned. Diamantina is at present the most important district; it occupies a mountainous plateau, and the diamonds are found both on the plateau and in the river valleys below it. The mountains consist here of an ancient laminated micaceous quartzite, which is in parts a flexible sandstone known as itacolumite, and in parts a conglomerate; it is interbedded with clay-slate, mica-schist, hornblende-schist and haematite-schist, and intersected by veins of quartz. This series is overlain unconformably by a younger quartzite of similar character, and itself rests upon the crystalline schists. The diamond is found under three conditions: (1) in the gravels of the present rivers, embedded in a ferruginous clay-cemented conglomerate known as cascalho; (2) in terraces (gupiarras) in a similar conglomerate occupying higher levels in the present valleys; (3) in plateau deposits in a coarse surface conglomerate known as gurgulho, the diamond and other heavy minerals being embedded in the red clay which cements the larger blocks. Under all these three conditions the diamond is associated with fragments of the rocks of the country and the minerals derived from them, especially quartz, hornstone, jasper, the polymorphous oxide of titanium (rutile, anatase and brookite), oxides and hydrates of iron (magnetite, ilmenite, haematite, limonite), oxide of tin, iron pyrites, tourmaline, garnet, xenotime, monazite, kyanite, diaspore, sphene, topaz, and several phosphates, and also gold. Since the heavy minerals of the cascalho in the river beds are more worn than those of the terraces, it is highly probable that they have been derived by the cutting down of the older river gravels represented by the terraces; and since in both deposits the heavy minerals are more abundant near the heads of the valleys in the plateau, it is also highly probable that both have really been derived from the plateau deposit. In the latter, especially at São João da Chapada, the minerals accompanying the diamond are scarcely worn at all; in the terraces and the river beds they are more worn and more abundant; the terraces, therefore, are to be regarded as a first concentration of the plateau material by the old rivers; and the cascalho as a second concentration by the modern rivers. The mining is carried on by negroes under the supervision of overseers; the cascalho is dug out in the dry season and removed to a higher level, and is afterwards washed out by hand in running water in shallow wooden basins (bateas). The terraces can be worked at all seasons, and the material is partly washed out by leading streams on to it. The washing of the plateau material is effected in reservoirs of rain water.

It is difficult to obtain an estimate of the actual production of the Minas Geraes mines, for no official returns have been published, but in recent years it has certainly been rivalled by the yield in Bahia. The diamond here occurs in river gravels and sands associated with the same minerals as in Minas Geraes; since 1844 the richest mines have been worked in the Serra de Cincora, where the mountains are intersected by the river Paraguassu and its tributaries; it is said that there were as many as 20,000 miners working here in 1845, and it was estimated that 54,000 carats were produced in Bahia in 1858. The earlier workings were in the Serra de Chapada to the N.W. of the mines just mentioned. In 1901 there were about 5000 negroes employed in the Bahia mines; methods were still primitive; the cascalho was dug out from the river beds or tunnelled out from the valley side, and washed once a week in sluices of running water, where it was turned over with the hoe, and finally washed in wooden basins and picked over by hand; sometimes also the diamantiferous material is scooped out of the bed of the shallow rivers by divers, and by men working under water in caissons. It is almost exclusively in the mines of Bahia, and in particular in the Cincora district, that the valuable carbonado is found. The carbonado and the diamond have been traced to an extensive hard conglomerate which occurs in the middle of the sandstone formation. Diamonds are also mined at Salobro on the river Pardo not far inland from the port of Canavieras in the S.E. corner of Bahia. The enormous development of the South African mines, which supplied in 1906, about 90% of the world’s produce, has thrown into the shade the Brazilian production; but the Bulletin for Feb. 1909 of the International Bureau of American Republics gave a very confident account of its future, under improved methods.

South Africa.—The first discovery was made in 1867 by Dr W. G. Atherstone, who identified as diamond a pebble obtained from a child in a farm on the banks of the Orange river and brought by a trader to Grahamstown; it was bought for £500 and displayed in the Paris Exhibition of that year. In 1869 a stone weighing 83 carats was found near the Orange river; this was purchased by the earl of Dudley for £25,000 and became famous as the “Star of South Africa.” A rush of prospectors at once took place to the banks of the Orange and Vaal rivers, and resulted in considerable discoveries, so that in 1870 there was a mining camp of no less than 10,000 persons on the “River Diggings.” In the River Diggings the mining was carried on in the coarse river gravels, and by the methods of the Brazilian negroes and of gold placer-miners. A diggers’ committee limited the size of claims to 30 ft. square, with free access to the river bank; the gravel and sand were washed in cradles provided with screens of perforated metal, and the concentrates were sorted by hand on tables by means of an iron scraper.

But towards the close of 1870 stones were found at Jagersfontein and at Dutoitspan, far from the Vaal river, and led to a second great rush of prospectors, especially to Dutoitspan, and in 1871 to what is now the Kimberley mine in the neighbourhood of the latter. At each of these spots the diamantiferous area was a roughly circular patch of considerable size, and in some occupied the position of one of those depressions or “pans” so frequent in S. Africa. These “dry diggings” were therefore at first supposed to be alluvial in origin like the river gravels; but it was soon discovered that, below the red surface soil and the underlying calcareous deposit, diamonds were also found in a layer of yellowish clay about 50 ft. thick known as “yellow ground.” Below this again was a hard bluish-green serpentinous rock which was at first supposed to be barren bed-rock; but this also contained the precious stone, and has become famous, under the name of “blue ground,” as the matrix of the S. African diamonds. The yellow ground is merely decomposed blue ground. In the Kimberley district five of these round patches of blue ground were found within an area little more than 3 m. in diameter; that at Kimberley occupying 10 acres, that at Dutoitspan 23 acres. There were soon 50,000 workers on this field, the canvas camp was replaced by a town of brick and iron surrounded by the wooden huts of the natives, and Kimberley became an important centre.

It was soon found that each mine was in reality a huge vertical funnel or crater descending to an unknown depth, and filled with diamantiferous blue ground. At first each claim was an independent pit 31 ft. square sunk into the blue ground; the diamantiferous rock was hoisted by bucket and windlass, and roadways were left across the pit to provide access to the claims. But the roadways soon fell in, and ultimately haulage from the claims could only be provided by means of a vast system of wire ropes extending from a triple staging of windlasses erected round the entire edge of the mine, which had by this time become a huge open pit; the ropes from the upper windlasses extended to the centre, and those from the lower tier to the sides of the pit; covering the whole mass like a gigantic cobweb. (See Plate II. fig. 12.) The buckets of blue ground were hauled up these ropes by means of horse whims, and in 1875 steam winding engines began to be employed. By this time also improved methods in the treatment of the blue ground were introduced. It was carried off in carts to open spaces, where an exposure of some weeks to the air was found to pulverize the hard rock far more efficiently than the old method of crushing with mallets. The placer-miner’s cradle and rocking-trough were replaced by puddling troughs stirred by a revolving comb worked by horse power; reservoirs were constructed for the scanty water-supply, bucket elevators were introduced to carry away the tailings; and the natives were confined in compounds. For these improvements co-operation was necessary; the better claims, which in 1872 had risen from £100 to more than £4000 in value, began to be consolidated, and a Mining Board was introduced.

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/175


text: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/176

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/176


text: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/177

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/177


text:
Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/195

Rh in its demeanour greater confidence in life, greater confidence in its ideals? Its loftiest pretension is now to be a mirror; it repudiates all teleology; it will have no more "proving"; it disdains to play the judge, and thereby shows its good taste—it asserts as little as it denies, it fixes, it "describes." All this is to a high degree ascetic, but at the same time it is to a much greater degree nihilistic; make no mistake about this! You see in the historian a gloomy, hard, but determined gaze,—an eye that looks out as an isolated North Pole explorer looks out (perhaps so as not to look within, so as not to look back?)—there is snow—here is life silenced, the last crows which caw here are called "whither?" "Vanity," "Nada"—here nothing more flourishes and grows, at the most the meta-politics of St. Petersburg and the "pity" of Tolstoi. But as for that other school of historians a perhaps still more "modern" school, a voluptuous and lascivious school which ogles life and the ascetic ideal with equal fervour, which uses the word "artist" as a glove, and has nowadays established a "corner" for itself, in all the praise given to contemplation; oh, what a thirst do these sweet intellectuals excite even for ascetics and winter landscapes! Nay! The devil take these "contemplative" folk! How much liefer would I wander with those historical Nihilists through the gloomiest, grey, cold mist!—nay, I shall not mind listening (supposing I have to choose) to one who is completely unhistorical and anti-historical (a man, like Duhring for instance, over whose periods a hitherto shy and unavowed species of "beautiful souls" has grown intoxicated in contemporary Germany, the species anarchisica within the educated proletariate). The "contemplative" are a hundred times worse—I never knew anything

title: Page:The Genealogy of Morals.djvu/195