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 used, thumbd over, as they call it, in an extraordinary degree, with frequency of use.

he who was so well acquainted with the laws of our material system, by which the sovereign architect governs, & preserves the whole frame; he knew that the same allgood, & allwise being did not leave the moral world without rule, & law; which law we call religion. but religion is nothing, without practise; & that practise must be public, vizt the sabbatical duty, which is the very basis of all the good we enjoy in this world, either as to the community or to private persons: as well as of the claim it gives us of a future happiness.

Sr. Isaac's great, & extensive mind, to which Providence had given so vast, so intimate a view of his works, must needs tast the most divine pleasure in the public acts of adoration of the omnipotent fountain of all things: especially in the service of the Church of England, which of all others most certainly, & most strongly affects, & influences a rational person, one of learning, & solid piety.

Sr. Isaac was sensible, that the material, & the animal world were govern'd by infallible canons, never deviating; by the great principles of gravitation, & impulse, and by that which we call instinct. but the rational world being perfectly free, must still


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HAT thought can measure Time?—

Tell its beginning, name

The void from which it first, faint-pulsing, came?—

Follow its onward going,—

A restless river without tumult flowing,—

Or with sure footing climb

Unto its unlit altitudes sublime?

What thought can trace the wonders it hath seen—

Time, the creator of all that hath been,

Giver of bounty where was dearth,

Bringer of miracles to birth:

Time, through whose office is the seedling sown,

The fruit up-gathered, the ripe harvest mown,

And beauty made to glorify the earth?

Before the land took shape and rose

Black and chaotic from the old, old sea,

Before the stars their courses chose,

Before the moon's most ancient memory,

Time to Earth's vision, veiled in night, appears

Back of the viewless cycles of the years.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 husband also wrote Mémoires, and lived until 1831, after having, it is said, received subsidies from Louis XVIII.

 DIANA, in Roman mythology, an old Italian goddess, in later times identified with the Greek (q.v.). That she was originally an independent Italian deity is shown by her name, which is the feminine form of Janus (= Dianus). She is essentially the goddess of the moon and light generally, and presides over wood, plain and water, the chase and war. As the goddess of childbirth, she was known, like Juno, by the name of Lucina, the “bringer to light.” As the moon-goddess she was also identified with Hecate, and invoked as “three-formed” in reference to the phases of the moon. Her most celebrated shrine was in a grove at Aricia (whence her title of Nemorensis) near the modern lake of Nemi. Here she was worshipped side by side with a male deity Virbius, a god of the forest and the chase. This Virbius was subsequently identified with Hippolytus, the favourite of Artemis, who was said to have been brought to life by Aesculapius and conducted by Diana to Aricia (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 263, vi. 731, Metam. xv. 497; Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 761). A barbarous custom, perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice once offered to her, prevailed in connexion with her ritual here; her priest, called Rex Nemorensis, who was a runaway slave, was obliged to qualify for office by slaying his predecessor in single combat (Strabo v. p. 239; Suetonius, Caligula, 35). This led to the identification of Diana with the Tauric Artemis, whose image was said to have been removed by Orestes to the grove of Aricia (see ).

After the destruction of Alba Longa this grove was for a long time the united sanctuary of the neighbouring Latin and Rutulian cities, until at last it was extinguished beneath the supremacy of Rome. The festival of the goddess was on the ides (13th) of August, the full moon of the hot season. She was worshipped with torches, her aid was sought by women seeking a happy deliverance in childbirth, and many votive offerings have been found on the site. The worship of Diana was brought to Rome by Latin plebeians, and hence she was regarded as the protectress of the lower classes, and especially of slaves. In accordance with this, her most important temple was that on the Aventine, the chief seat of the plebeians, founded by Servius Tullius, originally as a sanctuary of the Latin league (Dion. Halic. iv. 26). No man was allowed to enter the temple, and on the day of its dedication (August 13) the slaves kept holiday (Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 100). This Diana was identified with the sister of Apollo, and at the secular games she was worshipped simply as Artemis. Another celebrated sanctuary of Diana was that on the slopes of Mount Tifata near Capua (where she was worshipped under the name of Tifatina), a sanctuary specially favoured by Sulla and Vespasian. As Noctiluca (“giving light by night”) she had a sanctuary on the Palatine which was kept illuminated throughout the night (Varro, L.L. v. 68). On the Nemi priesthood see J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough.

 DIANA MONKEY, a West African representative of the guenon monkeys taking its name, Cercopithecus diana, from the presence of a white crescent on the forehead; another characteristic feature being the pointed white beard. The general colour of the fur is greyish, with a deep tinge of chestnut from the middle of the back to the root of the tail. Together with C. neglectus of East and Central Africa, C. ignitus of Liberia, and C. roloway of the Gold Coast, the diana represents the special subgenus of guenons known as Pogonocebus. Although the diana monkey is commonly seen in menageries, little is known of its habits in the wild state.

 DIANE DE FRANCE (1538–1619), duchess of Montmorency and Angoulême, was the natural daughter of Henry II. of France and a young Piedmontese, Filippe Duc. The constable de Montmorency went so far as to assert that of all the children of Henry II. Diane was the only one who resembled him. Catherine de’ Medici was greatly incensed at this affront, and took her revenge by having the constable disgraced on the death of Henry II. Brantôme is loud in praise of Diane. She was a perfect horsewoman and dancer, played several musical instruments, knew Spanish and Italian, and “estoit très belle de visage et de taille.” Legitimated in 1547, she was married in 1553 to Horace Farnese, second son of the duke of Parma, but her husband was killed soon afterwards at the siege of Hesdin. In order to assure his position, the constable de Montmorency wished to marry her to his eldest son, Francis. This was a romantic adventure, for Francis had clandestinely married Mademoiselle de Piennes. The constable dissolved this union, and after lengthy negotiations obtained the dispensation of the pope. On the 3rd of May 1559 Francis married Diane. A wise and moderate woman, Diane undoubtedly helped to make Francis de Montmorency one of the leaders of the party of the politiques. Again a widow in 1579, she had some influence at the court of Henry III., and negotiated his reconciliation with Henry of Navarre (1588). She retained her influence in the reign of Henry IV., conveyed the bodies of Catherine de’ Medici and Henry III. to St Denis, and died in 1619 at her hôtel of Angoulême.

 DIANE DE POITIERS (1499–1566), duchess of Valentinois, and mistress of Henry II. of France, was the daughter of Jean de Poitiers, seigneur de St Vallier, who came of an old family of Dauphiné. In 1515 she married Louis de Brézé, grand seneschal of Normandy, by whom she had two daughters. She became a widow in 1533, but soon replaced her husband by a more illustrious lover, the king’s second son, Henry, who became dauphin in 1536. Although he was ten years younger than Diane, she inspired the young prince with a profound passion, which lasted until his death. The accession of Henry II. in 1547 was also the accession of Diane: she was virtual queen, while Henry’s lawful wife, Catherine de’ Medici, lived in comparative obscurity. The part Diane played, however, must not be exaggerated. More rapacious than ambitious, she concerned herself little with government, but devoted her energies chiefly to augmenting her income, and providing for her family and friends. Henry was the most prodigal of lovers, and gave her all rights over the duchy of Valentinois. Although she showed great tact in her dealings with the queen, Catherine drove her from the court after Henry’s death, and forced her to restore the crown jewels and to accept Chaumont in exchange for Chenonceaux. Diane retired to her château at Anet, where she died in 1566.

Several historians relate that she had been the mistress of Francis I. before she became the dauphin’s mistress, and that she gave herself to the king in order to obtain the pardon of her father, who had been condemned to death as an accomplice of the constable de Bourbon. This rumour, however, has no serious foundation. Men vied with each other in celebrating Diane’s beauty, which, if we may judge from her portraits, has been slightly exaggerated. She was a healthy, vigorous woman, and, by dint of great pains, succeeded in retaining her beauty late into life. It is said that even on the coldest mornings she would wash her face with well water. Diane was a patroness of the arts. She entrusted to Philibert de l’Orme the building of her château at Anet, and it was for her that Jean Goujon executed his masterpiece, the statue of Diana, now in the Louvre.

 DIAPASON (Gr. , through all), a term in music, originally for an interval of an octave. The Greek is an abbreviation of , a consonance through all the tones of the scale. In this sense it is only used now, loosely, for the compass of an instrument or voice, or for a harmonious melody. The name is given to the two

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diamond Necklace, The Affair of the


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40 The Hours, his little children, run

Lightly upon his errands ever;

By sure and swift relays is done

His will, disputed never;

The while these transient Hours infirm

Measure of mortal things the destined term.

Ah, me, the days! the heavy-weighted years,

Each with its Spring and Winter, dusk and dawn!

The centuries, with all their joys, and tears,

That came, and now—so utterly are gone!

Gone whither? Whither vanished so?

Does broad Orion, or does Hesper know?

There comes no answer. Are we dupes, indeed,—

Offspring of Time, by Time relentless slain,

Our purest aspirations dreamed in vain?

Ah, no: man's soul indignant doth disdain

Ignoble vassalage to such a creed,

Well-knowing it is free,—

Aye, free!—for present, past, and future blend,

The segments of a circle without end,

Losing themselves in one, unbourned eternity!


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diana

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diana


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Time

title: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Time


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diana monkey


text:
Author:Robert Park

 * Robert Emory Park — Confederate States Army captain
 * Robert Ezra Park (1864–1944) — American sociologist

title: Author:Robert Park


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The priest who is about to celebrate the holy mysteries ought to be prepared for this exercise of his office. He is bound not only to see that all things needful for the celebration of the holy Eucharist are in readiness, but also to exercise due care that he himself has the right dispositions and has fulfilled the conditions which traditional rules require. For example, he should have said the matin (Prayer Book) office, and have observed a natural fast from the preceding midnight. If he have opportunity he should say the preparatory form which is set forth elsewhere in this book, and should have some special intention of applying the fruit of the mass to some person, or number of persons, or for the furtherance of some special object.

Having finished his devotions, the priest should preserve a recollected mind, and refrain as far as possible from all conversation. He will do well to read over the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel which he is to use in the mass, and the Preface if a proper one is appointed. He should determine the prayer, or prayers, which he will use as the post-communion, note the last Gospel (if he intends to read it) if another than that for Christmas Day should be read, and see to it, either personally or by a trusty server, that the altar lights are kindled and the altar is in readiness for the mass, and that the cruets containing wine and water, the box of altar-breads and whatever else be needed are in their proper places.

The priest, having washed and dried his hands, prepares the chalice, in the following order: Over the cup he places a clean purificator, folded lengthwise, so that the ends hang down on two sides; upon the purificator he places the paten; on the paten he places a priest's altar-bread; then he lays the pall on the paten, and then covers all with the silk veil so arranged that it hides in front the whole chalice. Lastly Rh


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diane de France


text:
Author:Robert Ezra Park

Books and edited books

 * The Man Farthest Down: A Record of Observation and Study in Europe with Booker T. Washington, New York: Doubleday (1912)
 * Introduction to the Science of Sociology with Ernest Burgess Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1921)
 * Old World Traits Transplanted: The Early Sociology of Culture with Herbert A Miller, & Kenneth Thompson, New York: Harper & Brothers (1921)
 * The Immigrant Press and Its Control New York: Harper & Brothers (1921)
 * The City: Suggestions for the Study of Human Nature in the Urban Environment with R. D. McKenzie & Ernest Burgess) Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1925)
 * The University and the Community of Races Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press (1932)
 * Race Relations and the Race Problem; A Definition and an Analysis with Edgar Tristram Thompson, Durham, NC: Duke University Press (1939)
 * Essays in Sociology with C W M Hart, and Talcott Parsons et al., Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1940)
 * An Outline of the Principles of Sociology, with Samuel Smith, New York: Barnes & Noble (1946)

Articles, chapters in books, and other published writings

 * Masse und Publikum. Eine methodologische und soziologische Untersuchung (Ph.D. thesis) publ. Berlin: Lack & Grunau, (1904)
 * "Booker T. Washington", in Famous Living Americans, with Portraits (1914)
 * "Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man" in Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1937)
 * "Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man" in Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1937)
 * "Cultural Conflict and the Marginal Man" in Everett V. Stonequist, The Marginal Man, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1937)

title: Author:Robert Ezra Park


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diane de Poitiers


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 he places the burse, in which is a clean corporal, upon the veil, and so that the open side thereof will be opposite the front of the chalice and towards the priest when he carries the chalice to the altar.

Having prepared the chalice, the priest, habited in cassock, signs himself with the sign of the cross and proceeds to put on the vestments, in the following order and manner. He takes up the Amice by the two upper corners, using both hands to do so, and kisses the middle of the upper part of the amice (not the apparel or "collar") and then, passing his right hand over his left he draws the amice around his left shoulder behind his head, rests the upper part of the amice upon his head and at once lowers it to his neck, brings the two corners to the front under his chin so that the amice covers his collar all around, and then crossing the strings he passes them close up under his arms and across his back, and brings the ends together in front, over his breast, and ties them. While putting on the amice and the other vestments, the priest may say the vesting prayers set forth in the Appendix. Next gathering up the Alb with both hands, the back part from the bottom to the top, he puts it over his head, and putting his arms through the sleeves, allows it to fall down all around him, and then fastens it at the neck. Then, taking the Girdle, he doubles it for about two thirds of its length, and holding the loop thereof in his right hand and the other end of the doubled portion in his left hand, he passes the said portion about his body, upon his loins, puts both ends of the girdle through the loop, draws them taut, and brings the loop to the front; then taking hold of the lower end he passes it, by his right, around his body and then through the second loop thus formed, and drawing both ends taut lets them hang down in front. If the alb be too long, it should be gathered up under the girdle. Care should be taken that the alb hangs evenly all around. Then, taking up the Maniple the priest kisses the cross upon the middle of it, and places it on his left arm between the wrist and the elbow. Next taking the Stole with both hands, at points a few inches apart and equally distant from the middle, he kisses it in the middle and then places the middle of the stole upon the back of his neck. Then he crosses the stole over his breast, and lifting up the ends of the girdle between Rh


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 have a law; which tho' it dos force voluntary agents, yet it presents its self to a considering eye, in so amiable a light, that it allures us; offers present, as well as future rewards: and fully acquaints us with the mischiefs of a refusal. we are left to our own will, because that only can intitle us to merit. & if we be sincere, it affords us sufficient help to conduct us rightly.

several people of heretical, & unsettled notions, particularly those of Arian principles, have taken great pains to inlist Sr. Isaac into their party. but that with as little justice, as the anti christians. the church of England intirely claims him as her son, in faith, & in practise.

I can not better conclude this article, than in reciting the subject of a conversation, I once had with him, toward the beginning of our acquaintance.

I proposed to him a thought I had entertain'd, how to account for that great luminous circle incompassing us, which we look upon with so much wonder, in a clear starry night, called the milky way. we all readily suppose it to be owing to the suns of separate systems there placed, one beyond another,   whose united rays cause that luminous appearance. we suppose with probability enough, that every star is a sun of a separate system; some perhaps bigger, some lesser,  some further distant from


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 the pendant parts of the stole, he passes the said ends over the stole, one to the right and the other to the left and tucks them under the girdle one on each side of his body. Lastly the priest puts on the Chasuble.

Being duly vested, the priest holding the chalice, by the knop, with his left hand, as high as and a little in front of his breast, his right hand upon the burse, proceeds to the altar. After making the due act of reverence at the foot of the altar-steps he goes up to the foot-pace and standing in the midst puts down the chalice, a little to his left, upon the altar. Then he takes up the burse, carefully takes out the corporal, places the burse upright against the gradine to the left of the midst, unfolds and spreads the corporal upon the midst of the altar so that its front edge will be near and parallel with (but never overhanging) the front edge of the altar-mensa, and then puts the veiled chalice upon the corporal in the midst thereof. Then he goes to the book on the Epistle-side, opens it at the beginning of the mass-rite, returns to the midst, bows slightly towards the cross, goes down the steps, faces the altar, bows profoundly, stands erect, signs himself with the sign of the cross, and says the preparatory prayers. The prayers ended, the priest goes up to the foot-pace, joins his hands upon the altar, kisses it and then goes to the book, where facing the altar he signs himself with the sign of the cross and begins the mass. After the prayer "Almighty God, unto whom" etc., if the commandments are to be recited, the priest goes to the midst, bows slightly towards the cross, turns by his right, faces the people, and rehearses the Commandments; otherwise, still standing by the book and facing the altar, he says the "Summary of the Law" and then goes to the midst faces the altar and says the Kyries. This done, the priest returns to the book and says the Collect, after which, still facing the altar, he announces and reads the Epistle. The Epistle ended, if he have no server, the priest takes up, with both hands, the desk and book thereon, and carries them to the Gospel corner of the altar, making the due act of reverence as he passes the midst, and puts the desk down upon the Rh


text:
Executive Order 13563

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, and in order to improve regulation and regulatory review, it is hereby ordered as follows:

Barack Obama The White House, January 18, 2011. [FR Doc. 2011–01385 Filed 1–20–11; 8:45 am] Billing Code 3195–W1–P

title: Executive Order 13563


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 altar obliquely, so that the back of the book will look towards the north-east corner of the altar, and then goes to the midst where, facing the altar, he says the prayer "Cleanse my heart" etc. This done, the priest goes at once to the book, stands facing it, announces and then reads the Gospel. If the server move the book and desk, the priest having said, "Here endeth the Epistle," goes to the midst, faces the altar, says the prayer, "Cleanse my heart" etc., and then goes to the Gospel corner, says "The Lord be with you," to the server, and then announces the Gospel. When he has finished reading the Gospel, the priest lifts up the book, kisses the Gospel-text and says (privately) the prayer, "By the words of the Gospel may our sins be blotted out." Having replaced the book upon its desk, the priest moves desk and book, with both hands, near to the corporal; and then goes to the midst, faces the altar, and (if it is to be said), says the Creed.

When notices are to be given and a sermon preached, if it be more convenient, the priest may make the announcements, and preach, standing on the foot-pace and having his back turned towards the Gospel-side of the altar. If the celebrant will preach the sermon from the pulpit, he goes first to the sedilia on the Epistle-side of the sanctuary and there lays aside his chasuble and maniple, and then goes to the pulpit. The celebrant returning from the pulpit goes first to the sedilia and there puts on his maniple and chasuble. Then going to the midst before the altar steps, he makes the due act of reverence, and goes up to the foot-pace.

The priest, standing in the midst and facing the altar, begins the offertory by reading one of the appointed sentences. Then he carefully removes the chalice-veil, and places it, folded once or twice lengthwise, near the corporal and close to the gradine on the Epistle-side. Next he takes up the pall, and places it partly on the corporal and partly on the chalice-veil. Then he takes up the paten, and holding it with both hands, carries it to the Epistle-corner of the altar or to a convenient point on the Epistle-side. If he have no server, the priest serves himself, either from the gradine or, preferably, from a movable credence, placed Rh


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LONE, alone in the still, deserted room,

He knew that she lay dead—that hope was past,

Knew she had left him in her bloom—

She, of his joys, the last!

Yet warm and tender as the day's caress,

There lingered in his breaking heart the light

She wore for him, the loveliness

Death's shadow could not blight;

And in the silence feeling her so near—

Though wrapped from him in strange oblivion,

Longing that life should hold her dear

When he, too, should be gone,—

He strengthened for her sake reluctant breath,

And put away the dread of waiting years,

And wrote the story of her death,

And sealed it with his tears. . ..


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 near the Epistle-corner of the altar. From the bread-box he takes as many small breads "as he shall think sufficient," placing them, with his right hand, upon the paten held in his left hand, so that the large (or priest's) bread will be on top. Then holding the paten with both hands he returns to the midst, faces the altar, holds the paten as high as and a little in front of his breast, and says the prayer "Receive, Holy Father," etc. Having said this prayer, the priest lowers the paten to about four inches above the corporal, makes with it the sign of the cross horizontally, and puts it down upon the corporal a little behind the embroidered cross. If more altar-breads are needed than can conveniently be placed upon the paten, a ciborium should be used. The ciborium containing the needed breads, should be placed on the corporal at the back, offered in intention when the priest's-bread upon the paten is offered, and then covered with its cover. Having offered the breads, the priest goes to the Epistle-side, and standing facing the altar he reaches the chalice to himself, taking it with his left hand by the knop. Then, with his right hand, he wipes the cup of the chalice, within and without, with a purificator, and sets the chalice down upon the altar. Then holding it with his left hand by the knop, the purificator being held between the knop and the thumb of the same hand, and so that part thereof falls over the thumb, the priest, with his right hand, pours wine into the chalice. Then making the sign of the cross, with his right hand, over the water cruet, he says the prayer, "Oh God who didst" etc., meanwhile pouring a very little water into the chalice. Still holding the chalice with his left hand, the priest takes the purificator with his right hand and wipes away any drops of wine or water that may have adhered to the interior or exterior surface of the cup. Then having placed with his left hand the purificator upon the altar about mid-way between the chalice and the corporal, he sets the chalice, with the same hand, between the corporal and the purificator, and goes to the midst. Then taking up the chalice, with his right hand, he holds it up before him, the foot with his left hand and the knop with his right hand, so that the top of the cup is about on a line with his eyes and says, privately, the prayer, "We offer unto thee," etc. Then he lowers the chalice to about four 18


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 Rh

Mourn, ye Graces and Loves, and all you whom the Graces love. My lady's sparrow is dead, the sparrow my lady's pet, whom she loved more than her own eyes; for honey-sweet he was, and knew his mistress as well as a girl knows her very mother. Nor would he stir from her bosom, but hopping now here, now there, still chirped to his mistress alone. Now he goes along the dark road, thither whence they say no one returns. But curse upon you, cursed shades of Orcus, which devour all pretty things! such a pretty sparrow have you taken away from me. Ah, how sad! Ah, poor little bird! All because of you my lady's darling eyes are heavy and red with weeping.

The galley you see, my friends, says that she was once the fleetest of ships, and that there was never any timber afloat whose speed she was not able to pass, whether she would fly with oar-blades or with canvas. And this (says she) the shore of the blustering Adriatic does not deny, nor the Cyclad islands and famous Rhodes and the wild Thracian Propontis, nor the gloomy gulf of Pontus, where she who has since been a galley was formerly a leafy forest: for in the height of Cytorus she often rustled with talking leaves. Pontic Amastris and Cytorus


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 inches above the altar and makes with it, horizontally, the sign of the cross, and then places it upon the corporal a little behind the paten. Then, having his hands joined, and bowing moderately, he says the prayer, "In the spirit," etc. Standing erect, and having his hands extended and raised as high as his shoulders he says, "Come, O Holy Ghost," and then joining his hands, he says "almighty and everlasting God," and then placing his left hand on the altar to the left of the corporal, he makes, with his right hand, the sign of the cross over the paten and chalice, saying "and bless this sacrifice, prepared for thy holy name." The priest then goes to the Epistle-side of the altar, near the corner, where he stands facing the altar. Here he receives the basin containing the offerings of the people, and "presents" them by raising the basin about as high as his breast and immediately lowering it and placing it upon the altar, meanwhile saying "Receive, O Holy Trinity," etc. Immediately after it has been presented, the basin containing the offerings should be removed from the altar and set down upon the credence. The priest now goes to the Epistle-corner, where he stands facing south and recites privately the psalm Lavabo, (Ps., 6–12) while water is poured over the extremities of his fingers by the server; or, if he have no server, while he thus ministers for and to himself: and then having wiped his fingers dry with the lavabo-towel, he stands facing the altar while he concludes the psalm and the Gloria Patri. Then he returns to the midst where, bowing moderately, and having his hands joined upon the altar, he says, privately, the prayer, "Receive O Holy Trinity this oblation," etc. Having said this prayer, the priest places his hands extended on each side of (i. e., beyond) the corporal, kisses the altar, stands erect, turns to the people, and, as he extends and raises his hands and again joins them before his breast, says, "Let us pray for the whole state of Christ's Church militant." Then turning (completing the circle) back to the altar, he says the prayers for the Church. If no offerings of money have been received, the words "alms and," in the first of the said prayers, should be omitted.

If the Bishop permit, the Exhortation, General Confession, Absolution, and prayer of Humble Access, will be transferred to the point immediately after the Prayer of 19


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Rh Four little months! and then—ah, seemed it long

Reft of his treasure, here on earth to bide?—

When April sang its full, glad song

They laid him at her side.

No partings more! In quiet now they sleep,

Forgetful of all griefs that came between;

And through his brave, brave love, we keep

The memory of "Jean"!


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I. Cui dono lepidum novum libellum arida modo pumice expolitum? Corneli, tibi: namque tu solebas meas esse aliquid putare nugas, iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum omne aevum tribus explicare chartis. . . doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis! quare habe tibi quidquid hoc libelli, qualecumque; quod, o patrona virgo, plus uno maneat perenne saeclo.

II. Passer, deliciae meae puellae, quicum ludere, quem in sinu tenere, cui primum digitum dare appetenti et acris solet incitare morsus, cum desiderio meo nitenti carum nescio quid lubet iocari et solaciolum sui doloris, credo ut tum gravis acquiescat ardor: tecum ludere sicut ipsa possem et tristis animi levare curas!

IIa. Tam gratumst mihi quam ferunt puellae pernici aureolum fuisse malum, quod zonam soluit diu ligatam.


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text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/"In Memory of Jean"


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Rh of agents; and the operations of Smith, Elder, & Co.'s Indian branch had to seek other channels than of old.

The publishing department invariably afforded Smith a means of distraction from the pressure of business cares elsewhere. Its speculative character, which his caution and sagacity commonly kept within reasonable limits of safety, appealed to one side of his nature, while the social intimacies which the work of publishing fostered appealed strongly to another side. The rapid strides made in public favour by Ruskin, whose greatest works Smith published between 1850 and 1860, were an unfailing source of satisfaction. In 1850 he had produced Ruskin's fanciful 'King of the Golden River.' Next year came the first volume of 'Stones of Venice,' the pamphlets on 'The Construction of Sheepfolds,' and 'Pre-Raphaelitism,' and the portfolio of 'Examples of the Architecture of Venice.' The two remaining volumes of 'Stones of Venice' followed in 1853. In 1854 appeared 'Lectures on Architecture and Painting,' with two pamphlets; and then began the 'Notes on the Royal Academy,' which were continued each year till 1859. In 1856 came the elaborately illustrated third and fourth volumes of 'Modern Painters;' in 1857, 'Elements of Drawing,' 'Political Economy of Art,' and 'Notes on Turner's Pictures;' in 1858, an engraving by Holl of Richmond's drawing of Ruskin; in 1859, 'The Two Paths,' 'Elements of Perspective,' and the 'Oxford Museum;' and in 1860, the fifth and final volume of 'Modern Painters.' The larger books did not have a rapid sale, but many of the cheaper volumes and pamphlets sold briskly. It was at Ruskin's expense, too, that Smith prepared for publication the first volume that was written by Ruskin's friend, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 'The Early Italian Poets,' 1861. In 1850 Ruskin's father proved the completeness of his confidence in Smith by presenting him with one of the few copies of the volume of his son's 'Poems' which his paternal pride had caused to be printed privately. Smith remained through this period a constant visitor at the Ruskins' house at Denmark Hill, and there he made the welcome addition to his social circle of a large number of artists. Of these Millais became the fastest of friends; while Leighton, John Leech, Richard Doyle, (Sir) Frederic Burton, and the sculptor Alexander Monro were always held by him in high esteem.

It was at Ruskin's house that Smith was introduced to Wilkie Collins, son of a well-known artist. He declined to publish Collins's first story, 'Antonina,' because the topic seemed too classical for general taste, and he neglected some years later to treat quite seriously Collins's offer of his 'Woman in White,' with the result that a profitable investment was missed; but in 1856 he accepted the volume of short stories called 'After Dark,' and thus began business relations with Collins which lasted intermittently for nearly twenty years.

In the late fifties Charlotte Brontë's introduction of Smith to Harriet Martineau bore practical fruit. In 1858 he issued a new edition of her novel 'Deerbrook,' as well as her 'Suggestions towards the future Government of India.' These were followed by pamphlets respectively on the


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 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE NEWSPAPER

ROBERT E. PARK The University of Chicago

ABSTRACT

The newspaper has a history; but it has, likewise, a natural history. The press, as it exists, is not, as our moralists sometimes seem to assume, the wilful product of any little group of living men. On the contrary, it is the outcome of an historic process in which many individuals participated without foreseeing what the ultimate product of their labors was to be.

The newspaper, like the modern city, is not wholly a rational product. No one sought to make it just what it is. In spite of all the efforts of individual men and generations of men to control it and to make it something after their own heart, it has continued to grow and change in its own incalculable ways.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Hayes, Rutherford Birchard

HAYES, Author:Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-93). The nineteenth President of the United States. He was born in Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822. His paternal and maternal ancestry, it is claimed, can be traced back, each to a Scottish chieftain of noble blood, and he was a descendant in the sixth generation of George Hayes, who left Scotland in 1680 and settled at Windsor, Conn. His grandfather, Rutherford Hayes, born

in New Haven, Conn., in 1756, settled in Brattleboro, Vt. Here the father of the President, also named Rutherford, was born. His parents emigrated to Ohio shortly before his birth. When the boy was sixteen years old he was sent to Kenyon College, where he graduated at the head of his class in 1842. He studied law for two years in the office of Thomas Sparrow, of Columbus, and subsequently spent two years (1843-45) in the Harvard Law School. In 1845 he was admitted to the bar at Marietta, Ohio, and soon afterwards entered into practice at Fremont, the residence of his uncle Sardis Birchard, then a wealthy banker. In 1849 he removed to Cincinnati, where he soon gained a remunerative practice, and became prominent in his profession. In 1852 he married Miss Lucy W. Webb, daughter of Dr. James Webb, of Chillicothe, Ohio. In 1856 he was nominated as a candidate for judge of the Court of Common Pleas, but refused to accept the nomination, although later he served as City Solicitor. In 1861, when the Civil War broke out, he enlisted for the whole war, and on June 7th was commissioned as major of the Twenty-third Ohio, of which W. S. Rosecrans was colonel. To the regiment was assigned the duty, at Clarksburg, W. Va., of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and of defending the border from raids; and Major Hayes took a prominent part in various expeditions necessary for the defense of the position. He served for a time as judge-advocate of the Department of Ohio, and in August, 1862, he was promoted to the colonelcy of the Seventy-ninth Ohio, but he preferred to remain, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, with the Twenty-third, which had been incorporated with Burnside's command in the Army of the Potomac. At ../South Mountain (q.v.) the Twenty-third, led by Hayes, was hotly engaged, more than a hundred of Hayes's men falling dead or wounded, and he himself being slightly wounded. There was a pause for reënforcements, when a dangerous flank movement of the enemy was discovered, and Hayes was again seen at the head of the regiment. He was finally carried, fainting with loss of blood, from the field. Upon his recovery he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, and placed in command of the Kanawha division, of which his old regiment formed a part. He remained at Kanawha Falls until March 15, 1863, when the division was ordered to Charleston, W. Va. After this he led in several important expeditions, notably in that which he himself organized to dispute the retreat of Morgan (q.v.) and his band after their raid through Ohio. By a quick movement he cut off Morgan's retreat and forced him to surrender. In the famous raid upon the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad, in May, 1864, he led the principal assault upon the enemy's fortifications with admirable boldness and success. He took an honorable part in the attack on Lynchburg, June 18th, covering the retreat of the Union forces under dangerous conditions with perfect success. In the campaign of the Shenandoah, under Sheridan (q.v.). his services were conspicuous and valiant. In the battle of Winchester especially he displayed great coolness and courage in the most trying circumstances. For his gallant services Hayes was brevetted major-general.

He was a Republican from the formation of the party, and had taken an active part in the

political campaign of 1860. His achievements in the war made his name popular in Ohio, and when the Republicans of the Second District felt the need of a strong candidate for Congress, he consented to accept the nomination, with the understanding that he would not take the seat unless the war should meantime be ended. When, after the close of the war, he entered Congress, he at once attracted attention by his ability. He was reëlected in 1866, but had only served through his first term when the Republicans of Ohio, in 1867, nominated him as their candidate for Governor, under the conviction that he was the only man whom they could hope to elect. He was chosen by a majority of 3000, and reëlected in 1869 by a majority of 7518. He was elected for the third time in 1875, and while occupying the place was nominated by the Republican Party as its candidate for President of the United States, William A. Wheeler being nominated for Vice-President. The nominees of the Democratic Party were Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks. The contest was severe and close, and disputes arose as to the electoral votes of several States. After a period of great tension all the contested cases were decided in favor of Hayes by the ../Electoral Commission/ (q.v.), and having a majority of one electoral vote (185 to 184), he was duly inaugurated on March 4, 1877. Aside from violent partisan disputes upon the questions adjudicated by the Electoral Commission, his administration was admitted by men of all parties to have been pure and honorable. An effort was made to reduce the evil of using appointments to office as rewards for partisan services, but this policy did not meet with hearty support. The President also failed to maintain close harmony with the party leaders in his attitude toward the ‘reconstructed’ States, from which he aimed to withdraw the Federal troops, even against the vigorous demands of the radicals for a continuation of the military supervision. He was generally recognized as a pacificator at a time when conciliation was essential to peace. Upon all political questions save those above referred to he was in full harmony with the Republican Party, and by his courageous and unflinching exercise of the veto nower prevented the adoption of measures calculated to injure the credit of the country and hinder a return to specie payments. He also, by the interposition of the same power, prevented the repeal of the laws enacted by Congress, under the express authority of the Constitution, to guard the purity of national elections. After his retirement from public office President Hayes devoted himself as a private citizen to the support of philanthropy and education. As a member of the Peabody Education Board for the promotion of education in the South, as the first president of the States Board for the instruction of freedmen, and as president of the National Prison Association, he set an example of assiduity in attendance at the meetings of the boards and of patient and far-sighted counsel on the questions brought before him. He died January 17, 1893. Consult: Wilson (editor), The Presidents of the United States (New York, 1894); and a campaign biography by Howard, ''Life. Public Services, and Select'' Speeches of Rutherford B. Hayes (Cincinnati, 1876). For an account of the administration of Hayes, see the article.


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 274 The type of newspaper that exists is the type that has survived under the conditions of modern life. The men who may be said to have made the modern newspaper—,, , and —are the men who discovered the kind of paper that men and women would read and had the courage to publish it.

The natural history of the press is the history of this surviving species. It is an account of the conditions under which the existing newspaper has grown up and taken form.

A newspaper is not merely printed. It is circulated and read. Otherwise it is not a newspaper. The struggle for existence, in the case of the newspaper, has been a struggle for circulation. The newspaper that is not read ceases to be an influence in the community. The power of the press may be roughly measured by the number of people who read it.

The growth of great cities has enormously increased the size of the reading public. Reading which was a luxury in the country has become a necessity in the city. In the urban environment literacy is almost as much a necessity as speech itself. That is one reason there are so many foreign-language newspapers.

Mark Villchur, editor of the Russkoye Slovo, New York City, asked his readers how many of them had read newspapers in the old country. He found that out of 312 correspondents only 16 had regularly read newspapers in Russia; 10 others from time to time read newspapers in the Volast, the village administration center, and 12 were subscribers to weekly magazines. In America all of them were subscribers or readers of Russian newspapers.

This is interesting because the immigrant has had, first and last, a profound influence on the character of our native newspapers. How to bring the immigrant and his descendants into the circle of newspaper readers has been one of the problems of modern journalism.

The immigrant, who has, perhaps, acquired the newspaper habit from reading a foreign-language newspaper is eventually attracted to the native American newspapers. They are for him a window looking out into the larger world outside the narrow circle of the immigrant community in which he has been compelled to


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 276 The advertising manager's notion is again something different. For him the newspaper is a medium for creating advertising values. The business of the editor is to provide the envelope which encloses the space which the advertising man sells. Eventually the newspaper may be conceived as a sort of common carrier, like the railway or the post office.

The newspaper, according to the author of the Brass Check, is a crime. The brass check is a symbol of prostitution. "The brass check is found in your pay envelope every week—you who write and print and distribute our newspapers and magazines. The brass check is the price of your shame—you who take the fair body of truth and sell it in the market place, who betray the virgin hopes of mankind into the loathsome brothel of big business."

This is the conception of a moralist and a socialist—Upton Sinclair. Evidently the newspaper is an institution that is not yet fully understood. What it is, or seems to be, for anyone of us at any time is determined by our differing points of view. As a matter of fact we do not know much about the newspaper. It has never been studied.

One reason we know so little about the newspaper is that as it exists today it is a very recent manifestation. Beside, in the course of its relatively brief history, it has gone through a remarkable series of transfigurations. The press today is, however, all that it was and something more. To understand it we must see in its historic perspective.

The first newspapers were written or printed letters; newsletters they were called. In the seventeenth century English country gentlemen used to employ correspondents to write them once a week from London the gossip of the court and of the town.

The first newspaper in America, at least the first newspaper that lasted beyond its first issue, was the Boston News-Letter. It was published by the postmaster. The village post office has always been a public forum, where all the affairs of the nation and the community were discussed. It was to be expected that there, in close proximity to the sources of intelligence, if anywhere, a


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 278 everyone else. Everyone called everyone by his first name. The village was democratic. We are a nation of villagers. Our institutions are fundamentally village institutions. In the village, gossip and public opinion were the main sources of social control.

"I would rather live," said Thomas Jefferson, "in a country with newspapers and without a government than in a country with a government and without newspapers."

If public opinion is to continue to govern in the future as it has in the past, if we propose to maintain a democracy as Jefferson conceived it, the newspaper must continue to tell us about ourselves. We must somehow learn to know our community and its affairs in the same intimate way in which we knew them in the country villages. The newspaper must continue to be the printed diary of the home community. Marriages and divorce, crime and politics, must continue to make up the main body of our news. Local news is the very stuff that democracy is made of.

But that, according to Walter Lippmann, is just the difficulty. "As social truth is organized today, so he says, "the press is not constituted to furnish from one edition to the next the amount of knowledge which the democratic theory of public opinion demands. .... When we expect it to supply such a body of truth, we employ a misleading standard of judgment. We misunderstand the limited nature of news, the illimitable complexity of society; we overestimate our own endurance, public spirit, and all-round competence. We suppose an appetite for uninteresting truths which is not discovered by any honest analysis of our own tastes. . . . . Unconsciously the theory sets up the single reader as theoretically incompetent, and puts upon the press the burden of accomplishing whatever representative government, industrial organization, and diplomacy have failed to accomplish. Acting upon everybody for thirty minutes in twenty-four hours, the press is asked to create a mystical force called 'public opinion' that will take up the slack in public institutions."

It is evident that a newspaper cannot do for a community of 1,000,000 inhabitants what the village did spontaneously for itself through the medium of gossip and personal contact. Nevertheless


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 280 interest with the doorkeepers; he and the persons employed under him got admittance; they brought away the subjects of discussion, the names of the speakers, the side they took, and the order in which they rose, together with notes of the various arguments adduced in the course of the debate. The whole was afterward communicated to me, and I composed the speeches in the form they now have in the Parliamentary Debates, for the speeches of that period are all printed from Cave's magazine."

Someone undertook to praise Johnson's impartiality, saying that in his reports he seems to have dealt out reason and eloquence with an equal hand to both political parties. "That is not quite true," was Johnson's reply. "I saved appearances tolerably well; but I took care that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it."

This speech of William Pitt, composed by Johnson in Exeter Street, has long held a place in school books and collections of oratory. It is the famous speech in which Pitt answered the accusation of the "atrocious crime of being a young man."

Perhaps Pitt thought he delivered that speech. At any rate there is no evidence that he repudiated it. I might add that, Pitt, if he was the first, was not the last statesman who is indebted to the reporters for his reputation as an orator.

The significant thing about this incident is that it illustrates the manner in which, under the influence of the parliamentary reporters, something like a constitutional change was effected in the character of parliamentary government. As soon as the parliamentary orators discovered that they were addressing not only their fellow-members but, indirectly, through the medium of the press, the people of England, the whole character of parliamentary proceedings changed. Through the newspapers the whole country was enabled to participate in the discussions by which issues were framed and legislation was enacted.

Meanwhile, the newspapers themselves, under the influence of the very discussions which they themselves instigated, had become party organs. Whereupon the party press ceased to be a mere chronicle of small gossip and came to be what we know as a "journal of opinion." The editor, meanwhile, no longer a mere newsmonger


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282 America. The American newspapers were a power with which the British government had to reckon in the struggle of the colonies for independence. After the British took possession of New York City, Ambrose Serle, who had undertaken to publish the New York Gazette in the interest of the invaders, wrote as follows to Lord Dartmouth in regard to the patriot-party press.

"Among other engines which have raised the present commotion, next to the indecent harangues of the preachers, none has had a more extensive or stronger influence than the newspapers of the respective colonies. One is astonished to see with what avidity they are sought after, and how implicitly they are believed by the great bulk of the people."

It was nearly a century later in the person of Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune during the anti-slavery struggle, that the journal of opinion reached its highest expression in America. America has had better newspaper men than Horace Greeley, although none, perhaps, whose opinions exercised so wide an influence. "The New York Tribune" says Charles Francis Adams, "during those years was the greatest educational factor, economically and morally, this country has ever known."

IV. THE INDEPENDENT PRESS

The power of the press, as represented by the older type of newspaper, rested in the final analysis upon the ability of its editors to create a party and lead it. The journal of opinion is, by its very nature, predestined to become the organ of a party, or at any rate the mouthpiece of a school.

So long as political activities were organized on the basis of village life, the party system worked. In the village community, where life was and still is relatively fixed and settled, custom and tradition provided for most of the exigencies of daily life. In such a community, where every deviation from the ordinary routine of life was a matter of observation and comment and all the facts were known, the political process was, at any rate, a comparatively simple matter. Under these circumstances the work of the newspaper, as a gatherer and interpreter of the news, was but an extension of the function which was otherwise performed spontaneously


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 284 dramatized and takes the form of what newspapers call a "story." "News story" and "fiction story" are two forms of modern literature that are now so like one another that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them.

The Saturday Evening Post, for example, writes the news in the form of fiction, while the daily press frequently writes fiction in the form of news. When it is not possible to present ideas in the concrete, dramatic form of a story, the ordinary reader likes them stated in a short paragraph.

It is said that. of the Scripps, McRae League, which specializes in afternoon papers in secondary cities, built up his whole string of papers upon the basis of the very simple psychological principle that the ordinary man will read newspaper items in the inverse ratio to their length. His method of measuring the efficiency of his newspapers, therefore, was to count the number of items they contained. The paper that had the largest number of items was the best paper. This is just the reverse of Mr. Hearst's methods; his papers have fewer items than other papers.

The old-time journalist was inclined to have a contempt for news. News was for him simply material upon which to base an editorial. If God let things happen that were not in accordance with his conception of the fitness of things, he simply suppressed them. He refused to take the responsibility of letting his readers learn about things that he knew ought not to have happened.

, who was editor of the New York World before Joseph Pulitzer took it and made it yellow, used to say there were not 18,000 people in New York City to whom a well-conducted newspaper could offer to address itself. If the circulation of the paper went above that figure he thought there must be something wrong with the paper. Before Mr. Pulitzer took it over the circulation had actually sunk to 10,000. The old New York World preserved the type of the old conservative high-brow paper down to the eighties. By that time in the larger cities the political independent newspapers had become the accepted type of journal. Long before the rise of what was later to be called the independent press, there had appeared in New York two journals that were the forerunners of the present-day newspapers. In 1883


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 286 thrilling existence." There are, correspondingly, two types of newspapers: papers edited on the principle that readers are mainly interested in reading about themselves, and papers edited upon the principle that their readers, seeking some escape from the dull routine of their own lives, are interested in anything which offers them, what the psychoanalyists call "a flight from reality."

The provincial newspaper with its record of weddings, funerals, lodge meetings, oyster suppers, and all the small patter of the small town represents the first type. The metropolitan press, with its persistent search in the drab episodes of city life for the romantic and the picturesque, its dramatic accounts of vice and crime, and its unflagging interest in the movements of personages of a more or less mythical high society, represents the latter type.

Up to the last quarter of the nineteenth century, that is to say, up to about 1880, most newspapers, even in our large cities, were conducted on the theory that the best news a paper can print is a death notice or marriage announcement.

Up to that time the newspapers had not yet begun to break into the tenements, and most people who supported a newspaper lived in homes rather than in apartments. The telephone had not yet come into popular use; the automobile was unheard of; the city was still a mosaic of little neighborhoods, like our foreign-language communities of the present day, in which the city dweller still maintained something of the provincialism of the small town.

Great changes, however, were impending. The independent press was already driving some of the old-time newspapers to the wall. There were more newspapers than either the public or the advertisers were willing to support. It was at this time and under these circumstances that newspaper men discovered that circulation could be greatly increased by making literature out of the news. Charles A. Dana had already done this in the Sun, but there still was a large section of the population for whom the clever writing of Mr. Dana's young men was caviar.

The yellow press grew up in an attempt to capture for the newspaper a public whose only literature was the family story paper or the cheap novel. The problem was to write the news in such a way that it would appeal to the fundamental passions. The


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 288 Pulitzer's principal contribution to yellow journalism was, Hearst's was mainly "jazz." The newspaper had been conducted up to this time upon the theory that its business was to instruct. Hearst rejected that conception. His appeal was frankly not to the intellect but to the heart. The newspaper was for him first and last a form of entertainment.

It was about the time the yellow press was engaged in extending the newspaper habit to the masses of people, including women and immigrants—who up to this time did not read newspapers—that the department store was beginning to attract attention.

The department store is, in a sense, a creation of the Sunday newspaper. At any rate, without the advertising that the Sunday newspaper was able to give it, the department store would hardly have gained the vogue it has today. It is important in this connection that women read the Sunday paper before they did the dailies. The women are buyers.

It was in the Sunday newspaper that the methods of yellow journalism were first completely worked out. The men who are chiefly responsible for them are Morrill Goddard and Arthur Brisbane. It was Goddard's ambition to make a paper that a man would buy even if he could not read it. He went in for pictures, first in black and white and then in colors. It was in the Sunday World that the first seven-column cut was printed. Then followed the comic section and all the other devices with which we are familiar for compelling a dull-minded and reluctant public to read.

After these methods had been worked out in the Sunday paper, they were introduced into the daily. The final triumph of the yellow journal was Brisbane's "Heart-to-heart editorials"—a column of predigested platitudes and moralizing, with half-page diagrams and illustrations to re-enforce the text. Nowhere has Herbert Spencer's maxim that the art of writing is economy of attention been so completely realized.

Walter Lippmann, in his recent study of public opinion, calls attention to the fact that no sociologist has ever written a book on news gathering. It strikes him as very strange that an institution like the press, from which we expect so much and get so little


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 Rh live. The newspapers have discovered that even men who can perhaps read no more than the headlines in the daily press will buy a Sunday paper to look at the pictures.

It is said that the most successful of the Hearst papers, the New York Evening Journal, gains a new body of subscribers every six years. Apparently it gets its readers mainly from immigrants. They graduate into Mr. Hearst's papers from the foreign-language press, and when the sensationalism of these papers begins to pall, they acquire a taste for some of the soberer journals. At any rate, Mr. Hearst has been a great Americanizer.

In their efforts to make the newspaper readable to the least instructed reader, to find in the daily news material that would thrill the crudest intelligence, publishers have made one important discovery. They have found that the difference between the high-brow and the low-brow, which once seemed so profound, is largely a difference in vocabularies. In short, if the press can make itself intelligible to the common man, it will have even less difficulty in being understood by the intellectual. The character of present-day newspapers has been profoundly influenced by this fact.

II. THE FIRST NEWSPAPERS What is a newspaper? Many answers have been given. It is the tribune of the people; it is the fourth estate; the Palladium of our civil liberties, etc.

On the other hand this same newspaper has been characterized as the great sophist. What the popular teachers did for Athens in the period of Socrates and Plato the press has done in modern times for the common man.

The modern newspaper has been accused of being a business enterprise. "Yes," say the newspaper men "and the commodity it sells is news." It is the truth shop. (The editor is the philosopher turned merchant.) By making information about our common life accessible to every individual at less than the price of a telephone call we are to regain, it is urged—even in the complicated life of what Graham Wallas calls the "Great Society"—some sort of working democracy.


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 Rh newspaper would spring up. For a long time the position of post-master and the vocation of editor were regarded as inseparable.

The first newspapers were simply devices for organizing gossip and that, to a greater or less extent, they have remained. Horace Greeley's advice to a friend who was about to start a country paper is as good today as it was then.

"Begin with a clear conception that the subject of deepest interest to an average human being is himself; next to that, he is most concerned about his neighbors. Asia and the Tongo Islands stand a long way after these in his regard. It does seem to me that most country journals are oblivious as to these vital truths. If you will, so soon as may be, secure a wideawake, judicious correspondent in each village and township of your county, some young lawyer, doctor, clerk in a store, or assistant in a post office who will promptly send you whatever of moment occurs in his vicinity, and will make up at least half your journal of local matter thus collected, nobody in the county can long do without it. Do not let a new church be organized, or new members be added to one already existing, a farm be sold, a new house be raised, a mill be set in motion, a store be opened, nor anything of interest to a dozen families occur, without having the fact duly though briefly chronicled in your columns. If a farmer cuts a big tree, or grows a mammoth beet, or harvests a bounteous yield of wheat or corn, set forth the fact as concisely and unexceptionally as possible."

What Greeley advises friend Fletcher to do with his country paper the city editor of every newspaper, as far as it humanly is possible, is still trying to do. It is not practicable, in a city of 3,000,000 and more to mention everybody's name. For that reason attention is focussed upon a few prominent figures. In a city where everything happens every day, it is not possible to record every petty incident, every variation from the routine of the city life. It is possible, however, to select certain particularly picturesque or romantic incidents and treat them symbolically, for their human interest rather than their individual and personal significance. In this way news ceases to be wholly personal and assumes the form of art. It ceases to be the record of the doings of individual men and women and becomes an impersonal account of manners and life.

The motive, conscious or unconsious, of the writers and of the press in all this is to reproduce, as far as possible, in the city the conditions of life in the village. In the village everyone knew


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 Rh the efforts of the newspaper to achieve this impossible result are an interesting chapter in the history of politics as well as of the press.

III. THE PARTY PAPERS

The first newspapers, the news-letters, were not party papers. Political journals began to supersede the news-letters at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The news with which the reading public was most concerned at that time was the reports of the debates in parliament.

Even before the rise of the party press certain prying and curious individuals had made a business of visiting the Strangers' Gallery, during the sessions of the House of Commons in order to write up from memory, or from notes taken down surreptitiously, accounts of the speeches and discussions during an important debate. At this time all the deliberations of parliament were secret, and it was not until 100 years later that the right of reporters to attend the sessions of the House of Commons and record its proceedings was officially recognized. In the meantime reporters were compelled to resort to all sorts of subterfuges and indirect methods in order to get information. It is upon this information, gathered in this way that much of our present history of English politics is based.

One of the most distinguished of these parliamentary reporters was Samuel Johnson. One evening in 1770, it is reported, Johnson with a number of other celebrities was taking dinner in London. Conversation turned upon parliamentary oratory. Someone spoke of a famous speech delivered in the House of Commons by the elder Pitt in 1741. Someone else, amid the applause of the company, quoted a passage from this speech as an illustration of an orator who had surpassed in feeling and beauty of language the finest efforts of the orators of antiquity. Then Johnson, who up to that point had taken no part in the discussion, spoke up. "I wrote that speech," he said, "in a garret in Exeter Street."

The guests were struck with amazement. He was asked, "How could it have been written by you, sir?" "Sir," said Johnson, "I wrote it in Exeter Street. I never was in the gallery of the House of Commons but once. Cave had


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 Rh and humble recorder of events, found himself the mouthpiece of a political party, playing a role in politics.

During the long struggle for freedom of thought and speech in the seventeenth century, popular discontent had found literary expression in the pamphlet and broadside. The most notable of these pamphleteers was John Milton, and the most famous of these pamphlets was Milton's Areopagitica: A Defence of the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, published in 1646; "the noblest piece of English prose" it has been called by Henry Morley. When the newspaper became, in the early part of the eighteenth century, a journal of opinion, it took over the function of the political pamphlet. The opinion that had formerly found expression in a broadside was now expressed in the form of editorial leading articles. The editorial writer, who had inherited the mantle of the pamphleteer, now assumed the rôle of a tribune of the people.

It was in this rôle, as the protagonist of the popular cause, that the newspaper captured the imagination of our intelligentsia.

When we read in the political literature of a generation ago references to "the power of the press" it is the editor and the editorial rather than the reporter and the news of which these writers are thinking. Even now, when we speak of the liberty of the press, it is the liberty to express an opinion, rather than the liberty to investigate and publish the facts, which is meant. The activities of the reporter, upon which any opinion that is relevant to existing conditions is likely to be based, are more often regarded as an infringement of our personal rights than an exercise of our political liberties.

The liberty of the press for which Milton wrote the Areopagitica was the liberty to express an opinion. "Give me the liberty," he said, "to know, to alter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties."

Carlyle was thinking of the editorial writer and not of the reporter when he wrote: "Great is journalism! Is not every able editor a ruler of the world, being a persuader of it?"

The United States inherited its parliamentary government, its party system, and its newspapers from England. The rôle which the political journals played in English politics was re-enacted in


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 Rh by the community itself through the medium of personal contact and gossip.

But as our cities expanded and life grew more complicated, it turned out that political parties, in order to survive, must have a permanent organization. Eventually party morale became a greater value than the issues for the determination of which the parties are supposed to exist. The effect upon the party press was to reduce it to the position of a sort of house organ of the party organization. It no longer knew from day to day just what its opinions were. The editor was no longer a free agent. It was of this subjugated Tribune that Walt Whitman was thinking when he coined the phrase, "the kept editor."

When, finally, the exigencies of party politics, under conditions of life in great cities, developed the political machine, some of the more independent newspapers revolted. This was the origin of the independent press. It was one of the independent papers, the New York Times of that day, that first assailed and eventually overthrew, with the aid of a cartoonist,, the , the first and most outrageous of the political machines that party politics in this country has so far produced. Presently there was a general breaking away, particularly by the metropolitan as distinguished from the country papers, from the domination of the parties. Party loyalty ceased to be a virtue.

Meanwhile a new political power had arisen and found expression in the press. This power was embodied, not in the editorial and the editorial writer, however, but in the news and the reporter. In spite of the fact that the prestige of the press, up to this time, had rested on its rôle of champion of popular causes, the older newspapers were not read by the masses of the people.

The ordinary man is more interested in news than he is in political doctrines or abstract ideas. H. L. Mencken has called attention to the fact that the average man does not understand more than two-thirds of what "comes from the lips of the average political orator or clergyman."

The ordinary man, as the Saturday Evening Post has discovered, thinks in concrete images, anecdotes, pictures, and parables. He finds it difficult and tiresome to read a long article unless it is


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 Rh, with a few associates, started a paper for "mechanics and the masses generally." The price of this paper was 1 cent but the publishers expected to make up by larger circulation and by advertising the loss sustained by the lower price. At that time most of the other New York papers were selling for 6 cents.

It was, however, the enterprise of James Gordon Bennett, the founder of the New York Herald, who set the pace in the new form of journalism. In fact, as Will Irwin says in the only adequate account that has ever been written of the American newspaper, "James Gordon Bennett invented news as we know it." Bennett, like some others who have contributed most to modern journalism, was a disillusioned man, and for that very reason, perhaps, a ruthless and cynical one. "I renounce all so-called principles," he said in his announcement of the new enterprise. By principles he meant, perhaps, editorial policies. His salutatory was at the same time a valedictory. In announcing the purposes of the new journalism he bade adieu to the aims and aspirations of the old. Henceforth the editors were to be news gatherers and the newspaper staked its future on its ability to gather, print, and circulate news.

What is news? There have been many answers. I think it was Charles A. Dana, who said, "News is anything that will make people talk." This definition suggests at any rate the aims of the new journalism. Its purpose was to print anything that would make people talk and think, for most people do not think until they begin to talk. Thought is after all a sort of internal conversation.

A later version of the same definition is this: "News is anything that makes the reader say, 'Gee Whiz!'" This is the definition of Arthur McEwen, one of the men who helped make the Hearst papers. It is at the same time the definition of the latest and most successful type of journal, the yellow press. Not all successful journals are, to be sure, yellow. The New York Times, for example, is not. But the New York Times is not yet a type.

There seem to be, as Walter Lippmann has observed, two types of newspaper readers. "Those who find their own lives interesting" and "those who find their own lives dull, and wish to live a more


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 Rh formula was: love and romance for the women; sport and politics for the men.

The effect of the application of this formula was to enormously increase the circulation of the newspapers, not only in the great cities, but all over the country. These changes were brought about mainly under the leadership of two men, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst.

Pulitzer had discovered while he was editor of the St. Louis Post Dispatch that the way to fight popular causes was not to advocate them on the editorial page but to advertise them—write them up—in the news columns. It was Pulitzer who invented muckraking. It was this kind of journalism which enabled Pulitzer, within a period of six years, to convert the old New York World, which was dying of inanition when he took it, into the most talked about if not the most widely circulated, paper in New York City.

Meanwhile, out in San Francisco Mr. Hearst had succeeded in galvanizing the old moribund Examiner into new life, making it the most widely read newspaper on the Pacific Coast.

It was under Mr. Hearst that the "sob sister" came into vogue. This is her story, as Will Irwin told it in Cottier's, February 18, 1911:

"Chamberlain (managing editor of the Examiner) conceived the idea that the city hospital was badly managed. He picked a little slip of a girl from among his cub reporters and assigned her to the investigation. She invented her own method; she "fainted" on the street, and was carried to the hospital for treatment. She turned out a story "with a sob for the unfortunate in every line." That was the professional beginning of "Annie Laurie" or Winifred Black, and of a departure in newspaper writing. For she came to have many imitators, but none other could ever so well stir up the primitive emotions of sympathy and pity; she was a "sob squad" all by herself. Indeed, in the discovery of this symphathetic "woman writing," Hearst broke through the crust into the thing he was after."

With the experience that he had gained on the Examiner in San Francisco and with a large fortune that he had inherited from his father, Hearst invaded New York in 1896. It was not until he reached New York and started out to make the New York Journal the most widely read paper in the United States that yellow journalism reached the limit.


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 Rh of what we expect, should not have been the subject of a more disinterested study.

It is true that we have not studied the newspaper as the biologists have studied, for example, the potato bug. But the same may be said of every political institution, and the newspaper is a political institution quite as much as Tammany Hall or the board of aldermen are political institutions. We have grumbled about our political institutions, sometimes we have sought by certain magical legislative devices to exercise and expel the evil spirits that possessed them. On the whole we have been inclined to regard them as sacred and to treat any fundamental criticism of them as a sort of blasphemy. If things went wrong, it was not the institutions but the persons we elected to conduct them, and an incorrigible human nature, who were at fault.

What then is the remedy for the existing condition of the newspapers? There is no remedy. Humanly speaking, the present newspapers are about as good as they can be. If the newspapers are to be improved, it will come through the education of the people and the organization of political information and intelligence. As Mr. Lippmann well says, "the number of social phenomena which are now recorded is small, the instruments of analysis are very crude, and the concepts often vague and uncriticized." We must improve our records and that is a serious task. But first of all we must learn to look at political and social life objectively and cease to think of it wholly in moral terms! In that case we shall have less news, but better newspapers.

The real reason that the ordinary newspaper accounts of the incidents of ordinary life are so sensational is because we know so little of human life that we are not able to interpret the events of life when we read them. It is safe to say that when anything shocks us, we do not understand it.


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 Consecration; otherwise the prayers for the Church ended, the priest, standing facing the people, says the exhortation, "Ye who do truly," etc., and then kneels down upon both knees, upon the foot-pace, and says the General Confession. The Confession ended, the priest stands up, turns to the people, and says the Absolution, and the Comfortable Words. Then the priest, extending and raising his hands, says, "Lift up your hearts"; and then, immediately after the response, joins his hands, saying "Let us give thanks unto our Lord God." Then the priest, having turned back to the altar, (completing the circle), again extends and raises his hands and proceeds to say the Preface and Sanctus. The Sanctus ended, standing erect the priest says (aloud, if the Bishop permit, otherwise privately) "Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest," signing himself from forehead to breast. Then kneeling upon the foot-pace, and having his hands joined, the priest says the prayer of Humble Access, "We do not presume," etc.

Having said the prayer of Humble Access, the priest rises, and, having his hands raised and extended, proceeds to say the Prayer of Consecration in a low but clear and audible voice. After the words, "until his coming again," if a ciborium be in use, and the priest has not moved it before beginning the said prayer, he now uncovers it and moves it forward on the corporal at the right of the chalice. Then, as he utters the words, "he took bread," he takes up, with both hands, the paten, raises it a little above the altar-mensa, and at once replaces it upon the corporal. Then he takes the priest's-bread between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand, holds it upright a little above the paten, raises his eyes heavenward and at once lowers them, bows his head, and, as he says the words, "and when he had given thanks," he makes the sign of the cross over the bread with his right hand. As he says the words, "he brake it," the priest holds the larger bread between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, upright, and raised a little above the paten, and makes a small fracture in the lower part of it. Then bowing his head, he says, "and gave it to his disciples, saying, Take, eat," and extends the other fingers of his hands over the 20


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 paten, and allowing them to touch the breads thereon, and says, "This is my Body which is given for you; Do this in remembrance of me." If a ciborium be used to hold the breads for the people, the priest holds his bread, and extends his other fingers over the breads in the said ciborium, if possible, allowing his fingers to touch the breads, while he repeats the words, "This is my Body," etc. After he has said the words of consecration the priest raises his head and, holding the host (as before, with both hands) over the paten, he genuflects slowly and devoutly, rises at once in like manner, and elevates the host in a perpendicular line above the paten to a point a little above his head, holds it there for an instant and at once lowers it and places it upon the paten. (From this time until the ablutions the thumb and forefinger of each hand are not to be disjoined except when the consecrated bread has to be touched or handled.) After placing his host upon the paten, the priest places his hands upon the corporal, to the right and left of the paten, the palm of each hand turned towards the altar-mensa, and, holding his head erect, genuflects as before and rises again. If he has used a ciborium, he now covers it and places it conveniently upon the back part of the corporal. If there be upon the corporal an extra vessel of wine, the priest, before proceeding with the consecration, will place the said vessel, uncovered, alongside of and to the right of the chalice. In either case, whether the wine be only in the chalice or also in another vessel, the priest now places the extremities of the last three fingers of his left hand upon the base of the chalice, and then taking the pall between the middle finger and the forefinger of his right hand, he lifts it up from the chalice and lays it down upon the back part of the corporal so that it will rest partly on the veil. If there be need to do so, the priest, before taking hold of the chalice, should rub together the thumb and forefinger of each hand over the paten, in order to remove any particles of the host that may have adhered to them. Proceeding with the prayer, as he says the words, "Likewise after supper," the priest takes the chalice, with both hands, by the knop, and raising it about four inches above the altar, he says the words, "he took the cup," and at once places it again on the corporal. Rh


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 Then holding it by the knop, with his left hand, and bowing his head, the priest makes with his right hand the sign of the cross over the chalice as he says the words "and when he had given thanks," and again holding the chalice, as before, with both hands, he says the words, "he gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of this: for"—then retaining his hold of the chalice at the knop with his right hand, he raises it a little above the altar and takes hold of the base or foot of the chalice with his left hand in such a manner that the thumb and forefinger rest upon the base, and the other fingers support it beneath; and thus holding the chalice, meanwhile bowing his head and resting his elbows lightly upon the altar, he says the words, "This is my Blood of the New Testament, which is shed for you, and for many, for the remission of sins:" Then again holding the chalice at the knop, with both hands, the priest sets it down upon the corporal, and says the words, "Do this as oft as you shall drink it, in remembrance of me."

If there be upon the corporal, besides the chalice, another vessel containing wine which is to be consecrated, the priest, as he says the words, "This is my Blood," etc., holds the chalice raised a little above the altar, by the knop, with his left hand, touches with the forefinger of his right hand the edge of the base of the chalice, and rests the other fingers of his right hand upon the said extra vessel, and directs his intention to consecrate, to the wine in both vessels. Having put down the chalice upon the altar, and said the words, "Do this" etc., the priest places his hands upon the corporal (as after the consecration of the Bread), genuflects reverently and at once rises again. Then grasping the chalice at the knop, with his right hand, and the base with his left (as directed above), and having his eyes fixed upon it, the priest reverently raises the chalice in a perpendicular line, lifting it so that the base thereof is brought to a level with, and not higher than, his eyes, holds it there for an instant, and then in like manner lowers it and sets it down upon the corporal where it was before. Then he places the last three fingers of his left hand upon the base of the chalice, takes up the pall with his right hand and places it upon the chalice, covers and moves to the back part of the corporal the extra vessel, if there be such, and placing his Rh