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 And, first, It is needless to pronounce every letter so as to distinguish it from all others. For then words, which are composed of letters, would each have as many criterions as they have letters, and even more; for the order of the letters is a criterion, as well as the sound of each letter. In like manner, sentences would have as many compound criterions as they have words, besides the criterion arising from the particular order of the words.

Secondly, Since words are formed from combinations, not according to any rule, which brings up all the combinations of twos, threes, &c. in order, but by particular associations, agreeably to the nature of each language, since also sentences are formed in the same way, the several component parts of words and sentences suggest each other, and also the whole words and sentences, by the power of association. Thus the beginning is commonly observed to suggest the whole, both in words and sentences; and the same is true, in a less degree, of the middles and ends.

Thirdly, The subject matter of the discourse, the gestures used in speaking, a familiar acquaintance with the particular voice, pronunciation, gestures, &c. of the speaker, and other associated circumstances, contribute greatly also. And therefore, on the other hand, we find it difficult to distinguish proper names, and the words of an unknown language, and to understand a person that is a stranger, or that uses no action.

We may see also, that it is chiefly by the means of associated circumstances, that the sounds uttered by ventriloqui suggest to us the words which they are supposed to pronounce; for their articulation must be very incomplete, as they do not move their lips at all.

It is by a like set of associated circumstances that we are enabled to read with so much facility the irregular hand-writing of various persons, and of some more than others, in proportion as we are better acquainted with the subject, language, handwriting, &c.

the theory of sounds deduced from the nature of an elastic fluid, and the tremors of the particles of sounding bodies, and afterwards verified, as it has been, by numerous experiments, becomes a guide to us in all inquiries into the vibrations of other elastic mediums, such as the æther, and into the effects, which such vibrations must impart to and receive from the small particles that are surrounded by the elastic medium. And the general tendency which is found in natural bodies, either to yield a sound upon percussion, or at least to support and convey

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 sounds by receiving isochronous vibrations, and reflecting them, shews, that there are latent active powers in the small parts of bodies, which dispose them to vibrate. Now, if there be such powers in the biggest component particles, analogy inclines one to expect them in the several descending orders.

The doctrine of sounds does also furnish us with an answer to one of the principal and most obvious difficulties attending the supposition, that all sensation, thought, and motion, is performed by vibrations in the medullary substance. For it may be objected, that such a number of different vibrations as seems to be required in certain cases, can scarce exist together in the medullary substance. Thus it is not uncommon for a person to receive a series of sensations, carry on a train of thought, and perform a course of external actions, which have little connexion with each other, at the same time. Now to this we may answer, that vibrations as different from each other do, in fact, exist together in common air, in such a manner as to be perceived distinctly. Thus a person may listen to what part he pleases in a concert of music, and masters in the art can listen to more than one. They can also at the same time receive, attend to, and understand the vibrations of the air, arising from the discourse of other persons. But in whatever manner these different vibrations can exist together precisely at the same instant, or rather succeed each other at infinitesimal intervals, without confusion; in the same manner may vibrations and vibratiuncles exist together, or succeed each other, without confusion also, in the medullary substance. And by whatever power the soul is qualified to attend to, and distinguish from each other, these several vibrations of the air, by the same power may it correspond to the vibrations in the medullary substance, so that each shall have its peculiar effect of producing the appropriated sensation, thought, and motion. It is to be observed farther, that there is a difficulty in performing both the things here mentioned; that confusion does often arise; and that where any person is remarkable for doing more than one thing at once, it is in consequence of great practice, and also of exquisite mental powers, i.e. of an exquisite make of the medullary substance, according to the theory of these papers.

all moderate and tolerably uniform sounds please young children, and the original pleasures from concords sounded together, from the succession of both concords and discords, and even from clear musical sounds, considered separately, remain with us through the whole progress of life, it is evident, that

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 indicated that the pressure had been reduced by equal amounts, which indicated to Calnev personnel that the check valves still had not seated. The 200-psig reduction also indicated that the remaining pressure on the line was due to the weight of the liquid and, as the maintenance superintendent stated, "that additional efforts would be only minimally successful in reducing the pressure at the Highland Avenue location [derailment site]," because backflow sufficient to seat a 14-inch check valve clapper could not be induced by withdrawing product through a 1¼-inch opening. As a result, Calnev suspended activities to reduce further the pressure on the pipeline, which at 10:00 a.m. on May 12, was 800 psig at Colton, or about 50 percent of the maximum operating pressure established by Calnev. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, Calnev did not at that time consider the possibility that the check valves were malfunctioning, but believed that the check valves did not close because of the inadequacy of the method used to induce backflow.

Meanwhile, SP’s division mechanical officer and other SP personnel had arrived on site and in consultation with Calnev and the incident commander began discussing plans for removal of the railroad equipment. According to the division mechanical officer, "the plan was to remove the cars and in no way affect the pipeline." The plan included cutting a breach (road) in the railroad levee through which the railroad equipment would be moved to the other side of the track. According to the San Bernardino Fire Department and Calnev, SP was advised that when the cars were to be removed, all cars were to be lifted and not dragged over the pipeline. Calnev’s manager of operations testified that he was aware of an accident in Montclair, California, in the latter part of 1988, during which wreckage removal operations possibly caused damage to a pipeline and that he wanted to avoid a repeat of such an incident. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, he did not discuss with the Fire Department or SP at that time what actions Calnev would take to inspect its pipeline after the cars were removed. Search and rescue operations continued until late in the evening on May 12, and efforts to begin removal of the wreckage were delayed until the following day.

May 13, 1989.—On the morning of May 13, SP removed 50 to 75 feet of track in preparation for making the breach (road) through the railroad levee that would be used for removing the railroad wreckage from the east side of the track to the west side. According to SP’s division mechanical officer, the site of the breach was determined by a break in the distribution of wrecked cars on the east side of the track (figure 4). Once the breach had been made, two 225-ton cranes and several bulldozers and front-end loaders came through the breach from the west side of the track, crossed over the pipeline, and were positioned at various points around the wreckage (figures 6 and 7). SP’s division mechanical officer testified that a lot of the trona that had spilled from the train was used to cover the ground and that with the the trona and the fill removed from the levee, there was about 6 to 7 feet of cover over the normal level of the ground in the area through which the equipment was moved. At the time the breach in the levee was made, the exact depth of the pipeline below natural grade had not been determined. During the morning of May 12, Calnev personnel used a line locator and yellow paint to mark the location of the pipeline throughout the derailment area. Later


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 many of our intellectual pleasures must be illuminated and augmented by them. And on the contrary, harsh, irregular, and violently loud noises must add something to the disagreeableness of the objects and ideas with which they are often associated.

The pleasures of music are composed, as has been already observed, partly of the original, corporeal pleasures of sound, and partly of associated ones. When these pleasures are arrived at tolerable perfection, and the several compounding parts cemented sufficiently by association, they are transferred back again upon a great variety of objects and ideas, and diffuse joy, good-will, anger, compassion, sorrow, melancholy, &c. upon the various scenes and events of life; and so on reciprocally without perceptible limits.

The corporeal pleasures from articulate sounds are either evanescent from the first, or, however, become so very early in life. By this means we are much better qualified to receive information, with mental pleasure and improvement, from them; and the ear becomes, like the eye, a method of perception suited to the wants of a spiritual being. And indeed when we compare the imperfections of such as have never heard, with those of persons that have never seen, it appears, that the ear is of much more importance to us, considered as spiritual beings, than the eye. This is chiefly owing to the great use and necessity of words for the improvement of our knowledge, and enlargement of our affections; of which I shall have particular occasion to treat hereafter. An accurate inquiry into the mental progress of persons deprived of the advantages of language, by being born deaf, would be a still better test of the theory of these papers, than a like inquiry concerning persons born blind.

ideas which audible impressions leave in the region of the brain, that corresponds to the auditory nerves, are, next to the ideas of sight, the most vivid and definite of any; and all the observations above made upon the ideas of sight may be applied to those of hearing, proper changes and allowances being made. Thus, after hearing music, conversing much with the same person, in general disorders of the brain, or particular ones of the nervous spasmodic kind in the stomach, after taking opium, in dreams, in madness, trains of audible ideas force themselves upon the fancy, in nearly the same manner, as trains of visible ideas do in like cases. And it may be, that in passing over words with our eye, in viewing objects, in thinking, and particularly in writing and speaking, faint miniatures of the sounds of words pass over the ear. I even suspect, that in speaking, these miniatures are the associated circumstances which excite the action, be it voluntary, or secondarily automatic. For children

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 learn to speak chiefly by repeating the sounds which they hear, i.e. these sounds are the associated circumstances which excite to action. But if the sound does this, the idea of it must get the same power by degrees. I grant indeed, that the pictures of words in the eye, and their ideas, may be like associated circumstances, exciting to speak; and since it is necessary, according to the theory of these papers, that every semi-voluntary, voluntary, and secondarily automatic action should be excited by an associated circumstance, one may reckon words seen, and their visible ideas, amongst the number of such circumstances. But words heard, and their audible ideas, have a prior claim; and, in persons who cannot read or write, almost the only one. It confirms this, that in writing one is often apt to mis-spell in conformity with the pronunciation, as in writing hear for here; for this may proceed from the audible idea, which is the same in both cases; cannot from the visible one. Where a person mis-spells suitable to a mispronunciation, which sometimes happens, it can scarce be accounted for upon other principles. However, in writing, the associated circumstance, which excites the action of the hand, is most probably the visible idea of the word, not the audible one.

If it be objected to the supposition of these audible trains, that we ought to be conscious of them, I answer, that we are in some cases; which is an argument, that they take place in all, in a less degree; that the greater vividness of the visible trains makes us not attend to or recollect them, till the consciousness or memory be vanished; and that even visible trains do not appear as objects of consciousness and memory, till we begin to attend to them, and watch the evanescent perceptions of our minds.

The ideas of sight and hearing together are the principal storehouse of the fancy or imagination; and the imaginative arts of painting and music stand in the same relation to them respectively. Poetry comprehends both by taking in language, which is the general representative of all our ideas and affections.

As there is an artificial memory relative to the eye, by which trains of visible ideas, laid up in the memory in a certain order, are made to suggest both things themselves, and the order in which we desire to remember them; so compendious trains of technical words formed into verses may be made to suggest other words, also the numeral figures in a certain order; and by this means, to bring to view, at pleasure, the principles and materials of knowledge for meditation, inquiry, and more perfect digestion by the mind, as appears from Dr. Grey’s Memoria Technica. The visible loci make a stronger impression on the fancy, and therefore excel the audible ones in that view; but the audible ones have a much more ready and definite connexion with the things to be remembered; and therefore seem most proper, upon the whole, in most branches of literature. And as

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 Dr. Grey’s method is highly useful in general, so it is particularly excellent in respect of all memorables that are represented by numeral figures. For, when the numeral figures are denoted by letters, collections of them, such as dates, and quantities of all kinds, make short and definite impressions upon the ear; which are not only easy to be remembered, but also preserve the order of the figures without danger of error: whereas neither the impressions which collections of figures make upon the eye, nor those which their enunciations in words at length make upon the ear, can be remembered with facility or precision; because neither figures, nor their names, cohere together, so as that the precedent shall suggest the subsequent; as the letters do in collections of them, capable of being pronounced. When the technical word coincides with, or approaches to, a familiar one, it is remembered with greater facility. Association is every where conspicuous in these things.

does not appear at all improbable, that the vibrations, which are excited by sounds in the cartilages of the auricle and meatus auditorius, should pass into the small muscles of the auricle, and there occasion automatic motions. And I guess in particular, that in very loud sounds, the cartilages would be made to lie closer to the head. But the smallness of these muscles, and the practice of binding down the ears of new-born children close to the head, which restrains the natural action of these muscles, whatever it might be, prevent our making any certain judgment.

As to the four muscles which belong to the small bones, it appears to me, that since the externus and obliquus lie out of the tympanum, exposed to the common air, and are also so situated, that the externus may receive vibrations from the cartilage of the meatus auditorius, the obliquus from the cartilage of the processus ravianus, into which it is inserted, they must be much more affected by loud sounds, than the internus or musculus stapedis. It follows therefore, that the membrana tympani will be relaxed automatically by loud sounds. Here therefore is another remarkable coincidence between efficient and final causes.

For what reasons the musculus internus, and musculus stapedis, may act peculiarly in weak sounds, is difficult to say. They may perhaps, as was above conjectured of the radiated fibres of the iris, depend chiefly on the influences which descend from the brain, and therefore act always, when the other two will give them leave. It is most probable, that the four muscles act in various proportions and combinations, so as to answer a variety of purposes. But there is very little, that is satisfactory, to be met with in books of anatomy and physiology hitherto, concerning the peculiar minute uses and functions of the several parts of the organ of hearing.

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16 been done by those who came before us, and we enter into the fruits of their labours. It is only the first man, before whom every beast of the field and every fowl of the air must present itself, to see what he will call it; whatever he calls any living creature, that is the name thereof, not to himself alone, but to his family and descendants, who are content to style each as their father had done before them

Our acquisition of English, however, has as yet been but partially and imperfectly described.

In the first place, the English which we thus learn is of that peculiar form or local variety which is talked by our instructors and models. It is, indeed, possible that one may have been surrounded from birth by those, and those only, whose speech is wholly conformed to perfect standards; then it will have been, at least, his own fault if he has learned aught but the purest and most universally accepted English. But such cases cannot be otherwise than rare. For, setting aside the fact that all are not agreed as to whose usage forms the unexceptionable standard, nothing can be more certain than that few, on either side of the ocean, know and follow it accurately. Not many of us can escape acquiring in our youth some tinge of local dialect, of slang characteristic of grade or occupation, of personal peculiarities, even, belonging to our initiators into the mysteries of speech. These may be mere inelegancies of pronunciation, appearing in individual words or in the general tone of utterance, like the nasal twang, and the flattening of ou into ău, which common fame injuriously ascribes to the Yankee; or they may be ungrammatical modes of expression, or uncouth turns and forms of construction; or favourite recurrent phrases, such as I guess, I calculate, I reckon, I expect, you know, each of which has its own region of prevalence; or colloquialisms and vulgarisms, which ought to hide their heads in good English society; or words of only dialectic currency, which the general language does not recognize. Any or all of these or of their like we innocently learn along with the rest of our speech, not knowing how to distinguish the evil from the good. And often, as some of us know to our cost, errors and infelicities are thus so thoroughly


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grave sounds are in general loud, acute ones weak, the relaxation of the membrana tympani, which first attends upon loud sounds automatically, will afterwards, by association, be made to attend upon grave ones, even though they are not loud; and, in like manner, the membrane will be tense, from acute sounds, though they should be strong; i.e. the membrane will, by association, be fitted to vibrate isochronously with the several tones; just as the convexity of the cornea is made by association to suit itself to the several distances. The accommodation is at first gross in both cases; but is perfected afterwards from the view of pleasure and convenience, by means of the frequent recurrency of the actions. See Prop. XXII. Cor. I.

We seem also to have a voluntary power of preparing the ear previously for very strong, or very weak sounds, which we expect to hear, just as it was before observed of the eye, that we can suit it previously to see at an expected distance. The generation of these powers is the same as that of the other voluntary ones.

Section VI
THE DESIRES OF THE SEXES TOWARDS EACH OTHER.

we are to observe, first, that when a general pleasurable state is introduced into the body, either by direct impressions, or by associated influences, the organs of generation must sympathize with this general state, for the same reasons as the other parts do. They must therefore be affected with vibrations in their nerves, which rise above indifference into the limits of pleasure from youth, health, grateful aliment, the pleasures of imagination, ambition, and sympathy, or any other cause, which diffuses grateful vibrations over the whole system.

Secondly, As these organs are endued with a greater degree of sensibility than the other parts, from their make, and the peculiar structure and disposition of their nerves, whatever these be, we may expect, that they should be more affected by these general pleasurable states of the nervous system than the other parts.

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 Thirdly, The distention of the cells of the vesiculæ seminales, and of the sinuses of the uterus, which take place about the time of puberty, must make these organs more particularly irritable then. It may perhaps be, that the acrimony of the urine and fæces, which make vivid impressions on the neighbouring parts, have also a share in increasing the irritability of the organs of generation.

Fourthly, Young persons hear and read numberless things, in this degenerate and corrupt state of human life, which carry nervous influences of the pleasurable kind (be they vibrations, or any other species of motion) to the organs of generation. This will be better understood, if the reader please to recollect what was delivered above concerning the methods by which we learn to distinguish the sensations of the parts external and internal from each other. For it will be easy to see, that when we are once arrived at this power, the associated circumstances of any sensations, such as the language that relates to them, will recall the ideas of these sensations.

Fifthly, The particular shame, which regards the organs of generation, may, when considered as an associated circumstance, like other pains, be so far diminished as to fall within the limits of pleasure, and add considerably to the sum total.

Sixthly, The sources here pointed out seem sufficient to account for the general desires, which are observable in young persons; and which, when not allowed and indulged, may be considered as within the confines of virtue.

Seventhly, It is usual for these desires, after some time, to fix upon a particular object, on account of the apprehended beauty of the person, or perfection of the mind, also from mutual obligations, or marks of affection, from more frequent intercourses, &c. after which these desires suggest, and are suggested by, the idea of the beloved person, and all its associates, reciprocally and indefinitely, so as in some cases to engross the whole fancy and mind. However, this particular attachment, when under proper restrictions and regulations, is not only within the confines of virtue, but often the parent of the most disinterested, and pure, and exalted kinds of it.

Eighthly, When these desires are gratified, the idea of the beloved person, and its associates, must now be associated with the state of neutrality and indifference, that succeeds after gratification. Whence it appears, that that part of the affection towards the beloved person, which arises from gross animal causes, cannot remain long at its height, and may fall very fast. However, if the other sources of affection grow stronger, the sum total may continue the same, or even increase.

Ninthly, When impure desires are allowed, indulged, and heightened voluntarily, it is evident from the doctrine of association, that they will draw to themselves all the other pleasures of our nature, and even, by adhering to many neutral circumstances,

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 convert them into incentives and temptations. So that all the desires, designs, and ideas of such persons are tainted with lust. However, the diseases and sufferings, bodily and mental, which this vice brings upon men, do, after some time, often check the exorbitancy of it, still in the way of association. But impure desires subsist, like vicious ones of other kinds, long after the pains outweigh the pleasures, inasmuch as they must be supposed not to begin to decline till the pains apprehended to arise from them, and thus associated with them, become equal to the pleasures.

Tenthly, It appears from the course of reasoning here used, that impure and vicious desires, indulged and heightened voluntarily, can by no means consist with a particular attachment and confinement; also that they must not only end frequently in indifference, but even in hatred and abhorrence. For the proper mental sources of affection are not only wanting in these cases, but many displeasing and odious qualities and dispositions of mind must offer themselves to view by degrees.

Eleventhly, As the desires and pleasures of this kind are thus increased by associated influences from other parts of our natures, so they are reflected back by innumerable associated methods, direct and indirect, upon the various incidents and events of life, so as to affect in secondary ways even those who have never experienced the gross corporeal gratification. And, notwithstanding the great and public mischiefs, which arise from the ungovernable desires of the vicious, there is great reason, even from this theory, to apprehend, that if this source of the benevolent affections was cut off, all other circumstances remaining the same, mankind would become much more selfish and malicious, much more wicked and miserable, upon the whole, than they now are.

Twelfthly, I have hitherto chiefly considered how far the present subject is agreeable to the doctrine of association; but if physicians and anatomists will compare the circumstances of the sensations and motions of these organs with the general theory delivered in the first chapter, they may see considerable evidences for sensory vibrations, for their running along membranes, and affecting the neighbouring muscles in a particular manner: they may see also, that muscular contractions, which are nearly automatic at first, become afterwards subject to the influence of ideas.

Thirteenthly, The theory here proposed for explaining the nature and growth of these desires shews in every step, how watchful every person, who desires true chastity and purity of heart, ought to be over his thoughts, his discourses, his studies, and his intercourses with the world in general, and with the other sex in particular. There is no security but in flight, in turning our minds from all the associated circumstances, and begetting a new train of thoughts and desires, by an honest,

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 virtuous, religious attention to the duty of the time and place. To which must be added great abstinence in diet, and bodily labour, if required.

Section VII
OF OTHER MOTIONS, AUTOMATIC AND VOLUNTARY, NOT CONSIDERED IN THE FOREGOING SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER.

I observe,

First, that the motion of the heart is constant, more equable than any other in the body, and cannot be supposed to proceed from impressions made on the neighbouring parts; which things agree well together upon the supposition of the doctrine of vibrations: for thus it cannot proceed from the first or fourth source of motory vibrations; and if it proceed from the second and third, it ought to be constant, and nearly equable.

Secondly, We are not to inquire, how the heart is first put into motion in the foetus, but only how its ordinary motions may be continued, by means of vibrations descending from the brain, after they are once begun.

Now, for this purpose, let us suppose, that the auricles, with the beginnings of the pulmonary artery and aorta, have finished their contractions; and that the ventricles and coronary vessels are full. It follows, that the ventricles will now be excited to contraction by three causes; viz. by the vibrations which have continued to descend freely into their fibres ever since their last contraction was finished, by their distention from fulness, and by the motion and impulse of the blood in the coronary vessels: but from the moment that the ventricles begin to contract, the auricles and arteries will begin to fill, and will be fullest at the instant when their contraction is finished. The auricles and arteries must therefore begin to contract at this instant, from descending vibrations and distention, and the ventricles to be relaxed and filled, the vibrations in their fibres being checked by their past contraction. Let these actions be completed, and the heart will be in the circumstances first supposed; i.e. the ventricles will be ready for a fresh contraction, and so on alternately, as long as life continues.

Thirdly, The vibrations which keep up the heart’s motion, are nearly allied to those arising from heat; for the second source of

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 motory vibrations is the residue of all the vibrations excited in the various parts of the body; and the third arises chiefly from the heat of the blood. We may expect therefore, that the heart should contract either more frequently, or more strongly, or both, when the body is heated. And thus it is, as may appear from observations upon the pulse in fevers, in sleep, after eating, in pains or distempers attended with an increase of heat, &c. in which the motion of the blood is increased; whereas in nervous pains attended with coldness of the extremities, the pulse is low and slow.

Fourthly, In the declension of fevers the pulse is quick and feeble. It is feeble, because the whole body is so; and quick, partly from the new habit superinduced by the heat in the beginning of the fever; partly, because in fevers the heart is always kept nearly full, i.e. nearly at such a degree of distention as incites it to contraction, the principal causes of which are the weakness and inactivity of the body: hence in general the pulse is quick and feeble in persons of relaxed habits; the contrary in strong ones.

Fifthly, The pulse is quick in young and small animals; slow in old and large ones. For this, various reasons may be assigned; as first, that if the velocity wherewith the sides of the heart move towards each other be the same, the contraction must be sooner accomplished in small hearts than in large ones. Secondly, that the fibres in young animals are irritable, and soon excited to contraction, by distention, &c. Thirdly, that the contraction is performed slowly in old animals; and fourthly, that short fibres are perhaps sooner excited to contraction than long ones, it being necessary perhaps, that the vibrations should be reverberated from each end of the fibres, for many successions, before they can rise to a certain pitch. It agrees with this, that reciprocal motions are more frequent in general, and cæteris manentibus, as the animal is less; that the limbs have both long and short flexors and extensors, the first for great degrees of motion, the last for making a quick beginning; that the capsular ligaments of the joints have short muscular fibres inserted into them, in order to keep them from being pinched between the bones in the motions of the joints, as Winslow has observed; which they could not do, had not their contraction the start of the contractions which move the joint; and lastly, that the fibres which compose the heart, are all of equal lengths, according to Dr. Stewart’s analysis of them. See Phil. Trans. No. 460.

Sixthly, The heart may move incessantly without fatigue, if we only suppose the recruits to be sufficient, and the degree of motion to be within due limits. And it may be, that in labouring men the muscles of the limbs are as much exerted upon the whole as the heart. The warmth in which the heart is kept, and its receiving nerves from the eighth pair and intercostal, which seem to be particularly exempted from venal compression,

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that morning, with a backhoe and shovels, Calnev personnel dug two holes on either side of the locomotive engine that came to rest inverted over the pipeline and determined that the depth of the pipeline in that area was between 7 and 8 feet.

According to the testimony of Calnev’s maintenance superintendent and SP’s division mechanical officer, in removing the cars, the cranes would pick the cars up and swing them around in the breach in the levee. From that location, front-end loaders would then carry the cars to the west side of the track (figures 8 and 9). Testimony further indicated that equipment continuously operated through the haul road over the pipeline and that it was


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 deserve notice here: but the constant motion of the blood is principally to be considered, being the cause as well as the effect of the constant motion of the heart.

Seventhly, Since lying down prevents or alleviates the fainting which sometimes happens during bleeding, one may suppose that this fainting, and the consequent abatement or cessation of the motion of the heart arise, because a quantity of blood, sufficient to keep up the vibrations in the brain, could not ascend thither in an erect posture.

Eighthly, Sudden and violent pains, such as those from wounds, increase the motions of the heart. This may be accounted for from the violent vibrations which ascend to the brain, and are thence propagated to the heart. But may not vibrations ascend also directly from the wounded part, along the course of the arteries and veins, to the heart?

Ninthly, All the passions of the mind increase the motion of the heart, as might be expected: but melancholy, when it makes men inactive, and uninfluenced by the impressions of objects, has a contrary effect, which is equally suitable to the foregoing theory.

Tenthly, In mortifications, also in the languid state that succeeds acute distempers, &c. the pulse sometimes intermits, suppose once in 5, 10, 20, &c. times, the interval being about double, and the strength of the pulse which succeeds the intermission about double also. Here the force of the heart seems to languish, and the time of contraction of the ventricle to be protracted, till a second contraction of the auricle intervenes, and protracts the ventricle’s contraction still farther, viz. to nearly twice the interval. The heart must therefore be surcharged, and contracting stronger from this respite, must send, as it were, a double quantity of blood into the aorta, i.e. make the pulse that succeeds much stronger. And this intermission may return at greater or less intervals, according to the circumstances, while this weakness of the heart continues: it may also remain, when once established, from habit, or association.

This intermission may perhaps rather be accounted for thus: in languid states the blood is accumulated in the beginning of the aorta. The aorta will not therefore receive much blood from the heart, though it does contract; i.e. no pulse will be felt; i.e. the interval will be double: the succeeding pulse will be strong, from the now greater emptiness of the aorta, and fulness of the heart: the intermission will also return when the accumulation in the aorta does. It agrees with this account, that these intermissions are usually felt in the region of the heart by the patients. May not intermissions arise from both causes in different circumstances?

Eleventhly, When the pulse flutters from flatulencies and spasms in the stomach and bowels, it appears that a sudden stop is put to the blood of the aorta, which by surcharging the left

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 ventricle at once, makes it contract at a different time from the right, and not at a due interval from the contraction of the auricles: for this fluttering of the pulse attacks generally in an instant, and often upon a fruitless effort to expel wind from the stomach. When the contractions of the ventricles are once become asynchronous and inharmonious to those of the auricles, it may require some time to rectify this, and especially while there is an impediment to the blood’s motion through the aorta. This disorder may likewise continue through habit and association, and recur perpetually from less and less causes. The intermission of the pulse, considered in the two preceding paragraphs, is often caused by flatulencies, as well as the fluttering of it mentioned in this.

Twelfthly, The motions of the heart remain in their original automatic state more than any other in the body; the reasons of which are, that the common motions are equally associated with every thing, i.e. peculiarly so with nothing; and that very few impressions make changes in the motions of the heart so great and sudden, as to subject it to the ideas of these impressions: however, as great and sudden changes are sometimes brought on by pain, fear, surprise, joy, &c. we seem to have a semi-voluntary power to alter the motion of the heart immediately, by introducing strong ideas, our power of introducing these being semivoluntary: nay, it may be possible for persons in very particular circumstances to acquire still greater degrees of power over the motion of the heart.

first observation to be made here, is, that common respiration is performed very feebly in new-born children. A slight disposition therefore to alternate action in the diaphragm, and other muscles of respiration, may be sufficient to account for that degree of respiration which takes place in new-born children. It is natural to expect, that respiration in them should be feeble, since they must lean in this, as well as in other things, to their preceding state in utero.

Secondly, That the vigorous impressions from the cold air, the hands of the midwife, &c. may excite the strong respiration and crying which take place upon birth ordinarily, appears from the methods used to make the new-born child respire freely, where it fails to do this in extraordinary cases; such as applying volatiles to the nose, pouring wine into the mouth, swinging it to and fro, &c. All these methods excite the muscles to contraction, by making strong impressions on the neighbouring sensory nerves. They are also very agreeable to the notion of vibrations.

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 Thirdly, If we suppose the diaphragm to have finished its contraction, and consequently the thorax to be raised, and the abdomen to be distended, expiration must succeed, for three reasons; viz. because the contraction of the diaphragm has checked the vibrations in its fibres, and therefore has disposed them to relaxation; because the elasticity of the cartilages of the ribs tends to restore the thorax to a more depressed state; and because the fibres of the abdominal muscles are excited to vibrations and contraction by their distention. Suppose now expiration to be completed, and the vibrations, which descend into the diaphragm, from the second and third source of motory vibrations, will renew its contraction, and consequently the action of inspiration; and so on alternately.

Fourthly, The diaphragm is the more disposed to receive vivid vibrations in its fibres, from its nearness to the heart, and the warmth in which it is always kept. It deserves notice here, that the diaphragm receives its nerves from the cervical pairs, not from the eighth pair and intercostal, as the neighbouring parts, the heart, stomach, &c. do. Perhaps it was requisite, that it should derive its nerves from the spinal marrow, since the other muscles of respiration do. The nerves of the diaphragm are elongated during its contraction, the contrary to which happens in the nerves of other muscles. They are also kept in constant motion by the constant motion of the thorax, through which they pass; and this perhaps may contribute to the perpetual activity of the diaphragm.

Fifthly, The intercostal muscles are disposed to alternate contractions for the same reasons as the diaphragm, though these reasons do not hold in the same degree; however, since the contraction of the diaphragm, and consequent distention of the abdomen, must raise the thorax, the contraction of the intercostal muscles must from the first be synchronous to that of the diaphragm; and association will soon generate a permanent disposition to this synchronism. It follows according to this theory from the vicinity of the internal intercostal muscles to the external ones, that they ought to have the same action. And the same conclusion appears to result from anatomical considerations.

Sixthly, It may however be supposed, that the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are, as it were, fatigued by constant action; and that they incline to sympathize in inactivity with the rest of the muscles, especially during sleep. But then the accumulation of blood in the lungs, which the intermission of respiration must occasion, after it has once had a free passage through the lungs by means of respiration, will produce so much uneasiness, i.e. such vigorous vibrations, in the lungs, and particularly in their external membrane, which is continuous to the pleura, as will renew respiration.

It is agreeable to this, that if very young children sleep upon

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 a bed, they often fall into a great uneasiness from the stoppage of respiration, and recover from it by crying; and that rocking, or any other gentle motion, will prevent this. The last circumstance is particularly favourable to the notion of vibrations.

The night-mare in adults appears to be a disorder of the same kind. A full supper, and lying upon the back, dispose to it, by hindering the free motion of the diaphragm. Motion, and especially when attended with quick respiration, laughter, &c. prevent it, by giving activity to the diaphragm. Shaking the person affected, calling to him, &c. rouse from it, by exciting vibrations. The uneasiness from accumulated blood does the same thing at last.

It is easy to see, that if a like disposition to inaction should arise in the hearts of new-born children, or adults, the motion and distending force of the venal blood must renew their action for similar reasons. It is remarkably coincident with this, that forcing the venal blood upon the heart has in some cases been found to renew its action even after death.

Seventhly, The actions of sighing, crying, coughing, sneezing, &c. by recurring frequently, and making all the muscles, which can in any degree contribute to respiration, unite therein, enlarge the range of respiration by degrees, and make this action be performed with greater strength perpetually in the young child. The increase of strength in the whole muscular system must however be considered likewise.

Eighthly, The same actions have also a great share in begetting voluntary respiration. For more muscles are put into action in voluntary respiration, than in that which is ordinary.

Ninthly, It is agreeable to the foregoing theory, and to parallel observations on the heart, that respiration should be stronger in fevers, in sleep, and in general wherever the heat of the blood is increased, than in ordinary cases. For respiration depends chiefly on the second and third sources of motory vibrations. By this means the force of the respirations answers in a general way, as it ought to do, to the force with which the blood is moved, or to the force of the heart.

I now come to the particular consideration of the actions of sighing, coughing, laughter, and sobbing, and shedding tears from grief.

Sighing is an extraordinary contraction of the diaphragm. It arises not only from all causes, which accumulate the blood in the lungs, and thus excite the diaphragm to an extraordinary contraction; but also from such compressions of the abdomen as hinder the free motion of the diaphragm for a time. For thus a disposition to vibrate is accumulated in the fibres of the diaphragm. It is however to be observed, that this compression of the abdomen does also accumulate blood in the lungs. The abdomen seems to be compressed in a state of sorrow, attention, &c. The frequent recurrency of sighing makes it voluntary early

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 in youth. But it is not performed voluntarily with the same force, as when from a pressing uneasiness in the lungs.

Coughing arises from an uneasy sensation in the wind-pipe fixing in the point of the epiglottis, as the sensation which causes sneezing does in the tip of the nose. This ought also to become voluntary, and to be weaker when voluntary, than when excited by a strong irritation.

Hawking is a voluntary action, derived from coughing, as blowing the nose is from sneezing. Spitting is nearly related to these actions. It tallies perfectly with the foregoing theory, that children cannot hawk, spit, or blow the nose, for some years.

Laughter is a nascent cry, recurring again and again, as has been observed before, Prop. XXVI. By degrees it puts on a certain type, and recurs again and again according to that type, just as other actions. And it is excited in young children not only by the sensation of tickling, which lies, as it were, between pleasure and pain, but by the apprehension of this, or any other apprehension sufficiently moderate, by every surprise, and every mental emotion that lies between pleasure and pain, and by all the associates of these, as particularly by seeing others laugh. And thus children laugh more and more, and get a power of performing the action of laughter at pleasure, though with less force than when it is excited by its proper cause in full vigour.

It is remarkable, that young brute creatures, in their sportings with each other, make such noises, as bear the same analogy to their violent cries, which laughter in us bears to crying from pain.

Bodily pain is attended with violent and irregular respiration on account of the violent and irregular vibrations, which, in this case, first ascend to the brain, and then descend into the diaphragm. Hence mental pain, which is the offspring of bodily pain, is attended also with violent and irregular respiration, i.e. with sobbing. The crying which used to attend bodily pain in childhood is often checked in the mental pains of adults by fear, shame, &c. i.e. by a voluntary or semi-voluntary power; and this seems to make the respiration so much the more irregular.

It is more difficult to account for the shedding tears from grief; for very young children are not apt to shed tears when they cry. It seems to me, that so great and general a disorder in the brain, as that which takes place in violent grief, must affect the fifth pair of nerves in a particular manner, so as to influence the lachrymal glands both directly, and also indirectly, viz. by the strong convulsions produced in the muscles of the eyes and face. The membranes of the fauces and nose are likewise affected in grief, as is evident from the sensations in the fauces, and tip of the nose; and thus vibrations may run to the lachrymal glands through the ductus ad nasum, and lachrymal points, as observed before in irritations from sternutatories, &c. Young children may not shed tears freely, because very great and general

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necessary on many occasions to re-mark the location of the pipeline with yellow paint. As Calnev’s maintenance superintendent testified, "…trona…was a very light, loosely compacted material…once you made a mark on it, it would take a very small amount of activity by heavy equipment to totally erase that mark."

SP’s removal of the wrecked cars, which were spread over a large area and stacked two and three cars high at some locations, continued throughout the day. A Calnev representative was on-site to monitor the operations and to keep SP personnel aware of the location of the pipeline. The incident


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 disorders of the brain, and its influence over the fifth pair of nerves, do not take place till intellectual aggregates are formed. And the like reason may hold in respect of brutes.

The actions of sobbing and weeping are therefore, in part, deducible from association; i.e. are not merely automatic, in the first sense of that word. Agreeably to which, they are in certain cases manifestly subject to the voluntary power. Thus, some persons can, by introducing imaginary scenes of compassion and sorrow, so far agitate the brain, as to bring on the actions of sobbing and weeping, though not in the same degree, as when they arise from a strong real mental cause. They may likewise be caught by infection, from others, as laughter, and most of our other semi-voluntary and voluntary actions, are; which is another argument of their dependence on association.

strong vibrations must, according to the foregoing theory, descend at once into the whole muscular system in general convulsions, we must seek for a cause of sufficient extent for this purpose. Now there seem to be three kinds of vibrations, which may answer this condition: first, violent vibrations in the brain. Secondly, violent ones at the skin, suddenly checked. Thirdly, violent ones in the bowels or uterus, suddenly checked also, and thence running instantaneously over the whole nervous system by means of the intercostal, or, as Winslow justly calls it, the great sympathetic nerve.

Convulsions from compressions and inflammations of the brain, and most of those which are termed epileptic, seem to be of the first kind. In epilepsies the irregular vibrations, excited in the medullary substance of the brain, are perhaps so violent, as first to make the small particles attract each other, and thus, by checking themselves, to extinguish all sense and motion. However, they may return after a short time, and descend into the whole muscular system.

The stretchings and yawnings which happen in ague-fits, in going to sleep and waking, the startings to which some persons are subject in going to sleep, and the convulsive tremors and rigidity in ague-fits, seem to be of a second kind, or to arise from a sudden check of vibrations at the skin. For in agues the surface is chilled, as it is also by the least motions in going to sleep, or waking. Agreeably to this, it may be observed, that, upon stepping into a cold bed, one is disposed to general convulsions, like those of stretching. Yawning may also depend in part upon a like check of violent vibrations in the mouth and fauces; for it is a motion excited in the neighbourhood, and is observed to accompany sickness.

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I.] wrought into our minds, as parts of our habitual modes of expression, that not all the care and instruction of after life can rid us of them. How many men of culture and eminent ability do we meet with, who exhibit through life the marks of a defective or vicious early training in their native tongue! The dominion of habit is not less powerful in language than in anything else that we acquire and practise. It is not alone true that he who has once thoroughly learned English is thereby almost disqualified from ever attaining a native facility, correctness, and elegance in any foreign tongue; one may also so thoroughly learn a bad style of English as never to be able to ennoble it into the best and most approved form of his native speech. Yet, with us, the influences which tend to repress and eradicate local peculiarities and individual errors are numerous and powerful. One of the most effective among them is school instruction. It is made an important part of our education to learn to speak and write correctly. The pupil of a faithful and competent instructor is taught to read and pronounce, to frame sentences with the mouth and with the pen, in a manner accordant with that which is accepted among the well-educated everywhere. Social intercourse is a cultivating agency hardly less important, and more enduring in its action; as long as we live, by associating with those who speak correctly, we are shown our own faults, and at the same time prompted and taught to correct them. Reading—which is but another form of such intercourse—consultation of authorities, self-impelled study in various forms, help the work. Our speech is improved and perfected, as it was first acquired, by putting ourselves in the position of learners, by following the example of those who speak better than we do. He who is really in earnest to complete his mastery of his mother-tongue may hope for final success, whatever have been his early disadvantages; just as one may acquire a foreign tongue, like German or French, with a degree of perfection depending only on his opportunities, his capacity, his industry, and the length of time he devotes to the study.

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 The startings and convulsions which happen to children from gripes, to women from disorders of the uterus, and to all persons in general from certain poisons, seem to be of the third kind, or to arise from vigorous vibrations in the abdomen, suddenly checked, and running into the whole system by means of the intercostal nerve.

It has been observed already, that convulsive motions are apt to return from less and less causes perpetually, on account of the vestiges which they leave of themselves, and the power of associated circumstances. I will add here, that seeing a person in convulsions is apt to occasion them in such as are of nervous and irritable frames; and that there is reason to believe, that some persons, who have been enthusiasts or impostors, have been able to throw themselves into convulsions by a semi-voluntary power, and particularly, as it seems, by introducing strong ideas, and internal feelings.

It is commonly observed, that yawning is apt to infect a whole company, after one person in it has set the example; which is a manifest instance of the influence of association over motions originally automatic.

was necessary to deliver many things which properly relate to this proposition under the twenty-first, in order to make the derivation of voluntary motion from automatic, by means of association, in some measure intelligible to the reader. I will now resume the subject, and add what I am able for the full explication and establishment of the theory proposed.

Walking is the most simple of the three kinds of voluntary motion here mentioned, being common to the brute creation with man, whereas handling and speaking are, in a manner, peculiar to him. His superiority in this respect, when compared with the superiority of his mental faculties, agrees well with the hypothesis here advanced concerning handling and speaking, viz. their dependence on ideas, and the power of association.

The new-born child is unable to walk on account of the want of strength to support his body, as well as of complex and decomplex motory vibratiuncles, generated by association, and depending upon sensations and ideas by association also. As he gets strength, he advances likewise in the number and variety of compound motions of the limbs, their species being determined by the nature of the articulations, the position of the muscles, the automatic motions excited by friction, accidental flexures and extensions made by the nurse, &c. When he is tolerably

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 commander kept fire engines and foam units on alert status with lines charged whenever a piece of wreckage was moved from a critical location over the pipeline. Calnev’s maintenance superintendent testified that it was his understanding that removal of the wreckage would proceed during daylight hours only. When SP continued their activities after dark, Calnev’s maintenance superintendent notified his supervisor who then returned to the site. After the situation was discussed with the incident commander and SP personnel, it was agreed that operations would be discontinued. Activities were halted about 11:00 p.m. that evening. The incident commander stated that he believed the cooperation exhibited by both Calnev and SP was exceptional.

May 14, 1989.—Removal of the rail cars resumed about 6:00 a.m. and continued throughout the day. Again, a Calnev representative was on site to monitor the operations and keep SP’s personnel aware of the location of the pipeline. According to SP’s division mechanical officer, the cars were removed "…in the manner in which the had been stacked…using two hooks with one crane. We picked them all straight up and then moved them out." He further testified that none of the cars were dropped in this process. He observed that debris including car components, axles, and pieces of rail remained in the area after the cars were removed; the visible debris was then also removed from the site. According to Calnev’s maintenance superintendent, it appeared that the debris had not penetrated the natural ground cover. SP’s division mechanical officer testified that no contact with the pipeline was observed during removal of the debris and "there was no rail sticking in the ground." Equipment operators working during the clearing of the train cars stated that many pieces of heavy construction and excavation equipment, including front-end loaders, cranes, and bulldozers worked simultaneously throughout the derailment area.

May 15 and 16, 1989.—When activity resumed on the morning of May 15, SP began making preparations to move the locomotives; all rail cars had been removed from the east side of the track. Calnev’s maintenance superintendent noted that the trona was scattered in varying depths throughout the area and over the pipeline to a point near, but not reaching, the engine (unit SP 7549) that lay inverted over the pipeline near the toe of the railroad embankment. To remove the locomotive units from the east side to the west side, SP personnel used two cranes to lift each unit and place it in the breach where one of the cranes, with the help of a front-end loader, carried the unit to the open field on the west side of the tracks. Each time a locomotive unit was moved, it was necessary for one of the cranes to cross through the haul road over the pipeline. Calnev personnel agreed that the crane could cross over the pipeline in this location. Calnev’s maintenance superintendent testified, "I did not see any activity which I believed damaged the pipeline. Any time you are using large pieces of excavating type equipment near a pipeline, you certainly have the potential for danger." According to SP’s division mechanical officer, who was in charge of the wreckage removal, he did not perform or know of any calculations that were performed to determine the stress imposed on the pipeline due to the weight of the cranes and the cars that were carried across it.


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 perfect in these rudiments of walking, the view of a favourite plaything will excite various motions in the limbs; and thus if he be set upon his legs, and his body carried forward by the nurse, an imperfect attempt to walk follows of course. It is made more perfect gradually by his improvements in the rudiments, by the nurse’s moving his legs alternately in the proper manner, by his desire of going up to persons, playthings, &c. and thence repeating the process which has succeeded (for he makes innumerable trials, both successful and unsuccessful;) and by his seeing others walk, and endeavouring to imitate them.

It deserves notice here, that in the limbs, where the motions are most perfectly voluntary, all the muscles have antagonists, and often such as are of nearly equal strength with themselves; also, that the muscles of the limbs are not much influenced at first by common impressions made on the skin, and scarce at all when the child is so far advanced as to get a voluntary power over them. For these things facilitate the generation of the voluntary power, by making the muscles of the limbs chiefly dependent on the vibrations which descend from the brain, and also disposing them to act from a small balance in favour of this or that set of antagonists.

When the child can walk up to an object that he desires to walk up to, the action may be termed voluntary, i.e. the use of language will then justify this appellation. But it appears from the reasoning here used, that this kind and degree of voluntary power over his motions is generated by proper combinations and associations of the automatic motions, agreeably to the corollaries of the twentieth proposition. Voluntary powers may therefore result from association, as is asserted in these papers.

When he is arrived at such a perfection in walking, as to walk readily upon being desired by another person, the action is esteemed still more voluntary. One reason of which is, that the child, in some cases, does not walk when desired, whilst yet the circumstances are apparently the same as when he does. For here the unapparent cause of walking, or not walking, is will. However, it follows from this theory, that all this is still owing to association, or to something equally suitable to the foregoing theory; e.g. to the then present strength or weakness of the association of the words of the command with the action of walking, to its proceeding from this or that person, in this or that manner, to the child’s being in an active or inactive state, attentive or inattentive, disposed by other circumstances to move as directed, or to move in a different way, &c. a careful observation of the fact will always shew, as far as is reasonably to be expected in so nice a matter, that when children do different things, the real circumstances, natural or associated, are proportionably different, and that the state of mind called will depends upon this difference. This degree of

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 voluntary power is therefore, in like manner, of an acquired nature.

Suppose an adult to walk in order to shew his perfectly voluntary power; still his selecting this instance is owing to one association, and his performing the action to another, viz. to the introduction of the audible idea of the word, the visible one of the action, &c.

Walking passes into the secondarily automatic state more perfectly perhaps than any other action; for adults seldom exert any degree of volition here, sufficient to affect the power of consciousness or memory for the least perceptible moment of time. Now this transition of walking, from its voluntary to its secondarily automatic state, must be acknowledged by all to proceed merely from association. And it seems to follow by parity of reason, that the transition of primarily automatic actions into voluntary ones, may be merely from association also, since it is evident, that association has at least a very great and extensive influence there.

The complex artificial motions of the lower limbs, used in the several kinds of dancing, bear nearly the same relation to the common motions used in walking forwards, backwards, upwards, downwards, and sideways, as these common motions do to the simple rudiments above mentioned, such as the flexion and extension of the ancle or knee. Since therefore the voluntary and secondarily automatic power of dancing are plainly the result of association, why may we not suppose the same of the common motions in walking, both in their voluntary and secondarily automatic state? In learning to dance, the scholar desires to look at his feet and legs, in order to judge by seeing when they are in a proper position. By degrees he learns to judge of this by feeling; but the visible idea left partly by the view of his master’s motions, partly by that of his own, seems to be the chief associated circumstance, that introduces the proper motions. By farther degrees these are connected with each other, with the music, and with other more and more remote circumstances.

I have already shewn in what manner children learn the voluntary and secondarily automatic power of grasping. How they learn the various complex motions, by which they feed and dress themselves, &c. also how children and adults learn to write, to practise manual arts, &c. and in what senses and degrees all these actions are voluntary, and secondarily automatic, and yet still remain as purely mechanical as the primarily automatic actions are, may now be understood from what has been already delivered under this proposition. The method of playing upon musical instruments has also been explained, so as to concur in establishing the same conclusions.

In like manner, the account given of the action of speaking might now be completed, and extended to all the modes of it,

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 vulgar and artificial; and to singing, with its modes. I will add a few words concerning stammering and the loss of speech by palsies.

Stammering seems generally to arise from fear, eagerness, or some violent passion, which prevents the child’s articulating rightly, by the confusion which it makes in the vibrations that descend into the muscular system; so that, finding himself wrong, he attempts again and again, till he hits upon the true sound. It does not begin therefore in general, till children are of an age to distinguish right from wrong in respect of pronunciation, and to articulate with tolerable propriety. A nervous disorder of the muscles of speech may have a like effect. When the trick of stammering has once begun to take place in a few words, it will extend itself to more and more from very slight resemblances, and particularly to all the first words of sentences, because there the organs pass in an instant from inactivity to action; whereas the subsequent parts of words and sentences may follow the foregoing from association; just as, in repeating memoriter, one is most apt to hesitate at the first word in each sentence.

A defect of memory from passion, natural weakness, &c. so that the proper word does not occur readily, occasions stammering also. And, like all other modes of speaking, it is caught, in some cases, by imitation.

A palsy of the organs of speech may be occasioned in the same manner as any other palsy; and yet the muscles of the lips, cheeks, tongue, and fauces, may still continue to perform the actions of mastication and deglutition sufficiently well, because these actions are simpler than that of speech, and are also excited by sensations, which have an original influence over them.

A defect of memory may also destroy the power of speaking, in great measure, though the organs be not much affected in a paralytical way. Thus a person who plays well upon a harpsichord, may by some years’ disuse become unable to play at all, though the muscles of his hands be in a perfect state, merely because his memory, and the associations of the motions of his fingers, with the sight of notes, with the ideas of sounds, or with one another, are obliterated by distance of time, and disuse.

The suspension of an action may be performed two ways, as before-mentioned; viz. either by putting the muscles concerned in it into a languid inactive state, or by making the antagonists act with vigour. In the first case, the whole limb is put into a state of relaxation, and extreme flexibility; in the last, into a state of rigidity. The voluntary power of the first kind is obtained by associations with the languor that arises from fatigue, heat, sleepiness, &c. that of the last from the general tension of the muscles, which happens in pain, and violent emotions of mind. Children improve in both these kinds of voluntary power

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 When the locomotive that came to rest inverted over the pipeline was removed by SP, Calnev personnel observed that the entire top of the locomotive had been sheared off and that it had been resting at grade level. There was nothing visible protruding into the ground. Calnev, however, decided to excavate the portion of the pipeline that had been under the locomotive. Using a backhoe equipped with a 24-inch bucket, Calnev personnel excavated an area approximately 80 feet in length parallel to and about 2 feet east of the pipe to a depth about 4 inches lower than the depth of the pipe in the area. Pipe depth was reported to have been about 8 feet at the southern end of the excavated area and 6½ to 7 feet at the northern end. According to Calnev personnel, the soil surrounding the pipe was removed by hand so that the pipe was exposed from the 6 o’clock position to the 2 o’clock position facing south (see figure 4, excavation # 1). Calnev’s manager of operations testified that he personally entered the excavation, inspected the pipe, and found no damage to the coating or to the pipe.

Calnev officials then decided to excavate in an area north of the breach where, according to Calnev’s manager of operations, "…bulldozers had been repeatedly going off the end of the haul road" (figure 4, excavation # 2). According to the Arizona Pipe Line Company foreman, who performed the excavation, about 1 foot of pipe length was exposed from the 1 o’clock to 3 o’clock position looking north. When asked if any damage to the coating or pipe was noted, the foreman replied, "Couldn’t really tell by a visual look, and we didn’t bother exposing anymore due to our objective was to determine depth and alignment of the pipeline at that time." The depth of the pipe at this location was determined to be about 7 feet. With respect to the depth of the pipe, Calnev’s manager of operations testified, "…it was sufficient to where I was no longer concerned about any damage from the bulldozer activity."

By late afternoon on May 15, the wreckage had been removed and SP began to demolish the houses that had been damaged during the derailment. SP planned to close the breach that evening, relay their tracks, and begin removing the trona on the following day, May 16. According to Calnev officials, it was at this point that they began to formulate the next step of their inspection plan. Calnev understood that if SP began removing the trona on Tuesday, inspection of the pipeline would be delayed until the trona removal was completed. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, "At that point, we were still unsure of the integrity of the pipeline. It was still in a stable situation. It had not lost any pressure nor were there any signs of leakage. But yet we could not verify the integrity of the pipeline before then." Calnev’s plan was to move in additional equipment, remove all the trona over the pipeline down to native soil, and excavate and inspect the pipeline at any location where debris was found and appeared to have penetrated the native soil. According to Calnev officials, by removing the trona from over the pipeline, SP personnel would not have to work directly over the pipeline when they began hauling away the trona on the following day. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, this plan was discussed with SP officials and the incident commander, and no recommendations or modifications to the plan were suggested.


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 by repeated trials, as occasion requires, by imitation, desire, &c. But they are both difficult for some time. Thus we may observe, that children cannot let their heads or eyelids fall from their mere weight, nor stop themselves in running or striking, till a considerable time after they can raise the head, or bend it, open the eyes, or shut them, run or strike, by a voluntary power.

Imitation is a great source of the voluntary power, and makes all the several modes of walking, handling, and speaking, conformable to those of the age and nation in which a person lives in general, and to those of the persons with whom he converses in particular. Besides the two sources already mentioned, Prop. XXI., viz. the sight of the child’s own actions, and the sound of his own words, it has many others. Some of these are the resemblance which children observe between their own bodies, with all the functions of them, and those of others; the pleasures which they experience in and by means of all motions, i.e. imitations; the directions and encouragements given to them upon this head; the high opinions which they form of the power and happiness of adults; and their consequent desire to resemble them in these, and in all their associates. Imitation begins in the several kinds of voluntary actions about the same time, and increases not only by the sources alleged, but also by the mutual influences of every instance of it over every other, so that the velocity of its growth is greatly accelerated for some time. It is of the highest use to children in their attainment of accomplishments, bodily and mental. And thus every thing, to which mankind have a natural tendency, is learnt much sooner in society, than the mere natural tendency would beget it; and many things are learnt so early, and fixed so deeply, as to appear parts of our nature, though they be mere derivatives and acquisitions.

It is remarkable that apes, whose bodies resemble the human body more than those of any other brute creature, and whose intellects also approach nearer to ours, which last circumstance may, I suppose, have some connexion with the first, should likewise resemble us so much in the faculty of imitation. Their aptness in handling is plainly the result of the shape and make of their fore legs, and their intellects together, as in us. Their peculiar chattering may perhaps be some attempt towards speech, to which they cannot attain, partly from the defect in the organs, partly, and that chiefly, from the narrowness of their memories, apprehensions, and associations; for they seem not to understand words to any considerable degree. Or may not their chattering be an imitation of laughter?

Parrots appear to have far less intellect than apes, but a more distinguishing ear, and like other birds, a much greater command of the muscles of the throat. Their talk seems to be almost devoid of all proper connexion with ideas. However, in respect of sounds, they imitate as much as children, or as apes in

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 respect of other actions. And indeed the talk of children, by out-running their understandings in many things, very much resembles that of parrots.

As we express our inward sentiments by words, so we do also by gestures, and particularly by the muscles of the face. Here, again, association and imitation display themselves. This dumb show prevails more in the hotter climates, where the passions are more impetuous, than in these northern ones. It is also probable, that the narrowness and imperfection of the ancient languages made it more necessary and prevalent in ancient times. Deaf persons have an extraordinary aptness both in learning and decyphering this, as might well be expected. The imitation of manners and characters by dumb show is often more striking than any verbal description of them.

proposition may appear from several hints to that purpose, which have been already given. But it will be more fully manifest, if I give a short view of the data and quæsita in the art of physic.

Now the general problem, which comprehends the whole art, is,

Having the Symptoms given, to find the Remedy.

This problem may be solved in some cases empirically and directly by the histories of distempers, and of their cures. But then there are other cases, and those not a few, to which the learning and experience of the most able physicians either cannot find histories sufficiently similar, or none where the event was successful. Hence it is necessary to attempt the solution of the general problem rationally and indirectly, by dividing it into the two following less comprehensive and consequently more manageable problems; viz.

First, Having the symptoms given, to find the deviation of the body from its natural state.

Secondly, Having this deviation given, to find the remedy.

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 Using a John Deere 690B excavator and working from south to north, Calnev began making a path about 8 feet wide through the trona beginning at a point near where the locomotive came to rest inverted over the pipeline (figure 4). According to Calnev’s maintenance superintendent, the excavator was followed by a front-end loader to complete the removal of the trona. He further testified that a few inches of natural soil was removed and that as much as 12 to 16 inches may have been removed at any one point, but that he still believed that he had plenty of cover over the pipeline.

In making the 8-foot-wide path, Calnev piled the trona that was removed from over the pipeline to the east of the pipeline at a distance, estimated by Calnev’s manager of operations, to have been 2 to 4 feet. He testified, however, that "we found that the trench [path] did not place the pipeline right in the middle. There was an area where the pipeline kind of hugged the side of the trench [path], so it [pile of trona] could have been as close as 2 feet in that area."

Calnev’s maintenance superintendent, who supervised the trona removal activity from about 8:00 p.m., on May 15, to about 4:00 a.m., on May 16, testified that several pieces of debris, including portions of truck assemblies [from a train car] and two pieces of rail—one about 3 feet in length and one about 10 feet in length—were found during removal of the trona. He further testified that while he was supervising the removal of the trona, two excavations of the pipeline were performed where debris had been found at natural grade level. He stated that he could not be specific about the locations but estimated that the first excavation was near the north edge of lot 77 and that the second excavation was between lot 77 and lot 76 (figure 4, excavations # 3 and 4). For both excavations, the depth and the alignment of the pipe were determined by digging with hand shovels. A Case 580C backhoe was then used to excavate on the east side (Duffy street side) of the pipeline. According to the maintenance superintendent, no damage to the coating or the pipe was observed.

SP personnel had positioned lights on the railroad levee. According to Calnev’s maintenance superintendent, even though the lighting cast shadows in the excavated area from west to east, lighting was not an issue in determining whether the pipeline had been damaged or in evaluating the depth of cover over the line. He stated, "I was comfortable with the level of lighting, and I spent a considerable amount of time in the trench closely observing the excavation." He also testified that it would have been possible to detect the difference between hitting debris with the backhoe and hitting the pipeline with the backhoe. "…it was never a concern of mine that we were going to hit the pipeline with the backhoe because we were monitoring the depth of cover over the pipeline. We were not excavating in an area such that we would be getting close enough to the pipeline to hit it."


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 It is proper also to invert these two problems, and to inquire,

First, Having the deviation given, what the symptoms must be.

Secondly, Having the manner of operation of a successful remedy given, what the deviation must be.

I here use the words symptoms, deviation, and remedy, in the most general sense possible, for the sake of brevity.

Now it is very evident, that the doctrine of vibrations, or some other better doctrine, which teaches the law of action of the nervous system, has a close connexion with all these last four problems. For the nerves enter every part, as well as the blood-vessels; and the brain has as great a share in all the natural functions of the parts, and its disorders, in all their disorders, as the heart, and its disorders, can have; and much more than any other part, besides the heart.

Farther, if the doctrine of association be the necessary consequence of the doctrine of vibrations, in any such manner as I have proposed above, Prop. IX. and XI. it must have a most intimate connexion with the theory of nervous distempers, and some with that of others, on account of the just-mentioned dependence of all the parts on the brain. Or, if we separate these doctrines, still, if that of association be true, of which I suppose there is no doubt, it cannot but be of great use for explaining those distempers in which the mind is affected.

And it seems to me, that agreeably to this, the distempers of the head, spasmodic ones, the effects of poisonous bites and stings, which, as Dr. Mead justly observes, are more exerted upon the nerves than on the blood, receive much light from the doctrine of vibrations, and, in return, confirm it; and that all the disorders of the memory, fancy, and mind, do the same in respect of the doctrine of association.

I do not mean to intimate here, that the rational and indirect solution of the general problem, which comprehends the art of physic, is preferable to the empirical and direct one, where this is to be had; but only, since this cannot be had always, that we ought to proceed in an explicit and scientifical manner, rather than in a confused and popular one. For where practice is silent, physicians must and will have recourse to some theory, good or bad. And if they do not acquaint themselves with the real structure and functions of the parts, with the sensible qualities and operations of medicines, and with the most probable method of explaining both the symptoms of distempers, and the operations of medicines, they must fancy something in the place of these, and reason from such false imaginations, or perhaps from the mere agreements, oppositions, and secondary ideas, of words. The history of diseases, and their cures, is the basis of all; after this come anatomical examinations of the body, both in its natural and morbid states; and last of all, pharmacy; these three answering respectively to the general problem, and the two subordinate ones above-mentioned. And if we reason

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 In addition to the two excavations, the pipeline was potholed at several other locations. At one location where the pipeline was potholed, a truck assembly [rail car] was found to have penetrated the natural soil. Calnev’s maintenance superintendent marked this location and later advised Calnev’s manager of operations of the need to perform a more thorough inspection of the pipeline at that location. By 4:00 a.m., on May 16, the path through the trona had extended north 300 to 400 feet to a point where the breach in the levee had been made.

The deputy fire chief testified that when he terminated his role as incident commander around 10:00 p.m. on May 15, Calnev’s manager of operations assured him that the pipeline was safe to operate.

Calnev’s manager of operations, who relieved the maintenance superintendent about 4:00 a.m. on May 16, supervised the remainder of the trona removal from over the pipeline. A foreman for Arizona Pipe Line Company arrived on site about 6:00 a.m. and relieved the backhoe operator who had worked through the night. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, two additional excavations of the pipeline were performed; he estimated the first excavation to be near the middle of lot 76 (figure 4, excavation #5), where the maintenance superintendent earlier had found a truck assembly, and the second location to be near the northern edge of lot 75 (figure 4, excavation #6). At both locations, the excavation was performed on the west side of the pipeline, a 20- to 25-foot section of the pipe was exposed from the 6 o’clock position to the 2 o’clock position facing north, and no damage to either the coating or the pipe was observed by Calnev personnel. The depth of pipe was determined to have been about 4 feet at the first location and 5 feet at the second location.

According to the testimony of Calnev officials and the backhoe operator, all the excavations were immediately backfilled after the coating and pipe were inspected for damage. Further testimony indicated that about 6 inches of debris-free native soil would be used to fill the remainder of the excavations, and that compaction of the soil was accomplished by "wheel-rolling" rather than by use of the backhoe bucket.

Beginning about 10:30 a.m. on May 16, Calnev began performing soft dig excavations of the pipeline about every 50 feet throughout the derailment area. At each location, an 8-foot-tall stake marked at 1-foot intervals was placed on top of the pipe, the top of the stake was surveyed to determine its


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 at all upon the functions and disorders of the parts, and the effects of medicines upon the body, so important an organ as the brain must not be left out entirely.

It may not be amiss to add here, that as all the natural functions tend to the welfare of the body, so there is a remarkable tendency in all the disorders of the body to rectify themselves. These two tendencies, taken together, make what is called nature by physicians; and the several instances of them, with their limits, dangers, ill consequences, and deviations in particular cases, deserve the highest attention from physicians, that so they may neither interrupt a favourable crisis, nor concur with a fatal one. Stahl and his followers suppose, that these tendencies arise from a rational agent presiding over the fabric of the body, and producing effects that are not subject to the laws of mechanism. But this is gratis dictum; and the plain traces of mechanism, which appear in so many instances, natural and morbid, are highly unfavourable to it. And all the evidences for the mechanical nature of the body or mind are so many encouragements to study them faithfully and diligently, since what is mechanical may both be understood and remedied.

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 elevation, and the hole was backfilled. Calnev personnel testified that as a result of these soft dig excavations, the pipe was exposed from the 10 o’clock position to the 2 o’clock position at each soft dig excavation and that before the holes were backfilled, the pipe was inspected for damage; no damage was observed at any of these locations. According to Calnev, the purpose of the stakes was to provide information to SP regarding the location and depth of the pipeline when SP began removing the trona from the derailment site. SP was advised by Calnev to preserve the stakes until all grading of the area was completed. Calnev’s manager of operations observed, based on the placement of the stakes, that the pipeline depth below natural ground varied from 4 to 8 feet through the derailment area.

Calnev’s manager of operations testified, "On Tuesday, the 16th, we had by then accomplished full trenching [8-foot-wide path] over the top of the pipeline in the affected area. We had removed or had caused to remove any debris that we had found. We had investigated every area that debris had penetrated the native soil. …Based on that assessment…my opinion was that the pipe had not been damaged by the train derailment." Clearance was given at 11:28 a.m. by Calnev for the restart of the pipeline; operations were resumed about noon on Tuesday, May 16. The pressure was initially increased to about 1,200 psig, at which point, according to Calnev’s manager of operations, the dispatcher on duty watched for any signs of loss of pressure in the system. The pressure held constant for about 15 minutes after which the pipeline was brought up to normal operating pressure (about 1,600 psig) and regular operations were resumed.

The Safety Board received conflicting testimony regarding a request to expose completely the pipeline prior to resuming operations. The incident commander (San Bernardino deputy fire chief) testified he requested that Calnev fully expose the pipeline in the derailment area. According to Calnev’s manager of operations, such a request was not made by either the San Bernardino fire department or the SP. He did state that several options had been considered, including the use of an internal electromagnetic inspection instrument for detecting defects in the pipe wall and a hydrostatic test of the pipeline. He stated further that it would not have been practical to run the inspection instrument through the line because "…the line would have had to have been brought up to full operating pressure and operated in that state for about 5 days to push [the instrument] through to the other end." He elaborated that because of the mountains between Colton and Las Vegas [the end of the line], it would be necessary to operate at full pressure just to get the instrument over the mountains. Calnev’s manager of operations also stated that, " [A] hydrostatic test would have been performed had there been some doubt as to the integrity of the pipeline. We found no reason to doubt the integrity of the pipeline upon completion of our inspection and did not perform a hydrostatic test."

SP contracted with the International Technology Corporation (IT) to have the trona removed from the derailment site; removal of the trona began during the afternoon of May 16. According to the project manager for IT, cleanup of the trona began in the area closest to Duffy Street and then continued through the derailment area from south to north. Equipment operators testified that to remove the trona that had been piled east of the


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 pipeline as a result of the 8-foot-wide path that had been made through the trona, the operator of a front-end loader would reach over the pile of trona with the bucket of the loader and drag the material back toward Duffy Street where the trona could then be loaded into trucks. According to the IT manager, the front-end loader worked perpendicular to the pipeline during this operation.

At 4:00 p.m. on May 16, SP opened its line to resume train movements through the area.

May 17, 18, and 19, 1989.—Removal of the trona continued throughout the day on May 17 and 18. Because trona contrasts with the color of the native soil, operators of the equipment were told by IT to visually inspect the area to assure that they had removed all of the trona and about the top 2 inches of native soil. On May 18, a track-mounted (crawler type) excavator was brought to the site to begin removing the trona from the railroad embankment. The excavator was positioned east of the pipeline with the tracks parallel to the pipeline. A smooth steel grading blade was welded to the teeth on the bucket of the excavator. The blade enabled the operator to drag trona that was covering the railroad embankment without removing excessive amounts of material and to leave behind a smoothly graded surface. Testimony by equipment operators in the area at this time indicated that the operator of the excavator would drag the trona down the side of the railroad embankment and across the pipeline to the east side where front-end loaders would pick up the trona and load the trucks. However, according to IT’s project manager, the operator of the excavator would drag the trona down the embankment and build a stockpile of trona on the west side of the pipeline. At that point, a front-end loader would come in, keeping the tires on the east side of the pipeline, scoop up the material, and then back up to a point where the material could be loaded into trucks. Testimony by equipment operators further indicated that the smooth-edged blade welded to the teeth on the bucket of the excavator broke off several times and that the equipment continued to be operated without the smooth-edged blade. According to IT’s project manager, the excavator made two "passes" on the embankment, one pass from south to north and one from north to south.

By early afternoon on May 19, 1989, all the trona had been removed and the fencing of the area that began during the morning was completed. The last piece of equipment used for the cleaning operations, a motor grader, was brought to the site to smooth out the surface and remove tire tracks. After this operation was completed at 6:00 p.m., locks were placed on the two 20-foot-wide gates that were installed with the fence, and the area was secured. According to SP’s contractor, no equipment was used in the area after May 19, 1989.

IT’s project manager testified that when he left the site on May 19, he believed that there were 2 to 3 feet of ground cover over the pipeline. When asked, "Could it have been your work that removed that cover from the 4 to 8-foot level down to the 2 to 3-foot level?" He replied, "Yes."

According to Calnev, a Calnev representative was on site through May 19, during the removal of the trona, to observe the operations, to point out


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18 described gives general correctness and facility, it is far from conferring universal command of the resources of the English tongue. This is no grand indivisible unity, whereof the learner acquires all or none; it is an aggregation of particulars, and each one appropriates more or less of them, according to his means and ability. The vocabulary which the young child has acquired the power to use is a very scanty one; it includes only the most indispensable part of speech, names for the commonest objects, the most ordinary and familiar conceptions, the simplest relations. You can talk with a child only on a certain limited range of subjects; a book not written especially for his benefit is in great part unintelligible to him: he has not yet learned its signs for thought, and they must be translated into others with which he is acquainted; or the thought itself is beyond the reach of his apprehension, the statement is outside the sphere of his knowledge. But in this regard we are all of us more or less children. Who ever yet got through learning his mother-tongue, and could say, "The work is done?" The encyclopedic English language, as we may term it, the English of the great dictionaries, contains more than a hundred thousand words. And these are only a selection out of a greater mass. If all the signs for thought employed for purposes of communication by those who have spoken and who speak no other tongue than ours were brought together, if all obsolete, technical, and dialectic words were gathered in, which, if they are not English, are of no assignable spoken tongue, the number mentioned would be vastly augmented. Out of this immense mass, it has been reckoned by careful observers that from three to five thousand answer all the ordinary ends of familiar intercourse, even among the cultivated; and a considerable portion of the English-speaking community, including the lowest and most ignorant class, never learn to use even so many as three thousand: what they do acquire, of course, being, like the child's vocabulary, the most necessary part of the language, signs for the commonest and simplest ideas. To a nucleus of this character, every artisan, though otherwise uninstructed, must add the technical language of his own craft—names for tools, and


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Deleted Paundah Bhangra
Please note that I have deleted Paundah Bhangra in accordance with the Deletion policy, as it seems to just be a nonsense sentence with no source or context. If you would like to reopen discussion, you may appeal a deletion as described by the Deletion policy ("Undeletion"). Thank you for your interest in our project, and I apologize for any inconvenience this may have caused. Inductiveload— talk/contribs  20:04, 5 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User:90.220.81.172