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United States v. Boecker/Dissent Bradley

Mr. Justice BRADLEY (with whom concurred Justices CLIFFORD, DAVIS, and STRONG), dissenting:

I dissent from the opinion of the court in this case. It seems to me that it has a tendency to cast every burden on the government and to unduly relieve the sureties of the distiller from responsibility for his acts. By the sixth section of the act of July 20th, 1868, every person intending to be engaged in the business of a distiller is to give notice in writing to the assessor of the district within which such business is to be carried on, stating his name and place of residence, and the place where said business is to be carried on; and if in a city, the residence and place of business is to be indicated by the name and number of the street. He is then, by the seventh section, to execute a bond with at least two sureties, to be approved by the assessor. Such a notice and such a bond were given in this case. The bond recited, in the preamble to the condition, the fact that the distiller intended to be engaged in the business of a distiller within the second collection district of the State of Maryland, to wit, at the corner of Hudson Street and East Avenue, situate in the town of Canton, county of Baltimore. Then followed the terms of the condition, namely, that the distiller should in all respects faithfully comply with all the provisions of law, &c., and not suffer the lot on which the distillery stood to be incumbered, &c. Now the sureties contend that if the distillery is actually established on a different lot from that suggested in the recital, though only across the street, or even the adjoining lot on the same side, they are not bound. It seems to me that it is for them, and not for the government, to see that the distiller pursues his business on the lot which he gives notice to the assessor that he will use for that purpose. They are the guarantors of his conduct to the government, and not the government to them. If after starting his distillery he changes its location, or after giving notice of the location he changes his mind and commences business on another lot, the sureties ought to be bound for the regularity of his conduct. If he should not carry on business in the designated district, but in a different one, subject to the jurisdiction of another assessor, to whom the bond was not given, the result might be different. But if he establishes it in the same district, the sureties ought to be liable. The condition is not that he shall comply with the law only on that particular lot. That can only be claimed as an inference of law. But does such an inference arise in this case? The fact that the distiller intended to pursue his business on that lot is mentioned, it is true, in accordance with his notice. But this is no part of the substance of the condition; the substance is that he was going to engage in the business of a distiller in that district, and the sureties guaranteed his compliance with the law. Where a sheriff or marshal is elected or appointed for a particular term, a bond given for the faithful discharge of his duties relates by implication of law to that term alone; and the sureties are not bound for a subsequent term in case of his re-election or reappointment. This is so, whether the condition recites the term of office for which the appointment was made or not. This is the reasonable inference from the whole transaction. But, in the case under consideration, the implication of law and the reasonable inference is that the sureties are bound for the conduct of their principal, though he should change the location of his distillery to any other place within the district. Otherwise the government is liable to be subjected to great frauds. It is the duty of the sureties, rather than that of the government officials, to see that no change is made without the distiller's pursuing the formalities required by the law. If it is made without those formalities, there would be stronger reason for holding that fact of itself as constituting a violation of the bond, than for holding that it discharges the sureties from all obligation whatever.


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 right first, before we can constitute the science of physiological chemistry.

I may, perhaps, illustrate my point by an instance from a branch of literary art near allied to the folk-tale. The time may come when the novel will be regarded as being as "childish" as some superior persons of our times consider fairy-tales to be. In those dull days we can imagine a scientific student of the novel studying that delectable work The Mystery of a Hansom Cab, and arguing elaborately that the work was written to illustrate the remarkable properties of hansom cabs. Remarkable they are, and we take them nowadays, perhaps, too much as a matter of course; but the writer of that book equally took them as a matter of course, and only used that means of locomotion in his story, if I may say so, in the ordinary course of business. So, too, the semi-savage author of the tale of Cinderella may have lived in a society where the youngest child succeeded, but he was not thinking of that when he composed his tale. And if we, in studying it, pay most attention to junior right, we are, so to speak, only putting the hansom cab before the horse.

There is, in fact, a fundamental difference between the folk-tale and the other departments of folk-lore which renders the anthropological method less applicable to it than to the others. Rites are performed, customs are kept up, for practical purposes, at least, in the first instance. The reason for these rites or customs are thus founded on some idea of the original performers of the rite or custom. Hence it is allowable to look for some savage idea at the root of seemingly unreasonable practices, and it is in this direction that the anthropological method has achieved its greatest successes. But unless we regard the folk-tale as a species of Tendenz-Roman, they have never been told to avert evil or get good luck from the dispensary of such commodities. Hence, if savage customs or ideas do occur in fairy tales, as indeed they obviously do, these are not the essence of the story in them; and if we study them chiefly or exclusively, we are devoting most attention to the accidentals of the folk-tale.

It is urged, indeed, on behalf of this method, that by this means we get valuable archæological evidence of the past of our race. Thus, if we find the tale of Cinderella in Ireland, we have evidence of the former existence of junior-right in succession to property in that country. Now, quite apart from the difficulty

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78 that the tale may have been imported into Ireland, and cannot be used to prove the existence of junior-right there, there is the obvious fact that such evidence is only confirmatory at least. We do not learn about the existence of junior-right from Cinderella, or of the couvade from Aucassin et Nicolete; we have other and better evidence for the existence of these customs. No anthropologist worth his salt would accept as evidence of a custom its existence in a folk-tale unless confirmed by archæological research in other directions. So that if we study the folktales for these survivals, we only arrive at second-hand material of precarious value.

What then are we to study in a folk-tale? Well, in the first place the folk-tale itself and for itself. The essential character of folk-tales is best described by the Italian name for them, novelline popolari: they are little novels for children, as the others are for children of a larger growth. And in novels the essential thing is plot, which has been well described as pattern in human action. We must be able to draw out this plot, or pattern, in the folk-tale, and for this purpose analyse it into its elements, which are the incidents of the story. There are many incidents common to several stories; you will all probably understand what I mean by the youngest best incident, the substituted bride incident, the talking-bird incident, the envious stepmother incident. The first step is to draw up a list of these incidents, and especially of those that are common to several stories. I have found this so necessary in my own studies on the folk-tale, that I have drawn out a preliminary list of these common incidents running to about 700 in number. I have given them names, added bibliographical references by which their occurrence may be ascertained, and will print this tentative list and nomenclature and bibliography of folk-tale incidents in the Transactions of the Congress.

Having got our list and nomenclature of incidents we shall then be able to describe and analyse a folk-tale without having to


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 repeat it. The naturalist who wishes to describe a mammoth does not carry it about with him; the botanist who wishes to describe a lily does not carry it about with him like Mr. Oscar Wilde. Both have technical means of describing these objects of their study and their various parts, by which other naturalists who have never seen mammoths or lilies will be able to understand their constitution. So I hope that one day, instead of having to read the tale of "Lady Featherflight" we may be able to know its contents from the list of its incidents somewhat as follows:—.—Hero prisoner of giant—Bride wager—Tasks (byre-thatching, seed-division, sand-rope)—Answering inanimates—Obstacles to pursuit (forest, lake)—Face in pool—Lovers' union. I am not at all unaware that in rendering the story to such a skeleton its charm has for the time vanished, and I am prepared for some of our President's irony on such a scheme. But when one has to study a couple of dozen of stories of the same general character it is almost indispensable that one should have some such curt method of analysing, so as to be able to run over a large number of stories, picking out the common incidents, and thus arriving, if possible, at the original form in which the story first appeared, and thereby settling the place where the tale was first told.

That seems to me the problem most pressing in the study of the folk-tale just now. When did the story iirst appear, and how was it diffused to the places where it has also been found? Till we know that, it is of little use to discuss the savage ideas in it, for it may not have arisen where there were savages; and, at any rate, it does not follow that those ideas were ever prevalent among the people where the story happens to be found. English children of last century adopted from Perrault the story of Puss in Boots, but they did not therefore believe in speaking animals, or, rather, they were attracted to the story just because it contained these fantastic elements. And in settling the original habitat of a story, I do not see why we should depart from the method which naturalists follow in settling the original habitat of a beast or bird. If Mr. Wallace wants to know which was the original home of the tom-tit, he draws a map of the world, marking where the varieties of tom-


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 80 tits are to be found. So if I wished to discover where Tom Tit Tot came from, I also would draw a map showing the distribution of the various species of the tale known variously as Rumpelstiltskin or Tom Tit Tot. And, to facilitate the drawing of such a map, I have compiled a map of Folk-tale Europe, putting the names of authors of collections instead of the names of towns. Thus, where Halle stands in the ordinary maps, in my map stands the name of Grimm; Edinburgh is replaced by Chambers, Copenhagen by Gruntvig, Palermo by Pitré, Rome by Miss Busk, and Dublin by Kennedy. When we folk-lorists have a map like that, giving the locale of the very many collections of folk-tales, we can easily show the distribution of a tale by underlining in red or blue the name of the books in which the tales appear. I have little doubt that many problems of diffusion will solve themselves "by inspection", as the mathematicians say.

One of the uses to which such a map might be applied would be a severe test of the true scientific value of the science of the folk-tale as here conceived. It is possible, I think, that we may be able to place our finger on the map and say, "In this district the story of Cinderella will be found, with such and such an incident omitted, and with such and such added." We could venture on this prediction if, by observation of our map, we saw that the variants of Cinderella found over that district on both sides, one had an additional incident to another. It might be worth while sending a folk-lorist to the said district, to see if our scientific prediction turned out to be true. But before we could do anything like this, we must have very much wider material than we at present possess, and much fuller knowledge of the folk-character of the various European districts. Yet I see nothing improbable in the idea; and even now we could with some certainty, I take it, predict the general character of the folk-tales, and indeed the whole folk-lore of a district, just as we could of Its fauna and flora. I think I could make a tolerably shrewd guess, even with the imperfect knowledge I possess, of the class


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Mapping Information Systems onto the Real World

Publishing history: This paper was first published as Working Paper Series No. WP95/01, June 1995. Dept. of Information Systems, City University of Hong Kong. Editor: Dr. Matthew Lee

It was reprinted in the same series in April, 1996.

It was developed out some of the ideas outlined in the paper: "Mapping Conceptual Models on to the Real World", Proceedings of the United Kingdom Systems Society 3rd International Conference, Plenum Publishing Corp. July 1993. pp. 117-122.

ABSTRACT
There is a problem about explaining how systems that are true by definition can be informative about a world that is not. This problem is particularly relevant to the design of computerized information systems. A solution is offered based on the distinction between logical and factual truth.

Keywords: Information, Systems, Logic, Logical Truth

INTRODUCTION
The real world mapping problem is the problem of explaining how does a system that is an invention of the human mind help us to understand a world that is not? It is self evident that some systems of rules and definition, such as those that constitute the game of chess, do not help use to understand anything beyond themselves, others, such as mathematics, do. The real world mapping problem is the problem of understanding which systems will help us understand the real world and which will not.

This paper will show that real world mapping is a particular problem for information systems. It will present a logical analysis of the problem and suggest a solution. The solution is in the form of a logical template which all information systems should conform to.

Next, we look at the background of the mapping problem. The first section explains how a adequate solution has escaped both the philosophy of mathematics and the philosophy of logic. Section two uses the example of Britain's Poll Tax to show how real world mapping is a problem in current information system design. In the third section the bizarre results of an information systems mapping failure are emphasized by a comparison with the fiction of Franz Kafka. The last section explains why systems maintenance is not usually a solution to the mapping problem.

In "Logic and Language", we seek to explain, in terms of philosophical logic, how languages can have reference to real world objects and events. The difference between universals and particulars and between logical and factual truth is described in the first section. The second section presents the arguments that both logical and factual truth are required in a system that maps on to the real world. The first part of the argument is that factual truth cannot be derived from logical truth; this argument comes from David Hume and is well known. The second part of the argument is that a system which includes factual truth also needs to include logical truth; this argument is, to the best of the author's knowledge, original. The third section explains the way in which logical truth is determined. Most existing computerized information systems have a logical form that comprises only logical universals and factual particulars, the fourth section explains why these cannot be informative about the real world.

Finally, a logical template for an information system is presented. This comprises three elements: logical universals, factual universals and factual particulars.

Mapping and Mathematics
Einstein posed the mapping problem for mathematics: "How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought independent of existence, is so admirably adapted to the objects of reality?" An answer to this has not emerged and currently pure mathematicians, for example, often seem to be perplexed about why their subject is useful (Barrow, 1992, Chapter 1).

The term "the real world mapping problem" is a term of the present author's invention. There is no universally recognized name for the problem, instead the problem pops up in various places under various names and in various guises. In Hofstadter's "Godel, Esher, Bach" (1980) the term "isomorphism" is used to describe the situation when a system of rules and definitions corresponds to the real world. But Hofstadter's popular book does not explain how, why and when an isomorphism occurs. When one looks for the academic literature giving an account of this notion one finds that it does not exist. Hofstadter posses puzzles but does not provide the solutions.

One would expect that the subject would be addressed in the philosophy of mathematics. While much of this work bears upon the issue, a straight forward solution is rarely offered. Indeed, there are hardly any papers that confront the problem directly. The absence of adequate coverage in the philosophy of mathematics might be explained by a the problem being shunted sideways into the philosophy of logic. This move might be legitimate because there are number of arguments to the effect that mathematics can be reduced to logic (Haack, 1978). Given this the question now becomes "how does logic map on to the real world?". The problem here is that some authors would argue that logic does not map on to the real world nor is it intended to. The later sections of this paper will argue that the solution does lie in the area of logic but logic does not map on to the real world itself rather it is the role of logic to describe the mapping process.

There is an initial plausibility, and one that will be substantiated in a later section, that computerized information systems are, like mathematics, systems of rules and definition. As such they are an invention of the human mind and it needs to be explained how these systems, such as stock control systems, can help us to deal with real world objects and events such as the movement of stock in a warehouse.

The lack of an adequate theory is a more pressing problem for information system design than it is for mathematics. The early systems of arithmetic existed in 9000 BC (Barrow, 1992), Over millennia people have had the time to learn how to use mathematics even though this process of learning may have been driven by trial and error rather than theory. People have built up a tacit understanding of how, when and where mathematics is useful. Computerized information systems are simply too important in our daily lives and the time frame for their development too short to allow a tacit understanding to be built up by trial and error. Another problem is that information systems tend to define their own terms of success, their measures of performance tend to be internal rather than external. The result of this is that they can create their own surrogate reality in which the need for real world mapping is not even perceived.

The Poll Tax
That something very strange is happening with information systems is evident from cases that arose with the introduction of Britain's poll tax. Local government had previously been financed by rates, a tax levied by local government on the real estate in their area. Under the Thatcher administration this was changed to a tax on people living in the local area. Local governments brought in computer systems companies of their own choice to change their systems. Many of these companies based the new system on the old system of rates and seem to have overlooked, or at least failed to accommodate, the fact that people unlike buildings have a tendency to move.

The local authorities sent some poll tax bills, for the forthcoming year, to people who had recently moved from their area and who were not liable to pay. These bills were sent to their old address, in cases where there was no subsequent occupier these bills were not forwarded. When these people failed to pay, the local authorities placed the matter before the court. The courts sent a summons to the old address. When there was no response to the summons the court tried the people in absentia, found them guilty, and ordered a fine to be paid. When the fine was not paid a bailiff was called. Bailiffs were quite capable of locating most of the people who had moved because they were registered in the area they had moved to and were paying poll tax to the local authorities of that area. The result was that some people, who had moved from an address that was not subsequently occupied and who were paying poll tax to their new local authorities, first discovered that they had been tried, found guilty of an offence they had not committed, and fined was when a bailiff arrived at their doorstep threatening to seize their furniture and household goods. (This actually happened to the author).

This case is interesting not because it shows how incompetent information system design leads to a travesty of justice but because it shows how extensive the real world mapping problem has become and how readily people accept a situation that belongs in the sort of fiction written by Franz Kafka.

The Trial and the Castle
Kafka's novel "The Trial" (1983) tells a story about Joseph K. who is arrested for a crime that is never specified. During the course of the book it becomes doubtful that he has even been accused of anything. A trial is normally to determine whether the accused committed the crime referred to. In Kafka's story the trial has no reference. This is strikingly similar to the poll tax case where people were penalized for a crime that was never committed.

In spite of the lack of reference Kafka's story seems to make sense. It has an internal coherence despite the near paradox of some of the situations. The characters are not concerned with how the system maps on to the real world, it is as though the real world has ceased to matter. When K. considers the legitimacy of the proceedings in which he is involved he says "They are in fact only legal proceedings if I choose to recognize them as such". What we have here is a system in which belief alone is a sufficient justification of the system. In the poll tax cases it seems that the court determined that a crime had been committed just because the local authorities believed that a crime had been committed.

The reader might think that the poll tax problem would not have arisen if people leaving an area had notified the local authorities that they were leaving. However, this presumes that there was a mechanism to do so and that this information could be accommodated in the system. Problems in this area are the subject of another of Kafka's works. "The Castle" (1983) is a full length novel that describes how K., who has been hired as a land surveyor by the authorities of a principality, arrives and tries, unsuccessfully, to register his presence in the principality with authorities that called for his services.

Kafka's works are classics of twentieth century literature. They can be contrasted with George Orwell's 1984 (1984) or Animal Farm (1971). Orwell's vision of was of a evil dictatorship working through a centralized and efficient bureaucracy. Kafka's world is of nebulous systems populated by hapless individuals; a system which everyone assents to but which nobody, including the officials, can seem to understand. Kafka's works are generally considered to be a disturbing view of life and society. They are not, like Orwell's 1984, considered to be prophetic. Yet it is Kafka that seems to be becoming an appropriate model for modern information systems. The connection between Kafka and work in the area of information systems has already been noted by Probert (1991) who argues that some aspects of Soft Systems Methodology are Kafkaesque.

The Maintenance Argument
There is an argument to the effect that if an information system suffers from a lack of reference and fails to map on to the real world then this can be rectified by systems maintenance. It is the argument that the problems with systems like the poll tax would have been sorted out given enough time (the poll tax system never got the time because the scheme was abandoned). The fact that the poll tax system was trying to bill non-existent residents would have been noticed and the system modified to overcome the problem. With successive modifications the system would come in to line with reality and system requirements. Space constraints prevent a detailed discussion of this argument. However, there are a number of a priori reasons why this is inadequate and these will be briefly described.

1) The viability of the maintenance argument assumes that either a mistake does not matter much or that there is a manual check on the system. In many systems, such as safety critical systems, a mistake is just not acceptable. One might argue that mistakes in official systems such as the poll tax are not acceptable either. If the a manual check on the system is anything other than fortuitous, then the fact that the system might make an error in a certain area will have been anticipated. This will not help to deal with problem that have not been anticipated.

2) A maintenance solution assumes that the rate of change in the environment is slower than the rate of maintenance. Maintenance backlogs are a practical problem because manual maintenance is labour intensive and time consuming. For many systems the rate of environmental change will be faster than the rate of maintenance.

3) Alterations made to correct a lack of reference in one part of the system can have a knock on effect that causes a lack of reference to develop in another parts of the system.

4) People who use an information system have a tendency to believe the system. Like the characters in a Kafka novel if the system indicates that something does not exist they will tend to act as though it does not exist despite physical evidence to the contrary. In these circumstances the need to correct the system is never officially recognized.

The Difference between Logical And Factual Truth
Unlike robots, information systems produce "statements" and many of these are putative descriptions of objects or events outside the information system itself, as such they are tractable to analysis in terms of logic and the philosophy of language.

In order to understand how an information system that fails in reference can continue to operate it is necessary to make a number of logical distinctions. A distinction needs to be made between universals and particulars and between logical and factual truth. Universals are statements that refer to all members of a class and have the form: "all cats are animals", "no cat is a dog" etc. Particulars are statements that refer to particular members of a class and have the form: "Tiddles is a cat", "some cats like milk", "that is a cat" etc.

The term "logically true" is used to describe what is inevitably true in a contrived system. In formal systems there are axioms and rules of production, applying the rules of production to the axioms results in theorems all of which are logically true. Behind human conversation there are definitions and statements that follow from definitions by the law of non-self-contradiction, all of these are logically true. Language is, as Wittgenstein taught, a game; logically true statements are the rules of the game. The contradictory of a logically true statement is meaningless.

The term "factually true" is used to describe what is contingently true; that is, what is true but not logically true. It is used to describe true statements about objects and events in the real world. One could equate the real world with the physical world, however, this might involve an unwarranted assumption that the laws of physics govern everything that is not a contrived system. All factually true statements are contingent, this means that they are always open to falsification and that the contradictory of a factual statement is not meaningless.

An example might help to illustrate this distinction.

i) All panthers are black

ii) All crows are black

Statement i) is, in standard English, a logical truth. Standard English is what lexicographer try to capture with their dictionary definitions. English speakers play a language game and have agreed that one of the rules of this game is that "Panther" is the word for a black leopard. Therefore, the statement "some panthers are yellow" is self contradictory and meaningless. There are, of course, variants on standard English. Among a group of regular interlocutors the word "panthers" might stand for the members of a political movement and the word "yellow" might for stand for "cowardly". In this language game "some panthers are yellow" might be true. What counts as a logical truth depends upon the language game that is being played.

Statement ii) is, in standard English, a factual statement. Although "some crows are yellow" is false, it is not self contradictory and it is meaningful.

The Need for both Factual and Logical Truth
Logical truths are true because of the way we have set up our language or system. Factual truth are true because of the way the world, the world which is not entirely an invention of the human mind, is. Two important points must be recognized about the relations between logical and factual truth. The first comes from David Hume and states that a factual truth cannot be derived from a logical truth. One cannot infer a factual statement from a set of statements all of which are logically true. This is a well known principle that underlies all of modern physical science. When some people first become acquainted with these ideas they are apt to think that it is only factual truth that is important. This is a mistake.

The second important point is that any system that contains factual truth must also contain logical truth. A more formal way of expressing this is that any factually true statement implies some logically true statements. This is because if we say that "All crows are black" is factual then we must have criteria for identifying crows that is independent of their colour. Those criteria cannot be contingent. If they were not then it would always be possible to say of any yellow crow-like thing that it was not a crow. That is, if we come across a thing that is just like a crow except that it is yellow we could say on the basis of this experience "it is not true that all crows are black" or we could say "this yellow thing is not a crow". If it is always possible to say that things that are not black are not crows then "All crows are black" could not be falsified and, therefore, could not be factual. Logical truths form an indispensable glue that binds factual statements together.

Some people have found this argument rather hard to follow so it is worth making the point in greater detail. When we say a statement is falsifiable we mean that it can be shown to be false by a counter example. If every crow we have come across has been black then we will be justified in believing that all crows are black. We will be justified in believing this until we come across a crow that is not black. This might be "Edgar" a crow that is white. But there is a problem here. How do we know that Edgar is a crow? There must be certain attributes that Edgar has which will allow us to recognize him as a crow and obviously being black is not one of these attributes. Another way of putting this is that there are certain statements that will justify us in saying that Edgar is a crow and one of these statements cannot be "All crows are black".

Crows make a distinctive sound called a "caw". We might recognize Edgar as a crow on this basis. The conjunction of "All birds that caw are crows" and "Edgar is a bird that caws" will justify us in saying that Edgar is a crow. Now consider the following:

1) All crows are black

2) All birds that caw are crows

3) Edgar is a bird that caws and Edgar is white

Let us suppose that we know on the basis of observation and incontrovertibly that 3) is true. Given that 2) is also true we can deduce that 1) is false. However, if all we know for certain is that 3) is true all we know about 1) and 2) is that at least one of them must be false. But it could be 2) just as easily as 1). We could take it that all crows are black is, in fact, true in which case the fact that Edgar is a bird that caws and is white only goes to show that not all birds that caw are crows.

If 1) and 2) are both factual (i.e. contingent) statements there is no way to determine on the basis of 3) which is true and which is false; but we can determine on the basis of 3) that at least one must be false. We do not know which has been falsified and this is not a very satisfactory situation. It makes a nonsense of the idea of falsification because it makes no sense to say that certain statements are falsifiable if we do never know when to say they are false. Also if falsification is given up then we will also need to give up the ideas of contingent truth and the idea of factual truth as we have defined these in terms of falsification. Furthermore, if we tried to represent this sort of system in software we would have computability problems because the system is not decidable.

The problem is not resolved by adding more statements to the system. Suppose we add:

4) All British carrion eating birds are crows

5) Edgar is a white, British carrion eating bird that caws

These added to 1) and 2) still do not show that 1) is false. Given that 5) is true it is still possible for 1) to be true if 2) and 4) are false. That is 5) could be taken as showing that both 2) and 4) are false just as easily as it could be taken as showing that 1) is false. This situation will continue no matter how many factual (e.g. contingent) universals we add to the system.

The only way to make the system coherent and decidable is to introduce logical truth. If we take it that 2) is a logical rather than a factual truth the problem disappears. In this case being a bird that caws is a defining property of crows. From this it follows, by definition, that Edgar must be a crow. And from this it follows that not all crows are black.

Logical Truth and Definitions
It now needs to be explained how logical truth can be established. Logical truths are true by definition. Statements that are logically true are either full definitions, statement specifying a defining attribute or statements that follow from these by the rules of logic.

It is common sense that we as individuals can define our terms in any way we like. However, if our definitions are going to be part of an information system, that is a system used to communicate with others, then the other people involved will need to know about and accept them. Indeed the amount of communication between individuals could be measured in terms of the definitions they accept. There will only perfect communication between two interlocutors if they accept all the definitions in a universe of discourse.

In information system design, therefore, it is of vital importance that there is a consensus about the definitions in the system among the people using the system. How this consensus can be achieved using Soft Systems Methodology has been the subject of previous papers (Gregory 1993a).

Logical Truth Alone is Uninformative
Although logically true statements are essential for factual statements they are not in themselves, nor in conjunction with factual particulars, informative about the real world. Suppose that Tiddles is a panther. Then it might seem that by i) one can infer that Tiddles is black and that this tells one something one did not already know. But this is an illusion. As i) is logically true all it does is say something about how a panther is defined. If Tiddles does not fit this definition then Tiddles is not a panther. If i) is logically true one will not be able to infer from it any real world facts, i.e. contingent facts, about Tiddles.

The configuration of most computerized information systems is such that they embody rules that are logically true and only rules that are logically true. The entry of data, which is the equivalent of the introduction of factual particulars, will not change or falsify any of these implicit rules. People expect these systems to be genuinely informative about real world events, however, this would appear to be logically impossible.

It needs to be explained, therefore, how it is that people appear to find them useful. The simple answer is that computer systems do not function in isolation but in the context of a wider system of belief. This is the system of beliefs adhered to by the human operators and users. Their beliefs encompass a plethora of universal factual truths and it is these that complement the logical truths returned by the machine in such a way that they can be mapped on to the real world and produce genuine information.

A MODEL OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
An information system should consist of elements corresponding to logically true universals, factually true universals and factually true particulars. They should work together as follows:

1) Factual particular: Tiddles hunts at night.

2) Factual universal: Only panthers hunt at night.

3) Factual particular: Tiddles is a panther.

4) Logical universal: All panthers are black.

5) Factual universal: All black things are the colour of coal.

6) Factual particular: Tiddles is the colour of coal.

Here the factual universals act as buffers between the factual particulars and the logical universal and allows 6) to be a genuinely informative inference. At the same time the logical universal is an indispensable part of the system. The users do not identify panthers on the basis of the definition in the computer system, i.e. 4), but on the basis of another criterion, i.e. 2), which they have formulated themselves and which they believe to be true as a matter of fact. These factual universals are inductive hypotheses and can be falsified as the world or knowledge of the world changes. For example it might be discovered that a certain tiger hunts at night. In this case 2) would be falsified and the user would have to formulate another factual universal as a criterion for the identification of panthers.

This is how a system of logical rules and definitions can be mapped on to the real world. The mapping will break down when the user fails to formulate factual universals relevant to the system. In this case the user will be accused of not understanding the system. However, it will also break down if the logical rules are such that there are no factual universals that could effect a mapping on to the real world. In these cases there will be no interpretation of the system that will correspond with observed events. If the system is not changed then it can continue to operate in a Kafka mode. It will not map on to the real world but it can have an indirect effect, through the actions of the users, on people in the real world.

The fundamental problem is that while the logical elements of the machine can be created by systems designers, the users system of beliefs which are essential for reference to the real world cannot. However, this can be overcome by designing information systems that include factual universals as well as logical universals and particulars. A method for doing this explicitly has already been developed and sample programs that include factual universals have been written (Gregory, 1993b).

CONCLUSION
The problem of mapping information systems on to the real world is not as difficult as explaining mathematics. It is mainly a problem because is not recognized as the logical problem that it is. The tools of systems analysis, such as data flow diagrams and entity-relationship models, have very limited logical power. They are not sufficient to produce a system that will map on to the real world. However, most information system designers think they are adequate. Many designers have come to think like the systems they design.


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Talk:Mapping Information Systems onto the Real World

This paper is in process of upload and first edit. --Logicalgregory (talk) 09:35, 24 October 2010 (UTC) The upload and author edit of this paper is now complete. --Logicalgregory (talk) 09:14, 26 October 2010 (UTC)


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 heermanni. If geographical intergradation still exists between them, I should expect to trace it among the Song Sparrows occupying the brackish tide marshes where the San Joaquin and Sacramento Rivers flow into the head of San Francisco Bay. But such material is as yet inaccessible to me. Skins from the salt marshes on the north side of the Bay (St. Vincent, Marin Co.) agree exactly with Baird's description of samuelis. As the type locality, Petaluma, is within 5 miles of tide water, it seems reasonable to suppose that the type was a tide-land bird. So far, I have failed to learn of a yellow-bellied Song Sparrow being obtained on the north side of the Bay. We are, therefore, to suppose that the Bay forms a barrier between samuelis on the north and pusillula on the south. The yellowness of the under parts is the most striking character of pusillula, and the great majority of my specimens have this character well pronounced. But I have a few skins from the salt marshes near Palo Alto, taken along with yellow examples, which are scarcely or not at all. yellow beneath. These closely resemble samuelis, but are not so broadly streaked with black dorsally, and the general tone is ashier.Such birds seem to me properly considered as individual variants of pusillula; for they are exactly like the more or less yellow examples in every other respect. It has been suggested that Baird's gouldi was one of these white-bellied varieties of pusillula. This might be decided by a comparison with the type. Some (symbol for female ? ?) of pusillula have the wing 2.10, though this is rather below the average. Perhaps, in view of the above evidence, some would prefer to rank pusillula as a species; but its relationship seems to be best expressed by the trinomial.

I have no material from California north of Marin County. Scores of skins are needed from almost every valley in California before we can hope to properly classify the various local races of the Song Sparrow. Although so much alike, they appeal to one with all the more interest; for a study of two slightly differentiated races will certainly give us a clearer insight into the manner and causes of the evolution of species, than if we gave attention exclusively to the completely separated forms.

Two Years With Mexican Birds. III. Some Plantation Birds.
BY E. H.SKINNER GRAY'S ROBIN (Merula grayi) during his stay in the vicinity of Tapachula is one of the commonest varieties. They are present in large numbers late in the winter and spring and ahnost entirely disappear in summer. The coffee plantations with a heavy undergrowth of coffee shaded by larger trees are the favorite resorts of these birds, very few being found in the deep woods or in pastures. In December a very few arrive and we are made aware of their presence by the lovely song which is occasionally heard, the Mexican Zenzontli being famous for his minstrelsy. By the middle of February the birds have all arrived, being scattered all over the cafetal, but not going in flocks. Towards evening when the sun comes out after an afternoon shower everything is inexpressibly bright and fresh and the robins seem to appreciate it, for at such times I have heard as many as fifty birds singing as if their lives depended upon it. Besides their song they have a little whistle which is almost exactly like the last seven notes of the familiar air, 'You Can't Play in my Yard', and another gutteral note "chuck-chuck", which, by the way, is their Indian name.

The breeding season commences in April and continues into July. I have taken fresh eggs between April 20 and July 11. The nest is a coarse affair

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Symbol help I am trying to find a symbol for male and female species markers. one is a circle with a cross subtended, the other is a circle with an arrow extended. Can anyone point me to the right place please?

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 made of roots, moss and mud, well packed together, and owing to 'the daily showers, a nest generally raises a good crop of grass and weeds around its edges. The nest is placed commonly in coffee bushes, bunches of bananas or any low shrub at from eight to twelve feet from the ground. The extremes which I noted were two and twenty feet respectively. There were as many as 50 nests in the 80 acres surrounding the house. When the young are just beginning to fly the native small boy goes out and captures the little fellows by the dozen, using them to make bird stew. Gray's Robin lays two or three eggs, and although I have examined hundreds of nests I have never found four. There is great variation in size, shape and markings but an average egg resembles those of our Black-headed Grosbeak.

The Black-headed Saltator (Saltator atricepts) is a representative bird of Chiapas and is found mostly in flocks in the wooded portion of the lowlands and foothills, flitting about in the bushes and tree-tops chattering harshly all the time. The nest is loosely constructed of twigs and leaves and two eggs are always laid, being blue with heavy black markings at the larger end, similar to the eggs of the Redwinged Blackbird. The nesting season extends from the latter part of April to the latter part of July.

Synallasis erythorthorax is a great deal like a little wren with nothing much to distinguish him but his nesting habits, but here he rivals anything in the feathered kingdom. The nest is usually placed from four to ten feet up in dense bushes and is composed of dry twigs four or five inches long. The bird makes a pile of these sticks a foot in diameter leaving a cavity of three or four inches diameter inside. After this is done a horizontal tunnel two inches in diameter is made, leading away from the nest. At about a foot from the nest at the end of the tunnel another pile of twigs is constructed through which the tunnel turns upward for a few inches. This is the opening of the nest upon which the male roosts while the female is setting. The inner cavity is lined with leaves and three light blue eggs, rarely two, are laid.

I found the Grove-billed Ani (Crotophaga sulcirostris) rather common, nesting according to Davie as gcod birds should. I found sets varying from four to ten eggs and was told by Indians that 20 eggs were sometimes found in a nest, from which it appears that this species has the same habit as C. ani of several birds using the same nest. I found one nest of C. sulcirostris built on the top of a nest of Giraud's Flycatcher.

The Central American House Wren (Troglodytes intermedius) seemed like an old friend to me, flitting about and singing like our wrens at home. They reared their young in dark holes under the rafters of the house and barn and in the hollow trunks of trees. I found one nest in a hollow stump on the ground. The bird lays but three or four eggs, which are lighter than those of our common house wren. This little fellow and the Turkey Vulture were seemingly the only old friends I had in Mexico.

Scott's Oriole at San Diego, Cal.
SCOTT'S ORIOLE (Icterus parisorum) is not rare on the desert slope of the munntains in San Diego County in the migration, but it is very seldom seen between the mountains and the sea here. I saw two males in April, one of these being in the eucalyptus grove in the city park of San Diego. The song of this male was peculiar in some ways, so I followed him around to make sure of the identification. Last Sunday (June 2) I heard the same song in another part of the grove, a few hundred yards from where I saw the bird in April. This would indicate that he had become a summer resident here and probably had a mate. I know of no breeding record of this species in the coast region of San Diego County. San Diego, Cal. FRANK STEPHENS.

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text: Talk:Maryland v. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company (89 U.S. 105)


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 ==='''An Exceptional Set of Eggs of the Wood Duck. '''===

ONE of the prettiest spots in San Joaquin County is located in the extreme north-west portion of the county and is known as "Forest Lake." Previous to last year I had never visited the lake and as the name seemed to suggest a likely place for birds, I inquired of the farmers living in the vicinity as to the prospects of finding ducks breeding there and was informed by all that this was a favorite haunt of the Wood Duck. (Aix sponsa.) I therefore determined on a trip to the place and April 29, 1900, in company with my brother and a friend, we started from Lodi on our wheels about 5.30 A.M. and reached the lake about 8.30 A.M. Dismounting we immediately strapped on our baskets, arranged the other necessary collecting apparatus and started along the north side of the lake, keeping a sharp lookout for any suggestion of a nest.

We had not proceeded far before a male Wood Duck arose from the water's edge and beat a hasty retreat. Thinking that his nest might be in the vicinity we began a thorough search and were soon rewarded by finding the nest located in a deserted home of a Redshafted Flicker and placed about twenty-five feet up in a white oak tree. The tree was quite large but after a difficult climb my brother reached the opening and inserting his hand drew the female bird from the nest. He informed ts that the nest was full of eggs, which fact was made very evident after he had taken out twenty-one eggs and landed them safely on terra firma.

The number of eggs in the set led me to believe that the nest was occupied by two pairs of birds, but after a thorough search of the lake I failed to find but one pair, notwithstanding the fact that I had been informed that the birds were quite uumerous in the locality. However I was well pleased with my prize and after taking several sets of Swainson's Hawk (Buleo swainsoni) started homeward.

I now have the eggs before me and my belief in the double occupancy of the nest is made stronger by the fact that nine of the twenty-one eggs are somewhat darker in color than the remaining twelve and are also, as a whole, slightly larger, as the following measurements will show
 * 2.06 x 1.50
 * 2.12 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.56
 * 1.93 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.50
 * 2.06 x 1.50
 * 2.03 x 1.47
 * 2.00 x 1.56
 * 2.00 x 1.56
 * 1.87 x 1.43
 * 1.93 x 1.47
 * 2.00 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.47
 * 2.00 x 1.47
 * 2.00 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.50
 * 2.00 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.50
 * 1.93 x 1.47
 * 1.93 x 1.43

Taken in their order, the first nine measurements are those of the dark colored eggs while the remaining twelve are of the light color.

Incubation had already commenced in four of the dark colored eggs and in six of the light color, thus showing that they must have been laid by the same bird or by two birds occupying the nest at the same time. Had incubation been more advanced in one color than in the other, I would have been led to believe that the pair of birds found in possession of the nest must have driven the first pair away and continued adding to the number of eggs already in the nest, but the state of incubation in the two colors has shown that such could not be the case.

After considering all the points in favor of the theory of two pair of birds occupying the nest at the same time, it seems to me that they are stronger than those in favor of one pair of birds, as the best point for the latter theory is the lack of another pair of birds in the vicinity, while the number of eggs in the set and the difference in color and size are certainly good points in favor of the former.

This is the first instance I have had brought to my notice of a decided difference in color and size of a large set of eggs of the Wood Duck and may only be in this case a freak set. However I would like to hear further notes on this subject from other members of the Cooper Club.

Stockton, Cal. WALTER B. SAMPSON.

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text:
Author:Jervoise Athelstane Baines

Works

 * "The Empire of India" in R.A. Mill's International Geography

Works about Baines

 * "BAINES, Sir Jervoise Athelstane" in Who's Who, Vol. 59, 1907.
 * "obit. Sir Athelstane Baines" in Nature, Vol. 116, p. 909, doi 10.1038/116909a0.

title: Author:Jervoise Athelstane Baines


text: Talk:Maryland v. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company (44 U.S. 534)/Opinion of the Court


text: Talk:Maryland v. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company (44 U.S. 534)


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/35

Rh right use of signs, in order to knowledge; being toto cœlo different, they seemed to me to be the three great provinces of the intellectual world, wholly separate and distinct one from another."

From the manner in which Mr. Locke expresses himself in the above quotation, he appears evidently to have considered the division proposed in it as an original idea of his own; and yet the truth is, that it coincides exactly with what was generally adopted by the philosophers of ancient Greece. "The ancient Greek Philosophy," says Mr. Smith, "was divided into three great branches, Physics, or Natural Philosophy; Ethics, or Moral Philosophy; and Logic. This general division," he adds, "seems perfectly agreeable to the nature of things." Mr. Smith afterwards observes, in strict conformity to Locke's definitions, (of which, however, he seems to have had no recollection when he wrote this passage,) "That, as the human mind and the Deity, in whatever their essence may be supposed to consist, are parts of the great system of the universe, and parts, too, productive of the most important effects, whatever was taught in the ancient schools of Greece concerning their nature, made a part of the system of physics."

Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has borrowed from the Grecian schools the same very extensive use of the words physics and physiology, which he employs as synonymous terms; comprehending under this title "not merely Natural History. Astronomy, Geography, Mechanics, Optics, Hydrostatics, Meteorology, Medicine, Chemistry, but also Natural Theology and Psychology, which," he observes, "have been, in his opinion, most unnaturally disjoined from Physiology by philosophers." "Spirit," he adds, "which here comprises only the Supreme Being and the human soul, is surely as much included under the notion of natural object as body is; and is knowable to the philosopher purely in the same way, by observation and experience."


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwardston, Thomas


text:
User talk:Kilom691

— billinghurst  sDrewth  12:36, 24 October 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kilom691


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, William Camden


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, William (1719-1789)


text:
Author:Horace Amidon Gaylord

Works

 * “Spring Migration of 1896 in the San Gabriel Valley” in The Condor, 1(1) (1899)

title: Author:Horace Amidon Gaylord


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (1779-1858)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (1775?-1845)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (fl.1810)


text: Author talk:Horace Amidon Gaylord

title: Author talk:Horace Amidon Gaylord


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (1729-1785)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (1699-1757)


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/36

18 A similar train of thinking led the late celebrated M. Turgot to comprehend under the name of Physics, not only Natural Philosophy, (as that phrase is understood by the Newtonians,) but Metaphysics, Logic, and even History. Notwithstanding all this weight of authority, it is difficult to reconcile one's self to an arrangement which, while it classes with Astronomy, with Mechanics, with Optics, and with Hydrostatics, the strikingly contrasted studies of Natural Theology and of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, disunites from the two last the far more congenial sciences of Ethics and of Logic. The human mind, it is true, as well as the material world which surrounds it, forms a part of the great system of the Universe; but is it possible to conceive two parts of the same whole more completely dissimilar, or rather more diametrically opposite, in all their characteristical attributes? Is not the one the appropriate field and province of observation,—a power habitually awake to all the perceptions and impressions of the bodily organs? and does not the other fall exclusively under the cognizance of reflection,—an operation which inverts all the ordinary habits of the understanding, abstracting the thoughts from every sensible object, and even striving to abstract them from every sensible image? What abuse of language can be greater than to apply a common name to departments of knowledge which invite the curiosity in directions precisely contrary, and which tend to form intellectual talents, which, if not altogether incompatible, are certainly not often found united in the same individual? The word Physics, in particular, which, in our language, long and constant use has restricted to the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (1652-1721)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Thomas (fl.1595)


text:
Author:Rachel Harriette Busk

Works

 * Patrañas, or Spanish Stories, Legendary and Traditional (London, 1870)
 * Folk-Lore Of Rome
 * Folk-Songs of Italy
 * (1873)

title: Author:Rachel Harriette Busk


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Sydenham Teak


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Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/37

Rh of Matter, cannot fail to strike every ear as anomalously, and therefore illogically, applied, when extended to those of Thought and of Consciousness. Nor let it be imagined that these observations assume any particular theory about the nature or essence of Mind. Whether we adopt, on this point, the language of the Materialists, or that of their opponents, it is a proposition equally certain and equally indisputable, that the phenomena of Mind and those of Matter, as far as they come under the cognizance of our faculties, appear to be more completely heterogeneous than any other classes of facts within the circle of our knowledge; and that the sources of our information concerning them are in every respect so radically different, that nothing is more carefully to be avoided, in the study of either, than an attempt to assimilate them, by means of analogical or metaphorical terms, applied to both in common. In those inquiries, above all, where we have occasion to consider Matter and Mind as conspiring to produce the same joint effects, (in the constitution, for example, of our own compounded frame,) it becomes more peculiarly necessary to keep constantly in view the distinct province of each, and to remember, that the business of philosophy is not to resolve the phenomena of the one into those of the other, but merely to ascertain the general laws which regulate their mutual connexion. Matter and Mind, therefore, it should seem, are the two most general heads which ought to form the ground-work of an Encyclopedical classification of the sciences and arts. No branch of human knowledge, no work of human skill, can be mentioned, which does not obviously fall under the former head or the latter.

Agreeably to this twofold classification of the sciences and arts, it is proposed, in the following introductory Essays, to exhibit a rapid sketch of the progress made since the revival of letters—First, in those branches of knowledge which relate to mind; and, secondly, in those which relate to matter. D'Alembert, in his Preliminary Discourse, has boldly attempted to embrace both subjects in one magnificent design; and never, certainly, was there a single mind more equal to such an


text:
Author:Henry Brougham Leech

Works

 * Essay on International Law
 * The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement
 * Registration of Assurances

title: Author:Henry Brougham Leech


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/38

20. The historical outline which he has there traced forms by far the most valuable portion of that performance, and will for ever remain a proud monument to the depth, to the comprehensiveness, and to the singular versatility of his genius. In the present state of science, however, it has been apprehended that, by dividing so great a work among different hands, something might perhaps be gained, if not in point of reputation to the authors, at least in point of instruction to their readers. This division of labour was, indeed, in some measure rendered necessary (independently of all other considerations) by the important accessions which mathematics and physics have received since D'Alembert's time; by the innumerable improvements which the spirit of mercantile speculation, and the rivalship of commercial nations, have introduced into the mechanical arts; and, above all, by the rapid succession of chemical discoveries which commences with the researches of Black and of Lavoisier. The part of this task which has fallen to my share is certainly, upon the whole, the least splendid in the results which it has to record; but I am not without hopes that this disadvantage may be partly compensated by its closer connexion with (what ought to be the ultimate end of all our pursuits) the intellectual and moral improvement of the species.

I am, at the same time, well aware that, in proportion as this last consideration increases the importance, it adds to the difficulty of my undertaking. It is chiefly in judging of questions "coming home to their business and bosoms," that casual associations lead mankind astray; and of such associations how incalculable is the number arising from false systems of religion, oppressive forms of government, and absurd plans of education! The consequence is, that while the physical and mathematical discoveries of former ages present themselves to the hand of the historian like masses of pure and native gold, the truths which we are here in quest of may be compared to iron, which, although at once the most necessary and the most widely diffused of all the metals, commonly requires a discriminating eye to detect its existence, and a tedious, as well as nice process, to extract it from the ore.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Lewis


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Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/39

Rh To the same circumstance it is owing, that improvements in moral and in political science do not strike the imagination with nearly so great force as the discoveries of the mathematician or of the chemist. When an inveterate prejudice is destroyed by extirpating the casual associations on which it was grafted, how powerful is the new impulse given to the intellectual faculties of man! Yet how slow and silent the process by which the effect is accomplished! Were it not, indeed, for a certain class of learned authors, who from time to time heave the log into the deep, we should hardly believe that the reason of the species is progressive. In this respect, the religious and academical establishments in some parts of Europe are not without their use to the historian of the human mind. Immovably moored to the same station by the strength of their cables and the weight of their anchors, they enable him to measure the rapidity of the current by which the rest of the world are borne along. This, too, is remarkable in the history of our prejudices, that as soon as the film falls from the intellectual eye, we are apt to lose all recollection of our former blindness. Like the fantastic and giant shapes which, in a thick fog, the imagination lends to a block of stone or to the stump of a tree, they produce, while the illusion lasts, the same effect with truths and realities; but the moment the eye has caught the exact form and dimensions of its object, the spell is broken for ever, nor can any effort of thought again conjure up the spectres which have vanished. As to the subdivisions of which the sciences of matter and of mind are susceptible, I have already said that this is not the proper place for entering into any discussion concerning them. The passages above quoted from D'Alembert, from Locke, and from Smith, are sufficient to shew how little probability there is, in the actual state of logical science, of uniting the opinions of the learned in favour of any one scheme of partition. To prefix, therefore, such a scheme to a work which is professedly to be carried on by a set of unconnected writers, would be equally presumptuous and useless; and, on the most favourable supposition, could tend only to fetter, by means of dubious


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Jonathan


text:
The Times/1921/Obituary/Henry Brougham Leech

MR. H. BROUGHAM LEECH.

The death has occurred of Mr. Henry Brougham Leech, LL.D., a well-known Irish lawyer and professor of Dublin University.

Born in 1843 at Moy, Co. Tyrone, the second son of the Rev. J. Leech, D.D., he first graduated at Trinity College, Dublin and then proceeded to to Caius College, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow. Called to the Irish Bar in 1871, he soon became recognized as an authority on international law and jurisprudence, of which he became successively Deputy Regius Professor of English Law and Regius Professor of Laws, 1898–1908. From 1891 until 1908 he was also a land registrar, and from 1898 Registrar of Titles.

Mr. Leech wrote much on legal questions and also on Irish politics. Like most his generation, he was a pronounced Unionist, as his pamphlet on "The Continuity of the Irish Revolutionary Movement" and his letters to The Times on Irish taxation demonstrated.

The Irish Bar has always been noted for its social qualities, and in the Dublin Law Library, until his retirement, Brougham Leech was well known for his fund of anecdote and his genial and hospitable activities. He married in 1875 a daughter of Mr. William Garbois, of Dublin, and had five sons and one daughter.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, John (1751-1832)


text: Author:Giuseppe Pitrè

title: Author:Giuseppe Pitrè


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/40

22 definitions, the subsequent freedom of thought and of expression. The example of the French Encyclopédie cannot be here justly alleged as a precedent. The preliminary pages by which it is introduced were written by the two persons who projected the whole plan, and who considered themselves as responsible, not only for their own admirable articles, but for the general conduct of the execution; whereas, on the present occasion, a porch was to be adapted to an irregular edifice, reared at different periods by different architects. It seemed, accordingly, most advisable to avoid as much as possible, in these introductory Essays, all innovations in language, and, in describing the different arts and sciences, to follow scrupulously the prevailing and most intelligible phraseology. The task of defining them with a greater degree of precision properly devolves upon those to whose province it belongs, in the progress of the work, to unfold in detail their elementary principles.

The Sciences to which I mean to confine my observations are Metaphysics, Ethics, and Political Philosophy; understanding, by Metaphysics, not the Ontology and Pneumatology of the schools, but the inductive Philosophy of the Human Mind; and limiting the phrase Political Philosophy almost exclusively to the modern science of Political Economy; or (to express myself in terms at once more comprehensive and more precise) to thatbranch of the theory of legislation which, according to Bacon's definition, aims to ascertain those "Leges legum, ex quibus informatio peti potest quid in singulis legibus bene aut perperam positum aut constitutum sit." The close affinity between these three departments of knowledge, and the easy transitions by which the curiosity is invited from the study of any one of them to that of the other two, will sufficiently appear from the following Historical Review.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, John (1747-1792)


text: Page:Alumni Oxoniensis (1715-1886) volume 3.djvu/65


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, John (1714-1785)


text:
Author:Robert Chambers (1802-1871)

Works

 * Notices of the Most Remarkable Fires in Edinburgh: From 1385 to 1824 (1824)
 * Illustrations of the author of Waverley, 1825
 * Walks in Edinburgh, 1825
 * Traditions of Edinburgh, 1825
 * The popular rhymes of Scotland, with illustrations, 1826
 * History of the Rebellion in Scotland in 1745, 1746, (1827)
 * The Picture of Scotland, 1827
 * History of the rebellions in Scotland, under the Marquis of Montrose, and others, from 1638 till 1660, (1828)
 * The Scottish ballads, 1829
 * The Scottish songs. 1829
 * History of the rebellions in Scotland, under the Viscount of Dundee, and the Earl of Mar, in 1689 and 1715, (1829)
 * The history of Scotland, 1832
 * Notices and anecdotes illustrative of the incidents, characters, and scenery described in the novels of Walter Scott, 1833
 * A Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, 1835
 * History of the English language and literature, 1837
 * Infant Education from Two to Six Years of Age, 1837
 * The Moral Class-book, 1839
 * The prose works of Robert Burns, 1839
 * Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 1844
 * Explanations; a sequel to "Vestiges of the natural history of creation", 1846
 * Vestiges of the natural history of creation, with a sequel, 1858

 * Twelve Romantic Scottish Ballads: With the Original Airs, Arranged for the Pianoforte, 1844
 * Historical Sketches of English and American Literature with Royal Robbins, 1845
 * History of the Jews in England, 1846
 * The conditions of health and long life, 1846
 * Ancient Sea-margins, as Memorials of Changes in the Relative Level of Sea and Land, 1848
 * Sanitary economy, 1850
 * Life and Works of Robert Burns 1851
 * On glacial phenomena in Scotland and parts of England, 1853
 * Thomas Thomson's edition of A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen (1857)
 * Domestic Annals of Scotland from the Reformation to the Revolution, 1858
 * Testimony: its posture in the scientific world, 1859
 * Edinburgh merchants and merchandise in old times, 1859
 * Shipwrecks and tales of the sea, 1860
 * Mathematical Tables, 1860
 * Rome and the early Christians, 1861
 * The songs of Scotland prior to Burns. With the tunes, 1862
 * The book of days, 1863
 * Life of Sir Walter Scott, 1871
 * Index to Heirs-at-law, Next of Kin, Legatees, Missing Friends, Encumbrancers With Edward Preston, 1872

As editor

 * Cyclopædia of English Literature (1843-44), ed. with Robert Carruthers
 * Robert and his brother, William also published several periodicals including Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, Chamber's journal of popular literature, science and arts, Chambers's Information for the People, Cyclopaedia of English Literature, Chambers's pocket miscellany, Chambers's Repository of Instructing and Amusing Tracts.

Short works

 * "The Messrs Chambers’ New Gazetteer of Scotland, Versus St Andrews" (1831)
 * "More Victims" (1831)
 * "The Dear Years" (1831)

Works about Chambers

 * Our exemplars, poor and rich; or, Biographical sketches of men and women who have, by an extraordinary use of the opportunities, benefited their fellow-creatures by Matthew Davenport Hill, 1792-1872 (1861)
 * Memoir of Robert Chambers by William Chambers, 1800-1883 (1872)

title: Author:Robert Chambers (1802-1871)


text: The Collected Works of Dugald Stewart/Volume 1/Part 1/Introduction


text:
Page:Alumni Oxoniensis (1715-1886) volume 3.djvu/64

 Linwood, Rev. William, o.s. William, of Birmingham, arm. , matric. 10 Dec., 1835, aged 18; student 1837-51, B.A. 1839, M.A. 1842, Hertford, Ireland, and Craven scholar 1836, and Boden Sanscrit scholar, public examiner 1850-1, died 7 Sep., 1878.  Linzee, Charles Arthur, y.s. Robert George, of Jermyns, near Romsey, Hants, arm. , matric. 15 Oct., 1880, aged 18.  Linzee, Edward Gordon, 1s. Robert George, of Jermyn, near Romsey, Hants, gent. , matric. 7 Dec., 1872, aged 19. See Eton School Lists.  Linzee, Edward Hood, 1s. Edward, of Penn, Bucks, cler. , matric. 4 June, 1835, aged 19; B.A. 1839, vicar of Bracknell, Berks, 1854-61. See Rugby School Reg., 160.  Linzee, Robert George, 2s. Edward, of Penn, Bucks, cler. , matric. 15 May, 1839, aged 19; B.A. 1843, of Jermyns, Hants, J.P. See Eton School Lists.  [5]

Linzey, Thomas, 'printer'; privilegiatus 21 July, 1747.  Lippincott, (Sir) Henry (Cann), s. Henry, of Stoke Bishop, co. Gloucester, bart. , matric. 29 Jan., 1794, aged 17; and baronet, created M.A. 13 May, 1797, died s.p.l. 23 Aug., 1829.  Lippincott, Robert Cann, o.s. Henry C. L., of London, baronet (extinct). , matric. 19 May, 1836, aged 18; of Over Court, co. Gloucester. See Eton School Lists.

Lippitt, Alfred Joseph Warren, 1s. George Warren, of Vienna, arm. , matric. 13 Oct., 1876, aged 19; B.A. 1880, M.A. 1885, bar.at-law, Inner Temple, 1884. See Foster's Men at the Bar.

Lipscomb, Arthur Morton, 6s. Christopher, bishop of Jamaica. , matric. 15 Oct., 1859, aged 18; B.A. 1868.
 [10]

Lipscomb, Charles Burton, 1s. Charles Henry, of Temple Ewell, Kent, cler. , matric. 18 Jan., 1883, aged 19.

Lipscomb, Charles Henry, 2s. John Thomas, of St. Albans, Herts, gent. , matric. 14 May, 1840, aged 19; rector and vicar of Temple Ewell, Kent, 1862-71, rector of Norfolk, 1871.

Lipscomb, Christopher, s. William, of Pomfret, Yorks, cler. , matric. 12 July, 1800, aged 18; B.A. 1804, M.A. 1811, B. & D.D. 1824, dean of arts 1822, bursar 1823, fellow until 1825, vicar of Sutton Benger, Wilts, 1818, bishop of Jamaica 1824, until his death 4 April, 1843.

Lipscomb, Cyril, s. William, of Welbury, Yorks, cler. , matric. 26 Aug., 1812, aged 17; fellow 1812, until his death 25 Sep., 1815.

Lipscomb, Cyril William, 1s. Christopher, bishop of Jamaica,, matric. 29 June, 1848, aged 17; fellow 1848, B.C.L. & M.A. 1856, a student of Lincoln's Inn 1877.
 [15]

Lipscomb, Edwin Francis, 3s. William, of Winchelsea, Sussex, gent. , matric. 16 Dec., 1867, aged 37; held various curacies 1870-83, rector of Aston-Botterell since 1883.

Lipscomb, Francis, s. William, of Welbury, Yorks, cler. , matric. 23 April, 1817, aged 19; exhibitioner 1817-18, and of 1818-24, B.A. 1821, M.A. 1824, rector of Welbury 1832, until his death 4 Aug., 1885.

Lipscomb, Francis, 1s. Francis, of Sevenoaks, Kent, cler. , matric. 24 May, 1844, aged 18. See Rugby School Reg., 204.

Lipscomb, Frederick, 3s. John Thomas, of St. Albans, Herts, gent. , matric. 15 Feb., 1844 aged 19; B.A. 1847, M.A. 1850, held various curacies 1847-58, vicar of Frogmore since 1859.

Lipscomb, Frederick Bell, 1s. Frederick, of London, cler. , matric. 19 Oct., 1872, aged 19; B.A. 1875, M.A. 1879, has held various curacies since 1878.
 [20]

Lipscomb, Henry Alchorne, 5s. John Thomas, of St. Albans, Herts, arm. , matric. 25 May, 1858, aged 19; B.A. 1862, M.A. 1865, vicar of West Hyde, Herts, 1871-8, and of Sawbridgeworth since 1878.

Lipscomb, John Kempster, 1s. Kempster, of Portsea, Hants, arm. , matric. 18 Nov., 1824, aged 18.

Lipscomb, John Streatfeild, 3s. Francis, of Hastings, Sussex, cler. , matric. 20 Feb., 1851, aged 18; B.A. 1855, M.A. 1858, died 1871.

Lipscomb, Maurice John, 2s. John Streatfeild, of Canterbury, arm. , matric. 23 Oct., 1885, aged 18.

Lipscomb, William, s. Thomas, of Winchester (city), gent. , matric. 6 July, 1770, aged 16; B.A. 1774, M.A. 1784, rector of Welbury, Yorks, 1789-1832, master of St John's Hospital, Barnard Castle, died 25 May, 1843.
 [25]

Lipscomb, William Henry, 1s. William Henry, of Winchester, Hants, arm. , matric. 14 Oct., 1865, aged 18; B A. 1870, bar.-at-law, Lincoln's Inn, 1872. See Foster's Men at the Bar.

Lipscombe, Henry, 'cook of Corpus Christi College'; privilegiatus 18 April, 1738.

Liptrott, Bexworth, s. James, of Nuneaton, co. Warwick, gent. , matric. 30 Nov., 1726, aged 18; B.A. 1730, died 'minister' of Totteridge 18 July, 1784.

Liptrott, Rev. Boulton Brander, 2s. John, of Massoore, East Indies, arm. , matric. 13 Oct., 1877, aged 18; B.A. 1880, M.A. 1884.

Liptrott, James, s. John, of Broughton Astley, co. Leicester, cler. , matric. 2 June, 1753, aged 19; B.A. 1757, M.A. 1760, vicar of Thorpe (Egham), Surrey, 1774 (? rector of Offham, Kent, 1777). died 18 Oct., 1805.
 [30]

Liptrott, Rev. James, 1s. John, of Egham, Surrey, cler. , matric. 17 Feb., 1827, aged 19; B.A. 1832, died 9 Sep., 1879. See Rugby School Reg., 140.

Liptrott, John, s. Jacob (? James), of Nuneaton, co. Warwick, gent. , matric. 21 March, 1718-9, aged 16; B.A. 1722, M.A. 1725, rector of Broughton Astley, co. Leicester, until his death in 1778. See Nichol's Leicester, iv. 61.

Liptrott, John, s. James, of Egham, Surrey, cler. , matric. 23 June, 1792, aged 18; B.A. from 1796, M.A. 1805, rector of Broughton Astley, co. Leicester, 1812, until his death 16 Dec., 1848.

Lipyeatt, Jonathan, fellow of, Cambridge (B.A. 1741, M.A. 1745, 'in convoc.'); incorp. 1 Oct., 1755, rector of Bovinger, Essex, 1751, of Bubingworth and Meesden, Essex, 1756, and of Wath, Yorks, 1788, until his death 2 Jan., 1799.

Lipyeatt, Thomas, fellow of, Cambridge (B.A. 1731, M.A. 1735, B.D. 1743); incorp. 4 June, 1741, rector of Leyham and Girton, Suffolk, 1756, and of Great Hallingbury, Essex, 1758, until his death 5 July, 1781.
 [35]

Lisle, Fermor, s. William, of Imley, Northants, gent. , matric. 21 March, 1715-6, aged 18.

Lisle, Robert de, s. Robert Lisle, of Newcastle, Northumberland, arm. , matric. 11 Oct., 1811, aged 17. See Hodgson's Northumberland, i., ii. 174; & Eton School Lists.

Lisle, Thomas, s. Edward, of Crux Eston, Hants, arm. , matric. 10 Sep., 1725, aged 16; demy 1726-32, B.A. 1729, M.A. 1732, fellow 1732-47, B.D. 1740, D.D. 1743, dean of arts 1740, bursar 1741, public orator 1746-6, rector of Wotton, Isle of Wight, 1737, and of Burghclere, Hants, died 27 March, 1767. See ''Coll. Reg.'', vi. 210.
 [ 855 ]


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Richard


text:
Author:Henry Caldwell Lipsett

Works

 * Where the Atlantic meets the land
 * (with J. Frederick Dickson)
 * (with J. Frederick Dickson)
 * (with J. Frederick Dickson)

title: Author:Henry Caldwell Lipsett


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/41

 DISSERTATION.

PART I.

the following Historical and Critical Sketches, it has been judged proper by the different writers, to confine their views entirely to the period which has elapsed since the revival of letters. To have extended their retrospects to the ancient world, would have crowded too great a multiplicity of objects into the limited canvass on which they had to work. For my own part, I might perhaps, with still greater propriety, have confined myself exclusively to the two last centuries, as the Sciences 'of which I am to treat present but little matter for useful remark, prior to the time of Lord Bacon. I shall make no apology, however, for devoting, in the first place, a few pages to some observations of a more general nature; and to some scanty gleanings of literary detail, bearing more or less directly on my principal design. On this occasion, as well as in the sequel of my Discourse, I shall avoid, as far as is consistent with distinctness and perspicuity, the minuteness of the mere bibliographer; and, instead of attempting to amuse my readers with a series of critical epigrams, or to dazzle them with a rapid succession of evanescent portraits, shall study to fix their attention on those great lights of the world by whom the torch of science has been


text: Index:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu


text:
Page:Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire vol 1 (1897).djvu/23

Rh

Rh


text:
The Times/1913/Obituary/Henry Caldwell Lipsett

The death occurred in London on Friday of Mr. H. Caldwell Lipsett, journalist at the age of 44.

Mr. Lipsett was educated at Christ's Hospital, whence as a Grecian he proceeded with a scholarship to Lincoln College, Oxford, and took his degree in 1892. From the first he had made up his mind to become a journalist. After serving in the office of a Sheffield newspaper he became editor of the Civil and Military Gazette at Lahore. Upon his return to England he was, for about four years, assistant of the Daily Chronicle, and was afterwards connected with other publications. Marianne Caldwell, the actress, is Mr. Lipsett's sister. He leaves a widow and four children.

The funeral will take place at Wood Grange Park Cemetery, Forest-gate, to-morrow afternoon at 2 o'clock.


text:
Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/22

 should appoint a President of the Senate, for the sole Purpose of receiving, opening and counting the Votes for President; and, that after he shall be chosen, the Congress, together with the President, should, without Delay, proceed to execute this Constitution.

By the Unanimous Order of the Convention

Secretary.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edwards, Roger


text:
Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/21

 In Convention Monday, September 17th 1787. Present The States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Mundefined Hamilton from New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

Resolved, That the preceeding Constitution be laid before the United States in Congress assembled, and that it is the Opinion of this Convention, that it should afterwards be submitted to a Convention of Delegates, chosen in each State by the People thereof, under the Recommendation of its Legislature, for their Assent and Ratification; and that each Convention assenting to, and ratifying the Same, should give Notice thereof to the United States in Congress assembled. Resolved, That it is the Opinion of this Convention, that as soon as the Conventions of nine States shall have ratified this Constitution, the United States in Congress assembled should fix a Day on which Electors should be appointed by the States which shall have ratified the same, and a Day on which the Electors should assemble to vote for the President, and the Time and Place for commencing Proceedings under this Constitution. That after such Publication the Electors should be appointed, and the Senators and Representatives elected: That the Electors should meet on the Day fixed for the Election of the President, and should transmit their Votes certified, signed, sealed and directed, as the Constitution requires, to the Secretary of the United States in Congress assembled, that the Senators and Representatives should convene at the Time and Place assigned; that the Senators


text: Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/20


text: Author:Henry Courthope Bowen

title: Author:Henry Courthope Bowen


text:
The Times/1909/Public notice/Henry Courthope Bowen

BOWEN.—On the 9th April, at 14, Castletown-road, West Kensington,, M.A. (Cantab.), aged 61.


text:
Author:Henry Gilbert Whyatt

Works

 * Sanitary Construction in Building (1906)

title: Author:Henry Gilbert Whyatt


text: Author talk:Henry Gilbert Whyatt

title: Author talk:Henry Gilbert Whyatt


text:
Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/19

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same.

 The Word, “the,” being interlined between the seventh and eighth Lines of the first Page, The Word “Thirty” being partly written on an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the first Page, The Words “is tried” being interlined between the thirty second and thirty third Lines of the first Page and the Word “the” being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

Attest

Secretary

done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, Go —t and deputy from Virginia


text:
Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/18

 Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any state to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.


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 No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

Article. V.

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by


text:
Page:Collected Works of Dugald Stewart Volume 1.djvu/42

24 seized and transmitted. It is, in fact, such leading characters alone which furnish matter for philosophical history. To enumerate the names and the labours of obscure or even secondary authors, (whatever amusement it might afford to men of curious erudition,) would contribute but little to illustrate the origin and filiation of consecutive systems, or the gradual development and progress of the human mind.


text:
Author:Henry Heathcote Statham

Works

 * (Modern)

title: Author:Henry Heathcote Statham


text:
Author talk:Henry Heathcote Statham

Obituary available
The Times, Saturday, May 31, 1924; Issue 43666; pg. 16; col E — Architect And Musician. Mr. H. H. Statham.

title: Author talk:Henry Heathcote Statham


text:
Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/16

 Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Section. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.


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Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/15

 Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all Civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Article. III.

Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of another State; between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have


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Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/14

 principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information on the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.


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Page:COTUS (1992 Edition) Part 6 of 15.djvu/13

 No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the


text: Author:Henry Hobart Nichols

title: Author:Henry Hobart Nichols


text:
Page:Audubon and His Journals.djvu/595

Rh call them, Prairie Marmots. The wind blew violently till we had run several miles; at one period we were near stopping. We have had many difficulties with the sand-bars, having six or seven times taken the wrong channel, and then having to drop back and try our luck again. The three Marmots had been killed with shot quite too large, and not one of them was fit for drawing, or even skinning. Sprague and I have taken measurements of all their parts, which I give at once. [Here follow forty-two measurements, all external, of the male and female.] I received no further intelligence about the habits of this species, except that they are quite numerous in every direction. We passed four rivers to-day; the Little Chayenne, the Moroe, the Grand, and the Rampart. The Moroe is a handsome stream and, I am told, has been formerly a good one for Beaver. It is navigable for barges for a considerable distance. Just before dinner we stopped to cut drift-wood on a sand-bar, and a Wolf was seen upon it. Bell, Harris, and some one else went after it. The wily rascal cut across the bar and, hiding itself under the bank, ran round the point, and again stopped. But Bell had returned towards the very spot, and the fellow was seen swimming off, when Bell pulled the trigger and shot it dead, in or near the head. The captain sent the yawl after it, and it was brought on board. It was tied round the neck and dipped in the river to wash it. It smelled very strong, but I was heartily glad to have it in my power to examine it closely, and to be enabled to take very many measurements of this the first Wolf we have actually procured. It was a male, but rather poor; its general color a grayish yellow; its measurements are

title: Page:Audubon and His Journals.djvu/595


text: Author talk:Henry Hobart Nichols

title: Author talk:Henry Hobart Nichols