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114 from Binnelong a promise to return to Government House on an appointed day, the interview terminated, and the Governor's party re-embarked. Cole-be does not appear to have been present on this occasion, although he afterwards was accustomed to frequent the settlement and enjoy the favour of the officers.

Interviews such as the one just described were in those days very frequent in the colony. In addition to the desire which the colonists naturally entertained of cultivating the friendship of the aborigines, they were urged to cultivate their society by other motives. In a community such as then formed the colony, the number of those with whom the officers and the more honourable portion of the colonists could associate must have been very small. In order, therefore, to lessen the monotony of their avocations and relieve the dullness which, as a matter of course, prevailed in the new settlement, they courted the society of the aborigines, in whom they found men as yet untainted by the multiplied vices which prevailed among the great bulk of their own countrymen. Independent of that recommendation they also found among the New Hollanders men whose bravery, intrepidity, intelligence, and candour excited their admiration and commanded their esteem — men with whose character the term savage was utterly incompatible, and whose rudeness extended no further than their uncouth appearance and their uncivilized mode of life. Hence the reason why Governor Phillip and his officers could condescend to comply with an invitation from


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Category:Parapsychology

Parapsychology is a discipline that seeks to investigate the existence and causes of psychic abilities, near-death experiences, and life after death using the scientific method.

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Vitæ' (c. 1350), and Chaucer mentions the romance about him in his 'Rime of Sir Thopas' (c. 1380). In 1430 reference was made to Guy in the Spanish romance 'Tirante el blanco.'

It was in the fourteenth century that the story was first adopted as authentic history by the chroniclers. Peter Langtoft, in his rhyming chronicle (1308?), which Robert Mannyng or de Brunne translated about 1338, describes Guy of Warwick as slaying 'Colbrant' the Dane. Walter of Exeter [see ,fl. 1301] is said to have written a life of Guy while living at St. Caroc in Cornwall, and some fifty years later Girardus Cornubiensis [see ] produced his 'DeGestis Regum West-Saxonum,' which contained in serious prose a very full account of Guy's heroic exploits. Walter of Exeter's biography is known only through a mention of it by Bale. The suggestion that this work was the original Norman-French poem has nothing to support it. Girardus's work only survives in quotations imbedded in the 'Liber de Hyda,' or Rudborne's 'Chronicle,' both completed in the fifteenth century. The 'Liber de Hyda' preserves Girardus's version of the fight between Guy and the giant Colbrand, which is stated to be cap. xi. of the original chronicle. This is quoted again at the end of a manuscript of Higden's 'Polychronicon' (Magdalen College, Oxford, 147), and was printed by Hearne in an appendix to the 'Annals of Dunstable,' ii. 825-30. It has been suggested that Walter of Exeter and Girardus Cornubiensis are one and the same person. At any rate it seems probable that the lives of Guy which went under their two names were at most points identical. Girardus identifies the scene of Guy's duel with Colbrand as 'The Hyde's Mede,' afterwards the site of Hyde Abbey, near Winchester. Henry Knighton (fl. 1366), another chronicler who treats Guy as historical, locates his battles in the vale of Chilcombe, which belonged to the cathedral priory of St. Swithun's, or Old Minster, a monastic establishment in Winchester, in perpetual rivalry with Hyde Abbey. That the story, as Girard and Knighton prove, was well known in Winchester in the fourteenth century is further shown by the fact that the bishop, Adam de Orleton, on visiting the priory of St. Swithun's about 1338, was entertained by a 'canticum Colbrandi.' Lydgate versified Girard's story about 1450. There are manuscripts of Lydgate's version in the Bodleian Library (Laud Misc. 683) and the British Museum (Harl. MS. 7333, f. 35b). Revised by John Lane, it was licensed for the press in 1617 (cf. Harl. MS. 5243), but it was never printed.

Whatever place Guy held in Winchester tradition, it was at Warwick that his traditional history received its final development. In 1268 William de Beauchamp succeeded his uncle William Mauduit as Earl of Warwick, and was the first of the many powerful earls of Warwick of the Beauchamp line. William named his son Guy because (it has been suggested) he claimed descent from the legendary Guy. This Guy de Beauchamp [q. v.] died in 1315. It was doubtless in his honour rather than in that of the Guy of the legend that a descendant, Thomas, earl of Warwick [see ], built Guy's Tower at Warwick Castle at the end of the fourteenth century. Thomas's son, Earl Richard [see , 1382-1439], a chivalric warrior, who was the hero of almost as many adventures as the legendary Guy, asserted unmistakably his descent from that hero. Two miles from Warwick is a rock overlooking the Avon, which was until the fifteenth century known as 'Kibbecliue' or 'Gibbeclyve.' This spot Earl Richard seems to have identified, in accord with some vague local tradition, with the hermitage where Guy in the legend died, although the romance describes the cell as in the woods of Arden. The place, 'Kibbecliue,' has long been known as Guy's Cliffe. There Earl Richard erected a chantry or chapel for the repose of the souls of the legendary Guy and others of his ancestors, and provided endowment for the maintenance of two priests (1422-3). In the chapel was placed a stone statue said to represent the legendary Guy. One of the first priests of the chantry was John Rous, who adopted all the legends of the hero Guy of Warwick. He assumed without hesitation that the Beauchamp earls of Warwick were Guy's lineal descendants, and asserted that when Earl Richard was travelling in Palestine in 1410 the Soldan's lieutenant, having read the story of his ancestor in books of his own language, invited the earl to his palace and feasted him royally. Rous's manuscript account of Guy's life is among the Ashmolean MSS. at Oxford, and was literally followed by Dugdale in his 'History of Warwickshire.' Since Leland's time visitors to Warwick and its neighbourhood have been shown reputed relics of the hero in Warwick Castle and elsewhere. John Caius in 1552 describes at length the rib of a gigantic cow said to have been slain by Guy, and exhibited at Warwick Castle (see De Canibus, &c.) This is still on view there, together with a large vessel made of bell-metal (said to contain 120 gallons, and called Guy's Porridge Pot), and several enormous pieces of armour said to have been worn by Guy. The pot is


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obviously a garrison crock of the sixteenth century, and the armour is horse-armour of the same date.

The French romance was first printed at Paris in 1525, and again in 1550. The English poem was first printed by William Copland (without date) about the middle of the sixteenth century, and was soon reprinted by John Cawood. A tradition that it was first printed by Wynkyn de Worde is not corroborated. According to Puttenham (Arte of English Poesie, 1589, ed. Arber, p. 57) the story was commonly sung to the harp in places of assembly in the sixteenth century. Portions of the story were converted into short ballads (cf. 'Guy and Colbrande' in Percy Folio MS., ii. 527-39). It formed the subject of a poem by Samuel Rowlands, 'The Famous History of Guy, Earle of Warwick,' which seems to have been first issued in 1607, and was reissued in 1649 and in 1654. An extract entitled 'Guy and Amarant' figures as a separate poem in Percy's 'Reliques.' Probably Rowlands's verse suggested 'A Play called the Life and Death of Guy of Warwicke, written by John Day and Thomas Decker,' which was entered on the Stationers' Register on 15 Jan. 1618-19, but is not now extant; it may be identical with 'Guy, Earl of Warwick: a Tragical History, by B. J.,' London, 1661, 4to. The romance seems to have been first reduced to prose by Martin Parker, who issued prose versions of the history of King Arthur and similar heroes, but all that is known of Parker's 'Guy, Earl of Warwick' is an entry licensing the publication in the Stationers' Registers for 1640. A ballad in the Roxburghe collection by Humphrey Crouch [q. v.] was first printed in 1655. A chapbook, apparently first issued in London in 1684 in 4to, was republished in the next century at Newcastle, Derby, Nottingham, and Leamington. Another chapbook (London, 1706, 12mo) was repeatedly reissued down to 1821. Pegge in his 'Dissertation' in Nichols's 'Topographica Britannica' (1781) was the first to critically examine the story as credulously told by Dugdale, and to show that it is at almost all points fictitious. Pegge supplies an engraving of the statue placed by Earl Richard at Guy's Cliffe.

[Pegge's Dissertation in Nichols's Top. Brit. vol. iv.; Ward's Cat. of Romances in the British Museum, i. 470 et seq. (an exhaustive criticism of the legend and an account of the manuscripts in the Brit. Mus.); Die Sage von Guy von Warwick, Untersuchung über ihr Alter und ihre Geschichte von A. Tanner, Bonn, 1877; Zur Literatur-Geschichte des Guy von Warwick von Julius Zupitza, Vienna, 1873; Guy of Warwick, ed. Zupitza for Early English Text Soc.; Percy Reliques (Folio MS., ed. Hales and Furnivall), ii. 509 et seq.; Collier's Bibliographical Catalogue, i. xxxviii, ii. 104, 298; Halliwell's Dict. of Old English Plays, p. 113; Cox and Jones's Popular Romances of the Middle Ages (1871), pp. 63-4, 297-319; Dunlop's Hist. of Fiction, ed. Wilson ; Ten Brink's Early English Literature, transl. by Kennedy, pp. 150, 245-7.]  GUY, HENRY (1631–1710), politician, only son of Henry Guy by Elizabeth, daughter of Francis Wethered of Ashlyns, Great Berkhampstead,was born in that parish on 16 June 1631. The father died in 1640, the mother in 1690, aged 90, when she was buried in the chancel of Tring Church, and her son erected a monument to her memory. Henry was admitted at the Inner Temple in November 1652, but adopted politics as a profession. He spent some time at Christ Church, Oxford, and was created M.A. in full convocation on 28 Sept. 1663. He afterwards held an excise office in the north of England, and ingratiated himself with the electors of the borough of Hedon in Yorkshire, where he was admitted a free burgess on 2 Aug. 1669. On 8 March 1670 he was elected its member in parliament, and continued to represent it until 1695. He again sat for it from 1702 till 1705, when his parliamentary career ended. He presented to the borough at different dates a large silver cup, a silver salver, and a very fine silver mace. On the corporation in trust for several objects he settled the annual sum of 20l., and in 1693 he erected for its inhabitants' a very large and convenient town hall.' His first appointment about the court was to the post of cupbearer to the queen, but he was soon admitted among the boon companions of Charles II. On the resignation in 1679 of Colonel Silas Titus, he became groom of the bedchamber, but sold his office by December of that year. In March 1679 he was appointed secretary to the treasury, and the payments from the public funds passed through his hands until Christmas 1688. Mr. Akerman edited from a manuscript in the possession of Mr. William Selby Lowndes for the Camden Society in 1851, as vol. lii. of their publications, the details of 'moneys received and paid for secret services of Charles II and James II from 30 March 1679 to 25 December 1688,' which consisted of an account rendered by Guy some time after the accession of William III. In the 'Correspondence of Henry, Earl of Clarendon' (ed. 1828), i. 654-5, are printed the particulars of sums paid to him for secret service money for one year, to 7 March 1688.' When Henry St. John first came to court, Guy especially warned him 'to be very moderate and modest in applications for friends, and


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24 be kinder still to me, if ever I ventured on such practices again; so I was obliged to give up old trade of lending, for the doctor declared that any one who borrowed should be flogged, and any one who paid should be flogged twice as much. There was no standing against such a prohibition as this, and my little commerce was ruined.

I was not very high in the school: not having been able to get farther than that dreadful Propria quæ maribus in the Latin grammar, of which, though I have it by heart even now, I never could understand a syllable—but on account of my size, my age, and the prayers of my mother, was allowed to have the privilege of the bigger boys, and on holidays to walk about in the town; great dandies we were, too, when we thus went out. I recollect costume very well—a thunder-and-lightening coat, a while waistcoat embroidered neatly at the pockets, a lace frill, a pair of knee-breeches, and elegant white cotton or silk stockings. This did very well, but still I was dissatisfied, I wanted a pair of boots. Three boys in the school had boots—I was mad to have them too.


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 Rh But my papa, when I wrote to him, would not hear of it; and three pounds, the price of a pair, was too large a sum for my mother to take them from the house-keeping, or for me to pay, in the present impoverished state of my exchequer; but the desire of the boots was so strong, that have them I must at any rate.

There was a German bootmaker who had just set up in our town in those days, who afterwards made his fortune in London; I determined to have the boots from him, and did not despair, before the end of a year or two, either to leave the school, when I should not mind his dunning me, or to screw the money from mamma, and so pay him.

So I called upon this man—Stiffelkind was his name—and he took my measure for a pair.

"You are a vary young gentleman to wear dop boots," said the shoemaker.

"I suppose, fellow," says I, "that is my business and not yours; either make the boots or not—but when you speak to a man of my rank, speak respectfully;" and I poured out a number of oaths, in order to impress him with a notion of my respectability.


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 of 'a very worthy, good man.' Cole speaks of him as 'very nice and somewhat finical,' 'thinly made,' and with a face of almost feminine delicacy, which acquired for him the name of 'Miss Green' from the wags of the university, and gave rise to many feeble witticisms (, MSS. xxx. 155). He was something of an artist, drawing portraits in blacklead pencil on vellum after the manner of Loggan, from whom it is possible that he may have had instruction (ib. xxiii. 132, 136;, Hist. of Painting, p. 147). He married Catherine, sister of Bishop Trimnell, who survived him, and by her had seven daughters and two sons, Thomas and Charles, both of whom were well provided for by their father. They added a final e to their surname. The elder, , who was successively fellow of his father's college, Corpus Christi, and of Jesus College, Cambridge, received from him the rich rectory of Cottenham and a prebendal stall at Ely (1737-50). In 1751 he became chancellor of Lichfield, which he held with the deanery of Salisbury, to which he was appointed in 1757, till his death in 1780. Cole describes him as 'of much the same cast as his father, thin and very delicate.' The disuse of incense on the high festivals in Ely Cathedral is attributed to him 'a finical man always taking snuff up his nose' on the plea that it made his head ache (, Add. MSS. 5873, fol. 82). The younger son, Charles, a lawyer, became registrar of Ely and steward of the dean and chapter.

Green published occasional sermons and charges, and some congratulatory Latin verses, on the accession of Anne and of George I, printed in the 'Academ. Cantab. carmina,' 1702, 1714.

[Bentham's Hist. of Ely, pp. 209-10; Cole's MSS. vols. xxiii. xxx. &c.; Monk's Life of Bentley, vol. ii. passim; Masters's Hist. of Corpus Christi College, by Lamb, pp. 208-11.]  GREEN, THOMAS, the elder (1722–1794), political writer, the son of Thomas Green of Wilby, Suffolk, an ex-soapboiler, by his wife Jane Mould, was born in 1722. He received a good education, and was possessed of considerable literary power, which he made use of chiefly in writing political pamphlets. Of these the most important were: 1. ‘A Prospect of the Consequences of the Present Conduct of Great Britain towards America,’ 1776. 2. ‘A Discourse on the Imprisoning of Mariners, wherein Judge Foster's Argument is considered and answered,’1777. 3. ‘A Letter to Dr. James Butler of Ireland, occasioned by his late publication entitled "A Justification of the Tenets of the Roman Catholic Religion,"’ 1787. 4. ‘Strictures on the Letter of the Rt. Hon. Mr. Burke, and the Revolution in France,’ 1791. He also conducted a periodical, published at Ipswich, where he resided, and called ‘Euphrasy.’ This magazine, which was commenced in 1769, and extended to twelve numbers, was written almost entirely by Green himself, and supported the church of England as against dissenters. Green died on 6 Oct. 1794, and was buried at Wilby. He married Frances Martin, by whom he left a son, Thomas Green (1769-1825) [q. v.]

[Davy's Athenæ Suffolc. ii. 425 (Addit, MS. 19166); Memoir of Thomas Green, Esq., of Ipswich, by J. Ford, 1825.]  GREEN, THOMAS, the younger (1769–1825), miscellaneous writer, son of Thomas Green the elder (1722-1794) [q. v.], was born at Monmouth on 12 Sept. 1769. He was educated partly at the free grammar school in Ipswich, and then privately under a Mr. Jervis of Ipswich. In 1786 he was admitted of Caius College, Cambridge, but never resided there, his going to the university being prevented by illness, and the intention being abandoned on his recovery. He was called to the bar, and for a few years went the Norfolk circuit. On coming into his property on his father's death in 1794, he gave up his profession, and devoted himself to a literary life. He lived at Ipswich, visiting the continent and different parts of England from time to time. He died on 6 Jan. 1825, leaving an only son (Thomas) by his wife Catharine, daughter of Lieutenant-colonel (afterwards General) Hartcup.

His claim to remembrance is his ‘Diary of a Lover of Literature,’ extracts from which he published in 1810. In this he discusses and criticises the books he read from day to day, sometimes giving lengthy arguments on the subjects treated of by his authors, more especially upon metaphysical points, to which he had given considerable attention. It is varied by descriptions of scenery in the Isle of Wight and Wales, which are very vivid and happy, as he had evidently a keen eye for the points of a view. The extracts are only from the diary for the years 1796 to 1800; but it was continued throughout his life, and his friend, J. Mitford of Benhall, while editor of the 'Gentleman's Magazine,' printed a large additional portion in that periodical from January 1834 to June 1843, concluding with a sketch of his character. Many of the criticisms are clever and deserving of attention; others, especially those on theological subjects, are crude enough. But the whole forms very amusing reading.

Besides the extracts from the diary, he


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  the following pamphlets: He contributed also to the ‘Gentleman's’ and ‘European’ magazines, and some poems by him are inserted in ‘The Chaplet, Ipswich, 1807, and ‘The Suffolk Garland,’ Ipswich, 1818.
 * 1) ‘The Micthodion, or Poetical Olio,’ 1788, a volume of poems.
 * 2) ‘A Vindication of the Shop-tax,’ 1789.
 * 3) ‘Slight Observations upon Paine's pamphlet … on the French and English Constitutions,’ 1791.
 * 4) ‘Political Speculations,’ 1791.
 * 5) ‘A short Address to the Protestant Clergy of every denomination on the fundamental corruption of Christianity,’ 1792.
 * 6) ‘The Two Systems of the Social Compact and the Natural Rights of Man examined and confuted,’ 1793.
 * 7) Gibbon's ‘Critical Observations on the 6th Book of the Æneid,’ 1794.
 * 8) ‘An Examination of the leading Principles of the New System of Morals … in Godwin's enquiry concerning Political Justice,’ 1798; 2nd edition, 1799.
 * 9) Memoir of Dr. Pearson, Master of Sidney College, Cambridge, prefixed to Pearson's ‘Prayers for Families,’ 1819.
 * 10) Reveley's ‘Notices illustrative of the Drawings and Sketches of some of the most distinguished Masters in all the principal Schools of Design.’ This he revised for the press in 1820.

 GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836–1882), philosopher, youngest of four children (two sons and two daughters) of Valentine Green, rector of Birkin, Yorkshire, was born at Birkin, 7 April 1836. His mother was the eldest daughter of Edward Thomas Vaughan, vicar of St. Martin and All Saints, Leicester, by a daughter of Daniel Thomas Hill of Aylesbury. His mother's uncle, Archdeacon Hill of Derby, gave the living of Birkin to his father. His mother died when he was a year old, and he was educated by his father till, at the age of fourteen, he was sent to Rugby, then under Dr. Goulburn. He had not been a precocious child, and was a shy, awkward, and rather indolent schoolboy. He showed power, however, on occasion, especially by gaining the prize (in 1855) for a Latin translation from the 'Areopagitica.' He impressed a few intimate friends by his thoughtfulness and independence of character. In October 1855 he entered Balliol College, Oxford, as a pupil of Mr. Jowett. He obtained only a second class in moderations, but in 1859 was in the first class in literæ humaniores afterwards obtaining a third class in the school of law and modern history. In 1860 he became a lecturer upon ancient and modern history in Balliol during the absence of Mr. W.L. Newman, and in November was elected fellow of his college. He attributed much of his progress as an undergraduate to the influence of his older friends, especially Mr. Jowett, [q. v.], and Mr. C.S. Parker. He was not widely known except by an occasional forcible speech at the Union, and by a few essays read to a society called the Old Mortality. His political views coincided with those of Bright and Cobden, though he defended them upon idealist principles. In 1862 he gained the chancellor's prize for an essay upon novels. Besides lectures at his college, he took a few private pupils, chiefly in philosophy. He desired to become independent, but wavered for a time between a college life, journalism, and an educational appointment. His religious views made him unwilling to take orders, though after some hesitation he signed the Thirty-nine Articles upon taking his M.A. degree. He began to translate F.C. Baur's 'History of the Christian Church,' which suggested an essay upon Christian dogma. He prepared for, but ultimately abandoned, an edition of Aristotle's 'Ethics.' In 1864 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the chair of moral philosophy at the university of St. Andrews. In December of that year he accepted an appointment as assistant-commissioner to the royal commission upon middle-class schools. He took a deep interest in this work, which occupied him during great part of 1865 and in the second quarter of 1866. He wrote a report (published in 1868 by the commission), suggesting a better organisation of the schools, in general agreement with the views adopted by the commissioners. He was elected as the teachers' representative on the governing body of King Edward's Schools in Birmingham (on which he had reported in 1868), and took ever afterwards an active part in their proceedings.

He was appointed to a vacancy in the teaching staff of Balliol on the death of James Riddell in September 1866. In 1867 he stood unsuccessfully for the Waynflete professorship of moral and metaphysical philosophy. In 1870 the Rev. Edwin Palmer (now archdeacon of Oxford) resigned his tutorship, and Mr. Jowett became master of the college. Green, as tutor, had now the 'whole subordinate management of the college.' Although lacking some of the more superficial talents for winning popularity, his simplicity, power, and earnestness commanded respect. He soon grew to be on easier terms with his pupils, and from 1868 usually took some of them as companions in the vacation. He lectured upon Aristotle


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and the early Greek philosophy, and especially upon the English thinkers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At this period the writings of J.S. Mill exercised the most potent intellectual influence in Oxford. Green became the leading exponent of the principles of Kant and Hegel, and attracted many able followers. His introduction to a new edition of Hume's works in 1874-5 first made public his criticism of the English empirical theories.

On 1 July 1871 he married Charlotte, daughter of Dr. Symonds of Clifton, and brother of an old friend, Mr. John Addington Symonds. He was re-elected to a fellowship at Balliol in April 1872, and continued to teach with increasing influence. As a householder he took an active part in local politics. In 1867 he had first appeared on a platform in behalf of the Reform Bill of that year. In 1870 he had spoken in favour of Forster's Education Bill, and in 1874 was elected to the Oxford school board. He joined the United Kingdom (Temperance) Alliance in 1872, and in 1875 set up a coffee tavern in St. Clement's. He was in favour of 'local option,' and had a controversy with Sir William Harcourt, who seemed to him to treat the evil of drink too lightly. He showed his interest in the Oxford High School by contributing 200l. to the building in 1877, and founding a scholarship of 12l. a year for boys from the elementary schools. He supported the liberal party of the time in other questions, though with characteristic modifications of his own.

In 1878 he was elected to the Whyte professorship of moral philosophy, and gave carefully prepared lectures in the summer term of 1878, and in following years until the Hilary term of 1882. The lectures form the substance of his unfinished 'Prolegomena to Ethics,' which was published under the editorship of Mr. A.C. Bradley in 1883. He took part in a translation of Lotze's 'Logik' and 'Metaphysik,' in which he had engaged some of his friends. It was published in 1884. His health had not for some time been robust, and in 1878 symptoms had appeared of congenital disease of the heart. He was about to move into a house which he had built in the Banbury Road, when he was taken ill, 15 March 1882, and died on the 26th. His wife survived him. He had no children. Among legacies to be paid after the death of his wife were 1,000l. to the university for a prize essay in moral philosophy (which Mrs. Green has already given), 1,000l. for a scholarship at the Oxford High School, and 3,500l. to Balliol College for promoting education in large towns.

Green's works, edited by Mr. R.L. Nettleship, were collected in three volumes. Vol. i. (1885) includes his introduction to Hume and his criticisms upon Mr. Herbert Spencer and G.H. Lewes, which (except one article) had previously appeared in the 'Contemporary Review.' Vol. ii. (1886) contains previously unpublished papers selected from his manuscript lectures. Vol. iii. (1888) contains a memoir, articles, and reviews upon philosophy from periodicals, two 'addresses' delivered in Balliol to his pupils in 1870 and 1877 before the administration of the communion, also privately printed and published in 1883, with an unfinished preface by Arnold Toynbee; lectures on the New Testament from notes by himself and his hearers; four lectures upon the 'English Revolution,' delivered before the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution in 1867; 'Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract,' originally published in 1881, with lectures upon education, &c.

Green was a man whose homely exterior, reserved manner, and middle-class radicalism were combined with singular loftiness of character. He recalls in different ways Wordsworth, of whom he was to some degree a disciple even in philosophy (Works, iii. 119), and Bright, whom he followed in politics. In his youth he was impressed by Carlyle and Maurice. He developed the philosophical ideas, congenial to him from the first, 'by a sympathetic study of Kant and Hegel.' He was not a wide reader, and even in some respects indolent, but he grasped his fundamental beliefs with singular intensity. His central conception, says his biographer (ib. p. lxxv), is that 'the Universe is a single eternal activity or energy, of which it is the essence to be self-conscious, that is, to be itself and not-itself in one.' His religious philosophy is a constant reproduction of 'the idea that the whole world of human experience is the self-communication or revelation of the eternal and absolute being.' Whatever the final fate of his philosophy, his opponents must recognise the value of his criticism of their position, and of his attempted ethical construction. While denouncing the philosophical claims of the utilitarian school, he sympathised to a great extent with their practical aims, and admired J.S. Mill as a man of exceptional goodness. Though an unsparing he was a magnanimous critic, and both by his character and his logical power gave a potent stimulus to many thinkers who have greatly modified his position. His character was described in Mrs. Ward's 'Robert Elsmere,' under the name of Mr. Gray.

[Life, by R. L. Nettleship, prefaced to vol. iii. of Works.]


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GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813), mezzotint engraver, born on 16 Oct. 1739 at Salford, near Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire, was the son of a dancing-master, and was articled to William Phillips, the townclerk of the borough of Evesham. At the end of two years he forsook the study of the law, and in 1760 became the pupil of Robert Hancock, a line engraver at Worcester, but not progressing to his own satisfaction in that branch of the art, he went in 1765 to London, and turned his attention to engraving in mezzotint. In 1766 he exhibited two works at the rooms of the Incorporated Society of Artists, of which he became a member in 1767, and before long achieved a brilliant success. His plates of ‘The Return of Regulus to Carthage’ and ‘Hannibal swearing eternal Enmity to the Romans,’ after the paintings by Benjamin West in the royal collection, the largest historical works until then executed in mezzotint, added greatly to his reputation. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1774, and in 1775 he was elected an associate engraver, and appointed mezzotint engraver to the king. In 1789 the Elector Charles Theodore of Bavaria granted him the exclusive privilege of engraving and publishing prints from the pictures in the Düsseldorf Gallery, and by 1795 he had completed twenty-two plates from that collection, but the outbreak of war wrecked the enterprise, and the subsequent siege and destruction of the castle and gallery by the French in 1798 involved him and his son Rupert, who was his partner, in serious loss. There is a ‘Descriptive Catalogue of Pictures from the Dusseldorf Gallery, exhibited at the Great Room, Spring Gardens, London,’ which was published in 1793. On the foundation of the British Institution in 1805 he was appointed keeper, and by his exertions contributed greatly to its success. He died in St. Alban's Street, London, on 29 June 1813. He was a fellow both of the Society of Antiquaries and of the Royal Society.

Green engraved about four hundred plates during his career of upwards of forty years. All show great mastery of his art and originality of style, but, like other artists of the time, he was more intent upon making his portraits works of art than faithful likenesses. His finest portraits are after Sir Joshua Reynolds, and include those of the painter himself, from the original in the Royal Academy; Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire; Mary Isabella, duchess of Rutland; the Ladies Waldegrave; Emily Mary, countess of Salisbury; Louisa, countess of Aylesford; Lady Elizabeth Dalmé and her children; Jane, countess of Harrington; Anne, viscountess Townshend; Lady Louisa Manners; Lady Jane Halliday; the Duke of Buccleuch; Sir William Chambers; Miss Sarah Campbell; Lady Elizabeth Compton, afterwards countess of Burlington; Lady Henrietta Herbert, afterwards countess of Powis; Lady Caroline Howard, afterwards Lady Cawdor; Charlotte, countess Talbot; the Duke of Bedford, with his two brothers and Miss Vernon. Many of these bring high prices at public auction, and at the sale of the Duke of Buccleuch's prints (17 March 1887) the engraving of Reynolds's ‘Ladies Waldegrave’ fetched the large sum of 262l. 10s. Among portraits after other masters Green engraved those of Charles Theodore, elector of Bavaria, after Batoni; Mrs. Cosway, after herself; Mrs. Yates as the Tragic Muse, after Romney; Miss Hunter, after E.F. Calze; Mrs. Green, his wife, with her son Rupert (called a ‘Mother and Child’), after Falconet; David Garrick and Mark Beaufoy, after Gainsborough; Richard Cumberland, after Romney; Garrick and Mrs. Pritchard in Macbeth, after Zoftany; George Washington, after Trumbull; Miss Martha Ray, after Dance; Prince Rupert, after Rembrandt; and Henry, earl of Danby, George, marquis of Huntly, and Sir Thomas Wharton, after Vandyck, for the Houghton Gallery. Besides the two works above mentioned, he engraved several scriptural and classical subjects after Benjamin West, such as ‘The Raising of Lazarus,’ ‘The Three Maries at the Sepulchre,’ ‘The Death of Epaminondas,’ ‘Agrippina weeping over the ashes of Germanicus,’ and ‘The Death of the Chevalier Bayard,’ as well as two portraits of Queen Charlotte, and three plates of the children of George III. His other subject plates include ‘The Visitation,’ ‘The Presentation in the Temple,’ and ‘The Descent from the Cross,’ after Rubens; ‘Time clipping the Wings of Love,’ after Vandyck; ‘The Dutch School,’ after Jan Steen; ‘The Virgin and Child,’ after Domenichino; ‘The Assumption of the Virgin’ and ‘St. John with the Lamb,’ after Murillo; ‘Venus and Cupid,’ after Agostino Carracci; ‘The Entombment of Christ,’ after Lodovico Carracci; ‘A Hermit,’ after Mola; ‘The Wright Family’ and ‘The Air Pump,’ after Joseph Wright of Derby; and ‘The Sulky Boy,’ ‘The Disaster of the Milk-pail,’ and ‘The Child of Sorrow,’ after R. Morton Paye.

Green wrote: 1. ‘A Survey of the City of Worcester,’ Worcester, 1764, 8vo ; afterwards enlarged into ‘The History and Antiquities of the City and Suburbs of Worcester,’ London, 1796, 4to, 2 vols. 2. ‘A Review of the Polite Arts in France, at the time of their establishment under Louis XIV, compared


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with their present state in England,’ London, 1782, 4to, in a letter to Sir Joshua Reynolds. 3. ‘Acta Historica Reginarum Angliæ; from twelve original drawings executed by J. G. Huck of Dusseldorf,’ 1786, 4to. 4. ‘An Account of the Discovery of the Body of King John in the Cathedral Church of Worcester, July 17, 1797,’ London, 1797, 4to.

There is a portrait of Valentine Green, engraved by himself, after a painting by Lemuel F. Abbott, which was also engraved in line by James Fittler, A.R.A., and prefixed to the ‘History and Antiquities of Worcester.’

, the only son of Valentine Green, born about 1768, was brought up to his father's profession, and was in partnership with him as a print publisher from about 1785 to 1798. There is a view of ‘The Harbour and Pier, Ramsgate,’ drawn by him in 1781, and engraved by V. Green and F. Jukes, and also an oval portrait of George III, drawn and engraved in mezzotint by him, and published in 1801. Before he was nine years old he wrote a tragedy called ‘The Secret Plot,’ which was printed for private circulation in 1777. He died on 16 Nov. 1804, aged 36, and was buried in Hampstead churchyard.

[Monthly Mirror, 1809, i. 323, ii. 7, 135, with portrait engraved by Freeman; Gent. Mag. 1813, i. 666, ii. 446; John Chaloner Smith's British Mezzotinto Portraits, 1878-83, ii.532-99; Bryan's Dict. of Painters and Engravers, ed. Graves, 1886-9, i. 597; Redgrave's Dict. of Artists of the English School, 1878; Sandby's Hist. of the Royal Academy of Arts, 1862, i. 233-5; Exhibition Catalogues of the Incorporated Society of Artists, 1766-75; Royal Academy Exhibition Catalogues, 1774-1806; Park's Topography and Natural History of Hampstead, 1814, p. 347.]  GREEN, WILLIAM (1714?–1794), hebraist, born at Newark, Nottinghamshire about 1714, entered Clare Hall, Cambridge as a sizar on 16 March 1733-4, but was admitted scholar of Mr. Wilson's foundation on 20 Jan. 1736. On 19 Jan. 1737, having taken his B.A. degree, he was admitted scholar of Mr. Freeman's foundation, and on 11 Dec. 1738 became a fellow of Lord Exeter's foundation. He was elected fellow on Mr. Diggon's foundation on 19 Feb. 1739, proceeded M.A. in 1741, and finally on 2 Nov. 1743 succeeded to a fellowship of the old foundation (college books). In 1759 he was presented by the college to the rectory of Hardingham, Norfolk, where he died on 7 Nov. 1794, aged 80 (Mon. Insc.; Gent. Mag. 1794, pt. ii. p. 1060). His wife Mary died on 21 June 1795, aged 75. Some of his correspondence with divines like Secker, Warburton (who advised him on his theological reading), Bagot, and Newton, and with the eminent Hebrew scholars, Newcome, Richard Grey, and Blayney, is printed in the ‘Gentleman's Magazine’ for 1819. pt.ii., and 1822, pt.i.; in Nichols's ‘Literary Anecdotes,’ vols. viii. ix.; and in Nichols's ‘Illustrations of Literature,’ vol. iv. Green published: 1. ‘The Song of Deborah reduced to metre; with a new translation and commentary,’ 4to, Cambridge, 1753. 2. ‘A new Translation of the Prayer of Habakkuk, the Prayer of Moses, and the cxxxix. Psalm; with a commentary,’ 4to, Cambridge, 1755. 3. ‘A new Translation of the Psalms … with notes … To which is added, A Dissertation on the last prophetick Words of Noah,' 8vo, Cambridge, 1762. 4. ‘A new Translation of Isaiah lii. 13 to the end of liii. … with notes,’ 4to, Cambridge, 1776. 5. ‘Poetical Parts of the Old Testament…newly translated … with notes,' 4to, Cambridge, 1781.

[Information kindly sent by the master of Clare and the rector of Hardingham; Nichols's Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations of Literaure.]  GREEN, WILLIAM (1725–1811), general, was the eldest son of Godfrey Green, an Irish gentleman who married, at Aberdeen, Helen, sister of Adam Smith. Godfrey settled at Durham, but his son William was educated at Aberdeen by his mother's sisters. On 1 Jan. 1737 he received the warrant of a cadet gunner, and joined at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Warren. On 12 March 1743 he was appointed a practitioner engineer, and stationed at Portsmouth. Early in 1745 he joined the engineer brigade in Flanders, took part in all the operations of the campaign, and was present at the battle of Fontenoy. In 1746 he embarked with the expedition under St. Clair to the coast of Brittany, and was at the siege of L'Orient and the descent on Quiberon. On 2 Jan. 1747 he was promoted to be sub-engineer, and was again in the field in Flanders with local rank of engineer-in-ordinary. During the campaign he was present in the action of Sandberg, near Hulst, at the battle of Val, where he was wounded and taken prisoner, and at the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom from 13 July to 16 Sept. He drew four plans of this fortress, dated 1751, now in the British Museum. When the army left Flanders he remained with some other engineers to make a survey of the Austrian Netherlands. He, with a brother officer, made plans of the district between Bois-le-Duc and Geertruidenberg, showing the inundation, and also careful drawings of the galleries and mines of the fortress of Luxemburg. These are now in


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the King's Library, British Museum. On 2 Jan. 1748 Green obtained the warrant of engineer-extraordinary. On his recall from the Netherlands he was sent to Portsmouth to push on the fortifications of the dockyard, and remained there until the summer of 1750, when he was removed to Landguard Fort under Justly Watson.

In 1752 Green was sent to Newfoundland, where he completed the survey and made a report on the defences. In 1755 he was appointed chief engineer at Newfoundland, and made a reconnaissance of Louisberg, sending a plan of the town and harbour to the king. In 1757 he was attached to the expedition commanded by the Earl of Loudoun. Green joined the army of which Dugal Campbell was chief engineer at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 14 May. On the previous 14 May the engineers for the first time received ordinary military titles, and Green was commissioned as captain-lieutenant in the army. At Halifax he was employed in instructing the troops in military engineering work. He accompanied the fleet in its reconnaissance of Cape Breton and Louisberg. On 4 Jan. 1758 he was promoted engineer-in-ordinary and captain He was present in the action of 8 June on landing at Cape Breton, and at the siege and capture of Louisberg. He was next sent to the Lake country for duty under Major-general James Abercromby, and detached to the Oneida station to build a fort. In the campaign of 1759 Green was attached to the division of the army under Wolfe, and was present at the repulse at Montmorenci on 31 July, at the siege of Quebec, and at the battle on the plains of Abraham on 13 Sept. At the latter he was wounded in the forehead by a splinter from a shell. While before Quebec he was promoted (10 Sept.) to be sub-director and major of the corps. He was engaged in the final operations for the subjugation of Canada, and in the capture of Montreal. In. 1760 he was present at the battle of Sillery, 28 April, and afterwards engaged in the defence of Quebec during the French siege.

On the conclusion of the Canadian campaign Green returned to England and joined for duty at Plymouth. He was shortly afterwards appointed senior engineer at Gibraltar. On 8 Feb. 1762 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1769 he came home to explain to the board of ordnance his projects for improving the defence of the Rock. He brought with him some osseous breccia which he presented to Mr. Boddington, the corps' agent, and an account was read by Dr. Hunter, F.R.S., on 17 Feb. 1770, to the Royal Society. In 1770 Green was back again at Gibraltar, and made his valuable report on the defence works of this fortress, and his proposals to render the Rock impregnable at an estimate of over 50,000l. This report is in the British Museum. On the recommendation of the chief engineer of Great Britain, General Skinner, the king sanctioned the expenditure, and the works were carried out in accordance with Green's plans. On 7 Nov. 1770 he was promoted chief engineer at Gibraltar, with extra pay of 30s. a day, derivable from the revenues of the place. In 1771 he designed the general hospital. In 1772, on Green's strong recommendation, the king granted him a warrant to raise a company of military artificers, which was the germ of the rank and file of the corps of royal engineers. On 29 Aug. 1777 Green was promoted colonel in the army, and was sent by the governor, Sir George Eliott (afterwards Lord Heathfield) to England to induce Lord Townshend to give additional money to perfect the works at Gibraltar. He had several personal interviews with the king, to whom he explained his plans (now in the British Museum), and he returned to Gibraltar in May 1778 with full powers to go on with the proposed new works. On 18 Dec. 1778 he was promoted to the engineer rank of director. Throughout the famous siege, which began in June 1779, he was prominent as chief engineer. On 17 April 1781 he was appointed brigadier-general. His house was so exposed to the fire of the enemy that he had to move his family into a bombproof shelter, where his wife caught a chill, from which, although sent to England in July, she never recovered. At the affair of 18 July, when the Queen's battery at Willis's was broken up by the enemy's fire, Green had it completely reconstructed during the night. In December Green received his commission as major-general, dated 19 Oct. 1781. In May 1782 he constructed the celebrated subterranean galleries in the north front, including St. George's Hall. On 13 Sept. he was conspicuous in his exertions during the combined attack by the land forces and the fleets, and the success of his kilns for heating shot was complete. The red-hot shot were supplied uninterruptedly throughout the day and night, destroying many ships. In Copley's picture of this day's work Green is depicted in the group round the governor. In November the enemy opened the cave on the precipitous side of the Rock, which Green had closed up before the siege, and, although fifty-seven years of age, he had himself lowered down the face of the Rock many hundred feet to ascertain what was being done. He rebuilt the Orange bastion on the sea face—a heavy piece of masonry—during a continuous cannonade. The siege was raised in February


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1783, after it had lasted three and a half years.

Green embarked for England on 7 June 1783, after twenty-two years' service at Gibraltar. On arrival in London he had an audience with the king, and received the thanks of both houses of parliament. In 1784 he was appointed a member of the board on the fortifications of Plymouth and Portsmouth, presided over by the Duke of Richmond. On 10 June 1786 he was created a baronet, and on 15 Nov. following presented with the patent of chief engineer of Great Britain, in the room of General Bramham, deceased. In 1787 he succeeded in carrying out an extension of the artificer companies, and was appointed commandant of the corps in addition to his duties as chief engineer of Great Britain. In 1788 he was appointed president of the defence committee, a position he held for the next nine years. On 12 Oct. 1793 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and on 1 Jan. 1798 full general, and in 1802 retired on a pension, and lived in retirement at Brambleberry House, Plumstead, Kent. He died on 10 Jan. 1811 at Bifrons, near Canterbury, while on a visit to his daughter Miriam, the wife of General Nicolls, commanding the Kent district. He was buried at Plumstead, where there is a tombstone with inscription, and there is also a tablet to his memory in Plumstead Church. He married, on 26 Feb. 1754, Miriam, daughter of Colonel Justly Watson. His son succeeded to the baronetcy. He was an officer of the 1st royals, and was selected to attend Prince Edward (afterwards Duke of Kent) in his travels. He died without issue in 1862, and the baronetcy became extinct.

[Conolly Papers; Corps Records; Siege of Gibraltar, see Drinkwater, Ancell, and Heriot.]  GREEN, WILLIAM (1761–1823), water-colour painter and engraver, born at Manchester in 1761, was first engaged as assistant to a surveyor there. Not liking this profession, he came to London and studied engraving, especially aquatint, but owing to indifferent health settled at Ambleside. He now devoted himself to drawing the scenery of the lakes, and found many patrons among the visitors to Keswick and Ambleside. There are three water-colour drawings by him in the print room at the British Museum, one being of the old bridge at Borrodale, and a similar drawing of Raven Crag, Thirlmere, is in the South Kensington Museum. They are carefully finished, with great truth to nature. In 1797, 1798, and 1801, Green was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy. In 1807 he issued a proposal for publishing a series of sixty prints from sketches of his larger size. Thirty appeared in 1808, twelve more in 1809, and the work was completed in 1810, and published with an accompanying volume of text. In 1809 Green published a smaller series of seventy-eight studies from nature, etched on soft ground by himself. In 1814 he also published a smaller edition of the former series of sixty prints, executed as before. All these were from drawings of the scenery in the Lake country. In 1822 Green published in two volumes ‘The Tourist's New Guide, containing a description of the Lakes, Mountains, and Scenery in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire,’ with forty etchings by himself. Green died at Ambleside, 28 April 1823, aged 62.

[Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Upcott's English Topography; Univ. Cat. of Books on Art; Graves's Dict. of Artists, 1760-1880.]  GREEN, WILLIAM PRINGLE (1785–1846), inventor, born apparently at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1785, was eldest son of Benjamin Green (d. 1794), treasurer of the province of Nova Scotia, a member of the House of Assembly there, and a justice of the court of common pleas. His grandfather, also Benjamin Green (1713-1772), was in business at Boston, Massachusetts, till 1745, when he took part in the capture of Cape Breton. In 1749 he settled at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and became governor of the province in 1766. William Pringle entered the Cleopatra as a midshipman in 1797, and was afterwards for three years and a half in the West Indies in La Topaze. He was afterwards in the Circe and the Sanspareil. After the peace of Amiens he was in the Trent, and thence drafted into the Conqueror, in which he served at Trafalgar. He took part in the capture of the Bucentaure on that day, and was promoted to a lieutenancy for his services, and appointed to the Formidable. He afterwards served on the American coast as first lieutenant of the Eurydice, and communicated to Sir John Borlase Warren plans for bringing English ships to an equality with the Americans. In 1811 he commanded the brig Resolute, and carried out his plans for training the crew to the satisfaction of the admiralty. The Resolute was paid off in 1815, and Green devoted his time to inventions, till in 1829 he was appointed to a Falmouth packet. After nearly three years' service she was paid off, and Green was neglected till in 1842 he was appointed lieutenant of the Victory, and quartered in the Blanche frigate at Portsmouth. He fell into embarrassments, had to resign a year later, and died at Landport, Portsmouth, on 18 Oct.


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1846. He left a widow and seven children. He seems to have been neglected through life, and could only leave a pension of 50l. a year to his family. Green was an officer of great mechanical ingenuity. In spite of constant discouragement he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of inventions and improvements connected with the service, many of which were so valuable as to be introduced throughout the navy. He submitted to the navy board a clever plan for lowering and fidding top-masts, an imitation of which, at a later period, procured for another person a reward of 5,000l. from the admiralty. The Society of Arts in 1823 presented him with a silver medal for his improvements in rigging ships, as they subsequently did for his 'tiller for a disabled rudder' and his 'gun-carriage and jointed ramrod for naval use.' In 1830, and again in 1837, he took out patents for improvements in capstans, and in machinery employed in raising, lowering, and moving ponderous bodies (, Alphabetical Index of Patentees, 1617-1852, London, 1854). He had previously, in 1833, published a work entitled 'Fragments from remarks of twenty-five years in every quarter of the globe on Electricity, Magnetism, Aerolites, and various other Phenomena of Nature,' 1833, with portrait and a genealogy of the author.

[Gent. Mag. for 1847, i. 209; O'Byrne's Naval Biographical Dict.]  GREENACRE, JAMES (1785–1837), murderer, a farmer's son, born in 1785 at either North Runcton or West Winch, Norfolk, married, according to his own account, in his twenty-first year, and set up as a grocer on his own account at Woolwich. Better authority than his own testimony states that about 1804 his stepfather, a Norfolk farmer named Towler, bought a grocer's business for him in the Westminster Road, and that Greenacre behaving badly was turned adrift. In 1815 Greenacre was a fairly prosperous tradesman in the London Road, Southwark. A fluent speaker, he became well known as a local politician, advocating advanced political and religious views. He presided at meetings to support the return of Alderman John Humphery and Daniel Whittle Harvey, radical candidates for Southwark, and boasted that he was privy to the Cato Street conspiracy, and had narrowly escaped arrest. By 1830 he had opened a large shop in the Kent Road, and was elected parish overseer on Easter Tuesday 1832. In May 1833 an extensive seizure of sloe leaves was made on his premises by the excise, and on being sued for the penalty he hid himself for a fortnight, and then started for New York, taking his son James with him, but leaving behind a third wife, whom he had brutally ill-used. She died three weeks afterwards. He maintained himself in America as a carpenter, and endeavoured to promote the sale of a washing-machine of his own invention, but complained of being swindled of nearly all his portable property. After his flight his creditors in London made him bankrupt. According to his own statement he was twice imprisoned at New York for libel, and was married for a fourth time at Boston. Returning to London alone (in 1835) he declared war against his creditors and against his third wife's relatives, whom he accused of disposing of his property. He aired these grievances in printed statements. At 6 Carpenter's Buildings, Camberwell, he commenced the manufacture of 'amalgamated candy' for the cure of throat and chest disorders, from a herb which he professed to have discovered in America. About September 1836, while still in pecuniary difficulties, he made the acquaintance of a washerwoman named Hannah Brown, who represented herself as the owner of 300l. or 400l. A marriage between them was arranged for Christmas day in St. Giles's Church, Camberwell. On 24 Dec. he took her to his house at Camberwell, and there murdered her. He cut up the body and deposited the parts in various places on the outskirts of London. Before 2 Feb. the murder was discovered, and Greenacre, who had prepared to sail for Quebec under an assumed name, was arrested with a mistress, calling herself Sarah Gale, on 25 March. An attempt to strangle himself in the cell failed. The trial at the Central Criminal Court lasted two days (10 and 11 April 1837), and was followed by the public with the keenest interest. Though a sovereign apiece was charged for admission to the gallery, it was crowded to excess. The jury brought in a verdict of guilty against both Greenacre and Gale, and they were sentenced to death. Gale's sentence was commuted to transportation for life. Before his execution Greenacre endeavoured to enlist public sympathy by penning a hypocritically apologetic autobiography. He wrote to the home secretary (Lord John Russell) begging to be relieved from his strait-jacket, as it interfered with the intentness of his devotions, and, on receiving a refusal, composed a blasphemous 'Essay on the Human Mind.' Noblemen and members of parliament visited him in prison. He was hanged on 2 May 1837 in front of Newgate, the execution being witnessed by at least twenty thousand persons. Sarah Gale died in Australia in 1888.


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GREENBURY, ROBERT (fl. 1616–1650), painter, painted in 1626 a well-known portrait, of some merit, of Arthur Lake, bishop of Bath and Wells, for New College, Oxford. The college paid 4l. for the work. It was exhibited at the National Portrait Exhibition in 1866 (No. 524). In 1625 Greenbury was employed by the East India Company to paint a large picture giving details of the cruelties inflicted on the English by the Dutch at Amboyna (Cal. State Papers, Dom. Ser., Car. I). The picture, which is said to have caused the widow of one of the victims to swoon, was intended to inflame popular passion, and was defaced from motives of foreign policy. 'Robert Greenberry, picture-drawer,' figures in the lists of recusants returned by the Westminster justices to the crown in 1628 (ib.) Among the pictures belonging to Charles I was one of 'Diana and Calisto, bigger than life, a copy after Grimberry,' sold to Captain Geere for 22l. This is more probably a copy by Greenbury, as the king also possessed 'Two copies of Albert Durer and his father, which are done by Mr. Greenbury, by the appointment of the Lord Marshall.' Evelyn in his 'Diary' writes on 24 Oct. 1664: 'Thence to New College, and the painting of Magdalen Chapel, which is on blue cloth in chiar'oscuro, by one Greenborow, being a Cœna Domini.' This is no longer in its place, and was probably removed in 1829. Greenbury also painted a picture of William Waynflete, the founder of Magdalen College, Oxford, dated 1638, and one Richard Greenbury in 1632 contracted to supply the chapel there with painted glass. In 1636 Richard Greenbury patented a process for painting with oil colours upon woollen cloth, kerseys, and stuffs for hangings, also on silk for windows (. Alphabetical Index of Patentees, 1617-1852, London, 1854).

GREENE, ANNE (fl. 1650), criminal, born in 1628, was a native of Steeple Barton, Oxfordshire, who entered the household of Sir Thomas Read of Dunstew in the same county as a domestic servant. She was seduced by her master's grandson and gave birth to a child, which, as she alleged, and according to medical evidence, was stillborn. She was, however, condemned to death for murder, and on 14 Dec. 1650 was hanged at Oxford. At her own request several of her friends pulled at her swinging body, and struck severe blows, so as to make sure that she was dead, and after the usual interval she was cut down and given over to the doctors for dissection. It was then discovered that Greene was still breathing, and with the help of restoratives she soon regained her health. She was granted a free pardon. The event was regarded as the special interference of the hand of God on behalf of the innocent, and called forth several pamphlets. The most notable of these is 'Newes from the Dead, or a True and Exact Narration of the Miraculous Deliverance of Anne Greene … written by a Scholler in Oxford … whereunto are prefixed certain Poems casually written upon that subject,' Oxford, 1651; the poems, which are twenty-five in number and in various languages, include a set of Latin verses by Christopher Wren, then a gentleman-commoner of Wadham College.

GREENE, EDWARD BURNABY (d. 1788), poet and translator, was the eldest son of Edward Burnaby (d. 1759), one of the chief clerks of the treasury, by his wife Elizabeth Greene (d. 1754), daughter of Thomas Greene (d. 1740), a wealthy brewer of St. Margaret's, Westminster (will of Thomas Greene registered in P.C.C. 225, Browne). On the death of his aunt, Miss Frances Greene, on 30 Dec. 1740 (Gent. Mag. 1740, p. 50), he inherited his grandfather's fortune, 4,000l. a year, and his business; and in the following year an act of parliament was passed to enable him, then an infant, to assume the surname of Greene in addition to that of Burnaby. As Edward Greene Burnaby he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on 22 Sept. 1755, as a fellow-commoner under the tuition of Mr. Barnardiston (College Register), but did not take a degree. He then became a brewer, knowing-nothing of the business, and lived in considerable splendour at Westminster, and at Northlands, or Norlands, Kensington. He contracted an enormous debt, and in 1779 his property was sold, and he was forced to retire to a lodging. His valuable library was sold by Christie. Greene died on 12 March 1788 (Gent. Mag. 1788, pt. i. p. 276). He married, on 12 Feb. 1761, Miss Cartwright of Kensington (ib. 1761, p. 94), who died before him, leaving three children, Anne, Pitt, and Emma.

Greene's literary attempts, turgid translations from the Greek and Latin poets, and


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title: Author:Cecilia Elizabeth Meetkerke


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Author:Walter Copland Perry

Works

 * The Women of Homer

title: Author:Walter Copland Perry


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Fredericksburg, Virginia 1608-1908/8

The Armies Transferred to Richmond and Petersburg — Gen. Lee's surrender — Citizens Return Home — Action of the Council — Fredericksburg Again Under the Old Flag — The Assassination of President Lincoln Denounced and Deplored — Reconstruction Commenced — An Election Set Aside — The Iron Clad Oath — All Offices Vacated and Strangers Appointed — The Financial Condition of the Town — The Town Again in the Hands of its Citizens — Splendid Financial Showing, &c.

At the conclusion of the battles around Spotsylvania, during which time Fredericksburg was the base of supplies for the Federal army, the two armies moved south and the scenes of war were transferred from Fredericksburg to Richmond and Petersburg. From the time the main armies moved south to the close of the war Fredericksburg was first in the Federal lines and then in the Confederate lines. After the base of supplies for the Union army was moved from Fredericksburg to City Point about the only troops that visited the town were scouting or raiding parties, and be it said to their credit very little damage to property was done by them. Communication was kept up all the time with Richmond and the citizens were not without hope that the Federal army would be driven back and the scenes of war transferred to other parts. But these hopes were delusive. General Grant was constantly receiving reinforcements, until he had over 200,000 men, by which he was enabled to extend his lines, while General Lee's small army, not exceeding 45,000 men, was becoming smaller and his lines of battle thinner by reason of casualties, resulting from daily engagements with the enemy. In consequence of this he was unable to hold his long lines against the vigorous attacks of General Grant. About the first of April General Lee suffered several reverses on his extreme right, which resulted in turning his right flank on the 2nd of April. On the morning of the 3rd he commenced the evacuation of Richmond, abandoned his entire line in front of Petersburg and retreated in the direction of Danville. The overwhelming numbers of Grant against him made his retreat very difficult and enabled the Federals to harass him on every side. When General Lee reached Burkeville he found the Federals between him and Danville, his objective point, and it became necessary for him to change the direction of his column. There was but one way open for him and that was the road to Lynchburg. But this road was soon closed. At the battle of Sailors' Creek, near Farmville, on the 6th of April, the Confederates lost over six thousand men and several general officers. From the result of this engagement it was plainly seen that the end had come. By fighting in the day and marching at night General Lee reached Appomattox Courthouse on the 9th, with what few soldiers he had left, broken down from hunger and marching, his horses jaded and unable to do their work, and his artillery and wagon trains were falling an easy prey to the pursuing army. Although the men's courage never failed them, in the condition in which Gen. Lee found himself, there was nothing to do but to surrender. General Grant had already communicated with him and demanded his surrender, upon the ground that he could not longer resist, but he had not felt a willingness to yield until the morning of the 9th. On that eventful morning General Lee opened communication with General Grant and invited a conference, to discuss the terms of surrender. They met, it is said, under an apple tree and adjourned to the residence of Mr. Wilmer McLane, where the termswere agreed upon, written out and signed. It was from this building that General Lee mounted old Traveller, to return to his lines to announce the sad news to the remaining remnant of his once magnificent army. General Hooker declared the army of the Potomac, prior to his move to Chancellorsville, "the grandest army on the planet," but more than one of the Federal generals of high rank, who served in the Army of the Potomac, have since the war declared "that for sacrifice, suffering and for fighting qualities the world could not surpass the Army of Northern Virginia." The terms of the surrender were liberal, even generous, and bore testimony to the affectionate consideration General Lee had for his men and the magnanimity of General Grant to those who had surrendered their arms. It was agreed that the officers were to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or regimental commander was to sign a similar parole for their men. The arms, artillery and public property were to be stacked and packed and turned over to a United States officer. The officers and men were allowed to take their side arms, private horses and baggage and return to their homes unmolested and so remain as long as they observed their paroles. In addition to this, at the suggestion of General Lee, General Grant furnished the Confederate army with rations, which they had been without for several days. It is said that when it became known by the advanced lines of the Federal troops and those of the Confederate army that the terms of surrender had been signed and peace was at hand, their long pent-up feelings gave way in the loudest tumult of rejoicing. There was no demand made by General Grant for the surrender of General Lee's sword, and there was no offer of the surrender of his sword on the part of General Lee. The officers were to retain their side arms which included the sword. "The number of men paroled was about twenty-six thousand, of whom not more than nine thousand had arms in their hands. About sixteen thousand small arms were surrendered, one hundred and fifty cannon, seventy-one colors, eleven hundred wagons and caissons and four thousand horses and mules. The Confederate troops, immediately upon receiving their paroles, separated and returned to their homes." The scene of separation of soldiers and commanders, who had served nearly four years together, and who were linked together by the strongest bonds of comradeship, not to say of genuine affection, was the saddest and most trying that had ever occurred in the past history of the army. Farewells, amid tears and audible sobbing of the brave, rough soldiers, were exchanged and they parted, never to meet as soldiers, in arms again! Before leaving for home, however, and as the last act of the closing drama, and the last act of General Lee as the "Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, the day following the surrender he issued a farewell address.[1] The address was printed on slips of paper and distributed to the soldiers, who felt unwilling to leave for their homes until, they received the parting blessing and loving benediction of their idolized commander.

[1]

GENERAL ORDERS, NO. 9.—After four years of arduous service, marked by unsurpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers. I need not tell the brave survivors of so many hard fought battlefields, who have remained steadfast to the last, that I have consented to this result from no distrust of them, but feeling that valor and devotion could accomplish nothing to compensate for the loss that must have attended a continuation of the contest, I determined to avoid the useless sacrifice of those whose past services have endeared them to their countrymen. By the terms of agreement, officers and men can return to their homes and remain until exchanged. You will take with you the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of duty faithfully performed, and I earnestly pray that a merciful God will extend to you his blessing and protection. With an unceasing admiration of your constancy and devotion to your country, and a grateful remembrance of your kind and generous consideration of myself,

I bid you all an affectionate farewell.

R. E. LEE, General

FREDERICKSBURG AGAIN UNDER THE STARS AND STRIPES.

The first news of General Lee's surrender received at Fredericksburg came from soldiers returning to their desolated homes, and with the sad tidings came also the feeling that the fate of the Confederacy was sealed. The population of Fredericksburg at this time had been increased by the presence of strangers and adventurers. The trade of the town was conducted, to a considerable extent, by those who were not permanent residents of the town, and there was but little population, business or general appearance to remind one of the Fredericksburg of other days. But what a change in other respects had come over the town as to its character and condition! For four years it had been a part of the Southern Confederacy, and its devotion to the Southern cause had been demonstrated time and again by its sacrifices, sufferings for and contributions to that cause. Now the collapse of the Confederacy had come and the town was again a part of the United States and subject to its laws. The question was what shall be done to place the town in its proper position, and who shall take that action? That was the question. After a conference of the leading citizens of the town it was decided that the Council was the only body that could represent the people, and that it should be convened to take such steps as might be suggested by the proper authorities. This step was deferred, however, until the 27th of April, when it was known the Confederate government had ceased to exist, on which day the Council was convened, the following members being present: M. Slaughter, Mayor; Wm. A. Little, Recorder; Charles Herndon, George Gravatt, Joseph W. Sener, Horace B. Hall, Wm. H. Cunningham, Charles S. Scott, Beverley T. Gill, John G. Hurkamp, James McGuire, John J. Young, Thomas F. Knox, Councilmen. The following paper was submitted and unanimously adopted: "Whereas, this community finds itself, after four years of disturbing war, all of whose evils and sacrifices they have been called upon to endure, subject to the laws of the United States, and under the control of its authority; And whereas, they are satisfied that the war is at an end, and that their interests and duty alike require that they should recognize the situation and submit to said authority and laws, and, as quiet and orderly citizens, acknowledge the powers that be, and endeavor to preserve that character of a law abiding and peaceable community, which it has been their purpose to maintain; And whereas further, it is deemed proper that this community should, through their constituted representatives, give expression at this time to those views and communicate the same to the United States authorities, therefore resolved— 1. That M. Slaughter, Esq., Mayor, be, and he is, hereby appointed a Commissioner to proceed to Richmond and present a copy of these proceedings through General M. R. Patrick to said authority. 2. Trusting that as the community and State is in no way responsible for the causes which led to the revolution and have already suffered so seriously during its progress, a magnanimous government will be satisfied with the restoration of its authority, and adopt towards us the policy of leniency and reconciliation which will tend with the people of Virginia to restore friendly relations, soften the asperities and heal the wounds of the past, and enable us to resume our former position as peaceful and prosperous citizens of Virginia and the United States. Resolved, That the crime of assassination, which has so recently deprived the United States of its President, has, in all ages and countries, received the unqualified detestation of all honorable and civilized communities, and that the perpetrator of this crime deserves the utmost punishment of the law and the condemnation of all upright men." This action of the Council was Fredericksburg's declaration of her allegiance to the United States, and made her a part of the Union, so far as that action could make her. She had passed through the fiery furnace of suffering and sacrifice since Virginia had withdrawn from the Union, but she hesitated to take any action by which her loyalty and devotion to the Confederate States could be questioned, and declined to take any steps transferring her allegiance to the Union until she knew that the Confederate government had disbanded and ceased to exist. Fredericksburg had suffered as no other town in the South had suffered and had sacrificed her all, yet instead of complaining she showed herself grand in her sufferings and glorious in her sacrifices. There clustered around her hallowed memories, grand historic events, individual achievements, that, with her war record, imparted to her a beauty and nobility of character that made her sublime even in her desolation. As time progressed population increased. The old citizens who had refugeed returned to their homes; young and middle-aged men who had faithfully served their country in the army, exchanged their weapons of war for the implements of peace, and business began to assume its legitimate channels and the old town was well nigh restored to its wonted activity and prosperity. The census of 1870, very imperfectly taken, gave Fredericksburg at that time a population of about four thousand inhabitants.

RECONSTRUCTION COMMENCED. Virginia Military District No. 1

The period in Virginia known as Reconstruction, extending from the cessation of hostilities, in 1865, to the first day of July, 1870, when the officers, elected under the new constitution, assumed their places and performed their duties, free of military restraint, was one of deep humiliation to the people of Virginia, and especially to the citizens of Fredericksburg. Just after the close of the war Virginia appears to have been neither a State nor a territory, but was declared to be Military District No. 1, and United States army officers were placed in authority over her affairs, civil as well as military. It is true that soon after the order proclaiming Virginia a military district a provisional governor was appointed by the authorities, but he was dominated by the military in his administration of affairs of State, and was powerless, it appears, to do anything in his office as Governor not sanctioned and approved by the commanding military officer. While the town was in the hands of the civil authorities—the Mayor and Common Council, elected at the last election held before the close of the war—it was only nominally so. They were powerless to do anything unless it met the approval of the military authority. This was plainly shown by. a communication received from Brigader-General T. M. Harris, commanding, on the first day of August, 1865, addressed to the Mayor. In that communication General Harris said:— "The sanitary condition of your town will, of course, claim the first and earnest attention of your Council. I am desirous of cooperating, so far as I am able, in this matter and desire the cooperation of the city authorities in return. It will be indispensable to have labor, which cannot be procured without money. I would, therefore, suggest that you take into consideration the propriety of levying a small per capita and also property tax for this purpose." Of course, under the condition of things, a suggestion from the General commanding was virtually an order, and it was so understood. Accordingly, on the 8th of August, the Common Council was convened by the Mayor, when General Harris's communication was laid before it, considered and the following tax levied:— "On all real and personal property, fifty cents on the one hundred dollars value; on moneys, solvent bonds and securities, except the bonds of the corporation, forty cents on the one hundred dollars value; on all capital invested or used in any manufacturing business or investment, used or employed in any trade or business, twenty-five cents on every one hundred dollars; on the moneys and personal property of joint-stock companies, forty cents on every one hundred dollars; on every white and colored male above twenty one years of age, two dollars." The same tax was levied for 1867.

AN ELECTION SET ASIDE.

The municipal government that found itself in possession of the town at the close of the war continued without any election, or any attempt to hold an election, until the Spring of 1867. At that time it seemed to be the opinion and desire of the Mayor and Common Council that an election should be held and that a full corps of officers for the town should be chosen. The only law under which the Council could act and order an election was the charter which was in force prior to the war and which prescribed that elections for Mayor and Common Council should be held on the third Monday in March of each year. In accordance with this provision of the charter the Council ordered an election to be held on the 18th of March, 1867, for the election of a Mayor and Common Council, but the question of the qualification of voters having arisen, and the Council being unable to decide who were entitled to vote under the new order of things, referred the question to General John M. Scofield, who was then in command of Military District, No. 1. General Scofield suspended the election "until the necessary preparations can be made to fully and fairly carry out the provisions of the act of Congress of March 3rd, 1867, concerning the elective franchise and the qualification of officers." On receipt of this order of suspension the Council passed the following resolution:— "That in pursuance of said older, the election heretofore advertised to be held on Monday, the 18th instant, for Mayor and Common Councilmen, be and it is hereby suspended until further orders. And whereas, further, under General Orders No. 1, issued from the same headquarters, all officers under the existing provisional government of Virginia are continued in office for the present, this Council, in accordance with said orders, do hereby resolve that the persons at present, discharging the duties required by the charter of this corporation, be and they are hereby continued in their respective offices until further orders." And there was a peculiar significance in the word orders !

In April, 1867, the famous order was issued from "Headquarters, Military District, No. 1, of the State of Virginia," requiring every officer in the Commonwealth, State, municipal and county, to take the oath adopted by Congress in 1862, commonly called the test oath, and which was known through the South after the close of the war as the Iron-clad oath. This order affected every officer in the State, from the Governor down to the smallest officer, and it created quite a sensation. The oath was as follows: — "I, — — —, of the county of — — — and State of — — —, do solemnly swear that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or encouragement to persons engaged in hostility thereto; that I have neither sought nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatsoever under any authority or pretended authority in hostility to the United States; that I have yielded no voluntary support to any authority, pretended authority or constitution within the United States inimical thereto. So help me God!" Fredericksburg had no officer serving at that time who could take such an oath! Some of the officers had, at some time during the war, been active participants on the Confederate side, and those who were too far advanced in age to enter the army had sympathized with the Confederate cause and had otherwise aided it, therefore every officer, from Mayor down to policeman, was removed and their places supplied, in some few instances, by residents who took the required oath, but in most instances the appointees were strangers and citizens of Northern States, who had floated down South in search of some office at the hands of the military commander. The venerable and efficient clerk of the courts, Mr. John James Chew, who had held the office for forty years, was removed and an inexperienced and inefficient stranger was installed in his place and given the keeping and custody of our court papers and records. Many of the appointees of the Common Council were men of that class, and were therefore unable to conduct the affairs of the town, provide a revenue to meet the running expenses and pay the interest on the city bonds. The Military Council was placed in possession of the city government in 1867, and conducted public affairs on the revenues brought in by the tax bill levied by their predecessors by permission of the commanding general. In the latter part of 1867 the creditors of the town were demanding their money, and no money was in the treasury. They threatened suits to enforce payment of their dues, and in order to meet these obligations, on the 23rd of May, 1868, the Military Council passed a tax bill levying a tax of one dollar and a quarter on the one hundred dollars value of all real and personal property, and on all males over twenty-one years of age a capitation tax of three dollars, but the Commissioner of Revenue never made up his tax books and the tax was never collected. This state of things continued through the year 1869; therefore, when the Common Council of the people's own choosing took charge of the city government on the first of July, 1870, under the provisions of the new State constitution, they found municipal affairs in a wretched condition.

THE NEW CHARTER FOR THE CITY.

The new charter for the town, granted under the new State constitution, was passed by the Legislature and approved by the Governor on the 23rd of March, 1871. It differed very much from the charter under which the town was governed before the war, both as to new offices provided for and the term of officers. The officers to be elected by the people were one Mayor, who should hold his office for two years; twelve Councilmen, who should hold for one year; but this was subsequently changed so that six Councilmen should be elected from each ward—the town having been divided into two wards—and they were to hold office for two years; one City Sergeant for a term of two years; one Commissioner of the Revenue for two years, which has since been changed to four years, and one City Treasurer for three years. Any person who was a qualified voter was eligible to any one of the offices named above, and when they were elected and qualified they were to "have the powers, perform the duties and be subject to the liabilities and responsibilities prescribed by the general laws" of the State. They were not to enter upon their respective duties until they qualified before some person authorized to administer oaths, and, in addition to the oath of fidelity and the anti-duelling oath, each one had also to swear "that I recognize and accept the civil and political equality of all men before the law." This was another reminder to us that the "negroes were free," and was "intended as the lash to compel Southern courts to administer to them justice and to election officers to accord them all the privileges at the polls they were allowed." The Mayor was to preside at the meetings of the Council, give the casting vote on questions before that body in case of a tie and act as a justice of the peace in civil and criminal matters arising in the corporation. He was to have control of the police of the town and appoint special police officers when he deemed it necessary; and, in addition to these duties, he was empowered to try all offences and controversies arising under the ordinances of the town, to impose fines and collect the same, saving to the parties the right of appeal when the matter in controversy exceeded the sum of ten dollars. The Council was authorized to establish and regulate markets, to alter or improve streets, alleys, sidewalks and bridges, and keep the same in order; to provide for the lighting of streets, against accidents by fire; to establish fire companies, purchase engines, and to provide wells or cisterns for supplying water. It was authorized to prevent and punish, by reasonable fines, the practice of discharging fire-arms and running horses in the town; to license and regulate shows and other exhibitions, and tax them in such manner as may be expedient and lawful; to lay off public grounds and provide for and take care of public buildings, grounds and cemeteries; to conduct and distribute water into and through the town; to adopt rules for its own government and the transaction of its business. It was also to define the powers, prescribe the duties and fix the term of service and compensation of its own appointees, necessary for conducting the affairs of the town, not otherwise provided; to fix the salary of the Mayor and all other officers, but no compensation was to be allowed to any member of the Council unless he should act as clerk of the body. The Council was to make all such by-laws and regulations as it might deem necessary, consistent with the constitution and laws of the State, for the good government of the town, and to enforce the same by reasonable fines and penalties, not exceeding for any one offence the sum of ten dollars. The Council was authorized to provide a revenue for the town and appropriate the same, and for that purpose it was made the duty of the Commissioner of the Revenue to make an annual assessment of taxable persons and property within the town, such as should be taxable under the revenue laws of the State, including dogs and other animals running at large. This was the release of the liberty-loving people of Fredericksburg from military bondage and misrule, signed, sealed and delivered, for which they rejoiced as did the captive Israelite of old as he again returned from bondage to his beloved native land.

CITIZENS AGAIN IN CONTROL. The Ante Bellum Debt of the Town.

Prior to the war the Council, by direction of the people, given through the ballot, had made large appropriations to public improvements, with a view of building up the town by retaining the trade of the surrounding country, which was threatened by other cities, and by drawing trade from other sections of the country that found markets elsewhere. From these improvements the hopes of the town were not realized. Some of them remained in an unfinished condition, while others had been rendered worthless by new lines of railroad that had diverted their business and rendered them worthless; yet, the debt owed by the town, by reason of these appropriations and other expenditures, amounted to $244,521.48. All this debt was hanging over the desolated town and not a dollar's worth of property to show for it. In addition to this loss no provision had been made by former Councils to meet the interest on these bonds for the past four or five years, and suits had been brought and judgments obtained to enforce payment and other suits were threatened. Under judgments and executions obtained against the corporation, all property belonging to the town, available, was sold at public auction by the officer of the law. Even the chairs in the council chamber, in which the members of the Council sat to conduct the public business of the town, were sold by the constable at public outcry under execution. The members of the Council attended this sale and each one purchased his chair, and thereafter the members furnished their own seats at the council board, while they legislated for the public good, without fee or reward, other than the consciousness of duty nobly done. The Common Council that took charge of municipal affairs in 1870 had many grave and difficult questions to meet and determine. Debts had accumulated against the city, while the taxable values had greatly diminished by the destruction of property during the war and the emancipation of the slaves. A large portion of the inhabitants had recently returned home—the women and children from refugeeing and the men from the army—almost penniless, to find their homes in ruins or badly damaged and despoiled of what had been left in them. Nearly everybody had to commence life anew. The Council, therefore, had to provide for these debts, and, at the same time, not place a burden upon an impoverished people, in the form of taxation that they could not bear. It was a trying ordeal, but the members were equal to the emergency. That Council was composed of Walker Peyton Conway, J. Gordon Wallace, Hugh S. Doggett, George W. Eve, Patrick McCracken, Wm. C. Morrison, Joseph W. Sener, John T. Knight, John H. Myer, George Gravatt, Thomas Harrison and John James Young. The finance committee of that Council, which was expected to provide for the finances and bring before the Council, for its consideration and adoption, such measures as would meet the emergency and not oppress the tax-payers, consisted of W. P. Conway, J. Gordon Wallace and Hugh S. Doggett. With great diligence they applied themselves to their task. A tax bill was formulated and brought before the Council levying a tax, which was adopted, and in a short time money was raised, the debts were paid in installments until all creditors were paid or satisfactory arrangements made with them. In 1876 the old bonds of the city were funded, by mutual agreement of the Council and the bond holders, at sixty-six and two third cents on the dollar, the new bonds to bear seven per cent interest and run thirty years. This was a wise arrangement of the Council, notwithstanding there was considerable opposition to it, the opponents of the measure claiming that the rate of interest of the new bonds should not exceed six per cent., although money was then bringing from ten to twelve per cent, and sometimes more than twelve. The amount of bonds issued under this funding act amounted to $125,000. By this arrangement of funding one-third of the principal of the bonds was eliminated, the threatened suits for past-due interest were averted, and it put the Council in a position to provide for the interest as it should fall due, take care of the floating debt, and at the same time reduce the rate of taxation, which the tax-payer hailed with delight. Thus the delinquencies of the former years were met and provided for, the rate of taxation was not oppressive, and the town, being under the control of its own citizens, untrammelled by military authority, rapidly moved forward, public confidence in its ability to meet its obligations was restored and thus municipal affairs were placed in a satisfactory condition. The credit of the city is as good at present as any city of the State, and no bonds have been funded or sold in the last twelve years at' a greater rate of interest than four per cent., or at any figure below their face value.

PRESENT INDEBTEDNESS, INCLUDING ANTE AND POST BELLUM BONDS.

The bonded indebtedness of the city, and the improvements for which said bonds were issued is a matter that concerns every citizen, and for their information are here given as of 1908:— Five per cent, water bonds, issued July 1, 1895, due January 1, 1909, coupons payable January and July 1st	$ 30,000 Four per cent, gas bonds, issued January 2, 1900, coupons due July and January 2nd, bonds due January 2, 1920	25,000 Four per cent bridge bonds, issued July 2, 1900, coupons due January and July 2nd, bonds due July 2, 1920	25,000 Four per cent, electric light bonds, issued January 1, 1901, coupons due July and January 1st, bonds due January 1, 1931... 12,000 Four per cent, sewer bonds, issued April 1, 1901, coupons due October and April 1st bonds due April 1, 1931	18,000 Four per cent, street improvement bonds, issued April 1, 1901, coupons due October and April 1st bonds due April 1, 1931	20,000 Four per cent, water and gas bonds, issued April 1, 1905, coupons due October and April 1st bonds due April 1, 1931	20,000 Four per cent, gas and water bonds, issued September 1, 1905, coupons due September 1st $5,000 to be paid each year till paid, $5,000 already paid	20,000 Four per cent bonds funding the old 7 per cent bonds, issued May 1, 1906, coupons due May and November, bonds due May 1, 1936	119,400 Three bonds of $5,000, due National Bank of Fredericksburg and payable $5,000 on November 1, 1908, and yearly thereafter, bearing 4 per cent, interest	15,000 Making the total bonded debt of the town	$804,400 Many of these public improvements were constructed by the authority of the freeholders of the town, by a majority vote cast at special elections appointed and held for that purpose; others were constructed by action of the City Council under authority granted them by the new constitution enlarging the powers and duties of city councils, and appeared to have the sanction of a large majority of the tax-payers of the town.

title: Fredericksburg, Virginia 1608-1908/8


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Page:Book of the Riviera.djvu/182

146 "Jeanne II.," says Alexis de Saint Priest, "fit assoir tous les vices sur le trône des Angevins sans la compensation d'aucun talent, ni d'aucune vertu." Joanna I. had some cleverness, and in that, and in that alone, was superior to the second Joanna.

title: Page:Book of the Riviera.djvu/182


text:
User:Addone/Books/The World as Will and Representation

Arthur Schopenhauer

 * The World as Will and Representation
 * The World as Will and Representation/Translators' Preface
 * The World as Will and Representation/First Book
 * The World as Will and Representation/Second Book
 * The World as Will and Representation/Third Book
 * The World as Will and Representation/Fourth Book