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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army /The Second World War

 * The Second World War

 * The coming of war resulted in the largest expansion of the infantry ever undertaken. During the three years, 1941-43, it increased 600 percent. Although this was 100 percent more than the field artillery, it fell far short of some of the newer arms, for example the antiaircraft artillery, which expanded 1,150 percent and later had to be cut back. In any case, before the conflict ended sixty-seven infantry divisions saw overseas service, plus one mountain and five airborne divisions, as well as a cavalry division which fought as infantry. Even the creation of armored divisions expanded the infantry, since they contained substantial foot components.

 * There were in all, at some time during the war, 317 regiments of infantry of various kinds. Among these were types unknown before the war, such as three mountain, twelve glider, and sixteen parachute infantry regiments. In addition there were 99 separate battalions, some of which were also very highly specialized.

 * Among the remarkable separate battalions were the 1st-6th Rangers. These were light infantry trained to slash deep into enemy-held territory in order to demoralize the foe in every way they could. Although the ranger battalions were not created by redesignating existing infantry outfits, and so not given any official history before the time of their constitution in 1942, they were nevertheless heirs to a very old and proud tradition. That tradition went further back than the American Revolution; indeed the rules drawn up by Robert Rogers in 1757 for his famous ranger companies that served for England in North America were reprinted for use in training the rangers of World War II.

 * The rangers were not the only infantry constituted to perform commando missions. A comparable unit was the 1st Special Service Force, established in July 1942. This force was designed to operate behind enemy lines when snow covered Europe. Accordingly, all its men were volunteers whose civilian aptitudes seemed to prepare them for swift operations in snow. Among them were lumberjacks, game wardens, forest rangers, and professional skiers. The 1st Special Service Force was remarkable also in another way; its personnel were drawn about equally from Canada and from the United States. It was an early experiment in international co-operation, and it worked well. After vigorous campaigning-but not much of it in snow-the unit was disbanded in January 1945 and most of its American personnel transferred to a new regiment, the 474th Infantry.

 * Still another commando-type outfit was the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional), which was organized in October 1943. Its specialization was operation in Burma along the Ledo Road, and its personnel were drawn from men who knew jungle fighting. This unit was commanded by Brig. Gen. Frank D. Merrill and became very famous under the nickname of "Merrill's Marauders." Like the men of the ranger battalions and of the 1st Special Service Force, the Marauders were volunteers. At length, on 10 August 1944 the unit was reorganized and called the 475th Infantry.

 * Another type of specialized infantry was that intended to provide the foot elements of the new armored divisions. It was called "armored infantry." The first unit of this type in the United States Army came into being when the old 6th Infantry was reorganized as armored.on 15 July 1940. In addition to the 6th, certain regiments which had been on the inactive list since just after World War I were reactivated to become armored infantry. These were the 36th, 41st, 46th, 48th-52d, 54th-56th, 59th, and 62d Infantry. Most of the armored infantry regiments were broken up during World War II to form separate armored infantry battalions, but the 41st and 36th Armored Infantry-assigned to the 2d and 3d Armored Division, respectively-retained the regimental structure throughout the war.

 * Armored infantry differed very little from standard infantry, and Lt. Gen. Lesley J. McNair, Chief of Staff, General Headquarters, objected to its differing at all. The chief variance was that armored troops had enough organic vehicles to move all of their men at once. They shared this characteristic with motorized infantry (an element of motorized divisions), which came into existence in August 1940 and lasted only until July 1943. Unlike motorized, armored infantry had vehicles that could operate cross-country and that were lightly armored to repel small arms fire.

 * Several types of light infantry were also extensively tested. One was specialized for jungle action. This type, embodied in the regiments of the 71st Light Division, never had a chance to prove itself in combat. It had not shown to very good advantage in training; hence it was converted to standard infantry in the early summer of 1944. In consequence, it was the ordinary doughboy who, beginning in the fall of 1942, did the jungle fighting in the Southwest Pacific. Another specialized type was organized for use in mountains. It was embodied in the regiments of the 10th Mountain Division, which, unlike the jungle division, enjoyed a brief opportunity to practice its specialty. The 10th Division reached Italy late in 1944 and took part in the fight. Its arrival, however, did not preclude many other infantry outfits from having to fight in the mountains the best way they could.

 * The last of the nonstandard types of infantry units to be considered here was the most specialized. It included the foot soldiers who were trained and equipped to reach the combat zone by air and to assault from the air. Their primary mission was to land behind the enemy's main line of resistance and there employ commando tactics. This type, new in the United States, like armored infantry, was first organized in 1940. As with armored, General McNair objected in the beginning to so high a degree of specialization, but by 1942 acknowledged the need for airborne troops.

 * Some foot troops that assaulted from the air were dropped behind the enemy's line by parachute. Numbers above 500 were reserved for the designation of paratroops. Thus the lowest numbered paratroop infantry regiment was the 501st Parachute Infantry. In addition, there was a second type of airborne foot troops, called "glider infantry." According to the doctrine, these landed by glider in the airheads cleared by the paratroops to reinforce the latter and to widen the assault upon the rear of the foe. The numerical designations for glider units were drawn from the whole range of numbers below 500. This was the result of an effort to perpetuate earlier history, as in the case of the 88th Glider Infantry, which descended from the 88th Infantry of World War I. Likewise, the 325th-328th Glider Infantry were redesignated from the infantry regiments of the same numbers which had made up the 82d Division in World War I. The same was true of the 401st Glider Infantry of the 101st Division. Both the 82d and the 101st Divisions became airborne on 15 August 1942.

 * The World War II infantry also included a few units that were made up of Americans of different racial or ethnic extraction. There was ample precedent-for such outfits. Indian.and Negro infantry regiments were the oldest, but Puerto Rican and Filipino units came close behind. Added to these during the war were several separate battalions, the most conspicuous of which was the 100th Infantry Battalion because it contained soldiers of an enemy race. Its men were American-born Japanese. The 100th Battalion was organized in June 1942, and two years later was absorbed as one of the battalions of a Japanese-American regiment designated the 442d Infantry.

 * Another unit of this type was the 99th Infantry Battalion, which was made up of Norwegian-Americans and marked for use in Scandinavia. Although the 99th did not get to the Scandinavian Peninsula until the Germans there had surrendered, it did distinguish itself in the fighting in Europe. Finally, early in 1945, when its use as a separate battalion seemed to be over, it was made one of the battalions of a newly organized regiment designated the 474th. The latter was a remarkable hybrid. It contained many men from the disbanded 1st Special Service Force, some from the 1st, 3d, and 4th Ranger Battalions, as well as the entire 99th Battalion. Another hybrid was the 473d Infantry. Also created early in 1945, it absorbed no groups of nationals but rather the veterans of four antiaircraft battalions coupled with the headquarters of an armored group.

 * Early in the war, the organization of scores of new units proceeded along the lines laid down in the reorganization of 1939. The National Guard, however, entered Federal service in square combinations and retained them until directed to triangularize during the first four months of 1942. As in World War I, the reorganization of the National Guard for Federal service wrecked many old outfits and associations. For example, in each of the square divisions one whole regiment of infantry had to be cut away and broken up or associated elsewhere.

 * In spite of the wrench it gave the National Guard, triangularization brought with it important benefits. Not the least of these was a very simple tactical doctrine which had the advantage of being applicable to the use of units of any size from squad up to division. This doctrine was developed and well established by the time the National Guard was triangularized. Its essence was that one of the three elements of every level, say one regiment, should, in the assault, fix the enemy in position; a second was to maneuver around him, once fixed, in order to strike a decisive blow; while the third element acted as a reserve. This doctrine gave great flexibility to American infantry.

 * During the five years before Pearl Harbor, the position of the doughboy's champion, the Chief of Infantry, weakened. The Chief himself felt that his office was being bypassed in important matters, while the Chief of Staff inclined more and more to the opinion that all of the heads of combat arms fostered schisms within the Army. In any case, during the grand revision of the late thirties, the General Staff, more often than not, overruled the recommendations of the Chief of Infantry. Moreover, the latter had less control over his branch than he thought necessary. For example, in the revamping of the infantry division, his responsibility was held to the preparation of tables of organization and equipment for brigades and below. The end came in the spring of 1942 when the top command was completely reorganized. In that great realigning the Chief of Infantry, together with the other chiefs of combat arms, was eliminated. Thereafter, the problems of the infantry were considered by special branches of the newly created Army Ground Forces.

 * General McNair became Commanding General of the new organization. He had been chief of staff of the provisional division that had tested triangularization in 1937, and he believed in the basic principles of the revision that had resulted. Foremost among these was pooling. Its natural corollary was to keep all units lean, because, when extraordinary needs arose, those units could draw from the pools maintained at the next higher level. Another of the important principles embraced by McNair was that which gave the best of men and equipment to the offensive portions of units, and cut the other segments to a minimum. The application of these austere principles was sharpened by the urgent need to conserve shipping space; McNair, therefore, caused infantry organization to be finely combed for excess personnel and equipment.

 * A general revision of the tables of organization and equipment (TOE'S) took place in the spring of 1942. For the most part, McNair's principles prevailed, but he was unable to prevent two significant changes in a contrary direction. The first of these was the substitution of headquarters companies for detachments in all battalions. In spite of this alteration the total strength of a battalion dropped by sixteen, the cut occurring in the rifle companies and in heavy weapons. The second change brought a new company, the cannon company, into the regiment. In it were at last to be found the accompanying cannon that officers had been seeking since World War I. As first equipped, the new cannon company contained six self-propelled 75-mm. howitzers and two selfpropelled 105's. It added 123 men to each regiment, but since the other regimental companies were cut at the same time, a regiment was actually enlarged by only 23 men. The TOE's of 1 April 1942 moved automatic rifles for the last, time. These weapons, which were proving themselves more and more valuable, went back to the rifle squad where they had been placed prior to February 1940. They had gone into a separate squad at the insistence of the Chief of Infantry, and they returned to the rifle squad when that office was eliminated.

 * The pinch for shipping space continued so great that the War Department requested cuts in the April tables. Accordingly, a Reduction Board was established in November 1942. Before its recommendations were approved, General McNair strove to reduce the infantry regiment by 400 men, a slice which he believed could be made without diminishing the number of front-line riflemen to any great extent. His proposal was made into a new TOE published on 1 March 1943. The chief casualty was the cannon company, which was eliminated altogether; its howitzers were put into headquarters company. This arrangement was shortlived, since the final work of the board resulted in a cut of only 216 which, when finally approved, was embodied in tables dated 15 July 1943. Most of the 216 came from administrative elements and from heavy weapons. The cannon company was back, but this time with towed howitzers. The sharpest reduction in arms that accompanied the drop in personnel fell upon BAR's. These were eliminated from every echelon except the rifle squad, where there was one per squad. This change removed very little automatic rifle fire from the firing line, but it did reduce the number of BAR's in a regiment from 189 to 81 (there being 81 rifle squads in a regiment).

 * If a regiment lost any firepower by the cut in automatic rifles, it made it up by the addition of twenty-five .50-caliber machine guns plus one hundred and twelve new 2.36-inch rocket launchers, nicknamed "bazookas." The bazookas, which had splendid attributes for antitank and antipillbox use, were extra weapons; that is, no specific men were designated to operate them. In consequence, each regiment made its own organizational modification to use the new arm. Later the orphan situation of rocket launchers was officially corrected.

 * Bazookas and .50-caliber machine guns fitted into General McNair's theory of antitank and antiaircraft defense for infantry regiments. He held that such defense should center on weapons which individual infantrymen, not crews, could operate. Once again, he did not win out 100 percent, for he failed to eliminate either the towed antitank guns from the armament of regiments or the mine platoon from antitank companies: There were, however, changes in the antitank guns: their caliber was increased from 37-mm. to 57-mm., while the number of guns in the regiment dropped from twenty-four to eighteen. Half of the remaining guns were in the regimental antitank company, the other half divided evenly (three each) among the battalions. Considering the mine platoon as strictly defensive, General McNair strove to eliminate it altogether. Accordingly, it did not find a place in the TOE of 26 May 1943; but was back on 15 July, thirty-one strong.

 * Removal of tanks from the infantry and the creation of an armored force in 1940 had left unsolved problems in the relationship of foot soldiers to tanks. The principle of pooling took care of the association of tanks with infantry units, for tank elements were simply attached in the quantities needed. This, however, did not help to determine how much infantry ought to be organic to armored divisions. Since these divisions, as first set up, did not include enough foot soldiers, General McNair created pools of separate armored infantry battalions (AIB's) from which the divisions could draw. Later his solution was scrapped, and in the TOE of 15 September 1943 the proportion of organic infantry to armor doubled. In consequence, all but one of the separate AIB's were inactivated.

 * Each of the studies of infantry organization, made in the first three years of the war, had to take vehicles into account. The number of motors allowed to units was closely related to the shipping space then available. Shortage of shipping was one of the factors which caused the elimination of motorized infantry in the summer of 1943, since the planners felt that more economical means of moving standard infantry by motor were at hand. The first such means was to attach truck outfits to the infantry for specific movements. This method remained standard until divisions developed the field expedient of piling their doughboys onto their tanks, tank destroyers, and howitzers.

 * All these complications were faced by Army Ground Forces during the year from October 1942 to October 1943, and the organization developed for infantry in that year persisted for the duration of the war in Europe with only minor changes. However, when redeployment to the Pacific area became necessary, Ground Forces once more examined the tables of organization and equipment. This time three factors were decisive in the appraisal. The first one was the wealth of combat experience accumulated in Europe; the second, that the scarcity of shipping space had eased; and the third, the death of General McNair. These new factors resulted in a general enlargement of infantry units.

 * The new tables were dated 1 June 1945. They carried the implication that the earlier arrangements had been too lean for greatest efficiency. For example, they increased the total strength of an infantry regiment from 3,256 to 3,697, and added weapons and vehicles. Most of the increase took place in rifle companies, which jumped from 193 to 242 men. Indeed, two new sections were added to them, both in the weapons platoons. The first one, called an assault section, was based on the 2.36-inch bazooka (the number of which increased to six per rifle company). With this change, rocket launchers ceased to be orphans. They became the principal weapons of the men in the new section. The other, a special weapons section,. employed a revolutionary type of new arm, the 57-mm. recoilless rifle.

 * Further use of the recoilless technique occurred at battalion level. Here a 75-mm. rifle was added to the armament, and a gun platoon was created in the heavy weapons company to operate it. The two new types of recoilless guns, which combined the effect of artillery with the mobility of soldier-carried arms, gave an unheard of weight of fire to the infantry.

 * Yet another remarkable change related to the infantry regiment's artillery. All towed guns were at last eliminated from the regiment. The 57's of the regimental antitank company gave place to tanks which mounted 90-mm. guns, while those in battalions went out with the antitank platoons. The cannon company became in effect a tank unit equipped with heavy tanks mounting 105-mm. howitzers. The pieces of the antitank and the cannon companies, mounted as they were on tanks, were much more mobile than their predecessors, and they threw much more metal.

 * The organization established in June 1945, slightly modified from time to time, was the one that governed to the end of the conflict. There was, however, one development which went forward apart from the tables of organization. This was an ever widening use of regimental combat teams (RCT's). An RCT was a grouping of combat units around an infantry regiment in order to accomplish a special mission. A typical combat team contained a regiment of infantry, a battalion of 105-mm. artillery, a company of combat engineers, a medical collecting company, and a signal detachment. But, because its very essence was flexibility, any element needed to accomplish the special mission might be attached. RCT's proved of great value in adapting organization to all types of terrain and conditions of combat. They remained, however, temporary arrangements without official history or lineage, and were discontinued when their special mission had been accomplished.

 * Before concluding the discussion of infantry organization during World War II, it remains to record a few generalizations relating to the use of infantry in that war. First, it is clear that no earlier conflict had sent American infantrymen into so many different parts of the world. Although specialized units were at first created to fight in extreme zones, mountain, jungle, and arctic foot soldiers carried, in fact, a very small part of the fighting in extreme climates and terrain. As a result, the standard doughboy took over the job.

 * The doctrine of fixing the enemy, maneuvering to strike him in flank or rear, all the while holding an element in reserve to exploit an advantage or cover a retreat, applied in all terrains. Naturally the details of using it varied with geography. Thus in Normandy the hedgerows obliged the infantry to work out a team play with tanks and engineers. Likewise, in the jungles of the Southwest Pacific, the coral atolls of the Central Pacific, the desert of North Africa, and the mountains of Italy, it was necessary to develop the exact means by which the doctrine was applied. But in all cases it required closer-than-ever co-operation with the other arms.

 * Furthermore, never before had the doughboys been required to use so bewildering a complex of weapons. Perhaps the most confusing of the latter to adjust to was the greatly enlarged class of defensive weapons, which included land mines and boobytraps. These insidious manglers complicated an infantryman's task and introduced a new type of terror into his campaigning. He dared no longer even trust the ground, which had always been his close ally. As a result, it was necessary to learn not only to detect and disarm the enemy's mines and traps, but to lay some effectively for his own protection. Also, he had to learn to use demolition charges and often to improvise them out of materials at hand.

 * To add to the confusion, types of grenades (hand and rifle) were multiplied. What is more, their use vastly increased. Whether the enemy lurked in rocks or in dense vegetation, grenades helped to root him out. To supplement them in the business of dislodging the foe from strong positions, new weapons developed. The most notable of these, not already mentioned, was a flame thrower which, carried by foot soldiers or mounted on tanks, did terrible execution.

 * Tank and air enthusiasts, observing the Nazi blitzkrieg, had jumped to the conclusion that infantry could be used only to hold ground taken by armor or by air bombardment. This did not prove to be the case. Although foot soldiers, more than ever before, had to learn to co-operate with tanks and with planes, this did not spare them from having to be in the forefront of almost all important assaults. In short, while they could not advance against the enemy without the aid of tanks, artillery, and air, neither could those arms gain ground or destroy the enemy's will to fight without the aid of the infantry. What was required was not a reshuffling of the importance of the several branches, but the development of better techniques by means of which they could work together. Such techniques were far from perfect when the conflict came to an end.

 * Battlefield communication continued its trend-which stretched back to the Civil War-toward improvement. For the first time there was radio communication between the elements of a company. By the end of World War II eight radios were included in the rifle company's equipment. Radios and telephones knit companies tighter together, but by no means made them act as one man. Dispersion to avoid the deadly effects of enemy fire threw, squads, or fractions of squads, on their own in combat, particularly in dense foliage, in the mountains, and in night operations. This put a heavier-than-ever burden on the ingenuity of squad and platoon leaders, and even on the individual doughboy.

 * Probably the most important technique to come out of the war had to do with landing an attacking force on hostile shores. The doctrine for such operations had been in the process of development by the U.S. Marine Corps since the 1920's. Marine theory worked well, but it required the assistance of special amphibious equipment ,which was not developed until war had commenced. Indeed, in the early landings in 1942, landing forces were obliged to use the vessels that were ready at hand. Gradually, however, landing craft were developed, such as LCI's, LST's, LCT's, amphibious tanks, and DUKW's. In the greatest amphibious operations of World War II, these craft were as essential to success as the weapons of the infantry.

 * Whether in landing actions, in airborne assaults, or in advances of a traditional type, infantry was better prepared than in the past to fight on a circular perimeter. This was true because of the many supporting mortars, machine guns, and rocket launchers, made organic to infantry units, which enabled them to throw fire quickly in all directions. Thus, the tendency was to be less sensitive about the flanks than in earlier wars, and to push forward with slighter concern for the progress of the units to the right and to the left.

 * During World War II new terrains, new climates, strange weapons, and unfamiliar peoples acted upon American infantrymen. These destroyed thousands of men, put a lifelong mark on others, and changed somewhat the techniques of fighting on foot; nevertheless, in spite of everything, the basic characteristics of the infantry hardly shifted. Foot soldiers continued to be the only carriers of weapons who, in theory, were never exhausted, could always go another mile, and who could be counted upon to move across any terrain in every quarter of the globe.


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 Godwin length against her religious scruples, saying that she acted in the style of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. His philosophy, however, was thrown away. When Mrs. Reveley became a widow in 1799, Godwin endeavoured to persuade her to marry him, with the same want of success. In December 1801 he was at last married by Mrs. Clairmont, a widow with a son, Charles, and a daughter, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont [q. v.] Mrs. Clairmont had come to live in the next house to him in the Polygon, and introduced herself by ‘Is it possible that I behold the immortal Godwin?’ She was ‘a querulous’ wife and a harsh stepmother, and the marriage was far from happy. She ruled her husband severely and was not favourable to his friendships. Godwin was meanwhile becoming embarrassed. In 1799 he wrote ‘St. Leon,’ a novel which succeeded, though not so well as ‘Caleb Williams,’ and a tragedy which has vanished. He had some literary quarrels, especially with Mackintosh, who had attacked the moral theories of the ‘Political Justice’ in his lectures at Lincoln's Inn, and afterwards admitted that he had been too harsh (Life, i. 134), and with Dr. Parr, who had been his political ally, but had criticised the ‘Political Justice’ in a ‘Spital Sermon’ (15 April 1800). The friendship was extinguished by an exchange of bitter reproaches. A pamphlet called ‘Thoughts on Dr. Parr's Spital Sermon’ replies with much vigour to Parr, Mackintosh, and Malthus, and shows that at this time Godwin considered Napoleon to be a saviour of society. A copy in the British Museum has some admiring annotations by Coleridge.

He was now becoming known to Wordsworth, Lamb, and Coleridge. To Coleridge's influence he attributes a return to a sufficiently vague theism, having been, he says, converted to unbelief by his conversations with Holcroft about 1787, and having become an atheist about 1792, that is during the composition of the ‘Political Justice.’ He now too expanded his course of reading and took to history and the English dramatists. A result of this was his ‘Tragedy of Antonio,’ which was carefully criticised by Lamb, refused by Colman for the Haymarket, but produced by Kemble at Drury Lane 13 Dec. 1800 and hopelessly damned. Lamb described the catastrophe with his usual humour in ‘The Old Actors’ (London Magazine, April 1822, reprinted in Essays of Elia as ‘Artificial Comedy of the Last Century’). In September 1801 Godwin finished another tragedy called ‘Abbas, King of Persia,’ but could not persuade Kemble to make a fresh experiment. The failures were serious for Godwin, whose difficulties were not diminished by his marriage, and who still helped his brother.

Two volumes of his first antiquarian work, the ‘Life of Chaucer,’ upon which he had been employed for two or three years, appeared in October 1803, bringing him 300l., and he received the same sum for the two concluding volumes. He then completed ‘Fleetwood,’ a novel, published in 1805, which was a falling off from its predecessors, and ‘Faulkener,’ a play, which after some disappointments was acted at Drury Lane in December 1807 and ran for some nights. Godwin's want of success had forced him to become a borrower. Thomas Wedgwood, a previous benefactor, lent him 100l. in 1804. He had now five children to support (the two Clairmonts, Mary Wollstonecraft's two children, and his son William by his second wife, born 1804), and though his wife had worked at translations, their position was precarious. He now (1805) took a small house in Hanway Street, in which Mrs. Godwin carried on a publishing business. He wrote for it some fables and histories for children, under the name of Baldwin, his own having an odour of heterodoxy. They had much success. Mrs. Godwin translated some children's books from the French, and the Lambs gave them some books, especially the ‘Tales from Shakespeare.’ The business struggled on with many difficulties. Godwin had also undertaken a history of England. In 1807 the business had improved, and a larger shop was taken in Skinner Street, Holborn, with a dwelling-house, to which the family moved. A subscription was started, to which Godwin's political friends contributed handsomely in order to improve his chances. Godwin's health was suffering from frequent fainting fits, though not so as to diminish his industry. In 1809 he produced the lives of Edward and John Philips. Embarrassments still increased, and he had difficulties with his wife. In January 1811 he was addressed by Shelley. From his early life Godwin had many disciples among young men of promise attracted by his philosophical reputation. His correspondence with them is creditable to his good feeling, and shows that he could administer judicious advice with real kindness (see notices of Arnot, Cooke, Patrickson, and Rosser in Godwin). Shelley's is the only case still memorable. Godwin endeavoured to calm his impetuosity during the Irish tour of 1812, and in the autumn went to visit his disciple at Lynmouth, only to find that the Shelleys had gone to Wales. In October they met him in London. In the following July Shelley eloped with Mary God

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 Godwin win. Godwin's character appears in its worst aspect in the letters published by Mr. Dowden in his life of Shelley. He tried to maintain his philosophic dignity while treating Shelley as a seducer for acting on the principles of the ‘Political Justice.’ He refused to communicate with Shelley except through his solicitors, and forbade Fanny Godwin to speak to her sister. At the same time, he was not above taking 1,000l. from Shelley, and begging for more. He returns a cheque with an affectation of dignity, but asks that it may be made payable in another name. Upon Shelley's marriage, December 1816, he was reconciled, and the poet's veneration for the philosopher disappeared on the discovery that Godwin was fully sensible of the advantages of a connection with the heir to a good estate. Godwin, constantly sinking into deeper embarrassment, tried to extort money from his son-in-law until Shelley's death, and Shelley did his best to supply the venerable horseleech. Mrs. Godwin's antipathy to her stepdaughter, Mrs. Shelley, her bad temper, and general spitefulness made things worse, and Godwin had much difficulty in keeping up any pretence of self-respect (, Shelley, i. 417, 463, 488, 521, 538, ii. 72, 114, 321, &c.). H. C. Robinson says that he once introduced Godwin to a certain Rough. Next morning he received separate calls from the pair. Each expressed his admiration for the other, and then asked whether his new friend would be likely to advance 50l. (Diary, i. 372).

In October 1816 Fanny Godwin, who appears to have been an attractive girl, went to Wales to visit her mother's sisters. She poisoned herself, 11 Oct., at Swansea, for no assignable cause.

Godwin continued to work in spite of distractions. His novel ‘Mandeville’ was published in 1817, and an answer to Malthus was begun in 1818. At the end of that year he had a slight stroke of paralysis. The answer to Malthus, on which he spent much labour, appeared in 1820. It had little success. It is ably criticised in Bonar's ‘Malthus,’ 1885, pp. 360–70. Towards the end of 1819 the publishing business showed ominous symptoms. They deepened in the following years, and Godwin's title to his house in Skinner Street was successfully disputed in 1822. Godwin became bankrupt in that year. His friends again came forward to raise the arrears of rent now claimed, and to enable him to make a fresh start. His old opponent Mackintosh and his new friend Lady Caroline Lamb joined with others to help him, but they failed to set him on his legs again. He lived in the Strand, working industriously, and between 1824 and 1828 produced his ‘History of the Commonwealth.’ He was the first writer to make a thorough use of the pamphlets in the Museum and other original documents. His thoroughness and accuracy made his book superior to its predecessors, and it is useful, though in some directions superseded by later information. His ‘Thoughts on Man’ in 1830 consisted chiefly of old essays. In that year he made the acquaintance of Bulwer, to whom he gave some collections upon Eugene Aram [see ]. In 1832 he lost his son, William Godwin [q. v.] In 1833 Lord Grey, to whom Mackintosh and others had applied, made him yeoman usher of the exchequer. He had a residence in New Palace Yard, and no duties. The office was soon abolished as a sinecure, but Godwin was allowed to retain it during his life. His career as a writer ceased with the ‘Lives of the Necromancers,’ but he afterwards finished some essays, published in 1873. He gradually failed, and died 7 April 1836. He was buried in Old St. Pancras churchyard. The churchyard was destroyed by a railway, and in 1851 his remains and those of his first wife were removed to Bournemouth, where they are buried in the same grave as their daughter, Mrs. Shelley. His second wife died 17 June 1841 (Gent. Mag. 1841, pt. ii. p. 216).

The best account of Godwin's appearance is in Talfourd's ‘Final Memorials of Charles Lamb’ (, Works, 1855, ii. 347–55), and there is a good account of his philosophical reputation in Hazlitt's ‘Spirit of the Age’ (pp. 1–58). Godwin's philosophy was taken seriously by his friends till the end of his life, and produced some effect at the time as an exposition of the revolutionary creed. His first novels are curious examples of impressive fiction constructed rather from logic than poetic imagination; and in his later years he did some good work as an antiquary. Affecting the virtues of calmness and impartiality, he was yet irritable under criticism, and his friendships were interrupted by a series of quarrels. His self-respect was destroyed in later life under the pressure of debt and an unfortunate marriage; but, though his character wanted in strength and elevation, and was incapable of the loftier passions, he seems to have been mildly affectionate, and, in many cases, a judicious friend to more impulsive people.

His portrait, by Northcote, formerly in the possession of the late Sir Percy Shelley, is printed by Hazlitt. An engraving is prefixed to Mr. Paul's ‘Life.’

His works are: 1. ‘Life of Chatham,’ 1783 (anon.). 2. ‘Sketches of History, in Six Sermons,’ 1784. 3. ‘Enquiry concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and


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 Godwin Happiness,’ 1793, 1796, 1798. 4. ‘Things as they are; or the Adventures of Caleb Williams,’ 1794 (often republished). 5. ‘Cursory Strictures on the Charge of Chief-Justice Eyre,’ 1794. 6. ‘The Enquirer … a series of Essays,’ 1797 (new edition, 1823). 7. ‘Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Women,’ 1798. 8. ‘St. Leon, a Tale of the 16th Century,’ 1799. 9. ‘Antonio, a Tragedy in five acts in verse,’ 1800. 10. ‘Thoughts occasioned by … Dr. Parr's Spital Sermon,’ 1801. 11. ‘Life of Geoffrey Chaucer … with Sketches of the Manners … of England,’ 2 vols. 4to, 1803; 4 vols. 8vo, 1804; a German translation, 1812. 12. ‘Faulkener, a Tragedy in prose,’ 1807. 13. ‘Essay on Sepulchres,’ 1809. 14. ‘Lives of Edward and John Philips, Nephews and Pupils of Milton’ (with appendices), 1815. 15. ‘Mandeville, a Tale of the 17th Century,’ 1817. 16. ‘Of Population … in answer to Mr. Malthus,’ 1820. 17. ‘History of the Commonwealth of England … to the Restoration of Charles II,’ 4 vols. 8vo, 1824–8. 18. ‘Cloudesley, a Tale,’ 1830. 19. ‘Thoughts on Man; his Nature, Productions, and Discoveries,’ 1831. 20. ‘Deloraine,’ 1833. 21. ‘Lives of the Necromancers,’ 1834. 22. ‘Essays’ never before published, 1873. Godwin published some children's books, ‘Fables’ (1805 and eleven later editions), a ‘Pantheon,’ and histories of Greece, Rome, and England, under the pseudonym Edward Baldwin. ‘The Looking-glass, a true History of the Early Years of an Artist … by Theophilus Marcliffe’ (1805), is also attributed to him by Mr. F. G. Stephens, who edited a facsimile edition in 1885. Mr. Stephens shows that it was probably an account of the life of William Mulready (1786–1863) [q. v.]

[C. Kegan Paul's William Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries, 2 vols. 8vo, 1876; Dowden's Life of Shelley; Talfourd's Final Memorials of Charles Lamb; Hazlitt's Spirit of the Age; Gent. Mag. 1836, i. 666–70; H. Crabb Robinson's Diary, 1869; Mrs. Julian Marshall's Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, 1890.]  GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808–1884), geologist, eldest son of Sir Henry Edmund Austen of Shalford House, Guildford, Surrey, who died 1 Dec. 1871, by Anne Amelia, only daughter of Robert Spearman Bate of the H.E.I. Co.'s service, was born at Shalford House on 17 March 1808, and sent to a school at Midhurst in Sussex, whence he was removed to a semi-military college in France. He matriculated from Oriel College, Oxford, 8 June 1826; in 1830 graduated B.A. and was elected fellow of Oriel. At Oxford he was, like Lyell, a pupil of Buckland, and from him imbibed a passion for geological study. In 1830 he became a student of Lincoln's Inn.

At this time he met Lyell, Leonard Horner, and Murchison, and, introduced by these three friends, was admitted a fellow of the Geological Society 19 March 1830. On 23 July 1833 he married Maria Elizabeth, only child, and afterwards heiress, of Major-general Sir Henry Thomas Godwin [q. v.] On the death of this gentleman, in October 1853, Austen, by royal license, took the additional surname of Godwin. In the year after his marriage he went to reside at Ogwell House, near Newton Abbot, Devonshire, where he made a study of the fossiliferous Devonian limestones, the outliers of cretaceous strata, and the tertiary deposits of Bovey Tracey. De la Beche entrusted to him the construction of portions of the Devonshire map, and Phillips found in the collection at Ogwell House many of the specimens figured in his ‘Palæozoic Fossils.’ Between 1834 and 1840 Austen read before the Geological Society a number of papers dealing with the district in which he resided. Returning to his native county in 1838, after a brief residence at Shalford House, he went to live at Gosden House, and subsequently at Merrow House, both situated near Guildford. At a later date, 1846, he removed to Chilworth Manor in the same county. Between 1841 and 1876 he was frequently a member of the council of the Geological Society, in 1843–4 and again in 1853–4 he was secretary, and between 1865 and 1867 he acted as foreign secretary of the society. On 7 June 1849 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He next commenced a series of researches on the geology of the south-east of England, the results of which were laid before the Geological Society, 1843–53, and did much to extend the knowledge of the wealden, the neocomian, and the cretaceous systems. During this decade he spent much time in yachting, and made observations on the valley of the English Channel and the drifts of its shores, on the geology of the Channel Islands, the Bourbonnais, and other parts of France. On the death of his friend Edward Forbes [q. v.], on 18 Nov. 1854, Godwin-Austen, acting as his literary executor, completed his two unfinished works, ‘The Tertiary-Fluvio-Marine formation of the Isle of Wight,’ 1856, and ‘Outlines of the Natural History of Europe, the Natural History of the European Seas,’ 1859. He also completed Forbes's ‘Essay on the Distribution of Marine Forms of Life.’ In 1840 he read a paper on the zoological position of the extinct forms of cephalopoda, and also threw out the suggestion that the old red sandstone and the poikilitic strata are of


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Golightly others at Ely Cathedral. The favourite anthem, 'I will set God always before me,' six voices, was published in Boyce's 'Cathedral Music,' vol. ii.; 'I will sing' and 'O praise God in His holiness' in Page's 'Harmonia Sacra,' i. 206, ii. 227; 'Behold thy servant' and service in F major in Arnold's 'Cathedral Music,' vol. i. Burney quotes with approval Boyce's opinion that Goldwin's music has a singularity in its modulation uncommon and agreeable, and adds: 'When we consider the time of his death, it seems, by the small number of his works that have come to my knowledge, as if this composer had anticipated many combinations and passages of a much later period.'

 GOLIGHTLY, CHARLES POURTALES (1807–1885), Anglican clergyman, born on 23 May 1807, was second son of William Golightly of Ham, Surrey, gentleman, by his wife, Frances Dodd. His mother's mother, Aldegunda, was granddaughter of Charles de Pourtalès, ‘a distinguished member of an ancient and honourable Huguenot family.’ He was educated at Eton. In his youth he travelled in Europe, visited Rome, seeing there ‘a good deal of certain cardinals, and entering into their characters and their politics.’ He matriculated 4 March 1824 at Oriel College, Oxford, where he proceeded as B.A. in 1828, M.A. in 1830. His attainments would have justified his election to a fellowship, but as his private property was thought to be a disqualification he took curacies at Penshurst in Kent, and afterwards at Godalming in Surrey. In 1836, when the chapel of Littlemore, near Oxford, was almost finished, it was suggested that Golightly's means would enable him to take it without an endowment. Golightly entered into the scheme with enthusiasm, and bought one of the curious old houses in Holywell Street, Oxford. A single sermon led, however, to a disagreement with Cardinal Newman, the then vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford, to which Littlemore had been an adjunct, and their official connection, though they had been acquaintances from early youth, at once ceased. In this house he remained for the rest of his life, keenly interested in church matters, and struggling against the spread of what he deemed Romanism. For some time he was curate of Headington; he held the miserably endowed vicarage of Baldon Toot, and he occasionally officiated in the church of St. Peter in the East, Oxford, for Hamilton, afterwards bishop of Salisbury. He was a thorough student of theology and history. His religious views were those of Hooker, and he gloried in the traditions of the old high church party, but his hatred of Romanism, deepened by his Huguenot descent, made him a fierce opponent of ritualism. Even opponents admitted his deep religious feelings and his frank fearlessness. He was friendly with men of every division of thought, and his charity was unbounded and unostentatious. He was full of anecdote, heightened by much dryness of wit, and was always accessible. For the last three years of his life he was haunted by painful illusions, and his death was a release from pain. He died on Christmas day 1885, and was buried in Holywell cemetery, near Magdalen College, Oxford. Edward Meyrick Goulburn, dean of Norwich reprinted, ‘with additions and a preface, from the “Guardian” of 13 Jan. 1886’ his reminiscences of Golightly. An auction catalogue of his furniture and library was issued in February 1886.

All his publications were controversial. They comprise: 1. ‘Look at Home, or a Short and Easy Method with the Roman Catholics,’ 1837. 2. ‘Letter to the Bishop of Oxford, containing Strictures upon certain parts of Dr. Pusey's Letter to his Lordship. By a Clergyman of the Diocese,’ &c., 1840. 3. ‘New and Strange Doctrines extracted from the Writings of Mr. Newman and his Friends, in a Letter to the Rev. W. F. Hook, D.D. By one of the original Subscribers to the “Tracts for the Times,”’ 2nd edition, 1841. 4. ‘Strictures on No. 90 of the “Tracts for the Times,” by a Member of the University of Oxford,’ 1841, which reappeared as ‘Brief Remarks upon No. 90, second edition, and some subsequent Publications in defence of it, by Rev. C. P. Golightly,’ 1841. 5. ‘Correspondence illustrative of the actual state of Oxford with reference to Tractarianism,’ 1842. 6. ‘Facts and Documents showing the alarming state of the Diocese of Oxford, by a Senior Clergyman of the Diocese,’ 1859. This publication had its origin in an article in the ‘Quarterly Review’ for January 1858, in which the practices at Cuddesdon College were severely criticised, and to which he drew attention in a circular letter addressed to the clergy and laity of the diocese. At a meeting in the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, on 22 Nov. 1861, an anonymous handbill, written by Golightly in condemnation of the teaching in the middle class schools connected with St. Nicholas College, Lancing, was gratuitously distributed. Some severe reflections were then made upon it by


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 Gomersall Dr. Jeune, the vice-chancellor, and this provoked: 7. ‘A Letter to the Rev. Dr. Jeune, in vindication of the Handbill by Rev. C. P. Golightly,’ 1861. A second letter to Dr. Jeune, 1861. Still undaunted, he wrote: 8. ‘The position of Bishop Wilberforce in reference to Ritualism, together with a Prefatory Account of the Romeward Movement in the Church of England in the days of Archbishop Laud. By a Senior Resident Member of the University,’ 1867. He returned to the subject with: 9. ‘A Solemn Warning against Cuddesdon College,’ 1878, in connection with which should be read ‘An Address respecting Cuddesdon College by Rev. E. A. Knox’ (1878), the ‘Address of the Old Students of the College to the Bishop of Oxford,’ and the ‘Report for the five years ending Trinity Term 1878, by Rev. C. W. Furse, Principal.’ In the same year Golightly reissued in separate form, and with his name, his ‘Brief Account of Romeward Movement in Days of Laud.’ The attack on Cuddesdon College was the subject of pp. 358–66, 415–18, vol. ii. of the ‘Life of Bishop Wilberforce,’ and Golightly retorted with ‘A Letter to the Very Reverend the Dean of Ripon, containing Strictures on the Life of Bishop Wilberforce,’ 1881.

[Mozley's Reminiscences, ii. 108–14; Burgon's Twelve Good Men, i. xxiv–viii, ii. 79–87; Stapylton's Eton Lists, 2nd ed. pp. 108 a, 113 a; Foster's Alumni Oxon.; Churchman, 1886, xiv. 70–6, by the Rev. R. S. Mylne; Guardian, 6 Jan. 1886, p. 26.]  GOMERSALL, ROBERT (1602–1646?), dramatist and divine, was born in London in 1602. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, 19 April 1616 (Wood's date 1614 is wrong), proceeded B.A. 19 Dec. 1618, M.A. 14 June 1621, and B.D. 11 Nov. 1628 (Reg. Univ. Oxon. vol. ii. pt. i. p. 369, pt. ii. p. 348). Having taken holy orders he ‘became a very florid preacher in the university’. In 1628 he published ‘The Tragedie of Lodovick Sforza, Duke of Millan,’ 8vo, a somewhat stiffly written play, which may have been privately acted at Oxford by students, but does not appear to have been put on the stage by any regular company. It was dedicated to Francis Hide of Christ Church. In the same year appeared a poem, ‘The Levites Revenge: containing Poeticall Meditations upon the 19 and 20 Chapters of Judges,’ 8vo, dedicated to Dr. Barten Holiday. Both volumes contain curious engraved frontispieces. The two pieces were reprinted together in ‘Poems,’ 1633, 8vo, with the addition of a small collection of miscellaneous verses. Some of the poetical epistles are dated 1625 from Flower in Northamptonshire. John Marriot the publisher, in an address to the reader, writes: ‘from hence forward you must expect nothing from him [Gomersall] but what shall relish of a bearded and austere Devotion. And this, I trust, will be no small incitement to thy approbatiō of the worke since it is the last.’ In Harl. MS. 6931 a short poem of Gomersall is preserved. His last work was a collection of ‘Sermons on 1 Pet. cap. ii. vv. 13, 14, 15, 16,’ London, 1634, 4to, dedicated to Sir John Strangwayes of Melbury, Dorsetshire. In 1639[–40] he prefixed to Fuller's ‘History of the Holy Warre’ a copy of commendatory verses signed ‘Robert Gomersall, Vicar of Thorncombe in Devon.’ Wood notices that ‘one Rob. Gomersall, who seems to be a Devonian born, died 1646, leaving then by his will 1,000l. to his son Robert.’

[Wood's Athenæ, ed. Bliss, ii. 590; Addit. MS. 24489, fol. 91 (Hunter's Chorus Vatum); Langbaine's Dram. Poets; Corser's Collectanea.]

GOMM, WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784–1875), field marshal, G.C.B., eldest son of Lieutenant-colonel William Gomm of the 55th regiment, and Mary Alleyne, daughter of Joseph Maynard, esq., of Barbadoes, was born in Barbadoes, West Indies, in 1784. His father was killed at the storming of Pointe à Petre in the island of Guadeloupe, West Indies, in 1794. His mother died at Penzance two years after, leaving three sons and a daughter. One son died in childhood, the other three children were brought up by their aunt, Miss Jane Gomm, and her friend Miss M. C. Goldsworthy, who had both been governesses to the daughters of George III. William Maynard Gomm was gazetted an ensign in the 9th regiment on 24 May and a lieutenant on 16 Nov. 1794, before he was ten years of age, in recognition of his father's services. He remained at Woolwich prosecuting his studies till the summer of 1799, when he joined his regiment and embarked for Holland with the expedition under the Duke of York. At the early age of fifteen he took part in the operations on the Helder, and in the engagements of Bergen, Alkmar, and Egmont, and, on the termination of the short campaign in October, he returned to England and remained with his regiment at Norwich until August 1800, when he embarked with it for foreign service under Sir James Pulteney. Proceeding to the Spanish coast, an unsuccessful attempt was made on Ferrol, and, after a visit to Gibraltar and Lisbon, the expedition returned to England at the commencement of 1801. Gomm was now appointed aide-de-camp to General Benson at


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the interior decoration, &c., of St. Andrew's Church. In 1840 he erected the new hall in Coleman Street for the Armourers' Company, to which in 1819 he had been appointed surveyor. About 1822 he was appointed architect to the Royal Pavilion at Brighton, and from 1830 to 1837 erected several new buildings there, including the north and south lodges and entrances, additional stables,coach-houses, dormitory, &c. From 1826 to the dissolution of the commission he was architect to the commissioners for building new churches, from which he subsequently enjoyed a pension. In 1830 he was appointed, under the office of works and public buildings, clerk of works to the Tower, Royal Mint, Fleet and King's Bench prisons, &c., and on 4 Jan. 1831 succeeded, as clerk of works to Kensington Palace, to the official residence at Palace Green, which, in spite of the abolition of the office, he occupied by permission of the sovereign during the remainder of his life. He died there on 20 Nov. 1857, and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery. One of the original fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects, he took a lively interest in the study and progress of architecture. Among his many pupils were Robert Wallace, Henry Ashton, and Alfred Bartholomew.

[Dict. of Architecture, Architectural Publications Soc. 1848.]  GOOD, THOMAS (1609–1678), master of Balliol College, born in 1609. was a native of Worcestershire or Shropshire. He was admitted scholar at Balliol College in 1624, and took the degree of B.A. in 1628. Next year he was elected probationer-fellow, and in 1630 fellow of his college. He proceeded M.A. in 1631, and B.D. in 1639. He became vicar of St. Alkmund's in Shrewsbury, probably in 1642. From this living he seems to have been ejected by the parliament (, Sufferings of the Clergy, pt. ii. pp. 253, 254;, Shrewsbury, ii. 280, 281); but he continued to hold the rectory of Coreley in Shropshire, to which he had been instituted before 1647, throughout the interregnum, and he submitted to the parliamentary visitors for Oxford. He was even appointed one of the visitors' delegates on 30 Sept. 1647. With Dr. Warmestry he met Baxter and other ministers of the Worcestershire Association in September 1653 at Cleobury Mortimer, in order to discuss the question of the Shropshire clergy joining the association, and signed a paper expressing unqualified approval of the articles of agreement. He obtained leave of absence from Balliol College for a large part of the years from 1647 to 1658, and then resigned his fellowship. At the Restoration he was created doctor of divinity as a sufferer for the king's cause. He was also appointed prebendary of Hereford on 29 Aug. 1660, and about the same time he was presented to the rectory of Wistanstow in Herefordshire. In 1672 he was unanimously elected master of Balliol College. He died at Hereford 9 April 1678.

His published works were: 1. 'Firmianus and Dubitantius, certain dialogues concerning Atheism, Infidelity, Popery, and other Heresies and Schismes that trouble the peace of the Church and are destructive of primitive piety,' 8vo, Oxford, 1674. Reflections on the nonconformists contained in this work moved Baxter to write the author a letter of strong remonstrance, which is printed in 'Reliquiae Baxterianae,' pt. iii. pp. 148-51. 2. A folio sheet addressed to the 'Lords, Gentlemen, and Clergy of the Diocese and County of Worcester,' 'the humble proposal of a native of that county in behalf of ingenious young scholars.' This states that Worcestershire has no 'considerable encouragement' for such scholars, and suggests the endowment of two or more fellowships in Balliol College, which (it is said) is 'commonly known by the name of the Worcester College.' 3. 'A Brief English Tract of Logick,' 12mo, 1677. In the British Museum (Addit. MS. 15857, f. 254) there is a letter from Good to Evelyn, thanking him for offering to present two of his books to Balliol College Library.

[Wood's Athenæ Oxon. (Bliss), iii. 1154; Reliquiæ Baxterianæ, ii. 149, iii. 148; Register of the Visitors of the University of Oxford, 1647-58 (Camden Soc.); Kennett's Register and Chronicle, p. 333; Balliol College MS. Register; Bodleian Library Cat. of Printed Books.]  GOOD, THOMAS SWORD (1789–1872), painter, was born at Berwick-upon-Tweed, 4 Dec. 1789, the birth-year of David Wilkie. He was brought up as an ordinary house-painter, but in course of time began to execute portraits at a cheap rate. From this he passed to genre painting, and between 1820 and 1834 exhibited at the principal London exhibitions. To the Royal Academy he sent in 1820 'A Scotch Shepherd;' 'in 1821 'Music' and 'A Man with a Hare;' in 1822 (the year in which Wilkie's 'Chelsea Pensioners' was exhibited) 'Two Old Men (still living) who fought at the Battle of Minden,' a charming little picture, now (1890) in the possession of Mr. F. Locker-Lampson. To the same year belongs 'An Old Northumbrian Piper.' In 1823 he exhibited 'Practice' (probably the barber's apprentice shaving a sheep's head, engraved in mezzotint by W. Morrison); 1824, 'Rummaging an Old Wardrobe;' 1825,


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'Girl and Boy' and 'Smugglers Resting;' 1826, 'A Study of Figures;' 1827, 'Fishermen;' 1828, 'Interior, with Figures;' 1829, 'Coast Scene, with Fishermen' and 'Idlers;' 1830, 'The Truant' and 'Merry Cottagers;' 1831, 'Medicine:' 1832, 'Coast Scene, with a Fisherman' (now in the National Gallery); and 1833, 'The Industrious Mother.' Besides these, he sent forty-three pictures to the British Institution and two to the Suffolk Street Gallery, making a total of sixty-four works up to 1834. About this date, from some obscure cause, he relinquished his brush, and never resumed it professionally. He died in his house on the Quay Walls of his native town, 15 April 1872. Little is known of his life. He visited London and Wilkie, to whose school he belongs, though his connection with the 'Goldsmith of art' would appear to be rather instinctive than direct.

Besides the picture in the National Gallery mentioned above, there are in the same collection three specimens of Good's work, 'The Newspaper,' which has been more than once reproduced, and two others ('No News' and 'Study of a Boy'), both bequeathed in 1874 by the painter's widow, Mary Evans Good, to whom he had been married in 1839. There are also several examples of Good's art in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, and there is an admirable portrait of the artist's friend, the wood-engraver, Thomas Bewick, in the Museum of the Newcastle Natural History Society. But by far the largest collection of his works is that owned by Mr. J. W. Barnes of Durham, which besides oils, e.g. the above-mentioned 'Smugglers Resting' and 'Merry Cottagers,' water-colours, drawings, and etchings, includes a characteristic portrait of the artist by himself. Good's subjects are simple, ingeniously lighted, and cleanly and dexterously painted. They are generally on panel. In boys, fishermen, and smugglers he excelled, and he sometimes exhibits considerable humour. W. Morrison, who engraved 'Practice,' also engraved 'Music.'

[Communications from Mr. J. W. Barnes; Ward's English Art in the Public Galleries of London, pp. 118-20; Portfolio, 1889, xx. 111-113.]  GOOD, WILLIAM (1527–1586), Jesuit, born at Glastonbury, Somersetshire, in 1527, was educated there, and admitted at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 26 Feb. 1545-6, elected a fellow of that society 15 June 1548, and commenced M.A. 18 July 1552, being about that time humanity reader in the college (, Registrum Univ. Oxon. i. 218). He was one of the clerks of the market in 1552. In Queen Mary's reign he obtained the benefice of Middle Chinnock, Somersetshire, the prebend of Comba Octava in the church of Wells, and the head-mastership of the grammar school at Wells. Soon after the accession of Elizabeth he withdrew to Tournay, where in 1562 he was admitted into the Society of Jesus by Father Mercurianus, the provincial (afterwards general of the society). After he had passed his novitiate he was sent into Ireland with Dr. Richard Creagh [q. v.], archbishop of Armagh, and laboured as a missionary in that country for several years. Then he went to Louvain, where he became acquainted with Robert Parsons, whom he persuaded to join the Jesuit order. In 1577 he was professed of the four vows at Rome. Subsequently he visited Sweden and Poland in company with Anthony Possevin in order to settle certain affairs relating to the order. While living in Poland he was elected by the provincial meeting as procurator to the fourth general congregation, and by his vote he assisted in the election of Father Claudius Aquaviva as general of the Jesuits (1581). After the congregation was over he remained in Rome as confessor to the English College then recently established. His appointment gave special satisfaction to Dr. Allen, as appears by his letter to Father Agazzari, 1 June 1581. In 1582 Agazzari appealed to him to clear him from the charge of enticing the students of the college into the Society of Jesus (Knox.,Letters and Memorials of Cardinal Allen, p. 153). Good died at Naples on 5 July (N. S.) 1586, and was buried in the college of the Jesuits in that city.

His works are: 1. An abstract of the lives of the British saints, digested, says Wood, according to the years of Christ and kings of Great Britain. Manuscript formerly in the English College, Rome. 2. 'Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ Trophæa, sive sanctorum Martyrum, qui pro Christo Catholicæque Fidei veritate asserenda, antiquo recentiorique Persecutionum tempore, mortem in Anglia subierunt, Passiones. Romæ in Collegio Anglico per Nicolaum Circinianum depictæ; nuper autem per Jo. Bap. de Cavalleriis æneis typis repræsentatæ,' Rome, 1584, fol., containing thirty-six plates, inclusive of the title-page, engraved on copper. These curious pictures, which formerly covered the walls of the church attached to the English College at Rome, were presented to that institution by George Gilbert [q. v.] Good superintended the work and supplied the artist with the subjects. A reproduction of the engravings, under the editorial supervision of the Rev. John Morris, appeared in 1888.


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 Goodacre  [Wood's Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), i. 516; Tanner's Bibl. Brit. p. 332; Oliver's Jesuit Collections, p. 105; Dodd's Church Hist. ii. 145; Records of English Catholics, i. 328, 334, ii. 466; More's Hist. Missionis Anglic. Soc. Jesu, p. 13; Tanner's Societas Jesu Apostolorum Imitatrix, p. 210; Foley's Records, iv. 477, vii. 307; Southwell's Bibl. Scriptt. Soc. Jesu, p. 314.]  GOODACRE, HUGH (d. 1553), primate of Ireland, was vicar of Shalfleet, Isle of Wight, and chaplain to Bishop Poynet of Winchester. Strype supposes him to have been at first chaplain to Princess Elizabeth, who about 1548 or 1549 procured him a license to preach from the Protector, saying in a letter to Cecil that he had been 'long time known unto her to be as well of honest conversation and sober living as of sufficient learning and judgment in the Scriptures to preach the Word of God.' When Archbishop George Dowdall, who was opposed to the Reformation, retired from Armagh in 1552, Cranmer recommended Goodacre to Edward VI for the vacant see as 'a wise and well learned man,' and he was appointed by a letter under the privy seal dated 28 Oct. 1552. On 2 Feb. 1552-3 he was consecrated in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. He died in Dublin on 1 May of the same year, not without suspicion of having been poisoned by priests 'for preaching God's verity and rebuking their common vices' (, Vocacyon, p. 343; see also, Reformation, iii. 325). He is said to have been 'famed for his preaching'. None of his writings were published.

[Ware's Bishops of Ireland; Strype's Memorials of Archbishop Cranmer; Cotton's Fasti; Mant's Hist. of Church of Ireland.]  GOODAL, WALTER (1706?–1766), Scottish antiquary. [See .]

GOODALL, CHARLES, M.D. (1642–1712), physician, was born in Suffolk in 1642, studied medicine at Leyden, and graduated M.D. at Cambridge 26 Nov. 1670. He then went to reside in London, attended some of the anatomical lectures of Dr. Walter Needham [q. v.] (The Colledge of Physicians vindicated, p. 66), and was admitted a candidate, a grade corresponding to the present degree of member, at the College of Physicians on 26 June 1676. Earlier in the same year he had published ‘The Colledge of Physicians vindicated, and the True State of Physick in this Nation faithfully represented.’ This work is a reply to an attack on the college by Adrian Hyberts, and proves three points: that the College of Physicians was legally established, that it exercised its rights justly, and that it had advanced medical learning in England. The illustrations in support of the last show Goodall to have been well read in the science of his time. On 5 April 1680 he was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians, delivered the Gulstonian lectures there in 1685, and the Harveian oration in 1694 and 1709. He was censor in 1697, 1703, 1705, and 1706, and president from 1708 till his death. In 1684 he published ‘The Royal College of Physicians of London founded and established by law,’ and ‘An Historical Account of the College's Proceedings against Empirics, &c., in every prince's reign from their first Incorporation to the Murther of the Royal Martyr, King Charles the First.’ These treatises are usually bound in one volume. The first gives an account of all the acts of parliament, royal charters, and judicial decisions establishing the privileges of the College of Physicians. The second, after an epistle dedicatory, which contains excellent brief biographies of the most distinguished fellows of the college of past times, gives details of all the prosecutions of empirics, or uneducated practisers of physic, extracted from the college records, and is of great historical interest. On 28 April 1691 Goodall succeeded Needham as physician to the Charterhouse, and for the rest of his life resided there with occasional visits to a house which he owned at Kensington. He enjoyed the friendship of Sydenham [q. v.], of Sydenham's son, of Sir Hans Sloane, and of most of the physicians of his time. He was warmly attached to the College of Physicians, and the manuscript annals bear testimony to his constant attendance at its meetings. He presented the portraits of Henry VIII and of Wolsey which now hang in the censor's room. Sydenham dedicated his ‘Schedula Monitoria’ to Goodall, and speaks with respect of his medical skill and with warm admiration of his character. A letter from Goodall making an appointment to meet Sloane in consultation at the Three Tuns in Newgate Street, London, is in the British Museum (Sloane MS. 4046), and in the same volume are six other autograph letters of his, all written in a hand of beautiful clearness. One dated 1 Sept. 1709 is from Leatherhead, the others from Charterhouse. On 26 Oct. 1698 he asks to borrow some books, on 28 Jan. 1697 he asks Sloane about two Arabian measures, ‘Zasang’ and ‘Rhoxates,’ and wishes to borrow ‘Agricola, de ponderibus.’ In another he proposes an edition of ‘Sydenham,’ and 9 Jan. 1699 wishes to consult Sloane as to his own health. He married thrice, died at Kensington 23 Aug. 1712, and is buried in the church of that parish. His widow gave


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Ant. Remember not. (On greater festivals this antiphon is said entire before as well as after the psalms). Ps. 84 "O how amiable," etc. Ps. 85 "Lord, thou art," etc. Ps. 86 "Bow down thine ear," etc. Ps. 116 (10) "I believe," etc. Ps. 130 "Out of the deep," etc. Ant. Remember not, Lord our offences, nor the offences of our forefathers; neither take thou vengeance of our sins. (In Easter-tide, add, Alleluia). "Lord have mercy upon us. Christ have mercy upon us. Lord have mercy upon us. Our Father," etc. V. And lead us not into temptation. R. But deliver us from evil. V. I said, Lord be merciful unto me. R. Heal my soul, for I have sinned against thee. V. Turn thee again, O Lord, at the last. R. And be gracious unto thy servants. V. Let thy mercy, O Lord, be showed upon us. R. As we do put our trust in thee. V. Let thy priests be clothed with righteousness. R. And thy saints sing with joyfulness. V. Cleanse me, O Lord, from my secret faults. R. And keep thy servant from presumptuous sins. V. O Lord, hear my prayer. R. And let my cry come unto thee. (V. The Lord be with you. R. And with thy spirit.) Let us pray:

Most gracious God, incline thy merciful ears to our prayers, and enlighten our hearts by the grace of the Holy Spirit; that we may worthily minister at thy holy mysteries and love thee with an everlasting love.

Almighty God, unto whom all hearts are open, all desires known, and from whom no secrets are hid; cleanse the thoughts of our hearts by the inspiration of thy Holy Spirit, that we may perfectly love thee, and worthily magnify thy holy Name.

Inflame, O Lord, our reins and our heart with the fire of the Holy Ghost; that we may serve thee with a chaste body, and please thee with a clean heart. Rh


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 wine stood high in the king's favour. He accompanied Cnut on his visit to Denmark in 1019, is said to have commanded a body of English during the king's expedition against the Wends, and to have distinguished himself in the war [see under ]. Cnut made him his chief adviser and admitted him to his confidence. He married him to Gytha, the sister of earl Ulf, who was the husband of his own sister, Estrith, and the most powerful of the Danish earls (, i. 202;, ii. c. 52; , p. 196. Gytha is erroneously called the sister of Cnut, Vita Eadwardi, p. 392), and probably on his return to England appointed him earl of the West-Saxons (Norman Conquest, i. 469). Although Godwine was an earl already, there is nothing to show what jurisdiction he had hitherto held, for the title of Earl of Kent which is sometimes given him does not rest on any ancient authority (ib. p. 451). Wessex, the ‘home of English royalty,’ had never before been placed under the government of a subject, the king ruled there in person. This arrangement had been maintained by Cnut; while the rest of the kingdom was divided into great earldoms, he kept Wessex in his own hands (ib. p. 448). He may have found that his plans of northern conquest made it desirable that he should place a viceroy over the wealthiest and most important part of his new kingdom, and the new earl of the West-Saxons became his representative there, and in his absence from England seems, in some measure, to have acted as governor of the realm (Vita, p. 392). Godwine was thus the most powerful man in the kingdom after the king himself, and from about 1020 his name is almost always written in charters before the names of all other lay nobles, whether English or Danish. He gained vast wealth, and held lands in almost every shire of southern and central England. Prudent in counsel and strenuous in war he had gained Cnut's favour, and the king took delight in his society. With an uncommon capacity for work he combined a cheerful temper and a general courtesy. He was not puffed up by his rapid rise; was always gentle in his manners, and unwearyingly obliging to his equals and his inferiors (Vita). He was an eloquent speaker, and his oratory seems to have been of considerable assistance to him. Norman writers describe him as fierce, cunning, and greedy (, p. 179;, vii. c. ii.), and Henry of Huntingdon (p. 758) takes the same line; William of Malmesbury notes the different estimates formed by English and by Norman writers (Gesta Regum, i. 335). Godwine appears to have been a remarkably able man, ambitious, unscrupulous, and eager for the aggrandisement of his house. His marriage with Gytha, and the benefits which he received from Cnut, naturally gave him Danish sympathies, his two elder sons Swegen, or Swend, and Harold were called by Danish names, and though he lived to represent English national feeling, it is not unlikely that at this period ‘he must have seemed to Englishmen more Dane than Englishman’ (, Conquest of England, p. 479).

On the death of Cnut in 1035 Godwine supported the claim of Harthacnut, the son of Cnut by Emma. In this he was endeavouring to carry out the plan of Cnut, and to secure a continuance of the connection between England and Denmark. While he and the men of his earldom were in favour of Harthacnut, earls Siward and Leofric and the people north of the Thames and the Londoners declared for Harold. A meeting of the witan was held at Oxford; Godwine and the chief men of Wessex persisted as long as they could, and at last yielded to a proposal that the kingdom should be divided [see under ]. In Harthacnut's absence Godwine acted as the chief minister of Emma, who ruled Wessex for her son, and he thus had the king's housecarls or guard under his command. The division of the kingdom must have materially lessened his power, which was now confined to Wessex. Harthacnut remained in Denmark, and his prolonged absence strengthened Harold. In 1036 the sons of Emma by her first husband, Æthelred the Unready [see under the ætheling and ], came over to England. The death of Ælfred and the cruelties practised on him and his men are attributed to Godwine by name in the Abingdon version of the Chronicle and by Florence of Worcester. In the Worcester version they are put down to Harold; in the ‘Encomium Emmæ’ Godwine decoys the ætheling, while the actual attack is made by partisans of Harold. The biographer of Eadward the Confessor, writing a panegyric on Godwine and his house for Godwine's daughter, asserts that the earl was innocent. William of Poitiers, of course, asserts his guilt. William of Malmesbury did not find the story of Ælfred's death in the versions of the Chronicle with which he was acquainted, and accordingly tells it merely as a matter of common report which ascribed the deed to the ætheling's fellow-countrymen and chiefly to Godwine. Henry of Huntingdon's account, which is more or less a romance, simply shows that in his time there was a strong tradition of Godwine's guilt. A large number of the earl's con-


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 We beseech thee, O Lord, that the Comforter who proceedeth from thee, may enlighten our hearts; and lead us, as thy Son hath promised, into all truth.

We beseech thee, O Lord, let the power of the Holy Ghost come upon us; that it may mercifully cleanse our hearts, and defend us from all adversities.

O God, who didst teach the hearts of thy faithful people, by sending to them the light of thy Holy Spirit; grant us by the same Spirit to have a right judgment in all things, and evermore to rejoice in his holy comfort.

Purify our consciences, we beseech thee, O Lord, by thy visitation; that our Lord Jesus Christ thy Son, when he cometh, may find in us a mansion prepared for himself. Who liveth and reigneth with thee, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world without end. R. Amen.

Cleanse my hands, O Lord, from all stain, that pure in mind and body I may be made meet to serve thee.

Put upon my head, O Lord, the helmet of salvation, that I may overcome the assaults of the devil.

Cleanse me, O Lord, and purify my heart, that having been made white in the blood of the Lamb, I may have the fruition of everlasting joys.

Gird me, O Lord, with the girdle of purity, and quench in me the fire of concupiscence, that the virtues of temperance and chastity may abide within me.

Grant me, O Lord, so to bear the maniple of tears and sorrow, that with joy I may receive the reward of my labour.

Restore to me, O Lord, the stole of immortality, which I lost by the transgression of my first parent, and although Rh


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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army /World War II to Korea

 * World War II to Korea

 * With the end of World War II came the difficult task of demobilizing the huge wartime military establishment and of reorganizing the infantry for its peacetime role. The demobilization was extremely hasty and, as General of the Army George C. Marshall stated before a joint session of Congress, "… [it had] no relationship whatsoever to the size of the Army in the future." Furthermore, it was carried out on the basis of an individual point system, not by units. The point system was designed to be fair to the individual soldier and satisfied the insistent demands of Congress, the public, and the press to "bring the boys back home" as soon as possible, but its effects on unit integrity, efficiency, and combat capability were disastrous. There were too few units left to meet all the worldwide responsibilities the United States had acquired with victory, while infantry organizations remaining active were so understrength and suffered such constant personnel turnover that they seemed more like replacement centers than combat units.

 * By 30 June 1947 demobilization was officially completed. From a peak strength of 8,291,336 on 31 May 1945 the Army had been reduced to 989,664 in only twentyfive months. During the same period the infantry totals dropped at an even faster rate from 1,782,832 to 126,121. The number of infantry regiments decreased from 288 to 41, and only seven separate infantry battalions remained active. More than threefourths of the active infantry units were assigned to divisions: 8 infantry, 2 airborne, 1 armored, and 1 cavalry. With the exception of the 88th, which was in the process of being inactivated in Italy, each infantry division had three organic infantry regiments. The airborne divisions had one glider and two parachute infantry regiments each, and the armored division had three armored infantry battalions. Only the 1st Cavalry Division still retained the square structure with four organic regiments which, although reorganized in 1945 as infantry, kept their cavalry designations. As of 1 July 1947, all separate infantry battalions and eleven regiments were stationed in the United States. The rest of the infantry regiments were overseas with nineteen in Japan and Korea and the other eleven in Germany, Italy, the Philippines, the Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, and Trinidad.

 * Although the first problem of the postwar infantry was demobilization, even while that was going on plans were being made for the reorganization of infantry units in the light of the experience gained and the lessons learned during World War II. Since the war had been won and infantry organization, weapons, and tactics had proved to be effective in different theaters of operations and against different enemy forces, there was no motivation for radical innovations. The explosion of the atomic bomb was still too recent to influence infantry organization at this time. Nevertheless, it did have an indirect effect on infantry units, since in the general enthusiasm over this ultimate modern weapon the infantry was sometimes forgotten or, at any rate, overshadowed. Attempts to re-establish the office of the Chief of Infantry failed, because Army leaders believed that chiefs of the combat arms would tend to encourage undesirable branch consciousness and interbranch rivalry. To the infantry this meant that it had no official spokesman, nobody to look out for its interests, and no one to take care of its problems.

 * Responsibility for the development and preparation of infantry tables of organization and equipment, formerly the function of the Chief of Infantry, had been passed in 1942 to Headquarters, Army Ground Forces, which became the Office, Chief of Army Field Forces, in March 1948. The postwar TOE's for standard and armored infantry units were published between late 1947 and mid1948 after months of careful study, evaluation,. and review. They reflected various recommendations and suggestions, particularly those of the General Board, United States Forces, European Theater, and of the Infantry Conference which was sponsored by the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, in dune 1946. Although they did not introduce any significant new organizational concepts, the 1947-48 tables brought some changes to all infantry units from the squad to the division.

 * One of the most important changes was made in the rifle squad. The consensus was that the 12-man squad of World War II was too large and unwieldy. As a result, the ammunition bearer and the two scouts were eliminated, and the new unit had only nine men: a squad leader, an assistant squad leader, a BAR team of two men, and five riflemen, one of whom was armed with the sniper version of the M1 rifle. The M1, which had been highly effective and very popular during the war, was retained as the basic individual weapon of the infantryman, and a bayonet was issued with each rifle.

 * With the reduction of the squad by three men, the rifle platoon lost nine rifles, but its firepower did not decrease. On the contrary, the postwar organization gave the platoon leader greater firepower under his immediate control by adding a new 9-man weapons squad to support the three rifle squads. The final World War II TOE had placed the infantry company's 2.36-inch rocket launchers and .30-caliber light machine guns in one weapons platoon. The postwar table moved both of these weapons to the new squad in the rifle platoon, leaving only 60-mm. mortars and 57-mm. recoilless rifles in the weapons platoon.

 * The heavy weapons company, organic to each infantry battalion, was also streamlined under the 1947 TOE. One of the machine gun platoons was dropped and the 81-mm. mortars and 75-mm. recoilless rifles authorized in June 1945 were both reduced from six to four per company. Of its nine rocket launchers only six remained, but the new ones were the more powerful 3.5-inch bazookas, whereas the old ones had been 2.36-inch launchers.

 * Even more changes were made on the regimental level. During World War II, the artillery provided such responsive and effective fire support that the infantry regiment no longer needed its own cannon company. Chemical mortar companies, on the other hand, had been frequently and very successfully attached to infantry units. Combat experience had also shown that the best antitank weapon was the tank itself and that the infantry-tank team was an extremely effective fighting unit. Accordingly, both the cannon and the antitank company were eliminated, while a heavy mortar company (armed with twelve 4.2-inch mortars) and a tank company of 148 men and twenty-two tanks became organic to the postwar infantry regiment. Additional tank support for divisional infantry units was available from a tank battalion, which was made part of the infantry division for the first time in the 1947-48 tables.

 * There was no special unit for air defense in the infantry regiment, but the number of .50-caliber Browning machine guns, employed primarily as antiaircraft weapons, increased from thirty-three to forty-seven, and a newly created automatic weapons battalion in the division artillery further improved antiaircraft protection. The 1948 regiment also had a larger headquarters and headquarters company, a larger service company, and an organic medical company instead of an attached medical detachment. All of these changes, which made the postwar infantry regiment a much more powerful and sophisticated unit than its World War II predecessor, were accomplished with only a slight gain in overall regimental strength from 8,697 to 3,774.

 * While three infantry regiments remained the basic combat elements of the infantry division, as they had been throughout the war, the postwar armored division had more organic infantry units than either the "heavy" or "light" armored division of World War II. The General Board, United States Forces, European Theater, had concluded that there were not enough infantrymen in the armored divisions, especially in those organized .under the "heavy" 1942 TOE's. The board recommended that three composite tank-infantry regiments, each comprised of one tank battalion and two armored rifle battalions, be assigned to the division. Although this suggestion was not adopted in the postwar organization, the ratio of infantry to tank units was improved by authorizing four armored infantry battalions for each division and four rifle companies for each battalion, thus raising the total number of armored infantry companies in the armored division from nine to sixteen.

 * The structure of the armored infantry battalion (AIB) differed somewhat from that of the standard infantry battalion. The 917-man infantry battalion consisted of a headquarters and headquarters company, a heavy weapons company, and three rifle companies of 211 men each. The AIB was larger by 152 men and had a headquarters, headquarters and service company, a medical detachment, and four armored infantry companies of 208 men each. The infantry company's weapons platoon and three rifle platoons of three rifle squads and a weapons squad paralleled the armored infantry company's mortar platoon and three rifle platoons of three rifle squads and a light machine gun squad. There were ten men in the 1948 armored infantry rifle squad-one more than in its regular infantry counterpart. The tenth man drove the squad's newly issued full-tracked armored utility vehicle, M44, which replaced the half-track personnel carrier used during World War II.

 * The basic weapons of the standard infantry and the armored infantry were the same, although the quantity of the weapons varied. Armored infantry units, however, were not authorized any recoilless rifles. On the other hand, they had many more rocket launchers and machine guns. In an armored rifle company, for example, there were ten bazookas and nineteen machine guns, as opposed to only three and four, respectively, in a regular rifle company. As a result, the armored infantry was capable of providing greater automatic fire support than other infantry units.

 * The first postwar airborne infantry TOE's did not appear until 1 April 1950, but airborne units had been organized earlier under draft tables similar to the final published tables. Perhaps the main reason for this delay was the fact that there were more changes made in airborne organization than in other types of infantry. Despite their unique and highly specialized primary mission of seizing and holding important objectives by attack from the air, airborne units in World War II were frequently called upon to perform normal infantry missions. Both combat experience and tests conducted after the war at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, showed that they needed to be organized more like standard infantry units in order to be self-sustaining in ground operations over extended periods. The new TOE's, therefore, gave the airborne infantry more staying power.and organized it along the same lines as the regular infantry, while retaining its special air assault capability.

 * During World War II there had been two types of airborne regiments-parachute and glider. After the war both of these units were eliminated, and the 1 April 1950 TOE's introduced an airborne infantry regiment, which was capable of landing by parachute, glider, or aircraft. Three of these new units were organic to the postwar airborne division, and provisions were also made for nondivisional regiments. The airborne infantry regiment had a strength of 3,376 men and contained a headquarters and headquarters company, a service company, a support company, a medical company, and three airborne infantry battalions. Its structure was similar to that of the regular infantry regiment, except that instead of a tank company and a heavy mortar company, the airborne unit had a support company. The disadvantages of not having a regimental tank company were somewhat offset in divisional units by the fact that the airborne division was authorized two organic tank battalions, while the infantry division had only one.

 * The support company consisted of a company headquarters, two heavy mortar platoons armed with four 4.2-inch mortars each, and an antitank platoon with six 3.5-inch rocket launchers, three heavy .50-caliber machine guns, and six 90mm. antitank guns on airborne carriages. It was a very powerful unit, completely motorized, capable of landing by parachute or aircraft, with its own fire direction center and its own communications system. The organization of the airborne infantry battalion, company, platoon, and squad was almost identical to that of the corresponding standard infantry units. Likewise, the weapons used by both types of infantry were also the same, except for the airborne antitank gun.

 * There was a considerable time lag between the publication of the postwar TOE's and the actual reorganization of infantry units under the new tables. Even after the reorganization had officially taken place, there were still differences between the paper organizations and the actual units, since most units were understrength and not fully equipped. A separate reduced strength column, to be effective in peacetime, was added to all TOE's in November 1950, but until then special cut sheets or reduction tables were prepared for infantry units by the Office, Chief of Army Field Forces.

 * On the eve of the Korean War, only one of ten active combat divisions was being maintained at full strength. The others averaged about 70 percent of their authorized strength and had major shortages in equipment. For example, infantry units generally did not have the organic armor provided by the new TOE's or were equipped with lighter and older tank models than those authorized. Nor did they have their full allowances of 57-mm. and 75-mm. recoilless rifles and 4.2-inch mortars, while the 3.5-inch rocket launchers were still in the process of being tested. Many infantry battalions were short one rifle company, and in most infantry regiments only two out of the three battalions weie active. Since current infantry tactics were based on triangular organization, such reductions were very serious handicaps.

 * Shortcomings in infantry personnel and equipment were caused by budget cuts; strength ceilings, and other limitations placed upon the postwar Army by an economy-minded Congress and administration. These actions were supported by a war-weary public traditionally opposed to a large peacetime military establishment and overly dependent on the atomic bomb as a deterrent to future wars. Even after demobilization had been completed and the Air Force had become a separate service, the strength of the Army still continued to decline. The crisis produced by the Soviet blockade of Berlin and the Allied airlift of supplies to the isolated city brought about a temporary increase in Regular Army personnel. By 30 June 1950, however, the actual strength had dropped again to 591,487 out of an authorized total of 630,000. The active infantry at that time numbered 130,554 officers and enlisted men.

 * In mid-1950 the infantry in the Regular Army consisted of forty-six regiments and thirteen separate battalions. There were seven infantry combat divisions with three organic infantry regiments each, including the 1st Cavalry Division, which had finally been triangularized in 1949. The 2d Armored Division was organized under the 1947-48 TOE's that authorized four armored infantry battalions (AIB's) per division. The 82d Airborne Division had three airborne infantry regiments, while in the 11th Airborne Division only two of the three organic regiments were active. In addition to the ten combat divisions, there were four training divisions (three infantry and one armored), which had nine infantry regiments and four AIB's assigned to them. The eleven separate regiments were all organized as standard infantry; two of the five nondivisional battalions were AIB's and the other three were regular infantry battalions. There were no separate airborne regiments or battalions, neither of the old parachute and glider infantry nor of the new airborne infantry.

 * Besides having major shortages in both personnel and equipment, the active infantry units were also inadequately trained. At first the disintegration caused by rapid demobilization had made effective unit training virtually impossible, and the numerous administrative chores of occupation duty also interfered with training programs. Occupation of the countries defeated in World War II remained by far the single greatest responsibility of the infantry throughout the 1945-50 period and was a heavy drain on the Army's overall effort. Although the duties were gradually reduced everywhere and troops were completely removed from some areas as peace treaties were signed, on the eve of the Korean War about one-third of the infantry was still on occupation duty.

 * Not until late in the postwar era was more emphasis placed on training and readiness. In January 1950, General Mark W. Clark; Chief of Army Field Forces, announced that the most extensive and diversified peacetime maneuver training program in Army history was then under way. In this program infantry units participated in various joint and combined maneuvers with other Army units and with the U.S. Navy and Air Force. Exercises were also held with the armed forces of Canada, France, and other countries allied with the United States in 1949 under the provisions of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

 * Infantrymen from the reserve components as well as Regular Army infantry units took part in some of these maneuvers. The National Guard and the Organized Reserve Corps, as reorganized in the 1945-50 period, were considerably larger and somewhat better trained than the reserve components of the 1930's. With many men having World War II combat experience and with better participation in paid drills, the Organized Reserve Corps' infantry was significantly less of a paper organization than it had been in the prewar period. In the National Guard, all of the twenty-five infantry divisions and twenty regimental combat teams had been Federally recognized by 30 June 1950. Also, the entire National Guard infantry had been reorganized under the postwar TOE's, as modified by special reduction tables. Although all units participated in some form of training, it took place under major handicaps because funds were limited, armory facilities were inadequate, and equipment shortages were estimated at over 50 percent. Even in mobilization planning, the reserve structure was not expected to become effective until one or two years after a general mobilization.

 * By June 1950 the infantry of all components was better organized and trained than it had been at any time since the hasty post-World War II demobilization had reduced it to near impotence. Nevertheless, infantry units were far from combat ready for the war which broke out suddenly in Korea.


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Rh fire-proof, will contain about one-third more case-room than was before available, and, both in architectural beauty and in durability of construction, will be a great improvement over the old halls.

Under the capable management of Adolph Cluss, who designed the plan for reconstruction, and who was appointed engineer by the commission having the restoration in charge, the work thus far has been well and economically done.

The attention of Congress is called to the necessity of authorizing the construction of a new and fire-proof roof for the south and east wings, similar to the one designed for the north and west wings. The roof which now covers this portion of the building is little better than a tinder-box, and is liable at any time to be destroyed by fire. The copper roofing is laid upon a covering of boards, and these are fastened to light wooden rafters. The space beneath is traversed by numerous smoke-flues, many of which run horizontally for considerable distances. These imperfect and badly constructed flues are liable at any time to get out of order and endanger the safety of the building. I regard the recovering of this portion of the building with a fire-proof roof as absolutely necessary, and earnestly recommend that an appropriation sufficient for the purpose be made at as early a day as possible.

It is deemed advisable to substitute for the rotten wooden joists and lathing of the ceilings of the first story of the north wing, iron lathing fastened to iron frames; replaster and repaint the rooms and hall damaged by the fire, and to repair the brickwork and plastering of the arched ceiling of the west wing. This work was not included in the original estimates for the reconstruction of the building, and therefore an additional appropriation of $10,000 is asked for.

An appropriation of $6,000 is also recommended for the construction of a hydraulic elevator in the north wing, with approved safety apparatus, including a steam-boiler of steel, water-supply, steam-pump pressure, and discharge tanks, all of sufficient size to work, if necessary, two elevators and the necessary machinery.

It is estimated that it will cost $160,000 to properly fit up the two reconstructed wings with fire-proof model-cases, consisting of wrought-iron frames and doors, plate-glass fronts, and fluted-glass shelves. The necessary cases of hard wood finished in good style would cost about $90,000, but, as these would supply an amount of combustible material which might at any time endanger the best system of fire-proof construction, their adoption is not deemed advisable. Although the difference in cost between iron and wood cases would appear considerable, I am satisfied that it would be wise economy to have all model-cases in the future constructed of iron, and I therefore recommend that the necessary appropriation be made for this purpose.

I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

Secretary.

The.


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User talk:Dylantv

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