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 [or, be considered at some other specified time]."* 33. To Amend takes precedence of the motion to postpone indefinitely, and yields to all other subsidiary [12] motions and to all privileged [14] and incidental [13] motions, except the motion to divide the question. It can be applied to all motions except those in the List of Motions that Cannot he Amended [page 146]. It can be amended itself, but this "amendment of an amendment" (an amendment of the second degree) cannot be amended. The previous question and motions to limit or extend the limits of debate may be applied to an amendment, or to only an amendment of an amendment, and in such case they do not affect the main question, unless so specified. An amendment is debatable in all cases except where the motion to be amended is undebatable. An amendment of a pending question requires only a majority vote for its adoption, even though the question to be amended requires a two-thirds vote. An


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amendment of a constitution or by-laws, or rules of order, or order of business, previously adopted, requires a two-thirds vote; but an amendment of that amendment requires only a majority vote. When a motion or resolution is under consideration only one amendment of the first degree is permitted at a time, and one amendment of that amendment — that is, an amendment of the second degree — is allowed also. An amendment of the third degree would be too complicated and is not in order.* Instead of making it, a member may say that if the amendment of the amendment is voted down, he will offer such and such an amendment of the amendment. While there can be only one amendment of each degree pending at the same time, any number of them may be offered in succession. An amendment must be germane† to the subject to be amended — that is, it must relate to it, as shown further

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rh population at half a million will not be to overrate its numerical amount.

It is not necessary to consider whether the aboriginal population of the entire country has decreased or increased since the landing of the first colonists, or to what extent such increase or decrease may have taken place. No good purpose could be served by such speculations. It is sufficient if, by fixing with any degree of accuracy the numbers of the aboriginal race, we have indicated for the benefit of such statesmen, legislators, philanthropists, missionaries, and others as may, either from a sense of duty or from feelings of humanity and religious obligation, be disposed to turn their attention to the reclamation of that race, the extent of the field on which they purpose to expend all or a portion of their labours.


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156 the Irish. In proof of this many truthful historians assert that the terrible farrahs and other shouts used by the latter in former times frequently proved more efficacious, by means of the terror which they inspired, in repulsing an enemy than even the lances and skeans of the kerns. If a peculiar shout, then, be a necessary appanage of every people, why should not the New Hollander have his? Accordingly he has his shout to distinguish him among "contemporaries," and one which will bear comparison with those of most of the more pretending families of mankind. The "coo-ee" of the Australian aboriginal is much more musical, and to the full as expressive as the ejaculations which many of the European nations use for the purpose of calling a comrade, saluting a friend, or bidding defiance to an enemy. Nor, indeed, is it much less celebrated at the present day than many of those, for throughout the interior of the country the coo-ee has been adopted almost universally by the whites, and many a traveller who has lost his way in the depths of the wood, or become benighted in a lonely spot, has regained the beaten track, or been introduced to a hospitable fireside by the assistance of the well-known sound; and an age hence, when some Australian lexicographer shall compile a dictionary for the use of his countrymen, "coo-ee" will, doubtless, be one of the words with which he will enrich and fertilize the English language. Even the streets of the great metropolis of Britain have resounded with the sounds of the coo-ee; and the


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on. So an amendment to an amendment must be germane to the latter. Form. An amendment may be in any of the following forms: (a) to insert or add (that is, place at the end); (b) to strike out; (c) to strike out and insert, or to substitute, as it is called, when an entire paragraph or resolution is struck out and another is inserted. The third form is a combination of the other two and cannot be divided, though, as shown hereafter, for the purposes of amendment the two motions are treated separately, the words to be struck out being first amended and then the words to be inserted. No amendment is in order the effect of which is to convert one of these forms into another. The motion to amend is made in a form similar to this: "I move to amend the resolution by inserting the word 'very' before the word 'good;'" or, it may be reduced to a form as simple as this: "I move to insert 'very' before 'good.'" The motion to insert should always specify the word before or after which the insertion is to be made. The motion to strike out should also locate the word, provided it occurs more than once. When the chair states the question on the amendment he should repeat the motion in detail so that all may understand what modification is proposed. Unless the effect of the amendment is very evident, he should, in putting the question, show clearly the effect of its adoption,


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even though it requires the reading of the entire resolution, and then the words to be inserted, or struck out, or struck out and inserted, and finally the resolution as it will stand if the amendment is adopted. He then says, "As many as are in favor of the amendment [or, of striking out, etc., or of inserting, etc.] say aye; those opposed, say no. The ayes have it, the amendment is adopted, and the question is on the resolution as amended, which is, 'Resolved, That,'" etc., reading the resolution as amended. If the vote is taken by show of hands or by rising, the question is put and the vote announced thus: "As many as are in favor of the amendment will rise [or, will raise the right hand]; those opposed will rise [or, will manifest it in the same way]. The affirmative has it and the amendment is adopted. The question is on the resolution," etc. The instant the amendment is voted on, whether it is adopted or lost, the chair should announce the result of the vote and state the question that is then before the assembly.

To Insert or Add Words. When a motion to insert [or add] certain words is made, the words to be inserted should be perfected by amendments proposed by their friends before the vote is taken on inserting or adding them. After words have been inserted or added, they cannot be changed or struck out except by a motion to strike out the paragraph, or such a portion of it as shall make the question an


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entirely different one from that of inserting the particular words; or by combining such a motion to strike out the paragraph or a portion of it with the motion to insert other words. The principle involved is that when the assembly has voted that certain words shall form a part of a resolution, it is not in order to make another motion that involves exactly the same question as the one it has decided. The only way to bring it up again is to move to reconsider [36] the vote by which the words were inserted. If the motion to insert is lost, it does not preclude any other motion to insert these words together with other words, or in place of other words, provided the new motion presents essentially a new question to the assembly. To Strike out Words. The motion to strike out certain words can be applied only to consecutive words, though, as the result of amendments, the words may be separated when the final vote is taken. If it is desired to strike out separated words, it is necessary to strike out the separated words by separate motions, or still better, a motion may be made to strike out the entire clause or sentence containing the words to be struck out and insert a new clause or sentence as desired. The motion to strike out certain words may be amended only by striking out words from the amendment, the effect of which is to retain in the resolution the words struck out of the amendment


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 provided both motions are adopted. If the motion to strike out certain words is adopted, the same words cannot be again inserted unless the place or the wording is so changed as to make a new proposition. If the motion to strike out fails,* it does not preclude a motion to strike out the same words and insert other words, or to strike out a part of the words, or to strike out a part and insert other words; or to strike out these words with others, or to do this and insert other words. In each of these cases the new question is materially different from the old one. For striking out all, or a part, of something that has been previously adopted, see "Rescind, etc." [37]. To Strike Out and Insert Words is a combination of the two preceding motions, and is indivisible.* For purposes of amendment it is resolved into its constituent elements, and the words to be struck out are first amended, after which the words to be inserted are amended. After their amendment the question is put on the motion to strike out and insert. If it is adopted, the inserted words cannot be struck out, nor can the words struck out be inserted, unless the words or place are so changed as to make the question a new one, as described above. If the motion is lost, it does not preclude either of the single motions to strike out


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or to insert the same words, nor another motion to strike out and insert, provided there is any material change in either the words to be struck out or the words to be inserted, so that the questions are not practically identical. When it is desired to strike out or modify separated words, a motion may be made to strike out so much of the resolution as is necessary to include all the words to be struck out or changed, and to insert the desired revision including these words. If the words are inserted in the place previously occupied by the words struck out, they may differ materially from the latter, provided they are germane to it. If the words are to be inserted at a different place, then they must not differ materially from those struck out, as it must be in the nature of a transfer. The combined motion to strike out words in one place and to insert different words in another place is not in order. Either the place or the words must be substantially the same. If there are several changes to be made, it is usually better to rewrite the paragraph and offer it as a substitute, as shown further on.

Amendments Affecting an Entire Paragraph. A motion to insert (or add) or to strike out a paragraph, or to substitute one paragraph for another, is an amendment of the first degree, and therefore cannot be made when an amendment is pending. The friends of the paragraph to be inserted or struck out should


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 4

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 4


text:
Index talk:The aborigines of Australia.djvu

Missing pages
Pages 46 and 47 are missing i.e. Ch. 4 end. feydey (talk) 13:53, 21 November 2010 (UTC)

 * 1st un-numbered page

Australia's Bicentennial year program planning set out to firstly remember the past and the people of the past, to provide an appreciation and a knowledge of Australia during 1988 to be preserved as an up to date record for the future. To this end, a reprint of Australia 's Centenary 1888publication "Aborigines of Australia" was commissioned by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Committee of the Queensland Bicentennial Council. This enables the earliest unbiased account of the Australian Aborigines to be re-introduced to the people of modern Australia.

Bicentennial Community Committees in Australia with tribal and community Aboriginal membership have expressed the view that their culture is slipping away and they feel that Australia's Bicentennial year gives the opportunity to redeem this situation and so maintain this fascinating culture as part of Australia's heritage for future generations.

Whatever fate guided our early Australians, their struggle for survival in a somewhat harsh and arid environment led to an intimate knowledge of this continent, a search for a softer, more pleasant, habitable terrain and a food producing natural seasonal diet which we may do well to consider today.

This unfettered expression by the author Mr Flanagan will enlighten many as to the artistic skill, ideas of a supreme being without idolatry and sound dietetic practices of our fellow Australians  ' 4 borigines of A ustralia ". Don Watson, o.... Chairman, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Committee Queensland Bicentennial Council

 * 2nd unumbered page

The Aborigines of Australia was first published as a series of articles in 1853-54 appearing in the 'Sydney Empire', a journal of which Sir Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales was the proprietor and editor.

They were consolidated into book form in 1888 to mark the Centenary of Australian colonization. This facsimile edition has been produced for the occasion of Australia's Bicentenary, 1988

This edition is limited to 1,500 copies. Facsimile Edition 1988 by BOOLARONG Publications of 12 Brookes St., Brisbane for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Committee of the Queensland Bicentennial Council P.O. Box 97, Mossman, Qld 4873.

ISBN 0 7316 $924 3


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 6

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 6


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 5

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 5


text: Author:William Thomas Brande

title: Author:William Thomas Brande


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 2

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 2


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 7

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 7


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 8

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 8


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 9

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 9


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 10

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 10


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 11

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 11


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 12

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 12


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bradstreet, Samuel


text:
Author:Thomas Bradwardine

Works

 * De Causa Dei

title: Author:Thomas Bradwardine


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bradwardine, Thomas


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 13

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 13


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 14

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 14


text: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 16

title: The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 16


text:
Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 23.djvu/386

 of Edinburgh University. In November he was translated to Stirling (first charge).

In 1650 Guthrie treated General Middleton with a highhandedness which sealed his own fate. Middleton, who joined Charles II immediately on his landing on 23 June, took the lead in a project for a royalist army in the north. On 17 Oct. Guthrie, by the 'western remonstrance,' withdrew from the royalist cause; on 14 Dec. he sent a letter to the general assembly at Perth denouncing Middleton as an enemy of the covenant, and proposing his excommunication. Guthrie was appointed to pronounce the sentence next Sunday, and, despite a letter from the assembly bidding him delay the act, carried out the original order. At the next meeting of the commission (2 Jan. 1651) Middleton was loosed from the sentence after public penance. He never forgave the affront.

The same meeting of commission which ordered Middleton's excommunication had passed a unanimous resolution authorising the acceptance of the military services of all but 'obstinate' enemies of the covenant. Guthrie and his colleague, David Bennett, preached against this resolution. Summoned (19 Feb. and 28 Feb.) to Perth by the committee of estates to answer to the king for their conduct, they appeared, but, while acknowledging the king's civil authority, protested against his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and declined to submit to what they called 'a heighe prowoking the eiyes of the Lord's glorie.' The attack on the resolution was led at the next meeting of the general assembly at St. Andrews (16 July) by John Menzies, divinity professor in the Marischal College, Aberdeen, Guthrie strongly supported him. The assembly met by adjournment at Dundee (22 July), when a protestation against the action of the commission was read, those who had signed it absenting themselves, as from an unlawful assembly. The church was now divided into 'resolutioners' and 'protesters.' Guthrie and two others were deposed by the assembly on 30 July; but for the alarm of Cromwell's approach, which dispersed the assembly, other 'protesters' would have been similarly dealt with. A rupture took place in nearly every presbytery; the 'protesters' met by themselves, and held their own synod in Edinburgh. They even turned for protection to Cromwell. On 8 Aug. 1654 Guthrie was appointed by the English privy council one of the 'triers' and a visitor for the universities. A conference between 'resolutioners' and 'protesters' at Edinburgh was rendered abortive by the attitude of Guthrie and Warriston. At a riot in Stirling on the election (1656) of a successor to Bennett, Guthrie was attacked with stones by 'resolutioners.' Both parties appealed to Cromwell in London in 1656. The champion of the 'resolutioners' was James Sharp [q. v.], afterwards archbishop, whose arguments led Cromwell to refuse the plea of the 'protesters' for a commission in their favour. Cromwell assured the 'protesters' that he was 'for monarchical government, and that in the person of the king;' yet there is no doubt that Guthrie's insistence on the king's rights injured his chances. The cause of the 'protesters' was further weakened by the defection of some of them (including Menzies) to independency, a development which increased Guthrie's opposition to Cromwell's government.

The Restoration rendered the prospects of the 'protesters' hopeless. Guthrie and nine others met in Edinburgh (23 Aug. 1660) and drew up a 'humble petition' to the king setting forth their loyalty, and reminding him of his obligations as a covenanter. The meeting was ordered to disperse, and as the warning was unheeded arrests were made. Guthrie was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle. On 25 Sept. his stipend was sequestrated. He was transferred to Dundee on 20 Oct., and thence to Stirling, where he remained till his trial. On 20 Feb. 1661 he was arraigned for high treason before the parliament, Middleton presiding as commissioner. The indictment had six counts; the contriving of the 'western remonstrance' and the rejection of the king's ecclesiastical authority were, from a legal point of view, the most formidable charges. In the preparation of his defence he surprised his counsel by the accuracy of his knowledge of Scots law. The trial was not concluded till 11 April. Guthrie's closing appeal made a strong impression. Several members withdrew; but only Tweeddale spoke in his favour, proposing banishment in place of the extreme penalty. On 28 May parliament ordered him to be hanged at the cross of Edinburgh on 1 June, in company with William Govan, an obscure deserter. His farewell letter (1 June 1661) to his wife shows great strength of character. At eleven o'clock the same day he signed a paper to dispose of the rumour that he was willing to retract. At dinner he called for cheese, saying his physicians had forbidden it, but he was beyond the need of such precautions. He spoke at the scaffold for about an hour, leaving a copy of his speech to be given to his son when he came of age. Opportunities of escape, he said, he had rejected, as flight might be taken as an admission of guilt. At the last moment he 'raised the napkin from his eyes,' and lifted


text:
Talk:The Aborigines of Australia

Two sources
There are two indexes for this work, Index:The aborigines of Australia.djvu and Index:The Aborigines of Australia (1988).djvu, the second is a reprint, issued in 1988, that supplies missing pages for The Aborigines of Australia/Chapter 5. Credit goes to User:George Orwell III for the preparation of the file. Prefatory material from the 1988 edition has been replaced with blank pages.

The transcript is now complete, but many pages need fixing, eg. moving page titles and numbers to headers. The lede in each chapter could also be linked, using titles on recto pages, this has been applied to Chapter 5. CYGNIS INSIGNIS 11:30, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Aborigines of Australia


text:
Author:Ronald Brunlees McKerrow

Works

 * (in part)

title: Author:Ronald Brunlees McKerrow


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Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 23.djvu/387

up his voice for the covenants. His head was fixed on the Nether Bow port. The legend runs that, a few weeks later, drops of blood fell from it on to Middleton's coach, making a new cover necessary, as 'all the art of man could not wash out 'the indelible stains. In 1688 Alexander Hamilton, a divinity student (d. 29 Jan. 1738, minister of Stirling), removed the head and buried it. The headless trunk was laid out by 'ladies of quality,' who dipped their handkerchiefs in the blood, George Stirling pouring 'a phial of fragrant ointment' on the corpse; it was interred in the aisle of St. Giles' Church. The Scottish parliament reversed the attainder on 22 July 1690. His name ('famous Guthrie's head') is commemorated in the rude lines on the 'martyrs' monument' in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh. By his party he was called 'Sickerfoot.' His age at death was 'about 49'. He married Jane, daughter of Ramsay of Shielhill, who survived him, with an only son, William (who died on the eve of his license for the ministry) and a daughter, Sophia. The widow and daughter after being brought before the privy council on 8 Feb. 1666, on a charge of possessing a treasonable book, and sentenced to banishment, were permitted, 15 Jan. 1669, to return to Edinburgh for a month, in consequence of the son's illness. Guthrie published: 1. ‘The Causes of the Lord's Wrath,’ 1653 (not seen). 2. ‘Protesters no Subverters,’ Edinburgh, 1658, 4to. 3. ‘Some Considerations contributing unto the Discoverie of the Dangers that threaten Religion,’ Edinburgh, 1660, 12mo; reprinted, Glasgow, 1738, 8vo. 4. Sermon (his last) at Stirling (Matt. xiv. 22), 1660 (not seen); reprinted as ‘A Cry from the Dead,’ &c., Glasgow, 1738, 8vo. Posthumous were: 5. ‘Two Speeches … before the Parliament,’ 1661, 4to. 6. ‘True and Perfect Speech … before his Execution,’ 1661, 4to. 7. ‘A Treatise of Ruling Elders and Deacons,’ Edinburgh, 1699, 24mo. 8. ‘The Great Danger of Backsliding … from Covenanted Reformation-Principles: a Sermon dated 21 April 1660, with Guthrie's speech before Parliament,’ Edinburgh, 1739. 9. ‘Sermons, Edinburgh, 1846, 12mo.

[Hew Scott's Fasti Eccles. Scoticanæ; Howie's Biographia Scoticana (1775), edition of 1862 (Scots Worthies), pp. 397 sq. (portrait); Roe's Supplement to Life of Blair (1754), edition of 1844, p. 122; Laing's Hist. of Scotland, 1804, iv. 18; Life by Thomson, 1846; Grub's Eccl. Hist. of Scotland, 1861, vol. iii.; Anderson's Ladies of the Covenant, 1862, pp. 44 sq.; Anderson's Scottish Nation, 1872, ii. 388 sq.; Kerr's Sermons in Times of Persecution, 1880, p. 264.]  GUTHRIE, JOHN (d. 1649), bishop of Moray, was eldest son of Patrick Guthrie, a goldsmith of St. Andrews and bailie of the city in 1601-2, by his wife Margaret Rait. The family were connected with the original line through John Guthrie of Hilton, the youngest son of Sir Alexander Guthrie of Guthrie, who fell at Flodden in 1513. John was educated at the university of St. Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1597. The same year he became reader at Arbroath, and on 27 Aug. 1599 was presented by James VI to the parish of Kinnel, Perthshire, whence in 1603 he was removed to Arbirlot, Forfarshire. He was a member of the Glasgow assembly of June 1610, and on 7 Sept. of the same year was elected clerk to the synod of St. Andrews. In 1617 he was translated to Perth as minister of the second charge. He was a member of the privy conference nominated by the moderator of the Perth assembly in 1618, and composed for the most part of such 'as were already disposed to yield' to the king's proposals for the establishment of a modified episcopacy (, vii. 318). In 1621 he became minister of St. Giles, Edinburgh, and at Christmas following, although the ministers of Edinburgh had agreed that there should be no sermon except 'one in the old kirk,' he consented, at the instigation of the provost, to 'teach in the little kirk' (ib. p. 518). In 1623 he was promoted to the bishopric of Moray; and on the occasion of the return, in October 1623, of the prince to England from Spain after the failure of the Spanish marriage project, he was chosen by the ministers of Edinburgh to preach 'in the great kirk' of Edinburgh, that the 'people might convene and give thanks to God' that the project was at an end (ib. p. 580). In 1631 the bishop was appointed one of four commissioners to inquire into the origin of the fire which had destroyed the house of Frendraught (, Memorialls of the Trubles, i. 24). When Charles I was crowned in Edinburgh in 1633, Guthrie was chosen lord eleemosynary, and threw among the crowd in the kirk silver pieces coined for the occasion (ib. p. 36). As lord eleemosynary he rode in the procession beside the Bishop of London. On the following Sunday he caused much scandal among the stricter presbyterians by preaching before the king in 'his rotchet, quhilk wes neuer sein in Sanct Geillis kirk sen the Reformatioun' (ib. p. 39; see also, Hist. of the Church of Scotland, p. 363). After the subscription of the covenant in the towns of the north of Scotland in 1638 the bishop began to furnish his palace of Spynie with men, arms, and provisions, in order to be prepared for a siege (, p. 88).


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bowers, George Hull


text: Index talk:An account of a voyage to establish a colony at Port Philip in Bass's Strait.djvu


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Korea

KOREA,, COREA, or CHOSEN, since 29 Aug. 1910, is a sovereign kingdom situated on the Korean Peninsula in a strategic point in East Asia between China, Russia, and Japan. The name means Morning Splendor/ Morning Calm. By the census of 1910 it contains 2,274,263 native dwellings and a population of 13,115,449, the females numbering 6,169,610 and the males 6,945,539, the discrepancy in sex numbers arising from the neglect of female infants, 146,147 Japanese, 1,818 Chinese and 889 other foreigners. It comprises a strip of coast and a peninsula projecting southward from Manchuria, divided from it by the great valleys of Yalu or Amnok northwest and the Tuman northeast, both rising in the colossal peak of Paik-tu (White Head), 8,300 feel high. The Japan Sea divides it from Japan, whose southern-most island (Kiushu) approaches its southern tip within 100 miles, separated by Korea Strait with large islands midway; to the west, Korea Bay and the Yellow Sea, marked off by Shantung Peninsula, divide it from China. A dense archipelago fringes it south and west. Its

parallels are from 33° 12' to 43° 2' N., or about the same as from Concord, N. H., to Wilmington, N. C, and average much south of Italy; its meridians, 124° 13' to 130° 54' E. It is about 600 miles long by 135 broad; area, 84,738 square miles.

Korea is traversed north to south by a mountain backbone of striking individuality: a perpetual zigzag, skirting the eastern shore with slender coast-lands, in a steep solid wall unbroken for hundreds of miles save by Yunghing or Broughton's Bay at the northern neck. In the north it has summits 4,000 to 8,000 feet high, and at Cape Pelissier, about lat. 37°, culminates in Mount Popoff (4,800 feet); thence the main chain turns southwest and ends in the extinct volcano of Mount Auckland (6,700 feet), on Quelpaert Island, while to the east it throws out low hills and plateaus. The islands of the southern archipelago, verdant rocks worn into the semblance of fantastic castellated ruins, are the ends of its spurs. On the eastern side the ridge is timbered to the summit; on the west almost treeless, and seamed with deep ravines shallowing out into broad fertile plains, occupying most of Korea. On the east below the boundary there is but one river of any size, the Nak-tong along the southeastern uplands, and almost no islands; the west has 10 considerable streams, and the coast is thickly notched with harbors and fringed with fertile islets.

The chief rivers are, from the north: The great Yalu or Amnok, a mile wide and rising 40 feet in flood, navigable 30 miles for sea-going junks and 175 for boats, to Wi-wön, and now crossed by a superb steel highway bridge uniting Korea with the trunk Imes through Russia to Europe. Opposite is the Tuman. The Taidong or Ta-tong, navigable for boats 75 miles to Ping-yang. The Han (“the river”), rises on the western slopes of the eastern ridge but 30 miles from the Japan Sea, draining nearly the whole breadth of the peninsula with two main arms, and flowing into a bay of the Yellow Sea among islands. About 30 miles up lies Keijo, or Seoul, the capital, and a tine of small steamers runs between it and Chemulpo, on Imperatrice Gulf as much farther south; boats ascend nearly 100 miles more. The Nak-tong (above) empties into Korea Strait near Fusan, and is navigable 140 miles for vessels drawing four and one-half feet. The best harbors are Gen-san and Port Lazareff, on Broughton's Bay; the best on the south coast is Fusan on Korea Strait, now finely equipped with docks for large steamers. The tides on the west and south are very high and rapid, often leaving vessels stranded on mud banks.

The climate is much like that of the eastern coast of America in the same latitudes; the north and centre have very hot summers and severe winters; the south is like the Carolinas, and tempered by the ocean breezes. The Han is frozen in winter so that at Seoul, where it is 400 yards wide, it is available for cart traffic three months of the year, from December to February. The rainfall averages 36 inches, 22 in the crop season. A fall of only 4.1 inches in 1901 created a famine.

Flora and Fauna. — There is a great variety of excellent hardwood timber on the east slopes

and the northern mountains; in the west it is scarce and sparingly used; lack of coal has caused much wasteful denudation in other parts. The one surpassing animal of the native fauna is the man-eating tiger, who fills the native proverbs and literature, depopulates whole villages and even besieges houses for days, sometimes leaping on the thatched roof and tearing his way down through. Besides him there are leopards, tiger-cats and foxes; deer, beaver, badgers, otters, martens, etc., and a great variety of birds.

Products. — The great native crop is ginseng, which grows wild in the distant mountains, and is extensively cultivated about Sunto; it is a government monopoly, and despite much smuggling yields a large part of the state revenue. Among other products are rice, wheat, millet, sesame, Indian corn, beans, cotton, hemp and perilla (for oil and pigment). The domestic animals are few. The cattle are excellent, the bull being the usual beast of burden; the ponies very small but hardy, fowls good, pigs inferior. Iron ores of excellent quality are mined, and there are copper mines in several places. In 1910 the value of gold exported was $3,053,038; the silver output is very small. Three-fourths of the trade is with Japan, and over four-fifths of the remainder with China.

Government. — Formerly a hereditary absolute monarchy: till 189S tributary to and receiving investiture from China, and like it in administrative forms, with officials appointed by examination in the classics. On the declaration of independence (see History), the entire system was abolished, as well as the privileges of the aristocracy, and a cabinet of 10 ministers in charge of different departments formed, who with five councillors formed a grand council of state to lay measures before the emperor. Till 1896 the country was divided into eight do or provinces; it was then redivided into 13, including a metropolitan province around the capital. There are now 12 urban prefectures, 317 local districts, 4,351 villages and 12 treaty ports.

Social Conditions and Education. — The usual dwellings are one-storied. Fire is built at one end for the cooking and the heat is utilized by being carried along through the house by means of a system of flues, the chimney being low down at the other end. Smoke is seen hanging at most Korean towns in the morning and evening, and the conditions of life for the masses, as in China, are hard and squalid; but actual distress is rare and beggars are few. Caste till recently was iron-bound, and no offices of even local importance could be held by other than nobles, who are distinguished by colored clothing and horsehair hats. Women are secluded; concubinage is allowed. but only one legal wife at a time. The immemorial system of education was almost wholly in Chinese, which contained the only written memorials needing it, and was of Chinese classics. The general course of culture, philosophy and the creed of the Korean educated gentleman was nearly the same in Korea as in China. In the reconstruction of the national education by the Japanese there were, in 1914, 366 public or government schools attended by 50,000 children, and 814 private

(mostly missionary) schools for Koreans, attended by 22,273 pupils, taught by 311 Japanese and 695 Korean teachers, female scholars numbering one-fifteenth of the whole. Under government auspices are 60 industrial, 14 agricultural and 2 commercial schools. There are also 149 schools with 17,264 pupils, with teachers for Japanese.

Religion. — See History. There are now, by the Japanese official report of 1911, over 370,000 native Christians. The popular religion is the degraded ../Shamanism/ (q.v.); the higher classes are Confucians; the anciently all-powerful Buddhism, crushed by the revolution of 1392, is slight and uninfluential, with a few ignorant monks.

Population. — The people are a mixed race of disputed elements, apparently Mongoloid and Ain with Manchu and Malayan infusions.

The chief cities are Seoul (Han-yang), the capital, estimated at over 200,000; Pingyang, perhaps 40,000, and Kai-seng. A trolley line nine miles long, built 1899, is operated in Seoul by Americans, and a trunk-line of railways with branches traversing the peninsula from Wiju on the Yalu River to Fusan. The total mileage of railroads open in 1914 was 934.7, and of light railways and trams, 109.8 miles.

History. — The traditional founder of Korean nationality is the Chinese noble Ki-ja, who left China with 5,000 followers 1122 B.C., and established a kingdom with capital at Pjeng-yang. The first authentic history is the annexation to China 108 B.C. A century or so later it split into three princedoms, of which, about 960, Korai (Kao-li) came to the front, probably from borrowing the higher Chinese civilization. It recast the administration upon the Chinese model, introduced Chinese methods and arts, and initiated several centuries of brilliant progress and prosperity, enriched by art and literature. Buddhism was the paramount religion, and developed a powerful and rigid ecclesiastical hierarchy. As a result, a protestant movement took place, and in 1392 a revolution resulted in the fall of Buddhism and the exculpation of Confucianism. The capital (seoul) was fixed at Han-yang. When the Manchu power began to rise in the 15th century, China, to protect herself against its ravages, desolated a strip of fertile territory many thousand square miles in extent, then or early in the 17th century destroying four cities and many villages and removing 300,000 inhabitants; and down to 1875 this zone of 60 miles wide by 300 long was kept as a permanent buffer between China and Korea. During the rise of the Japanese shogunate out of the 16th century anarchy, Hideyoshi, as a preliminary to invading China, sent an army into Korea, rapidly overrunning it. But Korea is like Spain, easy to conquer and impossible to hold; and the stolid resistance of the natives, with the Chinese armies, gradually forced the Japanese out of the peninsula six years later, retaining Fusan on the southeast coast as a trading station. Thirty years later the Manchus, previous to their conquest of China, invaded it and exacted a tribute, which was continued to the Manchu dynasty in China; in 1653 it was reduced to a third, and for generations down to 1894, when it was finally abolished, had been only nominal, as an acknowledgment of Chinese supremacy and a trading license. But the Chinese wisely attempted no permanent occupation.

Korea had as intense a determination to seclude herself from foreign influences as ancient Egypt, and practically the first knowledge obtained of it by modern Europe was through the shipwreck of some Dutch on the coast in 1653, though the Jesuit missionary Cespedes had entered it in 1594. In 1784 new missionaries came and planted Christianity in the peninsula, despite steady persecution; in 1835 the French missionaries reinforced them. But in 1864 came a fiercer blast. The then king died childless, and his oldest widow set aside the natural successor, her nephew, and nominated Yi-Hevi, the present king — the 12-year-old son of a royal prince, whom she made regent. The latter was a savage reactionist, and let loose fire and blood to extirpate the foreigners, rigidly excluding all new ones. A futile French expedition was sent against him in 1866; the same year a stranded American schooner, the General Sherman, was burned and her crew murdered in sight of Pingyang. An American expedition sent in 1871 had slight success. Meantime several nations were attempting to force Korea into treaties of commerce and gain trading privileges, but Japan was the first, in 1876, to succeed, having the ports of Gensan and Fusan opened in 1876 and Chemulpo in 1880. Meantime the “neutral strip,” for many years a nest of brigands and pirates, was abolished by Li Hung Chang in 1875. In 1882 Commodore Shufeldt negotiated a treaty of friendship between the United States and Korea, and thence on, other nations were rapidly admitted — Great Britain and Germany in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884, France in 1886, Austria in 1892 and China in 1897.

The flood of new ideas and habits aggravated the conflict between the progressives and the reactionaries, in which the former won, and Korean embassies began to visit other countries — Japan in 1880, the United States in 1883. The nativists raised an insurrection in 1884. The greatest breach with the past, however, was the result of the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95, one of the pretexts of which was the action of China in reasserting her ancient suzerainty over Korea. It was at Pingyang that the first heavy defeat was inflicted on the Chinese, and off the Yalu River that the Chinese fleet was destroyed. On 8 Jan, 1895 the king of Korea proclaimed its independence, and the Chinese gate near Seoul was publicly destroyed with impressive ceremonies. In 1897 the king proclaimed the country an empire, named it Dai Han and took the title of emperor. Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Korea became a “sphere of influence” for the Japanese, whose struggle against Russian encroachments culminated in the war of 1904-05. (See ). By the Treaty of Portsmouth (q.v.) Japan's preponderating interests in Korea were acknowledged, and a Japanese protectorate was established in November 1905. On 18 July 1907 the emperor abdicated in favor of the crown prince, but Japan's protectorate continued until, by virtue of a treaty made with the Korean emperor, the sovereignty and territory of Korea passed to Japan. Following this act, the royal family of Korea received “such titles, dignities and honors as are appropriate to their respective ranks and sufficient grants to be made for the maintenance of such titles, dignities and honors.” Relatives, meritorious Koreans and men of rank, old persons, virtuous widows, etc., to the number of 87,643, also received monetary rewards. Since the Japanese occupation, new public buildings, roads, a national coinage, survey, systems of banking, postal communication, taxation, education, encouragement of agriculture, commerce, fisheries, etc., have given Korea most of the features of a modern state. Consult Annual Report of Reforms and Progress in Chosen, for 1913-14.

As Korea passes out of existence as an independent state, and her people increasingly conform, both in outward circumstances and inward characteristics, to modern conditions and requirements, it may be well to inquire as to Korea's place in history, to note her contributions to civilization and to survey the progress made in the 20th century. The Koreans rebuilt Kija's (Kitse's) tomb at Pingyang, which was injured during the Chino-Japanese War of 1894, because they consider this historical character as the founder of their social order in 1122 B.C Their literature contains many references to him as their national hero, while popular and especially local tradition, in the north especially, concerning him is abundant and voluble. To him is credited the name of the country, Chosen, or Morning Splendor, which is now the modern, as it was the ancient, name. Critical scholars, however, incline rather to the belief that it was from some centuries later reading, in Chinese annals of the story of Kija, that the Koreans became acquainted with the name and work of this ancient patriarch. In any event, only a small part of modern Korea lay within the area of the Kija domain, which came to an end in 203 B.C. In 108 B.C. Korea formed a part of the Chinese Empire under the Han dynasty, but the people revolted in 30 B.C. paying tribute to China, however, until 9 A.D. The early history of Korea resembles that of Britain, in which after the Romans, men of three ethnic stocks contended for centuries together, Welsh, Scottish, English. Three states arose (Chinese, Kaokuli, Sinlo and Petsi; Japanese Korai, Shinra and Pechi) and for 10 centuries border wars, with alternate invasions and succor from China and the mixed people of the eastern islands, who, later known as Japanese, were gradually attaining political unity. There were long intervals of peace, also, during which more or less trade and communication with China and Japan are noted in the annals of the three countries and by comparison many of the events and dates, asserted to be historical, may be verified. In the modern reconstruction of the state under Japanese auspices, very interesting antiquities, in the form of mortuary art and literary relics, have been recovered and scrupulously cared for. Although Korea's interior history is interesting, yet the glory of progress and civilization is best expressed in that of Buddhism which, introduced into the peninsula in the 4th century, was destined to enjoy a thousand years of successful propaganda. Its career of material and spiritual splendor

lends strong color to the idea held by scholars that the story of Korea and its civilization during the last 500 years forms a chapter of decay rather than of the progress, the Koreans from about 1500 A.D. having steadily degenerated. However this may be, it is certain that in the train of the faith, imported from India and China and Tibet, came elements that fertilized the Korean imagination and supplied the spiritual forces in which early Confucianism was lacking. Art, literature, folklore, noble monuments in sculpture and architecture, splendid temples and monasteries followed with the coming or as the result of this vast synthesis of Asiatic beliefs, forces, intellectual achievements, science and craftsmanship, called Buddhism. Not content with the spiritual conquest of the peninsula, the Buddhist missionary activities overflowed into the islands of the Rising Sun. Japan received at the hands of Buddhist teachers those principia, of art, literature and civilization which link her history with the great world of the West, besides thousands of Korean colonists, many of them skilled artists and craftsmen. This explains why, until lately, the Koreans were apt to look on themselves as vastly superior and the Japanese as semi-savages. The political outcome of the factors of evolution in these early centuries was the strong state of Silla (Shinra), whose people, beside having the richest soil, were nearest to China, had first received Buddhism, traded with the Arabs and sent their students to Nankin in China for study. One of their literary statesmen invented what (except the Sanskrit letters imported from India) was a new thing in Chinese Asia — a true alphabet, of 14 consonants and 11 vowels (the en-mun), classified according to the organs of speech. This system, however, was not perfected and put into general practice until the 15th century, nor ever made nation-wide until the Christian missionaries made reading democratic and popular. With Confucianism the system was never given opportunity to develop. In the 10th century Shinra's rule extended over the entire peninsula, but in the north the hardy men of Korai were uniting under Wang-gon (Chinese, Wu Wang) who made himself master of the rival states and unified the peninsula, making his capital at Song-do (Sunto). All historians agree that luxury was the chief cause of the downfall of Silla. Buddhism was now endowed as the state religion and the country was divided for administrative purposes into eight districts based on the river basins, provinces and capitals having the first syllable of their names in common. The evolution of government was away from feudal forms to centralized monarchy, after the Chinese model. The mariner's compass is recorded as used on Chinese ships voyaging to Korea, 1122 A.D. The Mongol invasions of the 12th and 13th centuries made apparently little impression on the country. In 1392, a new dynasty coming into power banned Buddhism. The first half of the 15th century was a period of inventions, the improvement of the alphabet (en-mun), printing by means of movable or “living” metal types, notable literary productions, the casting of great bells and improvements on agriculture being among these. In politics, political parties arose. Yet while both

China and Japan felt, for evil and good, the contact of Europe, Korea became, in spirit and fact, more and more a hermit kingdom, foreign trade being tabooed and the educated classes shrivelling into self-conceit and the pride of ignorance. The invasions of the Japanese, 1592-97, called forth the inventive powers of the Koreans. Admiral Yang invented an ironclad, propelled by oars, which destroyed the enemy's fleets. The use of bomb shells (“heaven shaking thunder”} by the Koreans hampered the enemy's siege operations. The Manchus in 1627, the entrance of Roman Christianity in 1777, through books, and by French priests (in 1836), and of Reformed Christianity in 1884, with the treaties made since 1876 and the presence of large armies on her soil during the Chino-Japanese War of 1894, form the nuclei around which recent events may be grouped. Repeated endeavors, made by Japan during 30 years, to have the Korean dynasty and nobility reform their corrupt administration and create a modern state were made, during which the Japanese legation was twice attacked and burned and the Japanese driven from Seoul. Plot, counterplot, insurrection and foreign complications followed in monotonous repetition. Japan, to maintain the independence of Korea as necessary to her own existence, was compelled to engage in two foreign wars — with China and with Russia. Finding Korea never free from anarchy and incapable of governing herself, Japan felt compelled to assume that responsibility of a protectorate. It had been made evident by the logic of events, that the interests of Japan and Korea were identical — a view that was recognized almost immediately and unanimously in the West, all governments promptly withdrawing their legations from Seoul. Japan, sending her ablest statesman, Prince Ito, as resident-general, assumed the control of Korea's foreign affairs and during three years attempted internal reforms according to an agreement signed 24 July 1907. The Korean soldiery resisted the attempts to disarm them and in the two years of intermittent fighting 21,000 natives and 1,300 Japanese lost their lives. At Harbin, 26 Oct. 1909, Prince Ito, and shortly afterward, in California, Mr. D. W. Stevens, an American adviser, were shot to death by Korean assassins. To this date, 1910, Japan's outlay of money for railways, military and reforms in Korea had amounted to $72,000,000. Driven by necessity to the final step of annexation, which was taken 22 Aug. 1910, the Mikado declared that “all Koreans under his sway shall enjoy growing prosperity and welfare and be assured of repose and security,” while he called upon “all his officials and authorities to fulfil their duties in appreciation of his will.” How thoroughly Japan has carried out her purpose of reconstruction, in every department of human activity and the opening to the Koreans of all avenues to prosperity — the purpose being to give, in time, to Koreans the same privileges as Japanese subjects enjoy — may be seen in the annual reports, issued by the resident-general from 1908 to 1914 and copiously illustrated. In Count S. Terauchi, born in Choshi in 1852, the year of Commodore Perry's arrival, a worthy successor of versatile ability and indomitable energy was

found to Prince Ito. The first work was in sanitation and cleanliness. Smallpox, always epidemic (exactly as in old Japan), and formerly an almost annual visitant, causing at times nearly a thousand deaths in a day in Seoul alone, is now only sporadic. In one year 5,400,000 Koreans were compelled to receive vaccination. Cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, diphtheria were also chronic visitants — often brought from China — and have almost ceased to be epidemics. Housecleaning twice a year is now compulsory. In 1913, with cholera almost unknown, the cases and deaths from all epidemic diseases were 4,068 and 805, respectively. In 1913, 384,006 patients were treated in the government charity hospitals and 2,406,126 visits made to patients. Silk raising is now a native industry, over 13,000,000 mulberry seedlings furnished the food material for the worms. The annual rice, wheat and barley crops have been doubled. In 1915, a great national exhibition was held in Seoul which showed that in every one of the 13 divisions of Korea modern methods in sanitation, agriculture, education and industry were in operation or had made beginnings. The revenue for 1914-15 was 59,412,966 yen. The total trade for 1914 was 97,620,248 yen. In March 1913, 49,328 native pupils attended the government schools and 2,190 the private schools, besides 28,173 Japanese were under instruction; the official expenditures being 1,141,952 yen. The work of railways, road-making, harbor improvements and survey, sanitation, silk culture, agricultural development, banking (one family in 600 having a savings account) and finance, and the general prosperity and uplift of the people, as shown in annual publications both official and private, are remarkable. Japan, as a devotee of science and a pastmaster in the art of rejuvenating nations, profits by her own experience in renewing her own body politic, after the long marasmus and anæmia of centuries brought on in all three countries under Chinese culture by hermitage and bad government. Hence the vigor and thoroughness with Korea — apart from any question of political morality — for Japan is scarcely less severe with Korea than she has been with herself. Great as is the work done for the Koreans, their contact with the world, by changing the status from one of hermitage and degeneration to one of brotherhood and progress, bids fair to produce even greater ultimate results for the good of themselves and the race.

Language. — Korea since early times has employed two languages: Chinese for writings and native Korean for speech, Chinese if spoken being an acquirement like French in America. The literature in Chinese is sometimes translated into Korean, however; and the work of the missionaries in making general use of the en-mun or native script has reacted to the great appreciation by the Koreans of their own language. The reforms are proclaimed in the vernacular.

Korean is of a not extreme agglutinative type, belonging to the polysyllabic branch of the Mongol-Tartar languages like Japanese, and unlike the monosyllabic Chinese; it is structurally unrelated to the latter, though it has very many Chinese loan-words, pronounced after its own phonology. Its resemblances to Japanese are far closer: mutual translations

word for word, and even particle for particle, are quite feasible. The particles and grammatical terminations in both represent punctuation, emphasis and inflection of nouns and verbs. The honorific vocabulary — almost a complete ceremonial language even in construction, to express relations between superiors and inferiors and equals — is common to both. The differences are mainly euphonic: Korean vowels are heavily assimilated to those which follow, the syllables need not end with a vowel, and the spelling is as irregular as English, none of which is true of Japanese.

The grammar of Korean is extremely flexible and pregnant; like Chinese, the roots are invariable. There are no inflectional forms for number, person or case, or conjunction of verbs, and no form for gender; all are indicated by particles without meaning, or whose meaning has been lost, affixed to the stem, and varying with its terminal letter, as consonant, vowel or liquid. There are no pronouns of the first and second person; the third, with relational particles, serving for both. Development has expended itself on the verbs, which are marvels of varied, flexible and ingenious expressiveness. Many words not primarily verbs can be turned into them (as in English), and these with the true verbs constitute 20 per cent of the entire vocabulary. The grammatical forms of the verb are said to average 300. Adjectives and adverbs are not distinguished from the verbs, and the prepositions are verb forms. All conditions expressed by inflections in Western languages — present, continuing, past, unfinished or completed, optative, subjunctive, potential, interrogative, participial, etc. — exist in Korean, and a vast number of others expressed by us in long sentences. Some verbs have no passive, but all have a negative voice. There is no number; the three persons in every variant are expressed by courtesy forms — one to or of superiors, one for equals, one for inferiors or of things. The syntax is positional, as with Chinese, The object precedes the verb or other governing word, the prepositions are postpositions, the adjective precedes the noun it qualifies and the adverb its verb or adjective (as in English). A dependent clause precedes its principal.

Korean has an alphabet of 25 letters, 14 consonants and 11 vowels, a very simple and scientific one, analyzed by organs of speech. The vowels are a, ya, ŭ, yŭ, o, yo, u, yu, i, eu, ă; with the diphthongs è, é, e'. The consonants are — labials, p, ph, m; dentals, t, th, n, l; palatals, ch, chh, s; gutturals, k, kh; laryngeals, (?) h, ng final. There are no letters f, v, w, b, d, g, j or z, though (except the first, which is replaced by p) they exist in speech. There is but one character for l and r, and neither of them can begin a word, their place being taken by n. The characters — women and children's only, the true “learned” characters being Chinese — are of an extreme simplicity, contrasting strongly with the complex Chinese; and there is a cursive form. This alphabet is called en-mun, “the vulgar”; and there is a system called nido, in which the letters are grouped in the 199 possible combinations and learned by rote. The writing is in syllables, in columns from right to left, as with Chinese. There is already a very respectable volume of Christian literature expressed in en-mun and the newspapers of the capital and large cities are printed in this character.

Bibliography. — Allen, H. N., ‘Korea, Fact and Fancy’ (Seoul 1904); id., ‘Things Korean’ (New York 1908); Aston, W. G., ‘Corean Popular Literature’ (in ‘Asiatic Society of Japan Proceedings,’ Vol. XVIII, Tokio 1890); Bishop, I. B., ‘Korea and her Neighbors’ (New York 1898); Blakeslee, G. M. (ed.), ‘China and the Far East’ (clark University Lectures, New York 1910); Braecke, Gustave, 'La Corée, sa situation économique et ses richesses minières' (in Revue Universelle des Mines, Vol. LIX, 3d series, Liége 1902); Carles, W. R., ‘Life in Corea’ (London 1888); (Cavendish and Goold-Adams, ‘Korea’ (ib. 1894); Coulson, C. G. D., ‘Korea’ (ib. 1910); Crist, R. F., ‘Report on Trade Conditions in Japan and Korea’ (Washington 1906); Curzon, ‘Problems of the Far East’ (rev. ed.. New York 1896); Gale, J. S., ‘Korean-English Dictionary’ (Yokohama 1897); id., ‘Korea in Transition’ (1909); Gilmore, G. W., ‘Korea from its Capital’ (Philadelphia 1892); Griffis, W. E., ‘Corea Without and Within’ (Philadelphia 1885); id., ‘Corea, the Hermit Nation’ (9th ed., New York 1911); id., ‘A Modern Pioneer in Korea; The Life Story of Henry G. Appenzeller’ (New York 1912); Haegeholz, ‘Korea und die Koreaner’ (Stuttgart 1913); Hamilton, Angus, ‘Korea’ (New York 1904); Hamilton and Austin, ‘Korea: Its History, its People, and its Commerce’ (Boston 1910); Hough, Walter, ‘The Bernadon, Allen and Jouy Korean Collections in the United States National Museum’ (in Annual Report of the United States National Museum, Washington 1892); Hulbert, H. B., ‘Korean Language’ (in Smithsonian Institution Annual Report of 1903, ib. 1904); id., ‘Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Languages of India’ (Seoul 1905); id., ‘The Passing of Korea’ (New York 1906); Jones, G. H., ‘Korea: The Land, People, and Customs’ (ib. 1907); Keir, B. M., ‘Modern Korea’ (in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. XLVI, ib. 1914); Kemp, E. G., ‘Face of Manchuria, Korea, and Russian Turkestan’ (ib. 1911); Ladd, G. T., ‘In Korea with Marquis Ito’ (London 1908); id., ‘The Annexation of Korea’ (in Yale Review, Vol. I, New Haven 1912); Longford, J. H., ‘The Story of Korea’ (London 1911); Lowell, Percival, ‘Chosön, the Land of the Morning Calm’ (Boston 1886); Madralle, Claude, ‘Northern China, the Valley of the Blue River, Korea’ (Paris 1912); McKenzie, F. A., ‘The Tragedy of Korea’ (London 1908); Moose, J, R., ‘Village Life in Korea’ (Nashville, Tenn., 1911); Norman, Sir H., ‘People and Politics of the Far East’ (London 1907); Oppert, E. J., ‘Forbidden Land: Voyages to the Korea’ (London 1880); Residency-General in Korea, ‘National Progress of Korea for Last Five Years, 1905-10’ (Tokio 1910); Rockhill, W. W., ‘Treaties and Conventions with or concerning China and Korea, 1894-1904’ (Washington 1904) Rosny, Léon de, ‘Les Coréens’ (Paris 1888); Ross, John, ‘History of Corea, Ancient and Modern’ (London 1891); Savage-Landor, A. H., ‘Corea, or Cho-sen’ (New York 1895); Terriou, René, ‘Le status international de la Corée antérieurement au 29 août 1910’ (Paris 1911); Terry, T. P., ‘The Japanese Empire, Including Korea and Formosa’ (Boston 1914); Villetard de Laguérie, ‘La Corée indépendante’ (Paris 1898)

title: The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Korea


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Guthrie, George James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Guthrie, Henry


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158 question, that the coo-ee will be heard at a greater distance than any other sound which the human voice articulates—a fact which, in whatever light regarded, must be taken as some evidence of a keen perception, or intuitive sense of the perfect, being the gift of those with whom the word and sound originated.

The next point to be considered in connection with the coo-ee is its history—its origin and application. The origin of the coo-ee is readily guessed. The first thing which would suggest itself to the first aboriginal immigrants, previous to setting out from the northern coast, where they first landed, was the necessity of having some shout whereby they would be enabled mutually to hold converse amid the depths of the forest which extended before them. Whether the coo-ee was then for the first time invented, or whether the note was an importation which the first voyagers carried with them from the shares of Southern India; whether, in fine, the sound was that first adopted and used, or whether it was discovered at a subsequent period during the migrations of the tribes, it is impossible to say and of little consequence to know. Suffice it that the coo-ee was, when Australia was first discovered, and is at the present day, universally used by the aborigines from one extreme of the country to the other.

Although it is certain that the chief purpose to which the coo-ee is applied by the aborigines, as well as by the Europeans, is that of maintaining a running correspondence when the tribes are engaged in


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160 reserves, and a determination at all hazards to preserve them intact, are here manifested; but had it been known to the early settlers, or even to the European new-comer of later days, that the rules of aboriginal good manners forbade any individual or party to approach uninvited a watering-place in the possession of any tribe, the demeanour of the blacks on those occasions referred to would have prevented wonder, and might have saved many a fierce encounter. Yet such was and is the case. The coo-ee is not only used as a call, but is employed as a salutation or a warning; and thus when a tribe, in its migratory wanderings, approaches a lagoon, it is the invariable practice among the blacks to despatch one of their number in advance, who, standing at a distance from the water, "coo-ees" at the top of his voice. If the banks of the pool are already in the possession of a tribe the coo-ee is answered, and the approaching tribe, halting at some distance, never attempt to approach till invited by the pre-occupants of the place. Thus the coo-ee is to the New Hollander a most valuable and necessary auxiliary in all his enterprises and daily pursuits—his friend in the hour of peril, as it calls his companions to his side, or enables him to rejoin their society; his valuable auxiliary in his great enterprises, as by its aid every member of a family party or tribe are assembled at a moment's notice for council or for war; and, lastly, in his conventional usages, his note of salutation, enabling him to preserve that ceremonious and


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162 river nor wide-spreading verdant plain, such as stud the vast interior, to render game abundant, or afford a promising hunting-ground, or develop an abundance of esculent roots. Thus it is apparent that if the aboriginal tribes spread over the entire colony did not exceed in numerical ratio those contained within the scope of country in question, they were not much deficient in this respect. An official, who had charge of a missionary station at Port Macquarie in 1840, speaks of the aboriginal population in that district as having been numbered at one time by thousands. If, in addition to these data, we take the testimony of various travellers, so often adduced in these papers, to the frequency with which tribes of blacks were met with throughout the colony; if, more particularly, we reflect on the numbers of aborigines which must have been engaged throughout the colony in the disturbances of 1841-2, in order to produce the results previously described; and if we consider that the tribes of Moreton Bay at the present day possess sufficient numerical strength, as well as sufficient daring, to offer very effective resistance to the progress of colonization, the conclusion becomes inevitable that the entire population of the present colony of New South Wales could not, at the period of the first settlement of Australia, have been less than 50,000. Proceeding to Port Phillip, our data become still more satisfactory. A gentleman who has been for several years connected with the Protectorate of Aborigines in that colony recently stated in public


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164 of whom were full-grown men, while he described a native village which was met with at another place during the course of his travels as numbering seventy substantially-constructed huts, each of which was capable of accommodating fifteen persons; and in the entire progress of the expedition large tribes were continually met with. In the young colony of Western Australia, where colonization has yet made but comparatively small progress, all accounts tend to show that the aboriginal population is at the present day so numerous that they still divide the mastery of the country with the colonists. The most recent accounts, while they speak of the old settlements as the biding-places of large numbers of aborigines, set forth that there was considerable danger that many of the more remote stations and villages would have to be abandoned, in consequence of the hostility of the numerous tribes who inhabit the borders of the colony. Advancing to the north, the only information which we possess is that derived from the explorations of Leichhardt through the interior, and the surveys of Stokes and others on the coast. The former, in the journal of his first expedition, speaks of meeting with tribes of aboriginals almost throughout the entire course of his travels, and where the tribes themselves were not visible, traces of their wanderings, as the tracks of their camp-fires, the remains of their mia-mias, burying-places, utensils, and weapons were almost continually observable. Stokes, on the other hand,


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 Travers was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1813, and he was also elected without opposition a surgeon to St. Thomas's Hospital upon the death of Mr. Birch in March 1815. In the following year he resigned his surgeoncy under the East India Company, though he retained the post of surgeon to the Eye Infirmary until 1816. He took possession of Astley Cooper's house at 3 New Broad Street in 1816, when that surgeon moved to Spring Gardens, and he soon acquired a fair share of practice. At this time he suffered so much from palpitation of the heart that he discontinued his clinical lectures, and in 1819 resigned his joint lectureship on surgery with Astley Cooper, though he again began to lecture upon surgery in 1834 in conjunction with Frederick Tyrell [q. v.], at St. Thomas's Hospital. He was chosen president of the Hunterian Society in 1827, and in the same year he acted as president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society.

He filled all the important offices at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. He was elected a member of the council in 1830; Hunterian orator in 1838; examiner in surgery, 1841–58; chairman of the board of midwifery examiners, 1855; vice-president in the years 1845, 1846, 1854, 1855, and president in 1847 and 1856. He was a member of the veterinary examining committee in 1833, and on the formation of the queen's medical establishment he was appointed one of her surgeons extraordinary, afterwards becoming surgeon in ordinary to the prince consort and serjeant-surgeon.

Travers was the first hospital surgeon in England to devote himself to the surgery of the eye, and with his colleague (Sir) William Lawrence he did much to elevate this branch of surgery from the condition of quackery into which it had fallen. Travers was also a good pathologist, inheriting the best traditions of the Hunterian school, for he worked upon an experimental basis. He died at his house in Green Street, Grosvenor Square, on 6 March 1858, and was buried at Hendon in Middlesex. He was thrice married: first, to Sarah, daughter of William Morgan (1750–1833) [q. v.], in 1809; secondly, in 1813, to the daughter of G. Millet, an East India director; and thirdly, in 1831, to the youngest daughter of Colonel Stevens. He had a large family, but the eldest son alone was educated for the medical profession.

There is a bust of Travers at the Royal College of Surgeons in Lincoln's Inn Fields. It was executed in 1858 by William Behnes (1794–1864). A portrait painted by C. R. Leslie belongs to the family.

Travers published: 1. ‘An Inquiry into the Process of Nature in repairing Injuries of the Intestines,’ London, 1812, 8vo. 2. ‘A Synopsis of the Diseases of the Eye and their Treatment,’ London, 1820, 8vo; 3rd ed. 1824, issued in New York, 1825. 3. ‘An Inquiry concerning … Constitutional Irritation,’ London, 8vo, 1826; this was followed by ‘a Further Inquiry’ into the same subject, published in 1835. 4. ‘The Physiology of Inflammation and the Healing Process,’ London, 1844, 8vo.

[Medical Times and Gazette, 1858, xvi. 270; Lancet, 1851 i. 48, 1858 ii. 278; Gent. Mag. 1858, i. 444; Pettigrew's Medical Portrait Gallery, vol. iii.]  TRAVERS, EATON STANNARD (1782–1858), rear-admiral, born in 1782, was third son of John Travers of Hethyfield Grange, co. Cork. He entered the navy in September 1798 on board the Juno in the North Sea, where during the following year he was actively engaged in boat service along the coast of Holland. He was similarly employed in the West Indies during 1800–1. In March 1802 he was moved to the Elephant, and in October 1803 to the Hercule, then carrying the flag of Sir John Thomas Duckworth. In November, Duckworth remaining at Jamaica, the Hercule was attached to the squadron under Commodore Loring, blockading Cape Français. On 30 Nov., when the French ships agreed to surrender, Travers was with Lieutenant Nisbet Josiah Willoughby [q. v.] in the launch which took possession of the Clorinde after she had got on shore, and claimed to have been the chief agent in saving the ship by swimming to the shore and so making fast a hawser, by which the frigate was hauled off the rocks. In January and February 1804 he was again with Willoughby in the advance battery at the siege of Curaçoa, and was afterwards publicly thanked by the admiral for his gallantry and good conduct. On 23 Sept. 1804 he was promoted to be lieutenant and to command the schooner Ballahou; but in February 1805, on her being ordered to Newfoundland, Travers was appointed to the Surveillante, in which again he saw some very active and sharp boat service on the Spanish Main.

In 1806 the Hercule returned to England, and in December Travers was appointed to the Alcmène frigate, employed on the coast of France till she was wrecked off the mouth of the Loire on 29 April 1809. He was afterwards in the Impérieuse, in the Wal-


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166 advancement of colonization, whether in the capacity of native police, or as stockmen, shepherds, and hutkeepers.

Now, taking the estimated population of New South Wales at the period of the foundation of the colony as the basis of our calculations, and dividing the entire country into divisions of an area similar to that of New South Wales, allowing to each division an amount of population equal to that of the same colony, the result of our calculations would be about half a million of inhabitants for the whole territory of New Holland. The population has been estimated at infinitely less than this, but if reliance is to be placed on the early historians of the colony, and on the reports of those at present officially interested in the question in the neighbouring colonies, there is no reason why we should not take the number above given as a very near approximation to the truth. When we reflect that the experience of each day tends to show that the country possesses the means of affording all the means of sustenance, to an extent before unthought of, and when we consider that there is no reason for doubting that those regions still untrod by Europeans are among the most prolific of all Australia—prolific, at all events, in the necessaries of aboriginal life—the conclusion becomes established, beyond doubt, that each hundred square miles of New Holland supports as many sable inhabitants as any equal extent of country yet explored. If this be admitted, to set down the aboriginal


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 cheren expedition, and in 1810 in the Mediterranean, where for the next four years he was almost incessantly engaged in minor operations against the enemy's coasting vessels and coast batteries along the shores of France and Italy. By his captains and the commander-in-chief he was repeatedly recommended for his zeal, activity, and gallantry; but it was not till 15 June 1814 that he received the often-earned promotion to the rank of commander. He is said ‘to have been upwards of 100 times engaged with the enemy; to have been in command at the blowing up and destruction of eight batteries and three martello-towers; and to have taken part in the capture of about 60 vessels, 18 or 20 of them armed, and several cut out from under batteries.’

The Impérieuse was paid off in September 1814, and Travers was left unemployed till the summer of 1828, when he was appointed to command the Rose. From her he was advanced to post rank on 19 Nov. 1829, mainly, it would seem, at the desire of the Duke of Clarence, who had been made acquainted with his long and peculiarly active war service, and who as William IV nominated him a K.H. on 4 Feb. 1834, and knighted him on 5 March. Travers had no further employment afloat; he became a rear-admiral on the retired list on 9 July 1855, and died at Great Yarmouth on 4 March 1858. He married, in April 1815, Anne, eldest daughter of William Steward of Yarmouth, and left issue five sons and two daughters.

[O'Byrne's Nav. Biogr. Dict.; Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biogr. x. (vol. iii. pt. ii.) p. 90—a memoir of unusual fulness, contributed, it would seem, as to the facts, by Travers himself; James's Naval History, freq.; Gent. Mag. 1858, i. 441.]  TRAVERS, JAMES (1820–1884), general, son of Major-general Sir Robert Travers, K.C.M.G., C.B., of the 10th foot, was born on 6 Oct. 1820. After passing through the military college of the East India Company at Addiscombe he received a commission as second lieutenant in the Bengal infantry on 11 June 1838. He arrived at Fort William, Calcutta, on 12 Jan. 1839, and did duty with the 57th native infantry at Barrackpore until he was posted to the 2nd native infantry at Firozpur on 12 April 1839.

He served with his regiment in the Afghan war, and took part on 3 Jan. 1841 in the successful action of Lundi, Nowah, near Shahrak, when Captain H. W. Farrington dispersed the forces of Aktar Khan in the Zamin-Dawar. He was promoted to be first lieutenant on 7 June 1841. He was particularly mentioned in despatches (Calcutta Gazette, 22 Sept. 1841) for his services with the force in the Zamin-Dawar under Captain John Griffin on 17 Aug., when five thousand horse and foot under Akram Khan and Aktar Khan were totally defeated at Sikandarabad on the right bank of the Halmand. He took part in the action of 12 Jan. 1842, when Major-general (afterwards Sir) William Nott [q. v.] defeated a force of fifteen thousand men under Atta Muhammad and Suftar Jang at Killa Shuk, near Kandahar. On 23 Feb. Travers was directed to do duty with the 1st irregular cavalry (Skinner's horse) under Captain Haldane. He was engaged in the operations under Nott on the rivers Tarnak and Argand-ab from 7 to 12 March, and was slightly wounded on 25 March at the action of Babawalli, when Lieutenant-colonel Wymer, afterwards supported by Nott himself, defeated the enemy. Travers was mentioned in despatches (Lond. Gazette, 6 Sept. 1842). On the march to Ghazni with Nott, Travers was engaged in the cavalry fight under Captain Christie at Mukur on 28 Aug., and in the action under Nott at Ghoain on 30 Aug. He was at the capture of Ghazni on 6 Sept., and in the actions fought by Nott at Beni-badain and Maidan on 14 and 15 Sept., and on the 17th arrived with the army at Kabul, where Nott's camp was established some five miles west of the city.

Travers left Kabul on 12 Oct. with the united armies of Nott and Pollock, was engaged in the fight at the Haft Kotal on 14 Oct., and arrived at Firozpur on 23 Dec. For his services in the war Travers received three medals, and was recommended for a brevet majority on attaining the rank of captain.

Travers returned to regimental duty in March 1843, and was appointed adjutant of the Bhopal contingent on the 15th of that month. He was promoted to be captain on 7 Jan. 1846, and to be brevet major the following day. In the same month he joined the army of the Satlaj. He commanded a Masiri battalion of Gurkhas in Sir Harry Smith's division at the battle of Sobraon on 10 Feb. 1846, and was mentioned in Sir Hugh Gough's despatch of 13 Feb. (Lond. Gazette, 27 March and 1 April 1846). He received a medal for his services in this campaign. On 24 March 1846 he was appointed second in command of the Bhopal


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 contingent, on 13 Feb. 1850 postmaster at Sihor, on 20 June 1854 he was promoted to be lieutenant-colonel, on 22 Aug. 1855 was appointed officiating commandant, and on 15 Feb. 1856 commandant, of the Bhopal contingent. In this year he commanded a force in the field against Sankar Sing, and received the thanks of government for his services. On 6 Dec. 1856 he was promoted to be colonel.

After the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 Travers moved in the middle of June from Bhopal to Indur, where Colonel (afterwards Sir) Henry Marion Durand [q. v.] was the resident, and assumed command of the forces there. On 1 July some of Holkar's troops mutinied, and thirty-nine persons were massacred. Travers, uncertain of his own men, nevertheless no sooner heard the guns than he formed up the picket where they could most advantageously charge the guns of the mutineers, and at once ordered them to advance. Gallantly leading them, he drove away the gunners, wounded Saadat Khan, the inciter of the mutiny, and for a few moments had the guns in his possession. But he found only five men had followed him, and, as they were completely exposed to a galling infantry fire, he was obliged to retire. The charge, however, by creating a favourable diversion, not only enabled Durand to place the residency guns in position and to make some hurried arrangements for defence, but allowed many persons to escape to the residency. Travers opened fire from the residency guns, but his cavalry were leaving him, and his efforts to induce his infantry to charge were unavailing. The ladies and children were therefore placed on gun-carriages, and, covered by the cavalry, which, though willing to follow Travers, would not fight for him, the little band moved out of the residency, and arrived at Sihor on 4 July. For his services he received the war medal, and for his special gallantry in charging the guns on 1 July, which Durand brought to notice in his despatches, Travers was awarded the Victoria Cross on 1 March 1861.

Travers returned to duty with his old regiment, the 2nd native infantry, in 1858. On 8 Sept. 1860 he was appointed commandant of the Central India horse, on 25 Oct. 1861 brigadier-general commanding Saugor district, on 23 July 1865 he was promoted to be major-general, and the same year received a good-service pension. He was given the command of the Mirat division on 5 Aug. 1869, was promoted to be lieutenant-general on 5 Feb. 1873, and was made a companion of the Bath, military division, on 24 May 1873. Travers was permitted on 3 July 1874 to reside out of India. He was promoted to be general on 1 Oct. 1877, and was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list on 1 July 1881. He died at Pallanza, Italy, on 1 April 1884. Travers published in 1876 ‘The Evacuation of Indore,’ to refute statements in Kaye's ‘History of the Sepoy War.’

[India Office Records; Despatches; Gent. Mag. 1884; Vibart's Addiscombe, its Heroes and Men of Note; Kaye's History of the War in Afghanistan, 1838–42; Kaye's History of the Sepoy War; Malleson's History of the Indian Mutiny; Stocqueler's Memorials of Afghanistan; Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers, Occasional Papers Series. vol. iii. 1879, Paper vii.; Durand's First Afghan War; Last Counsels of an Unknown Counsellor, by Major Evans Bell.]

TRAVERS, JOHN (1703?–1758), musician, born about 1703, received his early musical education in the choir of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. By the generosity of Henry Godolphin [q. v.], dean of St. Paul's and provost of Eton College, he was apprenticed to Maurice Greene [q. v.] He afterwards studied with John Christopher Pepusch [q. v.], and copied, says Burney, ‘the correct, dry, and fanciless style of his master.’ On Pepusch's death Travers succeeded, by bequest, to a portion of his fine musical library. About 1725 he became organist of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, and afterwards of Fulham church. On 10 May 1737 he succeeded Jonathan Martin (1715–1737) [q. v.] as organist of the Chapel Royal, a post which he held until his death in 1758.

Travers wrote much church music, including ‘The whole Book of Psalms for one, two, three, four, or five voices, with a thorough bass for the harpsichord’ (1750?). His service in F and his anthem ‘Ascribe unto the Lord’ are still in frequent use. Of his secular compositions the best known are his ‘Eighteen Canzonets,’ the words being from the posthumous works of Matthew Prior, which enjoyed great popularity in their day.

[Georgian Era, iv. 515; Burney's General History of Music, iii. 619, iv. 639; Grove's Dict. of Music and Musicians, iv. 162.]  TRAVERS, REBECCA (1609–1688), quakeress, born in 1609, was daughter of a baptist named Booth, and from the age of six devoutly studied the Bible. At an early age she married William Travers, a tobacconist at the Three Feathers, Watling Street, London. In 1654 curiosity led her to hear a dispute between James Naylor [q. v.] and the baptists. Soon afterwards she met Naylor privately, became a sound quaker, and his good friend. Her stability and discretion contrasted with the extravagances of the handful of quaker women who contributed to Naylor's fall. Rebecca Travers visited him in prison, and, upon his release in


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Rh way it came to pass, as recorded by general report and colonial tradition, was this:—A colonist, who, probably, had accumulated a fortune in the far interior of New South Wales by wholesaling and retailing slops, tobacco, grog, and other necessaries and luxuries to the settlers, shepherds, and blacks, and had returned to England to expend a portion of his wealth among the scenes of his youth, was passing through one of the most populous streets of the city in company with his wife. Unaccustomed to perambulating in crowded thoroughfares, the good lady unwittingly strayed from the side of her husband. The latter, on missing his charge, ran anxiously about for some minutes to seek her out, and, failing in his search, jumped on to the elevated footway of a neighbouring bridge, and, with instinctive forethought, "coo-eed" most lustily, to the utter bewilderment, of gazing Londoners. Nor was the surprise of the spectators in any way diminished when their ears were greeted with the repetition of the outlandish sound from a distant part of the street, where the lost wife, catching the familiar notes, responded in shrill treble to the reverberating tenor of her lord.

Even among those who have been long familiar with the call of the Australian forests, it may not be generally known that in one particular it bears the palm from all other known intonations. This peculiar excellence consists in its adaptation for conveying the voice to a distance. It is pretty well ascertained by those competent to decide on the


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Rh hunting excursions, calling together the dispersed members of the same families, or regaining the haunts of men when an individual or a party may have lost the beaten path or strayed into the depths of the primeval forest, far from village or hut, still it must not be imagined that to those commonplace uses alone is the coo-ee applied. It has already been shown that some of the most deadly encounters which have taken place between the aborigines and the Europeans originated in the usurpation by the latter of the freshwater streams, creeks, and lagoons of the former. The banks of the rivers and other freshwater reservoirs were, to all intents, the homes of the aborigines, and accordingly these places they defended with that tenacity and boldness which attachment to home could alone inspire; and it has been observed by various explorers and travellers that tribes of blacks, otherwise frank and hospitable in their intercourse with the whites, have evinced considerable coolness and a lurking hostility whenever a body of the latter have approached suddenly or unceremoniously the banks of a creek. On these occasions it has not unfrequently happened that the whole tribe, with the exception of a patriarch who would come forward to hold parley, have remained seated close to the water, each individual preserving a sullen silence and keeping his weapons within reach of his hand, while the women and children would remain motionless at a short distance behind. Now, a jealousy of any encroachment on their water


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 September 1659, lodged him for a time at her house.

A fearless and powerful preacher, she attended at St. John the Evangelist's church in the same year and questioned the priest upon his doctrine. He hurried away, leaving her to be jostled and abused. Gough says she was three times in Newgate in 1664, but these imprisonments are not recorded in Besse's ‘Sufferings.’ She early took a prominent part among the quaker women, being specially trusted with the care of the sick, poor, and prisoners. She visited the prisons at Ipswich and elsewhere. In 1671, a year before the representative yearly meeting, the ‘six weeks' meeting’ was established as a court of appeal. It was composed of ‘ancient Friends’—i.e. in experience and quaker standing, not age—and Rebecca Travers was one of its first members. It still exists, as does also the ‘box meeting’ for the relief of poor Friends, which was first started at her house. Rebecca Travers died on 15 June 1688, aged 79. A son, Matthew, and at least one daughter survived. She was author of ten small works, including a volume of religious verse, and prefaces to two of Naylor's books; also (this is not given in Smith's ‘Catalogue’) of ‘The Work of God in a Dying Maid,’ London, 1677, 12mo (two editions); reprinted Dublin, 1796, 12mo; London, 1854, 24mo. It is the account of the conversion to quakerism and subsequent death of Susan Whitrow, a modish young lady of fifteen.

[Neal's Hist. of Puritans, v. 277; Gough's Hist. of Quakers, iii. 219–23; Barclay's Letters of Early Friends, p. 129; Sewel's Hist. of the Rise, ii. 352; Smith's Cat. ii. 820; Whitehead's Christian Progress, pp. 292, 294; Beck and Ball's London Friends' Meetings, pp. 92, 129, 351; Besse's Sufferings, i. 484; Whitehead's Impartial Relation of Naylor, p. xxi; Registers at Devonshire House, E.C.; Swarthmore MSS., where are three original letters.]  TRAVERS, WALTER (1548?–1635), puritan divine, eldest son of Walter Travers, a goldsmith, of Brydelsmith Gate, Nottingham, by his wife Anne, was born at Nottingham about 1548. The father, a strong puritan, divided his lands among his three sons, Walter, John, and Humphrey, and his only daughter, Ann (see copy of his will, proved 18 Jan. 1575 at P. C. Nottingham, in Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. v. 27).

Travers matriculated as a student at Christ's College, Cambridge, on 11 July 1560, graduated B.A. 1565, M.A. 1569, was elected a junior fellow of Trinity on 8 Sept. 1567, and senior fellow 25 March 1569 (, Hist. of the Univ. Cambr. p. 631). Whitgift was then master, and professed afterwards that had he not left Cambridge he would have expelled Travers for nonconformity (, Life, i. 343). Travers went to Geneva, formed a lifelong friendship with Beza, then rector of the university, and became strengthened in his desire for reform within the church of England. He there wrote the famous ‘Ecclesiasticæ Disciplinæ et Anglicanæ Ecclesiæ ab illa Aberrationis plena è verbo Dei & dilucida explicatio,’ printed anonymously at La Rochelle, 1574, 8vo. This was at once ascribed to Travers's authorship. An English translation by Thomas Cartwright [q. v.], was entitled ‘A full and plaine declaration of Ecclesiasticall Discipline owt off the word off God, and off the declininge off the churche off England from the same, 1574’ [probably 1574–5], 4to; the Latin preface by Cartwright (cf. p. 7) is dated 2 Feb. In this work Travers discusses the proper calling, conduct, knowledge, apparel, and maintenance of a minister, the offices of doctors, bishops, pastors, and elders, and the functions of the consistory. He severely criticised the universities, calling them ‘the haunts of drones … monasteries whose inmates yawn and snore, rather than colleges of students.’

Nevertheless, on his return to England, Travers proceeded B.D. at Cambridge, and was incorporated D.D. at Oxford 11 July 1576. He declined to subscribe, and was unable to obtain a license to preach (cf. Cal. State Papers, Dom. Addenda, 1566–79, p. 528). Early in 1578, when Cartwright was settled in the Low Countries, it was suggested by Henry Killigrew to William Davison [q. v.], the English ambassador there, that Travers should found an English service for the merchants at Antwerp (ib. pp. 532, 534, 540, 542, 544, 549). After taking leave of his mother at Nottingham, he went over about April, and on 14 May was ordained by Cartwright, Villiers, and others at Antwerp, preaching his ordination sermon the same day to a large congregation (, Church Hist. bk. ix. p. 214;, Hist. of Puritans, i. 289).

In a year or two Travers was back in England, perhaps as pastor at Ringwood, Hampshire, and acting as domestic chaplain to Lord-treasurer Burghley, and tutor to his son Robert Cecil (afterwards Earl of Salisbury). In 1581, recommended by Burghley and by two letters from Bishop Aylmer of London, he was appointed afternoon lecturer at the Temple, Richard Alvey being master. At the Lambeth conference of distinguished laymen and clergy in September 1584 Travers was the chief advocate


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Rh respectful demeanour in his relations towards his fellow-men which is the best safeguard against hatred and deadly strife.

In seeking to fix the numerical amount of the aboriginal population of New Holland, as a matter of course approximation alone can be aimed at with any prospect of success. Notwithstanding, however, that no complete or well-sustained statistical information with regard to the aborigines has ever existed, sufficient data is available to enable their numbers to be fixed with a tolerable degree of accuracy. As our facts and figures are founded principally on the ascertained condition of the blacks in those districts where they have but little or no intercourse with Europeans, it will be more satisfactory and will involve less difficulty if we fix the period of our census about the time of the first colonization of Australia. Commencing with New South Wales, it has already been shown that the aboriginal population of the district included between Port Jackson and Broken Bay amounted, at the time of the arrival of the first colonizing expedition, to 1,500 souls. Now, although the country which formed the possessions of this population possessed some natural advantages, which would be certain to attract and retain a considerable number of inhabitants, yet in most respects it was not more favoured than other parts of the colony. Although the facilities for saltwater fishing were great, fresh water was scarce, and the soil comparatively barren. Here was no great


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Rh that in 1843 he found, as the result of an imperfect census, that the aboriginal population of the district of which he then had charge was 1,000, and expressed his belief, founded on extensive experience, that at the period of the foundation of the colony the number of the aborigines in the same district was not less than 8,000. From recent reports of the Protectors throughout the colony we find the present aboriginal population of the Portland Bay District, which is one of the chief centres of the European population, set down at 700 souls; of the Western Port District, 300; of the Wimmera District, 1,200; of the District of Grant, 70. These numbers, although only a fraction of the entire colony is embraced in the census, show a total of considerably more than 2,000. Now, taking this as the present population of a small section of the colony, and placing the fact thus arrived at in conjunction with the opinion of one well informed in these matters, that the population of another district of Port Phillip was originally 8,000, we are enabled, by a glance at the geographical features of the colony, which includes the great stronghold of the aborigines on the southern coast, Gippsland, to arrive at an estimate of the entire population. That population could not have been numerically much less than that fixed upon for New South Wales. Proceeding to South Australia, we have the testimony of Captain Sturt that, in the course of his explorations, his party once met with a concourse of aborigines numbering 600, nearly all


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Rh describes huts of a very superior character, bearing a stronger resemblance to the wigwams of the North American Indians than to the temporary sheltering places of the New Hollanders, which he met with on the northern coast of Australia, indicating a higher degree of culture in the architects than belongs to the more southern tribes, and, as a consequence, indicating a more numerous and a more comfortable population. Aboriginals were continually met by the surveying parties who landed, the tribes being in most instances friendly and hospitable, although in some instances they displayed great ferocity and treachery, the life of the commander himself having been on one occasion placed in imminent peril by a spear hurled by a skulking black who concealed himself in a neighbouring scrub, and who succeeded in fixing his weapon in the shoulder of Captain Stokes. In the explorations of the Albert and Victoria Rivers evidences of a numerous population were constantly observed along the banks, the chief of which were several cemeteries, in which the dead were wrapped in sheets of bark and placed on hurdles elevated by means of forked supports. Passing round to Moreton Bay and Wide Bay, we find the strongest evidence in support of the supposition that the northern parts of the territory are even more thickly inhabited than the southern, in the frequency of the daring attacks of the aborigines on the stations and settlements, and in the numbers of aboriginals who have been made subservient to the


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