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 In the first case, realized, for example, in the sudden stopping of the negative electrons, or corpuscles, by the anti-cathode, the radiation consists of an abrupt pulse whose thickness is equal to the product of the velocity of light into the time taken to stop them, and which gives us a good representation of the Roentgen rays or of the rays from radioactive substances.

If the acceleration is periodic, on the contrary, as in the case when the electron revolves around an electrified centre of opposite sign to itself, the acceleration is periodic, and the radiation emitted constitutes a light-wave whose length is determined by the period of revolution of the electron.

The solution of the first of the two fundamental problems thus appears complete and raises no difficulty.

IV. Dynamics of the Electron
(17) Maxwell's Idea. The inverse problem is less simple. It consists in finding the motion, the acceleration which a movable electron experiences in electric or magnetic fields of given intensities; it is, properly so to speak, the problem of the dynamics of the electron.

The equations which solve this problem ought to consist, like the equations of ordinary dynamics, of two kinds of terms: one of these dependent on the external fields, which produce their actions on the electron, and are analogous to the external forces in dynamics; the other, representing forces dependent on the motion itself, and producing a resistance to motion, similar to the forces of inertia.

The terms corresponding to external actions, the forces, have been obtained by Lorentz following a method which was the natural continuation of Maxwell's idea as to the possibility of a mechanical explanation, otherwise indeterminate, by the facts of electromagnetism. The analogy to the equations of electrodynamic induction, and to the equations of Lagrange, appeared to justify such an explanation, and it was natural to continue to look upon the ether-electron system as a mechanical system, and to apply to the motions of electrified centres Lagrange's equations, deducing thus the forces exerted on the electrons by its electric and magnetic energies considered as corresponding to the potential and kinetic energies of a mechanical system, substituted in the ether. We are thus led to apply to the medium, ether, in consideration of the fundamental notions of force and mass, which they imply, the equations of material dynamics, deduced from principles founded on observations of matter only, always taken in mass and without an appreciable amount of radiation.

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 (18) Ether in Matter. We extend thus, by a bold deduction, these principles to a region for which they have not been designed, and thus admit implicitly the possibility of a material representation of the ether. However, as I have already pointed out, an attempt at such a representation raises many difficulties, and the efforts so far made to extend these principles in a more precise manner have not been successful. The most profound attempt, that of Lord Kelvin, the gyrostatic ether, lends itself rigorously only to the representation of the propagation of periodic disturbances in the ether, but makes impossible the existence of a permanent deformation, necessary, however, for the representation of a constant electrostatic field. The gyrostats would turn back again at the end of a finite time, and the system would cease to react against a deformation which has been imposed. Moreover, it would appear impossible to include in this conception the permanent existence of electrons, centres of deformation in the medium.

To get around this difficulty, Larmor had occasion, in the material image which he proposed for the ether, to superimpose on the gyrostatic system of Lord Kelvin the properties of a perfect fluid, of which the displacements representing the magnetic field should be at each instant irrotational in order not to produce an electric field by the rotation of the gyrostats present in the medium. But a great difficulty is added to the preceding: if the motion of a fluid satisfies at every moment the condition of being irrotational for infinitely small displacements, it is not so for finite displacements, and a magnetic field could not continue to exist without giving rise to an electric field.

I believe it impossible to overcome these difficulties and to give a material image of the ether, whose properties are entirely distinct, and probably much more simple than those of matter.

(19) Action and Reaction. Let us, however, retain this view in order that we may meet new difficulties. By means of Lagrange's equations Lorentz obtains two external forces acting on each electron in motion, two terms representing the action of the electromagnetic field. One force is parallel to the electrostatic field; it is the ordinary electric force, due to the superposition of the electric field produced by the electron on the external electric field: the other is perpendicular to the direction of the velocity of the electron and of the external magnetic field; it is the electromagnetic force analogous to the force of Laplace exerted by a magnetic field on an element of current, and due to the superposition on the external magnetic field of the magnetic field produced by the electron during its motion. This double result includes all the elementary laws of electromagnetism and of electrodynamics, if we consider the current in ordinary conductors as due to the displacement of electrified particles.

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 We easily see that the forces thus obtained, exerted on the electrons by the ether, i. e. on the matter which contains them, do not satisfy the principle of the equality of action and reaction, if we consider all the forces which act at the same moment on all the electrons constituting matter. In the case of a body which radiates in an unsymmetrical manner, a recoil, an acceleration, is produced which is not compensated at the same moment by an acceleration set up in another portion of the matter. Later, at the time that the emitted radiation meets an obstacle, the compensation is made (but only in a partial manner if all the radiation is not absorbed) by means of the pressure which the radiation exerts on the body which receives it; a pressure whose existence is shown by experiment.

The equality of action and reaction has never been verified in similar cases, and it adds no difficulty to this subject if we do not seek to extend the principle beyond the facts which suggested it.

(20) Quantity of Electromagnetic Motion. If we could nevertheless realize this extension of the principle, an extension somewhat arbitrary, we should be led not only to apply this principle to matter, but to suppose the ether to have a quantity of motion which would be that of a material system to which we compare it.

Poincare has shown that this quantity of electromagnetic motion ought to be, at every point in the ether, in direction and in magnitude, proportional to Poynting's vector, which gives at the same time a definition of the energy transmitted through the medium.

By starting with this idea of the quantity of electromagnetic motion, Max Abraham has been able to calculate the terms, put to one side by Lorentz, which depend on the motion of the electron itself, its force of inertia, by the variation of the quantity of electromagnetic motion contained in its train. He was led for the first time, by the form of the terms which represent this force of inertia, to the notion of an unsymmetrical mass as a function of the velocity.

(21) Quasi-Stationary Motion. The calculation can be completely made only in the case, always realizable from the experimental point of view, where the acceleration of the electron is so small that its train can be considered at each instant as identical with that of an electron having the actual velocity, but whose motion has been uniform for a long time. This is what Abraham calls a quasi-stationary motion. In this case, the train is entirely determined at each moment by the actual velocity of the electron, also the quantity of electromagnetic motion which it contains, and consequently the variation of this quantity which represents the force of inertia. The condition of quasi-stationary motion is simply that in the neighborhood of the electron, where the quantity of electromagnetic motion is localized, the wave of acceleration may be neglected in comparison with the velocity wave.

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 (22) Longitudinal Mass and Transverse Mass. We find under these conditions that the force of inertia is proportional to the acceleration with a coefficient of proportionality analogous to mass, but which is here a function of the velocity, and increases indefinitely, like the kinetic energy, as the velocity tends to approach that of light. Moreover, this electromagnetic mass differs for the same velocity, according as the acceleration is parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the velocity. There is, corresponding to the direction, a longitudinal and a transverse mass. Mass is then no longer a scalar quantity, but has the symmetry of a tensor parallel to the velocity. No experimental fact yet allows us to verify this dissymmetry of the mass of the electrons, which becomes evident only when the velocity is of the same order as that of light, but the variation of the transverse mass with the velocity has been proven by Kaufmann for the β rays of radium, which consist of particles identical with the cathode rays. It is sufficient to compare the deviations of these rays in the electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to their direction in order to deduce, by application of the equations of the dynamics of the electron, their velocity and the ratio of the charge to the transverse mass of the particles which compose them. This ratio decreases as the velocity increases, and, if we consider as fundamental the principle of the conservation of electricity, we conclude from it an actual increase of the transverse mass according to a law easy to compare with that which the theory gives for the electromagnetic mass.

(23) Matter of the Philosophers. But before discussing the result of this comparison, I wish to point out a logical difficulty raised by the course which we have followed: we are accustomed to consider as fundamental the ideas of mass and force, built up in order to represent the laws of motion of matter; we, a priori, conceive of mass as a perfectly invariable scalar quantity.

Now, let us suppose the possibility of a material representation of the ether: we apply to it the equations of material dynamics, and we are led to admit for the electrons, which form a part of matter, and consequently for matter itself, a dissymmetrical mass, tensorial and variable.

To what, then, should the equations of ordinary dynamics apply, and what are the ideas considered as fundamental which they imply? To an abstract matter, the matter of the philosophers, which could not be ordinary matter, since it is inseparable from electric charges, and which is probably made up of an agglomeration of electrons in periodic motion, stable under their mutual actions? Or to the ether? But we have no idea of what can be its mass or motion.

It is, indeed, rather the ether which it is necessary to consider as fundamental, and it is then natural to define it initially by those properties

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 of it which we know, that is to say, by the electric and magnetic fields, which it is possible to arrive at, as I have already remarked, without admitting at any time the laws of dynamics, the ideas of mass and force under their ordinary form. We will find this last to be a derived and secondary idea.

V. Electromagnetic Dynamics
(24) Change of Point of View. It seems thus much more natural to reverse the conception of Maxwell and to consider the analogy which he has pointed out between the equations of electromagnetism and those of dynamics under Lagrange's form as justifying much more the possibility of an electromagnetic representation of the principles and ideas of ordinary, material mechanics, than the inverse possibility.

It is necessary then for us to solve our second problem, that of the dynamics of the electron, of its motion in a given external field, without having recourse to the principles of mechanics, by purely electromagnetic considerations.

Hertz's equations, which permit a solution of the first problem, are here not sufficient, and we have need of a more general principle, which assumes not the motion of the electrons given, but that determines it.

(25) The Law of Stationary Energy. We will use this principle under a form indicated by Larmor, and which we can look upon as a generalization of the known laws of electrostatics and of electrodynamics. We know that the distribution of electric charges and electric fields in a system of electrified bodies is always such that the electrostatic energy We, contained in the medium modified by the field, is a minimum. The analogous principle holds for the magnetic field produced by currents of given intensities. The energy Wm localized in the magnetic field is less for the real distribution of it than for all other distributions satisfying the condition that the integral around a closed line is equal to 4π times the intensities of the currents inclosed by the line.

If displacements are possible, the conductors maintained at constant potential are in stable equilibrium if the electrostatic energy is a maximum, and the currents of given intensities are likewise in stable equilibrium if the energy of their magnetic field is a maximum. In all cases of maxima and minima, an infinitely small modification of the system from the configuration of equilibrium produces a zero variation in the energy: it is stationary.

(26) General Principle. When, instead of remaining permanent, the state of the system is variable, and if there are represented necessarily at the same time the two kinds of fields, we seek to find how,

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 as in the permanent case, an expression which remains stationary. that is to say, the variation of which is zero when supposed slightly modified, can start from its real state. We are thus led to replace the energies We, Wm) which play this role in the permanent case, by an integral taken with respect to the time, and which represents not the sum of the energies, since this quantity, equal to the total energy, ought to remain constant if only electromagnetic action come in, but their difference:

$\int_{t_{0}}^{t_{1}}(W_{e}-W_{m})dt$,|undefined

an integral which remains stationary for all virtual modifications of the system, such modifications being subject to the condition of disappearing at the limits t0 and t1 of the integral, exactly as in the analogous principle of Hamilton in mechanics. The principle of zero variation just announced, and which we will consider as the result of an induction based entirely on electromagnetic principles, allows us in fact to find three of Hertz' s equations, if we admit the three others as an imposed interconnection of the system, and furnishes in the most simple manner the solution which we have obtained for the first problem by means of these equations. Moreover, the motion of the electrons supposed given only at the times t0 t1 comes into the integral, and the condition that this must be stationary allows us to find the law of the motion during the interval, by starting from a principle whose signification is purely electromagnetic. We obtain thus exactly the results of Max Abraham; the equations of motion contain terms which depend first on the motion of the electron, and are proportional, in the hypothesis of quasi-stationary motion, to its acceleration, having coefficients that are functions of the velocity which we will call the longitudinal and transverse masses of the electron; also some terms depending on the charge, and on the external fields, which we will call the forces, and we find that they coincide with those given by Lorentz. The external motion of the electron is thus determined by the actual electromagnetic state of the system.

(27) The Process in the Electron. In order to simplify the analysis and to avoid considering the motion of rotation of the electron, I will consider it as a cavity in the ether; the volume integrals which express the energies We, Wm of the electric and magnetic fields extend only over the space external to the surface which bounds the cavity. We can suppose as a special condition outside of the electric charge that the form of this surface is fixed, spherical for example, due to an unknown action of nature, and we find the equations of Abraham for the longitudinal and transverse masses of a spherical electron.

But we can suppose a more simple condition, implying only a fixed volume of the cavity on account of the incompressibility of the external

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 ether; if we seek, then, what is, in the case of uniform translation, the form that the electron would spontaneously take in order to satisfy the condition of zero variation, we find precisely the oblate ellipsoidal form assumed by Lorentz, with this difference, that the equatorial diameter increases with the velocity instead of remaining constant, as Lorentz considers it; this constancy implies a diminution of the volume as the velocity increases. The equations which express in this case the variation of the longitudinal and transverse mass with the velocity are different from those of Abraham and Lorentz, although giving always an indefinite increase of the two masses as the velocity approaches that of light.

The equations thus obtained for the ratio m/m0 of the transverse mass m, the only one so far accessible to experiment, to the mass mm/m0 for very small velocities, as a function of the ratio β=v/V of the velocity of the electron to that of light are:

(1) Invariable spherical electron,

$\frac{m}{m_{0}}\frac{3}{4}\psi(\beta)=\frac{3}{2\beta^{2}}\left[\frac{1+\beta^{2}}{2\beta}L\frac{1+\beta}{1-\beta}-1\right]$|undefined

(2) Variable Electron

$\begin{cases} \mathrm{Equatorialdiameter\ constant} & \frac{m}{m_{0}}=(1-\beta^{2})^{-1/2}\\ \\\mathrm{Volume\ constant} & \frac{m}{m_{0}}=(1-\beta^{2})^{-1/3}\end{cases}$|undefined

(28) Comparison. The researches of Kaufmann are not yet exact enough to determine which of these equations represents most nearly the experimental variation of the ratio e/m with the velocity. In order to make the comparison, I have used a process similar to that of Kaufmann, who eliminated the two electric and magnetic fields used to deviate the β rays, seeking to obtain the best concordance possible between the experimental variation of e/m and the theoretical variation calculated on the hypothesis that the mass is entirely electromagnetic.

In order to make this elimination, I draw the two experimental and theoretical curves representing e/m as a function of β, on logarithmic coordinates, and seek for what relative positions of the curves we obtain the best correspondence. The results are given for the three theoretical equations and the same series of experimental values. The experimental points corresponding to four different series are given by Kaufmann, and we see that they correspond equally well with the three theoretical curves.

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 The more important values from the point of view of choice of equations are those corresponding to values of the velocity very near to that of light, and which amounted to ninety-five per cent of it in Kaufmann's experiments. But the β rays are then very little deviated, and exact measurements are extremely difficult.

It would be extremely important to determine the longitudinal mass by the use of an intense electric field parallel to the velocity of the electron, furnishing to it a known energy and producing a variation of the velocity, which if measured would give the longitudinal mass.

(29) Matter and Electrons. But if the accuracy of experiment is not sufficient to determine completely the law, the agreement with the equations, obtained by supposing the mass to be entirely electromagnetic, is so good that we can reasonably conclude that cathode particles constituting the β rays have no mass other than that due to their electric charges or the train which they carry with them in their motion through the ether.

It is interesting to extend the same result to ordinary matter by conceiving it as made up of an aggregation of electrons of both signs; it is unreasonable on the other hand to apply to two phenomena so nearly identical as inertia of ordinary matter and that of the cathode particles, two entirely distinct explanations, of which the one, the electromagnetic explanation, is definite and confirmed by experiment, while the other remains entirely unknown.

The inertia of a similar aggregation of electrons should be equal to the sum of the partial inertias because of the great distance of the electrified centres from one another compared to their radii, which one can calculate by supposing all their inertia electromagnetic.

In these conditions, the trains of the different electrons do not interfere appreciably, and we find thus the law of the conservation of inertia as a consequence of the conservation of the electrons in the transformations to which matter is subject. But the theory is not incompatible, on account of the interference of trains, with a slight disagreement between the inertia of an assemblage and the sum of the partial inertias.

The complexity of the atomic system to which we are led, each atom of the molecule containing probably a very great number of electrons, seems also to be a necessary consequence of the complexity of the luminous spectrum sent out from the atoms, by the electrons which they contain, when an external disturbance displaces the system from its state of stable periodic motion. In such a state the radiations emitted by the various electrons on .account of the acceleration which keeps them in their intermolecular orbits compensate one another almost completely from the point of view of energy radiated; so that there is in general no decay of the periodic intermolecular motion.

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 This conception, this electronic theory of matter in which matter becomes, at least partially, synonymous with electricity in motion, appears to account for an enormous number of facts, which increase constantly under the efforts of physicists impatient to contemplate in a less primitive form the synthesis which it promises to bring forward.

(30) Stability of the Electron. The fundamental conception, that of the electron, does not go without raising difficulties still further, besides the impossibility already pointed out of representing to ourselves by material images its displacement with respect to the ether. It seems necessary to admit something else in its structure than its electric charge, an action which maintains the unity of the electron and prevents its charge from being dissipated by the mutual repulsions of the elements which constitute it. The form of the electron is determined by some relation which insures its stability, the condition of incompressibility of the medium being insufficient, since the spherical form corresponds only to unstable equilibrium for an electrified body of given volume in which no force opposes the deformation.

This condition, which belongs to some fundamental property of the medium, determining the charge carried by the electrons, all identical from this point of view, is perhaps closely connected with the third mode of activity of the ether, a third form of energy, the gravitational form, of which our principle of stationary energy ought to take account by the addition of terms to those expressing the electrostatic energy, but of infinitely smaller magnitude.

(31) Gravitation. Gravitation remains obstinately outside of our electromagnetic synthesis; the Newtonian forces not only do not appear to be propagated with the velocity of light, but also it seems difficult to found them on electromagnetism without modifying profoundly our fundamental ideas in regard to field and quantity of electricity and the possibility of an attraction of one aggregation of neutral electrons for another aggregation of the same nature.

It appears probable that gravitation results from a mode of activity of the ether and a property of electrons entirely different from the electromagnetic mode, and we must admit besides electric and magnetic energies, a third distinct form, that of gravitation.

It remains to understand how it is possible, and what is the significance of the equivalence, the passage of this third form into one of the first two. Also we are no more capable of understanding, outside of the formal equations which express it, the connection between the electric and magnetic energies themselves and their transformations, the one into the other, by means of the electrons.

(32) An Experiment Necessary. It does not seem impossible to connect the forces of cohesion with electromagnetism, especially

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 from the point of view of the mutual attractions which orientation causes in the constitution of crystalline media, on account of the complex electric and magnetic fields which surround a system of electrons in its immediate vicinity.

Gravitational forces alone remain distinct, superimposed on the electromagnetic forces, and no difficulty comes from this on account of the negative results of the experiments undertaken to show the absolute motion of the earth.

The negative results can be explained, as we shall see, if all the internal forces of matter are of electromagnetic origin; but gravitational force, alone different, can be superimposed on them without introducing an appreciable modification of this result, for its intensity is extraordinarily small compared to electromagnetic actions, even if there is no mutual compensation between them, and in all the experiments in question, interference of light or equilibrium of an elastic system, the gravitational forces play no appreciable role.

It would be, indeed, important to obtain a condition in a case of equilibrium where the forces of gravity would play an important part, and if the equilibrium remains independent of the total motion to nearly the second order, if we could only observe the mutual motion to this order of precision, it would be necessary to conclude that the forces of gravitation also are modified by motion of translation in the same manner as the electromagnetic forces, since the equilibrium between the two kinds of forces is not disturbed, and this would be an important indication of the necessity of an electromagnetic representation of gravitation. We would be able, for example, if the sensibility allowed it, to perform the experiment of Trouton and Noble by suspending the condenser with a bifilar to the pan of a balance instead of by an elastic fibre.

Since this test has not been made, since experiments designed to show the absolute motion have not involved weight, it would be more reasonable to consider gravitation as a force distinct from electromagnetic action, which acts at the interior of the electrons in order to insure their stability, without its being possible actually to imagine in what manner we can seek a more profound knowledge of the ether and of the electrons which it incloses.

It does not seem, in any manner and for many reasons, that this can be of the nature of a material and mechanical representation of the ether.

VI. Cathode Rays
(33) The Ratio e/m. Before examining the consequences involved in the electronic conception of matter, I should like to examine a few points relative to the electrons of two kinds. Those which we know the better, the more intimately, are the negative electrons, which

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 are always identical with one another in all their properties, whatever may be the matter which has furnished them. We have already seen how the direct measurement of the charge leads always to the same result, The mass, both the longitudinal and transverse mass, having the same value for small velocities, can be determined by the measurement of the ratio of the charge to the mass.

The results obtained for this ratio in the case of cathode rays show some quite marked divergences when different methods of measurement are employed. The first values were given by J. J. Thomson by combining the magnetic deviation of the rays with a measurement of the energy which they possess by means of the heat produced in a thermoelectric couple which receives them, or by combining this magnetic deviation with the deviation in an electrostatic field. The ratio e/m furnished by this second method, the more accurate of the two, is approximately 107 electromagnetic units C.G.S.

Another method first pointed out by Schuster was used successively by Kaufmann and Simon. It consists in combining the magnetic deviation with the measurement of the difference of potential under which the rays are produced, considering that this difference of potential is that which exists between the cathode and anode. This hypothesis admitted, the method is capable of great accuracy, and the results which it gives appear to agree with the limiting values, for small velocities of the ratio e/m for the β rays, although the method employed by Kaufmann in this last measurement is different from that of Schuster. The number obtained by Simon is 1.865 x 100, nearly double that of J. J. Thomson. The explanation proposed by the latter for this disagreement, according to which the cathode rays are not produced by the total difference of potential between the cathode and the anode, but originate in a region situated in front of the cathode, does not, however, appear satisfactory, since it does not account for the constancy of the results of Kaufmann and Simon when the conditions of the experiment, the difference of potential in particular, were varied between large limits.

A means of deciding the question would consist in performing a type of experiment already used by Lenard, by subjecting the cathode rays, after their production, to a supplementary and known fall of potential, and determining by the modification which would result in their magnetic deviation the initial fall of potential under which they had been produced.

(34) The Cathode Corpuscle. However it may be, we can, owing to the results of Kaufmann, affirm the identity of the cathode rays already found independent of the gas and the electrode contained in the Crookes tube, with the β rays of radium. The measurements

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 by J. J. Thomson and Lenard of the negative charges emitted by a negatively charged metallic surface under the action of light and of those spontaneously emitted by incandescent bodies also show an identity with the cathode rays. Wehnelt has recently shown that the oxides of the alkaline earths possess in an extraordinary degree this property of spontaneously emitting cathode rays at high temperatures, and furnishes a means of performing, on this particular kind of rays, simple and exact measurements.

Finally, we know that the magnitude of the Zeeman effect, in the case where the spectrum lines considered present the appearance of a normal triplet, leads to the conclusion that the light corresponding to these lines is emitted by negatively electrified centres, present in matter and having the same ratio e/m as the cathode rays.

Moreover, the magnitude of this ratio, one thousand to two thousand times greater than for the hydrogen atom in electrolysis, leads us, as a consequence of the identity of charges established by Townsend, to consider the mass of the cathode corpuscle as one thousand times smaller at least than an atom of hydrogen; a result in perfect agreement with the conception which makes material atoms an agglomeration of electrons of two kinds. On the hypothesis that the mass is entirely of electromagnetic origin, the knowledge of the ratio e/m gives for the electron a sufficiently small radius (10-13 centimeters about) in order to be, conformably to our conception also, negligible in comparison with atomic dimensions.

(35) Flames. The small mass of the cathode corpuscle, and the possibility of separating from matter electrified centres a thousand times smaller than the smallest atom, is confirmed by the mobility of the negative ions in flames. We obtain enormous mobility compared to that observed in gases at ordinary temperatures, and the methods of the kinetic theory of gases permits us to calculate, by means of this experimental mobility, that the movable negative centres in flames have a mass about a thousand times smaller than the hydrogen atom, and should consequently be identical with the cathode corpuscles. At ordinary temperatures the negative ions are less mobile because the cathode corpuscles surround themselves with neutral molecules by simple electrostatic attraction, and form an agglomeration which the feeble agitation allows to remain stable.

VII. Positive Electrons - α Rays
(36) ''Goldstein Rays. α Rays''. Our knowledge of the structure of positive charges is much less advanced than for the negative. Two important cases show us the existence of positively charged particles, besides the positive ions in conducting gases, which at ordinary temperatures consist of an agglomeration of neutral molecules around

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 a charged centre: these are the Kanalstrahlen of Goldstein, an efflux of positive charges toward the cathode, the electric and magnetic deviations of which lead to values for the ratio of e/m varying between wide limits, but always several thousand times smaller than for the cathode rays. The mass of these positive centres is of the order of that of the atoms. The α rays of radioactive bodies, easily absorbed, and particularly easy to observe in the case of polonium and the active bismuth of Marckwald, appear to be, in fact, Kanalstrahlen. The mass of the positively charged particles which constitute these rays is of the same order as that of the hydrogen atom, and their velocity does not exceed 20,000 to 25,000 kilometers per second, so that it is impossible to verify whether their mass is entirely electromagnetic or not. Can we consider them as electrons as simple as the negative corpuscle itself, or are they of much more complex structure; are they, for example, atoms or molecules which have lost a cathode corpuscle?

(37) Electrons or Atoms. On the first hypothesis, the great mass of the positive centres would lead us to assign them dimensions much smaller than the cathode corpuscles themselves, the electromagnetic mass of an electrified sphere being inversely proportional to its radius. One is thus led to the result that an electron possesses inertia, I will not say weight, inversely proportional to its radius. H. A. Wilson thinks to find an argument in favor of this conception of a very small and consequently very inert positive electron in the observation that the α rays are much less easily absorbed than the β rays of the same velocity.

Many other reasons lead us to adopt the contrary hypothesis that an α particle is very complex and little different from an atom. Rutherford has given serious reasons for identifying the α particle with the helium atom deprived of a cathode corpuscle; also Stark gives experimental reasons referring to the emission spectra of positive centres in vacuum tubes, which imply a complex structure. Finally the theory of the disruptive discharge attributes the production of cathode rays in part at least to the impact against the cathode of particles which constitute the Goldstein rays; an electron smaller than the cathode particle itself seems scarcely able to produce a surface disturbance sufficiently intense, while on the other hand, an atom, unable to penetrate another atomic structure, and projected with a high velocity, would produce by its impact a considerable local disturbance.

(38) The Positive charge of the a Rays. It is perhaps by this considerable disturbance produced by the α or canal rays in matter which they meet that one can explain the interesting fact that the positive charge of the α rays has not been directly shown so far by the negative charge which a polonium salt should spontaneously

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 acquire if it emits only α rays. However high may be the vacuum around a piece of radioactive bismuth, or polonium, it does not acquire any charge, and loses rapidly, on the contrary, its positive or negative charge. Possibly one might explain this discharge by the ionizing action of the α rays on the gas, however rare. The passage of α particles, projectiles of large dimensions, through the surface of radioactive bodies from which they come, can play the same part as the impact of Kanalstrahlen on the surface of the cathode, and cause the emission of cathode rays of very little penetrating power, whose presence would suffice, added to that of the α rays, to prevent any permanent charge of the radioactive body, whatever may be its sign.

(39) The Positive Electrons. If the positive centres, as we know, ought not to be represented as free electrons, it seems, however, necessary to admit the presence of probable electrons which cause the neutralization of the negative charges in the atomic structure, but which for some reason come out of this structure with extreme difficulty, contrary to what is the case for the negative centres. Moreover, it would appear necessary in order that the theory of metals, which ascribes their conductivity to the presence of free electrified centres moving under the action of a field can take account of all the facts, the Hall effect in particular, of variable sign in different metals, that the centres of two kinds coexist in the metal, free to move about in all directions. These positive centres do not appear to be the metallic atoms themselves, necessarily immovable in order to maintain the solid framework of the metal. It is possible that the positive electron, which no known action in a gas can maintain separate from the atomic material, may be free in large numbers in the entirely different medium which constitutes the metal. Many problems present themselves here on the subject of the nature of the positive charges.

VIII. Theory of Matter. Radioactivity
(40) Atomic Instability. Let us examine now a little more closely the consequences to which we are led by the conception of matter as made up of electrons of two signs, of atoms formed of electrified bodies in motion under their mutual actions. From the first, - outside of gravitation, whose intensity is infinitely small compared to the electromagnetic forces in the interior of atoms which determine all the physical and chemical changes of state, - the elementary laws of action reduce to the forces of Lorentz, which allow us, as we have seen, to calculate the acceleration to which an electron is subjected as function of the electric and magnetic fields produced by the other electrons at the point where the first electron is situated. In the case

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 where the acceleration is sufficient for it to radiate an appreciable energy to a distance by means of the acceleration wave, it is probably necessary to bring in, by other terms in the equation of motion of the electron, some forces by which it can receive again the energy which it radiates, and which disappear in the case of quasi-stationary motion. It does not seem, however, in any experimental case that these corrective terms can become appreciable.

From the same point of view, the electrons in periodic motion in the material atom are necessarily subject throughout their closed orbits to accelerations which are accompanied by a radiation of energy borrowed from the internal electric and magnetic energy of the atom. This radiation must be extremely small, as in the simple case of several cathode corpuscles circulating at equal distances in the same orbit, and can be compensated for by energy obtained from external radiation. We can suppose that this continual radiation, much more important naturally when the atom, as the result of external shock, is displaced from its most stable equilibrium, is a cause of decay to the atomic structure and which at the end of a certain length of time ought necessarily to give the structure a fundamental rearrangement, as a top falls when its rotation has sufficiently diminished in velocity. A condition of instability is thus reached, the consecutive rearrangement being accompanied by a violent projection of certain electrified centres from the atom. This conception furnishes at least an image of radioactive phenomena, and the successive transformations in the life of an atom, an hypothesis of which has been advanced by Rutherford. It seems, however, that it is not necessary to admit a probable decay of atomic structures, sensible only for radioactive substances. The fact that the dispersion takes place as a function of the time according to a rigorous exponential law, the quantity which is destroyed in a given time being exactly proportional to the quantity present, seems to indicate that the substance not destroyed remains identical with itself. Perhaps the reorganization of the atomic structure might result from its accidental passage through a particularly unstable configuration, the probability that a like configuration should be reproduced being independent, in the mean, of the previous history of the atom, and the mean life of the latter would be short in proportion as this probability is great.

(41) Internal Energy and Heat set Free. A very simple calculation shows also that the stock of energy represented by the electric and magnetic fields surrounding the electrons contained in an atom is sufficiently great to supply for ten million years the evolution of heat discovered by Curie in the radium salts. As it appears now well established that the mean life of a radium atom is of the order of a thousand years, it results that the ten-thousandth part only of this reserve of energy is utilized during this especially active period in

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 the life of the atom. There is then no difficulty in conceiving how the enormous evolution of heat by radium can be ascribed to its internal energy.

No atom being free from this loss of energy due to the radiation of the electrons, one ought to expect on this hypothesis of decay a universality of radioactive phenomena, the atoms which we consider as actually stable suffering only an extraordinarily slow waste.

IX. Electric Properties
(42) Polarization. It remains now to show in a few words how the preceding conceptions lend themselves easily to a representation of the principal electric and magnetic properties of matter and make possible for the first time a theory of the disruptive discharge and of metallic conduction.

A common property of all forms of matter is electrostatic polarization arising from the variation of the specific inductive power with the nature of the substance.

This polarization results in a manner quite natural by the modification which an external electric field produces in the motions of the electron which constitute the atom. This modification is caused in the mean by an excess of positive centres on the side where the field tends to displace them and by an excess of negative centres on the opposite side. The system takes then on the average an electrostatic polarization.

(43) Corpuscular Dissociations. If the electric field becomes sufficiently intense, as, for example, during the passage of one of those brief pulsations which constitute the Roentgen rays, or during the passage through the atomic structure of an α or β particle of very great velocity, the modification produced may be very great, a cathode corpuscle may be separated from the structure which remains positively charged; there is produced thus a corpuscular dissociation which explains the conductivity acquired by insulating mediums under the action of Roentgen or Becquerel rays, and which manifests itself especially in gases, where the electrified centres thus freed can move more easily, although by electrostatic attraction on the neutral molecules, electrically polarizable, they surround themselves with a group of molecules which accompany them during their motion.

It seems well established that the negative ions in particular, also produced in a gas, have a cathode corpuscle for centre, since the penetration of cathode rays into a gas produces in it negative ions identical with those of Roentgen rays, at least from the point of view of their mobility or of their power of condensing supersaturated water vapor. It seems, nevertheless, important to make sure, by measuring the mobility of ions produced by different causes in the interior of gases,

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 whether the differences which appear to exist are real and are caused by the difference in the molecules which adhere to them, or are due to the electrified centres which serve as the nuclei for them.

(44) Mobility and Recombination. It is equally important to be able, by measurement of mobility, to follow the modification which a change of temperature produces in the size of the agglomeration and to connect the ions observed at ordinary temperatures with the incomparably more mobile ions which we observe in flames, and which appear to be made up of single electrical centres, cathode corpuscles and perhaps α particles.

The rate of recombination of ions is as yet not well known in respect to the variations with pressure and temperature, although it certainly plays an essential part in the phenomena of disruptive discharge through gases at low pressures; it would be desirable if this point were better fixed.

(45) Ionization by Impact. Every actual theory of the disruptive discharge rests on the conception that the impact of an electrified particle in sufficiently rapid motion against a molecule can cause corpuscular dissociation.

This idea was a natural consequence of the known fact that cathode and Becquerel rays, made up of similar particles, make a gas through which they pass a conductor. If the corpuscular dissociation produces in the gas, separated from the molecule, a cathode corpuscle and a positive residue, these fragments can, if a sufficiently intense electric field exists in the gas, acquire a velocity great enough to act as β or α rays and cause from point to point a rapid increase in conductivity.

Townsend has shown how this consequence is capable of exact experimental verification, and he has found that between certain limits of velocity, each impact between the cathode corpuscle and a molecule results in a corpuscular dissociation of the same kind. The velocity acquired ought not, however, to exceed a certain limit beyond which the negative corpuscle or β particle passes through the atomic edifice without producing a sensible disturbance in it.

In order that a disruptive discharge may exist without an external cause to maintain the production of the first electrified centres, it is necessary that the positive centres should be able, like the negative, although with more difficulty, to produce corpuscular dissociation at the moment of their impact with the molecules, as this latter causes the conductivity produced in gases by the α rays.

Townsend has been able, in support of this hypothesis, to determine the exact moment when the disruptive phenomenon is produced, and to analyze the mechanism of it.

In addition to this fundamental conception of ionization by impact, the theory of the disruptive discharge has yet much progress to make.

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 The extremely varied aspects which this discharge takes, the production of striations, an explanation of which was first given by J. J. Thomson, the influence of a magnetic field on the conditions of the discharge, the phenomena that are produced when the electrodes are only of the order of a micron apart, where the molecules do not appear to take part in the production of the spark, are many of the essential points which to-day attract attention.

(46) The Electric Arc. By the side of the ordinary disruptive discharge, by brush or spark, the electric arc, with an entirely different aspect, brings in the new phenomenon of the emission of cathode corpuscles by the surface of incandescent bodies. This incandescence of the electrode, of the cathode especially, is, in fact, characteristic of the arc discharge; the cathode is raised to a sufficiently high temperature by the impact of the positive ions which flow toward it, so that the corpuscles present in the electrode, and which give it its conductivity, experience a true evaporation and carry the greater part of the current. In fact, a filament of incandescent carbon is able to emit, at a much lower temperature than that of the voltaic arc, cathode corpuscles representing a current density of two amperes per square centimeter.

(47) Evaporation of the Cathode. This phenomenon, known under the name of the Edison effect, is very general and has been connected in a quantitative manner by Richardson on the fundamental hypothesis of the kinetic theory with the presence of freely moving cathode particles in the interior of conductors.

At ordinary temperatures this emission of corpuscles is diminished to such an extent that electrostatics is possible and a metal can keep a permanent charge. Every corpuscle present in the metal is immersed in a medium of high specific inductive capacity, and a finite amount of work is necessary to make them pass from this medium to a region where the specific inductive capacity is equal to unity. Only the corpuscles having a sufficient velocity would be able to supply this work on leaving the conductor, and their number, absolutely negligible at ordinary temperatures, increases with extreme rapidity with the rise in temperature. Richardson has shown that the variation obtained by experiment agrees very well with that predicted by theory.

(48) Metals. The spontaneous dissociation of atoms which the kinetic theory implies, the separation of electrified centres free to move in the interior of the metal, is a consequence of the high specific inductive capacity of the medium, of the ease of electrostatic polarization of metals, owing to the ease with which the metallic atoms lose corpuscles in order to remain positively charged. The potential energy of an electrified particle in such a medium is much smaller than anywhere else, and conformably with the laws of the distribution of

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 energy given by the kinetic theory, the free particles ought to be more numerous in it.

(49) Chemical Phenomena. It is by an action of the same kind that water, of great specific inductive capacity (smaller, however, than that of metals) causes the electrolytic dissociation of salts that are dissolved in it; it would be of great interest to determine the relation between this electrolytic dissociation, especially of liquid conductors, and the corpuscular dissociation common probably to gases and metals.

In electrolytic dissociation, the cathode corpuscles lost by the metallic atoms, instead of remaining free as in corpuscular dissociation, remain united to an atom or to a radical to form the negative ion in electrolytes. This question touches the relations between our actual ideas and chemistry, relations still very obscure, and which it would be very important to clear up. The electric dissociation produced in gases by Roentgen rays does not appear connected with any chemical modification; however, in air all intense ionization is accompanied by the formation of ozone. Here is a domain almost entirely unexplored.

X. Magnetic Properties
(50) Ampère and Weber. However, the complex phenomena of magnetism and diamagnetism have seemed so far to lead us to expect more difficulties, although the electrons gravitating in the atom in closed orbits furnish at first sight a simple representation of the molecular currents of Ampere, capable of turning under the action of an external magnetic field in order to give birth to induced magnetism, or of reacting by induction, according to the idea of Weber, against the external field so as to make the substance diamagnetic.

Those who have tried to follow out this idea have found it so far sterile; independently, different physicists have come to the conclusion that the hypothesis of electrons in undiminished motion cannot furnish a representation of the permanent phenomena of magnetism or diamagnetism.

I am enough of a parvenu to attempt to show, contrary to the preceding opinion, that it is possible to give, by means of the electrons, an exact signification to the ideas of Ampere and Weber, to find for para- and diamagnetism completely distinct interpretations, conforming to the laws experimentally established by Curie: weak magnetism, an attenuated form of ferromagnetism, varies inversely as the absolute temperature; on the other hand diamagnetism is shown to be, in all observed cases with the exception of bismuth, rigorously independent of the temperature. The theory which I propose takes

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 entire account of these facts and clears up at the same time the complex question of magnetic energy.

I shall give here only the principal results of this work which will, be published in full elsewhere.

(51) Molecular Currents. An electrified particle of charge e moving with a velocity v is equivalent to a current of moment ev. One easily deduces from this that a molecular current made up of an electron which describes in the periodic time t an orbit inclosed by the surface S is equivalent from the point of view of the magnetic field produced to a magnet of magnetic moment $$M=\tfrac{eS}{t}$$ normal to the plane of the orbit.

There would be a corresponding current for each of the electrons present in a molecule, and the magnetic moment resulting from these would be zero or different from zero, according to the degree of symmetry of the molecular structure.

(52) Diamagnetism. If on a group of such molecules we superimpose an external magnetic field, all the molecular currents experience a modification independent of the manner in which the superposition is obtained, whether by the establishment of the field or by motion of the molecule in a preexisting field. The direction of this modification, due to the induction experienced by the molecular currents, corresponds always to diamagnetism, the increase of the magnetic moment being $$\Delta M=-\tfrac{He^{2}}{4\pi m}S$$ in the case of a circular orbit. H is the component of the magnetic field normal to the plane of the orbit and m the mass of the electron which describes the orbit.

(53) The Magnetic Energy. When the molecule is supposed immovable, the work necessary for the modification of the molecular currents is furnished by the electric field produced, according to the equations of Hertz, during the establishment of the magnetic field.

In the opposite case, where the modification is due to the motion of the molecules, the work is furnished to the molecular currents by the kinetic energy of the molecule or by the action of neighboring molecules. The diamagnetic modification produced at the moment of the establishment of the field continues in spite of the molecular agitation.

This modification is manifested in three distinct ways:

1. If the resulting motion of the molecules is zero, the substance is diamagnetic in the ordinary sense of the word, and the order of magnitude of the experimental diamagnetic constants is in good agreement with the hypothesis of molecular currents circulating in intra-molecular paths.

This conception leads to the law of independence established by Curie between the diamagnetic constants and the temperature or the physical state.

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 2. If the resulting motion of the molecules is not zero, the initial diamagnetic modification is followed by an orientation of the molecules under the action of the external field, which cause a paramagnetism to appear that masks the underlying diamagnetism, the new phenomenon being considerable compared to the first, when the symmetry permits it to appear.

In slightly paramagnetic bodies, such as gases, the heat agitation is opposed to the complete orientation of the molecular magnets, to saturation, and one finds, in seeking what permanent condition is established, the law of Curie, that the variation of paramagnetic constants is in inverse ratio to the absolute temperature.

3. Finally, the change of period of revolution in consequence of the diamagnetic modification corresponds to the Zeeman effect, as general as diamagnetism itself; iron, certain rays of which show the Zeeman effect, is diamagnetic before the orientation of the molecular magnets under the action of the external field makes it appear paramagnetic.

The orbits considered, which represent the molecular currents of Ampère, are also the circuits of zero resistance of the diamagnetism of Weber, with this remarkable peculiarity that the flux which passes through them is not constant, as Weber supposed, if the inertia of the electrons is entirely of electromagnetic origin.

I have shown, on the other hand, that the orbits of the electrons supposed circular, and described under the action of central forces, experience no deformation during the diamagnetic modification, this latter consisting only in a change of velocity of the electrons in their orbits. We can thus form an exact and simple conception of the facts of magnetism and diamagnetism by considering the molecular currents as non-deformable but movable currents, of zero resistance and of enormous self-induction, to which all the ordinary laws of induction are applicable.

XI. Conclusion
The rapid perspective which I have just sketched is full of promises, and I believe that rarely in the history of physics has one had the opportunity of looking either so far into the past or so far into the future. The relative importance of parts of this immense and scarcely explored domain appears different to-day from what it did in the preceding century: from the new point of view the various plans arrange themselves in a new order. The electrical idea, the last discovered, appears to-day to dominate the whole, as the place of choice where the explorer feels that he can found a city before advancing into new territories.

The mechanical facts, the most evident of all those of which matter is possessed, from the first attracted the attention of our ancestors,

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 and led them to conceive of the notions of mass and force which appeared a long while the most fundamental, those from which all the others ought to raminate. As the means of investigation have increased, as the more hidden facts have been discovered, we have thought for a long while to be able to reduce them to the old laws, to be able in fact to find an explanation of mechanical origin.

The actual tendency, of making the electromagnetic ideas to occupy the preponderating place, is justified, as I have sought to show, by the solidity of the double base on which rests the idea of the electron; on the one hand by the exact knowledge of the electromagnetic ether which we owe to Faraday, Maxwell, and Hertz, and on the other hand by the experimental evidence brought forward by the recent investigations into the granular structure of electricity. Moreover, this assurance which we express when considering the past is increased, if it is possible, when we consider the future.

Already all views, not only of the ether, but of matter, source and receiver of luminous waves, obtain an immediate interpretation which mechanics is powerless to give, and this mechanics itself appears to-day as a first approximation, largely sufficing in all cases of motion of matter taken in mass, but for which a more complete expression must be sought in the dynamics of the electron.

Although still very recent, the conceptions of which I have sought to give a collected idea are about to penetrate to the very heart of the entire physics, and to act as a fertile germ in order to crystallize around it, in a new order, facts very far removed from one another.

Falling in ground well prepared to receive it, in the ether of Faraday, Maxwell, and Hertz, the idea of the electron, an electrified movable centre which experiment to-day allows us to lay hold of individually, constitutes the tie between the ether and matter formed of a group of electrons.

This idea has taken an immense development in the last few years, which causes it to break the framework of the old physics to pieces, and to overturn the established order of ideas and laws in order to branch out again in an organization which one foresees to be simple, harmonious, and fruitful.

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Rh better than to class our own flesh and blood with dingoes, the other enemy of the pioneer squatter, to be shot where met with? I believe that it would pay us to import from India or Ceylon some gentleman who has had experience of coolie labor there. Let him model a system, and as far as possible let him be untethered by red tape. Surely those in authority would not mind the absence of red tape in this matter. They have shown clearly by their actions in the past that so far as the blacks are concerned they don't care in the slightest. Their only care is that there should be as little fuss as possible. This very commendable spirit of making little fuss permeates the whole Native Police force downwards. The police never murder a black quite close to a station unless under very exceptional circumstances. They first arrest their prisoner—maybe at the camp by the waterhole near the homestead—and he is duly taken away, guarded by an armed mounted trooper on each side. He never comes in at the next stage with his captors; he has always "been shot while attempting to escape." The old, world-old, story—one sin leads on to another; and we cannot expect a man whose orders are to murder (English for "disperse") sticking at an odd lie or two.

With the utilisation of the blacks the occupation of the black troopers would be gone. Their removal would make room for a better state of things. Your correspondent "Never-Never" pooh-poohs the idea of getting good bushman to enter any police force that would succeed the present one. I fancy that, were the experiment tried, "Never-Never" would be found to be as wrong in this particular as he is misguided in the whole spirit of his letter. Only let the pay be better than that given to stockman on outside stations, and the Government could have the pick of the best and hardiest bushman in the colony. If blacks are used as police at all they should never be allowed 1o carry arms—a savage can never be expected to exercise discretion in metting out justice, should the "short shrift" "Never Never" speaks of ever be necessary. Let the white police have black servants, to be employed as grooms, trackers, &c., when necessary—much as is now the case in the West, where nearly every stockman keeps his own blackboy. Should the expense of keeping a white police be a strain on our finances I do not think the colony would grudge it. Let us remove the present blood guiltiness that weighs upon us each individually as colonists, and whatever the price the result will be cheap at the money. Is there no member of Parliament who will take this question up—are all so overburdend by the cares of the squatters, or diggers, who comprise their constituencies that they cannot spare the time to consider and devise a remedy for "the poor old nigger"? Can nothing be done for their physical welfare? Must we look calmly on at the work of the Police Department, combined with disease of the most loathsome types, and Mackay rum, and say it is "Kismet"? Would it not be well, putting aside for a time the hope of ever Christianising our blacks, to try in an honest manly way what can be done towards making them less undesirable citizens than they at present are? Sir, as I before said, I have lived in the outside country among the blacks, and, were I there again now as I write, I should sit down among them and explain how, far away "along a big fellow water, that one big fellow master belong a paper" was trying to do his best for them, so that if they would only be good "that one coola (hostile) fellow policeman" would never again come to their camp.

Sir, in the name of a most unfortunate and ill-starred race, I thank you for your powerful interference in their behalf.—Yours, &c., —Queenslander, May 22, 1880.

,—Being still troubled by that "obtuseness of my moral nature," would you mind my expressing my sense of surprise at the singular course adopted by the Queenslander in starting what I presume I may call an atrocity column. In the first place, if, overcome by a deep sense of its responsibility as the leading journal of the colony, the paper raises its voice against our treatment of the natives, and the issue thereof is a atrocity column, may I ask why its conscience has slumbered so long? Why, through all the past years of black dispersion has it not done what it professes to be about to do now? Why have left it until this the eleventh hour? When a paper presumes to be so well posted up in the subject as to know of all these massacres, and deal them out dressed up in a sentimental suit of catch terms for the edification of sensation-loving readers, and yet has through all its previous existence as a journal remained comparatively silent on the subject, I beg leave to doubt the honesty of its purpose and the sincerity of it own belief in the deeds it is now

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Transclusion element
That change (adding the id back, removing the anchor) makes the link to a section not work in any of the browsers, as opposed to not working in IE only. —Spangineer (háblame) 16:49, 20 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Working in all three browsers now. =) —Spangineer (háblame) 17:10, 20 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Like I wrote yesterday it ain't pretty. Don't quite understand how "overloading" things winds up working in one instance but not the other (must be something in the Page: namespace). I still hate the fact the Page:name needs to be input manually. There must be a way to pull that in one namespace for the use in other.... but it's been too long a day already. I'll check back later hopefully. -- George Orwell III (talk) 17:48, 20 January 2011 (UTC)
 * That's the way it was with Page, unfortunately, so I wouldn't be surprised if there isn't a better way to do it. Anyway, the person entering it can just use the PAGENAME magic word to get the link easily. —Spangineer (háblame) 19:30, 20 January 2011 (UTC)

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Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/113

HO knocks at the door so late, so late—

Who knocks so late at the door?

Is it one who comes as a stranger comes,

Or one who has knocked before?

Is it one who stays with intent to bless,

Or one who stands to implore?

My days have been as the years, she said,

And my heart, my heart is sore;

Love looked in my face for a moment's space

One happy spring of yore—

Looked in my face with a wistful grace;

And left me to grieve evermore!

Through all the days the door stood wide,

For hope had breathed a vow

That love should ne'er be kept outside.


text:
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ILGRIMS of the trackless deep,

Leaving all, our fathers came,

Life and liberty to keep

In Jehovah's awful name.

Neither pillared flame nor cloud

Made the wild, for them, rejoice,

But their hearts, with sorrow bowed,

In the darkness heard His voice.

Things above them they divined—

Thoughts of God, forever true,

And the deathless Compact signed—

Building better than they knew:

Building liberty not planned,

Law that ampler life controls,

All the greatness of our land

Lying shadowed in their souls.

In the days that shall succeed,

Prouder boast no time shall grant


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HE vast cathedral-crown of the high hill,

The long, low-vaulted nave, the transepts where

The light is glory shed through windows rare

In rainbow tintings: glory deep and still,

Gift of a past forever present there!

Beyond the lantern, the carved Gothic Choir,

And, as interpreting the hallowed place

Athrob with harmonies, a boyish face—

English, yet with the look of awed desire

Which speaks America,—the younger race.

In the half-parted lips without a smile,

In the whole rapt, impassioned gaze,

I read the travail of the distant days,

The wistful hunger of the Long Exile—

The yearning that survives through all delays

I read thy soul, my Country! thou dear Land

Across the deep and all-dividing sea!

I read thy soul and theirs who founded thee


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 otherwise affected than as a young bull by an attack of gad flies, which one whisk of his capacious tail can put to flight. Like the bull, he was sufficiently irritated by the infliction to rouse his pugnacity, and when it came to his turn to reply, "pre-haps" he didn't make the "har" fly! When "Uncle Abe," as the Tribune dubs him, rounded a sentence he was greeted with a merry outburst of humorous applause, but as blow after blow and thrust after thrust was dealt by the Judge, not ebullitions of merriment, but loud, long and sturdy shouts of triumph, rent the air, and when he concluded, the satisfaction which glowed upon the contenances of the hardy yeomen, who composed the principal part of the audience, testified that his last hour had been well occupied.

Yours,

[Peoria, III., Transcript, August 24, 1858]

THE GREAT DEBATE AT OTTAWA

Saturday Evening, Aug. 21

Such was the enthusiasm of the masses over Mr. Lincoln's triumph that as soon as the debate had closed and he had stepped from the platform, he was immediately by an immense crowd, numbering at least five thousand persons, lifted upon the shoulders of two stout men, and was borne about the streets, a band of music leading off with "Hail Columbia," while the vast multitude followed in broken column shouting "Hurrah for Lincoln" as they went.

Such was the interest in this face-to-face encounter of Lincoln and Douglas, that the masses flocked here from every quarter of the State. The Chicago special train numbering seventeen cars arrived, all crammed with the crowd to the fullest capacity. Thousands of people came pouring into town in wagons, boats, &c., the various delegations bearing banners and accompanied by bands of music. The debate came off in a vacant square near the center of the city. When we arrived upon the ground the crowd, numbering at least 12,000 persons, was pressing towards the speaker's stand in great confusion. The

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text:
United States Code/Title 28/Appendix/Federal Rules of Civil Procedure/Rule 13

Rule 13. Counterclaim and Crossclaim

(a) Compulsory Counterclaim.
 * (1) In General. A pleading must state as a counterclaim any claim that—at the time of its service—the pleader has against an opposing party if the claim:
 * (A) arises out of the transaction or occurrence that is the subject matter of the opposing party’s claim; and
 * (B) does not require adding another party over whom the court cannot acquire jurisdiction.
 * (2) Exceptions. The pleader need not state the claim if:
 * (A) when the action was commenced, the claim was the subject of another pending action; or
 * (B) the opposing party sued on its claim by attachment or other process that did not establish personal jurisdiction over the pleader on that claim, and the pleader does not assert any counterclaim under this rule.

(b) Permissive Counterclaim. A pleading may state as a counterclaim against an opposing party any claim that is not compulsory.

(c) Relief Sought in a Counterclaim. A counterclaim need not diminish or defeat the recovery sought by the opposing party. It may request relief that exceeds in amount or differs in kind from the relief sought by the opposing party.

(d) Counterclaim Against the United States. These rules do not expand the right to assert a counterclaim—or to claim a credit—against the United States or a United States officer or agency.

(e) Counterclaim Maturing or Acquired After Pleading. The court may permit a party to file a supplemental pleading asserting a counterclaim that matured or was acquired by the party after serving an earlier pleading.

(f) [Abrogated.]

(g) Crossclaim Against a Coparty. A pleading may state as a crossclaim any claim by one party against a coparty if the claim arises out of the transaction or occurrence that is the subject matter of the original action or of a counterclaim, or if the claim relates to any property that is the subject matter of the original action. The crossclaim may include a claim that the coparty is or may be liable to the crossclaimant for all or part of a claim asserted in the action against the crossclaimant.

(h) Joining Additional Parties. Rules 19 and 20 govern the addition of a person as a party to a counterclaim or crossclaim.

(i) Separate Trials; Separate Judgments. If the court orders separate trials under Rule 42 (b), it may enter judgment on a counterclaim or crossclaim under Rule 54 (b) when it has jurisdiction to do so, even if the opposing party’s claims have been dismissed or otherwise resolved.


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N the beginning was I born,

With man from out the dust;

And presently, from earth uptorn,

Came Cruelty and Lust.

Alway, the vassals of my will,

They twain go with me still.

Where'er my flashing sword they see,

Where'er they scent my breath,

Quickly they follow after me,

Bringing despair and death;

Yet still the mighty wear with pride

My liveries, crimson-dyed!

Once, long ago, in ages gone,

When man seemed as the brute,

I looked with dread to wisdom's dawn,

And virtue's ripening fruit:

Now sages wreathe my brow with bays,

And poets chant my praise.


text: Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 1.djvu/1014


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Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/126

O war has begun, they say,

Well, Spring is here before it;

If war takes much away,

And leaves us to deplore it,—

Yet see! the woody dells once more

Are turning green, in spite of war.

On yonder maple tree

The misty buds are swelling;

Violets, timidly,

Peep from their mossy dwelling,

And bluebirds, far and near, outpour

Their brimming hope, in spite of war.

Rumor, with awful tales

Of death and of disaster,

May clamor through our vales,

But Spring comes hither faster,

Humming a tender rune of peace—

Breathing of bloom and life's increase.


text:
United States Code/Title 28/Appendix/Federal Rules of Civil Procedure/Rule 14

Rule 14. Third-Party Practice

(a) When a Defending Party May Bring in a Third Party.
 * (1) Timing of the Summons and Complaint. A defending party may, as third-party plaintiff, serve a summons and complaint on a nonparty who is or may be liable to it for all or part of the claim against it. But the third-party plaintiff must, by motion, obtain the court’s leave if it files the third-party complaint more than 14 days after serving its original answer.
 * (2) Third-Party Defendant’s Claims and Defenses. The person served with the summons and third-party complaint—the “third-party defendant”:
 * (A) must assert any defense against the third-party plaintiff’s claim under Rule 12;
 * (B) must assert any counterclaim against the third-party plaintiff under Rule 13 (a), and may assert any counterclaim against the third-party plaintiff under Rule 13 (b) or any crossclaim against another third-party defendant under Rule 13 (g);
 * (C) may assert against the plaintiff any defense that the third-party plaintiff has to the plaintiff’s claim; and
 * (D) may also assert against the plaintiff any claim arising out of the transaction or occurrence that is the subject matter of the plaintiff’s claim against the third-party plaintiff.
 * (3) Plaintiff’s Claims Against a Third-Party Defendant. The plaintiff may assert against the third-party defendant any claim arising out of the transaction or occurrence that is the subject matter of the plaintiff’s claim against the third-party plaintiff. The third-party defendant must then assert any defense under Rule 12 and any counterclaim under Rule 13 (a), and may assert any counterclaim under Rule 13 (b) or any crossclaim under Rule 13 (g).
 * (4) Motion to Strike, Sever, or Try Separately. Any party may move to strike the third-party claim, to sever it, or to try it separately.
 * (5) Third-Party Defendant’s Claim Against a Nonparty. A third-party defendant may proceed under this rule against a nonparty who is or may be liable to the third-party defendant for all or part of any claim against it.
 * (6) Third-Party Complaint In Rem. If it is within the admiralty or maritime jurisdiction, a third-party complaint may be in rem. In that event, a reference in this rule to the “summons” includes the warrant of arrest, and a reference to the defendant or third-party plaintiff includes, when appropriate, a person who asserts a right under Supplemental Rule C(6)(a)(i) in the property arrested.

(b) When a Plaintiff May Bring in a Third Party. When a claim is asserted against a plaintiff, the plaintiff may bring in a third party if this rule would allow a defendant to do so.

(c) Admiralty or Maritime Claim.
 * (1) Scope of Impleader. If a plaintiff asserts an admiralty or maritime claim under Rule 9 (h), the defendant or a person who asserts a right under Supplemental Rule C(6)(a)(i) may, as a third-party plaintiff, bring in a third-party defendant who may be wholly or partly liable—either to the plaintiff or to the third-party plaintiff— for remedy over, contribution, or otherwise on account of the same transaction, occurrence, or series of transactions or occurrences.
 * (2) Defending Against a Demand for Judgment for the Plaintiff. The third-party plaintiff may demand judgment in the plaintiff’s favor against the third-party defendant. In that event, the third-party defendant must defend under Rule 12 against the plaintiff’s claim as well as the third-party plaintiff’s claim; and the action proceeds as if the plaintiff had sued both the third-party defendant and the third-party plaintiff.


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Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/114

92 The years were long and hope hath died;

The door at last is barred and fast—

Why comes this knocking now?

Yet woe the waiting heart, she said,

And the heart it waiteth for!

And woe the truth and wasted youth

That nothing shall restore!

The faith that's fled, the hope that's dead,

The dreams that come no more.

Who knocks at the gate—so late, so late?

Thou foolish heart, be still!

What is 't to thee if love or hate

Knocks in the midnight chill?

Art thou, poor heart, compassionate?

Is love so hard to kill?

''Ah me! the night is cold'', she said;

Would I might all forget;

But memory lives when hope is dead,

And pity heals regret;

As light still lingers overhead

When sun and moon are set.


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/The Return

title: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/The Return


text:
Author:Henry Villard

Works

 * Memoirs of Henry Villard (Boston, 1904)

title: Author:Henry Villard


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Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 1.djvu/533

933 " every man's being allowed to speak his thoughts, and lay "open his sentiments."

Apply these decisive maxims, sanctified by the authority of a name which all Europe reveres, to your own state. You have a Governour, it may be urged, vested with the Executive powers, or the powers of Administration; in him, and in your Council, is lodged the power of making laws. You have Judges, who are to decide every cause affecting your lives, liberty, or property. Here is, indeed, an appearance of the several powers being separated and distributed into different hands, for checks, one upon another; the only effectual mode ever invented by the wit of men, to promote their freedom and prosperity. But scorning to be illuded by a tinselled outside, and exerting the natural sagacity of Frenchmen, examine the specious device, and you will find it, to use an expression of Holy Writ, " a whited sepulchre," for burying your lives, liberty, and property.

Your Judges, and your Legislative Council, as it is called, are dependent on your Governour, and he is dependent on the servant of the Crown in Great Britain. The Legislative, Executive, and Judging powers are all moved by the nods of a Minister. Privileges and immunities last no longer than his smiles. When he frowns, their feeble forms dissolve. Such a treacherous ingenuity has been exerted in drawing up the code lately offered vou, that every sentence, beginning with a benevolent pretension, concludes with a destructive power; and the substance of the whole, divested of its smooth words, is that the Crown and its Ministers shall be as absolute throughout your extended Province, as the despots of Asia or Africa. What can protect your property from taxing edicts, and the rapacity of necessitous and cruel masters? your persons from lettres de catchct, jails, dungeons, and oppressive services? your lives and general liberty from arbitrary and unfeeling rulers? We defy you, casting your view upon every side, to discover a single circumstance, promising from any quarter, the faintest hope of liberty to you or your posterity, but from an entire adoption into the Union of these Colonies.

What advice would the truly great man, before mentioned, that advocate of freedom and humanity, give you, was he now living, and knew that we, your numerous and powerful neighbours, animated by a just love of our invaded rights, and united by the indissoluble bands of affection and interest, called upon you, by every obligation of regard for yourselves and your children, as we now do, to join us in our righteous contest, to make common cause with us therein, and take a noble chance for emerging from a humiliating subjection under Governours, Intendants, and Military Tyrants, into the firm rank and condition of English Freemen, whose custom it is, derived from their ancestors, to make those tremble who dare to think of making them miserable?

Would not this be the purport of his address? "Seize the opportunity presented to you by Providence itself. You have been conquered into liberty, if you act as you ought. This work is not of man. You are a small people, compared to those who, with open arms, invite you into a fellowship. A moment's reflection should convince you which will be most for your interest and happiness, to have all the rest of North America your unalterable friends, or your inveterate enemies. The injuries of Boston have roused and associated every Colony from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Your Province is the only link wanting to complete the bright and strong chain of Union. Nature has joined your country to theirs. Do you join your political interests. For their own sakes they never will desert or betray you. Be assured that the happiness of a people inevitably depends on their liberty, and their spirit to assert it. The value and extent of the advantages tendered to you are immense. Heaven grant you may not discover them to be blessings after they have bid you an eternal adieu."

We are too well acquainted with the liberality of sentiment distinguishing your Nation, to imagine that difference of Religion will prejudice you against a hearty amity with us. You know that the transcendent nature of freedom elevates those who unite in her cause, above all such lowminded infirmities. The Swiss Cantons furnish a memorable proof of this truth. Their Union is composed of Roman Catholick and Protestant States, living in the utmost concord and peace with one another, and thereby enabled, ever since they bravely vindicated their freedom, to defy and defeat every tyrant that has invaded them.

Should there be any among you, as there generally are in all societies, who prefer the favours of Ministers, and their own private interests, to the welfare of their country, the temper of such selfish persons will render them incredibly active in opposing all publick-spirited measures, from an expectation of being well rewarded for their sordid industry, by their superiours; but we doubt not you will be upon your guard against such men, and not sacrifice the liberty and happiness of the whole Canadian people and their posterity, to gratify the avarice and ambition of individuals.

We do not ask you, by this Address, to commence of hostility against the Government of our common Sovereign. We only invite you to consult your own glory and welfare, and not to suffer yourselves to be inveigled or intimidated by infamous Ministers, so far as to become the instruments of their cruelty and despotism; but to unite with us in one social compact, formed on the generous principles of equal liberty, and cemented by such an exchange of beneficial and endearing offices as to render it perpetual. In order to complete this highly desirable Union, we submit it to your consideration, whether it may not be expedient for you to meet together, in your several Towns and Districts, and elect Deputies, who, afterwards meeting in a Provincial Congress, may choose Delegates to represent your Province in the Continental Congress, to be held at Philadelphia, on the tenth day of May, 1775.

In this present Congress, beginning on the fifth of the last month, and continued to this day, it has been, with universal pleasure, and an unanimous vote, resolved that we should consider the violation of your rights, by the Act for altering the Government of your Province, as a violation of our own, and that you should be invited to accede to our confederation, which has no other objects than the perfect security of the natural and civil rights of all the constituent members, according to their respective circumstances, and the preservation of a happy and lasting connection with Great Britain, on the salutary and constitutional principles herein before mentioned. For effecting these purposes, we have addressed an humble and loyal Petition to his Majesty, praying relief of our and your grievances; and have associated to stop all importations from Great Britain and Ireland, after the first day of December, and all exportations to those Kingdoms and the West Indies, after the tenth day of next September, unless the said grievances are redressed.

That Almighty God may incline your minds to approve our equitable and necessary measures, to add yourselves to us, to put your fate, whenever you suffer injuries which you are determined to oppose, not on the small influence of your single Province, but on the consolidated powers of North America; and may grant to our joint exertions an event as happy as our cause is just, is the fervent prayer of us, your sincere and affectionate friends and fellowsubjects. By order of Congress, , President.

Resolved, That the Address of the Congress to the People of Canada be signed by the President, and that the Delegates of the Province of Pennsylvania superintend the translating, printing, publishing, and dispersing it. And it is recommended by the Congress to the Delegates of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, and New- York, to assist in and forward the dispersion of the said Address.

The Address to the King being engrossed and compared, was signed at the table by all the Members:—

To the King's Most Excellent Majesty:

We, your Majesty's faithful subjects of the Colonies of New-Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, the Counties of New-Castle, Kent, and Sussex, on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, in behalf of ourselves and the inhabitants of those Colonies who have deputed us to represent them in General Congress, by this our humble Petition, beg leave to lay our Grievances before the Throne.


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Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 1.djvu/534

935 A Standing Army has been kept in these Colonies ever since the conclusion of the late war, without the consent of our Assemblies; and this Army, with a considerable Naval armament, has been employed to enforce the collection of Taxes.

The authority of the Commander-in-Chief, and under him of the Brigadiers General has, in time of peace, been rendered supreme in all the Civil Governments in America.

The Commander-in-chief of all your Majesty's Forces in North America, has, in time of peace, been appointed Governour of a Colony.

The charges of usual offices have been greatly increased; and new, expensive, and oppressive offices have been multiplied.

The Judges of Admiralty and Vice Admiralty Courts are empowered to receive their salaries and fees from the effects condemned by themselves.

The Officers of the Customs are empowered to break open and enter houses, without the authority of any Civil Magistrate, founded on legal information.

The Judges of Courts of Common Law have been made entirely dependent on one part of the Legislature for their salaries, as well as for the duration of their commissions.

Counsellors, holding their commissions during pleasure, exercise Legislative authority.

Humble and reasonable Petitions from the Representatives of the People, have been fruitless.

The Agents of the People have been discountenanced, and Governours have been instructed to prevent the payment of their salaries.

Assemblies have been repeatedly and injuriously dissolved.

Commerce has been burthened with many useless and oppressive restrictions.

By several Acts of Parliament made in the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth years of your Majesty's Reign, Duties are imposed on us for the purpose of raising a Revenue; and the powers of Admiralty and Vice Admiralty Courts are extended beyond their ancient limits, whereby our property is taken from us without our consent; the trial by jury, in many civil cases, is abolished; enormous forfeitures are incurred for slight offences; vexatious informers are exempted from paying damages, to which they are justly liable, and oppressive security is required from owners before they are allowed to defend their right.

Both Houses of Parliament have resolved, that Colonists may be tried in England for offences alleged to have been committed in America, by virtue of a Statute passed in the thirty-fifth year of Henry the Eighth, and, in consequence thereof, attempts have been made to enforce that Statute.

A Statute was passed in the twelfth year of your Majesty's Reign, directing that persons charged with committing any offence therein described, in any place out of the Realm, may be indicted and tried for the same in any Shire or County within the Realm, whereby the inhabitants of these Colonies may, in sundry cases, by that Statute made capital, be deprived of a trial by their peers of the vicinage.

In the last sessions of Parliament an Act was passed for blocking up the Harbour of Boston; another empowering the Governour of the Massachusetts Bay to send persons indicted for murder in that Province, to another Colony, or even to Great Britain, for trial, whereby such offenders may escape legal punishment; a third for altering the chartered Constitution of Government in that Province; and a fourth for extending the limits of Quebec, abolishing the English and restoring the French laws, whereby great numbers of British Freemen are subjected to the latter, and establishing an absolute Government and the Roman Catholick Religion throughout those vast regions that border on the Westerly and Northerly boundaries of the free Protestant English settlements; and a fifth, for the better providing suitable Quarters for Officers and Soldiers in his Majesty's service in North America.

To a Sovereign, who glories in the name of Briton, the bare recital of these Acts must, we presume, justify the loyal subjects, who fly to the foot of his Throne, and implore his clemency for protection against them.

From this destructive system of Colony Administration, adopted since the conclusion of the last war, have flowed those distresses, dangers, fears, and jealousies, that overwhelm your Majesty's dutiful Colonists with affliction; and we defy our most subtle and inveterate enemies to trace the unhappy differences between Great Britain and these Colonies, from an earlier period, or from other causes than we have assigned. Had they proceeded on our part from a restless levity of temper, unjust impulses of ambition, or artful suggestions of seditious persons, we should merit the opprobrious terms frequently bestowed upon us by those we revere. But so far from promoting innovations, we have only opposed them; and can be charged with no offence, unless it be one to receive injuries and be sensible of them.

Had our Creator been pleased to give us existence in a land of slavery, the sense of our condition might have been mitigated by ignorance and habit. But, thanks be to his adorable goodness, we were born the heirs of freedom, and ever enjoyed our right under the auspices of your Royal ancestors, whose family was seated on the British Throne to rescue and secure a pious and gallant Nation from the Popery and despotism of a superstitious and inexorable tyrant. Your Majesty, we are confident, justly rejoices that your title to the Crown is thus founded on the title of your people to liberty; and, therefore, we doubt not but your royal wisdom must approve the sensibility that teaches your subjects anxiously to guard the blessing they received from Divine Providence, and thereby to prove the performance of that compact which elevated the illustrious House of Brunswick to the imperial dignity it now possesses.

The apprehension of being degraded into a state of servitude, from the pre-eminent rank of English freemen, while our minds retain the strongest love of liberty, and clearly foresee the miseries preparing for us and our posterity, excites emotions in our breats which, though we cannot describe, we should not wish to conceal. Feeling as men, and thinking as subjects, in the manner we do, silence would be disloyalty. By giving this faithful information, we do all in our power to promote the great objects of your Royal cares, the tranquillity of your Government, and the welfare of your people.

Duty to your Majesty, and regard for the preservation of ourselves and our posterity, the primary obligations of nature and of society, command us to entreat your Royal attention; and, as your Majesty enjoys the signal distinction of reigning over freemen, we apprehend the language of freemen cannot be displeasing. Your Royal indignation, we hope, will rather fall on those designing and dangerous men, who, daringly interposing themselves between your Royal person and your faithful subjects, and for several years past incessantly employed to dissolve the bonds of society, by abusing your Majesty's authority, misrepresenting your American subjects, and prosecuting the most desperate and irritating projects of oppression, have at length compelled us, by the force of accumulated injuries, too severe to be any longer tolerable, to disturb your Majesty's repose by our complaints.

These sentiments are extorted from hearts that much more willingly would bleed in your Majesty's service. Yet, so greatly have we been misrepresented, that a necessity has been alleged of taking our property from us without our consent, "to defray the charge of the administration of justice, the support of Civil Government, and the defence, protection, and security of the Colonies." But we beg leave to assure your Majesty that such provision has been and will be made for defraying the two first artiticlesarticles [sic], as has been and shall be judged by the Legislatures of the several Colonies just and suitable to their respective circumstances; and, for the defence, protection, and security of the Colonies, their Militias, if properly regulated, as they earnestly desire may immediately be done, would be fully sufficient, at least in times of peace; and, in case of war, your faithful Colonists will be ready and willing, as they ever have been, when constitutionally required, to demonstrate their loyalty to your Majesty, by exerting their most strenuous efforts in granting supplies and raising forces. Yielding to no British subjects in affectionate