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32 all the best breeders are strongly opposed to this practice, except sometimes amongst closely allied sub-breeds. And when a cross has been made, the closest selection is far more indispensable even than in ordinary cases. If selection consisted merely in separating some very distinct variety, and breeding from it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth notice; but its importance consists in the great effect produced by the accumulation in one direction, during successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable by an uneducated eye—differences which I for one have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed, and may make great improvements; if he wants any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail. Few would readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice requisite to become even a skilful pigeon-fancier.

The same principles are followed by horticulturists; but the variations are here often more abrupt. No one supposes that our choicest productions have been produced by a single variation from the aboriginal stock. We have proofs that this is not so in some cases, in which exact records have been kept; thus, to give a very trifling instance, the steadily-increasing size of the common gooseberry may be quoted. We see an astonishing improvement in many florists' flowers, when the flowers of the present day are compared with drawings made only twenty or thirty years ago. When a race of plants is once pretty well established, the seed-raisers do not pick out the best plants, but merely go over their seed-beds, and pull up the "rogues," as they call the plants that deviate from the proper standard. With animals this


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Rh kind of selection is, in fact, also followed; for hardly any one is so careless as to allow his worst animals to breed.

In regard to plants, there is another means of observing the accumulated effects of selection—namely, by comparing the diversity of flowers in the different varieties of the same species in the flower-garden; the diversity of leaves, pods, or tubers, or whatever part is valued, in the kitchen-garden, in comparison with the flowers of the same varieties; and the diversity of fruit of the same species in the orchard, in comparison with the leaves and flowers of the same set of varieties. See how different the leaves of the cabbage are, and how extremely alike the flowers; how unlike the flowers of the heartsease are, and how alike the leaves; how much the fruit of the different kinds of gooseberries differ in size, colour, shape, and hairiness, and yet the flowers present very slight differences. It is not that the varieties which differ largely in some one point do not differ at all in other points; this is hardly ever, perhaps never, the case. The laws of correlation of growth, the importance of which should never be overlooked, will ensure some differences; but, as a general rule, I cannot doubt that the continued selection of slight variations, either in the leaves, the flowers, or the fruit, will produce races differing from each other chiefly in these characters.

It may be objected that the principle of selection has been reduced to methodical practice for scarcely more than three-quarters of a century; it has certainly been more attended to of late years, and many treatises have been published on the subject; and the result, I may add, has been, in a corresponding degree, rapid and important. But it is very far from true that the principle is a modern discovery. I could give several references to the full acknowledgment of the importance of the principle in works of high antiquity. In rude and

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34 barbarous periods of English history choice animals were often imported, and laws were passed to prevent their exportation: the destruction of horses under a certain size was ordered, and this may be compared to the "roguing" of plants by nurserymen. The principle of selection I find distinctly given in an ancient Chinese encyclopædia. Explicit rules are laid down by some of the Roman classical writers. From passages in Genesis, it is clear that the colour of domestic animals was at that early period attended to. Savages now sometimes cross their dogs with wild canine animals, to improve the breed, and they formerly did so, as is attested by passages in Pliny. The savages in South Africa match their draught cattle by colour, as do some of the Esquimaux their teams of dogs. Livingstone shows how much good domestic breeds are valued by the negroes of the interior of Africa who have not associated with Europeans. Some of these facts do not show actual selection, but they show that the breeding of domestic animals was carefully attended to in ancient times, and is now attended to by the lowest savages. It would, indeed, have been a strange fact, had attention not been paid to breeding, for the inheritance of good and bad qualities is so obvious.

At the present time, eminent breeders try by methodical selection, with a distinct object in view, to make a new strain or sub-breed, superior to anything existing in the country. But, for our purpose, a kind of Selection, which may be called Unconscious, and which results from every one trying to possess and breed from the best individual animals, is more important. Thus, a man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterwards breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless I cannot


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Rh doubt that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, &c., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their own lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle. Slow and insensible changes of this kind could never be recognised unless actual measurements or careful drawings of the breeds in question had been made long ago, which might serve for comparison. In some cases, however, unchanged or but little changed individuals of the same breed may be found in less civilised districts, where the breed has been less improved. There is reason to believe that King Charles's spaniel has been unconsciously modified to a large extent since the time of that monarch. Some highly competent authorities are convinced that the setter is directly derived from the spaniel, and has probably been slowly altered from it. It is known that the English pointer has been greatly changed within the last century, and in this case the change has, it is believed, been chiefly effected by crosses with the fox-hound; but what concerns us is, that the change has been effected unconsciously and gradually, and yet so effectually, that, though the old Spanish pointer certainly came from Spain, Mr. Borrow has not seen, as I am informed by him, any native dog in Spain like our pointer.

By a similar process of selection, and by careful training, the whole body of English racehorses have come to surpass in fleetness and size the parent Arab stock, so that the latter, by the regulations for the Goodwood Races, are favoured in the weights they carry. Lord Spencer and others have shown how the cattle of England have increased in weight and in early maturity, compared with the stock formerly kept in this country. By comparing the accounts given in old pigeon treatises of carriers


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36 and tumblers with these breeds as now existing in Britain, India, and Persia, we can, I think, clearly trace the stages through which they have insensibly passed, and come to differ so greatly from the rock-pigeon.

Youatt gives an excellent illustration of the effects of a course of selection, which may be considered as unconsciously followed, in so far that the breeders could never have expected or even have wished to have produced the result which ensued—namely, the production of two distinct strains. The two flocks of Leicester sheep kept by Mr. Buckley and Mr. Burgess, as Mr. Youatt remarks, "have been purely bred from the original stock of Mr. Bakewell for upwards of fifty years. There is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either of them has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of Mr. Bakewell's flock, and yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties."

If there exist savages so barbarous as never to think of the inherited character of the offspring of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly useful to them, for any special purpose, would be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, to which savages are so liable, and such choice animals would thus generally leave more offspring than the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs.

In plants the same gradual process of improvement, through the occasional preservation of the best individuals, whether or not sufficiently distinct to be ranked


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Rh at their first appearance as distinct varieties, and whether or not two or more species or races have become blended together by crossing, may plainly be recognised in the increased size and beauty which we now see in the varieties of the heartsease, rose, pelargonium, dahlia, and other plants, when compared with the older varieties or with their parent-stocks. No one would ever expect to get a first-rate heartsease or dahlia from the seed of a wild plant. No one would expect to raise a first-rate melting pear from the seed of the wild pear, though he might succeed from a poor seedling growing wild, if it had come from a garden-stock. The pear, though cultivated in classical times, appears, from Pliny's description, to have been a fruit of very inferior quality. I have seen great surprise expressed in horticultural works at the wonderful skill of gardeners, in having produced such splendid results from such poor materials; but the art, I cannot doubt, has been simple, and, as far as the final result is concerned, has been followed almost unconsciously. It has consisted in always cultivating the best known variety, sowing its seeds, and, when a slightly better variety has chanced to appear, selecting it, and so onwards. But the gardeners of the classical period, who cultivated the best pear they could procure, never thought what splendid fruit we should eat; though we owe our excellent fruit, in some small degree, to their having naturally chosen and preserved the best varieties they could anywhere find.

A large amount of change in our cultivated plants, thus slowly and unconsciously accumulated, explains, as I believe, the well-known fact, that in a vast number of cases we cannot recognise, and therefore do not know, the wild parent-stocks of the plants which have been longest cultivated in our flower and kitchen gardens. If it has taken centuries or thousands of years to improve


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38 or modify most of our plants up to their present standard of usefulness to man, we can understand how it is that neither Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any other region inhabited by quite uncivilised man, has afforded us a single plant worth culture. It is not that these countries, so rich in species, do not by a strange chance possess the aboriginal stocks of any useful plants, but that the native plants have not been improved by continued selection up to a standard of perfection comparable with that given to the plants in countries anciently civilised.

In regard to the domestic animals kept by uncivilised man, it should not be overlooked that they almost always have to struggle for their own food, at least during certain seasons. And in two countries very differently circumstanced, individuals of the same species, having slightly different constitutions or structure, would often succeed better in the one country than in the other, and thus by a process of "natural selection," as will hereafter be more fully explained, two sub-breeds might be formed. This, perhaps, partly explains what has been remarked by some authors, namely, that the varieties kept by savages have more of the character of species than the varieties kept in civilised countries.

On the view here given of the all-important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious, how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man's wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much difficulty, any deviation of structure excepting such as is externally visible; and indeed he rarely cares for what is internal. He can never act by selection, excepting on variations


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Rh which are first given to him in some slight degree by nature. No man would ever try to make a fantail, till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter till he saw a pigeon with a crop of somewhat unusual size; and the more abnormal or unusual any character was when it first appeared, the more likely it would be to catch his attention. But to use such an expression as trying to make a fantail, is, I have no doubt, in most cases, utterly incorrect. The man who first selected a pigeon with a slightly larger tail, never dreamed what the descendants of that pigeon would become through long-continued, partly unconscious and partly methodical selection. Perhaps the parent bird of all fantails had only fourteen tail-feathers somewhat expanded, like the present Java fantail, or like individuals of other and distinct breeds, in which as many as seventeen tail-feathers have been counted. Perhaps the first pouter-pigeon did not inflate its crop much more than the turbit now does the upper part of its œsophagus,—a habit which is disregarded by all fanciers, as it is not one of the points of the breed.

Nor let it be thought that some great deviation of structure would be necessary to catch the fancier's eye: he perceives extremely small differences, and it is in human nature to value any novelty, however slight, in one's own possession. Nor must the value which would formerly be set on any slight differences in the individuals of the same species, be judged of by the value which would now be set on them, after several breeds have once fairly been established. Many slight differences might, and indeed do now, arise amongst pigeons, which are rejected as faults or deviations from the standard of perfection of each breed. The common goose has not given rise to any marked varieties; hence the Thoulouse and the common breed, which differ only in colour, that


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40 most fleeting of characters, have lately been exhibited as distinct at our poultry-shows.

I think these views further explain what has sometimes been noticed—namely that we know nothing about the origin or history of any of our domestic breeds. But, in fact, a breed, like a dialect of a language, can hardly be said to have had a definite origin. A man preserves and breeds from an individual with some slight deviation of structure, or takes more care than usual in matching his best animals and thus improves them, and the improved individuals slowly spread in the immediate neighbourhood. But as yet they will hardly have a distinct name, and from being only slightly valued, their history will be disregarded. When further improved by the same slow and gradual process, they will spread more widely, and will get recognised as something distinct and valuable, and will then probably first receive a provincial name. In semi-civilised countries, with little free communication, the spreading and knowledge of any new sub-breed will be a slow process. As soon as the points of value of the new sub-breed are once fully acknowledged, the principle, as I have called it, of unconscious selection will always tend,—perhaps more at one period than at another, as the breed rises or falls in fashion,—perhaps more in one district than in another, according to the state of civilisation of the inhabitants,—slowly to add to the characteristic features of the breed, whatever they may be. But the chance will be infinitely small of any record having been preserved of such slow, varying, and insensible changes.

I must now say a few words on the circumstances, favourable, or the reverse, to man's power of selection. A high degree of variability is obviously favourable, as freely giving the materials for selection to work on; not that mere individual differences are not amply


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Rh sufficient, with extreme care, to allow of the accumulation of a large amount of modification in almost any desired direction. But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success. On this principle Marshall has remarked, with respect to the sheep of parts of Yorkshire, that "as they generally belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, they never can be improved." On the other hand, nurserymen, from raising large stocks of the same plants, are generally far more successful than amateurs in getting new and valuable varieties. The keeping of a large number of individuals of a species in any country requires that the species should be placed under favourable conditions of life, so as to breed freely in that country. When the individuals of any species are scanty, all the individuals, whatever their quality may be, will generally be allowed to breed, and this will effectually prevent selection. But probably the most important point of all, is, that the animal or plant should be so highly useful to man, or so much valued by him, that the closest attention should be paid to even the slightest deviation in the qualities or structure of each individual. Unless such attention be paid nothing can be effected. I have seen it gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected. As soon, however, as gardeners picked out individual plants with slightly larger, earlier, or better fruit, and raised seedlings from them, and again picked out the best seedlings and bred from them, then, there appeared (aided by some


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42 crossing with distinct species) those many admirable varieties of the strawberry which have been raised during the last thirty or forty years.

In the case of animals with separate sexes, facility in preventing crosses is an important element of success in the formation of new races,—at least, in a country which is already stocked with other races. In this respect enclosure of the land plays a part. Wandering savages or the inhabitants of open plains rarely possess more than one breed of the same species. Pigeons can be mated for life, and this is a great convenience to the fancier, for thus many races may be kept true, though mingled in the same aviary; and this circumstance must have largely favoured the improvement and formation of new breeds. Pigeons, I may add, can be propagated in great numbers and at a very quick rate, and inferior birds may be freely rejected, as when killed they serve for food. On the other hand, cats, from their nocturnal rambling habits, cannot be matched, and, although so much valued by women and children, we hardly ever see a distinct breed kept up; such breeds as we do sometimes see are almost always imported from some other country, often from islands. Although I do not doubt that some domestic animals vary less than others, yet the rarity or absence of distinct breeds of the cat, the donkey, peacock, goose, &c., may be attributed in main part to selection not having been brought into play: in cats, from the difficulty in pairing them; in donkeys, from only a few being kept by poor people, and little attention paid to their breeding; in peacocks, from not being very easily reared and a large stock not kept; in geese, from being valuable only for two purposes, food and feathers, and more especially from no pleasure having been felt in the display of distinct breeds.


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Rh To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant Power.


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44

applying the principles arrived at in the last chapter to organic beings in a state of nature, we must briefly discuss whether these latter are subject to any variation. To treat this subject at all properly, a long catalogue of dry facts should be given; but these I shall reserve for my future work. Nor shall I here discuss the various definitions which have been given of the term species. No one definition has as yet satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. The term "variety" is almost equally difficult to define; but here community of descent is almost universally implied, though it can rarely be proved. We have also what are called monstrosities; but they graduate into varieties. By a monstrosity I presume is meant some considerable deviation of structure in one part, either injurious to or not useful to the species, and not generally propagated. Some authors use the term "variation" in a technical sense, as implying a modification directly due to the physical conditions of life; and "variations" in this sense are supposed not to be inherited: but who can say that the dwarfed condition of shells in the brackish waters of the Baltic, or dwarfed


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Rh plants on Alpine summits, or the thicker fur of an animal from far northwards, would not in some cases be inherited for at least some few generations? and in this case I presume that the form would be called a variety.

Again, we have many slight differences which may be called individual differences, such as are known frequently to appear in the offspring from the same parents, or which may be presumed to have thus arisen, from being frequently observed in the individuals of the same species inhabiting the same confined locality. No one supposes that all the individuals of the same species are cast in the very same mould. These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions. These individual differences generally affect what naturalists consider unimportant parts; but I could show by a long catalogue of facts, that parts which must be called important, whether viewed under a physiological or classificatory point of view, sometimes vary in the individuals of the same species. I am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of variability, even in important parts of structure, which he could collect on good authority, as I have collected, during a course of years. It should be remembered that systematists are far from pleased at finding variability in important characters, and that there are not many men who will laboriously examine internal and important organs, and compare them in many specimens of the same species. I should never have expected that the branching of the main nerves close to the great central ganglion of an insect would have been variable in the same species; I should have expected that changes of this nature could have been effected only


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46 by slow degrees: yet quite recently Mr. Lubbock has shown a degree of variability in these main nerves in Coccus, which may almost be compared to the irregular branching of the stem of a tree. This philosophical naturalist, I may add, has also quite recently shown that the muscles in the larvæ of certain insects are very far from uniform. Authors sometimes argue in a circle when they state that important organs never vary; for these same authors practically rank that character as important (as some few naturalists have honestly confessed) which does not vary; and, under this point of view, no instance of an important part varying will ever be found: but under any other point of view many instances assuredly can be given.

There is one point connected with individual differences, which seems to me extremely perplexing: I refer to those genera which have sometimes been called "protean" or "polymorphic," in which the species present an inordinate amount of variation; and hardly two naturalists can agree which forms to rank as species and which as varieties. We may instance Rubus, Rosa, and Hieracium amongst plants, several genera of insects, and several genera of Brachiopod shells. In most polymorphic genera some of the species have fixed and definite characters. Genera which are polymorphic in one country seem to be, with some few exceptions, polymorphic in other countries, and likewise, judging from Brachiopod shells, at former periods of time. These facts seem to be very perplexing, for they seem to show that this kind of variability is independent of the conditions of life. I am inclined to suspect that we see in these polymorphic genera variations in points of structure which are of no service or disservice to the species, and which consequently have not been seized on and rendered definite by natural selection, as hereafter will be explained.


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Rh Those forms which possess in some considerable degree the character of species, but which are so closely similar to some other forms, or are so closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, are in several respects the most important for us. We have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful and closely-allied forms have permanently retained their characters in their own country for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, as have good and true species. Practically, when a naturalist can unite two forms together by others having intermediate characters, he treats the one as a variety of the other, ranking the most common, but sometimes the one first described, as the species, and the other as the variety. But cases of great difficulty, which I will not here enumerate, sometimes occur in deciding whether or not to rank one form as a variety of another, even when they are closely connected by intermediate links; nor will the commonly-assumed hybrid nature of the intermediate links always remove the difficulty. In very many cases, however, one form is ranked as a variety of another, not because the intermediate links have actually been found, but because analogy leads the observer to suppose either that they do now somewhere exist, or may formerly have existed; and here a wide door for the entry of doubt and conjecture is opened.

Hence, in determining whether a form should be ranked as a species or a variety, the opinion of naturalists having sound judgment and wide experience seems the only guide to follow. We must, however, in many cases, decide by a majority of naturalists, for few well-marked and well-known varieties can be named which have not been ranked as species by at least some competent judges.


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48 That varieties of this doubtful nature are far from uncommon cannot be disputed. Compare the several floras of Great Britain, of France or of the United States, drawn up by different botanists, and see what a surprising number of forms have been ranked by one botanist as good species, and by another as mere varieties. Mr. H. C. Watson, to whom I lie under deep obligation for assistance of all kinds, has marked for me 182 British plants, which are generally considered as varieties, but which have all been ranked by botanists as species; and in making this list he has omitted many trifling varieties, but which nevertheless have been ranked by some botanists as species, and he has entirely omitted several highly polymorphic genera. Under genera, including the most polymorphic forms, Mr. Babington gives 251 species, whereas Mr. Bentham gives only 112,—a difference of 139 doubtful forms! Amongst animals which unite for each birth, and which are highly locomotive, doubtful forms, ranked by one zoologist as a species and by another as a variety, can rarely be found within the same country, but are common in separated areas. How many of those birds and insects in North America and Europe, which differ very slightly from each other, have been ranked by one eminent naturalist as undoubted species, and by another as varieties, or, as they are often called, as geographical races! Many years ago, when comparing, and seeing others compare, the birds from the separate islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, both one with another, and with those from the American mainland, I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. On the islets of the little Madeira group there are many insects which are characterized as varieties in Mr. Wollaston's admirable work, but which it cannot


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Rh be doubted would be ranked as distinct species by many entomologists. Even Ireland has a few animals, now generally regarded as varieties, but which have been ranked as species by some zoologists. Several most experienced ornithologists consider our British red grouse as only a strongly-marked race of a Norwegian species, whereas the greater number rank it as an undoubted species peculiar to Great Britain. A wide distance between the homes of two doubtful forms leads many naturalists to rank both as distinct species; but what distance, it has been well asked, will suffice? if that between America and Europe is ample, will that between the Continent and the Azores, or Madeira, or the Canaries, or Ireland, be sufficient? It must be admitted that many forms, considered by highly-competent judges as varieties, have so perfectly the character of species that they are ranked by other highly competent judges as good and true species. But to discuss whether they are rightly called species or varieties, before any definition of these terms has been generally accepted, is vainly to beat the air.

Many of the cases of strongly-marked varieties or doubtful species well deserve consideration; for several interesting lines of argument, from geographical distribution, analogical variation, hybridism, &c., have been brought to bear on the attempt to determine their rank. I will here give only a single instance,—the well-known one of the primrose and cowslip, or Primula veris and elatior. These plants differ considerably in appearance; they have a different flavour and emit a different odour; they flower at slightly different periods; they grow in somewhat different stations; they ascend mountains to different heights; they have different geographical ranges; and lastly, according to very numerous experiments made during several years by


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50 that most careful observer Gärtner, they can be crossed only with much difficulty. We could hardly wish for better evidence of the two forms being specifically distinct. On the other hand, they are united by many intermediate links, and it is very doubtful whether these links are hybrids; and there is, as it seems to me, an overwhelming amount of experimental evidence, showing that they descend from common parents, and consequently must be ranked as varieties.

Close investigation, in most cases, will bring naturalists to an agreement how to rank doubtful forms. Yet it must be confessed, that it is in the best-known countries that we find the greatest number of forms of doubtful value. I have been struck with the fact, that if any animal or plant in a state of nature be highly useful to man, or from any cause closely attract his attention, varieties of it will almost universally be found recorded. These varieties, moreover, will be often ranked by some authors as species. Look at the common oak, how closely it has been studied; yet a German author makes more than a dozen species out of forms, which are very generally considered as varieties; and in this country the highest botanical authorities and practical men can be quoted to show that the sessile and pedunculated oaks are either good and distinct species or mere varieties.

When a young naturalist commences the study of a group of organisms quite unknown to him, he is at first much perplexed to determine what differences to consider as specific, and what as varieties; for he knows nothing of the amount and kind of variation to which the group is subject; and this shows, at least, how very generally there is some variation. But if he confine his attention to one class within one country, he will soon make up his mind how to rank most of the doubtful forms. His


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Rh general tendency will be to make many species, for he will become impressed, just like the pigeon or poultry-fancier before alluded to, with the amount of difference in the forms which he is continually studying; and he has little general knowledge of analogical variation in other groups and in other countries, by which to correct his first impressions. As he extends the range of his observations, he will meet with more cases of difficulty; for he will encounter a greater number of closely-allied forms. But if his observations be widely extended, he will in the end generally be enabled to make up his own mind which to call varieties and which species; but he will succeed in this at the expense of admitting much variation,—and the truth of this admission will often be disputed by other naturalists. When, moreover, he comes to study allied forms brought from countries not now continuous, in which case he can hardly hope to find the intermediate links between his doubtful forms, he will have to trust almost entirely to analogy, and his difficulties will rise to a climax.

Certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species—that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences. These differences blend into each other in an insensible series; and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage.

Hence I look at individual differences, though of small interest to the systematist, as of high importance for us, as being the first step towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth recording in works on natural history. And I look at varieties which are in any degree more distinct and permanent, as steps leading to more


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52 strongly marked and more permanent varieties; and at these latter, as leading to sub-species, and to species. The passage from one stage of difference to another and higher stage may be, in some cases, due merely to the long-continued action of different physical conditions in two different regions; but I have not much faith in this view; and I attribute the passage of a variety, from a state in which it differs very slightly from its parent to one in which it differs more, to the action of natural selection in accumulating (as will hereafter be more fully explained) differences of structure in certain definite directions. Hence I believe a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species; but whether this belief be justifiable must be judged of by the general weight of the several facts and views given throughout this work.

It need not be supposed that all varieties or incipient species necessarily attain the rank of species. They may whilst in this incipient state become extinct, or they may endure as varieties for very long periods, as has been shown to be the case by Mr. Wollaston with the varieties of certain fossil land-shells in Madeira. If a variety were to flourish so as to exceed in numbers the parent species, it would then rank as the species, and the species as the variety; or it might come to supplant and exterminate the parent species; or both might co-exist, and both rank as independent species. But we shall hereafter have to return to this subject.

From these remarks it will be seen that I look at the term species, as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for mere convenience sake.


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Rh Guided by theoretical considerations, I thought that some interesting results might be obtained in regard to the nature and relations of the species which vary most, by tabulating all the varieties in several well-worked floras. At first this seemed a simple task; but Mr. H. C. Watson, to whom I am much indebted for valuable advice and assistance on this subject, soon convinced me that there were many difficulties, as did subsequently Dr. Hooker, even in stronger terms. I shall reserve for my future work the discussion of these difficulties, and the tables themselves of the proportional numbers of the varying species. Dr. Hooker permits me to add, that after having carefully read my manuscript, and examined the tables, he thinks that the following statements are fairly well established. The whole subject, however, treated as it necessarily here is with much brevity, is rather perplexing, and allusions cannot be avoided to the "struggle for existence," "divergence of character," and other questions, hereafter to be discussed.

Alph. De Candolle and others have shown that plants which have very wide ranges generally present varieties; and this might have been expected, as they become exposed to diverse physical conditions, and as they come into competition (which, as we shall hereafter see, is a far more important circumstance) with different sets of organic beings. But my tables further show that, in any limited country, the species which are most common, that is abound most in individuals, and the species which are most widely diffused within their own country (and this is a different consideration from wide range, and to a certain extent from commonness), often give rise to varieties sufficiently well-marked to have been recorded in botanical works. Hence it is the most flourishing, or, as they may be called, the dominant species,—


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54 those which range widely over the world, are the most diffused in their own country, and are the most numerous in individuals,—which oftenest produce well-marked varieties, or, as I consider them, incipient species. And this, perhaps, might have been anticipated; for, as varieties, in order to become in any degree permanent, necessarily have to struggle with the other inhabitants of the country, the species which are already dominant will be the most likely to yield offspring which, though in some slight degree modified, will still inherit those advantages that enabled their parents to become dominant over their compatriots.

If the plants inhabiting a country and described in any Flora be divided into two equal masses, all those in the larger genera being placed on one side, and all those in the smaller genera on the other side, a somewhat larger number of the very common and much diffused or dominant species will be found on the side of the larger genera. This, again, might have been anticipated; for the mere fact of many species of the same genus inhabiting any country, shows that there is something in the organic or inorganic conditions of that country favourable to the genus; and, consequently, we might have expected to have found in the larger genera, or those including many species, a large proportional number of dominant species. But so many causes tend to obscure this result, that I am surprised that my tables show even a small majority on the side of the larger genera. I will here allude to only two causes of obscurity. Fresh-water and salt-loving plants have generally very wide ranges and are much diffused, but this seems to be connected with the nature of the stations inhabited by them, and has little or no relation to the size of the genera to which the species belong. Again, plants low in the scale of organisation are


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Rh generally much more widely diffused than plants higher in the scale; and here again there is no close relation to the size of the genera. The cause of lowly-organised plants ranging widely will be discussed in our chapter on geographical distribution.

From looking at species as only strongly-marked and well-defined varieties, I was led to anticipate that the species of the larger genera in each country would oftener present varieties, than the species of the smaller genera; for wherever many closely related species (i.e. species of the same genus) have been formed, many varieties or incipient species ought, as a general rule, to be now forming. Where many large trees grow, we expect to find saplings. Where many species of a genus have been formed through variation, circumstances have been favourable for variation; and hence we might expect that the circumstances would generally be still favourable to variation. On the other hand, if we look at each species as a special act of creation, there is no apparent reason why more varieties should occur in a group having many species, than in one having few.

To test the truth of this anticipation I have arranged the plants of twelve countries, and the coleopterous insects of two districts, into two nearly equal masses, the species of the larger genera on one side, and those of the smaller genera on the other side, and it has invariably proved to be the case that a larger proportion of the species on the side of the larger genera present varieties, than on the side of the smaller genera. Moreover, the species of the large genera which present any varieties, invariably present a larger average number of varieties than do the species of the small genera. Both these results follow when another division is made, and when all the smallest genera, with from only one to four species, are absolutely excluded from the tables. These


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56 facts are of plain signification on the view that species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties; for wherever many species of the same genus have been formed, or where, if we may use the expression, the manufactory of species has been active, we ought generally to find the manufactory still in action, more especially as we have every reason to believe the process of manufacturing new species to be a slow one. And this certainly is the case, if varieties be looked at as incipient species; for my tables clearly show as a general rule that, wherever many species of a genus have been formed, the species of that genus present a number of varieties, that is of incipient species, beyond the average. It is not that all large genera are now varying much, and are thus increasing in the number of their species, or that no small genera are now varying and increasing; for if this had been so, it would have been fatal to my theory; inasmuch as geology plainly tells us that small genera have in the lapse of time often increased greatly in size; and that large genera have often come to their maxima, declined, and disappeared. All that we want to show is, that where many species of a genus have been formed, on an average many are still forming; and this holds good.

There are other relations between the species of large genera and their recorded varieties which deserve notice. We have seen that there is no infallible criterion by which to distinguish species and well-marked varieties; and in those cases in which intermediate links have not been found between doubtful forms, naturalists are compelled to come to a determination by the amount of difference between them, judging by analogy whether or not the amount suffices to raise one or both to the rank of species. Hence the amount of difference is one very important criterion in settling whether two forms


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Rh should be ranked as species or varieties. Now Fries has remarked in regard to plants, and Westwood in regard to insects, that in large genera the amount of difference between the species is often exceedingly small. I have endeavoured to test this numerically by averages, and, as far as my imperfect results go, they always confirm the view. I have also consulted some sagacious and most experienced observers, and, after deliberation, they concur in this view. In this respect, therefore, the species of the larger genera resemble varieties, more than do the species of the smaller genera. Or the case may be put in another way, and it may be said, that in the larger genera, in which a number of varieties or incipient species greater than the average are now manufacturing, many of the species already manufactured still to a certain extent resemble varieties, for they differ from each other by a less than usual amount of difference.

Moreover, the species of the large genera are related to each other, in the same manner as the varieties of any one species are related to each other. No naturalist pretends that all the species of a genus are equally distinct from each other; they may generally be divided into sub-genera, or sections, or lesser groups. As Fries has well remarked, little groups of species are generally clustered like satellites around certain other species. And what are varieties but groups of forms, unequally related to each other, and clustered round certain forms—that is, round their parent-species? Undoubtedly there is one most important point of difference between varieties and species; namely, that the amount of difference between varieties, when compared with each other or with their parent-species, is much less than that between the species of the same genus. But when we come to discuss the principle, as I call it, of Divergence of Character,


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58 we shall see how this may be explained, and how the lesser differences between varieties will tend to increase into the greater differences between species.

There is one other point which seems to me worth notice. Varieties generally have much restricted ranges: this statement is indeed scarcely more than a truism, for if a variety were found to have a wider range than that of its supposed parent-species, their denominations ought to be reversed. But there is also reason to believe, that those species which are very closely allied to other species, and in so far resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges. For instance, Mr. H. C. Watson has marked for me in the well-sifted London Catalogue of plants (4th edition) 63 plants which are therein ranked as species, but which he considers as so closely allied to other species as to be of doubtful value: these 63 reputed species range on an average over 6.9 of the provinces into which Mr. Watson has divided Great Britain. Now, in this same catalogue, 53 acknowledged varieties are recorded, and these range over 7.7 provinces; whereas, the species to which these varieties belong range over 14.3 provinces. So that the acknowledged varieties have very nearly the same restricted average range, as have those very closely allied forms, marked for me by Mr. Watson as doubtful species, but which are almost universally ranked by British botanists as good and true species.

Finally, then, varieties have the same general characters as species, for they cannot be distinguished from species,—except, firstly, by the discovery of intermediate linking forms, and the occurrence of such links cannot affect the actual characters of the forms which they connect; and except, secondly, by a certain amount of


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Rh difference, for two forms, if differing very little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding that intermediate linking forms have not been discovered; but the amount of difference considered necessary to give to two forms the rank of species is quite indefinite. In genera having more than the average number of species in any country, the species of these genera have more than the average number of varieties. In large genera the species are apt to be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters round certain species. Species very closely allied to other species apparently have restricted ranges. In all these several respects the species of large genera present a strong analogy with varieties. And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated: whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created.

We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing and dominant species of the larger genera which on an average vary most; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to become converted into new and distinct species. The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants. But by steps hereafter to be explained, the larger genera also tend to break up into smaller genera. And thus, the forms of life throughout the universe become divided into groups subordinate to groups.


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NEW SERIES

VOL I. ]

PROCLAMATION. ————oooo———— Whereas it has been reported to me that on the night of Saturday last the 19th. Instant, the house near the Cantonment, the property of Mr. Bamber, known by the name of "Richmond House" was maliciously set fire to, by some wicked and evil disposed person, or persons, and entirely consumed. Now therefore I for the better apprehending and bringing to, Justice the person, or persons, concerned in this atrocious crime, do hereby offer a full pardon to any of them, not being the (principal one) who shall discover his or their accomplices, so that he or they may be apprehended and convicted thereof. And as a further encouragement I do hereby offer a reward of Forty Pounds to any person or persons not the principal or one of the principals, who shall discover as aforesaid the person or persons guilty of the above crime.

!!! Given under my Hand and Seal this 23rd. day of January, One Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty Three. F. C. Irwin Lieutenant Governor. By His Honors's Command, PETER BROWN, Colonial Secretary.

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. Notice is hereby given that John Alexander Dutton and Paul Lockyer have applied at this Office for permission to leave the Colony, Per Governor Bourke.

By Command of His Honor PETER BROWN, Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office, Perth January 22nd. 1833. Western Austalia.

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. Notice is hereby given that Mr. Lionel Samson has received permission from His Honor the Lieutenant Governor to act as "Government Auctioneer" during the absence of his brother Mr. William Samson.

By Command of His Honor . Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office Perth January 23rd 1833.

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. His Honour the Lieutenant Governor having been pleased to grant Mr. Richard Dawson "Leave of absence" for eighteen months: Mr. George Fredrick Stone has been appointed to act as Sheriff in his stead during his absence.

By His Honour's Command Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office Perth, January 25th, 1833.

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. His Honour the Lieutenant Governor directs it to be notified, for the Information of those Agriculturists who are indebted to Government, that the Colonial Storekeeper has been instructed to receive Wheat, (the growth of the Colony) in part, or whole payment, of each respective Debt, at the rate of 15s. per Bushel.

By His Honour's Command Peter Brown Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office Perth, January 24th, 1833.

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. Surveyor Generals Office, Perth, January 23rd 1833

The Lieutenant Governor in Council has granted the following Town Allotment;

, C 8 Charles Macfaull , No 21. Henry Vincent 22, Henry Vincent E, P. H. Dod. (suburban) Guildford, 118, Richard Barneden. 121, Stephen Hyde. 122, John Purkis. Albany, B 13, George Cheyne. B 18, George Cheyne. B 19, George Cheyne. J. S. Roe Surveyor General

GOVERNMENT NOTICE. NOTICE is hereby given that James Richard Lacey has applied at this Office for permission to leave the Colony: per "Brigantine Thistle."

By Command of His Honour Peter Brown, Colonial Secretary. Colonial Secretary's Office Perth, January, 24th 1833.

ON SALE AT THE STORES, OF THE UNDERSIGNED. Perth, and Fremantle, Jan. 24th, 1833.

KANGAROO HUNT. ————oooo———— THE MEMBERS of this HUNT Propose to dine together at the Cleikam inn Guildford, on Saturday next the 2nd February, at two o'clock.

TO BE SOLD. A GRANT of LAND on the Swan, containing 2,500 Acres. Enquire at the Albion, Fremantle.

ADVERTISEMENT. AT a meeting of the Western Australian held at Steel's Hotel Fremantle, on Monday last, Mr. W. N. Clark resigned his Office of Secretary, and Mr. John Butler, was appointed to fill that Office. Mr. W. Lamb, Chairman.

£300. Wanted on Loan, the sum of £300 one half in Stores, and the other in Cash. The security offered, consisting of real and improved property in this Colony, is unexceptionable. For particulars apply to W. N. Clark Solicitor, Fremantle. January 16th. 1833.

FOR SYDNEY DIRECT. THE fast sailing CUTTER JOLLY RAMBLER, J. BRIGNELL, Commander, has superior Accommodations for Passengers, and has room for thirty tons of goods; for Freight or Passage apply to D. SCOTT. Fremantle.

ADVERTISEMENT. THE UNDERSIGNED having succeeded in tanning the native Kangaroo skin, has been recommended by several gentlemen, to agree with a shoemaker for making a few Boots, and Shoes for sale—for his benefit.

He therefore begs respectfully to offer them at the following prices, to those who may be pleased in this way to recompence him for having made the experiment.

Gentlemen's Shoes made to measure, 15s. Wellington Boots, £1, 10. 6d. Ladies' Shoes 10s. 6d. GEORGE WATTS. Perth, January 23rd, 1833.

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN FRIENDLY SOCIETY ANY Gentlemen wishing to become members of this Society, are requested to send in their names, as early as convenient. to Mr H., Builder,


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Rh

To the Editor

A short time previous to the departure of His Excellency Governor Stirling for England, I address'd to him, a few communications on the manner of feeding and treating sheep in Spain. I did so, by way of calling the attention of the Settlers generally, to a question which above all others must be most interesting to us. At that time your paper was not available for the discussion of this, or any other question, but as it is now again resumed, I forward the papers for your perusal, and if you please, for insertion. In so doing, I beg to say, that I am well aware of the arduous nature of the task which you have undertaken to perform, and that I consider it my duty, without the least fear of reproach or of being charged with presumption, to join with others, in assisting you to go through it with credit to yourself, and advantage to the Colony. In a new Country, and in so small a community, every man ought to contribute in some way to the public good, and I know not how he can do so more effectually, than by assisting in keeping alive for public discussion all such subjects, tending to the public benefit, as may be ultimately, carried into effect.

Let it be remembered, that your paper although, in its infancy, is the medium through which the general tone and character of the people of this colony, may be judged, in the elder colonies of the civilized world, and that therefore, the smallest object of interest to us, expressed in your paper, will be read with increased interest by those, who have a good feeling generally, toward us.

I am Sir, Your Obedient Servant

Interested as every one ought to feel, in the success of the flock masters of this Colony,—we may I hope, with propriety look back to the country from whence the source of so many extensive fortunes have sprung, and, if we can find by the recollection of that country, one useful hint, connected with the management of sheep in Spain, which can be properly applied to sheep in Western Australia, I do not think, our occasionally considering the subject, will be time uselessly, or unprofitably employed.

When Bonaparte made his first personal entrance into Spain, one of his first operations connected with the civil policy of the "Grand Nation," was the sending over the frontiers into France, two millions of the best description of sheep he could procure, under the care of proper persons, who were secured by the imperial mandate, the same power whilst so employed, that they had in Spain, in virtue of what are called, the Laws of the Mesta.—I scarcely need observe, that the flocks composing this wholesale exportation, were all Merinos, but the Laws of the Mesta, to which I have alluded, may not be so genenrally understood.

At the time Bonaparte made this very neighbourly transfer, the numbers of the various Spanish flocks, was estimated at six millions, belonging generally to noblemen, also to Societies, of Monks. By thelaws of the Mesta, the management of sheep in Spain, still continues to be conducted with the same care and precission as in 1791, when the first flock of Merinos was smuggled through Portugal, into England.

A great proportion of Leon, Estremadura, and the neighbouring Provinces is appropriated to pasturing sheep, and large green roads, more than fifty yards wide, are kept for their communication, with each province, extensive resting places being provided, for baiting them on the way. So careful and so arbitrary are the laws for their protection, that at the driving season, not even foot passengers are allowed to pass these roads, in case their movements should disturb them.

An army of flocks, or as I should rather say, a flock in the aggregate, is called a Cavana, and each flock has its own peculiar name, derived generally from the name of the proprietor, or his place of abode. The Monks of Paolar give their name to the Cavana of Paola, the Monks of Escurial to the pile of that name, and so on; each of these flocks differing from the other in some respect, although all belong to the same race. Each Cavana is divided into tribes of one thousand each, and the shepherd commander or Mayoral, is generally the proprietor of a portion of them. It is his peculiar duty to look to their general management, and he is supposed to be well acquainted with the diseases to which they are, or may be subject.

Five shepherds, and four dogs, attend each tribe, and in the lambing time, extra attendants are allowed. At the commencement of the Peninsular War, it was estimated that there were thirty thousand shepherds, and twenty-four thousand dogs, besides between five, and ten thousand extra persons employed at particular seasons, attending the Spanish flocks.

These shepherds command the sheep, under the laws of the Mesta, in the fullest sense of the word, and excepting the wool, the proprietor derives no profit from them whatever.

In my next communication, I will allude to the Spanish system of driving their flocks, from province, to province, over a great extent of country, in order to procure sufficient pasture for their support, and to improve the fineness of the fleece. This may be useful, because in the inland districts of this Colony, as in Spain, where pasture may be scarce, we may also in time have our traveling flocks, or Trashumantes as the Spaniards call them and if these flocks can be kept to profit, under the superintendance of persevering careful men, then there will be an end of all question, as to the suitability of the land generally, over the Mountains of Western Australia, for sheep pastural purposes.

To the Editor of the Perth Gazette, Sir, I request the favour of your stating, that the Mr. L. of Fremantle, mentioned by you as recently engaged in what is called "an affair of honour" is not, Your Obedient Servant Fremantle, January 21st. 1833..

The difficulty of communicating with the settlers on the Canning, except by water, is seriously felt. It is to be regretted therefore that some steps are not taken to establish a Ferry under Mount Eliza. The road to the point, now in progress by Subscription, under the direction of J. Morgan Esquire, is a great step towards the accomplishment of this desirable object, and we have every reason to believe if a small portion of land, was allotted on both sides of the River, for the purposes of the Ferry, many individuals would be found, who would undertake to supply the necessary accommodation for the public. By way of Guildford the distance to Mr. Phillips's Farm which is nearly at the head of the Canning we are told is 18 miles, more than half that distance would be saved by means of a Ferry.

As we were coming up the River a few evenings ago, the shoals of Fish, some of a considerable size, which passed us were incredible. At times they appeared to impede the progress of the Boat, and some fairly jumped into it. We understand this is not an unusual occurrence.

The publication of the proceedings in Council at Sydney, has created great jealousey in the neighbouring Colony, they proclaim their independence of New South Wales, but honestly avow, they are not above profiting by a good example. The Cape Advertiser we perceive is highly sensitive upon this point, and commends most warmly the liberal measures in this and other adopted by  whose Administration it would seem is deservedly popular. SHIPPING INTELLIGENCE.

Sailed on the 24th Inst The Governor Bourke Captain Akers, For Sydney. Passengers, Mr. Marrs, Supercargo—B. Dyer,—J. Mapleton,—W. Cass Bowles,—Mr. and Mrs. Brown and 3 children,—Hy Hook,—W. C. Hood,—Mr. and Mrs. Dutton and 3 Children.

T. Warrall,—C. Lewis,—W. Booker, Prisoners.

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL.

We perceive by the English Journals, that Emigration, encouraged by the advice and guidance of Commissioners appointed by His Majesty, has been forwarded to a considerable extent, to various British possessions; it has however been a matter of surprise to us to find the Swan River or Western Australian Settlements excluded from the consideration bestowed upon other Colonies. The Commissioners state, they are not prepared to undertake the conveyance of Emigrants to the Settlement on the Swan River; as no reason is assigned, we are left to conjecture, that it may arise from the unaccountable ignorance, which is daily displayed of our position and local advantages. Even in the House of Commons, strange as it may appear, the knowledge of this Colony, is singularly defective; and the arguments which are held forth by some Honourable Gentlemen, founded on this defective information are irreconcileable with any other sentiments, than a desire to thwart the measures of those, who it will be proved, have adopted a wise policy in founding this Colony. Colonel Torrens is reported to have said, "that if the proper principle of colonization, had been attended to with respect to Swan River, as it has been, in regard to the American Colonies, the country would not have been put to any expense"!! We know as little of the principles the Colonel alludes to, as he appears to know about us, but if the following official reply, of the Colonial Office to certain queries, are faithfully printed, which we have not the slightest reason to doubt, the Colonel's principles adopted in the American Colonies meet with our full concurrence, and are indeed the only principles upon which an extensive Colony can be formed, or advanced, to any degree of importance. The reply states that—"The Governors of the several North American Colonies have been instructed to find employment on some public works, for persons who may not be able to obtain private engagements. In new Brunswick the construction of the great Road is about to be undertaken by Government, on which Emigrants will be offered employment on very advantageous terms." This we presume cannot be effected without expense; and we may venture to assert the gallant Colonel has given his vote for the sums required for this purpose; it is strange therefore he should grumble at the principle which denies us these advantages and laud that in a another Colony, which applied to us he would condemn. Mr. Hume of captious memory, designates this a paltry Colony to draw £25,000


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Rh paltry forsooth!!! What is Fernando Po, with its £29,000 per annum?! If we had the Honourable Gentleman here, we are satisfied he would soon be convinced that the extent of Territory we command, comprising every earthly capability, attached to great Britain is not so paltry a consideration as he pleases to imagine—When it is allowed the reason for founding this Colony was purely political, lest another power, as was expected should send Colonists hither; we think it is too bad to murmur at the trifling pittance we enjoy, or give vent to snarling reflections, or narrowminded paltry sarcasms. The day we trust is not far distant when through the representations of Captain James Stirling our late highly esteemed Governor, the tide of Emigration will again set in upon our shores, and will ensure to Emigrants to this Settlement equal privileges to those extended to other Colonies. But when this consumation arrives, it is our earnest wish, that we may not be inundated with the tide of profligacy, which has overflown our eastern neighbours who are now strenuously urging the introduction of "respectable and virtuous members of society, to neutralize the anomalous constitution of their present community.

The Rules and regulations of a "Benefit Society" recently established at Perth have been placed in our hands. It is gratifying to see Institutions of this nature, rising up amongst us. This society from the judgment exercised in framing the resolutions, is founded on a basis which will secure to it every encouragement. It has our hearty wishes for its success. The subscribers we believe are already very numerous. We could wish to see a "Saving Bank" set on foot in this Colony. We observe an Act was passed at Sydney in March last "to establish a Saving Bank in New South Wales, to provide for the management thereof, and for the security of deposits therein." As it is desirable to afford an opportunity for the exercise of frugality to those who are possessed of small sums of money beyond what they immediately require, we feel anxious that a Society of this description should be formed. We regret however our present space will not admit of our giving a Copy of the Act alluded to; but we shall be most happy to lend every assistance in the promotion of so important an object.

—On Saturday night last, the house known by the name of "Richmond House" in the neighbourhood of Fremantle, the property of Captain Bamber, was burnt to the ground; it is supposed by some incendiary. From what we can learn, not a vestige of the building is left, but the fence, outhouses, and brushwood, within a few yards of the house have not received any injury, consequently there could have been little or no wind. Many conjectures are hazarded as to the origin of this fire, but we refrain from giving publicity to them, trusting the reward liberally offered by the Government, will lead to the conviction of the offender, and the disclosure of the real facts.

The highly blameable practice of setting fire to the bush, has this week been productive of loss to two individuals, on Mr. Shentons Farm near Guildford, the hedge round six Acres of land, and about 3 tons of hay were consumed; the cottage was saved by the neighbours, with great difficulty.

SATURDAY EVENING—We have just received from our Fremantle Correspondent too late for insertion, a Report of the examination of Paul Lockyer on suspicion of having set fire to Richmond House; there not being any Evidence against him, he was discharged.

Mr. Walters having given information that he had accidentally discovered the body of a man, on the North East side of the large Lake, near Monger's Lake, W. H. Mackie, and J. Morgan Esquires J. P. proceeded to the spot, accompanied by the Colonial Surgeon, and after a minute investigation were jointly of opinion that the deceased met his death by violence, but by whose hands, or in what manner, they had no grounds for hazarding an opinion.

In consequence of a report having been circulated, that the deceased met his death, by some violence from a white man (suspicion having previously rested on the Natives) the following investigation took place on Saturday last before the Rev. J. B. Wittenoom, and J. Morgan Esq. Justices of the Peace.

J. H. Monger, stated that about the time Halliday was missing, he (Monger) came into Perth, and happened to meet Gordon, who asked him if the Natives had molested him in any way; he replied they had not. Gordon said it was of serious importance to know if the Natives had been about there, because Ellis the sawyer had told him the day before, that he was out near the Lake, and had shot at them, and had instantly ran home under Mount Eliza as he was much afraid of them. On Thursday last (Monger continued) he saw the Natives near his house, and as it was his custom to converse with them, (he understood a few of their words, and the rest were made intelligible to him by signs,) they distinctly communicated to him that "white man, kill white man."—The impression on his own mind was, that they had not thrown the blame upon a white man in order to secure themselves.

The Magistrates both concurred in the opinion that it would be dangerous to rely too implicitly upon the mere signs of a Native, they therefore proceeded to the examination of,

Gordon,—A day or two after Christmas day, he was at Mrs. Hokins's public house, conversing with others, about a man who was missing when Ellis said he had been out towards Mr. Monger's Lake, where he met a party of Natives, and two or three approached him within about 30 yards, he then fired towards them, and ran away.

Mr. Monger here stated that he remembered the Natives being in his neighbourhood about the time mentioned.

Although the Magistrates admitted there was no evidence against Ellis, still they considered it of importance to have him brought before them in order to instruct him that fireing at the Natives without any apparent provocation was an act not to be tolerated; a summons was consequently made out for his appearance on Monday, which was subsequently postponed until this day.

Ellis we are informed acknowledges having been near the spot at the time, and that he fired off his gun, and ran away to Butlers, the bush Inn on the Fremantle road. The whole affair is still involved in the greatest mistery. Ellis is represented to be a timid man, and unlikely to have wandered so great a distance, and to such a desolate spot, as the place where the Body was found, is represented to be. It is also singular that the Decease had such a dread of the Natives, that he refused a few days previously to his death, to take charge of Serjeant Barrons Cattle, even if he would give him two guineas a day. Halliday was employed by Serjeant Barron, cutting rushes at the back of his house, and as he represents had no necessity to have gone out of sight. We think it but Justice to the character of Ellis, to correct any erroneous reports, to state, that nothing has transpired further than his own acknowledgements to implicate him in this melancholly affair.

held at Perth of late, have been very indifferently attended, arising in some measure, we conceive, from the short notice which has been given, and from a practice which destroys the object of a public sale, namely an acknowledgment from the Auctioneer that, to save time, it may be as well to state he has a limited price fixed upon the Articles. We presume when a party incurs the expense of submitting Wares or Merchandize to public Auction, he has some desire to dispose of his articles. What however will be said when we state that at this moment with 10 or 12 months consumption of flour in the market, the reserve price publicly avowed is 6d. We do not question the justice of any fair Trader making the most of his commodity, but the speculator in flour, or Corn, must not expect much indulgence; as the public will look with a jealous eye, upon capitilists who exercise their power of raising the price of provisions at their own discretion. The following hint may not be ill-timed, "even spreading rumours of the scarcity of an article, with the view of enhancing the price is an indictable offence, Rex v Waddington, I E. R. 143. So is the total engrossing of a commodity, with intent to sell it at an unreasonable price." The punishment is, fine and imprisonment.

THE KING GEORGES SOUND NATIVES

On Thursday last Mr. Dale proceeded to Monger's Lake, in company with Mr. Smythe and the two Natives of King George s Sound, Manyat and Gyallepert, in consequence of a wish to see the latter understood to have been expressed by Yegan and others of his tribe. Shortly after arriving at the Lake, Yegan and about ten of his tribe, made their appearance well armed, and welcomed their visitors in an apparently cordial manner. A Corobbary was danced; followed by an interchange of names and spears—the Dialects of either party was perfectly unintelligible to the others, and they seemed to apprehend each others meaning in some few instances rather from gestures than language: however their mutual attempts at conversation were persevered in throught the interview. Something like a trial of skill in throwing the spear took place between Galleypert and Yegan; the latter struck down a walking stick, vertically placed at a distance of about 25 yards. No mistrust or sheyness (except what might be inferred from the state of armed preparation in which Yegan arrived) was shewn by either side. No woman was visible on this occasion. The interview continued for about four hours, and on departing, Manyat and Gyallepert received an invitation from Yegan to meet him again in the same spot on the following morning; which however circumstances prevented. The purport of their conversation, if so it may be termed, is understood to have been (chiefly on the side of Manyat and his companion,) a description of their native District, & detail of the kind treatment and benefit they had received from the "White people," and an exhortation to Yegan and his followers to conduct themselves in a peaceable and friendly manner towards their white neighbours. (On the side of Yegan) a seeming adoption of his visitors into his own tribe, by exchange of names, &c. &c. A description of his late imprisonment and escape, and the nature of their connection with their white associates.

Sir Edward Codrington, in the absence of the Duke of Sussex, took the chair at the distribution of rewards by the Society of Arts. The gold Ceres medal was presented to Dr. Walkin, of Calcutta, for a collection of woods; and the gold Lis medal to A. Riley Esq., for importing to New South Wales a flock of Angola Cashmere goats.

COLONEL HANSON'S PAMPHLET.

——OOOO——

(Continued) The projected road of communication with the Swan River, which I mentioned in a former part of this letter, has already made very considerable progress—part of the detatchment of Soldiers have been employed upon it, since the arrival of Dr. Collie, and they have already penetrated upwards of twenty miles. I had some conversation with one of the men, and he described many portions of the country, through which he had passed, as being exceedingly beautiful. He moreover told me, that water on the track was abundant, and that the greatest distance they had yet passed, without a stream, was little more than three miles.

The Native Chief Nakainah, was dressed up in a most splendid uniform, to be given to him as a present, after he had accompanied the Governor into the interior, upon a journey he was then contemplating. It was a mottley dress no doubt. Maude, the first Lieutenant, of the Sulphur, furnished a Black Coat, I furnished a Red one, with which the Black Coat was trimmed—Collar, Cuffs, Pockets, &c, &c. The shoulders were then surmounted, by a pair of my largest embroidered epaulettes, and


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Rh every variety of Button was used, that could be collected in the Ship—"thereby (Maude said)" to represent every department of the State. The man was so delighted, when he found it was to be given to him on his return, that his gestures were quite ridiculous.

I should mention that on Break sea Island, there are a vast number of European Dogs, evidently the produce of animals left there, by Ships passing. How they manage to subsist themselves, it is difficult to conceive; but there, they certainly are, and if a Ship in coasting along the shore, fires a shotted Gun at the rocks, she will be speedily answered by the loudest barking.

Every material for building is most abundant, at King George's Sound—the lime Stone is excellent, but the sea shells are piled up, in such enormous heaps upon the Beach, between the two harbours, that I should infinitely prefer them to any other lime. The shell are precisely the same, as those with which we make our far famed Chunam at Madras.

There cannot be the slightest doubt in my opinion, but that King George's Sound possesses local advantages far, far superior, either to New Holland or Van Diemen's land. After it attains any thing like comparative respectability as a settlement, it will, I am confident, supercede the whole of the Australian countries East of it.

Let any Man of common sense, examine a Map of Australia, he will see at once the Geographical superiority of its position, either as respects India or Europe. It is so completely within reach of Cape Lewin, that a breeze of a few hours will secure a passage round this only difficulty, and a ship may then go away with a flowing sheet, to any part of our possessions in the East Indies. It is worthy of remark also, that King George's Sound, is the most Southern land on that part of the Continent—nearly a degree more South than Cape Lewin, and consequently that distance to windward of it, if a ship should start in the first instance, with a fair wind and it should afterwards become scant from the southward—compare this I say with the struggle we are now making, in as fine a Merchant ship as ever swam, to beat in the very height of summer, 1500 miles to the westward! We left Hobart Town fifteen days ago, and we have not yet advanced one third of our voyage. I may further say, that during the whole of that period, we have been plunging about in Westerly Gales, and some days have made a distance of only five miles.

On the contrary, at King Georges Sound, during the whole of the last winter, the communication was never interrupted with Swan River—a ship has only to watch her opportunity for putting to sea, and in twenty-four hours she may be sailing North, with a fair wind to any part of the Eastern or Western world. The S. E. trade will secure her passage to the latter.

If you want a harbour, where can you obtain one more complete as to safety than that in King Georges Sound—it is in many respects superior to the Derwent at Hobart Town, for the entrance being narrow, the shores might be fortified to resist any invading Maritime force, and these fortifications, would be again commanded, by heights in their immediate vicinity. If you want climate, I maintain that the climate of King George's Sound, is equal to any climate in the world. As a Sanatarium for India, it would be invaluable—the weather is neither so bleak, so boisterous, or so trying to the constitution as that of Van Diemen's land, and yet it is far cooler than the climate of Sydney, particularly during the summer months, the hottest period of which never raises the Thermometer above 74°. The range whilst I was there during the month of November was from 70° to 73°.

Further I may ask, does not every ship on her outward bound voyage to Australia, pass the very threshhold of the harbour? and who will deny that a Merchant must find it much more profitable to dispose of a Cargo at the nearest Port than to proceed 1500 miles farther to the Eastward in search of a market, and remaining there probably six months longer before he can attempt to return.

It is surely quite impossible to deny these stubborn facts—in short I cannot help suspecting, that our friends to the Eastward, are fully aware of the truth and the prejudice at Van Diemen's land, which I must say, obtained against Swan River, was only proof to me of what I now assert.

I shall most probably again discuss with you the merits of this S. W. harbour. Mean time I may state, that we sailed from thence early in December, and reached Tasmania as it is now called, in about ten days, having enjoyed the delightful treat of a gale of wind, nearly the whole of the passage.

(The writer here describes his reception at Hobart Town, and the nature of the Society, but as we have already occupied so much of our space with this pamphlet, we must draw to a close; speaking of the climate, he states you may assure yourself of one of the finest in the world—perpetual spring, and perpetual verdure.) But if ever Swan River, or King Georges Sound, shall arrive at one fourth of the internal prosperity now enjoyed at Van Diemen's land, I think any Man would be mad to go further to the Eastward, in search either of health or property. The climate particularly at King George's Sound, is even superior I think, to that of Van Diemen's land; and it is absurd to say, that in a vast continent like that of Australia, the soil shall not be found as fine, and the advantages as great, as in any other part of the Eastern world.

One of the objections to Swan River, and King George's Sound is, the poorness of the earth, in the immediate vicinity of those places. This fact I grant to a certain extent at Swan River, though I have proved that it is capable of producing every sort of esculent vegetable for a Family, as fine in any part of the world; but this I altogether deny at King George's Sound, as in the immediate neighbourhood of the Town, there is the richest soil imaginable,—soil that has given the most abundant crops, wherever its richness has been tried.

In short they may say what they please, of the relative value of these different Australian settlements, but there is one fact, which I wish from my heart it was in my power to deny, rather than assert, and that was, the illiberal prejudice, that obtained against my friends at the Swan River, whenever I heard them spoken of at Van Diemen's land. One man told me that the whole country was a desert of sand,—another man with affected commiseration, lamented the fate of the unfortunate wretches, who were doomed to starvation there, and a third, assured me, that he spoke of the poorness of the soil, from personal observation, though I found upon enquiry that he had never quitted the shore about Fremantle. You might just as well judge the richness of an inland country in England, by the bleak downs on the Sea Coast near Brighton.

I have now endeavoured to give you as briefly and as fairly as I possibly can, the impressions I received during my late visit to the Southern Hemisphere. You will say they are far different from what I had expected after the gilded anticipations we received from—like all pleasurable anticipations I suppose they fall short of the reality, I therefore conclude this letter, by summing up the substance of my advice in a few words, as regards settling in either of these colonies.

A Man with a large family, and small means, should go to Swan River or King Georges Sound—to King George's Sound preferably if the place improves, as I hope it will do, when its capabilities are known—if a man has a large family and competent means, though not sufficiently affluent to permit him to reside in England, he should in my opinion proceed in the first instance to Van Diemen's land and there judge for himself. But if a man be affluent, compelled to leave India, on account of health, and anxious for employment to protect him from ennui, he cannot possibly have a finer field for his abilities, than by freighting a Vessel of 200 Tons and proceeding direct to King George's Sound—he should take with him a good establishment of Artificers, to commence Building a house immediately, and he should be supplied with a store of every thing he may require, for his family and servants during the space of one year; as I have no doubt that stock of every kind is at the present moment increasing to abundance at the Swan River, and that between this settlement and King George's Sound, there will be speedily a constant and uninterrupted communication.

Before I conclude this long letter, I should mention a circumstance, which certainly appears to me most extraordinary. The Island of Java, from whence the most abundant supplies could be drawn for Swan River, is within three weeks sail of that settlement, and there are numerous merchants who would gladly send vessels with provisions and stock of all kinds, if they dare do so without the certainty of being captured—but as it appears that any foreign flag would immediately become a Prize to the Sulphur Sloop of War, they are of course unable to render that succour to the Inhabitants, which would be a source of comfit to the one, and great profit to the other. Such however are the navigation laws, and to this hour a Dutch flag has never been seen there. I could write a great deal more upon this very interesting subject, but as I intend to write a letter, and not a volume, I shall now subscribe myself. Your sincere and attached friend,

Perth January 6th 1833. Sir, The reappearance of a Colonial Paper is a circumstance to be hailed with feelings of satisfaction, by all who are interested in the well being of this (at present) small community. Nothing I am certain is more calculated to work out an effectual benefit to us, than a well regulated press, since it has ever been considered one of the most wholesome and powerful checks on immorality and vice; for when the press joins with the public in condemning and exposing vice, it not only gives weight to opinion, for the present; but perpetuates it to the punishment of the delinquent, and to the warning of the Public generally. Much benefit however as we have reason to expect in the points above mentioned, the advantages are trifling when compared with those to be derived from sending forth to the world a plain unvarnished tale, and correcting that opinion of our country which has been formed from the misrepresentation of interested parties who with unblushing effrontery, have neglected no opportunity of doing injury to this place; so far indeed have these false and shameless Heralds prevailed in poisoning the public mind, that Swan River is become another name for misery, and we who are now here are esteemed the most unhappy of the sons of men; but thank God, evil wishes affect not the course of nature, and although we may at present feel the injuries of slander, we can contemplate with a feeling of certainty that the future will give the lie to those who have done their worst to effect what they so much desired, namely, our ruin. It would be no slight punishment to those detractors, if they were compelled to witness the present state of the Colony, and the happy feelings which generally I may say universally prevail at the result of the late harvests home which realized all that the most sanguine could expect, and placed the Colony in a state of almost independence.

The absence of Governor Stirling from the Colony, has no doubt been made the occasion of renewing those representations of its condition which have hitherto prevailed, but it will be a part of your exertion to place the matter in its proper light by publishing to the world what is certainly felt here: that the Governors mission to England is undertaken for the purpose of correcting by a personal representation the erroneous views entertained of the settlement, and to obtain if possible a more liberal system from the mother Country towards us, it being unparalleled in the History of Colonization that any Settlement should be expected to maintain by Taxation, its Civil Establishment during its years of Infancy. This period of its existence must necessarily be a season of struggle and exertion, and calls forth all the means and strength of the Settler in establishing himself; all his outlay and expenditure, without chance of any immediate return, capital becomes transferred from the pocket to investments in buildings, stock, and labour, and every support and indulgence is necessary to enable the most skilful and industrious to stand against the heavy demands, until the time comes when he ought reasonably to expect a reaction from the fruits of his labour; should his strength fail before this time arrives, all his past exertions are negatived from the circumstance that his property is not convertible on account of the lack of funds among neighbours whose property like his own is confined to prospective returns from labour. In reviewing the state of the Colony it is pleasing to contemplate how much has been effected in the limited time since its formation, and how few failures have occurred. The knowledge of the capabilities of the Colony, and a feeling of dissatisfaction at the system adopted towards it has been I have little doubt, the occasion of the Governor's visit to England, and I think I may venture to say he has the strongest wishes of all here for his success, and also that, no evil may result to himself from the bold step he has taken.

I commenced this letter to you merely intending to add my meed of thanks for the recommencement of an undertaking so likely to be of benefit to the Colony, but I have wandered insensibly; trusting to your kindness for excuse. I remain with respect Yours truly

Edited, Printed, and Published by CHARLES MACFAULL, at the Gazette Office, Perth

10s. 6d. per Quarter, if paid, in advance, or l2s. if paid at the end of the Quarter. Single number, One Shilling.

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60

entering on the subject of this chapter, I must make a few preliminary remarks, to show how the struggle for existence bears on Natural Selection. It has been seen in the last chapter that amongst organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability; indeed I am not aware that this has ever been disputed. It is immaterial for us whether a multitude of doubtful forms be called species or sub-species or varieties; what rank, for instance, the two or three hundred doubtful forms of British plants are entitled to hold, if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted. But the mere existence of individual variability and of some few well-marked varieties, though necessary as the foundation for the work, helps us but little in understanding how species arise in nature. How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organisation to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected? We see these beautiful co-adaptations most plainly in the woodpecker and missletoe; and only a little less plainly in the humblest parasite which clings


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Rh to the hairs of a quadruped or feathers of a bird; in the structure of the beetle which dives through the water; in the plumed seed which is wafted by the gentlest breeze; in short, we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world.

Again, it may be asked, how is it that varieties, which I have called incipient species, become ultimately converted into good and distinct species, which in most cases obviously differ from each other far more than do the varieties of the same species? How do those groups of species, which constitute what are called distinct genera, and which differ from each other more than do the species of the same genus, arise? All these results, as we shall more fully see in the next chapter, follow inevitably from the struggle for life. Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring. The offspring, also, will thus have a better chance of surviving, for, of the many individuals of any species which are periodically born, but a small number can survive. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. We have seen that man by selection can certainly produce great results, and can adapt organic beings to his own uses, through the accumulation of slight but useful variations, given to him by the hand of Nature. But Natural Selection, as we shall hereafter see, is a power incessantly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble efforts, as the works of Nature are to those of Art.