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 8 away. The citizens of Caracas had really heard the sounds of their own deliverance from all further mischief. The long-silent Soufrière of St. Vincent had opened again, and relieved the interior pressure of imprisoned steam. It was on April 27th, 1812, that a negro boy herding cattle on the mountain-side saw stone after stone falling near him. Believing that other boys were pelting him from the cliffs above, he began to return the fire, when a thicker shower, with some stones that no human hand could wield, made the lad run for his life, leaving the cattle to their fate, while a column of black cloud arose from the crater, composed of dust and ash and stone. For three days and nights the mountain roared. The greater part of the island was covered with ashes that buried the crops, broke branches from the trees, and spread destruction from which some estates never recovered. At Barbados, on May 1st, when the clock struck six, no light of the morning sun could be seen, and the darkness grew thicker as the hours sped away, while a slow and silent rain of impalpable dust was falling over the whole island. Terror seized the souls of blacks and whites, and the churches were filled with trembling, sobbing, and praying crowds. A dead silence reigned in nature's realm save for the crashing of the branches snapped by the weight of clammy dust. The trade-wind had utterly ceased; the roar of the surf on the shore was at an end. About an hour after noon the veil of darkness was lifted and a lurid sunlight came in from the horizon while blackness was dominant overhead. By degrees the dust-cloud drifted away, and the Barbadians, beneath the full light of the sun, saw their island inches deep in black and, as it proved, fertilizing matter. The trade-wind blew again out of the east, and the noise of the surf rose again on the beach. The arrival of the dust from St. Vincent in Barbados, against a strong easterly breeze, across 100 miles of sea, shows the force of explosions in the Soufriere which drove the material several miles into the air, above the region of the trade-wind, into a higher stratum where an opposite current could convey it in an easterly direction. The one great industry of St. Vincent is the tillage which, still producing some sugar-cane (with its extracts, rum and molasses), raises cocoa, spices, and excellent arrowroot in the valleys and on the fertile slopes of the hills. About 13,000 acres, or one-sixth of


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VI.] ever-recurring inquiry. To answer it successfully he needs a combination of many qualities; he must be, in fact, a whole court in himself: the acuteness, perseverance, and enterprise of the advocate must be his, to gather every particle of testimony, every analogy, every decision, bearing upon the case in hand; he must play the part of the opposing counsel, in carefully sifting the collected evidence, testing the character and disinterestedness of the witnesses, cross-examining them to expose their blunders and inconsistencies; he must have, above all, the learning and candour of the judge, that he may sum up and give judgment impartially, neither denying the right which is fairly established, nor allowing that which rests on uncertain allegation and insufficient proof. In short, the same gifts and habits of mind which make the successful historian of events are wanted also to make the successful historian of words.

The ill-repute in which etymology and those who follow it are held in common opinion is a telling indication of the difficulty attending its practice. The uncertainty and arbitrariness of its prevailing methods, the absurdity of its results, have been the theme of many a cutting and well-directed gibe. It has in all ages been a tempting occupation to curious minds, and always a slippery one. An incalculable amount of human ingenuity has been wasted in its false pursuit. Men eminent for acuteness and sound judgment in other departments of intellectual labour have in this been guilty of folly unaccountable. It has been often remarked that the Greeks and Romans, when once engaged in an etymological inquiry, seem to have taken leave of their common sense. Great as were the advantages offered by the Sanskrit language to its native analysts, in the regularity of its structure and the small proportion of obscure words which it contained, they stumbled continually as soon as they left the plain track of the commonest and clearest derivations, and their religious, philosophical, and grammatical books are filled with word-genealogies as fanciful and unsound as those of the classic writers. In no one respect does the linguistic science of the present day show its radical superiority to that of former times more clearly

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180 Attempts towards honesty at the Renaissance, for example: always for the benefit of the arts. Michael Angelo's conception of God as the "Tyrant of the World" was an honest one.

3.

I rate Michael Angelo higher than Raphael, because, through all the Christian clouds and prejudices of his time, he saw the ideal of a culture nobler than the Christo-Raphaelian: whilst Raphael truly and modestly glorified only the values handed down to him, and did not carry within himself any inquiring, yearning instincts. Michael Angelo, on the other hand, saw and felt the problem of the law-giver of new values: the problem of the conqueror made perfect, who first had to subdue the "hero within himself," the man exalted to his highest pedestal, master even of his pity, who mercilessly shatters and annihilates everything that does not bear his own stamp, shining in Olympian divinity. Michael Angelo was naturally only at certain moments so high and so far beyond his age and Christian Europe; for the most part he adopted a condescending attitude towards the eternal feminine in Christianity; it would seem, indeed, that in the end he broke down before her, and gave up the ideal of his most inspired hours. It was an ideal which only a man in the strongest and highest vigour of life could bear; but not a man advanced in years! Indeed, he would have had to demolish Christianity with his ideal! But he was not thinker and philosopher enough for that. Perhaps Leonardo da Vinci alone of those artists had a really super-

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240 than in the style and method of its etymologies: upon these, indeed, is its superiority directly founded.

The grand means, now, of modern etymological research is the extensive comparison of kindred forms. How this should be so appears clearly enough from what has been already taught respecting the growth of dialects and the genetical connections of languages. If spoken tongues stood apart from one another, each a separate and isolated entity, they would afford no scope for the comparative method. As such entities the ancient philology regarded them; or, if their relationship was in some cases recognized, it was wrongly apprehended and perversely applied—as when, for instance, the Latin was looked upon as derived from the Greek, and its words were sought to be etymologized out of the Greek lexicon, as corrupted forms of Greek vocables. In the view of the present science, while each existing dialect is the descendant of an older tongue, so other existing dialects are equally descendants of the same tongue. All have kept a part, and lost a part, of the material of their common inheritance; all have preserved portions of it in a comparatively unchanged form, while they have altered other portions perhaps past recognition. But, while thus agreed in the general fact and the general methods of change, they differ indefinitely from one another in the details of the changes effected. Each has saved something which others have lost, or kept in pristine purity what they have obscured or overlaid: or else, from their variously modified forms can be deduced with confidence the original whence these severally diverged. Every word, then, in whose examination the linguistic scholar engages, is to be first set alongside its correspondents or analogues in other related languages, that its history may be read aright. Thus the deficiencies of the evidence which each member of a connected group of dialects contains respecting its own genesis and growth are made up, in greater or less degree, by the rest, and historical results are reached having a greatly increased fulness and certainty. The establishment of a grand family of related languages, like the Indo-European, makes each member


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Crédit Mobilier

CRÉDIT MOBILIER, krā-dē mō-bē'lyā (Fr. krā-dē mō-bē-lēā), a large company, incorporated under the name of Société générale du Crédit Mobilier, in France in 1852, and sanctioned by the then existing government. Its objects were (1) To take in hand and originate trading enterprises of all kinds, on the principle of limited liability. (2) To supersede or buy up trading companies; and to substitute scrip and shares of its own for the shares and bonds of the company. It had at the time of its formation a capital of 60,000,000 francs, and did a very extensive business. In 1855 the directors proposed to issue bonds to the amount of 240,000,000 francs, but financiers feared so large an amount of paper currency, and the issue was forbidden to the government. The prosperity of the company declined after this, and the management changed in 1871.


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 Rh CHAPTER XII. BERMUDA, BRITISH HONDURAS, BRITISH GUIANA. Extent and population of BERMUDA or The Bermudas — Physical features of the islands — Delightful climate of Main Island — Trade Important naval establishments — Hamilton port — Administration — Education — Communication — Revenue. Boundaries, area, and population of BRITISH HONDURAS or Belize — Physical geography and climate — Mahogany, logwood, and other products — Belize city — Communication — Trade — Revenue — Administration — Education. Early exploration of BRITISH GUIANA or Demerara — Its settlement by the Dutch — Ceded to Britain in 1814 — Agitation among the slaves — Case of John Smith the missionary — His cruel treatment and death — Brutality of the Governor, General Murray — Its effect in forwarding the anti-slavery cause — Intolerance of the slave-owners — Boundaries and population of the country — Geographical features — Flora and fauna — Rivers — Climate — Products — Gold-mining — Trade — Administration — Education — Revenue — Communication — Georgetown city — New Amsterdam or Berbice. The colony called BERMUDA or THE BERMUDAS lies in about 32 north latitude, and 65° west longitude, at a distance of 580 miles east of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina; 730 miles from Halifax, Nova Scotia; 680 from New York, 800 from the nearest West Indies, and nearly 3000 miles from Liverpool. This lonely, low-lying archipelago of about 300 islets, above two-thirds of which are mere rocks and reefs, with less than 20 inhabited islands, has a total area of 19 square miles, or 11,360 acres, with a population, in 1898, of about 16,000, of whom over one-third were whites and the rest negroes and coloured people. In religion, about two-thirds of both races belong to the Anglican Church, under the spiritual rule of the "Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda", while the rest are chiefly Roman Catholics, Wesleyans and Presbyterians. The history of the islands, during the nineteenth century, is comprised in the facts that in July, 1813, a third of the houses were destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, by a hurricane; that the repeal of the Navigation Laws, the introduction of steam, and the substitution of steel and iron for wood in ship-building, made an end of the profitable ship-construction and carrying-trade mentioned in an early part of this work; that, after being an important convict-depot for some years, the colony ceased to be so in 1862; and that, in the later decades of the Victorian age, Bermuda has become a very valuable naval station and fortress, holding a position of commanding strength between Canada and our West Indian possessions.


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 for his religion; he was a man of real piety, & strict attendance on the sabbatical duty; knowing the necessity, as well as expediency of the public profession of religion. he could not excuse himself from the weekly solemn adoration of the supreme being; both out of principle, & a regard to his influence, & example: & he was sensible, that many persons were attentive to his conduct, in that respect. surely those of all mankind are the weakest, that fancy, Society can be maintain'd, without the influence of religion. & the example of the upper part of mankind is absolutely necessary, for that good purpose; had we no further view than this present life.

but alas even in the latter end of Sr. Isaac's time, we began to see the deplorable consequence of the neglect of it. half philosophers, half scholars are too often apt to be tinctur'd with scepticism. but Sr. Isaac was an intire christian, upon fundamental principles. he knew the evidences of it were as strict demonstrations in thir way as his principia. no man in England read the Bible more carefully than he did; none study'd it more, as appears by his printed works, by many pieces he left, which are not printed; & even by the Bible, which he commonly


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Infantry, Part I: Regular Army / The Era of Revolution

 * The Era of Revolution

 * When Congress, on 14 June 1775, moved to take over the New England Army then besieging Boston as a Continental establishment, it also authorized ten companies of riflemen to be raised in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia as part of the new Continental Army. The next day, Congress appointed George Washington its Commander in Chief. Before leaving their home state, the six rifle companies from Pennsylvania were combined to form William Thompson's Rifle Battalion. This battalion and the other new rifle units organized rapidly and marched quickly to Boston.

 * The New England Army around Boston was composed of citizen soldiers. From the earliest times that type of soldier (male members of the community aged 18-45) had been required to associate in military organizations called "militia," and to train to defend his own locality. The militia system amounted to universal military training for men of active ages, but it was for local defense almost entirely. What is more, its enforcement rested altogether with the colonies. At the outbreak of the Revolution, all the colonies had military organizations operating, but their effectiveness was, in many cases, slight. It was the general ineffectiveness of the militia system, coupled with the need for centralized control, that brought about the creation of the Continental Army. Even so, on account of the militia, the colonies were able to utilize the experience of many veterans of England's colonial wars, familiar with the British Army and with the Indian modes of fighting it. These veterans were a very valuable asset.

 * In addition to the rifle units and the besieging army, Congress later authorized the raising and maintaining of Continental infantry battalions in the southern states. By December 1775 there were forty-nine infantry battalions (or regiments, for the two terms were virtually synonymous) and several unattached companies in the establishment.

 * The Continental Congress took the bulk of the army besieging Boston in 1775 as it found it. Since most of the units were enlisted only for the calendar year, General Washington had either to attempt to re-enlist the soldiers already in service or to assemble a new army. During the fall of 1775, he strove to retain the Continental troops for the duration .of the war, but was only successful in keeping part of them, and those for just one more year. A canvass of the officers of thirtynine regiments in November showed that 751 officers were willing to continue their service for one year while 406 were not.

 * The legislators set the size of the army around Boston at 20,372 officers and men, to be organized into twenty-seven regiments and some separate companies. In this scheme New England, which had supplied forty-two in 1775, provided twenty-six Continental regiments in 1776. These twenty-six were numbered from the 2d through the 27th. They were designated Continental infantry in an attempt to transfer the men's loyalty from the states to the Congress.

 * The 1st Continental did not come from New England, but was built around the nine companies of riflemen then in William Thompson's Pennsylvania Rifle Battalion. Six of those companies were among the original units of the Continental Army, while the other three joined up later. All lost their specialization as rifle companies and the "regiment" became a standard element of the line.

 * Diverse units entered the Continental service, until by December 1776 there were eighty-two battalions of foot soldiers in all. During the year 1776 the following new units of battalion size were added to the establishment:

 * 1) John Haslet's Delaware Regiment
 * 2) James Livingston's Regiment, known as the 1st Canadian.
 * 3) Moses Hazen's Regiment; known as the 2nd Canadian, also as Congress' Own. (The two Canadian regiments contained about equal numbers of Canadians and New Englanders, but in January 1781 all foreigners in the service were transferred to Hazen's.)
 * 4) Seth Warner's Regiment, officered by men who had participated in the invasion of Canada in 1775 and filled in part by Green Mountain Boys.
 * 5) Samuel Miles' Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment
 * 6) 2nd-12th Pennsylvania
 * 7) 1st-3rd Georgia
 * 8) 1st-3rd New Jersey
 * 9) 1st-9th Virginia
 * 10) William Smallwood's Maryland Regiment
 * 11) Charles Burrall's Connecticut Regiment
 * 12) Samuel Elmore's Connecticut Regiment
 * 13) Andrew Ward's Connecticut Regiment
 * 14) The German Battalion

 * Their officers were appointed by Congress upon the recommendation of the Commander in Chief.

 * Late in 1776 it was once again necessary to cope with the dissolution of the army, but this time Congress took a new tack. It attempted to create a force to serve "during the present war." The legislators, observing the size of the army in being, set the new establishment at eighty-eight battalions, and apportioned these among all the states, so that Massachusetts had to provide the greatest number, fifteen, and Delaware and Georgia the smallest, one apiece. The eighty-eight battalions thus authorized were raised, equipped, and officered by the states. They were no longer known by Continental numbers, but carried instead numbers in the several state organizations. These state organizations were called "lines," the term used then for the regular infantry or "foot" that made up the line of battle of an army. The state lines together comprised the Continental Line. These should not be confused with the occasional state regiments which were raised on a permanent basis for local service only.

 * Although the regiments of the several states, arranged in the Continental Line, replaced the numbered regiments of 1776 (for example, the 9th Continental of 1776 became the 1st Regiment of the Rhode Island Line in 1777), the change was mostly one of name. The relationship of regiments to states remained about as it had been, and the appointment of officers continued to be in practice a collaboration between Congress, the Commander in Chief, and the states. Some of the Continental regiments became units in the state lines, while the men and officers of others transferred to the new regiments of 1777 without carrying the lineages of their 1776 outfits with them. The reorganization of the winter of 1776 did not radically alter the way men came into the Continental service or the manner in which regiments were organized, but it did place responsibility for procurement, replacement, and supply more squarely upon the states. This stimulated an increased effort in some states: for example, Massachusetts and Connecticut (although later overruled by Congress) voted to supplement the Continental pay of their lines.

 * In December 1776, while the reorganization of the American. Army was taking place, the British advanced into New. Jersey. Faced with this threat, Congress authorized Washington to add sixteen purely Continental battalions .to the foot establishment. This action resulted in part from the fact that the states had been unutterably slow in supplying their quotas for the eighty-eight line battalions. The term of service of the new sixteen was the same as that of the state lines, for three years or for the duration, but the similarity ended there. Washington raised them wherever he could, and appointed all their officers himself. The new Continental regiments were usually recruited within one state and, like all other units, had a hard struggle to reach full strength.

 * The organization established late in 1776 and early in 1777-containing as it did the state lines coupled with the sixteen additional Continental battalions-was a compromise between two needs. The first need was to utilize the powerful authority of the states, without which the conflict could not be prosecuted; the second was to have at least some regiments subject only to the will of the Commander in Chief.

 * All regiments sent out their own recruiting parties to prescribed areas, but to keep the fighting army up to strength was almost an impossible job. In consequence, during 1780, when the theater of war had moved south, Washington had not enough troops to act against the enemy with the part of the army that he commanded in person. Indeed, Congress found it necessary to consolidate the sixteen additional Continentals with the state lines, and, at the same time, to fuse the separate corps and the German Battalion into them too. More important, the infantry of the entire Continental establishment was reduced to fifty battalions by 1 January 1781. Such a reduction of the infantry was not dictated by strategy. On the contrary, it was the result of a grave failure, the failure to be able to maintain a larger number of regiments.

 * As in previous years, new units appeared in the roster of the Continental Army during the four years beginning with 1777. They were often the result of the reorganization of earlier outfits. From various sources came the following units:

 * 1) 1st-15th Massachusetts
 * 2) 5th New York
 * 3) 1st-6th Maryland
 * 4) 4th New Jersey
 * 5) 7th-10th North Carolina
 * 6) 10th-15th Virginia
 * 7) The Corps of Invalids

 * These regiments and those in the preceding list made up the spine of the Army after 1776. They were not static; indeed some of the early ones provided elements of the others. Moreover, they supplied companies to special corps such as the legions of Henry Lee and Casimir Pulaski and the Corps of Light Infantry.

 * An understanding of the internal organization of the Continental infantry regiments and their components requires a short explanation of infantry tactics in the eighteenth century. To begin with, the heart of a battle as fought in western Europe was the line of infantry. It was this line which had to be broken if victory were to be won; hence the heavy fire of the artillery and the maneuvers of the cavalry were chiefly directed against it. It was common in Europe for the battle line to be formed on an open plain just outside of effective artillery range of the enemy. This meant that the two lines took their positions within 500 yards of each other, a distance at which, with modern firearms, few men would be left standing. This is the fact which makes it hardest for moderns to visualize early warfare. The effective range of the musket of the period was not over 100 yards and was often nearer 50. Fighting at such ranges, infantry organization was founded upon the need to form the line, control it in battle, renew it when decimated, and maneuver it so as to place the enemy at a disadvantage. But this was not the beginning and the end of infantry tactics, particularly in the rough, wooded terrain of North America.

 * In the colonial wars of the eighteenth century, the need had grown for infantrymen to precede the battle line. Their purpose was to screen the advance or retreat of their own main body, to break up the power of the volley from the enemy's line, and otherwise to soften that line for an assault with bayonets. Such an assault commonly began at a distance of fifty yards or less from the foe. As a result, one of two things took place: either a savage hand-to-hand encounter, or a collapse and retreat by one of the lines, In any case, the infantrymen who moved out ahead of the line were trained to aim at individuals, to protect themselves by using cover, and to operate with an interval of several yards between them. They came to be called "light infantry." In contrast to their action, the line fired by volley without taking individual aim, remained standing unless ordered to do otherwise, and advanced with the men in it actually elbow to elbow up to the moment of the assault.

 * In the American service, as in the British, battalions and regiments were usually one and the same. An English regiment had ten companies in it, eight of them (the "battalion companies") for the line, the other two for special uses. These were the elite or "flank companies." One called the "grenadier company" was composed of men picked for their strength acrd courage. As often as not (for instance, at Bunker Hill) the grenadier companies were detached from their regiments and used together in provisional grenadier battalions. These were given the most difficult assignments, and the posts of honor (that is, of greatest danger) if used in the battle line.

 * The tenth company in a British battalion was called the "light company." Light companies were also detached and consolidated into provisional battalions, but as often they were assigned a truly light mission, that is, to advance ahead of the line, screen it, and demoralize the enemy. This mission of light infantry in the American service was usually performed by rifle units, which fanned out in front of the army and, with their accurate fire, galled the enemy severely.

 * At first there was no counterpart to flank companies in the Continental infantry. Beginning in August 1777, however, General Washington directed that 108 men and 9 officers be drawn from each brigade and formed into a temporary Corps of Light Infantry. When winter came this corps was disbanded, but. it had proved so useful that Washington urged Congress to authorize one light company for each battalion to be formed into a separate corps during every campaign thereafter. It was with the Light Corps, which resulted, that Anthony Wayne stormed Stony Point on 16 July 1779 in the most celebrated night attack made by Americans during the Revolution.

 * Like the British Grenadiers, the American Corps of Light Infantry became the elite body of the Army. Command was eagerly sought in it by the most enterprising officers and places in the ranks by the men. Although the Corps as a whole continued to be disbanded each winter and raised afresh for every campaign, one light company became permanent in each Continental battalion after mid-1780. Prior to that time American battalions had contained only eight companies, those of the line, so that the addition brought the total up to nine, still one short of the British. The Corps of Light Infantry received special training in the use of the bayonet. During July 1780 it was put under the command of Lafayette, and made the chief American assaults the following year upon the enemy's works at Yorktown.

 * One of the distinctive features about the Revolutionary War was the use of rifles and rifle units in it. The rifle was virtually unknown in the New England Army that opened the war. Indeed, throughout the conflict, muskets were the armament of the troops of the line. At 100 yards, the best musketeers could hit a man-sized target only four shots out of every ten. In contrast, expert riflemen could kill a man with every shot at 100 yards and do good execution at twice that range. The chief limitations on the use of riflemen were the scarcity of expert shots and the fact that the rifle could not carry a bayonet. Although the latter deficiency was somewhat overcome through the use of tomahawks and knives, riflemen remained vulnerable to a determined bayonet attack. Accordingly, riflemen were not useful in the line, but both sides made extensive use of them as sharpshooters ahead of and around the main fighting force.

 * As already mentioned, the rifle companies from Pennsylvania in William Thompson's Battalion soon lost their specialization and became an element of the line, armed with muskets. Nearly as short-lived as a rifle unit was the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment, composed of the original Continental rifle companies from Maryland and Virginia plus some later ones from the same states. This unit was captured at Fort Washington on 16 November 1776 and was never re-formed. Just at the time of its capture, Daniel Morgan received a commission as Colonel of the 11th Virginia. He recruited 118 riflemen and joined the Continental Army with them at Morristown, New Jersey, early in April 1777. Very soon Washington drew 500 picked riflemen from the regiments of his Army and put them under Morgan's command. Thus began the most famous of the rifle corps which persisted intermittently throughout the Revolution.

 * Sometimes Washington referred to Morgan's unit as a rifle corps, sometimes as "rangers." The latter term requires a little elaboration. Rangers were a species of infantry that the British had developed to cope with the methods of the French and Indians in North America. They were scouts who ranged the forests spying upon the enemy, gathering intelligence on his strength and intentions, and harassing him when they could. Units of rangers had to be made up of men who understood woodcraft and who could match the Indians in stealth. Also, they had to be trained shots. Actually, corps like Daniel Morgan's were rangers a good deal of the time. In addition, there were certain units, such as Thomas Knowlton's Connecticut Rangers, which regularly bore the title.

 * From time to time the size of Continental units was fixed by resolve of the Congress. Thus during the reorganization which took place at the end of 1775, regiments were authorized to contain 728 officers and men, companies 78 enlisted men. These strengths were much larger than the British counterparts which were 477 and 38, respectively. Although Continental units always exceeded equivalent British units in strength, they varied widely from authorized size. For example, nine months after the first directive appeared, some companies had 67 men in them, others 88. This was, of course, the result of the unequal fall of casualties upon different outfits and the variation in the effectiveness of the recruiting systems of the several states. The Delaware Regiment illustrates a typical case of shrinkage. It was so decimated after the battle of Camden in 1780 that it had to be combined with Maryland companies to form a regiment. Later still, with the Maryland remnants, it was reorganized as a light company, commanded by Robert Kirkwood.

 * In closing this section on the organization of Continental infantry during the Revolutionary War, nothing should be stressed more heavily than the confusion which chronically prevailed in it. At all times Washington and his staff were obliged to improvise new organizations from the remnants. of those that had been cut up in battle or had served out their short terms and gone home. Moreover, at all times it was also necessary to assimilate thousands of citizen soldiers for brief periods into some sort of working team with the Continentals. This had to be repeated over and over again with new increments because militia terms of service were very short. The attempt to utilize the militia, and put it into good enough order to be effective for at least one campaign, was perhaps the hardest of the Commander in Chief's almost insupportable duties.

 * In spite of its burdensomeness the effort was well placed. Indeed, John W. Fortescue, historian of the British Army, declared that the militia was the decisive factor. Be that as it may, the militia formed around the Continental Army as a nucleus, and would not have turned out had that often ragtag force not been in the field. Most of the estimated 164,000 militiamen who took up arms for terms from a day up to three months were infantry. In addition to them were other infantrymen, raised and maintained on a relatively permanent basis by the several states, who, with the militia, rallied on the Continentals and abetted the cause.

 * When the British surrendered at Yorktown on 19 October 1781, there were sixty battalions of infantry in the Continental establishment. Afterwards, as time passed and it appeared that the British intended no new attack, that number was steadily reduced. Finally, in November 1783, after a peace had been formally ratified, only one foot regiment remained, commanded by Henry Jackson. Then, on 2 June 1784, the end came even for that unit, leaving as the only authorized vestige of the Continental Army still in service fewer than a hundred men to guard military stores at West Point and at Fort Pitt.


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Rh Christian outlook. He knows the East, the "land of dawn," within himself as well as without himself. There is something super-European and silent in him: a characteristic of every one who has seen too wide a circle of things good and bad.

4.

How much we have learnt and learnt anew in fifty years! The whole Romantic School with its belief in "the people" is refuted! No Homeric poetry as "popular" poetry! No deification of the great powers of Nature! No deduction from language-relationship to race-relationship! No "intellectual contemplations" of the supernatural! No truth enshrouded in religion!

The problem of truthfulness is quite a new one. I am astonished. From this standpoint we regard such natures as Bismarck as culpable out of carelessness, such as Richard Wagner out of want of modesty; we would condemn Plato for his pia fraus, Kant for the derivation of his Categorical Imperative, his own belief certainly not having come to him from this source.

Finally, even doubt turns against itself: doubt in doubt. And the question as to the value of truthfulness and its extent lies there.

5.

What I observe with pleasure in the German is his Mephistophelian nature; but, to tell the truth, one must have a higher conception of Mephistopheles than Goethe

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VI.], either immediately or mediately, to the elucidation of every other.

The great prominence in the new science of language of this comparative method gave that science its familiar title of "comparative philology," a title which is not yet lost in popular usage, although now fully outgrown and antiquated. It designated very suitably the early growing phase of linguistic study, that of the gathering and sifting of material, the elaboration of methods, the establishment of rules, the deduction of first general results; it still properly designates the process by which the study is extended and perfected; but to call the whole science any longer "comparative philology" is not less inappropriate than to call the science of zoölogy "comparative anatomy," or botanical science the "comparison of plants."

But the comparative method, as we must not fail to notice, is no security against loose and false etymologizing; it is not less liable to abuse than any other good thing. If it is to be made fruitful of results for the advancement of science, it must not be wielded arbitrarily and wildly; it must have its fixed rules of application. Some appear to imagine that, in order to earn the title of "comparative philologist," they have but to take some given language and run with it into all the ends of the earth, collating its material and forms with those of any other tongue they may please to select. But that which makes the value of comparison—namely, genetical relationship—also determines the way in which it shall be rendered valuable. We compare in order to bring to light resemblances which have their ground and explanation in a real historical identity of origin. We must proceed, then, as in any other genealogical inquiry, by tracing the different lines of descent backward from step to step toward their points of convergence. The work of comparison is begun between the tongues most nearly related, and is gradually extended to those whose connection is more and more remote. We first set up, for example, a group like the Germanic, and by the study of its internal relations learn to comprehend its latest history,


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182 had, who found it necessary to diminish his Mephistopheles in order to magnify his "inner Faust." The true German Mephistopheles is much more dangerous, bold, wicked, and cunning, and consequently more open-hearted: remember the nature of Frederick the Great, or of that much greater Frederick, the Hohenstaufen, Frederick II.

The real German Mephistopheles crosses the Alps, and believes that everything there belongs to him. Then he recovers himself, like Winckelmann, like Mozart. He looks upon Faust and Hamlet as caricatures, invented to be laughed at, and upon Luther also. Goethe had his good German moments, when he laughed inwardly at all these things. But then he fell back again into his cloudy moods.

6.

Perhaps the Germans have only grown up in a wrong climate! There is something in them that might be Hellenic!—something that is awakened when they are brought into touch with the South—Winckelmann, Goethe, Mozart. We should not forget, however, that we are still young. Luther is still our last event; our last book is still the Bible. The Germans have never yet "moralised." Also, the very food of the Germans was their doom: its consequence, Philistinism.

7.

The Germans are a dangerous people: they are experts at inventing intoxicants. Gothic, rococo (according to Semper), the historical sense and exoticism, Hegel,

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 Phasis and Rhesus, and the silver eddies of Achelous, Nessus, and Rhodius, Haliacmon, and Heptaporus, Granicus, and Aesepus, and holy Simoïs, and Peneüs, and Hermus, and Caicus' fair stream, and great Sangarius, Ladon, Parthenius, Euenus, Ardescus, and divine Scamander.

Also she brought forth a holy company of daughters who with the lord Apollo and the Rivers have youths in their keeping — to this charge Zeus appointed them — Peitho, and Admete, and Ianthe, and Electra, and Doris, and Prymno, and Urania divine in form, Hippo, Clymene, Rhodea, and Callirrhoë, Zeuxo and Clytie, and Idyia, and Pasithoë, Plexaura, and Galaxaura, and lovely Dione, Melobosis and Thoë and handsome Polydora, Cerceïs lovely of form, and soft eyed Pluto, Perseïs, Ianeira, Acaste, Xanthe, Petraea the fair, Menestho, and Europa, Metis, and Eurynome, and Telesto saffron-clad, Chryseis and Asia and charming Calypso, Eudora, and Tyche, Amphirho, and Ocyrrhoë, and Styx who is the chiefest of them all. These are the eldest daughters that sprang from Ocean and Tethys; but there are many besides. For there are three thousand neat-ankled daughters of Ocean who are dispersed far and wide, and in every place alike serve the earth and the deep waters, children who 105


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242 and setting apart all that is the result of independent growth and change among its dialects, recognizing what in it is original, and therefore fair subject of comparison with the results of a like process performed upon the other branches of the same family. It needs not, indeed that the restoration of primitive Germanic speech should be made complete before any farther step is taken; there are correspondences so conspicuous and palpable running through all the varieties of Indo-European speech, that, the unity of the family having been once established, they are at a glance seen and accepted at their true value. But only a small part of the analogies of two more distantly related languages are of this character, and their recognition will be made both complete and trustworthy in proportion as the nearer congeners of each language are first subjected to comparison. If English were the only existing Germanic tongue, we could still compare it with Attic Greek, and point out a host of coincidences which would prove their common origin; but, as things are, to conduct our investigation in this way, leaving out of sight the related dialects on each side, would be most unsound and unphilological; it would render us liable to waste no small share of our effort upon those parts of English which are peculiar, of latest growth, and can have no genetic connection whatever with aught in the Greek: it would expose us, on the one hand, to make false identifications (as between our whole and the Greek holos, 'entire'); and, on the other hand, to find diversity where the help of older dialectic forms on both sides would show striking resemblance. What analogy, for instance, do we discern between our bear, in they bear, and Greek pherousi? but comparison of the other Germanic dialects allows us to trace bear directly back to a Germanic form berand, and Doric Greek gives us pheronti, from which comes pherousi by one of the regular euphonic rules of the language; the law of permutation of mutes in the Germanic languages (see above, p. ) exhibits b as the regular correspondent in Low German dialects to the original aspirate ph; and the historical identity of the two words compared, in root and termination, is thus put beyond the reach of cavil.


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Rh Wagner—Leibniz, too (dangerous at the present day)—(they even idealised the serving soul as the virtue of scholars and soldiers, also as the simple mind). The Germans may well be the most composite people on earth.

"The people of the Middle," the inventors of porcelain, and of a kind of Chinese breed of Privy Councillor.

8.

The smallness and baseness of the German soul were not and are not consequences of the system of small states; for it is well known that the inhabitants of much smaller states were proud and independent: and it is not a large state per se that makes souls freer and more manly. The man whose soul obeys the slavish command: "Thou shalt and must kneel!" in whose body there is an involuntary bowing and scraping to titles, orders, gracious glances from above—well, such a man in an "Empire" will only bow all the more deeply and lick the dust more fervently in the presence of the greater sovereign than in the presence of the lesser: this cannot be doubted. We can still see in the lower classes of Italians that aristocratic self-sufficiency; manly discipline and self-confidence still form a part of the long history of their country: these are virtues which once manifested themselves before their eyes. A poor Venetian gondolier makes a far better figure than a Privy Councillor from Berlin, and is even a better man in the end—any one can see this. Just ask the women.

9.

Most artists, even some of the greatest (including the

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 are glorious among goddesses. And as many other rivers are there, babbling as they flow, sons of Ocean, whom queenly Tethys bare, but their names it is hard for a mortal man to tell, but people know those by which they severally dwell.

And Theia was subject in love to Hyperion and bare great Helius (Sun) and clear Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn) who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven.

And Eurybia, bright goddess, was joined in love to Crius and bare great Astraeus, and Pallas, and Perses who also was eminent among all men in wisdom. And Eos bare to Astraeus the strong-hearted winds, brightening Zephyrus, and Boreas, headlong in his course, and Notus,—a goddess mating in love with a god. And after these Erigeneia bare the star Eosphorus (Dawn-bringer), and the gleaming stars with which heaven is crowned.

And Styx the daughter of Ocean was joined to Pallas and bare Zelus (Emulation) and trim-ankled Nike (Victory) in the house. Also she brought forth Cratos (Strength) and Bia (Force), wonderful children. These have no house apart from Zeus, nor any dwelling nor path except that wherein God leads them, but they dwell always with Zeus the loud-thunderer. For so did Styx the deathless daughter of Ocean plan on that day when the Olympian Lightener called all the deathless gods to great Olymnpus, and said that whosoever of the gods would fight with him against the Titans, he would 107


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Credit insurance

CREDIT INSURANCE. See .


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 not cast him out from his rights, but each should have the office which he had before amongst the deathless gods. And he declared that he who was without office or right under Cronos, should be raised to both office and rights as is just. So deathless Styx came first to Olympus with her children through the wit of her dear father. And Zeus honoured her, and gave her very great gifts, for her he appointed to be the great oath of the gods, and her children to live with him always. And as he promised, so he performed fully unto them all. But he himself mightily reigns and rules.

Again, Phoebe came to the desired embrace of Coeus. Then the goddess through the love of the god conceived and brought forth dark-gowned Leto, always mild, kind to men and to the deathless gods, mild from the beginning, gentlest in all Olympus. Also she bare Asteria of happy name, whom Perses once led to his great house to be called his dear wife. And she conceived and bare Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honoured above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honour also in starry heaven, and is honoured exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favour according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honour comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favourably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has 109


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184 historians) have up to the present belonged to the serving classes (whether they serve people of high position or princes or women or "the masses"), not to speak of their dependence upon the Church and upon moral law. Thus Rubens portrayed the nobility of his age; but only according to their vague conception of taste, not according to his own measure of beauty—on the whole, therefore, against his own taste. Van Dyck was nobler in this respect: who in all those whom he painted added a certain amount of what he himself most highly valued: he did not descend from himself, but rather lifted up others to himself when he "rendered."

The slavish humility of the artist to his public (as Sebastian Bach has testified in undying and outrageous words in the dedication of his High Mass) is perhaps more difficult to perceive in music; but it is all the more deeply engrained. A hearing would be refused me if I endeavoured to impart my views on this subject. Chopin possesses distinction, like Van Dyck. The disposition of Beethoven is that of a proud peasant; of Haydn, that of a proud servant. Mendelssohn, too, possesses distinction—like Goethe, in the most natural way in the world.

10.

We could at any time have counted on the fingers of one hand those German learned men who possessed wit: the remainder have understanding, and a few of them, happily, that famous "childlike character" which divines. . . . It is our privilege: with this "divination" German science has discovered some things which we can

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VI.] Yet more contrary to sound method would it be, for example, to compare directly English, Portuguese, Persian and Bengali, four of the latest and most altered representatives of the four great branches of Indo-European speech to which they severally belong. Nothing, or almost nothing, that is peculiar to the Bengali as compared with the Sanskrit, to the Persian as compared with the ancient Avestan and Achæmenidan dialects, to the Portuguese as compared with the Latin, can be historically connected with what belongs to English or any other Germanic tongue. Their ties of mutual relationship run backward through those older representatives of the branches, and are to be sought and traced there.

But worst of all is the drawing out of alleged correspondences, and the fabrication of etymologies, between such languages as the English—or, indeed, any Indo-European dialect—on the ono hand, and the Hebrew, or the Finnish, or the Chinese, on the other. Each of these last is the fully recognized member of a well-established family of languages, distinct from the Indo-European. If there be genetic relation between either of them and an Indo-European language, it must lie back of the whole grammatical development of their respective families, and can only be brought to light by the reduction of each, though means of the most penetrating and exhaustive study of the dialects confessedly akin with it, to its primitive form, as cleared of all the growth and change wrought upon it by ages of separation. There may be scores, or hundreds, of apparent resemblances between them, but these are worthless as signs of relationship until an investigation not less profound than we have indicated shall show that they are not merely superficial and delusive.

Let it not be supposed that we are reasoning in a vicious circle, in thus requiring that two languages shall have been proved related before the correspondences which are to show their relationship shall be accepted as real. We are only setting forth the essentially cumulative nature of the evidences of linguistic connection. The first processes of comparison by which it is sought to establish the position and relations of a new language are tentative merely. No sound linguist


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Crédit Mobilier of America

CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA, the source of the most tremendous legislative scandal in American history. The national government in 1864 had chartered a “Union Pacific Railroad,” with $100,000,000 capital, to complete a transcontinental line west from the Missouri River; and offered to assist it by a loan of $16,000 to $48,000 a mile according to location, over $60,000,000 in all, and a land grant of 20,000,000 acres, worth $50,000,000 to $100,000,000. Even this offer attracted no subscribers; it meant building 1,750 miles of road through desert and mountain, at enormous cost of freightage for supplies, with frequent bloody encounters with Indians, and no probable early business to pay dividends. Then a House committee, of which Oakes Ames (q.v.) was a member and probably advised the plan, added an authorization to the railroad to issue its own bonds dollar for dollar with the government's, the former to be first mortgage and the latter second; the bonds might be issued 100 miles in advance of construction. In other words, the government assumed all the risk. Still the stock had no marketable value on its own basis as an investment, but only through the government's offers in excess of probable cost, which made it worth while for capitalists to take up the stock and earn these offers. Mr. Ames, chief of the enterprise, and a few associates, knew that this cost would not be much more than half the government's loan and gift together. To gain possession of the balance, it was decided to form the stockholders of the Union Pacific into a duplicate corporation under another name, as a construction company, to which the railroad company should turn over its bonds and stocks as payment for work and supplies. Thus the Union Pacific would be stripped of everything but its roadbed and equipment, while its double would pay business rates and pocket the remainder. Besides Mr. Ames, the chief managers were Thomas C. Durant, vice-president of the Union Pacific (John A. Dix being president), Cornelius S. Bushnell and John B. Alley. They and their associates bought up a moribund Philadelphia concern called the “Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency,” chartered in 1859 and organized as a loan and contract company in 1863, and rebaptized it the “Crédit Mobilier of America,” oddly, as its French prototype was bankrupt and not in good savor. The Union Pacific stockholders took the same amount of stock in it as in the road. The history of the details by which it accomplished the objects of its being cannot

be given here. In 1866 the government extended its offer to such mileage as the Central Pacific should build east from its California lines, and the two companies began a race to secure the benefits. Probably the Central Pacific gained as much profit as the Crédit Mobilier, but that was legitimately earned for its stockholders; and even the Crédit Mobilier's action would have been less obnoxious but for the collusion of government directors and public representatives. The net result was that the nation paid $94,650,287.28, and the Crédit Mobilier $50,720,958.94, leaving a profit of $43,929,328.34. counting at par the stock and bonds with which the Crédit Mobilier paid itself; on the statement of the trustees, they realized only $23,366,319.81 in cash. But this was certainly much understated; and even so, it was all gained in two years, to December 1868. But the rise of Crédit Mobilier stock in a few months from five cents on the dollar to three or four hundred and then out of the market, the payment of over 500 per cent a year dividends, the knowledge that there was only one place they could come from, and the inference that the government trustees must be incompetent or worse, aroused suspicious excitement. Then the promoters began to quarrel bitterly over the division of spoils, and to sue each other, and one of them came within an ace of exposing the whole, and outsiders demanded a share as the price of silence or assistance. The Crédit Mobilier needed additional legislation, and procured it by “special legal expenses”; and in the latter part of 1867 the suit of an outsider, H. S. McComb, to obtain stock to which he alleged a claim, laid the mine for the final explosion. Representative Elihu B. Washburne of Illinois had moved an investigation and the fixing of transportation rates, and in alarm Mr. Ames (also a representative) came to Washington with 343 shares of stock, then commanding 100 per cent premium, but which he sold to congressmen and leading government officials at par. In a phrase that became classic, he afterward said that he had put the stock “where it would do the most good.” McComb asserted his right to 375 shares, and to quiet him Mr. Ames, in February, 1868, told him the names of the public men to whom he had “sold” the stock. McComb bided his time, and in the presidential campaign of 1872 published those names, or what he alleged to be those; but he added others, or was misinformed, as some of the accused had perfectly clean hands. The list was shocking: the Vice-President of the United States (Colfax), the Vice-President-elect (Wilson), the speaker of the House (Blaine), and many other eminent names. When the third session of the 42d Congress opened in December 1872, the speaker descended to the floor and demanded a committee of investigation containing a majority of his political opponents; which was appointed, with Luke P. Poland of Vermont as chairman. It made a report 18 Feb. 1873, which proved that the speaker had been offered the stock but had refused to touch it, as had Conkling, Bayard, Boutwell and others. Some had taken it but returned it when lawsuits were threatened, without retaining the dividends; some kept it and justified it openly as a business investment; some kept it and the dividends till investigation was imminent and possibly kept the dividends altogether, a few kept both and attempted to

deny or explain away the ownership. The report recommended the expulsion of Oakes Ames for using the stock to influence the votes of members of Congress; and of James Brooks, a government director of the Union Pacific, for using his position to obtain stock for himself or his family. The vote on the report was deferred for a week, and the House merely censured both, who by a strange coincidence died shortly after, only a week apart. In the Senate, an investigating committee recommended the expulsion of Senator Pomeroy of Kansas, but no action was taken upon it. Consult Crawford, ‘The Crédit Mobilier of America’ (1880); Hazard, same title (1881), paper before the Rhode Island Historical Society; Scribner's Magazine, ‘The Crédit Mobilier’ (March 1874).


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Rh hardly conceive of, and which, after all, do not exist, perhaps. It is only the Jews among the Germans who do not "divine" like them.

11.

As Frenchmen reflect the politeness and esprit of French society, so do Germans reflect something of the deep, pensive earnestness of their mystics and musicians, and also of their silly childishness, The Italian exhibits a great deal of republican distinction and art, and can show himself to be noble and proud without vanity.

12.

A larger number of the higher and better-endowed men will, I hope, have in the end so much self-restraint as to be able to get rid of their bad taste for affectation and sentimental darkness, and to turn against Richard Wagner as much as against Schopenhauer. These two Germans are leading us to ruin; they flatter our dangerous qualities. A stronger future is prepared for us in Goethe, Beethoven, and Bismarck than in these racial aberrations. We have had no philosophers yet.

13.

The peasant is the commonest type of noblesse, for he is dependent upon himself most of all. Peasant blood is still the best blood in Germany—for example, Luther, Niebuhr, Bismarck.

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186 Bismarck a Slav. Let any one look upon the face of Germans. Everything that had manly, exuberant blood in it went abroad. Over the smug populace remaining, the slave-souled people, there came an improvement from abroad, especially by a mixture of Slavonic blood.

The Brandenburg nobility and the Prussian nobility in general (and the peasant of certain North German districts), comprise at present the most manly natures in Germany.

That the manliest men shall rule: this is only the natural order of things.

14.

The future of German culture rests with the sons of the Prussian officers.

15.

There has always been a want of wit in Germany, and mediocre heads attain there to the highest honours, because even they are rare. What is most highly prized is diligence and perseverance and a certain cold-blooded, critical outlook, and, for the sake of such Qualities, German scholarship and the German military system have become paramount in Europe.

16.

Parrliaments may be very useful to a strong and versatile statesman: he has something there to rely upon (every

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Rh such thing must, however, be able to resist!)—upon which he can throw a great deal of responsibility. On the whole, however, I could wish that the counting mania and the superstitious belief in majorities were not established in Germany, as with the Latin races, and that one could finally invent something new even in politics! It is senseless and dangerous to let the custom of universal suffrage—which is still but a short time under cultivation, and could easily be uprooted—take a deeper root: whilst, of course, its introduction was merely an expedient to steer clear of temporary difficulties.

17.

Can any one interest himself in this German Empire? Where is the new thought? Is it only a new combination of power? All the worse, if it does not know its own mind. Peace and laisser aller are not types of politics for which I have any respect. Ruling, and helping the highest thoughts to victory—the only things that can make me interested in Germany. England's small-mindedness is the great danger now on earth. I observe more inclination towards greatness in the feelings of the Russian Nihilists than in those of the English Utilitarians. We require an intergrowth of the German and Slav races, and we require, too, the cleverest financiers, the Jews, for us to become masters of the world.:(a) The sense of reality.:(b) A giving-up of the English principle of the people's right of representation. We require the representation of the great interests.

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 Rh To whom am I to present my pretty new book, freshly smoothed off with dry pumice stone? To you, Cornelius: for you used to think that my trifles were worth something, long ago when you took courage, you alone of Italians, to set forth the whole history of the world in three volumes, learned volumes, by Jupiter, and laboriously wrought. So take and keep for your own this little book, such as it is, and whatever it is worth; and may it, O Virgin my patroness, live and last for more than one century.

Sparrow, my lady's pet, with whom she often plays and holds you in her bosom, or gives you her finger-tip to peck and teases you to bite sharply, whenever she, the bright-shining lady of my love, has a fancy for some dear dainty toying, that (as I think) when the sharper pangs of love abate, she may find some small solace of her pain—ah, might I but play with you as she herself does, and lighten the gloomy cares of my heart!

This is as grateful to me as to the swift maiden was (they say) the golden apple, which loosed her girdle too long tied.


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 obligatory, nor as more than a part of the priest's personal devotions. Where the custom in question is followed certain exceptions should be noted, viz., that on Christmas-day the Gospel for the festival of the Epiphany is read as the last Gospel; and that whenever a festival is celebrated on a day which has its own proper Gospel (as, e. g., when the feast of an Apostle is observed on a Sunday), the Gospel of the day that is commemorated serves as the last Gospel of the mass. The priest, reading the last Gospel, genuflects at the words, "And the Word was made flesh," in the Gospel ordinarily read, and at the words, "fell down and worshipped him," in the Epiphany Gospel.

On Good Friday, the anniversary of the crucifixion of our Saviour, and the day when the Passion of Christ is contemplated by the faithful as if it were being really enacted before them, the sacramental memorial of that Passion is not celebrated. This has ever been the custom throughout all Catholic Christendom.

For similar reasons there should be no celebration of the Holy Eucharist on Holy Saturday. The mass which, in the Latin Church, is now celebrated on Holy Saturday belongs of right to the early hours of Easter-day, and anciently "was only celebrated after midnight at the close of the great Easter vigil." According to the mind of the Church of God in the early ages, there is some incongruity in the celebration of the holy Eucharist on days of fasting. May it not be due to a lower estimate of the importance of the strict observance of such days, that the perception of this inconsistency has been so largely lost? The opinion that by the appointment of a proper Collect, Epistle, and Gospel, for any day, there is indicated an intention that the holy Eucharist shall be celebrated on that day, cannot be justified. At no time should the holy Eucharist be celebrated unless the priest have present with him at least one other person who will assist at the mass. For a priest to celebrate entirely alone is contrary to the letter and the spirit of the mass-rite, and is "a reprehensible custom worthy of meet correction." Rh


text: The Pocket Songster/Our Bonny Scots Lads


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188 :(c) We require an unconditional union with Russia, together with a mutual plan of action which shall not permit any English schemata to obtain the mastery in Russia. No American future!

 * (d) A national system of politics is untenable, and embarrassment by Christian views is a very great evil. In Europe all sensible people are sceptics, whether they say so or not.

18.

I see over and beyond all these national wars, new "empires," and whatever else lies in the foreground. What I am concerned with—for I see it preparing itself slowly and hesitatingly—is the United Europe. It was the only real work, the one impulse in the souls, of all the broad-minded and deep-thinking men of this century—this reparation of a new synthesis, and the tentative effort to anticipate the future of "the European." Only in their weaker moments, or when they grew old, did they fall back again into the national narrowness of the "Fatherlanders"—then they were once more "patriots." I am thinking of men like Napoleon, Heinrich Heine, Goethe, Beethoven, Stendhal, Schopenhauer. Perhaps Richard Wagner likewise belongs to their number, concerning whom, as a successful type of German obscurity, nothing can be said without some such "perhaps."

But to the help of such minds as feel the need of a new unity there comes a great explanatory economic fact: the small States of Europe—I refer to all our present kingdoms and "empires"— will in a short time become

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fox, Charles James

FOX, Charles James, English statesman: b. London, 24 Jan. 1749; d. Chiswick, Surrey, 13 Sept. 1806. He was the son of Henry, 1st Lord Holland, and was educated at Eton and Hertford College, Oxford. His father procured him a seat for the borough of Midhurst in 1768 before he was of legal age, and in 1770 the same interest procured him the office of one of the lords of the admiralty, which post he resigned in 1772, and was appointed a commissioner of the treasury.

After being a supporter of the administration for six years, Fox was ejected owing to a quarrel with Lord North, and was thrown into the ranks of the Opposition. The adoption of the disastrous measures which terminated in the independence of the American colonies enabled him to take this part without opposing any of the policy which he had previously supported. During the whole of this eventful contest he spoke and voted in direct opposition to the ministerial system, and, in conjunction with Burke, Barré, Dunning and other eminent parliamentary leaders, displayed the highest talents both as a statesman and orator. On the final defeat of the administration of Lord North and the accession of that of the Marquis of Rockingham, Fox obtained the office of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. But the death of the Marquis of Rockingham suddenly divided the party, and on the Earle of Shelburne becoming first Lord of the Treasury Fox retired and soon after a union took place between his friends and those of Lord North, under the name of the coalition. The temporary success of this party movement served only to render popular disgust the more general; and the dismissal of the coalition excited general satisfaction. Though in the new Parliament Pitt had a decided majority, Fox headed a very strong opposition, and political questions were for some years contested with a display of talent on both sides which the House of Commons had seldom previously exhibited.

In 1790 and 1791 Fox regained a share of popularity by his opposition to war with Spain and Russia, and also by his libel bill, regulating the rights of juries in criminal cases and rendering them judges both of the law and the fact. On the breaking out of the French Revolution he was disposed to regard it as likely to prove extremely beneficial. The contrary views of Burke, and the extraordinary manner in which that ardent politician on that account

publicly renounced his friendship, is one of the most striking incidents in parliamentary history.

The opinions formed of this eminent leader as a practical and theoretical statesman have been as various as the shades of party difference. That he was a sincere friend to all the broad and generous principles on the due development of which rest the freedom and best interests of mankind, is not to be doubted, and that they were alloyed by great latitude on the subject of party and political expediency is equally clear. As a powerful and purely argumentative orator he was of the very first class; though as to eloquence and brilliancy he perhaps yielded to Pitt, Burke and Sheridan; nor were his voice and manner prepossessing, though highly forcible. Of his amiability in private life, after making allowance for a dissipated youth, all accounts agree. Friends and foes equally testify to his ingenuous and benign character. As an author, besides some Latin poetry and a Greek dialogue, by which he highly distinguished himself at Eton, and a few numbers of a paper, entitled ‘The Englishman,’ he published nothing during his lifetime but ‘A Letter to the Electors of Westminster’ (1793). To his nephew, Lord Holland, the world is indebted for his posthumous publication, entitled ‘The History of the Early Part of the Reign of James II.’ It is written with unpretending simplicity, but disappointed expectation, and has never been popular. Lord John Russell, ‘Life and Times of C. J. Fox’ (1859-66); Wakeman, ‘Life of Charles James Fox’ (1890); Trevelyan, ‘Early History of Charles James Fox’ (1881).


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 From Passion Sunday until Maundy Thursday inclusive, the psalm in the devotions said by the priest and his server, at the foot of the altar-steps, immediately before the beginning of the mass, should be omitted. At such times, the priest, having said, "In the Name," etc., and the antiphon, "I will go" etc., at once says, "Our help," etc.

During Advent, and from Septuagesima until Easter, and on all days, out of Easter-tide, that are not festivals, the Gloria in excelsis should be omitted, and some metrical hymn, suitable for the occasion, should be used in lieu thereof. Inasmuch as, according to usage in Western Christendom, the Creed (in the mass-rite) as well as the Gloria in excelsis, is associated with festivals rather than fasting days and others of non-festal character, it is fitting that both Creed and Gloria in excelsis be omitted in masses said on days that are not festivals.

In a mass celebrated especially in behalf of the faithful departed, the priest omits the psalm Judica me in the preparation at the foot of the altar-steps. He makes the sign of the Cross, before saying the Lord's Prayer, over the book and not upon himself. Before the Gospel, he does not say the prayers, "Let thy blessing, etc." and "The Lord be in my heart," etc., nor does he kiss the book after he has read the Gospel. The Creed is not said, nor the water blessed, nor the Gloria Patri said at end of the psalm Lavabo. The priest does not strike his breast while saying the Agnus Dei; and instead of the words,—"have mercy upon us" and "grant us thy peace," he says "grant them rest," and "grant them rest eternal." The (private) prayer for the unity and the peace of the Church, and the Gloria in excelsis are omitted.

The late mediaeval custom of reading the opening words of the Gospel according to St. John (Verses 1 to 14, inclusive) has much in its favour, but should not be regarded by us as Rh


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Rh economically untenable, owing to the mad, uncontrolled struggle for the possession of local and international trade. Money is even now compelling European nations to amalgamate into one Power. In order, however, that Europe may enter into the battle for the mastery of the world with good prospects of victory (it is easy to perceive against whom this battle will be waged), she must probably "come to an understanding" with England. The English colonies are needed for this struggle, just as much as modern Germany, to play her new role of broker and middleman, requires the colonial possessions of Holland. For no one any longer believes that England alone is strong enough to continue to act her old part for fifty years more; the impossibility of shutting out homines novi from the government will ruin her, and her continual change of political parties is a fatal obstacle to the carrying out of any tasks which require to be spread out over a long period of time. A man must to-day be a soldier first and foremost that he may not afterwards lose his credit as a merchant. Enough; here, as in other matters, the coming century will be found following in the footsteps of Napoleon—the first man, and the man of greatest initiative and advanced views, of modern times. For the tasks of the next century, the methods of popular representation and parliaments are the most inappropriate imaginable.

19.

The condition of Europe in the next century will once again lead to the breeding of manly virtues, because men will live in continual danger. Universal military service

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 the first and the last should have the full ending. If the collect is addressed to the Father, the full ending should be ''Through Jesus Christ thy Son our Lord, who liveth and reigneth with Thee, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world without end. Amen. If addressed to the Son, Who liveth and reigneth with the Father, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world without end. Amen. If the Son is named in the first part of the collect, Through the same Jesus Christ, thy Son our Lord, who liveth, etc. If the Son is named towards the close of the collect, Who liveth and reigneth with Thee, etc. If, in the collect, mention is made of the Holy Ghost, in the unity of the same Holy Ghost,'' etc.

The portion of holy Scripture appointed to be used as the liturgical Epistle for any day is The Epistle of that day, and should be so called in the announcement, without any use of the phrase "portion of Scripture appointed for." If the said phrase is used in making the announcement when the text is taken from Scripture other than the Epistles of the New Testament, the reader is bound to declare as on all occasions, at the end of his reading, "Here endeth the Epistle." There should be no repetition of the word "Epistle" in making the announcement. For example, the Epistle of Advent Sunday should be announced thus: "The Epistle is written in the Thirteenth Chapter of the Romans, beginning at the eighth verse;" and on the festival of St. Simon and St. Jude, "The Epistle is written in St. Jude, beginning at the first Verse."

The Gospel should always be announced without any repetition of the word "Holy," and without the use of the words "according to," or "that of." For example, the Gospel of Advent Sunday should be announced thus: "The Holy Gospel is written in the twenty-first Chapter of St. Matthew, beginning at the first Verse." In every instance the announcement refers only to the beginning of the Gospel; hence on the Sunday after Ascension-Day, no notice should be taken of the fact that the concluding part of the Gospel of the day is taken from the sixteenth Chapter of St. John. Rh


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 Egyptian, and it proved a difficult task to penetrate through the mountainous, well-fortified accesses to the interior of Asia Minor, so that the advantage rested with Kaikobād, who took Kharput, and for some time even held Ḥarrān, Ar-Roha and Rakka (1232). The latter conquests were, however, soon lost, and Kaikobād himself died in 1234 of poison administered to him by his son and successor, Ghiyāss ed-dīn Kaikhosrau II. This unworthy son inherited from his father an empire embracing almost the whole of Asia Minor, with the exception of the countries governed by Vatatzes (Vataces) and the Christian princes of Trebizond and Lesser Armenia, who, however, were bound to pay tribute and to serve in the armies—an empire celebrated by contemporary reports for its wealth. But the Turkish soldiers were of little use in a regular battle, and the sultan relied mainly on his Christian troops, so much so that an insurrection of dervishes which occurred at this period could only be put down by their assistance. It was at this epoch also that there flourished at Konia the founder of the order of the Mevlevis or Mawlawis, Jelāl ed-dīn Rūmī (see ), and that the dervish fraternities spread throughout the whole country and became powerful bodies, often discontented with the liberal principles of the sultans, who granted privileges to the Christian merchants and held frequent intercourse with them. Notwithstanding all this, the strength and reputation of the empire were so great that the Mongols hesitated to invade it, although standing at its frontiers. But, as they crossed the border. Kaikhosrau marched against them, and suffered a formidable defeat at Kuzadāg (between Erzingān and Sivās), in 1243, which forced him to purchase peace by the promise of a heavy tribute. The independence of the Seljūks was now for ever lost. The Mongols retired for some years; but, Kaikhosrau II. dying in 1245, the joint government of his three sons gave occasion to fresh inroads, till one of them died and Hulagu divided the empire between the other two, Izz ed-dīn (Kaikaus II.) ruling the districts west of the Halys, and Rukneddin (Kilij Arslan IV.) the eastern provinces (1259). But Izz ed-dīn, intriguing with the Mameluke sultans of Egypt to expel his brother and gain his independence, was defeated by a Mongol army and obliged to flee to the imperial court. Here he was imprisoned, but afterwards released by the Tatars of the Crimea, who took him with them to Sarai, where he died. Rukneddin was only a nominal ruler, the real power being in the hands of his minister, Muīn ed-dīn Suleimān, who in 1267 procured an order of the Mongol Khān Abaka for his execution. The minister raised his infant son, Ghiyāss ed-dīn Kaikhosrau III., to the throne, and governed the country for ten years longer, till he was entangled in a conspiracy of several amirs, who proposed to expel the Mongols with the aid of the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, Bibars (Beibars or Beybars). The latter marched into Asia Minor and defeated the Mongols in the bloody battle of Ablastān, the modern Albistan (1277); but, when he advanced farther to Caesarea, Muīn ed-dīn Suleimān retired, hesitating to join him at the very moment of action. Bibars, therefore, in his turn fell back, leaving Suleiman to the vengeance of the khān, who soon discovered his treason and ordered a barbarous execution. Kaikhosrau III. continued to reign in name till 1284, though the country was in reality governed by a Mongol viceroy. Masūd, the son of Izz ed-dīn, who on the death of his father had fled from the Crimea to the Mongol khān and had received from him the government of Sivās, Erzingān and Erzerūm during the lifetime of Kaikhosrau III., ascended the Seljūk throne on the death of Kaikhosrau. But his authority was scarcely respected in his own residence, for several Turkish amirs assumed independence and could only be subdued by Mongol aid, when they retired to the mountains, to reappear as soon as the Mongols were gone. Masūd fell, probably about 1295, a victim to the vengeance of one of the amirs, whose father he had ordered to be put to death. After him Kaikobād, son of his brother Farāmarz, entered Konia as sultan in 1298, but his reign is so obscure that nothing can be said of it; some authors assert that he governed only

till 1300, others till 1315. With him ended the dynasty of the Seljūks; but the Turkish empire founded by them continued to exist under the rising dynasty of the Ottomans. (See .)

.—The best, though insufficient, account of the Seljūks is still de Guignes, Histoire générale des Huns, bks. x.-xii., from whom Gibbon borrowed his dates. Among translations from original sources (of which the most trustworthy are yet unedited), comp. Mirkhond's Geschichte der Seldschuken (ed. Vullers), Giessen, (1838); Tarikh-ī-Guzideh, French translation by Defrémery in the Journal asiatique, 1848, i. 417 sqq., ii. 259 sqq., 334 sqq.; Seid Locmani ex libro Turcico qui Oghuzname inscribitur excerpta (ed. J. H. W. Lagus, Helsingfors, 1854) (on the Seljūks of Asia Minor exclusively, but of little value). Information respecting certain periods is given incidentally in the works of von Hammer and d'Ohsson (see bibliography to : History), and in Stanley Lane Poole's Mahommedan Dynasties (1894).

 SELKIRK (or ), ALEXANDER (1676–1721), Scottish sailor, the prototype of “Robinson Crusoe,” seventh son of John Selcraig, shoemaker and tanner of Largo, Fifeshire, was born in 1676. In his youth he displayed an unruly disposition, and, having been summoned on the 27th of August 1695 before the kirk-session for his indecent behaviour in church, “ did not compear, being gone away to the seas.” In May 1703 he joined Dampier in a privateering expedition to the South Seas, going with the “Cinque Ports” galley as sailing master. In September 1704 the “Cinque Ports” put in at Juan Fernandez Island, west of Valparaiso; here Selkirk had a dispute with his captain, Thomas Stradling, and at his own request was put ashore with a few ordinary necessaries. Before the ship left he begged to be readmitted, but this was refused, and Selkirk remained alone in Juan Fernandez four years and four months, till on the 31st of January 1709 he was found, and on the 12th of February following taken off, by Captain Woodes Rogers, commander of the “Duke” privateer (with Dampier as pilot), who made him his mate and afterwards gave him command of one of his prizes, “The Increase” (March 29th). Selkirk returned to the Thames on the 14th of October 1711; he was back at Largo in 1712, in 1717 we find him again at sea, and in 1721 he died as master's mate of H.M.S. “Weymouth” (December 12th).

See Woodes Rogers, Cruising Voyage round the World (1712), and Edward Cooke, Voyage in the South Sea and round the World (1712), the earliest descriptions of Selkirk's adventures; also Providence ''Displayed, or a Surprising Account of one Alexander Selkirk. . . written by his own Hand (reprinted in Harl. Miscell.'' for 1810, v. 429); and Funnell's Voyage round the World (1707). Steele made Selkirk's acquaintance, and gave a sketch of the adventurer and his story in the Englishman for the 3rd of December 1713. In 1719, shortly after a second edition of Rogers' Voyage had appeared (1718), Defoe published Robinson Crusoe. While this is clearly indebted in its main outlines to Selkirk's story, most of its incidents are, of course, fairly independent of the latter; thus the decidedly tropical description of Crusoe's island and the whole narrative of the cannibals' visits, &c., agree rather with one of the West Indies than with Juan Fernandez.

The best modern biography is the Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk by John Howell (1829). In 1868 a tablet was put up on Juan Fernandez at a point on the hill road called “Selkirk's Look-out,” where in a gap in the trap rock a magnificent view may be had of the whole island, and of the sea north and south, over which the exile must have often watched for an approaching sail. It bears the following inscription:—“In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, a native of Largo in the county of Fife, Scotland, who was on this island in complete. solitude for four years and four months. He was landed from the ‘Cinque Porte’ (sic) galley, 96 tons, 16 guns, 1704, and was taken off in the ‘Duke’ privateer, 12th February 1709. He died lieutenant of the ‘Weymouth’ 1723, aged forty-seven years. This tablet is erected near Selkirk's look-out by Commodore Powell and officers of H.M.S. ‘Topaze,’ 1868 ”

 SELKIRK, THOMAS DOUGLAS, (1771–1820), was born at St Mary's Isle, Kirkcudbrightshire, on the 20th of June 1771. He succeeded his father in 1799, his six elder brothers having predeceased him. At this time the Highlands of Scotland were being changed into grazing land and deer forests. Selkirk took deep interest in the evicted peasants, and tried to organize emigration to the British colonies. In 1803–1804 he founded a large and prosperous settlement in Prince Edward Island, and at about the same time a smaller one at Baldoon in Upper Canada. He later turned his attention to the Canadian west, and gradually

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 right arm is not to be thrust out from but kept near the body. In the mass, after the consecration, only those fingers which have not touched the host are thus employed.

When the priest makes the sign of the cross in the act of blessing any person or thing, his right hand is held so that the little finger is turned towards the object which he intends to bless; and thus the palm looks toward his left, and thumb and fingers are held (as directed above) extended and joined. While blessing the people, the priest places his left hand against his body a little below his breast; but when he blesses the oblations or any other object upon the altar, the priest places his left hand upon the altar.

In making the sign of the cross, the priest should take care not to move the hand over-quickly, and to trace lines that are straight and of equal length. The length of the lines, in blessing the people, should not exceed those used in blessing himself. All other crosses, except those made at the announcement of the Gospel and with the host over the chalice, are about a palm in length.

When the priest makes the sign of the cross over the Blessed Sacrament he does so not regarding it as an act of blessing but as an act which commemorates the power of the Cross and the manner of the Passion of Christ.

Lastly, when blessing himself or any other person, or any object whatsoever, the priest should stand erect.

As printed in our Book of Common Prayer, most of the Collects in the Mass-rite have only the short ending; but this omission cannot reasonably be regarded as a prohibition of the use of the full ending when, according to the old liturgical rules, the full ending is called for. Dr. Frere tells us (Some Principles of Lit. Reform; p.148) that, "In 1549 it was taken for granted that the rules for adding, or not adding, the appropriate ending to a collect were familiar to all who would use the Book." The following summary of the said rules, so far as they are applicable to our Rite, may be found useful.

The Collect of the day should have its full ending. If two collects are said, the second also, ordinarily, should have the full ending. If more than two collects are said, only Rh


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 Prayer; after the Gloria in excelsis, or hymn, and before he goes to the Epistle-corner to say the Post-Communion prayer, or prayers; immediately before and immediately after, the Blessing; after uncovering the chalice and the paten, and before consuming what remains of the Sacrament; in the last Gospel if it be the Gospel for Christmas-Day, at the words, "The Word was made flesh"; in the last Gospel, if it be the Gospel for the Feast of this Epiphany, at the words, "worshipped him"; in the same Gospels in the mass on the same festivals (Christmas and Epiphany) at the same words; in the Epistle for Palm-Sunday, at the words, "every knee shall bow"; and in the Passion-tide Gospel, at the words, "gave up the ghost."

If the Blessed Sacrament be reserved in the tabernacle on the altar where the mass is celebrated, the priest should genuflect before the altar-steps when he first approaches the altar; before he says the words, "In the Name," etc.; and when he is about to leave the altar and return to the sacristy.

The chalice should never be held by the cup, except when the wine and water of the ablutions are poured over the priest's thumbs and forefingers.

As often as the chalice is to be covered or uncovered, the left hand should be placed on the base of the chalice, and the pall not dragged but lifted off, to guard against a possible overturning of the chalice.

Communicants (to whom the priest administers the chalice), whether clerks or lay folk, should never put their hands upon the cup, but they may take hold of the base or foot of the chalice so as to aid in bringing the cup to their lips.

When the priest signs himself with the sign of the cross, he places his left hand near and a little below his breast, and with his right hand (the palm turned towards himself, and the fingers united and outstretched) he touches, with the extremities of his index, middle, and ring fingers, his forehead, his breast, his left shoulder, and his right shoulder. When thus making the sign of the cross, the elbow of the Rh


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 3. GENUFLECTIONS

As a bodily act of reverence, kneeling, either on one knee or on both knees, includes every kind of bowing, just as a profound bow includes a moderate bow, and therefore in such kneeling the head is not to be bowed. The ordinary genuflection is made by bringing the right knee to the plane upon which the person is standing, and near to the left foot, the head, meanwhile, being held erect. The priest genuflecting in the mass, rises at once after his knee has touched the floor, save that when the Blessed Sacrament is upon the altar his genuflection should be more than usually deliberate. In no case should the priest while he is bending his knee down to the floor, or rising again, move hastily, for, even though the reverential spirit be not altogether lacking in the priest, such hasty and undignified action may have the appearance of an act of derision rather than that of an act of reverence. When a genuflection is made at the altar before the consecration, the hands are placed on the altar beyond the corporal, but after the consecration and before the ablutions they should be placed upon the corporal. When the priest kneels upon both knees (as at the Confession and the prayer of "Humble Access,"), he withdraws his hands from the altar and keeps them joined before his breast while he is kneeling. A genuflection on the right knee is made at each of the following places, viz., in the Creed, at the words, "And was incarnate,....made man"; before and after the elevation of the Host, and before and after the elevation of the chalice; before the words, "By whom and with whom," etc.; at the end of the Prayer of Consecration, after the words, "World without end"; before the fraction of the Host which takes place after the conclusion of the Prayer of Consecration; after the commixture; before the words, "Lord, I am not worthy," etc.; after the priest has communicated himself with the Host and has uncovered the chalice; after he has communicated himself with the Precious Blood; on each occasion when, during the administration of the communion, he replaces the paten, or the ciborium, upon the altar and before he takes up the chalice; and when he replaces the chalice upon the altar and before he takes up the paten or ciborium; after the administration of the communion is ended, and before beginning the Lord's Rh


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190 is already the curious antidote which we possess for the effeminacy of democratic ideas, and it has grown up out of the struggle of the nations. (Nation—men who speak one language and read the same newspapers. These men call themselves "nations," and would far too readily trace their descent from the same source and through the same history; which, however, even with the assistance of the most malignant lying in the past, they have not succeeded in doing.)

20.

What quagmires and mendacity must there be about if it is possible, in the modern European hotch-potch, to raise questions of "race"! (It being premised that the origin of such writers is not in Horneo and Borneo.)

21.

Maxim: To associate with no man who takes any part in the mendacious race swindle.

22.

With the freedom of travel now existing, groups of men of the same kindred can join together and establish communal habits and customs. The overcoming of "nations."

23.

To make Europe a centre of culture, national

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 bows, all below the upper part of the body should be kept rigidly upright. It is after this manner that the priest bows upon his arrival before the altar at which he is about to celebrate the mass, if the Blessed Sacrament be not reserved at that altar; and again before beginning the devotional preparation at the foot of the altar steps; while saying the Confession in the said devotions; and while saying the private prayers, "Cleanse my heart," etc., and "Give me, O Lord," etc. before reading the Gospel. The moderate bow is made at the Versicles which follow the Confession in the preparatory devotions; at the prayers, "We pray thee, O Lord," etc., "In the spirit of humility," etc., "Receive, O Holy Trinity," etc.; at the Sanctus; at each act of consecration; at the prayers immediately before the priest's communion; and when he communicates himself with the Host. The slight bow is made to the cross in the sacristy before proceeding to the altar and on return thereto; each time the holy name is mentioned; at the Gloria Patri at the end of the psalms Judica and Lavabo; at the words "Let us pray"; at the word "God" in the beginning of the Creed; at the word "worshipped" in the Creed; at the words, "and when he had given thanks"; at the Agnus Dei; in the Gloria in excelsis, at the word "God" in the beginning, and at the words "We worship thee," "We give thanks to thee," "receive our prayer," and "O Christ"; during the prayer, "Let the homage," etc.; each time the priest comes before or goes away from the midst (except he has just bowed profoundly, or is about to kiss the altar), and when, at the end of the Mass, standing at the foot of the altar-steps the priest is about to return to the sacristy. At the mention of the holy name in Collect, Epistle, and Post-Communion prayer, the priest bows his head towards the altar-cross; but, if the name occur in the Gospel, he bows towards the book. The head should be slightly inclined towards the book, when, in the prescribed reading, the name of the Blessed Virgin, or the name of the saint whose festival is being celebrated, occurs. If the holy name occur several times in one short passage, the priest should not bow repeatedly, but keep his head inclined throughout the passage. Rh


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Rh should not make us blind to the fact that in the higher regions there is already a continuous reciprocal dependence. France and German philosophy. Richard Wagner and Paris (1830-50). Goethe and Greece. All things are impelled towards a synthesis of the European past in the highest types of mind.

24.

Mankind has still much before it—how, generally speaking, could the ideal be taken from the past? Perhaps merely in relation to the present, which latter is possibly a lower region.

25.

This is our distrust, which recurs again and again; our care, which never lets us sleep; our question, which no one listens to or wishes to listen to; our Sphinx, near which there is more than one precipice: we believe that the men of present-day Europe are deceived in regard to the things which we love best, and a pitiless demon (no, not pitiless, only indifferent and puerile)—plays with our hearts and their enthusiasm, as it may perhaps have already played with everything that lived and loved; I believe that everything which we Europeans of to-day are in the habit of admiring as the values of all these respected things called "humanity," "mankind," "sympathy," "pity," may be of some value as the debilitation and moderating of certain powerful and dangerous primitive impulses. Nevertheless, in the long run all these things are nothing else than the

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If proper care be exercised by the priest, both as to the quantity of bread and wine to be consecrated, and also in his administration of the sacrament, the contingency here referred to will not occur. When it does occur, the priest must consecrate both bread and wine, and communicate himself with both kinds (of that which he has just consecrated) ere he proceeds to continue the administration to the people.

If the hosts fail, and not the Precious Blood, he must needs use another chalice into which he will pour a little wine and a few drops of water. If the precious Blood fail, and not the hosts, he will drain the chalice (i. e. he himself drinking whatever may remain therein), and then pour into it such a quantity of wine as may be needed and a little water. Thus, be the case as it may, having before him unconsecrated bread and wine, and having mentally made an oblation of each, the priest will proceed to consecrate them, using the prayer beginning with the words "All glory be to thee, Almighty God," and ending with the words, "partakers of his most blessed Body and Blood." In efforts to avoid the necessity of a second consecration, hosts may be broken into small pieces, but never should there be any impairing of the contents of the chalice by pouring in unconsecrated wine. Rh