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Rh The distances $$\scriptstyle{x}$$, $$\scriptstyle{y}$$, $$\scriptstyle{z}$$ are measured by standards at rest, $$\scriptstyle{\xi}$$, $$\scriptstyle{\eta}$$, $$\scriptstyle{\zeta}$$, by standards in motion. The distance between two points (say on the $$\scriptstyle{x}$$-axis) when measured by the first is $$\scriptstyle{x_2-x_1}$$; when measured by the second, it is $$\scriptstyle{\xi_{2}-\xi_{1}=\frac{x_{2}-x_{1}}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}}$$. The length of the moving standards, when parallel to the axis of $$\scriptstyle{x}$$ are thus $$\scriptstyle{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}$$ times the fixed standards; when perpendicular to $$\scriptstyle{x}$$, they have the same length as the fixed standards. In order therefore that Einstein's principle should hold, it is necessary that all moving objects should suffer the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction. It is easy to compare the rates of the fixed and moving clocks by considering two events whose difference in time as measured by the fixed clocks is $$\scriptstyle{t_2-t_1}$$; as measured by a moving clock whose coordinate is $$\scriptstyle{\xi^\prime}$$, let the interval be $$\scriptstyle{\tau_2-\tau_1}$$. Then $\scriptstyle{\tau_{2}-\tau_{1}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}\left[t_{2}-t_{1}-\frac{v}{\text{V}^{2}}(x_{2}-x_{1})\right]}$ But $\scriptstyle{x_{2}=\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}\xi^\prime-vt_{2}}$ and $\scriptstyle{x_{1}=\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}\xi^\prime-vt_{1}}$. So that $\scriptstyle{\tau_{2}-\tau_{1}=\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}(t_{2}-t_{1})}$.|undefined Thus the moving clocks run slower than the fixed ones; if a clock at rest beats seconds, it must, when in motion, have a period of $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}}$$ seconds. It is possible that the principle of relativity may come to be regarded as one of the fundamental empirical laws of Physics, occupying a position analogous to that of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. It rests on a similar basis, in that no deviations from it have been observed. Indeed the analogy may be made more complete by showing that the denial of the principle leads to a third kind of perpetual motion, by which the kinetic energy of any body might be exhausted and the body be brought to rest with reference to the ether. There is however an enormous difference in the breadth of the evidence on which the two principles rest. Violations of the principle of relativity lead only to minute effects which must be sought for in difficult and recondite experiments. The fact remains however that, so far as our knowledge extends, the principle holds; the most reasonable course in regard to it, and that which promises to be most fertile in results, is to accept it provisionally and to develop its

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498 . This will doubtless lead to further experimental tests; and even apart from direct tests, one may regard the evidence for the principle as being strengthened if it introduces simplification and harmony into the theory of phenomena which are apparently remote from those that led originally to its adoption. As the dimensions of all bodies are altered by motion through the ether, it is plain that such motion must be taken into account in the exact theory of even purely dynamical phenomena. As such applications are not very familiar and present some points of interest, it seems not altogether superfluous to consider a few very simple dynamical cases from this point of view. The Torsion Pendulum. Suppose a bar of length $$\scriptstyle{\text{L}}$$ (when at rest) hung up by a torsion wire in the ordinary way. Let the apparatus be carried by the earth through the ether with the velocity $$\scriptstyle{v}$$ in a direction perpendicular to the wire; and let us consider the period of the pendulum when the bar is clamped to the wire in two different positions: (1) with its length perpendicular to the earth's motion, and (2) parallel to the direction of motion. By the principle of relativity the two periods must be equal. As the length of the bar in the first position is $$\scriptstyle{\text{L}}$$ and in the second position $$\scriptstyle{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}\text{L}}$$, it appears at first sight that the mass of every particle of the bar should be greater in position (2) when it is moving perpendicularly to the earth's motion than in (1) when it is moving parallel to it. This would make the

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Rh transverse mass greater than the longitudinal, whereas the opposite is the case with the apparent mass due to electrical charges. A closer consideration however shows that this is an error arising from the application of the ideas of rigid dynamics to a body which is changing its shape. The path of any particle of the bar, if measured by a scale carried along with the earth, will appear to be the circle $$\scriptstyle{A B^\prime C}$$; if measured with reference to a scale at rest however it will be the ellipse $$\scriptstyle{ABC}$$ in which $$\scriptstyle{OB=\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}\,OA}$$. For brevity we shall refer to these as the "apparent" and the "true" paths. In case (1), let $$\scriptstyle{P_1}$$ be the true position of the particle, $$\scriptstyle{P_1^\prime}$$; its apparent position; let $$\scriptstyle{OM_1=x}$$; $$\scriptstyle{M_1 P_1=y}$$; $$\scriptstyle{\measuredangle AOP_1=\theta_1}$$; $$\scriptstyle{\measuredangle AOP_1^\prime=\theta_1^\prime}$$. In case (2), let $$\scriptstyle{OM_2=x_2}$$; $$\scriptstyle{M_2 P_2=y_2}$$; $$\scriptstyle{\measuredangle BOP_2=\theta_2}$$; $$\scriptstyle{\measuredangle BOP_2^\prime=\theta_2}$$. The potential energy of the twisted wire in either case depends on the apparent angle $$\scriptstyle{\theta_1^\prime}$$ or $$\scriptstyle{\theta_2^\prime}$$. This is seen if we consider two pointers attached to the wire, one along $$\scriptstyle{OA}$$ when the wire is untwisted and the other along $$\scriptstyle{OB}$$; if the wire is now given any twist the two apparent angles $$\scriptstyle{\theta_1^\prime}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\theta_2^\prime}$$ will be the same, but the real angles $$\scriptstyle{\theta_1}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\theta_2}$$ will be different as well as the two elliptical arcs traced out by the ends of the pointers. As the apparent motion is isochronous we may put the potential energy equal to $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{2}k\theta^{\prime 2}}$$. In position (1) we have For small oscillations, $$\scriptstyle{x_1=a}$$; $$\scriptstyle{\tan{\theta^\prime_1}=\theta^\prime_1}$$, and  Thus the potential energy is $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{2}\frac{k}{a^{2}(1-\beta^{2})}y_{1}^{2}}$$; the equation of motion of the particle becomes  and the period of oscillation In case (2) $$\scriptstyle{x_2=a\sin\theta^\prime_2=a\theta^\prime_2}$$ for small oscillations. The potential energy is thus $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{2}\frac{k}{a^{2}}x_{2}^{2}}$$, and the period

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500 In order for these periods to be equal we must have which is the same relation as that between the longitudinal and transverse masses of Lorentz's electron. That the variation with the velocity of $$\scriptstyle{m_1}$$ or $$\scriptstyle{m_2}$$ for ordinary matter is also the same as for Lorentz's electron may be shown in many ways; the following simple example will suffice for the purpose. Consider an elastic rod with its length perpendicular to the motion of the earth and making longitudinal vibrations. If its period of vibration is $$\scriptstyle{T}$$ we shall have where $$\scriptstyle{m_2}$$ is the transverse mass of any particle and $$\scriptstyle{\kappa}$$ is the coefficient of stretching of the rod. We must also have, by Einstein's transformation, where $$\scriptstyle{T_0}$$ is the period of the rod when at rest. The constant $$\scriptstyle{\kappa}$$ depends on the intermolecular forces in the direction of the length of the rod, that is perpendicular to the earth's motion; and these must vary with the velocity in the same manner as electrical forces. If we have two point charges moving through the ether in a direction perpendicular to the line joining them, the force between them is where $$\scriptstyle{E_0}$$ is the force when they are at rest. Thus we have and  whence  It follows therefore from our hypothesis not only that all mass is electromagnetic but also that it varies with the speed in the specific manner of Lorentz's electron.

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Rh The Gravitational Pendulum. As a further example, consider a simple pendulum at a point on the earth's surface 90° from the pole of its motion, so that the string is perpendicular to the direction of motion. When it vibrates in a plane at right angles to the motion the path of the bob is a circular arc and the period is where $$\scriptstyle{G}$$ is the force with which the earth attracts the bob. When it vibrates in the plane of motion its path is the arc of an ellipse whose axes are $$\scriptstyle{L}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{L\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}};}$$ for the same vertical height (that is for the same potential energy), the infinitesimal arc described will be in this case less than in the other in the ratio of $$\scriptstyle{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}$$ to unity. So that the period is giving the same ratio of masses as before. Comparing, say, the first of these with the period which the pendulum would have if the earth were at rest, we have and since   Thus the gravitational force between two bodies moving at right angles to the line joining them is the same function of the velocity as the electric force between two moving charges in a corresponding position. If we imagine the pendulum suspended at the place on the earth which is foremost or rearmost in its motion, the length of the string will be $$\scriptstyle{L\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}$$ and the period whence  which again corresponds to the electrical case when the line joining the charges is parallel to the motion. Am. Jour. Sci.—Fourth Series, Vol. XXVI, No. 155.—November, 1908. 35

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502 It is scarcely necessary to point out that such problems as we have been considering do not lead to any practicable experimental tests. In order to detect deviations, it would be necessary to measure the periods in question with an accuracy such that the errors should be less than $$\scriptstyle{10^{-8}}$$, which is quite out of the question at present. This does not however affect the legitimacy of the use of such methods in following out the consequences of the principle; just as the impossibility of actually constructing a reversible engine does not invalidate that method of applying the second law of thermodynamics. More general methods might be used; but there is some advantage, especially in a comparatively new subject, in the simplicity and concreteness of ideas derived from the consideration of special problems. Applications to Gravitation. A promising direction in which to look for possible tests of the hypothesis is among the consequences of the deduction that gravitational forces must vary with motion through the ether in the same manner as electrical forces.

If we have a point charge $$\scriptstyle{e}$$ moving alonealong [sic] the axis of $$\scriptstyle{x,}$$ with the uniform velocity $$\scriptstyle{v,}$$ the electric intensity at a point $$\scriptstyle{P}$$ whose coordinates are $$\scriptstyle{r,~\theta}$$ is

where $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}_1}$$ is a unit vector in the direction of $$\scriptstyle{r}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\beta=\frac{v}{\text{V}}}.$$ The magnetic force is perpendicular to the plane of $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}}$$ and has the magnitude

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Rh These are also the values of the electric and magnetic forces produced at points outside, by Lorentz's electron, or by any charged system in which, when at rest, the charge is distributed with spherical symmetry and which, when in motion, suffers the Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction. $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$ is the force exerted by the moving charge $$\scriptstyle{e,}$$ upon a unit charge which is at rest at the point $$\scriptstyle{P.}$$ If the unit charge at $$\scriptstyle{P}$$ is in motion with the velocity $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{u},}$$ then the force exerted upon it, which we may call ($$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$), is where $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{u}\times\mathbf{H}}$$ represents the vector product. Thus the force on a charge at rest at the point, $$\scriptstyle{P,}$$ is in the direction of $$\scriptstyle{r,}$$ but this is not true in general if it is in motion. Let us consider first the special case when the two charges have the same velocity, $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{u}=\mathbf{v}.}$$ Let the two components of $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$ parallel and perpendicular to $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}}$$ be $$\scriptstyle{E_1}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{E_2,}$$ respectively. The force $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}\times\mathbf{H}}$$ will be parallel to $$\scriptstyle{E_2}$$ and in the opposite direction and its magnitude will be $$\scriptstyle{vH.}$$ So that the corresponding components of ($$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$) are

and or since

These are the components of the actual force on the moving charge at $$\scriptstyle{P;}$$ if it is of opposite sign to the charge $$\scriptstyle{e,}$$ the force will have the direction given in fig. 2. When $$\scriptstyle{\theta=0}$$, $$\scriptstyle{(E)_2=0}$$ and which is $$\scriptstyle{(1-\beta^2)}$$ times the value of the electrostatic force when the charges are at rest: this corresponds to the gravitational case of p. 501 when the force was in the direction of motion. When $$\scriptstyle{\theta=\frac{\pi}{2}}$$, $$\scriptstyle{(E)_1=0}$$, and which also agrees with the corresponding case for gravitation. If we apply this electromagnetic law of force to gravitation we are at first sight confronted with the difficulty that the magnitude of the force varies not only with the distance but

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504 also with the angle $$\scriptstyle{\theta;}$$ and there is also an aberration in the direction of the force. It is important, however, to notice that the variation and aberration of the force is of the second order in the small fraction $$\scriptstyle{\frac{v}{\text{V}},}$$ instead of the first order as has often been assumed in discussing the possible speed of propagation of gravitational force. In the special case before us, the principle of relativity relieves us entirely from the difficulty of even these small variations from the Newtonian law. This is apparent from the general statement of the principle; but it is of some interest to see how the matter works out in detail. What is subject to observation is not the force but the acceleration; if we let $$\scriptstyle{f_1}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{f_2}$$ be the components of the acceleration parallel and perpendicular to the common motion of the two bodies, we shall have

and the resultant of these is along $$\scriptstyle{r,}$$ so that there is no aberration of the acceleration. With regard to the variation of the acceleration with the distance, it must be remembered that, to an observer moving with the system, apparent distances in the direction of motion, $$\scriptstyle{(x)}$$, are greater than their true values in the ratio $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}.}$$ Thus if the "true" coordinates of $$\scriptstyle{P}$$ (fig. 2) are $$\scriptstyle{x,~y,}$$ the "apparent" coordinates will be $$\scriptstyle{x^\prime,~y,}$$ where $$\scriptstyle{x^\prime=\frac{x}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}}.}$$ The "true" distance, $$\scriptstyle{r,}$$ will be the radius vector of an ellipse whose major axis is the "apparent" distance, $$\scriptstyle{r^\prime,}$$ and whose minor axis is $$\scriptstyle{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}r^\prime;}$$ the polar equation of the ellipse ($$\scriptstyle{\theta}$$ being measured from the minor axis) gives

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Rh We must also observe that the "apparent" acceleration $$\scriptstyle{(f_1^\prime,~f_2^\prime)}$$ differs from the "true" acceleration not only on account of the different scale of length in the $$\scriptstyle{x}$$ direction, but also because of the larger unit of time given by a moving clock. Thus In equations (6) put $$\scriptstyle{\frac{x}{r}}$$ for $$\scriptstyle{\cos\theta,}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\frac{y}{r}}$$ for $$\scriptstyle{\sin\theta;}$$ put for $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$ its value from (1) and for $$\scriptstyle{r}$$ its value from (7); substituting in (8) the values thus obtained for $$\scriptstyle{f_1}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{f_2,}$$ we obtain. The resultant "apparent" acceleration will thus be When $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}_1^\prime}$$ is an "apparent" unit vector in the direction $$\scriptstyle{r^\prime.}$$ When there is relative motion of the planet with respect to the sun, however, the compensation is not perfect. In fact, deviations from the Newtonian law may be introduced which would not exist if the longitudinal and transverse masses were equal. This may be most easily seen when the attracting body is at rest in the ether with a planet moving about it; in this case the force given by electrical theory is the ordinary electrostatic force; it will be in the direction of the radius vector and will vary according to the inverse square of the distance. But the resultant acceleration will not be along the radius vector if the longitudinal and transverse masses are different. Let $$\scriptstyle{\phi}$$ be the angle between the radius vector and the tangent to the path; and let the forces and accelerations, tangential and normal to the path, be respectively $$\scriptstyle{F_t,~F_n,~f_t,~f_n.}$$ Then

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506 The acceleration along the radius vector is $\scriptstyle{f_{n}\sin\phi+f_{t}\cos\phi=\frac{\text{V}^{2}e}{m_{0}r^{2}}(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}(1-\beta^{2}\cos^{2}\phi)}$|undefined The acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector is $\scriptstyle{f_{n}\cos\phi-f_{t}\sin\phi=\frac{\text{V}^{2}e}{m_{0}r^{2}}(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}\sin\phi\cos\phi\cdot\beta^{2}}$|undefined If we take the earth as a numerical example, this perpendicular acceleration is very small. Its maximum value will occur when the earth is at the extremities of the minor axis of its orbit; at this point $\scriptstyle{\cos\phi=\epsilon;\ \sin\phi=\sqrt{1-\epsilon^{2}};}$|undefined where $$\scriptstyle{\epsilon}$$ is the eccentricity of the orbit. Taking $$\scriptstyle{\epsilon=1\cdot 7\times10^{-3}}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\beta^2=10^{-8}}$$ we find Acceleration along $$\scriptstyle{r=\frac{\text{V}^{2}e}{m_{0}r^{2}}(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}~[1-2\cdot 9\times10^{-12}]}$$ Acceleration perpendicular to $$\scriptstyle{r=\frac{\text{V}^{2}e}{m_{0}r^{2}}(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}~[1\cdot 7\times10^{-10}]}$$ I am not sufficiently familiar with the details of astronomical calculations to be able to say with entire confidence whether or not such an acceleration perpendicular to $$\scriptstyle{r}$$ could be detected. It seems, however, unlikely. The maximum effect is of the same order as would be produced by a perturbing body at a distance equal to that of the sun, and whose mass was only $$\scriptstyle{\frac{1}{200,000}}$$ that of the earth. The perturbation, moreover, would be periodic, vanishing at perihelion and aphelion and accelerating the earth's motion in one-half the orbit, retarding it in the other half. When the sun is also moving, the problem becomes more complicated. For the present purpose it will be sufficient to obtain the order of magnitude of the acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector. Let $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}}$$ be the velocity of the sun, and $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{u}}$$ that of the planet relative to the sun. Then the force on the planet is where $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$ is given by equation (1), in which $$\scriptstyle{\beta}$$ is now the ratio of the velocity of the sun to the velocity of light, and $$\scriptstyle{\theta}$$ is the angle between the radius vector and the sun's path. The magnitude of $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{H}}$$ is given by equation (2). The force $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{E}}$$ is along the radius vector; the force $$\scriptstyle{(\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{u})\times\mathbf{H}}$$ is normal to the resultant path of the planet. Let $$\scriptstyle{\psi}$$ be the angle between $$\scriptstyle{r}$$ and the tangent to the resultant path of the planet, then

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Rh $\begin{align}&\scriptstyle{\mathbf{F}_t=\mathbf{E}\cos\psi}\\&\scriptstyle{\mathbf{F}_n=\mathbf{E}\sin\psi+ in which the term enclosed by vertical lines represents the magnitude only of the vector. $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{H}}$$ is perpendicular to the plane containing $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v};}$$ let $$\scriptstyle{u_1}$$ be the component of $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{u}}$$ in this plane and let $$\scriptstyle{w}$$ be the resultant of $$\scriptstyle{u_1}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{v}$$. Then $\scriptstyle{ and $\scriptstyle{F_{n}=E(\sin\psi+\frac{wv}{\text{V}^{2}}\sin\theta).}$|undefined Dividing $$\scriptstyle{F_t}$$ and $$\scriptstyle{F_n}$$ by the longitudinal and transverse masses respectively, we obtain for the accelerations, $\begin{array}{c}\scriptstyle{f_{t}=\frac{(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{3}{2}}}{m_{0}}\mathbf{E}\cos\psi}\\\scriptstyle{f_{n}=\frac{(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}}{m_{0}}\mathbf{E}(\sin\psi+\frac{wv}{\text{V}^{2}}\sin\theta)}\end{array}$|undefined The acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector is $\scriptstyle{f_{n}=\cos\psi-f_{t}\sin\psi=\frac{(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}}{m_{0}}\mathbf{E}(\beta^{2}\sin\psi\cos\psi+\frac{wv}{\text{V}^{2}}\sin\theta\cos\psi).}$|undefined Recent estimates make the sun's velocity about 20 kilometers per second, so that $$\scriptstyle{\beta^{2}=0\cdot 45\times10^{-8};}$$ its direction makes an angle with the plane of the earth's orbit of about 55°. When $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}}$$ is perpendicular to the plane containing $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}}$$ and the normal to the plane of the orbit, $$\scriptstyle{\cos\psi}$$ is nearly zero; it must in fact be less than $$\scriptstyle{\epsilon}$$ (the eccentricity of the orbit) even in the favorable case when the minor axis falls in this position; with the major axis in this position it will be zero. In this position, therefore, the acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector cannot be as much as twice that which was found for the sun at rest. When $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{r}}$$ is in the plane containing $$\scriptstyle{\mathbf{v}}$$ and the normal to the plane of the orbit, $$\scriptstyle{\theta=55}$$°, $$\scriptstyle{\psi<55}$$° and $$\scriptstyle{w=v.}$$ So that the acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector will be less than $\scriptstyle{\frac{(1-\beta^{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}}{m_{0}}\mathbf{E}\beta^{2}\sin~110}$°.|undefined that is its ratio to the acceleration in the direction of the radius will be less than $$\scriptstyle{1\cdot 4\times 10^{-9}.}$$ In order to be quite certain that astronomical facts are not in conflict with the principle of relativity, it will doubtless be necessary to make detailed comparisons between observation

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508 and calculation based upon this hypothesis. The small magnitude of the departures from the Newtonian law, of which more or less rough estimates have been given above, render it probable that there would be no serious lack of agreement. This probability is strengthened by a calculation published some years ago by Lorentz. In this he found the secular variations of the elements of the orbit of Mercury due to the substitution of electro-dynamic forces for the strictly Newtonian force. The variations in the angular elements amounted to only a few seconds of arc in a century and the change in the eccentricity to $$\scriptstyle{0\cdot 000005.}$$ He did not, it is true, take into account the effects of variable mass, which had not at that time become prominent even in electrical theory. The introduction of electromagnetic mass will, in general, tend to diminish the effects of the sun's motion and to exaggerate the effects of the motion of the earth relative to the sun. But from a comparison of the theoretical accelerations in the two cases, it does not appear that the variations could be increased enough to produce a sensible discrepancy. [Note added in Proof, Oct. 12. Since the above was written, two papers have come to my knowledge which bear upon this question. A. Wilkens (Phys. Zeitschr., vii, p. 846, 1906) has introduced electromagnetic mass in the ordinary Newtonian equations and has calculated the resulting secular variations in the elements of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, and Encke's comet. In all cases the variations are within the limits of accuracy of the observations. F. Wacker (Ibid., p. 300) considers the case when both force and mass are electromagnetic and, upon applying his equations to Mercury, finds for the motion of its perihelion a value less than one-fifth of that which is at present unaccounted for. The changes in the scales of length and time which would be introduced by the principle of relativity could affect these results very little; so that it seems quite certain that our present observational knowledge of gravitation is not sufficiently exact either to exclude the general application of the principle or to supply evidence in its favor.]

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Rh of the treachery of his predecessor, had to pay the penalty. As a striking contrast to the bloody reputation of the Queensland natives, how is that we learn such amicable and pleasing accounts of the blacks at Port Essington, where from 1838 to 1849 they not only lived on friendly terms with the garrison, but twenty years after it had been abandoned by the whites two gentlemen from Adelaide were able to occupy the peninsula as a run, and have been most kindly received by the aborigines, who show a reverence and respect for the memory of the early whites. Queenscliff, Victoria, June 13. —Queenslander, June 26, 1880.

,—If the editorial fiat, "This correspondence must now cease," has not gone forth, I would like to enter a protest against the somewhat calumnious articles directed against the pioneers of the colonies in general, and those of Northern Queensland in particular, which appeared in two successive issues of the Queenslander under the headings "The Way we Civilise," and "Black and White." To quote Macaulay:—"We know no spectacle so ridiculous as the British public in one of its periodical fits of morality. We read the scandal, talk about it for a day, and forget it. But once in six or seven years our virtue becomes outrageous. We cannot suffer the laws of religion and decency to be violated. We must make a stand against vice." We now appear about to suffer one of these "periodical fits," and, casting about for a scapegoat, fix upon the person of the pioneer—the settler of the interior; the key of the inland terra incognita we might call him—to bear the brunt of our virtuous indignation. But we should bear in mind that it is possible to be virtuous and yet unjust at the one time, and this appears to me to be the position the Queenslander has assumed. When it seriously states that "on occupying new territory the aboriginal inhabitants are treated in exactly the same way as the wild beasts or birds the settler may find there," its virtuous indignation—if it honestly believes in such wholesale vilification—is highly commendable, while at the same time the injustice of such a sweeping accusation, levelled against a body of men who form one of our most useful and enterprising of colonists, is greatly to be deplored. Let us take retrospect to a date some 238 years antecedent to the present era. We find, referring to New Zealand, "Tasman did not land on any part of the island, but having had a boat's crew cut off by the natives in what he then called Massacre Bay he was content to sail along the west coast of the North Island." And again, on 8th October, 127 years subsequent to Tasman's visit, we find Captain Cook defending himself from an unprovoked attack from the same people, and glad to make good his retreat from so "unfortunate and inhospitable a place." Here we are furnished with two authentic records of instances in which it is quite plain the white man could not have been the aggressor, for in the first instance they had not even landed on the aboriginal's soil, and in the second had done so in the hope of being able to open up friendly negotiations with the natives; and it was, finally, in pursuance of this laudable project that the gallant commander referred to fell a victim to ferocious barbarism. I have selected these two remote instances, first, because they stand amongst the first instances on record wherein the aboriginals of the southern hemisphere and the European have come into collision. Secondly, because, being a matter of history, they are more likely to gain credence than those instances which have occurred contemporaneous with our own experience, in our own colony; and, to be more explicit, in the districts of Burke and Cook. I could recount many instances where the pioneer, having selected his blocks and formed a comfortable homestead, has allowed the aboriginals—free from any previous intercourse with Europeans—to form a camp near the station. How they had been generously supplied with food that could be ill spared. How the virtues of a "Friday" appeared to be intensified in each sable warrior. How they had been presented with sundry articles of clothing, implements, &c., until the increasing cry for more could not possibly be complied with; and then, how the settler returned home after a hard day's ride to find his late companions murdered and mutilated beyond recognition, his homestead and stores in smouldering ruins, and the ground littered with broken spears. This was no unfrequent experience in the early days of settlement, and the same thing will continue to occur while the progress of colonisation is to be carried on in outlying districts inhabited by the blacks. Where this sort of thing is likely to

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 coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland, was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck in 1510. On Falster is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29 m.). From Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the 14th century, Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of Denmark.

Geology.—The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified; but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed, some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost everywhere the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast. Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known limestone of Faxe, belongs to the highest or “Danian” subdivision of the Cretaceous period. In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent. Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the country did not appear above the water till about the close of the Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches, marked by accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed the aspect and configuration of the country.

Climate, Flora, Fauna.—The climate of Denmark does not differ materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature varied from 43.88° F. to 46.22° in different years and different localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45.14°. The islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland. The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are 33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for the whole winter 32.7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59.2°, but considerable irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall varies between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and different localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15.78 in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the wettest month being September, with an average of 2.95 in.; the driest month is April, with an average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland, a cold and dry N.W. wind called skai prevails in May and June, and is exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its influence from 15 to 30 m. inland.

The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin, for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still the characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in (q.v.). But again, abundant traces of ancient extensive forests of fir and pine are found in the numerous peat bogs which supply a large proportion of the fuel locally used. In Bornholm, it should be mentioned, the flora is more like that of Sweden; not the beech, but the pine, birch and ash are the most abundant trees.

The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest of central Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even the red deer, formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in Jutland in 1593 no less than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now only to be met with in preserves. In the prehistoric “kitchen-middens” (kjökkenmödding) and elsewhere, however, vestiges are found which prove that the urochs, the wild boar, the beaver, the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to the arrival of man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. The sea fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some places, but have disappeared from many localities, where their abundance in ancient times is proved by their shell moulds on the coast. The Gudenaa is the only salmon river in Denmark.

Population.—The population of Denmark in 1901 was 2,449,540. It was 929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during the century in the proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average density of the population of Denmark was 165.2 to the square mile, but varied much in the different parts. Jutland showed an average of only 109 inhabitants per square mile, whilst on the islands, which had a total population of 1,385,537, the average stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the fact that large tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost uninhabited, and on the other to the fact that the capital of the country, with its proportionately large population, is situated on the island of Zealand. The percentages of urban and rural population are respectively about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to the towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the rural population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas in Jutland the increase of the rural population between 1890 and 1901 amounted to 12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances contributed to the increase, as successful efforts have been made to render the land fruitful by artificial means. The

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 Danes are a yellow-haired and blue-eyed Teutonic race of middle stature, bearing traces of their kinship with the northern Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life resemble those of the North Germans even more than those of the Swedes. The independent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers, who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally slow of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but take an eager interest in current politics, and are generally fairly educated men of extreme democratic principles. The result of a fairly equal distribution of wealth is a marked tendency towards equality in social intercourse. The townspeople show a bias in favour of French habits and fashions. The separation from the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more than half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish dominions except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where a Scandinavian language is not spoken. The preponderance of the female population over the male is approximately as 1052 to 1000. The male sex remains in excess until about the twentieth year, from which age the female sex preponderates in increasing ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is high as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low. But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between the middle and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality decreased most markedly for all ages. During the last decade of the century it ranged between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and 15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900). Emigration for some time in the 19th century at different periods, both in its early part and towards its close, seriously affected the population of Denmark. But in the last decade it greatly diminished. Thus in 1892 the number of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to 10,422 but in 1900 it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the United States; next in favour is Canada.

Communications.—The roads of Denmark form an extensive and well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly complete, the state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, which amounts to some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from Schleswig across the frontier. The main Danish lines are as follows. From the frontier a line runs east by Fredericia, across the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to Korsör on Zealand, and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits between Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is also in use on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island of Falster, from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers taking railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany. The main lines in Jutland run (a) along the eastern side north from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg and Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the western side from Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the peninsula by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are generally of standard gauge (4 ft. 8 in.), but there is also a considerable mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the numerous steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite passenger line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör, while most of the German Baltic ports have direct connexion with Copenhagen. With Sweden communications are established by ferries across the Sound between Copenhagen and Malmö and Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör) and Helsingborg. The postal department maintains a telegraph and telephone service.

Industries.—The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture, which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. Most of the land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, and comparatively little land is let on lease except very large holdings and glebe farms. The independent small farmer (bönder) maintains a hereditary attachment to his ancestral holding. There is also a class of cottar freeholders (junster). Fully 74% of the total area of the country is agricultural land. Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The land under grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the principal crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the last forty years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly developed in Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection by the application of scientific methods and the best machinery, as well as by the establishment of joint dairies. The Danish government has assisted this development by granting money for experiments and by a rigorous system of inspection for the prevention of adulteration. The co-operative system plays an important part in the industries of butter-making, poultry-farming and the rearing of swine.

Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for export. Woods cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation is considered of so much importance that private owners are under strict control as regards cutting of timber. The woods consist mostly of beech, which is principally used for fuel, but pines were extensively planted during the 19th century. Allusion has been made already to the efforts to plant the extensive heaths in (q.v.) with pine-trees.

Agriculture.—Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according to a uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is called a Tonde Hartkorn. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated, has further subdivision, and is intended to correspond to the same value of land throughout the country. The Danish measure for land is a Tonde Land (Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363 statute acres. Of the best ploughing land a little over 6 Td. L., or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of unprofitable land a Td. Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the islands and in the more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10 Td. L., or 13 acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td. Htk. for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment is somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural holdings is the same as in other parts. The selling value of land has shown a decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural depression. A homestead with land assessed less than 1 Td. Htk. is legally called a Huus or Sted, i.e. cottage, whilst a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or more is called Gaard, i.e. farm. Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk. are called Bondergaarde, or peasant farms, and are subject to the restriction that such a holding cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely merged into another. They may be subdivided, and portions may be added to another holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land, must be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the nobility and landed gentry are called Herregaarde. The peasants hold about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards their size about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about 33% from 4 to 8 Td. Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. An annual sum is voted by parliament out of which loans are granted to cottagers who desire to purchase small freehold plots.

The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance both on account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the population of the country, and on account of the export; but the good fishing grounds, not far from the Danish coast, particularly in the North Sea, are mostly worked by the fishing vessels of other nations, which are so numerous that the Danish government is obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there in order to prevent encroachments on territorial waters.

Other Industries.—The mineral products of Denmark are unimportant. It is one of the poorest countries of Europe in this particular. It is rich, however, in clays, while in the island of Bornholm there are quarries of freestone and marble. The factories of Denmark supply mainly local needs. The largest are those engaged in the construction of engines and iron ships. The manufacture of woollens and cotton, the domestic manufacture of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills, breweries, and distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable manufacture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china out of Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the

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 this injunction was, however, neutralised by a commission issued almost simultaneously, and doubtless at the instance of de Montfort, by which he was placed in command of the royal castles of Ludgershall and Marlborough. In 1263 he joined the insurgent barons under de Montfort, ravaging the Welsh marches with Roger de Leybourne and taking Hereford and Bristol, and was excommunicated. The following year he returned to his allegiance and played a prominent part in the siege of Nottingham, taking prisoner Simon de Montfort the younger. He was rewarded with the command of the castle of Gloucester and the shrievalty of the county, and with the post of justice of the royal forests south of the Trent. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Lewes, but was among those who were released on condition of appearing in parliament when summoned. The liberty thus gained he employed in raising an army for the king in the Welsh marches, and with Roger de Mortimer succeeded in reducing Gloucester, Bridgnorth, and Marlborough. Cited by the parliament to give an account of his conduct and failing to appear, he was declared an exile. In the spring of 1265 the timely appearance of a force under the joint command of Clifford and Roger de Leybourne prevented the recapture of Prince Edward, then a fugitive from the castle of Hereford. Clifford also greatly distinguished himself at the battle of Evesham in August of the same year; it was to him that John Fitz-John, one of the few English supporters of de Montfort who left the field alive, owed his preservation. In recognition of his services the king released him from a debt of 399l. 17s., granted him very extensive estates in Warwickshire and Leicestershire, and put him in possession, jointly with Roger de Leybourne, of certain estates in Westmoreland which had belonged to Robert de Vipont (Veteri Ponte). Clifford obtained (1269-70) the hand of Isabella, Vipont's elder daughter and coheiress, for his son Roger, and Leybourne married her younger sister Idonea. There is evidence, however, that Clifford and Leybourne soon began to quarrel about their respective shares of the property. In 1270 Clifford joined the crusade under Prince Edward, his son Roger being temporarily substituted for him as justice of the forests, and he was one of the executors of the will made by the prince at Acre in 1272, and a witness to the contract executed by Edward at Sordua in Gascony in the following year, by which he agreed to marry his eldest daughter to the eldest son of Peter of Arragon. It was probably in the same year that Clifford married in France a lady who is described by Dugdale as the Countess of Lauretania. The lady died in 1301, and was buried in Worcester Cathedral. Clifford's first wife was probably Hawyse or Avicia, daughter of John Boterell, a grant of whose hand his father had obtained from the king in 1230. On his return to England in 1274 he was at once sent with William de Beauchamp into Wales with a commission to examine into the state of the border and to exact reparation for breaches of the peace. In the autumn of 1275 he was again in France, being commissioned to explain to Philip Edward's reason for refusing to act as arbitrator in a dispute between the Duke of Burgundy and the Count of Nivernois, which it was desired to refer to him. We find him appointed governor of Erdesleigh in Herefordshire in the following year, and justice of Wales in 1279, being invested, as we gather from Rishanger, with a jurisdiction extending over the whole of that country. On the outbreak of the last Welsh insurrection he was surprised by David, brother of Llewelyn, in Hawarden Castle on Palm Sunday (22 March 1281-2), the garrison being put to the sword, and taken prisoner, though not before he had been severely (according to one chronicler mortally) wounded. He was carried to Snowdon. In the war which followed his son Roger was drowned on St. Leonard's day (6 Nov. 1282) while crossing a bridge of boats over the Menai Straits, a sudden attack of the Welsh having thrown the English forces into confusion. Clifford probably died about 1285. His estate being in debt to the crown, execution was issued on his goods in 1286, the jewels of his widow the countess being exempted by the writ. Before his death he had made over to the city of London certain property which he held in the Jewry.

[Ypodigma Neustriæ (Rolls Ser.), 153, 155, 158, 173, 510; Rishanger (Rolls Ser.), 13, 21, 30–1, 34, 97, 99, 103, (Camden Society) 18, 125; Gervase of Canterbury (Rolls Ser.), ii. 221–2, 226, 234, iii. 225, 232, iv. 172, 234–5; Annal. Monast. (Rolls Ser.), ii. 107, 109, 376, 397, iii. 292, iv. 459, 481, 485; Hoare's Wiltshire, Hd. of Ambresbury, 84; Devon's Issues of the Exch. (Hen. III–Hen. VI), p. 93; Rot. Fin. (Roberts), ii. 182, 242, 410; Cal. Rot. Chart. 92; Excerpta e Rot. Fin., i. 219, ii. 520; Rot. Hund., i. 186, ii. 140, 270; Rymer's Fœdera (2nd edit.), i. 777, 804, (ed. Clarke) i. pt. i. 434, 449, 455, 465, 483, pt. ii. 504, 506, 510, 530, 537, 558, 576, 608; Eyton's Shropshire, v. 146, 163; Nichols's Leicestershire, i. 178, 181; Dugdale's Warwickshire (Thomas), pp. 399, 556, 899, 1009; Pierre de Langtoft (Rolls Ser.), ii. 178; Eulogium Historiarum (Rolls Ser.), iii. 123, 129, 136, 145; Cal. Rot. Pat. 42; Parl. Writs, i. 222; John de Oxenides


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 state, and has remained there ever since, though there are also private factories. Originally the Copenhagen potters imitated the Dresden china made at Meissen, but they later produced graceful original designs. The creations of Thorvaldsen have been largely repeated and imitated in this ware. Trade-unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent occurrence.

Commerce.—Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark was to such a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had to be delivered to the customs, where they were sold by public auction, the proceeds of which the importer received from the custom-houses after a deduction was made for the duty. To this restriction, as regards foreign intercourse, was added a no less injurious system of inland duties impeding the commerce of the different provinces with each other. The want of roads also, and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, however, several commercial treaties were concluded between Denmark and the other powers of Europe, which made the Danish tariff more regular and liberal.

The vexed question, of many centuries’ standing, concerning the claim of Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the (q.v.), was settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. The commerce of Denmark is mainly based on home production and home consumption, but a certain quantity of goods is imported with a view to re-exportation, for which the free port and bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In modern times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding a total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is exceeded as a whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, of 1 to 1.35. By far the most important articles of export may be classified as articles of food of animal origin, a group which covers the vast export trade in the dairy produce, especially butter, for which Denmark is famous. The value of the butter for export reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish exports. A small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia (also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. The production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, margarine being largely consumed in Denmark instead of butter, which is exported. Next to butter the most important article of Danish export is bacon, and huge quantities of eggs are also exported. Exports of less value, but worthy of special notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow, also dairy machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal origin, and living animals, are the only ones of which the exportation exceeds the importation; with regard to all other goods, the reverse is the case. In the second of these classes the most important export is home-bred horned cattle. The trade in live sheep and swine, which was formerly important, has mostly been converted into a dead-meat trade. A proportionally large importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of native timber suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs and pines being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty years. The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and goods made from them is likewise caused by the natural poverty of the country in these respects.

Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, Great Britain and the United States of America, in this order, the proportions being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the total. Its principal export trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Sweden, the percentage of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. With Russia, Norway and France (in this order) general trade is less important, but still large. A considerable proportion of Denmark’s large commercial fleet is engaged in the carrying trade between foreign, especially British, ports.

Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the metric system of weights and measures should come into official use in three years from that date, and into general use in five years.

Money and Banking.—The unit of the Danish monetary system, as of the Swedish and Norwegian, is the krone (crown), equal to 1s. 1d., which is divided into 100 öre; consequently 7 öre are equal to one penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and gold pieces of 20 and 10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, as the public prefers bank-notes. The principal bank is the National Bank at Copenhagen, which is the only one authorized to issue notes. These are of the value of 10, 50, 100 and 500 kr. Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank, the Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The provincial banks are very numerous; many of them are at the same time savings banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions, is 3 to 4%. There exist, besides, in Denmark several mutual loan associations (Kreditforeninger), whose business is the granting of loans on mortgage. Registration of mortgages is compulsory in Denmark, and the system is extremely simple, a fact which has been of the greatest importance for the improvement of the country. There are comparatively large institutions for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest office for life insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of April 1891 a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit of persons over sixty years of age.

Government.—Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to the law of 1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with the parliament (Rigsdag), which consists of two chambers, the Landsthing and the Folkething, but the constitution contains no indication of any difference in their attributes. The Landsthing, or upper house, however, is evidently intended to form the conservative element in the constitutional machinery. While the 114 members of the Folkething (House of Commons) are elected for three years in the usual way by universal suffrage, 12 out of the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members nominated by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies one-half are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething, without any property qualification for the voters; the other half of the deputy electors are chosen in the towns by those who during the last preceding year were assessed on a certain minimum of income, or paid at least a certain amount in rates and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy electors returned by election are supplemented by an equal number of those who have paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates together. In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on public affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs of the state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached his thirtieth year, subject to independence of public charity and certain other circumstances. A candidate for either house of the Rigsdag must have passed the age of twenty-five. Members are paid ten kroner each day of the session and are allowed travelling expenses. The houses meet each year on the first Monday in October. The constitutional theory of the Folkething is that of one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The Faeröe islands, which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in the wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not the other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, Greenland and the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John and St Croix. The budget is considered by the Folkething at the beginning of each session. The revenue and expenditure average annually about £4,700,000. The principal items of revenue are customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps, railways, legal fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable reserve fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is about £13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing interest generally at 3%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with interest generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the Faeröes are included in the budget for Denmark proper, but Iceland and the West Indies have their separate budgets. The Danish treasury receives nothing from these possessions; on the contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the West Indian islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances to

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 assist the sugar industry. The administration of (q.v.) entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the ministry of finances. The state council (Statsraad) includes the presidency of the council and ministries of war, and marine, foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, public institution and ecclesiastical, agriculture and public works.

Local Government.—For administrative purposes the country is divided into eighteen counties (Amter, singular Amt), as follows. (1) Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, Copenhagen, Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering the islands of Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering Fünen, Langeland and adjacent islets, Svendborg, Odense. (4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg, Thisted, Ringkjöbing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5) Bornholm. The principal civil officer in each of these is the Amtmand. Local affairs are managed by the Amstraad and Sogneraad, corresponding to the English county council and parish council. These institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several modifications since. The members of these councils are elected on a system similar to that applied to the elections for the Landsthing. The same is the case with the provincial town councils. That of Copenhagen is elected by those who are rated on an income of at least 400 kroner (£22). The burgomasters are appointed by the crown, except at Copenhagen, where they are elected by the town council, subject to royal approbation. The financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is generally good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about £1,100,000 a year.

Justice.—For the administration of justice Denmark is divided into herreds or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly of small extent, several are generally served by one judge (herredsfoged); the townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, each with a byfoged. There are 126 such local judges, each of whom deals with all kinds of cases arising in his district, and is also at the head of the police. There are two intermediary Courts of Appeal (Overret), one in Copenhagen, another in Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal (Höjesteret) sits at Copenhagen. In the capital the different functions are more divided. There is also a Court of Commerce and Navigation, on which leading members of the trading community serve as assessors. In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal with many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity of the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause can be brought before a court until an attempt has been made at effecting an amicable settlement. This is mostly done by so-called Committees of Conciliation, but in some cases by the court itself before commencing formal judicial proceedings. In this manner three-fifths of all the causes are settled, and many which remain unsettled are abandoned by the plaintiffs. Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health. The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a medical man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation to attend to poor sick and assist the authorities in medical matters, inquests, &c. The relief of the poor is well organized, mostly on the system of out-door relief. Many workhouses have been established for indigent persons capable of work. There are also many almshouses and similar institutions.

Army and Navy.—The active army consists of a life guard battalion and 10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, 5 cavalry regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now re-armed with a Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress artillery and 6 companies of engineers, with in addition various local troops and details. The peace strength of permanent troops, without the annual contingent of recruits, is about 13,500 officers and men, the annual contingent of men trained two or three years with the colours about 22,500, and the annual contingent of special reservists (men trained for brief periods) about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under arms (without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists who have definitively left the colours are recalled for short refresher trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being about 80,000. The field army on a war footing, without depot troops, garrison troops and reservists, would be about 50,000 strong, but by constituting new cadres at the outbreak of war and calling up the reserves it could be more than doubled, and as a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the colours in the manœuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight years in the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of .314 in. calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm. Krupp Q.F. equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 small battleships, 3 coast defence armour-clads, 5 protected cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo craft.

Religion.—The national or state church of Denmark is officially styled “Evangelically Reformed,” but is popularly described as Lutheran. The king must belong to it. There is complete religious toleration, but though most of the important Christian communities are represented their numbers are very small. The Mormon apostles for a considerable time made a special raid upon the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this faith. There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus, Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop of Zealand, and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at Roskilde. The bishops have no political function by reason of their office, although they may, and often do, take a prominent part in politics. The greater part of the pastorates comprise more than one parish. The benefices are almost without exception provided with good residences and glebes, and the tithes, &c., generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have fixed salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.

Education and Arts.—The educational system of Denmark is maintained at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools is gratuitous. Every child is bound to attend the parish school at least from the seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents can prove that it receives suitable instruction in other ways. The schools are under the immediate control of school boards appointed by the parish councils, but of which the incumbent of the parish is ex-officio member; superior control is exercised by the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop, under the Minister for church and education. Secondary public schools are provided in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are also public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. There are only two public schools, which, though on a much smaller scale, resemble the great English schools, namely, those of Sorö and Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence. Private schools are generally under a varying measure of public control. The university is at (q.v.). Amongst numerous other institutions for the furtherance of science and training of various kinds may be mentioned the large polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and veterinary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; the museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern antiquaries, &c. The art museums of Denmark are not considerable, except the museum of Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but much is done to provide first-rate training in the fine arts and their application to industry through the Royal Academy of Arts, and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned that a sum proportionately large is available from public funds and regular parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by temporary subventions to students, authors, artists and others of insufficient means, in order to enable them to carry out particular works, to profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific societies and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned who enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments of science, and Danish scientists continue to contribute their full share to the advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, that of northern antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical societies, &c., publish their transactions and proceedings, but the Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, of which 14 volumes with 259 plates were published (1861–1884), and which was in the foremost rank in its department, ceased with the death in 1884 of the editor, the distinguished zoologist, I. C. Schiödte.

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 Gregg's case, decisions upholding and rejecting challenges to death penalty statutes have divided the Supreme Court, and have led at times to sharply-worded judgments. The decisions ultimately turned on the votes of those judges who considered the nature of the discretion given to the sentencing authority to be the crucial factor.

Statutes providing for mandatory death sentences, or too little discretion in sentencing, have been rejected by the Supreme Court because they do not allow for consideration of factors peculiar to the convicted person facing sentence, which may distinguish his or her case from other cases. For the same reason, statutes which allow too wide a discretion to judges or juries have also been struck down on the grounds that the exercise of such discretion leads to arbitrary results. In sum, therefore, if there is no discretion, too little discretion, or an unbounded discretion, the provision authorising the death sentence has been struck down as being contrary to the Eighth Amendment; where the discretion has been "suitably directed and limited so as to minimise the risk of wholly arbitrary and capricious action", the challenge to the statute has failed.

Arbitrariness and Inequality

Basing his argument on the reasons which found favour with the majority of the United States Supreme Court in Furman v. Georgia, Mr Trengove contended on behalf of the accused that the imprecise language of section 277, and the unbounded discretion vested by it in the Courts, make its provisions unconstitutional.

Section 277 of the Criminal Procedure Act provides:

Sentence of death

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User talk:Simon Peter Hughes

— billinghurst  sDrewth  13:14, 22 January 2011 (UTC)

The Shunned House
Hi. The categories for Weird Tales/Volume 30/Issue 4/The Shunned House are actually on the redirect page The Shunned House. I put the categories there to keep the category pages legible (the full file path isn't that easy to read when browsing a category). I've added a defaultsort to the redirect (I don't know why I forgot to do so originally). - AdamBMorgan (talk) 20:00, 23 October 2012 (UTC)

Re
Hi, I answered your message here. Regards, Candalua (talk) 13:19, 20 June 2013 (UTC)

Wikisource User Group
Wikisource, the free digital library is moving towards better implementation of book management, proofreading and uploading. All language communities are very important in Wikisource. We would like to propose a Wikisource User Group, which would be a loose, volunteer organization to facilitate outreach and foster technical development, join if you feel like helping out. This would also give a better way to share and improve the tools used in the local Wikisources. You are invited to join the mailing list 'wikisource-l' (English), the IRC channel #wikisource, the facebook page or the Wikisource twitter. As a part of the Google Summer of Code 2013, there are four projects related to Wikisource. To get the best results out of these projects, we would like your comments about them. The projects are listed at Wikisource across projects. You can find the midpoint report for developmental work done during the IEG on Wikisource here.

Global message delivery, 23:23, 24 July 2013 (UTC)

Easier way to do "defaultsort"
Hi, for a work with as many sub-pages as A Dictionary of the Book of Mormon it would be easier to get a bot to add the defaultsort. You can put a request in at Bot Requests, and one of the bot-owners who do this sort of thing will be happy to assist. Doing so would free you to focus on works that require a more manual intervention. Beeswaxcandle (talk) 05:13, 20 August 2015 (UTC)
 * OK< I've made the request. I'll now move on from 1891 works to 1890 works. Simon Peter Hughes (talk) 09:15, 20 August 2015 (UTC)

wikilivres
hi;

in case you weren't "in the loop", we're working on getting wl back up (@ a new domain name).

https://wikisource.org/wiki/Wikisource_talk:Wikilivres

btw; last backup is from ~feb 20; if you happen to have saved any copies of work/content/material that is more recent, please do not delete! i do not have access anymore to backup copies of some of the books i've uploaded.

if the old site ever does come back online; we should try to scrape up all of the recent work.

best regards,

Lx 121 (talk) 12:01, 30 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Any idea what is happening with this site? It appears the domain has moved, maybe back again? Frayae (talk) 10:51, 6 November 2018 (UTC)
 * The address now is https://wikilivres.org and that's a new address. Before, it had been at wikilivres.info and then at wikilivres.ca. The previous address of https://biblo.wiki redirects to the new site. And it now looks like the name has officially changed back to Wikilivres again. That's a bit annoying for me after all the changes I did on other wikis to say that it was now called Bibliowiki. Currently, the content from the old site is being migrated to the new one and it's rather unstable. It should be ready by the start of December. Simon Peter Hughes (talk) 13:00, 6 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Hello. Sorry to bother you. I am a casual user of the Wikilivres site. I was wondering what is going on with the site. It has been unavailable for the past week. Any information would be appreciated. Thank you. 5.2.145.28 06:58, 2 September 2019 (UTC)

 * I don't know. I wish I did. Although the site was always a bit slow, by the start of August, it just got to the point that the site was loading so slowly that I found trying to edit it extremely frustrating and more trouble than it was worth. So I decided to take a complete break from the site and not even look at if for a week, in the hope that it would get better after that. A week went by and the site was still just as slow so I didn't try to edit it. Then two weeks. Then I tried to visit the site again and found it was down. I think Wikilivres might have finally died. But I hope I'm wrong. Simon Peter Hughes (talk) 11:55, 2 September 2019 (UTC)

Vita Nuova and Wikidata
It's not a "cock up" on Wikidata. The data structure for works links pages for "works" with each other. So if each Wikisource had a page for Dante's Vita Nuova as a work, then those would all be linked together. However, what you linked to are editions / translations, and each of those has a different translator, publisher, date, etc. So those each get separate data items, and should not be cross-linked with each other.

Yes, it's a headache, but I and others have been pushing for a tool that will correct the problem by automatically checking against the data structure at Wikidata to resolve the linking issue. In the meanwhile, it is always possible for each wikisource to create a "work" page listing translations published in their own language. The French have started doing this, and some Polish and Russian wikisourcers are doing likewise now. The Italians have created a separate namespace to handle the problem. --EncycloPetey (talk) 05:44, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

Gujarát and the Gujarátis
I already added Category:India when I noticed the work on the "New" List earlier today. I added the category in the header, using the categories= parameter instead of adding it to the bottom. --EncycloPetey (talk) 05:34, 3 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Ok. thank you for telling me. Simon Peter Hughes (talk) 05:36, 3 April 2018 (UTC)

Inline templates for Wikisource on Wikipedia

 * (putting this discussion here instead of at enWP deliberately, to not invite the typical 'pedian drama)

I'm coming to you somewhat on behalf of WikiProject Recruitment...

I've been trying to "recruit" new editors for years now by adding links to our works and authors on Wikipedia articles, and it seemingly hasn't done anything to that end. Wikisource is in really really bad need for advertising and recruitment, as our community is absurdly tiny to handle the ginormous sea of works we're given each year to transcribe. We need more editors, badly, and as soon as possible.

I notice you often change the block templates I add to inline templates, and I'm guessing the reason for this is the HTML issues that using block templates that float right will cause on some pages. And I do understand that. But, this is something I see as an issue even so, since the block templates are huge, loud, and seem convincing. But the inline templates are barely noticeable among the sea of random links to other sites. I'd like Wikisource to come across as something important, exciting, and visible, not as part of a mundane list of links.

My suggestion would be to change the sister templates to be centered and at the top of the external links list, so that it will never intrude on other templates due to floating. This is currently done to list related portals on some Wikipedia articles, so hopefully it can be done with sister projects too. But, I couldn't lend myself to go start a mainstream Wikipedia discussion about this, because I know that won't get me anywhere. They'd just throw a bunch of WP:THIS, WP:THAT, WP:THEOTHER, WP:NOPE, WP:NADA, WP:SILENCEYOUPEASANT, and then the discussion would be over just like that. (My experience has been, they're a very unwelcoming bunch of folks.) But I trust your judgment on the matter. Do you think there's anything we can do to improve visibility to our site from Wikipedia? SnowyCinema (talk) 17:30, 28 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Apologies for not getting back to you sooner. I have recently started a new job from which I don't return home until almost 10 o'clock at night, when I'm in no it state to communicate at length with anybody.

 * I think we're both on the same team here. I also want more people to be aware of Wikisource and contribute to it. The block templates were obviously originally designed to accompany great long lists of external links. Which is a bit ironic, since Wikipedia now generally frowns on long lists of external links. I would welcome a redesign of the Wikisource block template so that it is centred instead of floating on the right. That would then do away with the need for a Wikisource-inline template. However, it would mean that the block templates for all the over sister projects would have to be redesigned too.

 * Each time I changed a block template to an inline one, it was just because I thought it looked better that way. Other people might disagree and I would never edit war with them. So if you want to change any of them back, go ahead. Simon Peter Hughes (talk) 15:26, 12 February 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Simon Peter Hughes


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Page:EB1911 - Volume 08.djvu/43

 Another extremely valuable publication of wide general interest, the Meddelelser om Grönland, is published by the commission for the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the modern “art” current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in Denmark as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing fashion is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, called the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no marked excellence has been obtained.

Ancient.—Our earliest knowledge of Denmark is derived from Pliny, who speaks of three islands named “Skandiai,” a name which is also applied to Sweden. He says nothing about the inhabitants of these islands, but tells us more about the Jutish peninsula, or Cimbric Chersonese as he calls it. He places the Saxons on the neck, above them the Sigoulones, Sabaliggoi and Kobandoi, then the Chaloi, then above them the Phoundousioi, then the Charondes and finally the Kimbroi. He also mentions the three islands called Alokiai, at the northern end of the peninsula. This would point to the fact that the Limfjord was then open at both ends, and agree with Adam of Bremen (iv. 16), who also speaks of three islands called Wendila, Morse and Thud. The Cimbri and Charydes are mentioned in the Monumentum Ancyranum as sending embassies to Augustus in 5. The Promontorium Cimbrorum is spoken of in Pliny, who says that the Sinus Codanus lies between it and Mons Saevo. The latter place is probably to be found in the high-lying land on the N.E. coast of Germany, and the Sinus Codanus must be the S.W. corner of the Baltic, and not the whole sea. Pomponius Mela says that the Cimbri and Teutones dwelt on the Sinus Codanus, the latter also in Scandinavia (or Sweden). The Romans believed that these Cimbri and Teutones were the same as those who invaded Gaul and Italy at the end of the 2nd century The Cimbri may probably be traced in the province of Aalborg, formerly known as Himmerland; the Teutones, with less certainty, may be placed in Thyth or Thyland, north of the Limfjord. No further reference to these districts is found till towards the close of the migration period, about the beginning of the 6th century, when the (q.v.), a nation dwelling in or near the basin of the Elbe, were overthrown by the Langobardi. According to Procopius (Bellum Gothicum, ii. 15), a part of them made their way across the “desert of the Slavs,” through the lands of the Warni and the Danes to Thoule (i.e. Sweden). This is the first recorded use of the name “Danes.” It occurs again in Gregory of Tours (Historiae Francorum, iii. 3) in connexion with an irruption of a Götish (loosely called Danish) fleet into the Netherlands (c. 520). From this time the use of the name is fairly common. The heroic poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may carry the name further back, though probably it is not very ancient, at all events on the mainland.

According to late Danish tradition Denmark now consisted of Vitheslaeth (i.e. Zealand, Möen, Falster and Laaland), Jutland (with Fyen) and Skaane. Jutland was acquired by Dan, the eponymous ancestor of the Danes. He also won Skaane, including the modern provinces of Halland, Kristianstad, Malmöhus and Blekinge, and these remained part of Denmark until the middle of the 17th century. These three divisions always remained more or less distinct, and the Danish kings had to be recognized at Lund, Ringsted and Viborg, but Zealand was from time immemorial the centre of government, and Lejre was the royal seat and national sanctuary. According to tradition this dates from the time of Skiöldr, the eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family of Skiöldungar. He was a son of Othin and husband of the goddess Gefjon, who created Zealand. Anglo-Saxon tradition also speaks of Scyld (i.e. Skiöldr), who was regarded as the ancestor of both the Danish and English royal families, and it represented him as coming as a child of unknown origin in a rudderless boat. There can be little doubt that from a remote antiquity Zealand had been a religious sanctuary, and very probably the god Nerthus was worshipped here by the Angli and other tribes as described in Tacitus (Germania, c. 40). The Lejre sanctuary was still in existence in the time of Thietmar of Merseburg (i. 9), at the beginning of the 11th century.

In Scandinavian tradition the next great figure is Fróðe the peace-king, but it is not before the 5th century that we meet with the names of any kings which can be regarded as definitely historical. In Beowulf we hear of a Danish king Healfdene, who had three sons, Heorogar, Hrothgar and Halga. The hero Beowulf comes to the court of Hrothgar from the land of the Götar, where Hygelac is king. This Hygelac is undoubtedly to be identified with the Chochilaicus, king of the Danes (really Götar) who, as mentioned above, made a raid against the Franks c. 520. Beowulf himself won fame in this campaign, and by the aid of this definite chronological datum we can place the reign of Healfdene in the last half of the 5th century, and that of Hrothgar’s nephew Hrothwulf, son of Halga, about the middle of the 6th century. Hrothgar and Halga correspond to Saxo’s Hroar and Helgi, while Hrothwulf is the famous Rolvo or Hrólfr Kraki of Danish and Norse saga. There is probably some historical truth in the story that Heoroweard or Hiörvarðr was responsible for the death of Hrólfr Kraki. Possibly a still earlier king of Denmark was Sigarr or Sigehere, who has won lasting fame from the story of his daughter Signy and her lover Hagbarðr.

From the middle of the 6th to the beginning of the 8th century we know practically nothing of Danish history. There are numerous kings mentioned in Saxo, but it is impossible to identify them historically. We have mention at the beginning of the 8th century of a Danish king Ongendus (cf. O. E. Ongenþeow) who received a mission led by St Willibrord, and it was probably about this time that there flourished a family of whom tradition records a good deal. The founder of this line was Ivarr Viðfaðmi of Skaane, who became king of Sweden. His daughter Auðr married one Hroerekr and became the mother of Haraldr Hilditönn. The genealogy of Haraldr is given differently in Saxo, but there can be no doubt of his historical existence. In his time it is said that the land was divided into four kingdoms—Skaane, Zealand, Fyen and Jutland. After a reign of great splendour Haraldr met his death in the great battle of Bråvalla (Bravík in Östergötland), where he was opposed by his nephew Ring, king of Sweden.

The battle probably took place about the year 750. Fifty years later the Danes begin to be mentioned with comparative frequency in continental annals. From 777–798 we have mention of a certain Sigifridus as king of the Danes, and then in 804 his name is replaced by that of one Godefridus, This Godefridus is the Godefridus-Guthredus of Saxo, and is to be identified also with Guðröðr the Yngling, king in Vestfold in Norway. He came into conflict with Charlemagne, and was preparing a great expedition against him when he was killed by one of his own followers (c. 810). He was succeeded by his brother Hemmingus, but the latter died in 812 and there was a disputed succession. The two claimants were “Sigefridus nepos Godefridi regis” and “Anulo nepos Herioldi quondam regis” (i.e. probably Haraldr Hilditönn). A great battle took place in which both claimants were slain, but the party of Anulo (O.N. Áli) were victorious and appointed as kings Anulo’s brothers Herioldus and Reginfridus. They soon paid a visit to Vestfold, “the extreme district of their realm, whose peoples and chief men were refusing to be made subject to them,” and on their return had trouble with the sons of Godefridus. The latter expelled them from their kingdom, and in 814 Reginfridus fell in a vain attempt to regain it. Herioldus now received the support of the emperor,

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Under our court system questions of guilt and innocence, and the proper sentence to be imposed on those found guilty of crimes, are not decided by juries. In capital cases, where it is likely that the death sentence may be imposed, judges sit with two assessors who have an equal vote with the judge on the issue of guilt and on any mitigating or aggravating factors relevant to sentence; but sentencing is the prerogative of the judge alone. The Criminal Procedure Act allows a full right of appeal to persons sentenced to death, including a right to dispute the sentence without having to establish an irregularity or misdirection on the part of the trial judge. The Appellate Division is empowered to set the sentence aside if it would not have imposed such sentence itself, and it has laid down criteria for the exercise of this power by itself and other courts. If the person sentenced to death does not appeal, the Appellate Division is nevertheless required to review the case and to set aside the death sentence if it is of the opinion that it is not a proper sentence.

Mitigating and aggravating factors must be identified by the Court, bearing in mind that the onus is on the State to prove beyond reasonable doubt the existence of aggravating factors, and to negative beyond

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Author:Christian Carl August Gosch

Works

 * Denmark and Germany since 1815
 * Danish Arctic Expeditions, 1605 to 1620
 * (Geography & Statistics, in part)

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 reasonable doubt the presence of any mitigating factors relied on by the accused. Due regard must be paid to the personal circumstances and subjective factors which might have influenced the accused person's conduct, and these factors must then be weighed up with the main objects of punishment, which have been held to be: deterrence, prevention, reformation, and retribution. In this process "[e]very relevant consideration should receive the most scrupulous care and reasoned attention", and the death sentence should only be imposed in the most exceptional cases, where there is no reasonable prospect of reformation and the objects of punishment would not be properly achieved by any other sentence.

There seems to me to be little difference between the guided discretion required for the death sentence in the United States, and the criteria laid down by the Appellate Division for the imposition of the death sentence. The fact that the Appellate Division, a court of experienced judges, takes the final decision in all cases is, in my view, more likely to result in consistency of sentencing, than will be the case where sentencing is in the hands of jurors who are offered statutory guidance as to how that discretion should be exercised.

The argument that the imposition of the death sentence under section 277 is arbitrary and capricious does not, however, end there. It also focuses on what is alleged to be the arbitrariness inherent in the application of section 277 in practice. Of the thousands of persons put on trial for murder, only a very small percentage are sentenced to death by a trial court, and of those, a large number escape the ultimate penalty on appeal. At every stage of the process there is an element of chance. The outcome may be dependent upon

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Rh occur you do not hesitate to affirm "the shooting of the blacks to be inevitable," yet in the same breath talk of "the awful depth of brutality to which even an educated European can descend" when fulfilling the inevitable. As an instance illustrating the results of forbearance, let us turn to the recent attack on Mr. Jack. Here we have a tribe of blacks, so remote from any European settlement that any question of previous ill-treatment from whites should be at once dismissed as utterly fallacious, yet they no sooner see a small party of Europeans apparently afraid to proceed to extremities than their savage instincts are at once aroused, and the result of European humanity nearly culminates in the loss of valuable life. Now, I have no sympathy with a "bushman who shoots a blackfellow to try the range of his rifle," and here I have no hesitation in declaring that such a monstrosity is not to be found amongst the ranks of the pastoral pioneer; but at the same time I do not hesitate to affirm that had Mr. Jack used his rifle earlier in the day, and with better effect, he would not have suffered the unpleasant experience of having a spear run through his neck, and by instilling into the blacks a wholesome dread of the white man's weapons would have made things much safer for those to come after him. I fear this opinion will be held sufficient to class me amongst "the white brutes who have fancied the amusement, have murdered, ravished, and robbed the blacks without let or hindrance." All the same, the opinion is an honest one, born of experience, and one I am sure that will be readily concurred in by all who have had any dealings with the northern blacks.

From the most infinitesimal creation of animated nature up to the "noblest work of God" we recognise one universal law—species preying upon species, and the weakest going to the wall. This is the one fundamental religion of the northern aboriginals, and one from which no forbearance is likely to convert them. Gratitude is a word not to be found in their vocabulary, and a virtue that it will be found impossible to instil into their nature. They are under no especial tribal dominion, and recognise but the one law of might as right. Their individual privileges are gained and retained by weapon right alone. In warring amongst themselves they never expect or ask for quarter, no matter how great the odds against the weaker party, and never fail to attribute any act of forbearance in an enemy as a certain indication of cowardice, and regard any acts of generosity bestowed upon them as forced tribute, or "blackmail," to their superiority. I could quote many authentic cases, commencing from the earliest period of our intercourse with these blacks, in support of these opinions, but to do so would, I fear, render me liable to the imputation of countenancing extermination on the very poor argument of inferiority, and, like "Never Never," be characterised as one who has "lost the great lesson of civilisation." I merely enumerate their peculiarities as showing the, at present, insuperable difficulties to be encountered when undertaking the reformation of these unfortunates.

As a remedy for the social evil, you suggest that white police should be employed, and that "their duty should be to repress any outrage by the blacks, and for that purpose they should have the same license that is accorded to any hostile force in the time of war;" or, in other words, that the present system of police protection should still be maintained, with this difference only, that instead of being a mixed body of white and black the members should be white only. Now, I dare say none but the ordinary white man would join such a force, in which case is there not a possibility that "his conscience may be seared and his nature hardened by familiarity with the scenes of bloodshed," he would necessarily become familiar with? In which event would not the remedy became even more abhorrent than the evil?

Victoria and New South Wales and other colonies have each had to grapple with this evil, and each has found the panacea to be a matter of time only. A being may be living in the midst of us having a body covered with ulcerous and disgusting sores, yet while he keeps himself decently covered we have no suspicion of—and consequently experience no uneasiness from—his objectionable presence; but no sooner does some well-meaning friend expose the sores to the public view than we raise our voice in horror and wonder how such things could be. We might compare Queensland to the ulcerated, the Press to time friend, and those fortunates—who, following in the wake of the "settler," reaping the rewards of his hardship and enterprise, nightly closing their eyes within the security of four substantial walls—to the horrified public. Now, if I may be allowed a suggestion, I could wish the public to be left to their own discoveries, and when any sickening—but at the time incurable—spectacle was laid bare, the friend of the people and guide of public opinion would, I think, do well to clothe its repulsive nakedness with all speed, rather than add to the horror by an indiscriminate sacrification of the raw ulcer; and when the time really is ripe for beneficent intervention we have only to turn our eyes to

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