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 Marshal recovered on 24 April and Carmarthen two days later. Gruffydd ab Llywelyn (d. 1244) [q. v.] then encountered him near Kidwelly, and though the issue was doubtful the Welsh had to retreat through lack of provisions. After this the king and archbishop arranged a truce, and summoned Marshal to meet them at Ludlow. But their attempt to make peace failed, and the war broke out again. Llywelyn was aided openly by Marshal's Irish enemy Hugh de Lacy, earl of Ulster [q. v.], and less openly by Falkes de Breauté, against whom Marshal had for some time had serious cause of complaint (ib. i. 4, 175). Marshal on his side was supported by many English nobles. He again fought with Gruffydd at Carnwallon, according to the Welsh authorities, with doubtful success; but the English account makes Marshal defeat the Welsh at this time with great slaughter. Certainly Llywelyn had in the end to make terms, and leave Marshal in possession of the lands and castles which he had recovered.

In the spring of 1224 Hugh de Lacy recommenced his warfare in Ireland. The king's representatives could make no head against him, and so on 2 May Marshal was appointed justiciar of Ireland with full power to take into the king's peace all but Hugh de Lacy and the other prominent rebels (, i. 1185-7). Marshal landed at Waterford on 19 June, and proceeding to Dublin was invested as justiciar. He then besieged William de Lacy in Trim Castle, and sent his cousin William Grace or Le Gras against Hugh de Lacy at Carrickfergus. Trim Castle and William de Lacy's crannog of O'Reilly were both captured about the end of July (ib. i. 1203-4;, i. 500-2). After Marshal had compelled Hugh, king of Connaught, and the other Irish chiefs to lend him their aid, Hugh de Lacy was compelled to make terms, and surrendered in October. The earl himself went back to England for a time in November (, i. 1224), but he must have soon gone back to Ireland, where he remained as justiciar till 22 June 1226, when he surrendered his office to the king at Winchester (ib. i. 1380). It was not long, however, before he was again in Ireland, not altogether with the king's goodwill, and he soon appeared in opposition to the new justiciar, Geoffrey de Marisco [q. v.] (ib. i. 1440, 1443). Marshal was still in Ireland in the following spring, when he gave his protection to Hugh of Connaught at Dublin (Four Masters, iii. 243). But in May he returned to England, and on the 21st was with the king at Westminster (, i. 1518). He seems to have spent most of the next three years in England (ib. 1680, 1789, 1812), and was high in Henry's favour. Still in 1227 he supported Richard of Cornwall in his demand for justice against the king. On 30 April 1230 Marshal accompanied Henry on his expedition into Brittany, and when the king returned the earl was one of those who were left behind with Randulph Blundevill, earl of Chester [q. v.], and took part in the raids into Normandy and Anjou. Marshal came home in February 1231. A month later he gave his sister Isabella in marriage to Richard of Cornwall, but died within a few days after the wedding on 6 April 1231. At a later time Hubert de Burgh was accused of having had him poisoned (, iii. 223). Marshal was buried by his father in the Temple on 15 April. One of the recumbent effigies still preserved there is supposed to be his; it is engraved in Gough's ‘Sepulchral Monuments’ (i. 24), but is there described as his father's.

Marshal was a brave and successful soldier, but had no opportunity of showing how far he inherited also his father's statesmanlike qualities. The author of the ‘Histoire’ calls him simply ‘chivaliers beals & buens’ (l. 14882). Matthew Paris says that Henry III had a peculiar affection for him, and in his grief for the earl's death exclaimed: ‘Alas! is not the blood of the blessed Thomas the Martyr yet avenged?’ (iii. 201). The Waverley annalist has the following distich: Militis istius mortem dolet Anglia, ridet Wallia,Wallia [sic] viventis bella minasque timens. Marshal had married his second wife Eleanor on 23 April 1224. Even at his death she was only a girl of sixteen, and though it was at first pretended she was pregnant, Marshal left no children. His widow took the veil, but eventually became the wife of Simon de Montfort [q. v.]

 MARSHALL, CHARLES (1637–1698), quaker, was born at Bristol in June 1637. He was religiously brought up, but owing to spiritual doubts joined as a youth a company which met once a week for fasting and prayer. To one of these meetings in 1654 came John Audland and John Camm [q. v.], who had been convinced by Fox. Marshall


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 account the following statement is correct.) In a state of equilibrium, the density of each fluid at any point thus depends only on the partial pressure of that fluid alone, and is the same as if the other fluids were absent. It does not depend on the partial pressures of the other fluids. If this were not the case, the resistance to diffusion would be analogous to friction, and would contain terms which were independent of the relative velocity u2 − u1. (2) For slow motions the resistance to diffusion is (approximately at any rate) proportional to the relative velocity. (3) The coefficient of resistance C is not necessarily always constant; it may, for example, and, in general, does, depend on the temperature.

If we form the equations of hydrodynamics for the different fluids occurring in any mixture, taking account of diffusion, but neglecting viscosity, and using suffixes 1, 2 to denote the separate fluids, these assume the form given by James Clerk Maxwell (“,” in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.):— $\textstyle \rho_1 \frac { \mathrm{D}u_1}{\mathrm{D}t} + \frac{dp_1}{dx} - \mathrm{X}_1\rho_1 + \mathrm{C}_{12} \rho_1 \rho_2(u_1 - u_2) + \mathrm{ \And \! \!c.} = 0,$ where $\textstyle\frac{\mathrm{D}u_1}{\mathrm{D}t} = \frac{du_1}{dt} + u_1\frac{du_1}{dx} + v_1\frac{du_1}{dy} + w_1\frac{du_1}{dz},$ and these equations imply that when diffusion and other motions cease, the fluids satisfy the separate conditions of equilibrium dp1/dx − X11＝0. The assumption made in the following account is that terms such as Du1/Dt may be neglected in the cases considered.

A further property based on experience is that the motions set up in a mixture by diffusion are very slow compared with those set up by mechanical actions, such as differences of pressure. Thus, if two gases at equal temperature and pressure be allowed to mix by diffusion, the heavier gas being below the lighter, the process will take a long time; on the other hand, if two gases, or parts of the same gas, at different pressures be connected, equalization of pressure will take place almost immediately. It follows from this property that the forces required to overcome the “inertia” of the fluids in the motions due to diffusion are quite imperceptible. At any stage of the process, therefore, any one of the diffusing fluids may be regarded as in equilibrium under the action of its own partial pressure, the external forces to which it is subjected and the resistance to diffusion of the other fluids.

5. ''Slow Diffusion of two Gases. Relation between the Coefficients of Resistance and of Diffusion''.—We now suppose the diffusing substances to be two gases which obey Boyle’s law, and that diffusion takes place in a closed cylinder or tube of unit sectional area at constant temperature, the surfaces of equal density being perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, so that the direction of diffusion is along the length of the cylinder, and we suppose no external forces, such as gravity, to act on the system.

The densities of the gases are denoted by 1, 2, their velocities of diffusion by u1, u2, and if their partial pressures are p1, p2,  we have by Boyle’s law p1＝k11, p2＝k22, where k1,k2 are constants for the two gases, the temperature being constant. The axis of the cylinder is taken as the axis of x.

From the considerations of the preceding section, the effects of inertia of the diffusing gases may be neglected, and at any instant of the process either of the gases is to be treated as kept in equilibrium by its partial pressure and the resistance to diffusion produced by the other gas. Calling this resistance per unit volume R, and putting R＝C12(u1 − u2), where C is the coefficient of resistance, the equations of equilibrium give

These involve

where P is the total pressure of the mixture, and is everywhere constant, consistently with the conditions of mechanical equilibrium.

Now dp1/dx is the pressure-gradient of the first gas, and is, by Boyle’s law, equal to k1 times the corresponding density-gradient. Again 1u1 is the mass of gas flowing across any section per unit time, and k11u1 or p1u1 can be regarded as representing the flux of partial pressure produced by the motion of the gas. Since the total pressure is everywhere constant, and the ends of the cylinder are supposed fixed, the fluxes of partial pressure due to the two gases are equal and opposite, so that

From (2) (3) we find by elementary algebra u1/p2＝−u2/p1＝(u1 − u2)/(p1 + p2)＝(u1 − u2)/P, and therefore p2u1＝−p2u2＝p1p2(u1 − u2)/P＝k1k212(u1 − u2)/P Hence equations (1) (2) gives $\textstyle \frac{dp_1}{dx} + \frac{\mathrm{CP}}{k_1k_2} (p_1u_1) = 0,$ and $\textstyle\frac{dp_2}{dx} + \frac{\mathrm{CP}}{k_1k_2} (p_2u_2) = 0;$|undefined whence also substituting p1＝k11, p2＝k22, and by transposing $\textstyle \rho_1u_1 = - \frac{k_1k_2}{\mathrm{CP}} \frac{d\rho_1}{dx},$ and $\textstyle\rho_2u_2 = - \frac{k_1k_2}{\mathrm{CP}} \frac{d\rho_2}{dx}.$|undefined

We may now define the “coefficient of diffusion” of either gas as the ratio of the rate of flow of that gas to its density-gradient. With this definition, the coefficients of diffusion of both the gases in a mixture are equal, each being equal to k1k2/CP. The ratios of the fluxes of partial pressure to the corresponding pressure-gradients are also equal to the same coefficient. Calling this coefficient K, we also observe that the equations of continuity for the two gases are $\textstyle \frac{d\rho_1}{dt} + \frac{d(\rho_1u_1)}{dx} = 0,$ and $\textstyle\frac{d\rho_2}{dt} + \frac{d(\rho_2u_2)}{dx} = 0,$ leading to the equations of diffusion $\textstyle \frac{d\rho_1}{dt} = \frac{d}{dx} \left(\mathrm{K} \frac{d\rho_1}{dx} \right),$ and $\textstyle\frac{d\rho_2}{dt} = \frac{d}{dx} \left(\mathrm{K} \frac{d\rho_2}{dx} \right),$ exactly as in the case of diffusion through a solid.

If we attempt to treat diffusion in liquids by a similar method, it is, in the first place, necessary to define the “partial pressure” of the components occurring in a liquid mixture. This leads to the conception of “osmotic pressure,” which is dealt with in the article. For dilute solutions at constant temperature, the assumption that the osmotic pressure is proportional to the density, leads to results agreeing fairly closely with experience, and this fact may be represented by the statement that a substance occurring in a dilute solution behaves like a perfect gas.

6. Relation of the Coefficient of Diffusion to the Units of Length and Time.—We may write the equation defining K in the form $\textstyle - \mathrm{K} \times \frac{\mathrm{I}}{\rho } \frac{d\rho }{dx}.$|undefined

Here −d/dx represents the “percentage rate” at which the density decreases with the distance x; and we thus see that the coefficient of diffusion represents the ratio of the velocity of flow to the percentage rate at which the density decreases with the distance measured in the direction of flow. This percentage rate being of the nature of a number divided by a length, and the velocity being of the nature of a length divided by a time, we may state that K is of two dimensions in length and −1 in time, i.e. dimensions L2/T.

7. Numerical Values of the Coefficient of Diffusion.—The table on p. 258 gives the values of the coefficient of diffusion of several of the principal pairs of gases at a pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, and also of a number of other substances. In the gases the centimetre and second are taken as fundamental units, in other cases the centimetre and day.

8. Irreversible Changes accompanying Diffusion.—The diffusion of two gases at constant pressure and temperature is a good example of an “irreversible process.” The gases always tend to mix, never to separate. In order to separate the gases a change must be effected in the external conditions to which the mixture is subjected, either by liquefying one of the gases, or by separating them by diffusion through a membrane, or by bringing other outside influences to bear on them. In the case of liquids, electrolysis affords a means of separating the constituents of a mixture. Every such method involves some change taking place outside the mixture, and this change may be regarded as a “compensating

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is a hopeless confusion as to certain important dates in Audubon's life. He was often careless and unreliable in his statements of matters of fact, which weakness during his lifetime often led to his being accused of falsehood. Thus he speaks of the "memorable battle of Valley Forge" and of two brothers of his, both officers in the French army, as having perished in the French Revolution, when he doubtless meant uncles. He had previously stated that his only two brothers died in infancy. He confessed that he had no head for mathematics, and he seems always to have been at sea in regard to his own age. In his letters and journals there are several references to his age, but they rarely agree. The date of his birth usually given, May 4, 1780, is probably three or four years too early, as he


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Robinson, Edward (archæologist)

ROBINSON, Edward, American archæologist: b. Boston, Mass., 1 Nov. 1858. He was graduated at Harvard University in 1879, later spending five years in study in Europe, including 15 months in Greece and three semesters at Berlin. He was curator of classical antiquities at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1885-1902 and director in 1902-05. He became assistant director at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in 1906, and in 1910 succeeded Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke as director. He lectured on archæology at Harvard in 1893-94 and in 1898-1902, and was secretary of the art commission of Boston in 1890-98. He has contributed many articles to periodicals as well as to the Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.


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2 speaks of himself as being nearly seventeen when his mother had him confirmed in the Catholic Church, and this was about the time that his father, then an officer in the French navy, was sent to England to effect a change of prisoners, which time is given as 1801. The two race strains that mingle in him probably account for this illogical habit of mind, as well as for his romantic and artistic temper and tastes. His father was a sea-faring man and a Frenchman; his mother was a Spanish Creole of Louisiana—the old chivalrous Castilian blood modified by new world conditions. The father, through commercial channels, accumulated a large property in the island of St. Domingo. In the course of his trading he made frequent journeys to Louisiana, then the property of the French government. On one of these trips, probably, he married one of the native women, who is said to have possessed both wealth and


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Rh beauty. The couple seem to have occupied for a time a plantation belonging to a French Marquis, situated at Mandeville on the North shore of Lake Pontchartrain. Here three sons were born to them, of whom John James La Forest was the third. The daughter seems to have been younger.

His own mother perished in a slave insurrection in St. Domingo, where the family had gone to live on the Audubon estate at Aux Cayes, when her child was but a few months old. Audubon says that his father with his plate and money and himself, attended by a few faithful servants, escaped to New Orleans. What became of his sister he does not say, though she must have escaped with them, since we hear of her existence years later. Not long after, how long we do not know, the father returned to France, where he married a second time, giving the son, as he himself says, the only mother he ever knew. This woman


text: The American Journal of Sociology/Volume 01/Number 2/Minor Editorials


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Category:Editorials in The American Journal of Sociology

Editorials that appeared in The American Journal of Sociology.


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4 proved a rare exception among step-mothers—but she was too indulgent, and, Audubon says, completely spoiled him, bringing him up to live like a gentleman, ignoring his faults and boasting of his merits, and leading him to believe that fine clothes and a full pocket were the most desirable things in life.

This she was able to do all the more effectively because the father soon left the son in her charge and returned to the United States in the employ of the French government, and before long became attached to the army under La Fayette. This could not have been later than 1781, the year of Cornwallis' surrender, and Audubon would then have been twenty-one, but this does not square with his own statements. After the war the father still served some years in the French navy, but finally retired from active service and lived at La Gérbetière in France, where he died at the age of ninety-five, in 1818.


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Rh Audubon says of his mother: "Let no one speak of her as my step-mother. I was ever to her as a son of her own flesh and blood and she was to me a true mother." With her he lived in the city of Nantes, France, where he appears to have gone to school. It was, however, only from his private tutors that he says he got any benefit. His father desired him to follow in his footsteps, and he was educated accordingly, studying drawing, geography, mathematics, fencing, and music. Mathematics he found hard dull work, as have so many men of like temperament, before and since, but music and fencing and geography were more to his liking. He was an ardent, imaginative youth, and chafed under all drudgery and routine. His foster-mother, in the absence of his father, suffered him to do much as he pleased, and he pleased to "play hookey" most of the time, joining boys of his own age and disposition, and deserting the school for the


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6 fields and woods, hunting birds' nests, fishing and shooting and returning home at night with his basket filled with various natural specimens and curiosities. The collecting fever is not a bad one to take possession of boys at this age. In his autobiography Audubon relates an incident that occurred when he was a child, which he thinks first kindled his love for birds. It was an encounter between a pet parrot and a tame monkey kept by his mother. One morning the parrot, Mignonne, asked as usual for her breakfast of bread and milk, whereupon the monkey, being in a bad humour, attacked the poor defenceless bird, and killed it. Audubon screamed at the cruel sight, and implored the servant to interfere and save the bird, but without avail. The boy's piercing screams brought the mother, who succeeded in tranquillising the child. The monkey was chained, and the parrot buried, but


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Rh the tragedy awakened in him a lasting love for his feathered friends. Audubon's father seems to have been the first to direct his attention to the study of birds, and to the observance of Nature generally. Through him he learned to notice the beautiful colourings and markings of the birds, to know their haunts, and to observe their change of plumage with the changing seasons; what he learned of their mysterious migrations fired his imagination. He speaks of this early intimacy with Nature as a feeling which bordered on frenzy. Watching the growth of a bird from the egg he compares to the unfolding of a flower from the bud. The pain which he felt in seeing the birds die and decay was very acute, but, fortunately, about this time some one showed him a book of illustrations, and henceforth "a new life ran in my veins," he says. To copy Nature was thereafter his one engrossing aim.


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8 That he realised how crude his early efforts were is shown by his saying: "My pencil gave birth to a family of cripples." His steady progress, too, is shown in his custom, on every birthday, of burning these 'Crippled' drawings, then setting to work to make better, truer ones. His father returning from a sea voyage, probably when the son was about twenty years old, was not well pleased with the progress that the boy was making in his studies. One morning soon after, Audubon found himself with his trunk and his belongings in a private carriage, beside his father, on his way to the city of Rochefort. The father occupied himself with a book and hardly spoke to his son during the several days of the journey, though there was no anger in his face. After they were settled in their new abode, he seated his son beside him and taking one of his hands in his, calmly said: "My beloved


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Rh boy, thou art now safe. I have brought thee here that I may be able to pay constant attention to thy studies; thou shalt have ample time for pleasures, but the remainder must be employed with industry and care."

But the father soon left him on some foreign mission for his government and the boy chafed as usual under his tasks and confinement. One day, too much mathematics drove him into making his escape by leaping from the window, and making off through the gardens attached to the school where he was confined. A watchful corporal soon overhauled him, however, and brought him back, where he was confined on board some sort of prison ship in the harbour. His father soon returned, when he was released, not without a severe reprimand.

We next find him again in the city of Nantes struggling with more odious mathematics, and spending all his leisure time in the fields and woods,


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10 the birds. About this time he began a series of drawings of the French birds, which grew to upwards of two hundred, all bad enough, he says, but yet real representations of birds, that gave him a certain pleasure. They satisfied his need of expression. At about this time, too, though the year we do not know, his father concluded to send him to the United States, apparently to occupy a farm called Mill Grove, which the father had purchased some years before on the Schuylkill river near Philadelphia. In New York he caught the yellow fever: he was carefully nursed by two Quaker-ladies who kept a boarding house in Morristown, New Jersey. In due time his father's agent, Miers Fisher, also a Quaker, removed him to his own villa near Philadelphia, and here Audubon seems to have remained some months. But the gay and ardent youth did not find the atmosphere of the


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Rh place congenial. The sober Quaker grey was not to his taste. His host was opposed to music of all kinds, and to dancing, hunting, fishing and nearly all other forms of amusement. More than that, he had a daughter between whom and Audubon he apparently hoped an affection would spring up. But Audubon took an unconquerable dislike to her. Very soon, therefore, he demanded to be put in possession of the estate to which his father had sent him. Of the month and year in which he entered upon his life at Mill Grove, we are ignorant. We know that he fell into the hands of another Quaker, William Thomas, who was the tenant on the place, but who, with his worthy wife, seems to have made life pleasant for him. He soon became attached to Mill Grove, and led a life there just suited to his temperament. "Hunting, fishing, drawing, music, occupied my every moment; cares I


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12 knew not and cared naught about them. I purchased excellent and beautiful horses, visited all such neighbours as I found congenial spirits, and was as happy as happy could be." Near him there lived an English family by the name of Bakewell, but he had such a strong antipathy to the English that he postponed returning the call of Mr. Bakewell, who had left his card at Mill Grove during one of Audubon's excursions to the woods. In the late fall or early winter, however, he chanced to meet Mr. Bakewell while out hunting grouse, and was so pleased with him and his well-trained dogs, and his good marksmanship, that he apologised for his discourtesy in not returning his call, and promised to do so forthwith. Not many mornings thereafter he was seated in his neighbour's house. "Well do I recollect the morning," he says in the autobiographical sketch which he prepared for his sons, "and


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Rh may it please God that I never forget it, when for the first time I entered Mr. Bakewell's dwelling. It happened that he was absent from home, and I was shown into a parlour where only one young lady was snugly seated at her work by the fire. She rose on my entrance, offered me a seat, assured me of the gratification her father would feel on his return, which, she added, would be in a few moments, as she would despatch a servant for him. Other ruddy cheeks and bright eyes made their transient appearance, but, like spirits gay, soon vanished from my sight; and there I sat, my gaze riveted, as it were, on the young girl before me, who, half working, half talking, essayed to make the time pleasant to me. Oh! may God bless her! It was she, my dear sons, who afterwards became my beloved wife, and your mother. Mr. Bakewell soon made his appearance, and received me with the manner and hospitality of


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14 a true English gentleman. The other members of the family were soon introduced to me, and Lucy was told to have luncheon produced. She now rose from her seat a second time, and her form, to which I had paid but partial attention, showed both grace and beauty; and my heart followed every one of her steps. The repast over, dogs and guns were made ready.

"Lucy, I was pleased to believe, looked upon me with some favour, and I turned more especially to her on leaving. I felt that certain ' Je ne sais quoi ' which intimated that, at least, she was not indifferent to me." The winter that followed was a gay and happy one at Mill Grove; shooting parties, skating parties, house parties with the Bakewell family, were of frequent occurrence. It was during one of these skating excursions upon the Perkiomen in quest of wild ducks, that Audubon had a lucky escape from


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 transformation.” We thus have an instance of the property that every irreversible change leaves an indelible imprint somewhere or other on the progress of events in the universe. That the process of diffusion obeys the laws of irreversible thermodynamics (if these laws are properly stated) is proved by the fact that the compensating transformations required to separate mixed gases do not essentially involve anything but transformation of energy. The process of allowing gases to mix by diffusion, and then separating them by a compensating transformation, thus constitutes an irreversible cycle, the outside effects of which are that energy somewhere or other must be less capable of transformation than it was before the change. We express this fact by stating that an irreversible process essentially implies a loss of availability. To measure this loss we make use of the laws of thermodynamics, and in particular of Lord Kelvin’s statement that “It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects.”

Let us now assume that we have any system such as the gases above considered, and that it is in the presence of an indefinitely extended medium which we shall call the  “auxiliary medium.” If heat be taken from any part of the system, only part of this heat can be converted into work by means of thermodynamic engines; and the rest will be given to the auxiliary medium, and will constitute unavailable energy or waste. To understand what this means, we may consider the case of a condensing steam engine. Only part of the energy liberated by the combustion of the coal is available for driving the engine, the rest takes the form of heat imparted to the condenser. The colder the condenser the more efficient is the engine, and the smaller is the quantity of waste.

The amount of unavailable energy associated with any given transformation is proportional to the absolute temperature of the auxiliary medium. When divided by that temperature the quotient is called the change of “entropy” associated with the given change (see ). Thus if a body at temperature T receives a quantity of heat Q, and if T0 is the temperature of the auxiliary medium, the quantity of work which could be obtained from Q by means of ideal thermodynamic engines would be Q(1 − T0/T), and the balance, which is QT0/T, would take the form of unavailable or waste energy given to the medium. The quotient of this, when divided by T0, is Q/T, and this represents the quantity of entropy associated with Q units of heat at temperature T.

Any irreversible change for which a compensating transformation of energy exists represents, therefore, an increase of unavailable energy, which is measurable in terms of entropy. The increase of entropy is independent of the temperature of the auxiliary medium. It thus affords a measure of the extent to which energy has run to waste during the change. Moreover, when a body is heated, the increase of entropy is the factor which determines how much of the energy imparted to the body is unavailable for conversion into work under given conditions. In all cases we have

$increase of unavailable energy⁄temperature of auxiliary medium$ ＝ increase of entropy.

When diffusion takes place between two gases inside a closed vessel at uniform pressure and temperature no energy in the form of heat or work is received from without, and hence the entropy gained by the gases from without is zero. But the irreversible processes inside the vessel may involve a gain of entropy, and this can only be estimated by examining by what means mixed gases can be separated, and, in particular, under what conditions the process of mixing and separating the gases could (theoretically) be made reversible.

9. Evidence derived from Liquefaction of one or both of the Gases.—The gases in a mixture can often be separated by liquefying, or even solidifying, one or both of the components. In connexion with this property we have the important law according to which “The pressure of a vapour in equilibrium with its liquid depends only on the temperature and is independent of the pressures of any other gases or vapours which may be mixed with it.” Thus if two closed vessels be taken containing some water and one be exhausted, the other containing air, and if the temperatures be equal, evaporation will go on until the pressure of the vapour in the exhausted vessel is equal to its partial pressure in the other vessel, notwithstanding the fact that the total pressure in the latter vessel is greater by the pressure of the air.

To separate mixed gases by liquefaction, they must be compressed and cooled till one separates in the form of a liquid. If no changes are to take place outside the system, the separate components must be allowed to expand until the work of expansion is equal to the work of compression, and the heat given out in compression is reabsorbed in expansion. The process may be made as nearly reversible as we like by performing the operations so slowly that the substances are practically in a state of equilibrium at every stage. This is a consequence of an important axiom in thermodynamics according to which “any small change in the neighbourhood of a state of equilibrium is to a first approximation reversible.”

Suppose now that at any stage of the compression the partial pressures of the two gases are p1 and p2, and that the volume is changed from V to V − dV. The work of compression is (p1 + p2)dV, and this work will be restored at the corresponding stage if each of the separated gases increases in volume from V − dV to V. The ultimate state of the separated gases will thus be one in which each gas occupies the volume V originally occupied by the mixture.

We may now obtain an estimate of the amount of energy rendered unavailable by diffusion. We suppose two gases occupying volumes V1 and V2 at equal pressure p to mix by diffusion, so that the final volume is V1 + V2. Then if before mixing each gas had been allowed to expand till its volume was V1 + V2, work would have been done in the expansion, and the gases could still have been mixed by a reversal of the process above described. In the actual diffusion this work of expansion is lost, and represents energy rendered unavailable at the temperature at which diffusion takes place. When divided by that temperature the quotient gives the increase of entropy. Thus the irreversible processes, and, in particular, the entropy changes associated with diffusion of two gases at uniform pressure, are the same as would take place if each of the gases in turn were to expand by rushing into a vacuum, till it occupied the whole volume of the mixture. A more rigorous proof involves considerations of the thermodynamic potentials, following the methods of J. Willard Gibbs (see ).

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Rh drowning. He was leading the party down the river in the dusk of the evening, with a white handkerchief tied to a stick, when he came suddenly upon a large air hole into which, in spite of himself, his impetus carried him. Had there not chanced to be another air hole a few yards below, our hero's career would have ended then and there. The current quickly carried him beneath the ice to this other opening where he managed to seize hold of the ice and to crawl out. His friendship with the Bakewell family deepened. Lucy taught Audubon English, he taught her drawing, and their friendship very naturally ripened into love, which seems to have run its course smoothly. Audubon was happy. He had ample means, and his time was filled with congenial pursuits. He writes in his journal: "I had no vices, but was thoughtless, pensive, loving, fond of


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16 shooting, fishing, and riding, and had a passion for raising all sorts of fowls, which sources of interest and amusement fully occupied my time. It was one of my fancies to be ridiculously fond of dress; to hunt in black satin breeches, wear pumps when shooting, and to dress in the finest ruffled shirts I could obtain from France."

The evidences of vanity regarding his looks and apparel, sometimes found in his journal, are probably traceable to his foster-mother's unwise treatment of him in his youth. We have seen how his father's intervention in the nick of time exercised a salutary influence upon him at this point in his career, directing his attention to the more solid attainments. Whatever traces of this self-consciousness and apparent vanity remained in after life, seem to have been more the result of a naive character delighting in picturesqueness in himself as well as in Nature, than they were of real vanity.


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 1832.] injured the astronomical instruments. The morning before we anchored at Porto Praya, I collected a little packet of this brown-coloured fine dust, which appeared to have been filtered from the wind by the gauze of the vane at the mast-head. Mr. Lyell has also given me four packets of dust which fell on a vessel a few hundred miles northward of these islands. Professor Ehrenberg finds that this dust consists in great part of infusoria with siliceous shields, and of the siliceous tissue of plants. In five little packets which I sent him, he has ascertained no less than sixty-seven different organic forms! The infusoria, with the exception of two marine species, are all inhabitants of freshwater. I have found no less than fifteen different accounts of dust having fallen on vessels when far out in the Atlantic. From the direction of the wind whenever it has fallen, and from its having always fallen during those months when the harmattan is known to raise clouds of dust high into the atmosphere, we may feel sure that it all comes from Africa. It is, however, a very singular fact, that, although Professor Ehrenberg knows many species of infusoria peculiar to Africa, he finds none of these in the dust which I sent him: on the other hand, he finds in it two species which hitherto he knows as living only in South America. The dust falls in such quantities as to dirty everything on board, and to hurt people's eyes; vessels even have run on shore owing to the obscurity of the atmosphere. It has often fallen on ships when several hundred, and even more than a thousand miles from the coast of Africa, and at points sixteen hundred miles distant in a north and south direction. In some dust which was collected on a vessel three hundred miles from the land, I was much surprised to find particles of stone above the thousandth of an inch square, mixed with finer matter. After this fact one need not be surprised at the diffusion of the far lighter and smaller sporules of cryptogamic plants.

The geology of this island is the most interesting part of its natural history. On entering the harbour, a perfectly horizontal white band in the face of the sea cliff, may be seen running for


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10. ''Diffusion through a Membrane or Partition. Theory of the semi-permeable Membrane''.—It has been pointed out that diffusion of gases frequently takes place in the interior of solids; moreover, different gases behave differently with respect to the same solid at the same temperature. A membrane or partition formed of such a solid can therefore be used to effect a more or less complete separation of gases from a mixture. This method is employed commercially for extracting oxygen from the atmosphere, in particular for use in projection lanterns where a high degree of purity is not required. A similar method is often applied to liquids and solutions and is known as “dialysis.”

In such cases as can be tested experimentally it has been found that a gas always tends to pass through a membrane from the side where its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is greater to the side where it is less; so that for equilibrium the partial pressures on the two sides must be equal. This result is unaffected by the presence of other gases on one or both sides of the membrane. For example, if different gases at the same pressure are separated by a partition through which one gas can pass more rapidly than the other, the diffusion will give rise to a difference of pressure on the two sides, which is capable of doing mechanical work in moving the partition. In evidence of this conclusion Max Planck quotes a test experiment made by him in the Physical Institute of the university of Munich in 1883, depending on the fact that platinum foil at white heat is permeable to hydrogen but impermeable to air, so that if a platinum tube filled with hydrogen be heated the hydrogen will diffuse out, leaving a vacuum.

In order that diffusion through a membrane may be reversible so far as a particular gas is concerned, the process must take place so slowly that equilibrium is set up at every stage (see § 9 above). In order to separate one gas from another consistently with this condition it is necessary that no diffusion of the latter gas should accompany the process. The name “semi-permeable” is applied to an ideal membrane or partition through which one gas can pass, and which offers an insuperable barrier to any diffusion whatever of a second gas. By means of two semi-permeable partitions acting oppositely with respect to two different gases A and B these gases could be mixed or separated by reversible methods. The annexed figure shows a diagrammatic representation of the process.

We suppose the gases contained in a cylindrical tube; P, Q, R, S are four pistons, of which P and R are joined to one connecting rod, Q and S to another. P, S are impermeable to both gases; Q is semi-permeable, allowing the gas A to pass through but not B, similarly R allows the gas B to pass through but not A. The distance PR is equal to the distance QS, so that if the rods are pushed towards each other as far as they will go, P and Q will be in contact, as also R and S. Imagine the space RQ filled with a mixture of the two gases under these conditions. Then by slowly drawing the connecting rods apart until R, Q touch, the gas A will pass into the space PQ, and B will pass into the space RS, and the gases will finally be completely separated; similarly, by pushing the connecting rods together, the two gases will be remixed in the space RQ. By performing the operations slowly enough we may make the processes as nearly reversible as we please, so that no available energy is lost in either change. The gas A being at every instant in equilibrium on the two sides of the piston Q, its density, and therefore its partial pressure, is the same on both sides, and the same is true regarding the gas B on the two sides of R. Also no work is done in moving the pistons, for the partial pressures of B on the two sides of R balance each other, consequently, the resultant thrust on R is due to the gas A alone, and is equal and opposite to its resultant thrust on P, so that the connecting rods are at every instant in a state of mechanical equilibrium so far as the pressures of the gases A and B are concerned. We conclude that in the reversible separation of the gases by this method at constant temperature without the production or absorption of mechanical work, the densities and the partial pressures of the two separated gases are the same as they were in the mixture. These conclusions are in entire agreement with those of the preceding section. If this agreement did not exist it would be possible, theoretically, to obtain perpetual motion from the gases in a way that would be inconsistent with the second law of thermodynamics.

Most physicists admit, as Planck does, that it is impossible to obtain an ideal semi-permeable substance; indeed such a substance would necessarily have to possess an infinitely great resistance to diffusion for such gases as could not penetrate it. But in an experiment performed under actual conditions the losses of available energy arising from this cause would be attributable to the imperfect efficiency of the partitions and not to the gases themselves; moreover, these losses are, in every case, found to be completely in accordance with the laws of irreversible thermodynamics. The reasoning in this article being somewhat condensed the reader must necessarily be referred to treatises on thermodynamics for further information on points of detail connected with the argument. Even when he consults these treatises he may find some points omitted which have been examined in full detail at some time or other, but are not sufficiently often raised to require mention in print.

II. Kinetic Models of Diffusion.—Imagine in the first instance that a very large number of red balls are distributed over one half of a billiard table, and an equal number of white balls over the other half. If the balls are set in motion with different velocities in various directions, diffusion will take place, the red balls finding their way among the white ones, and vice versa; and the process will be retarded by collisions between the balls. The simplest model of a perfect gas studied in the kinetic theory of gases (see ) differs from the above illustration in that the bodies representing the molecules move in space instead of in a plane, and, unlike billiard balls, their motion is unresisted, and they are perfectly elastic, so that no kinetic energy is lost either during their free motions, or at a collision.

The mathematical analysis connected with the application of the kinetic theory to diffusion is very long and cumbersome. We shall therefore confine our attention to regarding a medium formed of elastic spheres as a mechanical model, by which the most important features of diffusion can be illustrated. We shall assume the results of the kinetic theory, according to which:—(1) In a dynamical model of a perfect gas the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules represents the absolute temperature of the gas. (2) The pressure at any point is proportional to the product of the number of molecules in unit volume about that point into the mean square of the velocity. (The mean square of the velocity is different from but proportional to the square of the mean velocity, and in the subsequent arguments either of these two quantities can generally be taken.) (3) In a gas mixture represented by a mixture of molecules of unequal masses, the mean kinetic energies of the different kinds are equal.

Consider now the problem of diffusion in a region containing two kinds of molecules A and B of unequal mass. The molecules of A in the neighbourhood of any point will, by their motion, spread out in every direction until they come into collision with other molecules of either kind, and this spreading out from every point of the medium will give rise to diffusion. If we imagine the velocities of the A molecules to be equally distributed in all directions, as they would be in a homogeneous mixture, it is obvious that the process of diffusion will be greater, ceteris paribus, the greater the velocity of the molecules, and the greater the length of the free path before a collision takes place. If we assume consistently with this, that the coefficient of diffusion of the gas A is proportional to the mean value of waa, where wa is the velocity and a is the length of the path of a

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Rh In later years he was assuredly nothing of the dandy; he himself ridicules his youthful fondness for dress, while those who visited him during his last years speak of him as particularly lacking in self-consciousness.

Although he affected the dress of the dandies of his time, he was temperate and abstemious. "I ate no butcher's meat, lived chiefly on fruits, vegetables, and fish, and never drank a glass of spirits or wine until my wedding day" "All this time I was fair and rosy, strong and active as one of my age and sex could be, and as active and agile as a buck."

That he was energetic and handy and by no means the mere dandy that his extravagance in dress might seem to indicate, is evidenced from the fact that about this time he made a journey on foot to New York and accomplished the ninety miles in three days in mid-winter. But he was angry, and anger is better than wine to walk on.


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18 The cause of his wrath was this; a lead mine had been discovered upon the farm of Mill Grove, and Audubon had applied to his father for counsel in regard to it. In response, the elder Audubon had sent over a man by the name of Da Costa who was to act as his son's partner and partial guardian—was to teach him mineralogy and mining engineering, and to look after his finances generally. But the man, Audubon says, knew nothing of the subjects he was supposed to teach, and was, besides, "a covetous wretch, who did all he could to ruin my father, and, indeed, swindled both of us to a large amount." Da Costa pushed his authority so far as to object to Audubon's proposed union with Lucy Bakewell, as being a marriage beneath him, and finally plotted to get the young man off to India. These things very naturally kindled Audubon's quick temper, and he demanded of his tutor and guardian money enough to take him to France


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Rh to consult with his father. Da Costa gave him a letter of credit on a sort of banker-broker residing in New York. To New York he accordingly went, as above stated, and found that the banker-broker was in the plot to pack him off to India. This disclosure kindled his wrath afresh. He says that had he had a weapon about him the banker's heart must have received the result of his wrath. His Spanish blood began to declare itself. Then he sought out a brother of Mr. Bakewell and the uncle of his sweetheart, and of him borrowed the money to take him to France. He took passage on a New Bedford brig bound for Nantes. The captain had recently been married and when the vessel reached the vicinity of New Bedford, he discovered some dangerous leaks which necessitated a week's delay to repair damages. Audubon avers that the captain had caused holes to be bored in the vessel's


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 6 some miles along the coast, and at the height of about forty-five feet above the water. Upon examination, this white stratum is found to consist of calcareous matter, with numerous shells embedded, most or all of which now exist on the neighbouring coast. It rests on ancient volcanic rocks, and has been covered by a stream of basalt, which must have entered the sea when the white shelly bed was lying at the bottom. It is interesting to trace the changes, produced by the heat of the overlying lava, on the friable mass, which in parts has been converted into a crystalline limestone, and in other parts into a compact spotted stone. Where the lime has been caught up by the scoriaceous fragments of the lower surface of the stream, it is converted into groups of beautifully radiated fibres resembling arragonite. The beds of lava rise in successive gently-sloping plains, towards the interior, whence the deluges of melted stone have originally proceeded. Within historical times, no signs of volcanic activity have, I believe, been manifested in any part of St. Jago. Even the form of a crater can but rarely be discovered on the summits of the many red cindery hills; yet the more recent streams can be distinguished on the coast, forming lines of cliffs of less height, but stretching out in advance of those belonging to an older series : the height of the cliffs thus affording a rude measure of the age of the streams.

During our stay, I observed the habits of some marine animals. A large Aplysia is very common. This sea-slug is about five inches long ; and is of a dirty yellowish colour, veined with purple. On each side of the lower surface, or foot, there is a broad membrane, which appears sometimes to act as a ventilator, in causing a current of water to flow over the dorsal branchiæ or lungs. It feeds on the delicate sea-weeds which grow among the stones in muddy and shallow water ; and I found in its stomach several small pebbles, as in the gizzard of a bird. This slug, when disturbed, emits a very fine purplish-red fluid, which stains the water for the space of a foot around. Besides this means of defence, an acrid secretion, which is spread over its body, causes a sharp, stinging sensation, similar to that produced by the Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war.

I was much interested, on several occasions, by watching the habits of an Octopus, or cuttle-fish. Although common in the


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20 sides below the water line, to gain an excuse to spend a few more days with his bride. After a voyage of nineteen days the vessel entered the Loire, and anchored in the lower harbour of Nantes, and Audubon was soon welcomed by his father and fond foster-mother. His first object was to have the man Da Costa disposed of, which he soon accomplished; the second, to get his father's consent to his marriage with Lucy Bakewell, which was also brought about in due time, although the parents of both agreed that they were "owre young to marry yet." Audubon now remained two years in France, indulging his taste for hunting, rambling, and drawing birds and other objects of Natural History.

This was probably about the years 1805 and 1806. France was under the sway of Napoleon, and conscriptions were the order of the day. The elder


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Rh Audubon became uneasy lest his son be drafted into the French army; hence he resolved to send him back to America. In the meantime, he interested one Rozier in the lead mine and had formed a partnership between him and his son, to run for nine years. In due course the two young men sailed for New York, leaving France at a time when thousands would have been glad to have followed their footsteps. On this voyage their vessel was pursued and overhauled by a British privateer, the Rattlesnake, and nearly all their money and eatables were carried off, besides two of the ship's best sailors. Audubon and Rozier saved their gold by hiding it under a cable in the bow of the ship. On returning to Mill Grove, Audubon resumed his former habits of life there. We hear no more of the lead mine, but more of his bird studies and drawings, the love of which was fast becoming his ruling passion. "Before I sailed


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22 for France, I had begun a series of drawings of the birds of America, and had also begun a study of their habits. I at first drew my subject dead, by which I mean to say that after procuring a specimen, I hung it up, either by the head, wing, or foot, and copied it as closely as I could." Even the hateful Da Costa had praised his bird pictures and had predicted great things for him in this direction. His words had given Audubon a great deal of pleasure. Mr. William Bakewell, the brother of his Lucy, has given us a glimpse of Audubon and his surroundings at this time. "Audubon took me to his house, where he and his companion, Rozier, resided, with Mrs. Thomas for an attendant. On entering his room, I was astonished and delighted that it was turned into a museum. The walls were festooned with all sorts of birds' eggs, carefully blown out and strung on a thread. The chimney piece was covered


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Rh with stuffed squirrels, raccoons and opossums; and the shelves around were likewise crowded with specimens, among which were fishes, frogs, snakes, lizards, and other reptiles. Besides these stuffed varieties, many paintings were arrayed upon the walls, chiefly of birds. He had great skill in stuffing and preserving animals of all sorts. He had also a trick of training dogs with great perfection, of which art his famous dog Zephyr was a wonderful example. He was an admirable marksman, an expert swimmer, a clever rider, possessed great activity, prodigious strength, and was notable for the elegance of his figure, and the beauty of his features, and he aided Nature by a careful attendance to his dress. Besides other accomplishments, he was musical, a good fencer, danced well, had some acquaintance with legerdemain tricks, worked in hair, and could plait willow baskets." He adds that Audubon once swam across the Schuylkill with him on his back.


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume II/Survival

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was now eager to marry, but Mr. Bakewell advised him first to study the mercantile business. This he accordingly set out to do by entering as a clerk the commercial house of Benjamin Bakewell in New York, while his friend Rozier entered a French house in Philadelphia. But Audubon was not cut out for business; his first venture was in indigo, and cost him several hundred pounds. Rozier succeeded no better; his first speculation was a cargo of hams shipped to the West Indies which did not return one fifth of the cost. Audubon's want of business habits is shown by the statement that at this time he one day posted a letter containing eight thousand dollars without sealing it. His heart was in the fields and woods with the birds. His room was filled with drying bird skins, the odour from which, it is said, became


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Rh so strong that his neighbours sent a constable to him with a message to abate the nuisance.

Despairing of becoming successful business men in either New York or Philadelphia, he and Rozier soon returned to Mill Grove. During some of their commercial enterprises they had visited Kentucky and thought so well of the outlook there that now their thoughts turned thitherward. Here we get the first date from Audubon; on April 8, 1808, he and Lucy Bakewell were married. The plantation of Mill Grove had been previously sold, and the money invested in goods with which to open a store in Louisville, Kentucky. The day after the marriage, Audubon and his wife and Mr. Rozier started on their journey. In crossing the mountains to Pittsburg the coach in which they were travelling upset, and Mrs. Audubon was severely bruised. From Pittsburg they floated down the


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26 Ohio in a flatboat in company with several other young emigrant families. The voyage occupied twelve days and was no doubt made good use of by Audubon in observing the wild nature along shore.

In Louisville, he and Rozier opened a large store which promised well. But Audubon's heart was more and more with the birds, and his business more and more neglected. Rozier attended to the counter, and, Audubon says, grew rich, but he himself spent most of the time in the woods or hunting with the planters settled about Louisville, between whom and himself a warm attachment soon sprang up. He was not growing rich, but he was happy. "I shot, I drew, I looked on Nature only," he says, "and my days were happy beyond human conception, and beyond this I really cared not." He says that the only part of the commercial business he enjoyed was the ever engaging journeys which he made to


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Rh New York and Philadelphia to purchase goods.

These journeys led him through the "beautiful, the darling forests of Ohio, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania," and on one occasion he says he lost sight of the pack horses carrying his goods and his dollars, in his preoccupation with a new warbler. During his residence in Louisville, Alexander Wilson, his great rival in American ornithology, called upon him. This is Audubon's account of the meeting: "One fair morning I was surprised by the sudden entrance into our counting room at Louisville of Mr. Alexander Wilson, the celebrated author of the American Ornithology, of whose existence I had never until that moment been apprised. This happened in March, 1810. How well do I remember him as he then walked up to me. His long, rather hooked nose, the keenness of his eyes, and his prominent cheek


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28 bones, stamped his countenance with a peculiar character. His dress, too, was of a kind not usually seen in that part of the country; a short coat, trousers and a waistcoat of grey cloth. His stature was not above the middle size. He had two volumes under his arm, and as he approached the table at which I was working, I thought I discovered something like astonishment in his countenance. He, however, immediately proceeded to disclose the object of his visit, which was to procure subscriptions for his work. He opened his books, explained the nature of his occupations, and requested my patronage. I felt surprised and gratified at the sight of his volumes, turned over a few of the plates, and had already taken my pen to write my name in his favour, when my partner rather abruptly said to me in French: 'My dear Audubon, what induces you to subscribe to this work? Your drawings are certainly far better;


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 Rh vidual efforts may prove their individual interest, but do not convince workingmen that the churches, as such, are interested in their welfare. Nor does the establishment of mission chapels and Sunday schools, by the churches, prove their love. Such efforts are credited to proselytism and are considered oftentimes only an evidence of selfishness. When the churches, as churches, undertake to improve social conditions they will rapidly remove popular misunderstanding and indifference.

Many outside the churches are coming to believe that true Christianity consists in love to man, and are making philanthropy a substitute for religion instead of an expression of it. Already we hear of a "Labor Church" movement which lays the chief emphasis on the second great commandment of Christ. Should this movement become general, it would widen the chasm between the churches and workingmen. The best way for the churches to prevent the teaching of a half Christianity is to live a whole Christianity, exemplifying love to man while we preach love to God; and the best way to convince the multitude of our love is to follow the example of the Master and meet them on the plane of their conscious needs.

But while it is extremely important to have men well housed, well fed, well employed, and well governed, and while all of these are necessary to the salvation of society, yet all together they are insufficient. Jesus Christ is the only Saviour either of societv or of the individual, and all efforts at social amelioration, therefore, of whatever kind, should be made tributary to the supreme result of bringing all men under the law of Christ and into vital relations with him.

3. To gain the strength which comes from organization.—The generation which has seen the hordes of China's unorganized millions helpless before the small but disciplined forces of Japan needs no homily on the effectiveness of organization.

War, manufactures, commerce, business, politics, education, have all been reduced to system. Nearly all the great factors of civilization, except religion, philanthropy and reform, have in some comprehensive way laid hold of the strength which comes


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 Rh A standing committee is appointed on each line of work which the Alliance decides to undertake; and the success of the organization will depend very largely on the wisdom with which the chairmen of these committees are selected and the faithfulness with which they serve. As conditions differ in different communities, no two Alliances may have exactly the same list of committees. Each organization is of course free to undertake as many or as few lines of work as it deems wise. At first an Alliance will naturally limit itself to a few, selecting those whose need is most urgent, and adding others with increasing strength and experience. The following are offered by way of suggestion:

1. Comity.—Through this committee the various church extension societies of the city should be brought into touch so as to prevent overlapping in some neighborhoods and neglect in others.

2. Social conditions.—This committee should investigate the religious and social conditions of the community and of the surrounding country. They may appropriately form neighborhood or Church Reading Circles, Home-culture Clubs and Maternal Associations. By enlistening the coöperation of a large number of judicious women and assigning to each a small district, the churches can come into friendly and helpful personal relations with all of the needy homes of the community, and bring to them blessings, sanitary, economic, domestic and spiritual.

3. Evangelization.—Through this committee the Alliance should care for the religious needs of prisons, workhouses and neglected neighborhoods.

4. Relief.—To this committee will be referred cases of sickness and want not otherwise provided for.

5. Temperance.—This committee may profitably undertake, through sub-committees, work along various lines; e. g., public meetings, the organization of church temperance societies, the systematic distribution of wisely selected temperance literature,


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Rh and again, you must know as much of the habits of American birds as this gentleman.' Whether Mr. Wilson understood French or not, or if the suddenness with which I paused disappointed him, I cannot tell; but I clearly perceived he was not pleased. Vanity, and the encomiums of my friend, prevented me from subscribing. Mr. Wilson asked me if I had many drawings of birds, I rose, took down a large portfolio, laid it on the table, and showed him as I would show you, kind reader, or any other person fond of such subjects, the whole of the contents, with the same patience, with which he had showed me his own engravings. His surprise appeared great, as he told me he had never had the most distant idea that any other individual than himself had been engaged in forming such a collection. He asked me if it was my intention to publish, and when I answered in the negative, his surprise seemed to increase. And, truly, such


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 Rh 11. Civic improvements.—Most cities in the United States are in need of public baths and lavatories. Many young and growing cities neglect to make adequate provision for parks until it is too late.

To this committee many suggestions for the public good will come, also complaints of abuses and nuisances. These latter, after first being investigated, should be referred to the proper authorities. Care should be taken not to antagonize officials unnecessarily.

12. Labor.—Through this committee the Alliance will seek to aid labor reforms, to encourage the arbitration of labor difficulties, to establish labor bureaus, form working-girls' clubs, encourage cooperative housekeeping for self-supporting girls, oppose the sweating evil and child-labor, and demonstrate to workingmen the desire of the churches to serve them in every legitimate way.

13. Education and recreation.—This committee will seek to create an intelligent interest in the public schools, to take the schools out of politics, to see that buildings are sanitary and that they provide adequate accommodations, that school laws, like that requiring instruction as to the effects of alcohol and narcotics on the human body, are enforced, and that the schools enjoy the best facilities for attaining the highest efficiency. This committee might appropriately consider the introduction of university extension, the kindergarden, manual training, cooking and sewing classes, the English continuation and recreation schools, playgrounds, summer excursions for poor children and sickly mothers, outing clubs, fresh air funds, holiday houses, and the like.

14. Legislation.—This committee, by means of petitions and protests, will bring to bear the Christian conscience of the community on the legislature of the state with a view to encouraging good and defeating bad legislation touching social, moral and religious interests. Before the legislature convenes, this committee should district the community and assign to each district a competent person who, on short notice, will circulate such


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 Rh it deems most wise. It shall be a purely voluntary association, which leaves the churches, with all their diverging views of doctrine and polity, absolutely unsolicited either to worship or to fellowship which would contradict their independent convictions. Nor shall it lay the churches under any financial obligations.

''Art. III. Membership.—Section 1.''—All persons in sympathy with the objects of the Alliance and purposing to coöperate with it may become members by signing the Constitution.

Section 2.—Any evangelical church desiring to become a member of the Alliance, and having so determined by appropriate action on its part, shall be deemed a coöperating church.

''Art. IV.—Management.'' The management of the Alliance shall be vested in a Board of Managers, to consist of the Pastor of each coöperating evangelical church, and two of its members elected by said church prior to the last Monday of October.

The President, Secretary and Treasurer of the Alliance shall be ex officio President, Secretary and Treasurer of the Board of Managers.

''Art. V.—Officers.'' The officers of the Alliance shall be chosen by the Board of Managers. And these officers shall be a President, a Vice-President from each cooperating denomination, a Secretary, a Treasurer, and an Executive Committee consisting of the President, Secretary and Treasurer ex officio, together with seven other members.

''Art. VI.—Amendmetits.'' This Constitution may be amended at any regular or special meeting of the Alliance by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided the amendment shall have been previously approved by the Board of Managers.

BY-LAWS. ''Art. I.—President.'' The President, or in his absence one of the Vice-Presidents, shall preside at all meetings of the Alliance.

''Art. II.—Secretary.'' The Secretary shall keep the minutes


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 Rh but to secure the most effective cooperation and the largest possible results.

Obviously those who are to cooperate must be in substantial agreement as to the ends for which they are to labor and the means by which the desired ends are to be accomplished. If men of radically different faiths are to cooperate, their endeavors must be confined to the few objects on which they all agree. If on the other hand men are to cooperate for the furtherance of "whatever concerns human welfare" both of soul and body, the management must be narrowed to those who substantially agree concerning men's spiritual as well as physical needs. That is, either the scope or the management must necessarily be limited.

It is asked: Why not choose the former alternative and confine activities to the few lines of work on which all good citizens can agree? Because the object of the movement is to broaden the activities of the churches to the full measure of their mission. We are coming to see that Christianity was intended to save the whole man, "spirit, soul and body." The churches have heretofore laid emphasis on a fraction of the man. It is not worth while in their endeavors to exchange one fraction for another; we aim at uplifting the entire man. So intimate are the relations of soul and body that it is impossible to work most effectively for the one without recognizing also the needs of the other; and as men's spiritual needs are the higher, the churches must in all their activities make their spiritual work their supreme object. This ought they to have done and not to have left the other undone.

Again the churches are coming to see that Christ is not only the Saviour of the individual, but also of society. If the new civilization of the twentieth century is to be more Christian than that of the nineteenth, it will be because the principles of Christ's teaching are more faithfully and effectively applied to it; and if this application is made at all, it must be made by the churches. The great forces of civilization, such as manufactures, commerce, education and politics, are becoming more and more perfectly organized. If, therefore, religion is to retain its position among


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30 was not my intention; for, until long after, when I met the Prince of Musignano in Philadelphia, I had not the least idea of presenting the fruits of my labours to the world. Mr. Wilson now examined my drawings with care, asked if I should have any objection to lending him a few during his stay, to which I replied that I had none. He then bade me good morning, not, however, until I had made an arrangement to explore the woods in the vicinity along with him, and had promised to procure for him some birds, of which I had drawings in my collection, but which he had never seen. It happened that he lodged in the same house with us, but his retired habits, I thought, exhibited a strong feeling of discontent, or a decided melancholy. The Scotch airs which he played sweetly on his flute made me melancholy, too, and I felt for him. I presented him to my wife and friends, and seeing that he was all


text: Shakespeare - First Folio facsimile (1910)/The Two Gentlemen of Verona


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Rh, exerted myself as much as was in my power to procure for him the specimens which he wanted.

"We hunted together and obtained birds which he had never before seen; but, reader, I did not subscribe to his work, for, even at that time, my collection was greater than his. "Thinking that perhaps he might be pleased to publish the results of my researches, I offered them to him, merely on condition that what I had drawn, or might afterward draw and send to him, should be mentioned in his work as coming from my pencil. I at the same time offered to open a correspondence with him, which I thought might prove beneficial to us both. He made no reply to either proposal, and before many days had elapsed, left Louisville on his way to New Orleans, little knowing how much his talents were appreciated in our little town, at least by myself and my friends."


text: Talk:The two Gentlemen of Verona

title: Talk:The two Gentlemen of Verona


text:
Author:Jean de La Bruyère

Works

 * Les Caractères de Théophraste traduits du Grec, avec les caractères et les mœurs de ce siècle (1688)
 * (tr.) Characters: or, The manners of the age: with the moral characters of Theophrastus. Translated from the Greek. To which is prefix'd an account of his life and writings (1709)
 * (tr.) The Morals and Manners of the Seventeenth Century, being the Character of La Bruyère (1890) translated by Helen Stott
 * (tr.) The "Characters" of Jean de La Bruyère (1885) translated by Henry van Laun
 * (tr.) Selections from the Characters, Reflexions and Maxims (1903) translated by Elizabeth Lee

title: Author:Jean de La Bruyère


text: Author:Thomas Gresham

title: Author:Thomas Gresham


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32 Wilson's account of this meeting is in curious contrast to that of Audubon. It is meagre and unsatisfactory. Under date of March 19, he writes in his diary at Louisville: "Rambled around the town with my gun. Examined Mr. ——'s [Audubon's] drawings in crayons—very good. Saw two new birds he had, both Motatillae."

"March 21. Went out this afternoon shooting with Mr. A. Saw a number of Sandhill cranes. Pigeons numerous." Finally, in winding up the record of his visit to Louisville, he says, with palpable inconsistency, not to say falsehood, that he did not receive one act of civility there, nor see one new bird, and found no naturalist to keep him company. Some years afterward, Audubon hunted him up in Philadelphia, and found him drawing a white headed eagle. He was civil, and showed Audubon some attention, but "spoke not of birds or drawings."


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Rh Wilson was of a nature far less open and generous than was Audubon. It is evident that he looked upon the latter as his rival, and was jealous of his superior talents; for superior they were in many ways. His drawings have far more spirit and artistic excellence, and his text shows far more enthusiasm and hearty affiliation with Nature. In accuracy of observation, Wilson is fully his equal, if not his superior. As Audubon had deserted his business, his business soon deserted him; he and his partner soon became discouraged (we hear no more about the riches Rozier had acquired), and resolved upon moving their goods to Hendersonville, Kentucky, over one hundred miles further down the Ohio. Mrs. Audubon and her baby son were sent back to her father's at Fatland Ford where they remained upwards of a year.

Business at Hendersonville proved dull; the country was but thinly


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34 and only the coarsest goods were in demand. To procure food the merchants had to resort to fishing and hunting. They employed a clerk who proved a good shot; he and Audubon supplied the table while Rozier again stood behind the counter.

How long the Hendersonville enterprise lasted we do not know. Another change was finally determined upon, and the next glimpse we get of Audubon, we see him with his clerk and partner and their remaining stock in trade, consisting of three hundred barrels of whiskey, sundry dry goods and powder, on board a keel boat making their way down the Ohio, in a severe snow storm, toward St. Geneviève, a settlement on the Mississippi River, where they proposed to try again. The boat is steered by a long oar, about sixty feet in length, made of the trunk of a slender tree, and shaped at its outer extremity like the fin of a dolphin; four oars in the bow propelled


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VIII.] parts of the Mediterranean coast, and speaking a dialect so nearly akin with the Hebrew that its scanty remains are read with no great difficulty by the aid of that language, have been wont to be accounted as the first to give the race prominence in general history. The part which they played was of the most honourable and useful character. Their commercial enterprise widely extended the limits of geographical knowledge, and bound together distant peoples by the ties of mutual helpfulness; their colonies opened to civilization the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and prepared the way for the extension of Greek and Roman culture. A significant indication of the far-reaching and beneficent nature of their activity is to be seen in the fact that a large portion of the world's alphabets, including many of those which have the widest range, and have been used by the most cultivated nations, come from the Phenician alphabet as their ultimate source. To great political importance the Phenicians never attained, except in their most flourishing colony, Carthage, which, as we well know, disputed for a time with the Romans the empire of the world.

But it must not fail to be noticed that, even before the rise of the Phenician world-commerce, there were great Semitic empires in Mesopotamia, that country where the idea of universal empire appears to have had its origin and its first realization, and where some of the earliest germs of world-civilization sprang up and were nursed. The mixture of nationalities and of cultures which contended in that arena for the mastery during tens of centuries, until the Indo-European Persians subjected all beneath their sway, is most intricate, and as yet only partially understood; the knowledge of its intricacy, and the hopeful means of its final solution, were given together, but a few years since, in the discovery and decipherment of the monuments of Nineveh and Babylon, of the records known as "cuneiform," from the shape of the characters in which they are written. These records are abundant, and of various content, consisting not in inscriptions alone, but in whole libraries of annals and works of science and literature, stamped upon tablets and cylinders of burnt clay; but their examination is as yet


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Rh her, and with the current they made about five miles an hour.

Mrs. Audubon, who seems to have returned from her father's, with her baby, or babies, was left behind at Hendersonville with a friend, until the result of the new venture should be determined. In the course of six weeks, after many delays, and adventures with the ice and the cold, the party reached St. Genèvive. Audubon has given in his journal a very vivid and interesting account of this journey. At St. Geneviève, the whiskey was in great demand, and what had cost them twenty-five cents a gallon, was sold for two dollars. But Audubon soon became discouraged with the place and longed to be back in Hendersonville with his family. He did not like the low bred French-Canadians, who made up most of the population of the settlement. He sold out his interest in the business to his partner who liked the place and


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36 the people, and here the two parted company. Audubon purchased a fine horse and started over the prairies on his return trip to Hendersonville. On this journey he came near being murdered by a woman and her two desperate sons who lived in a cabin on the prairies, where the traveller put up for the night. He has given a minute and graphic account of this adventure in his journal. The cupidity of the woman had been aroused by the sight of Audubon's gold watch and chain. A wounded Indian, who had also sought refuge in the shanty had put Audubon upon his guard. It was midnight, Audubon lay on some bear skins in one corner of the room, feigning sleep. He had previously slipped out of the cabin and had loaded his gun, which lay close at hand. Presently he saw the woman sharpen a huge carving knife, and thrust it into the hand of her drunken son, with the injunction to


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 172 from organization. The next great step to be taken, and for which a thousand interests wait, is the organization of churches into coöperative relations which will enable them to meet the higher needs of our civilization.

4. To prevent the indefinite multiplication of organizations.—The new interest in philanthropy and reform is creating a great number of unrelated societies, many of which overlap and develop friction, resulting in the waste of time, money and effort. What is much needed, in the interest of both economy and of effectiveness, is a common center where efforts to improve the community may be coordinated and adjusted to each other in some comprehensive plan—an organization which can survey the whole field and throw united effort into any one of many directions at the opportune moment.

5. To prevent competition and waste in locating missions and churches.—When denominations prosecute the work of church extension each with reference to its own growth rather than the growth of the kingdom, there results an unwise distribution of forces—a congestion of churches in the best part of the community and a dearth in the worst. Such a condition of things is as criminal as it is needless.

6. To cultivate Christian fellowship between different churches and different denominations. 7. To reach homes with elevating and transforming influences.—Most of the great evils of our times, whether physical, social, moral, or spiritual, can be effectively reached and overcome only in the home; and the homes of a community will not be effectively reached with Christian influence without the intelligent coöperation of the churches.

Without some such organization as is proposed the churches cannot accomplish their social redemptive work. Through such organization they can demonstrate the vitality of the Christian religion by manifesting its power to meet existing needs, thus molding the civilization of the new century.

The practicability of such organization, both local and general, has already been demonstrated in England.


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 174 the study of the local problem, with a view to finding the best solution, etc.

6. Sunday observance. — Much can be done to improve Sabbath observance by showing the people the basis on which our Sabbath laws rest, which is very commonly unknown, especially by foreigners. Members of Endeavor Societies, Epworth Leagues, and the like might render great service by systematically distributing Sunday and temperance literature.

7. Law and order. — Under this general head special attention will be paid to the saloons, disorderly houses, gambling and Sabbath desecration. The town should be districted and each member of the committee assigned a district in which he will keep vigilant watch of all law breakers.

8. Legal advice. — Good legal advisers will be necessary.

9. Publication. — An important service is rendered by preparing a digest of the liquor, tobacco, gaming and Sunday laws of the state; also of the laws specifying the duties of public officials, such as Mayor, Prosecuting Attorney, the Board of Excise, Excise Inspector, the Police, etc. Knowledge of the fact that the public is well acquainted with the law will often bring officials up to duty, and also prevent the violation of law. Furthermore, knowledge of the law serves to strengthen public opinion in regard to its enforcement. This digest should be widely scattered.

Further service is rendered by first carefully verifying facts concerning the characters and records of unworthy candidates and of unfaithful officials, and then giving them publicity in a non-partisan way. An association of citizens in Boston so exposed an unworthy candidate for the mayoralty as to force him to leave the city.

10. Municipal reform. — Instead of "going into politics," the Alliance will aim through this committee to separate municipal elections from state and national politics. It will insist on the official fitness of candidates, oppose incompetent and corrupt men, and sustain the constituted authorities in a faithful administration of the public service.


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 176 or protests as the Alliance may decide to send to the legislature.

15. Finance.—If in order to encourage the largest membership the Alliance dispenses with an initiation fee and annual dues, a committee will be necessary to secure voluntary financial support.

In large cities some of these committees will, each one, do the work of a large society, and should, therefore, have a large membership divided into sub-committees.

A BLANK CONSTITUTION. THE EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE OF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONSTITUTION. ''Art. I.—Name.'' This organization shall be known as The Evangelical Alliance of. . . . . . . . . . ., auxiliary to the Evangelical Alliance for the United States of America.

''Art. II.—Objects.'' The object of the Alliance shall be to declare and prove the deep, practical interest of the allied churches in whatever concerns human welfare.

The Alliance shall aid such directly religious efforts as it may approve for united action, and further such moral and civic movements as it may deem to be of large importance. Its objects shall include the aid, in all practical ways, of such existing organizations as, in its judgment, are wisely seeking the common well-being. The Alliance shall stand in the name of Christ on the side of practical religion, good citizenship, the enforcement of law, the promotion of sobriety, the prevention of cruelty, the alleviation of suffering, the correction of injustice, the rescue of the unfortunate, the reformation of the depraved, and for such kindred ends as pertain to the true social mission of the church.

In the furtherance of such objects it is distinctly declared that the Alliance shall not attempt to exercise ecclesiastical or administrative authority over the allied churches. It shall be the servant of the churches, recommending such united action as


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 178 of all meetings, shall preserve all records and papers, and shall give notice of meetings.

''Art. III. — Treasurer.'' The Treasurer shall have charge of the funds of the Alliance subject to the direction of the Executive Committee. He shall report to the Alliance at its annual meeting, and to the Board of Managers when so requested.

''Art. IV. — Executive Committee.'' The Executive Committee shall carry into effect such plans as the Board of Managers may adopt, shall recommend such plans or modifications of plans as their own study and experience may suggest, and shall direct the disbursement of the funds of the Alliance.

''Art. V. — Standing Committees.'' Standing Committees for the prosecution of various departments of work shall be appointed by the Board of Managers.

''Art. VI. — Meetings.'' There shall be an annual meeting of the Alliance on the first Monday in November, at such hour and place as may be designated by the Executive Committee. There shall also be stated meetings of the Board of Managers on the last Monday of October, January and April, the hour and place to be determined as above.

''Art. VII. — Amendments.'' These By-Laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote at any duly called meeting of the Board of Managers.

WHY EVANGELICAL?

Happily in this age of the world there is a strong public sentiment against all intolerance and against whatever looks like a "holier-than-thou" assumption.

The alliances of local churches which are being organized by the Evangelical Alliance for the United States are placed under evangelical management; and this fact has provoked some criticism because it has been misinterpreted to indicate a spirit of assumption and intolerance.

It should be understood that the object in organizing the local alliance is not theological but wholly practical. The purpose is not to conserve doctrine (that is done by the churches)


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 180 them as one of the great determining forces of civilization, and much more, if it is to gain a decisive influence over them all, the churches also must avail themselves of the greatly increased effectiveness which is afforded by organization and cooperation.

This movement then aims at the christianizing of society in all its interests and activities, and at the salvation of the whole man, spiritual and physical, without which society cannot be saved. Anything less comprehensive would not grasp the situation and be equal to the existing emergency. Is it not, therefore, quite evident, that those who do not sympathize with these objects, and those who do not regard Christ as a Saviour either of the individual or of society cannot participate in the management of the organization?

This limitation of the management is not intended to be, and is not, in fact, the slightest comment on the character of those who are not included in it. It should not be said that we are unwilling to cooperate with them; the truth is they are unable to cooperate with us, except on certain lines; and on these lines, concerning which all good citizens agree, the cooperation of all is cordially invited. Men of all faiths and of no faith, who sympathize with any of the objects of the Alliance, are alike eligible to membership, on precisely the same footing, with precisely the same rights and privileges, and may serve on standing committees with the same suffrage on all questions which come before the said committees. For the reasons given above, the general management is vested in a Board of Managers, consisting of the pastor of each cooperating evangelical church and of two members elected by said church.

One other consideration may be added to show that it would not be wise to narrow the scope to the promotion of men's physical welfare only, for the sake of leaving the management unlimited. Heretofore the evangelical churches in their efforts for the spiritual have failed adequately to recognize the physical. There is now a great awakening of interest in the latter; and human nature, being what it is, warrants the expectation that in due time there will be a tendency to the other extreme, and


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Rh kill yon stranger and secure the watch. He was just on the point of springing up to shoot his would-be murderers, when the door burst open, and two travellers, each with a long knife, appeared. Audubon jumped up and told them his situation. The drunken sons and the woman were bound, and in the morning they were taken out into the woods and were treated as the Regulators treated delinquents in those days. They were shot. Whether Audubon did any of the shooting or not, he does not say. But he aided and abetted, and his Spanish blood must have tingled in his veins. Then the cabin was set on fire, and the travellers proceeded on their way.

It must be confessed that this story sounds a good deal like an episode in a dime novel, and may well be taken with a grain of allowance. Did remote prairie cabins in those days have grindstones and carving knives? And why should the would-be murderers use a knife when they had guns?


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 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SEXES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1890.

proportionate number of the two sexes in any community exercises important and subtle influences upon its economic and social life. The rawness and roughness of frontier and mining settlements are in some degree effects of the excess of men, while excess of women in many a factory town has effects which would doubtless be quite as marked, if the disparity in the number were as great.

The problem of the numerical proportion of the sexes is to be investigated primarily by the statistical method. But sex is a phenomenon not peculiar to the human race; on the contrary, it extends nearly through the organic world. Hence, the problem is not one to be solved by the sociologist alone; the aid of the biologist must be invoked. It is probable that the phenomena of sex throughout the organic realm are subject to certain common influences of a biological character. If there are, as there doubtless are, supplementary forces also at work upon the human species determining the proportion and distribution of the sexes, the existence and extent of such forces can be accurately determined only after the amount to be ascribed to purely biological forces has been ascertained and deducted. It is biological forces which must account for the fact that in every considerable community the number of the two sexes born is approximately equal, but with a slight excess of males. On the average rather over 51 per cent, of the children born are boys, and rather less than 49 per cent, are girls. It is also primarily, but not entirely, to biological forces that the slightly larger proportion of deaths among males in the course of a year must be attributed. For the difference in the death rates of the sexes is most marked in early infancy, when such social causes as the greater exposure of males to dangers of all sorts would exert no


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296 too incomplete, and the results drawn from it too fragmentary and uncertain, to allow of our taking any detailed notice of them here; the questions which they affect are still under judgment, and only the very few who have made profound and original studies among the monuments can venture to speak respecting them with authority. It is enough for us to note that the Semitic race was prominent, and during a long period preëminent, in Mesopotamia, and that a highly important part of its history, and of the history of Semitic language, is coming to light as the fruit of cuneiform studies.

During all this time there was enacting—behind a screen, as it were—a part of Semitic history which was to prove of incomparably greater importance to the world than Phenician commerce or Babylonian empire. The little people of the Hebrews was politically a most insignificant item in the sum of human affairs; but its religion, made universal by Christ, has become the mightiest element in human history; its wonderful ancient literature is the work which all enlightened nations of the present day unite in calling Bible, that is, ' the book;' its language is even now more studied than any other outside the pale of Indo-European speech.

And yet once more, in comparatively modern times, long after Mesopotamian empire, and Phenician commerce, and Carthaginian lust of conquest, and Jewish temple-worship, had passed away for ever, extinguished in the extinction of those several nationalities, a new branch of the Semitic race, which till then had slumbered in inaction and insignificance in the deserts of Arabia, awoke all at once to the call of a great religious teacher, Mohammed, burst its limits, overwhelmed Asia, Africa, and no small part of Europe, and flowered out suddenly and brilliantly in science, art, and philosophy, attaining a combined political and literary eminence to which no Semitic people had made before any approach, and threatening to wrench the leadership of human destiny from the keeping of the enfeebled races of Europe. Finally, corrupted within, and foiled and broken without, it sank again into comparative obscurity; and with it went down, probably for ever, the star of Semitic glory and importance in the external history of the world;


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 726 appreciable effect, and therefore, other than social forces must be appealed to for its explanation. Sociological statisticians in approaching this question have often assumed that normally the higher birth rate of males is exactly balanced by their higher death rate, and that thus the divine power, the natural law, or the biological forces at work, tend to establish an equality either in the total numbers of males and females, or in the numbers of adults. Under such an assumption any deviation from equality would be explained by appealing to the agency of disturbing social forces of which the most obvious and most constantly invoked are migration and war. The present drift of biological speculation, however, seems to be away from this view and towards the position that in no species of plant or animal is there any tendency towards exactly equal numbers of the two sexes, but that the normal proportion is determined for each species by what is most to its advantage in the fight for life and that the numbers fluctuate about that proportion under the influence of various disturbing forces. Partly, it may be, in consequence of this drift of opinion the question of the numerical proportion of the sexes in the human species has been recently reopened and an effort made to prove that the deviations from equality in the numbers of the sexes at any place and time are due primarily to biological forces controlling the births and deaths, and only in a subordinate degree to such social forces as migration and war.

From this point of view the facts regarding the proportions of the sexes in the United States, will be examined in the following paper. At the threshold of such an examination, a serious difficulty meets the inquirer. In this country the records of births and deaths are so fragmentary and imperfect, that little aid can be derived from them, and none at all for the country as a whole. Hence, such records, although of primary importance in an investigation of this character, will be passed over with slight attention and the study based upon the census figures. Such a