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The New International Encyclopædia/Fox

FOX (AS. fox, OHG. fuhs, Ger. Fuchs, fox, Goth, fauhō, vixen; possibly connected ultimately

with Skt. puccha, tail). A member of a group or ‘alopecoid series’ of canine animals, more easily distinguished from the wolves, dogs, or jackals of the same family (Canidæ) by outward appearance than by zoölogical differences. They are, in general, of smaller size and less proportionate height; have longer hair, usually more reddish or yellowish than gray; larger, more triangular and furry ears; a more slender pointed muzzle, with straighter jaws; and a longer and more bushy tail, than their allies. Some zoölogists refuse to separate them even as a genus, but most students place them in the genus Vulpes, and still further separate the American gray fox as Urocyon, and the little African long-eared foxes as Fennecus. The anatomical characters upon which Vulpes is distinctly based are principally found in the skull, where “the bony projection forming the hinder border of the socket of the eye is regularly curved downward and has a convex upper surface” in the wolves and jackals; “whereas in the fox the same process is hollow above, and has a more or less marked tendency to curve upward behind”; also, the air-chambers in the frontal bones of the wolves are absent in the foxes. Another constant distinction is found in the pupil of the eye, which, when contracted, is round in the dog-like canines and elliptical in the foxes. The true foxes (apart from the African fennecs) are scattered throughout all the northerly regions of the world, from the edge of the tropical zone to the highest Arctic lands, but none are known in the Southern Hemisphere. The number of species is indeterminate, conservative naturalists regarding as local varieties various forms to which others give specific names.

All inhabit holes in the earth, usually of their own digging, but do not hibernate, are nocturnal, and subsist mainly upon animal prey which they capture by stealthy approach and a quick rush; and all utter yelping cries, and breed annually. They are believed not to have contributed in any appreciable degree to the ancestry of any race of domesticated dogs, and although everywhere highly intelligent in their field of thought, are rarely tamed as pets or trained to perform tricks well. The typical and best-known species is the European red fox (Vulpes vulgaris), the hero of British fox-hunting (see ../Fox hunting), and the renard or Reinecke Fuchs of European folk-lore. (See Colored Plate of .) It is spread over the whole of Europe and Asia, and is also found in Asia Minor and along the south shore of the Mediterranean. The ordinary type, familiar in Great Britain and western Europe, is reddish brown above and white below, with the outer portions of the ears and feet black, and the tip of the ‘brush,’ or tail, white. Its length may vary from 27 to 46 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is itself from 12 to 15 inches long. Colors and markings vary greatly, however, as well as size and proportions. The habits of the common fox in England are thus sketched by Lydekker and Bell, and the essential facts apply to the animal in all parts of its range:

“Although the fox is by no means averse to taking possession of the deserted burrow of a rabbit or a badger, it generally excavates its own ‘earth,’ in which it spends a considerable portion of its time. As all hunters know, foxes frequently prefer to live out in the woods, those with a northern aspect being, it is said, generally avoided. Sometimes these animals will prefer a thick hedgerow or a dry ditch, while we have known them to select the tall tussocks of coarse grass in swampy meadows as a resting-place; and they have also been found in straw-ricks, where it is on record that in one instance cubs have been born. The breeding time is in April, and the usual number of young in a litter is from four to six. The prey of the fox consists, writes Bell, ‘of hares, rabbits, various kinds of ground birds, particularly partridges, of which it destroys great numbers; and it often makes its way into the farmyard, committing sad havoc among the poultry. It has been known not infrequently to carry off a young lamb. When other food fails, the fox will, however, have recourse to rats and mice, and even to frogs and worms; while on occasion beetles are largely consumed, and on the seashore fish, crabs, and mollusks form a part of its diet. Carrion seems never to come amiss, while the old story of the fox and the grapes alludes to the fruit-eating propensities of these animals.’ The usual cry of the fox is a yelping bark. The well-known scent of the fox is secreted by a gland situated beneath the tail. The cunning exhibited by English foxes in escaping from hounds has been so often described that we shall make no further allusion to it here, beyond saying that it has probably attained its present development as the result of the inherited experience of many generations. The life of the fox is a precarious one; the huntsman is his friend and the gamekeeper his foe; and were he not specially protected for the sport he gives to hounds and men, he would, like the wolf, have long since been extinct in England. That the fox is an ancient inhabitant of the British Islands is proved by the occurrence of its fossilized remains in caverns in company with those of the mammoth and other extinct animals. This, however, is not all, for a skull. . . has been dug up from the sands lying at the top of the Red Crag of Suffolk, which are vastly older than the mammoth period.”

As the Old World fox is traced eastward distinct local varieties are encountered, which, however, intergrade. Thus a black-bellied fox is characteristic of southern Europe, and is decidedly different from the ordinary colors of the North African variety. The dry plains of western Asia support a paler form, and this is succeeded eastward by two much larger types of the eastern and western Himalayas, which, in winter, when the coat is long and the colors are heightened, are extremely handsome: a characteristic marking among these is a dark stripe athwart the shoulders. Siberia, China, and Japan likewise have varieties of this same one species, which, if the American red fox be also included, ranges throughout almost the entire Northern Hemisphere, and has the most extensive distribution of any of the Canidæ. Asia possesses some other very distinct species of foxes, nevertheless, of which the most familiar is the small, alert, and pretty Indian fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) to be met with all over Hindustan, except in thickly forested regions. It is rarely hunted by scent, with foxhounds; but frequently affords good sport by coursing with greyhounds. Three other

species of ‘desert’ foxes, all pale and yellowish in hue, belong to the open sandy plains and table-lands between Arabia and Afghanistan. One of these is the widely spread desert fox (Vulpes leucopus); another, the better-known corsac (q.v.), and the other varieties inhabit Thibet and Afghanistan. The earliest fossil remains of distinctly canine beasts are fox-like animals of the Middle Tertiary period.

. Several species of fox are characteristic of North America. The most widespread and conspicuous is the red fox, called by American zoölogists a distinct species (Vulpes Pennsylvanica), but regarded by European students as a local phase of the circumpolar ‘common’ fox, heretofore described. It is hard to distinguish it in the normal type from the European fox, though the colors are, on the average, rather brighter; and it varies on our continent quite as diversely as does the fox of the Old World. The normal red fox remains common in spite of the civilization of the country throughout the eastern United States and Canada, westward to the Plains, as far south as northern Georgia; and reappears west of the Rocky Mountains and thence to the Pacific Coast in a paler large-tailed form. In the far north occur more rarely two other varieties — the cross fox and the silver fox. The former is simply a more or less normal red fox, marked sometimes strongly, sometimes indefinitely, with a dark cross on the back and shoulders, fine specimens of which are given a superior value by traders in peltries. The latter, or silver fox (var. argentata), is much rarer, and is black, with a silvered or hoary appearance due to many of the hairs being tipped with white; the tail is black with a white tip, and the soles of the feet are hairy, fitting it for life amid ice and snow. Good pelts of the silver fox are extremely valuable. That both these are merely phases of the red fox is plain from the fact that they may be born in the same litter with normally red cubs. Foxes totally black also occur frequently in the Hudson Bay region. The American red fox had originally much the same habits as those of the European animal, seems to be deserving of quite as much credit for sagacity and acuteness, and has learned to accommodate itself as well to the exigencies brought by civilization and the chase. The writings of American naturalists and sportsmen abound in interesting stories of its alertness, ingenuity, and adaptiveness, and show that it has spread and survived in the United States, where the gray fox has diminished.

A small grayer species of the southern California coast (Vulpes macrotis) is conspicuously distinguished by its great ears.

The Kit, Swift, or Burrowing Fox (Vulpes velox) is a well-marked species of the dry plains of the United States, whose range extends from Colorado and Nebraska north to the Saskatchewan Valley. It is small, only about 20 inches long, slender and compact in form. Its color is yellowish-gray on the upper surfaces, fading through reddish to white on the belly and legs, and there is a black patch on each side of the muzzle. The ears are short and densely furred, and the soles of the feet are overgrown with long woolly hair, like those of the Arctic fox. It digs burrows with skill and speed, feeds upon small rodents, insects, small birds and their eggs, etc.,

and is remarkably swift of foot and dexterous in hiding. Its fur becomes thick in winter and pale gray in color, rendering it nearly invisible. See Plate of.

The Blue or Arctic Fox (Vulpes lagopus) is one of the most interesting of all the species. It is known all around the Arctic shores, and in summer is a variable brown (even sooty in some cases) on the upper parts, and yellowish-white on the ventral surfaces, throat, etc.; the under fur, however, is everywhere dull blue. This bluish tint frequently appears in the summer dress in patches in the foxes of all regions; but in those of the Aleutian Islands and southeastern Alaska it characterizes the whole pelage, and gives the name ‘blue’ fox to the animal in that region. E. W. Nelson, who describes it at length in his Natural History of Alaska (Washington, 1887), concludes that this is the typical, original form, from which the brownish and blackish foxes elsewhere are variants. The blue foxes remain of that color all winter, putting on a longer, thicker coat as cold weather approaches; but elsewhere all the Arctic foxes become purely white about October, and remain so until spring, rendering them almost invisible upon the snow and aiding them to steal upon their prey. They are animals of the open country and seacoast, and in winter they often visit the Eskimo villages or come close to their camps, and are easily trapped. “Parts of the country,” says Nelson, speaking of Alaska, “where rocky ledges occur, are especially frequented by them, as the crevices among the rooks give them welcome shelter. During summer they fare sumptuously upon the breeding waterfowl, eggs, and young birds, which are found everywhere, but in winter comes harder work, and the ground is carefully searched for stray mice, lemmings, or an occasional ptarmigan. In early spring, toward the end of March, when the seals begin to haul up on the ice and the first young are born, thousands of these foxes go out seaward and live upon the ice the rest of the season. The young seal's offal, left by hunters and from other sources, gives them more food there than the shore affords at this time.” It may be added to this that Feilden, who was with the Polar expedition of Nares, A Voyage to the Polar Sea (London, 1878), found that in Grinnell Land these foxes subsisted in winter largely upon stores of frozen lemmings, etc., which they had hidden in crevices of rocks or had buried in the ground. The fur of this fox is very valuable, and most of all that of blue foxes of the Aleutians, where they are now to a certain extent protected, not only, but where they have been colonized upon certain islands, and are being bred and provided with food as a regular fur-raising industry. See ; and Colored Plate of.

The Gray Fox is a species (Urocyon argenteus) of the United States, which is generally separated from other foxes by cranial peculiarities, and by the fact that the tail has a concealed mane of stiff hairs. The general coat is silver-gray above and whitish on the under parts, but the chin and a patch on the nose are black, and the base of ears, patch at side of neck, collar on throat, interior surface of fore legs, and a broad band along the belly are cinnamon rufous. The size is about the same as that of the rod fox, but the hair is stiffer and less admirable as a

pelt. This species is generally distributed over the United States, but in the West differs locally so much from the Eastern type that no less than five subspecies have been named. It is accustomed to life in the forests rather than in open country, and has unusual ability in tree-climbing; but it seems to be less adaptive than the red fox, and has almost disappeared from the thickly settled and much-cleared Northern and Eastern States. See Plate of.

Consult: for Old World foxes, Bell, British Quadrupeds (2d ed., London, 1874); Mivart, Monograph of the Canidæ (London, 1890); Brehm, Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876), English translation by Pechnel-Loesche and Haacke (Chicago, 1894-96); Blanford, Fauna of British India: Mammalia (London, 1889-91); and general works. For American foxes, Richardson, Fauna Boreali Americana (London, 1829); Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds of North America (New York, 1851); Merriam, Transactions of the Linnæan Society of New York, vol. i. (New York, 1882); Burroughs, Winter Sunshine (New York, 1870); Cram, Little Beasts of Field and Wood (Boston, 1889); and general works upon Alaska and the Arctic Coast.

title: The New International Encyclopædia/Fox


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 hands upon the corporal he genuflects devoutly and at once rises again. At both elevations (of host and chalice) the priest must be careful to avoid bringing the ends of the maniple in contact with the host, or hosts, on the paten.

Standing erect, and having his hands extended before his breast, the priest says the words, "Wherefore," etc. At the words "holy gifts," and again at the words "bless and sanctify," the priest makes with his right hand the sign of the cross over both chalice and paten, his left hand placed on the corporal. At the words, "Body and Blood" the priest makes the sign of the cross, as above directed, over the paten and then over the chalice. At the words, "heavenly benediction" the priest signs himself from forehead to breast with his right hand, the left meanwhile held in front of, but a little below his breast, palm upward. Here, that is before going on to say, "And although," etc., the priest may make, privately, commemoration of the faithful departed. At the words, "are unworthy," having his left hand on the corporal, the priest strikes his breast three times with the extremities of the last three ringers of his right hand. He joins his hands and bows his head as he says the words "through Jesus Christ our Lord," and then placing his left hand on the foot of the chalice, he takes up the pall with his right hand and lays it down on the corporal and veil, genuflects reverently, rises at once, and holding his host with his right hand and the chalice by the knop with his left hand, he makes the sign of the cross with the host (held upright) twice over the chalice as he says "by whom and with whom" and then in like manner between the chalice and his breast, as he says, "in the unity of the Holy Ghost, all honor and glory be to thee, O Father Almighty;" and then holding the host upright over the chalice held with his left hand, he elevates chalice and host as high as his breast and says, "world without end." Then at once he lowers the chalice and host, places the chalice upon the corporal behind the paten, and the host upon the paten, rubs the forefinger and thumb of each hand together over the paten (to dislodge any particles that may have adhered to them), places his left hand on the foot of the chalice, places the pall on the chalice with his right hand, then, placing both Rh

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Index talk:EB1911 - Volume 02.djvu

Pages misaligned
Somewhere between book pages 700 and 800, the text that comes up when clicking a redlink becomes misaligned with the page. I.e. clicking page 800 brings up the image for page 800 but the text for page 799, etc. I imagine someone should do something about this. -- Ken g6 (talk) 00:12, 19 January 2011 (UTC)
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 hands upon the corporal, he genuflects reverently, rises at once, and stands erect, having his hands joined.

In immediate preparation for his sacramental communion, which, without exception, he must make every time he consecrates the Eucharist, and before all other persons, the priest should use some brief devotions, and for this purpose may now say (privately) the suitable forms of prayer which are set forth elsewhere in this book. During the recitation of the prayer, "Deliver us," etc., the priest, having first signed himself with the sign of the cross, removes the pall, genuflects, rises, takes up his host, and holding it upright, with both hands over the chalice, breaks isit [sic] carefully into two equal parts. The half held in his right hand he places on the paten, and then from the lower end of the other half he breaks away a small particle, places the greater part on the paten, and with the particle makes the sign of the cross thrice over the chalice while he says (privately) "The Lord be with you," and then drops the said particle into the cup (at the side nearest to himself so that he may readily receive it when he communicates himself) and says the words, "Let this commixture" etc. Then after rubbing together (over the paten) the thumb and forefinger of each hand, he covers the chalice with the pall, genuflects, rises again, and says the words, "O Lamb of God," etc. At the words, "have mercy upon us," and "grant us thy peace" the priest strikes his breast with the extremities of the last three fingers of his right hand. Then joining his hands and placing them so that the tips of his little fingers touch the front edge of the mensa, and the extremities of his ring and middle fingers rest upon the corporal, his eyes fixed upon the Sacrament, he says the prayers, "O Lord Jesus Christ, who saidst," etc., "O Lord Jesus Christ, Son of the living God," and "Let not the partaking," etc. Then, having disjoined his hands, he places them upon the corporal, stands erect, genuflects, rises again, and says the words, "What reward" etc. Then taking up both parts of the host and holding them with his left hand in such a manner that the broken edges may touch or slightly overlap each other and the host be raised Rh


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 a little above the paten, the priest bows his head and with his right hand strikes his breast three times, saying each time "Lord I am not worthy," etc. Then, using both hands, he brings the two parts of the host together so that one lies directly over the other, and above the paten, and holding them with his right hand, his left resting on the corporal, he signs himself with the host (over the paten) and says, "The Body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for me, preserve my body and soul unto everlasting life. Amen." Then bowing down his head and at the same time raising the host higher directly over the paten, the priest reverently places both parts of the host upon his tongue. Then after rubbing together his thumbs and forefingers over the paten, the priest stands erect, joins his hands, holds them near, and a trifle higher than, his breast, and meditates briefly on the Blessed Sacrament. Then he removes the pall from the chalice, puts his hands upon the corporal, genuflects, and rises, meanwhile saying, "What reward" etc. Then at once he takes up the chalice (as at the elevation), and holding it as high as his breast, very carefully and reverently signs himself with it, meanwhile saying, "The Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for me, preserve my body and soul unto everlasting life. Amen." Having said these words, the priest places the chalice to his lips and communicates himself, taking care to receive together with the Precious Blood the particle which was placed therein. After he has communicated himself, the priest passes his lips over the brim of the cup in order to remove whatever of the Precious Blood may have adhered thereto, and then replaces the chalice upon the corporal, covers it with the pall, places his hands upon the corporal, genuflects, rises again, and, having his hands joined, meditates briefly on the Blessed Sacrament.

The server, (if there be one) if he is to be communicated, should kneel on the foot-pace, at the right of the priest, and there receive his communion. After the priest has received the communion in both kinds (as directed above) and, it may be, has administered the same to the server, he takes up the paten, holding it between the forefinger and the middle-finger of his left hand so that the joined thumb and forefinger rest on the paten, and the other fingers Rh


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 support it beneath; and holding one of the hosts between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, raised a little above the paten which he now holds as high as and near his breast, he turns, by his right and faces the people. Keeping his eyes fixed on the Sacrament, the priest says, privately, "Behold the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sins of the world." And then he says, privately, the following words, thrice—"Lord, I am not worthy that thou shouldest come under my roof; but speak the word only and my soul shall be healed." If a ciborium be used, the priest does not take up the paten, but moves the ciborium forward on the corporal, uncovers it, holds it by the stem, with his left hand, and a host over it with his right hand, and proceeds as directed above. Persons to be communicated should present themselves "in order." Bishops, priests, and deacons, duly habited, should kneel at the altar-steps. If any lay persons who are members of Religious orders or communities present themselves, they should kneel at the altar-rail, before and apart from the other people. Of the people, boys and men should kneel on the Epistle-side of the said rail, and girls and women on the Gospel-side. Deaconesses, not being under solemn vows, should kneel with the other women.

Going to administer the communion to the people, the priest should pass directly down the altarsteps (not diagonally), and then to the end of the rail on the Epistle-side. As he is about to give the sacrament to each person, the priest makes with the host, the sign of the cross over the paten or the ciborium. It will suffice, if the priest says the first-half of the formula, "The Body" etc., as he communicates each person, and then says, once only, at the end of each railful, the concluding sentence, "Take and eat," etc. The people should kneel in upright posture, keep head erect, present right hand bare, palm uppermost and open, supported by the left hand, a little higher than the breast, and carry the host with the right hand to the mouth and take it with the tongue from the palm of the said hand. When he has finished administering the Body of Christ to the people then kneeling at the altar-rail, the priest returns to the altar, places the paten or ciborium upon the corporal, removes the pall from the chalice, genuflects, rises again, Rh


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 takes up the chalice (as at elevation), and holding it as high as and near his breast, he proceeds as before to the Epistle-end of the altar-rail and there begins to administer to the people. The rule about use of formula of administration, given above, applies here also. The priest should always retain a firm and controlling hold of the chalice. The people may guide the chalice by taking hold of the base, but ought not to touch the cup. Each communicant should hold head quite erect, drink a very little of the Precious Blood, and carefully refrain from wiping the lips after communicating. When all who are then kneeling at the rail have communicated, the priest returns to the altar, passes his lips over that part of the cup from which the people received the Precious Blood, and then sets down the chalice upon the corporal and covers it with the pall.

If, while the priest stands facing the people and in readiness to administer the sacrament, no one approaches to receive the same, the priest, after giving sufficient opportunity, turns by his right to the altar, and replaces the paten, or ciborium upon the corporal.

When all have communicated, or (if so be) when no one approaches to receive the sacrament, the priest, having replaced the vessel or vessels upon the corporal, covers the ciborium (if one has been used) with its cover, and places it on the corporal behind the chalice. If he has before him, on the corporal, in addition to the chalice, another vessel containing the Precious Blood, the priest places or leaves it duly covered, alongside the ciborium. Then he covers the chalice with the pall, and taking hold of the right-hand corner of the anterior portion of the corporal and lifting it up, he draws it carefully to his left, over the paten. Then over all, he spreads the silk veil.

Having covered the vessels, the priest genuflects, rises, stands erect, extends his hands before his breast, and says the Lord's Prayer. While reciting the following prayer, "Almighty and everliving God," etc., the priest bows his head towards the altar-cross as he says the holy name, and joins his hands as he concludes the prayer. After he has recited the Gloria in excelsis, or hymn in lieu thereof, the Rh


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 priest genuflects and goes to the Epistle-side to say the post-communion prayer. If there be no server, the priest moves, for himself, the book and its desk. If, in addition to the Collect of the day, one or more Collects were said, so many (as the Collects) should be the post-communion prayers. The prayer or prayers ended, the priest goes to the midst, genuflects, rises, kisses the altar, stands erect, joins his hands, and turns by his right towards the people, in such a manner that his back will be towards the Gospel-side of the altar and not towards the sacrament, and says the words "The peace," etc., and at the words "blessing of God" etc., he blesses the people with his right hand. In this act, the left hand is held palm up, near and a little below the breast, and the right hand is to be kept straight, the fingers extended and joined, the little finger towards the people, and the hand moved in a perpendicular line from the height of the forehead to a point opposite the breast, and then on a horizontal line extending from the left shoulder to the right.

After he has pronounced the blessing, the priest turns, by his left, to the altar, genuflects, rises, and then removes the veil, laying it on the altar at the Gospel-side. Then, taking hold of the right hand anterior corner of the corporal, with his right hand, the priest lifts it up carefully and draws it to his right, and lets it lie upon the altar. Then he takes up the pall from the chalice and lays it down upon the corporal, genuflects, and rises again. Standing erect, the priest takes up the paten with his left hand, and consumes all the hosts which remain upon it. Then holding with his left hand the paten over the chalice he rubs the paten with thumb and forefinger of his right hand, so as to cause the sacred fragments (if any) to fall into the chalice. Then resting the left hand, in which is the paten, upon the corporal, he rubs together the thumb and forefinger of his right hand over the chalice, so as to detach any particles that may have adhered to them. Then taking, with his right hand, the chalice by the knop, and holding the paten beneath his chin, he reverently drinks the Precious Blood with every particle, receiving it from the same part of the cup from which he made his communion and from which he administered to the people. If the priest has a server, he now holds out the chalice to receive wine for the purification. If he has Rh


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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army / Through the Second War With England

 * Through the Second War With England

 * Congress nevertheless realized the need for at least enough infantry to replace Jackson's regiment. Accordingly, the day after the latter was directed to be discharged, the legislators established a regiment which was to be raised and officered by obtaining volunteers from the militia of four of the states. This nonRegular unit, called the First American Regiment and commanded until 1 January 1792 by Josiah Harmar of Pennsylvania, gradually turned into a Regular outfit. It became known as the 1st Infantry in 1791, and in 1815 was redesignated as the 3d Infantry. From 1784 to 1787 Harmar's regiment was a hybrid, containing eight companies of infantry and two of artillery.

 * Although England was a constant threat to the new nation after the War for Independence, the Indians presented the most immediate menace. Accordingly, the First American Regiment was stationed on the frontier. In October 1790, the Miami Indians and their allies defeated the first field army, commanded by Harmar, to be organized by the government of the United States acting under the Constitution. This defeat caused the raising of another regiment of infantry in 1791, and the numbering of the old one as the 1st and the new one as the 2d. As a result of the radical reorganization after the War of 1812, the latter became the 1st Infantry.

 * Serious trouble with the Indians of the Northwest continued; indeed, in the very year the 2d Infantry was organized, the Miamis defeated the second force sent by the Federal government against them. The army defeated in 1791, led by Arthur St. Clair, consisted of the Regular establishment augmented by militia and a new species of foot troops known as levies. Goaded by defeats, Congress gradually increased the military establishment from 700 men in 1784 to 5,104 in 1793. As the size of the entire Army increased, so did the strength of the infantry elements. Regiments rose from 560 to 1,140 enlisted men, companies from 70 to 95. Regiment and battalion remained one and the same.

 * Two beatings inflicted by the Northwest Indians brought about an experiment in organization which had precedents in certain European corps and in some of the Continental Army. The entire military establishment was converted in 1792 into a legion, that is, into a field army in which the three combat branches, infantry, cavalry, and artillery, were combined in the same organization. The legion consisted of four sublegions. Each sub-legion contained infantry, riflemen, cavalry, and artillery; indeed it was the forerunner of the twentieth century regimental combat team.

 * Although Congress had authorized a total of five regiments on 5 March 1792, when the Legion of the United States came into being, none but the 1st and 2d Infantry were actually organized. Hence it was necessary to go out and recruit infantry for the 3d and 4th Sub-Legions. Likewise it was necessary to recruit the rifle units for all the sub-legions.

 * Command of the new Legion fell to Anthony Wayne, who had been a successful leader of light troops during the Revolution. Wayne did not employ the sublegions as such to any important extent; on the contrary, he combined the infantry from all of them, likewise the artillery, and so forth. However, he instituted so stern a system of discipline that he forged an army which, in 1794, finally beat the Indians of the Northwest and defied the power of England which had fostered Indian unrest.

 * Once the threat in that quarter was reduced, the need to hold a field army together seemed to diminish. What was needed instead, statesmen believed, was an organization which could easily be split up and parcelled out to guard the frontiers and the seacoast. As long as Henry Knox remained Secretary of War, the legionary form had a stout champion, but he left office at the end of 1794. The Legion persisted for another year and a half, then went out of existence by act of Congress effective 31 October 1796. In the new establishment the infantry of the four sublegions became the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Infantry.

 * Peace promised to prevail, so that during 1796 and 1797 the entire Army was reduced, and the size of regiments and companies as well. For scattered use, a large complement of officers and small companies filled the bill.

 * All too soon the sense of security evaporated as war loomed with France. In consequence, the establishment swelled precipitately, and the strength of units with it. By 1799 a total of forty infantry regiments was authorized, although none but the 1st through the 4th ever attained the required strength. Only 3,400 men were raised for the 5th through the 16th, and none at all for any others. Fortunately, the war with France never took shape; by 1800 the crisis was over and the immediate need for more infantry gone. In addition, a new administration took office in 1801, an administration that almost pathologically feared a standing army. Accordingly, under Thomas Jefferson the infantry was cut back in 1802 to two regiments, the 1st and 2nd.

 * Jefferson's administration had only a brief chance to test its convictions regarding a strong militia and a small standing army, for war clouds were gathering once more. The United States almost began the second war with England when the British warship Leopard attacked the American Chesapeake in 1807. This aggression caused Congress to add five Regular infantry regiments in 1808, the 3d through the 7th, and also to constitute the Regiment of Riflemen. The latter was a product of the Revolutionary experience and the first rifle unit since the end of the Legion in 1796. Rifle elements re-entered the service through the agency of Brig. Gen. James Wilkinson, commanding the army, and Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War, both of whom had had firsthand experience with them in the last war.

 * Aside from the augmentation of April 1808 there was no further preparation for a fight until just six months before the second war with England. At that time, that is, in January 1812, Congress constituted ten new regiments of Regular infantry. The act of 11 January 1812 which created them was remarkable in at least two ways: first, it provided for the largest regiments and battalions authorized in the United States before the Civil War and, second, it established an organization that was at variance with the seven existing regiments. As a result, in the first six months of 1812 there were three different-sized infantry regiments, besides one of riflemen. The 1st and 2nd regiments made up the infantry of the "military peace establishment," and they had ten companies in them of seventy-six enlisted men. The 3rd through the 7th regiments, authorized in 1808, were called the infantry of the "additional force," and comprised ten companies with two more officers and two more enlisted men each than the 1st and 2d had. The 8th through the 17th in no way resembled the others, for they had eighteen companies of 110 enlisted men, arranged in two battalions.
 * Although some of the bulky eighteen-company regiments were raised, several never acquired their second battalions. Recruiting was so difficult that they lacked the time to raise many men before Congress voted a fresh reorganization. Late in June 1812, the legislators changed the law. According to the new arrangement there were to be twenty-five regiments of infantry, exclusive of the rifle regiment, each containing ten companies of 102 men. Thus all the infantry regiments were made uniform on paper, and a standard of organization was established that persisted throughout the conflict. This standard was more often than not honored in the breach. Once constituted, all the twenty-five regiments organized and recruited actively, but during the first two years of the struggle their efforts brought in less than half of the total number of infantrymen authorized.

 * Regulars at first could only enlist for five years, but late in 1812 newcomers were given a chance to enroll "during the war." All the while the states competed with the Federal government for soldiers, and the shorter "hitches" they offered drew men into their service. To combat this Congress directed the creation, in January 1813, of twenty new infantry regiments enlisted for just one year. Nineteen of them were raised and designated as the 26th through the 44th Infantry. Later, they were converted into long-term outfits (five years or the duration), but all the units constituted after 1811 had men in them enlisted for different terms. For example, there were in a single regiment one-year regulars, eighteenmonth men, three- and five-year men, and some in for "during the war."

 * Early in 1814 four more infantry regiments and three more regiments of riflemen were constituted. Finally, therefore, forty-eight infantry regiments, numbered from the 1st to the 48th, came into being, plus four rifle regiments, the 1st through the 4th. This was the greatest number of infantry units included in the Regular Army until the world wars of the twentieth century. A mighty effort was made in 1814 to raise the Army to strength, and nearly 27,000 men came in, but in spite of this, four of the regiments had to be consolidated because they were too small. The 17th, 19th, 26th, and 27th were joined to form a new 17th and a new 19th, while the two highest numbered, the 47th and 48th, were redesignated the 27th and 26th, respectively.

 * No sooner was war over than Congress scrambled to rid itself of its more than 30,000 infantrymen. An act of 3 March 1815 set the peace establishment at 10,000 men, divided among infantry, rifle; and artillery regiments. Cavalry was eliminated, and eight infantry regiments and one rifle regiment arose from the ruins of the forty-six and four in existence. The rifles were consolidated and the infantry, after many rearrangements, settled as follows:

 * 1) 1st Infantry formed by consolidation of the 2nd, 3rd, 7th, and 44th
 * 2) 2nd Infantry formed by consolidation of the 6th, 16th, 22nd, 23rd, and 32nd
 * 3) 3rd Infantry formed by consolidation of the 1st, 5th, 17th, 19th, and 28th
 * 4) 4th Infantry formed by consolidation of the 14th, 18th, 20th, 36th, and 38th
 * 5) 5th Infantry formed by consolidation of the 4th, 9th, 13th, 21st, 40th, and 46th
 * 6) 6th Infantry formed by consolidation of the 11th, 25th, 27th, 29th, and 37th
 * 7) 7th Infantry formed by consolidation of the 8th, 24th, and 39th
 * 8) 8th Infantry formed by consolidation of the 10th and 12th

 * The eight remaining infantry regiments were smaller than their war predecessors because, although the number of companies in each remained at ten, every company contained 78 men instead of 103. There was no effort to preserve the honors or traditional numbers of any of the prewar regiments. The 1st was merged with other regiments and redesignated the 3rd, and the old 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th were likewise lost in the remains of disbanded regiments. The new numbers were founded on the seniority of the colonels, the senior colonel commanding the 1st, and so forth. As a consequence of the reduction, 25,000 infantrymen were separated from the service. Another consequence was that the form of the infantry establishment was set roughly for the next thirty years. Not until the Mexican War, thirty-one years later, was it substantially expanded.


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 no server, the priest goes to the credence, or to the gradine on the Epistle-side (if the cruets be thereon) and brings the wine-cruet to the midst and pours a little wine into the chalice. Then he says the prayer, "Grant, O Lord" etc., moves the wine gently about in the chalice, and then drinks it, holding chalice and paten as above directed. Having set down the chalice upon the corporal, the priest takes it up again with the last three fingers of each hand about the cup, and holding his thumbs and forefingers over the cup, he carries it to the Epistle-side where he holds it so that the server may pour a little wine and then at once some water over his, (the priest's) thumbs and forefingers. Then the priest places the chalice upon the altar, dries his thumbs and forefingers with the purificator and says, privately, the prayer, "Let thy body," etc. Then he places the chalice so that he may reach it from the midst, and goes to the midst. If he has no server, the priest will get the cruets and place them within his reach on the Epistle-side of the altar, and make the pourings for himself into the chalice as it stands on the corporal. Then holding the purificator between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, so that it will hang over the back of the hand, and taking up the chalice, by the knop, with his right hand, he receives the ablutions, meanwhile holding the purificator under his chin. Then holding the chalice by the knop with his left hand, the priest wipes the outside and the inside of the cup with the purificator. The chalice is then set down upon the corporal, the folded purificator hung over the cup as it was when brought to the altar, the paten placed on the purificator, and the pall upon the paten. Then, resting his left hand on the altar, at the left of the corporal, the priest, taking the chalice, by the knop, with his right hand, lifts it up and sets it down beyond the corporal on the Epistle-side of the altar. The priest then folds up the corporal,—the forepart over the middle, the backpart over the forepart, the right-hand part over the middle, and the left-hand part over all,—and puts it into the burse which he places on the altar in the midst. Then he covers the chalice with the veil (as it was when brought to the altar), places the burse on the veil, and then taking the chalice by the knop with his left hand and resting his right hand on the burse, he sets the chalice in the midst, Rh


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 and adjusts the veil as at the beginning of the mass. If a ciborium has been used, the hosts, if any remain therein, should be consumed by the priest immediately after he has cleansed the paten and before he receives the Precious Blood. The ciborium should then be cleansed, after the manner of the cleansing of the chalice, the ablutions poured into and received from the chalice. If there be a tabernacle on the altar, the ciborium with hosts therein, may be put into it before the paten is cleansed.

Standing in the midst, before the veiled chalice, the priest bows his head, has his hands joined upon the altar, and says, privately, the prayer "Let this my" etc. Then he kisses the altar, and, if he be pleased to do so, goes to the Gospel-side where he reads the last Gospel. If there be no server to move the book, the priest himself will carry it from the Epistle-side to the Gospel-corner. Standing facing the book, which is placed obliquely, as at the Gospel in the mass, and having his hands joined, the priest says to the server, if there be one, "The Lord be with you," or at once if there be no server, goes on to sign the book and himself and to announce the Gospel as in the mass. Having read the Gospel, the priest closes the book, returns to the midst, bows to the cross, takes up the chalice, by the knop, with his left hand, turns it so that the back part of the veil is towards his breast, places his right hand upon the burse, lifts up the chalice, holds it before his breast, turns, himself so that his back looks toward the Gospel—or, if he please, towards the Epistle-side of the altar, according to the position of the server at the foot of the steps, descends the steps, turns (by his right or left as the case may be) and faces the altar, makes the due act of reverence, and proceeds to the sacristy.

In the sacristy, the priest bows to the cross, sets down the chalice in its place, says a short prayer, (e. g., the collect for Corpus Christi Day) and then proceeds to take off his vestments; after which, having washed his hands, he goes to make his thanksgiving. If the priest does not read the last Gospel, then, immediately after he has said the prayer, "Let this my," etc., he kisses the altar, bows to the cross, takes up the chalice and departs as directed above. Rh


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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army / The Germinal Period, 1816-1860

 * The Germinal Period, 1816-1860

 * After the reorganization of 1815, the Regular infantry fluctuated in size with the whole military establishment. Prospects of peace appeared to improve, and in 1821 Congress felt safe enough to cut expenses by disbanding the Rifle Regiment and the 8th Infantry. Having reduced the infantry establishment to seven foot regiments, which were thought adequate to meet all contingencies, the legislators next sliced the size of companies to fifty-one enlisted men, the smallest ever. This arrangement endured for fifteen years when, as usual, the Indians forced an enlargement.

 * At all times there was trouble with the Indians on the frontier, but two affairs assumed the magnitude of war. The first in 1831 and 1832 against the tribes of the Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin area, known as the Black Hawk War, was easily won by a force composed mostly of militia. The whole affair had no permanent impact on the Regular infantry. Not so the second of the several scraps against the Seminole Indians in Florida, which began in December 1835 and lasted until 1842. Volunteers and militia bore the brunt of the Florida War at first, but Regulars gradually replaced them. As a result, after more than two years of inconclusive fighting, Congress was obliged to augment the Regular infantry (in 1838) by adding thirty-eight privates and one sergeant to each company, and by raising a new 8th Infantry, the fourth unit to go by that number. At one time or another, every one of the eight regiments of infantry served in the Florida swamps.

 * As quickly as the war in Florida was over in 1842, although all were retained, regiments and companies were reduced to minimum size. However, by a fluke, the Regular infantry actually increased. This came about because in the spring of 1843, to save money, the 2nd Dragoons were converted into a rifle regiment. They thus became the first rifle corps included in the establishment for two decades, that is, since the Rifle Regiment had been disbanded in 1821. The erstwhile horsemen, who felt degraded on foot, clung hard to their dragoon organization, but they received rifles and, as far as is known, trained as riflemen. Agitation to remount them was continuous, and within a year they became the 2nd Dragoons again. When they were reconverted, rifle corps disappeared once more from the Army, except that the President received authority from Congress to convert two or more infantry regiments into rifles if he thought it expedient. He never exercised this authority.

 * In May 1846 a new rifle unit, the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen, was constituted. This regiment had initially been designated for use on the Oregon Trail but was diverted at its origin into Mexican War service. Its animals were lost on the way, so only two companies, mounted on Mexican horses, acted as cavalry. The rest, armed with Model 1941 rifles, bayonets, and flintlock pistols, fought on foot.

 * At the start of the Mexican War, Congress tried to get along with just eight infantry regiments of Regulars, but in doing so gave the President power to expand their companies to one hundred enlisted men during the war. Ten months after hostilities commenced, it was necessary to change this policy and add nine new regiments-with the same organization as the old ones-to the Regular infantry. Eight of them, as was customary, bore numbers, the 9th through the 16th; but the other got a name. It was called the Regiment of Voltigeurs and Foot Riflemen. Half of this unit was to be mounted, the other half on foot, and each horseman was paired with a foot soldier who was to get up behind him for rapid movements. This arrangement was never executed, and the Voltigeurs became in fact a regiment of foot riflemen, armed with the same rifle (a muzzle-loader) as the Mounted Riflemen. Quite by chance, the regiment included a company of mountain howitzers and war rockets, but it was not linked with the riflemen tactically, nor were the rockets and howitzers ever used together.

 * Although raised as Regulars, the nine new infantry regiments created during the Mexican War were disbanded when the war was over. Their dissolution left a peace establishment of eight foot regiments. This structure seemed less adequate than it would have before 1846, for "Manifest Destiny" had entered the reckoning of the legislators. The inescapable need to protect, at least partially, the vast area taken from Mexico, and to help settlers across the great plains to California and Oregon, caused Congress to add the 9th and 10th Infantry in 1855, the fourth of both numbers in United States service. The ten regiments in existence after 1855, the 1st through the 10th, made tip the foot establishment until after the actual opening of hostilities in 1861. The Regiment of Mounted Riflemen remained active after the Mexican War, but in 1861 it was redesignated as the 3rd Cavalry.

 * The new 9th and 10th Infantry organized in 1855 were the first infantry units to receive rifle muskets instead of smoothbores as their standard arm. The rifle issued to them was built to utilize a new type of ammunition, known as Minie bullets. Because these conoidal bullets expanded when fired, they could be made small enough to be rammed easily down the barrel of a rifle. When the propellant exploded, the ball expanded into the rifling which imparted to it the spin that made rifle fire superior to that of muskets. The principle implicit in the Minie bullet worked a true revolution in the use of small arms by enabling accurate rifles to replace inaccurate muskets as standard firearms for the infantry.

 * A regiment of ten companies-with regiment and battalion one and the same-was standard throughout the period. For training and for battle purposes, the eight battalion companies were placed in line by a complex arrangement according to the seniority of their captains, which seems to have had its origin in the protocol of medieval armies. It had no functional basis, since once lined up, the companies were renumbered from right to left. For official designation, however, a new system began in 1816. Under this system the companies were known by letters, instead of by numbers or by the names of their commanders. The two flank companies received the letters A and B, and the others C through K. There was no Company J, because J was too easily confused with I in writing.

 * At this point it is necessary to remember that there had been only one flank company per battalion during the Revolution. The addition of a second company had occurred in 1798 when war with France seemed certain. Its adoption brought the American battalion into conformity with those of England and France, the potential European foes. But whereas their flank companies received special weapons, those in the United States infantry did not. As a result, the latter had less chance to develop techniques apart from the line. They were simply composed of men picked for their strength and courage.

 * The truth is that conditions in America did not favor the specialization of particular companies. Indian wars had to be fought by whatever troops were available; there was no time to await the arrival of elite corps, whether called grenadiers or something else. Nor did fights with Indians give much opportunity for infantry to assume the formal line of battle with light units out front. Finally, the scattering of the companies of Regular regiments made specialized training impossible.

 * Nevertheless, the drill manuals of the United States infantry after 1825 called the two flank units grenadier and light infantry companies. The latter term had some application, the former none at all. The acceptance of European designations resulted from the dominance of French military arrangements throughout the world in the decades after the wars of Napoleon. More specifically, it came from the fact that American drill manuals were in reality translations, only slightly modified, of French regulations.

 * It was during this epoch that Americans borrowed a verb from the French to describe the operations of light flank companies. That verb was "to skirmish." It grew in use and importance because the extended order of light or skirmishing infantry was very slowly challenging the tighter formations of the line. In the United States the challenge had not proceeded far at the time of the Mexican War. Rather, it was the introduction of the Minie ball, and other advances in firearms, which in the fifties forced infantry all over the world toward wider use of skirmish tactics. The trend was to give all infantrymen training as skirmishers. As a result, the Tactics adopted in 1855 discarded the distinction in name among the ten companies of a battalion. All ten took their places in line, and all were prepared, when called on, to move ahead of the line and skirmish with the foe.

 * In the Mexican War, light battalions of Regulars were often formed for specific missions by temporarily detaching companies-not necessarily the flank ones-from different regiments. Composite battalions of this sort usually did not do as well in battle as established ones, in which men and officers understood each other and regimental pride was an active stimulant. There was, however, more distinction between flank and line in volunteer regiments. Two companies out of ten were specifically organized as light and given a choice between rifles and muskets. The flank rifle companies which resulted were often detached from their regiments and used together for 'special sharpshooting assignments. This was the case in the fighting on the mountains to the left of the American position at Buena Vista.

 * Throughout this period there was a growing emphasis on the use of segments within a company. This emphasis resulted from the increase in the power of firearms which followed adoption of the Minie principle and the extensive experiments under way on repeating and breech-loading rifles. In order to offset the mounting vitality of firepower, professional soldiers began to stress dispersion in the official drill manuals. Dispersion, of course, strained the ability of officers to control large bodies of men, and consequently highlighted the need to organize smaller elements within units. Applied to a company, this meant an increased use of platoons (half companies), sections (half platoons) , and the beginning of the fighting squad.

 * The earliest suggestion of the squad was a file of two men, the two being taught to stick together during a fight. Later, for purposes of training, squads gradually changed from being irregular knots of men, in the drill manual of 1815, to being specified fractions of a company in 1841. The latter were to be quartered and exercised together. There was no expansion of their use in combat until 1855 when the new manual prescribed "Comrades in Battle" (two files, totaling four men) who were to work together in battle.

 * There is another point about this period which deserves emphasis: the frequency with which the other two combat arms served as infantry. In the Florida War, artillery fought on foot and dragoons did likewise more often than not. During the Mexican War, the bulk of the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen fought on foot and only ten artillery companies had cannon, while the other thirty-eight served as infantry. They carried musketoons instead of muskets, and swords instead of bayonets; but they were trained for infantry service, and made an impressive record fighting as such.

 * Under the provisions of the Constitution, the United States received complete control of the Regular Army-the descendant of the Continental Army-but not of the militia. Most of the power over the latter remained with the states, and the extent to which the Federal government could use state militias became a matter of endless controversy. Worse by far, from the standpoint of efficiency, was the fact that militiamen could only be held to serve for three months and that they were not liable to do duty very far from home. What is more, militia training differed widely from state to state, so that it was hard to fuse units from the several states into one army.

 * When obliged to wage war as a nation, the United States was caught between the fear of a standing army and the inadequacies of a militia controlled by the several states. Some sort of compromise was necessary, and that proved to be an old type, volunteer soldiers organized into provisional wartime regiments. There were also peacetime volunteers- quite distinct from those raised for a war- at hand in the militia.
 * In the large seaboard cities there were independent or chartered companies of citizen soldiers apart from the common or standing militia. They were composed of men who liked military exercise well enough to buy their own uniforms, drill regularly, and hold together in peace as well as war. These units usually received charters from the states, and they very soon constituted an elite corps. This corps became the parent of the National Guard of the twentieth century. The title "Volunteers" with a capital V was applied to them early in the nineteenth century, and it is used here to distinguish them from individuals or units who volunteered only for the duration of a given war.

 * Volunteer infantrymen, when associated with the compulsory militia, took the posts of honor and their units were consequently often referred to as flank or light companies. Sometimes they had special weapons and actually trained as light infantry. When war came they sometimes volunteered to go as units or they became a relatively trained cadre around which some provisional regiment was built. By the 1850's, the standing militia had deteriorated so far, and the Volunteers had become so stable, that many of the states abandoned the idea of compulsory service, and accepted the Volunteers as their constitutional militia. This done, they began to organize the scattered companies into battalions and regiments, a grouping that was well advanced in some states in the decade of the 1850's.

 * Volunteers were supposed to be organized and to train according to the discipline of the Regular infantry, but this was rarely the case. The Tactics of the Army were not widely enough disseminated, and were too voluminous for general use by the state militias anyway. As a result, Volunteers and militia used whatever manuals they could come by, which ranged from Steuben's Regulations of 1779 to the latest translations of the French system.

 * In the Mexican War, most volunteers reached the seat of war with little or no training; but some of them, once arrived, were associated with Regular brigades and quickly introduced to the Army drill. Like the training, the organization of citizen soldiers of all types was required by law to conform to the United States' standards, but much latitude existed. The Maryland and District of Columbia Battalion of the Mexican War, for example, reached the combat area with only one field officer of the three required in the Regular service. Also, the size of regiments at that time varied from 923 on the under side of the Federal standard of 1,004 enlisted men, to 1,423, on the upper. In general, the Volunteers of the cities came closest to adhering to U.S. standards, both for training and for organization.

 * The wide use of militiamen and volunteers carried with it an inevitable flabbiness in discipline. Citizens temporarily turned soldiers had no sense of unquestioning obedience to anyone and were usually not in service long enough to acquire more than a shade of it. Moreover, they almost always elected their own officers, which did not make for stern authority.

 * Frequently, the lack of training and of discipline resulted in rout in battle, as happened on part of the field at Buena Vista. On the other hand, citizen soldiers often showed remarkable fighting ability, as was true, for example, of the Mississippi Rifles, commanded by Jefferson Davis, on another part of the same battlefield. In all instances, training and leadership were the ingredients that made the difference. Lack of training caused trouble less often in combat than in the intervals between, when life grew very dull. It must be remembered that a hitch in wartime was a lark for many a citizen, during which he left his inhibitions at home. Citizen soldiers made relations with the people of Mexico difficult because, as General Zachary Taylor said, "… it is impossible effectually to control these troops [for they lose] in bodies the restraining sense of individual responsibility."

 * Whatever the quality of U.S. Army foot troops, figures show quite well the change that was taking place in their source during wars. Nine out of ten infantrymen in the War of 1812 were militiamen. Only one out of ten foot soldiers was a militiaman in the Mexican War; three were Regulars, and six were war volunteers. This trend continued until the adoption of conscription in the twentieth century. The point to stress is that infantry doctrine and standards were set by the Regulars, but the mass of American infantrymen in wartime were citizen soldiers.


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Author:Cyril F. Austin

Works

 * Edward Buttoneye and his adventures (1908)
 * Little Blue Rabbit and his adventures

title: Author:Cyril F. Austin


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192 belittlement of the entire type "man," his mediocrisation, if in such a desperate situation I may make use of such a desperate expression. I think that the commedia umana for an epicurean spectator-god must consist in this: that the Europeans, by virtue of their growing morality, believe in all their innocence and vanity that they are rising higher and higher, whereas the truth is that they are sinking lower and lower—i.e., through the cultivation of all the virtues which are useful to a herd, and through the repression of the other and contrary virtues which give rise to a new, higher, stronger, masterful race of men—the first-named virtues merely develop the herd-animal in man and stabilitate the animal "man," for until now man has been "the animal as yet unstabilitated."

26.

—Heroism is no form of selfishness, for one is shipwrecked by it. . . . The direction of power is often conditioned by the state of the period in which the great man happens to be born; and this fact brings about the superstition that he is the expression of his time. But this same power could be applied in several different ways; and between him and his time there is always this difference: that public opinion always worships the herd instinct,—i.e.,the instinct of the weak,—while he, the strong man, fights for strong ideals.

27.

The fate now overhanging Europe is simply this: that it

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Rh is exactly her strongest sons that come rarely and late to the spring-time of their existence; that, as a rule, when they are already in their early youth they perish, saddened, disgusted, darkened in mind, just because they have already, with the entire passion of their strength, drained to the dregs the cup of disillusionment, which in our days means the cup of knowledge, and they would not have been the strongest had they not also been the most disillusioned. For that is the test of their power—they must first of all rise out of the illness of their epoch to reach their own health. A late spring-time is their mark of distinction; also, let us add, late merriment, late folly, the late exuberance of joy! For this is the danger of to-day: everything that we loved when we were young has betrayed us. Our last love—the love which makes us acknowledge her, our love for Truth—let us take care that she, too, does not betray us!

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If possible, the priest ought to be assisted at low mass by a server, man or boy, who should be a devout person and well instructed in the duties incumbent upon him at the altar. He should be tidy and clean, and if possible habited in cassock and surplice. In approaching the altar, the server walks a little in advance of the priest, and has his hands joined before his breast. If he carries the book he will hold it with his left hand so that it rests upon his left arm, and keep his right hand before his breast; or he may carry the book in both hands. At the altar steps the server moves a little to the Epistle-side so as to permit the priest to come directly to the midst. If he has carried the book he goes up the steps (after the priest has gone up to the foot-pace) and puts the book (closed) upon the desk, goes directly down again, makes the due act of reverence in the midst and kneels upon the floor a little to the left of the midst. If he has not carried the book he waits until the priest has gone up to the foot-pace and then kneels on the Gospel-side as above directed. If the priest, on coming to the altar, wears a biretta, the server, standing at the right of the priest, takes the biretta when it is handed to him, and lays it down to his right on the lowest step or he may carry it to the sedilia and put it down there. After the preparatory prayers he rises and kneels on the lowest of the three altar steps opposite the Gospel-side of the altar, until after the Epistle.

Throughout the mass, whenever he is not handling something, the server has his hands joined before his breast. The Epistle ended, the server rises, goes along the floor to the Epistle-side, up the steps to the altar, takes up, with both hands, the desk and book thereon, goes down to the floor, then to the Gospel-side, then up to the altar, sets desk down obliquely upon the altar, goes down to the next step at the Gospel-corner and faces toward the priest. Throughout the mass, as often as he passes the midst and whenever Rh


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 Rh "They must be left," he writes, "to your grace (Wolsey), and unless they contribute to the loan according to the value of their benefices the clergy will complain. Had the religious houses not been exempted, but appeared before me, the loan derived from my diocese would be much greater." The king likewise complains with much bitterness that among the religious are found the most strenuous and successful opponents of this enforced benevolence. "These same religious houses," he writes to the cardinal, "would not grant to their sovereign in his necessity, not by a great deal so much as they have to you for the building of your college. These things bear shrewd appearance, for, except they were accustomed to have some benefit, they, and no other I ever heard of, have used to show that kindness, tam enim est aliena ab eis ipsa humanitas." He concludes by urgently requiring Wolsey to look well into the conduct of those to whom he has entrusted this " meddling with religious houses."

By 1527 Wolsey had conceived a desire to further emulate the example of Bishop Wykeham and establish a school, which should feed his foundation at Oxford, as that at Winchester had fed New College. For this purpose further funds were imperatively necessary. The success of his previous scheme having been secured by the dissolution of various monasteries, his agents, who had gone to Rome on the divorce question, were instructed to seek additional powers in the same direction. The cardinal at this time appears to have hesitated at nothing to carry out his designs. In the summer of this year, 1527, he had been in France, where he made three treaties with the king. It was agreed that, during the captivity of the pope, no bull or brief should be received in either country; that, with the consent of Henry, the cardinal of York should have control of all ecclesiastical affairs in England, and that Francis I. should take the like power in his dominions. Wolsey also proposed to ask Clement VII. to make him his vicar-general, as long as he was a prisoner, and to entrust him with supreme authority. In fact, according to the tenor of the bull, written ready for the pope's seal and signature, the cardinal


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 he leaves the altar to go to the credence, or elsewhere, and on his return to it, the server makes the due act of reverence, viz. bowing towards the altar (in the midst), or genuflecting (in the same place) if the Blessed Sacrament be thereon or in the tabernacle. When the priest says "The Lord be with you," the server responds "And with thy spirit;" and when the priest makes the sign of the cross at the announcement of the Gospel, the server signs himself in like manner, and then makes the response, "Glory be to thee, O Lord." Then he goes down the steps at the Gospel-corner, and along the floor to the Epistle-side where he stands facing towards the priest. The reading of the Gospel finished, the server makes response, "Praise be to thee, O Christ." Then he faces toward the altar, and joins with the priest in saying the Creed. After the Creed has been said, or, if it is not said, then at once after the Gospel, the server goes to the credence and brings to the priest at the Epistle-corner the box of altar-breads, which, as he stands before the priest on the step next below the foot-pace, he holds in his left hand, and removes the cover with his right hand. After the priest has taken the breads, the server, recovers the box, carries it to the credence, removes the stoppers from the cruets, takes up the wine cruet in his right hand and the water cruet in his left hand, and goes to the Epistle-corner. Kissing the wine cruet, the server then presents it to the priest. Putting the water cruet in his right hand, the server then receives the wine cruet with his left hand, and presents the water-cruet as he presented the wine.

If the people make offerings, the server brings them in the "decent basin," to the priest as he stands awaiting them on the Epistle-side of the altar, and then (after they have been presented) takes the basin (when the priest hands it to him) and puts it down on the credence. Then placing the lavabo-towel on his left arm and holding the bowl with his left hand, and the water cruet in his right, the server goes to the Epistle-corner and pours water, over the priest's finger-tips, into the bowl. That done, he returns to the credence, puts down cruet, bowl and towel, puts the stoppers in the cruets, and returns to his place opposite the Epistle-side of the altar, and kneels upon the step. He makes all


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 the responses audibly, and joins with priest and people in saying the Confession, the Sanctus, and the Gloria in excelsis, or hymn. If a bell is used, he rings it, with a double stroke, three times at the Sanctus, and six times at the elevation, viz. each time the priest elevates the Sacrament, and each time he genuflects. If the server receives the holy communion he does so whilst kneeling on the foot-pace on the Epistle-side. If he does not communicate sacramentally, the server, when the priest turns to administer to the people, goes and kneels on the lowest step at the Epistle-end of the altar. When the priest covers the vessels with the veil, the server kneels again in his place opposite the Epistle-side of the altar. At the Gloria in excelsis, or at the hymn, the server stands. He kneels during the post-communion prayer, and the Blessing. Then he goes to the credence, takes the stoppers out of the cruets, takes up the wine-cruet in his right hand, and the water-cruet in his left, and goes to the Epistle-end of the altar. If the priest has drained the chalice the server advances at once to pour a little wine into the chalice which the priest will hold out to him; otherwise he kneels on the altar-steps facing the priest until that time comes. Having poured wine into the chalice, the server returns to the step below the foot-pace at the Epistle-corner, and there, when the priest comes, pours a few drops of wine, and a little water, over the priest's finger-tips, into the chalice. This done, (or when the priest shows he needs no further service at that point in the mass) he returns to the credence, puts down the cruets and puts in the stoppers. Then, if the priest has left the book open, the server moves it, (as at the Gospel in the Mass) from the Epistle to the Gospel-corner, and there awaits the priest. At the priest's salutation, and again after the announcement of the Gospel, the server makes response and signs himself as in the mass, and then goes on the floor to his place on the Epistle-side where he faces towards the priest. If the priest genuflect during the reading of the Gospel, the server does so simultaneously. When the priest has descended the steps the server hands him his biretta (if it has been worn on approaching the altar), makes the due act of reverence together with the priest, and precedes him to the sacristy. Rh


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 26 proposed to obtain power of dispensing even from the divine law.

What is more extraordinary still is, that Wolsey, before leaving France, acted as if he had obtained these full and unheard-of powers. He even ordered the chancellor of France to assume the dignity and dress of cardinal, which Clement had promised but had not bestowed.

In December 1527, the pope escaped from Rome to Orvieto, and thither Gardiner and Foxe, Wolsey's agents, followed him. The Holy Father was powerless, and at the mercy of any who chose to exert pressure upon him. On March 23, 1528, Foxe wrote describing the miserable state in which they had found the pope on their arrival at Orvieto. He had taken up his quarters in the bishop's ruined palace. Three small chambers, "all naked and unhanged," with the ceiling fallen, and about thirty persons of the "riff-raff" standing about "for a garnishment," led to the pope's private apartment. The furniture of this, "bed and all," was not worth "twenty nobles."

In the midst of this perplexity and difficulty a further demand was made on Wolsey's behalf. Powers were asked to suppress the priory of St. Peter's, Ipswich, and other monasteries to obtain funds for the foundation of a college at Ipswich. The pope gave way; nor could he well have refused any demand which conscience would have enabled him to grant. In the middle of May 1528 the necessary bulls were dispatched to Wolsey. Gardiner appears to have acted as unscrupulously in this matter as in the divorce question. The pope, on the first suggestion of further suppressions, had asked from the agents particulars about the cardinal's colleges. He was pleased with the account given him, and told the cardinals de Monte and Sanctorum Quatuor "what a good" work it was. "In particular it rejoiced the pope," writes Strype, "when they told him that Wolsey had taken order that, in letting the farms belonging to his college, no man should have them but such as would dwell upon them and maintain hospitality . . . and he (the pope) justified and maintained the


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 Rh commutation and alteration of those religious places, whereof only did arise the scandal of religion as he spoke. For the cardinal, for the endowing of his college, had lately obtained of the pope a bull for the dissolving of divers monasteries wherein much vice and wickedness was harboured, as he informed the pope, to incline him thereby the easier to grant his request."

In this way the convent of Pre, near St. Albans, was dissolved and united to that great abbey. The pope was told that the nuns did not keep a good rule of life, and that religious discipline was much relaxed. The revenues, therefore, were transferred to St. Alban's Abbey in order that an increased number of monks might be supported for the better celebration of the divine office. It may be that the nuns of Pre merited the bad character for laxity of life given to them in the papal bull. In view, however, of Wolsey's motive in giving a bad character to monasteries whose possessions he desired, the mere fact of the statement by the pope is not proof positive. Neither does the fact that the convent was united to the abbey of St. Albans show that Wolsey had no motive in the suppression. To this arrangement the cardinal really objected, and authorised his agent to obtain another bull from Clement uniting Pre to Cardinal College, Oxford. At the same time he wished that the impropriation of a living, also obtained for St. Albans, should be changed in favour of the college at Ipswich.

In the various suppressions which followed complaints were again made of the high-handed action of Wolsey's servants. The abbot of Beaulieu, who was also bishop of Bangor, wrote to the cardinal of the unjust seizure of certain lands in the parish of St. Keverans, Cornwall, belonging to his abbey. He represented that Beaulieu had possessed the property for 400 years, and that now two servants had taken it. And one "gentleman hath written to me," he said, "that the benefice there, which is impropriated to Beaulieu, he mindeth to give to the finding of scholars, and feigneth that some time there was a cell of monks there."


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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army / The Civil War

 * The Civil War

 * The infantry, both North and South, was far from ready for war in 1861. There were but ten Union foot regiments, and they were largely in the West, scattered by companies over thousands of miles. Until assembled, which would take time, they could be counted on for very little. Many of the Regular officers, the core of any expansion, had served in the Mexican War fifteen years before, but few had commanded any sizable body of troops. Moreover, although a small number had kept abreast of world military developments after their services in Mexico, they were not in a position to dictate policy in Washington.

 * To add to the problems of the infantry early in the war, virtually no preparations had been made, apparently because statesmen hoped until the last minute that conflict could be averted. They believed that military adjustments would damage the chances of peaceful compromise. Thus, when war began, the foundations of what was to become a huge infantry establishment had to be commenced hastily and without real planning.

 * Since Congress was not in session, President Lincoln began the war buildup in May 1861 with a proclamation of doubtful constitutionality. On the strength of his executive authority, he summoned thirty-nine regiments of volunteer infantry and one of cavalry to serve for three years. His next step was to authorize an addition of eight infantry regiments to the Regular Army. Somehow a ninth got included. Thereafter, the nineteen regiments in being- the 1st through the 19th- were the whole of the Regular infantry during the war. So neglected a part of the whole establishment were these nineteen that they were never able to attain their full authorized strength.

 * Prior to issuing his call, the President consulted the War Department as to the best. organization for the new Regular units. The Secretary of War, being overburdened, turned the matter over to Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, and loaned him three officers as technical advisors. The result was a recommendation in favor of the French structure. This included regiments of three battalions instead of one. Two battalions were supposed to take the field, the third to maintain a regimental depot for collecting and training recruits. Battalions of 800 men in eight companies were adopted as the most efficient fighting units because they were thought to be small enough to maneuver and to be controlled by the voice of the commanding officer, yet large enough to withstand attack by cavalry.

 * A battalion in the French system was the fighting unit, a regiment the unit of administration. The French felt that a regimental headquarters could administer more than one battalion, an arrangement which appealed to Americans because it eliminated some field officers and thus saved money. The new three-battalion organization, however, was not extended to the ten old regiments, which continued to comprise ten companies each, with regiment and battalion one and the same. The men in authority felt that there was no time to bother with reorganizing outfits already extant, when so many remained to be organized from scratch. Furthermore, the old, single-battalion regiment was hallowed by age and tradition. This meant that two different regimental organizations were tolerated in the Regular infantry, a dualism that might have caused much confusion had the Regular regiments loomed larger than they did in the whole infantry establishment.

 * The number of men in all Regular companies was raised at once to the maximum authorized by law, that is, 84 enlisted men in the first ten regiments and 97 in the other nine. Even so, the regiments never reached full strength because they could not compete with the volunteers for enlistments. By December 1861, some 30,000 Regular infantrymen were authorized, but barely 11,000 enlisted, while during the same period 640,000 volunteers entered the service. The third battalions of the 12th, 13th, 14th, 17th, and 19th Infantry were never organized, and not all the companies were raised for the third battalions of the other four new regiments. In fact, the 11th, 12th, and 13th only imperfectly organized their second battalions. Each battalion of the new regiments designated its companies by letters beginning with A, so that, if fully raised, there were three A companies, three B companies, and so on in each regiment.

 * Since replacements came more slowly than losses to the Regular regiments, all of them grew smaller as the war continued. By July 1864, as an illustration, the 2nd Infantry had shrunk to 7 officers and 38 enlisted men, who were, thereafter grouped into one company and assigned to guard duty. Moreover, by 1 November 1864 all the Regular outfits of the Army of the Potomac were so reduced that it was necessary to withdraw them from the field. Such shrinkage was, of course, not confined to the Regulars. The average strength of regiments most of which ought to have contained 1,046 officers and men-was as follows in the battles named:

 * 1) Shiloh         :(6-7 April 1862)      :560
 * 2) Fair Oaks      :(31 May-1 June 1862)  :650
 * 3) Chancellorsville:(1-5 May 1863)       :530
 * 4) Gettysburg     :(1-3 July 1863)       :375
 * 5) Chickamauga    :(19-20 September 1863):440
 * 6) Wilderness     :(5-7 May 1864)        :440

 * The comments so far have referred mainly to Regulars, but this should not obscure the fact that most infantrymen were volunteers. These volunteers were members of regiments raised and officered by the several states. Initially President Lincoln called for thirty-nine such outfits, but before the war was over more than 1,700 volunteer regiments served. This was not far from one hundred times as many as there were units of Regulars. The three-battalion organization was not extended to the volunteers because the states, which raised them, were thought to be too much accustomed to the old system to change. As a result, the volunteer units, like the first ten Regular regiments, contained ten companies in one battalion.

 * These regiments were variously numbered and designated by the several states, but in practice came to be called merely the "8th Indiana" or the "45th New York." Although patterned after the old regiments in overall organization, the state regiments borrowed their company structure from the new, that is, they had ninetyseven enlisted men, instead of eighty-four, plus one wagoner whom the Regulars did not have. As matters were arranged, therefore, there were three different regimental organizations in the infantry. The volunteer regiments aggregated 1,046 officers and men; the 1st through the 10th Infantry, 878; and the 11th through the 19th, 2,367. Actually the battalions of the latter ought to be .compared with the old regiments, since they were designed to act independently and approximated the size of the others. They contained a few more than 800 enlisted men.

 * Even though most of the volunteer infantrymen were raised and officered by the states, a few hundred units were not. Several types of volunteers were more directly linked to the United States than to any state, the earliest of these being two regiments of U.S. Sharpshooters (1st and 2nd) organized in 1861. These two contained companies from several states, raised by the states. Their origin in more than one state was an uncommon attribute, but their real distinguishing feature was the manner in which they were officered. While the states appointed the company and field officers in ordinary volunteer units, the Federal government appointed them in the Sharpshooters and similar outfits.

 * The next type appeared when large-scale acceptance of Negro troops began in 1863. A number of battalions had started as state units, but with the exception of two Massachusetts regiments, all Negro outfits were finally mustered directly into Federal service, and were organized and officered under the authority of the United States and not of any particular state. Known at first as the Corps d'Afrique and by other names, these units came to be called U.S. Colored Troops by the spring of 1864. Indian regiments (1st-4th Indian Home Guards) were handled in the same way. In all, there were 138 regiments of Negro infantry and 4 of Indians. Except for these two races, diverse nationalities could and did intermingle in infantry units, although men of German, Irish, and Scandinavian extraction proudly associated together in exclusive regiments.

 * Yet another type of Federal volunteer emerged because casualties had reached such proportions that provision for the incapacitated, and replacements for them, had become critical problems. To solve these problems, the Invalid Corps was established in April 1863 and classed as infantry. It was composed of men who in the line of duty had become physically unfit for combat. Those who could handle a gun and make light marches were put in the 1st Battalion and were used for guard duty. The worse crippled formed the 2nd Battalion and were used as nurses and cooks around hospitals. Six companies from the 1st Battalion and four from the 2nd made up a regiment in the Corps after September 1863. In all, 24 regiments and 188 separate companies of invalids did duty, thus releasing able-bodied soldiers for combat service. In March 1864-because the Corps' abbreviation, "IC," was confused with "InspectedCondemned"-the name was changed to Veteran Reserve Corps.

 * Finally, in 1864 six infantry regiments of U.S. Volunteers (1st-6th) were recruited for service on the frontiers (not against the Confederacy) from Confederate prisoners of war. Then in 1865, nine infantry regiments of U.S. Veteran Volunteers (1st-9th) were raised directly by the United States. Although all types of United States volunteers made up only a small fraction of the foot troops who served for the Union, they merit attention because of the intimate relationship between them and the Federal government, and because of the lack of vital connection between them and any state. This relationship foreshadowed the National Army of the twentieth century.

 * The Confederate Army arranged infantry units pretty much as the Union did, except that all regiments contained ten companies. Authorized company strength was 64 privates minimum and 125 maximum. Around 642 infantry regiments served at some time or another, along with 9 legions, 163 separate battalions, and 62 unattached companies. Many of the Confederate units were the forbears of Army National Guard elements existing today.

 * In the heat of the conflict, no changes were made in regimental organization, despite the fact that it was soon recognized as unsuitable. Improved firearms forced regiments and their companies to disperse to such an extent that officers could not effectively exercise control over them. Once .a regiment deployed, it was too big for one man and his staff to control. This fact helped to cause a high casualty rate among general officers, since the only way they could influence an assault, or rally a broken line, was to place themselves where everyone in the command could see them. At such times the enemy's sharpshooters saw them equally well.

 * Years after the Civil War, Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield, who had commanded the Army of the Ohio under Sherman, said that the cumbersome regimental organization had only worked in the course of the war because the replacement system was faulty. What he meant was that the unwieldy regiments at the beginning of the conflict dwindled through casualties until they reached a size which a colonel and his staff could handle. The same attrition, of course, applied to the control of companies.

 * Companies were also unwieldy, yet were not reorganized. On the contrary, the promise of wide use of platoons, sections, and squads- a promise that may be detected in the infantry manuals of the 1850's- was not fulfilled during the war. As a result, notwithstanding the fact that the need was far greater, there were no more officers in an infantry company than there had been forty years before.

 * The reason why types of organization were retained that had been designed for use under different conditions stemmed from the great haste with which the armies were assembled in 1861. There was no time to make a wide canvass of professional soldiers, and those consulted were deceived by their belief that the conditions of the wars of Napoleon had not been radically modified. Few foresaw, and perhaps could not have foreseen, the full impact of the Minie ball upon warfare.

 * The keystone of the whole matter was the heightened firepower which the infantry had to face and which it could wield. The foot soldier's rifle musket, although a muzzle-loader, was vastly more effective than the weapons infantrymen had handled before 1855. It was accurate from 200 to 400 yards, and capable of killing at 800 to 1,000. Nor was it the only improved weapon. Scattered among the soldiers were many types of breech-loading repeating rifles which did great execution.

 * Except for being unwieldy, regiments and their components proved otherwise adaptable to wartime conditions. For example, heightened firepower more than ever before demanded skirmishers in front of the battle line. These the regimental organization was able to supply simply by assigning any of its companies to the duty. Likewise, regimental organization lent itself well to the attack formation which became characteristic of the Civil War. This was a succession of lines. Each line was composed of two ranks with a prescribed distance of thirty-two inches between them. Of course, the lines varied greatly in length and in the distance at which they followed each other. Some were as long as a whole brigade lined up in two ranks, others only as long as a company. If there was a usual length, it was that of a brigade, since attacks by divisions in column of brigades were most frequent. In any case, regiments as organized were easily utilized in that type of attack formation, as they were in others.

 * New means began to work during the Civil War to knit armies together and to speed their movements. For the first time, railroads were used extensively to move infantrymen to and from battle areas. This employment gave the foot soldier greater speed than he had in the past. In the field of communications, signal flags were first used. These enabled the parts of a force to keep contact with each other and to pass on information about the enemy. Newer still was the use of electricity, in the form of the telegraph, to link the components of a large force and to connect field elements with the Commander in Chief at Washington. The new modes of communication did not much improve the connection between units of the same army on the battlefield, but their indirect influence on the use of infantry was very great. The Signal Corps was constituted during the conflict to handle the new media of communication. Its service was great, but its relation to the infantry was only a tiny fragment of what it was to become in the future.

 * In conclusion it must be said that the Civil War occurred in one of those periods, common in history, when weapons outdistanced organization and tactics. It is true that deadly fire brought about modifications in the use of infantry, one of which was the use of a succession of lines in the assault, another the regular employment of temporary field works. But even after taking these into account, it seems clear that the rifle musket was more modern than the organization of the infantry and the resultant formations used in the assault. Otherwise stated, organization and tactics were basically those of the beginning of the nineteenth century, while the weapons were fifty years more modern. This discrepancy between weapons and minor tactics accounts in part for the shocking destructiveness of the Civil War.