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Category:1966 court decisions

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 imperfect remains of plants (Spirophyton) are the only fossils, and these are not sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the Devonian or Carboniferous System.

The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft.

The Karroo System is par excellence the geological formation of South Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do large tracts in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes the following well-defined subdivisions:—

In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape System conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on very much older rocks. The most remarkable deposits are the conglomerates of the Dwyka series. These afford the clearest evidences of glaciation on a great scale in early Carboniferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a consolidated modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks, and in different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. The upper shales contain the small reptile Mesosaurus tenuidens.

Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among others they include Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca. The Beaufort series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable and often gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and species are numerous, Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus being the best known. Among plants Glossopteris occurs for the last time. The Stormberg series occurs in the mountainous regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno beds contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable feature of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an extensive scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed by lava streams of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, most of which end at the folded belt, are also numerous. The age of the intrusive sheets met with in the Beaufort series is usually attributed to the Stormberg period. They form the kopjes, or characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great Karroo. The Stormberg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles. A true crocodile, Notochampsa, has been discovered in the Red Beds and Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, Thinnfeldia and Taeniopteris are common. Three genera of fossil fishes, Cleithrolepis, Semionotus and Ceratodus, ascend from the Beaufort series into the Cave Sandstone.

Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the Uitenhage beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. The marine fauna of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. The chief genera are Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus and certain Trigoniae.

The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are widely spread. High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. above the sea. The remains of a gigantic ox, Bubalus Baini, have been obtained from the alluvium near the Modder river. The recent deposits indicate that the land has risen for a long period.

Fauna.—The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals common in the early days of the colony have been exterminated (e.g. quagga and blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe) driven beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game have been so reduced in numbers as to require special protection. This class includes the elephant (now found only in the Knysna and neighbouring forest regions), buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, and confined to much the same regions as the elephant), eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other kinds of antelope and gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in the mountainous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare woolly variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other carnivora more or less common to the colony are the spotted hyena, aard-wolf (or Proteles), silver jackal, the Otocyon or Cape wild dog, and various kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a few hundreds of rare varieties, there are the springbuck, of which great herds still wander on the open veld, the steinbok, a small and beautiful animal which is sometimes coursed like a hare, the klipspringer or “chamois of South Africa,” common in the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock rabbit. There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of jerboa and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. The ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is found on the Karroo, where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps which dot the plain. There is also a scaly ant-eater and various species of pangolins, of arboreal habit, which live on ants. Baboons are found in the mountains and forests, otters in the rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile, confined to the Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the cobra di capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises, including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental land forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some regions. The great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. high. Other game birds include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, plover and rail. Birds of prey include the bearded vulture, aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks, falcons and owls. Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in large variety.

Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong to the order Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very common, the Cape canary, long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and wagtails are fairly numerous. The English starling is stated to be the only European bird to have thoroughly established itself in the colony. The Cape sparrow has completely acclimatized itself to town life and prevented the English sparrow obtaining a footing.

Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, tarantula spiders, butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In some districts the tsetse fly causes great havoc. The most interesting of the endemic insectivora is the Chrysochloris or “golden mole,” so called from the brilliant yellow lustre of its fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater fish, the commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 ℔. The smallest variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the vleis and streams in which the water is intermittent the fish preserve life by burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been introduced into several rivers and have become acclimatized. Of sea fish there are more than forty edible varieties. The snock, the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in the estuaries and bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters of the Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving.

Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed by the natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. The various farm animals introduced by the whites have thriven well (see below, Agriculture).

Flora.—The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less variety. In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted in the colony, about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. The bush of the coast districts and lower hills consists largely of heaths, of which there are over 400 species. The heaths and the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a plant 1 to 2 ft. high resembling heather, form the characteristic features of the flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom is pink coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the flowers are the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, including many varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In

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 the eastern coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly subtropical. Of pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty genera: Cape “everlasting” flowers (generally species of Helichrysum) are in great numbers. Several species of aloe are indigenous to the Cape. The so-called American aloe has also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant and many other plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great abundance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and structure may be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge plants, the Stapelia or carrion flower, and the elephant’s foot or Hottentots’ bread, a plant of the same order as the yam. Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic of many South African plants.

Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges facing south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The forests contain a great variety of useful woods, affording excellent timber; among the commonest trees are the yellow wood, which is also one of the largest, belonging to the yew species; black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable stinkhout; melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and the assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed 30 ft. in height and scarcely any attain a greater height than 60 ft. A characteristic Cape tree is Leucadendron argenteum or silver tree, so named from the silver-like lustre of stem and leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the Cedarberg got its name, exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the Dutch or British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the Australian blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, e.g. the Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more rapidly and more luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few indigenous fruits; the kei apple is the fruit of a small tree or shrub found in Kaffraria and the eastern districts, where also the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard pears, gourds, water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon are also native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of dwarf mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the spring rains are gorgeous in blossom (see ). The grass of the interior plains is of a coarse character and yellowish colour, very different from the meadow grasses of England. The “Indian” doab grass is also indigenous.

With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not reach beyond about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered with small heath, Bruniaceae, Rutaceae, &c. All plants with permanent foliage are thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over seventy species of plants of Alpine character have been found.

Races and Population.—The first inhabitants of Cape Colony of whom there is any record were and (q.v.). The last-named were originally called Quaequaes, and received the name Hottentots from the Dutch. They dwelt chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of the country; elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and to them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered by Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was very scanty and it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers and a few Huguenot families in the 17th century was followed in the 19th century by that of English and German immigrants. The Bushmen retreated before the white races and now few are to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the districts bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no pure bred representatives of the race survive in the colony.

Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now form the bulk of the native population west of the Great Fish river. Of Kaffir tribes the most important living north of the Orange river are the Bechuanas, whilst in the eastern province and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus and Pondos. The Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony proper. The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. During the slavery period many thousands of negroes were imported, chiefly from the Guinea coast. The negroes have been largely assimilated by the Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the native races see their separate articles.) Of the white races in the Colony the French element has been completely absorbed in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are mainly pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased form their own language, also engage largely in agriculture and viticulture. Of fine physique and hardy constitution, they are of strongly independent character; patriarchal in their family life; shrewd, slim and courageous; in religion Protestants of a somewhat austere type. Education is somewhat neglected by them, and the percentage of illiteracy among adults is high. They are firm believers in the inferiority of the black races and regard servitude as their natural lot. The British settlers have developed few characteristics differing from the home type. The British element of the community is largely resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk of the farmers are English or German; the German farmers being found in the district between King William’s Town and East London, and on the Cape Peninsula. Numbers of them retain their own language. The term “Africander” is sometimes applied to all white residents in Cape Colony and throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to the Dutch-speaking colonists. “Boer,” i.e. farmer, as a synonym for “Dutch,” is not in general use in Cape Colony.

Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of Malays in Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the Dutch as slaves. These people are largely leavened with foreign elements and, professing Mahommedanism, religion rather than race is their bond of union. They add greatly by their picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street scenes. They are generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There are also a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the taal or vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, as it is of the natives in the western provinces.

The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the colony, which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not include the comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, was 566,158. Of these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or about 33% of the whole. Of the coloured races the Hottentots and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000, whilst the Kaffirs formed about 50% of the population. Since 1865 censuses have been taken—in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland formed part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand East, Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, and Basutoland had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland and British Bechuanaland had been added. The following table gives the area and population at each of the three periods.

The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at 720,984, and that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is officially divided into nine provinces, but is more conveniently treated as consisting of three regions, to which may be added the detached area of Walfish Bay and the islands along the coast of Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows the distribution of population in the various areas.

The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 and 579,741 in 1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 in 1875 and 376,987 in 1891. The proportion of Dutch descended whites to those of British origin is about 3 to 2. No exact comparison can be made showing the increase in the native population owing to the varying areas of the colony, but the natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites; the increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25%

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The New International Encyclopædia/Arts, Liberal

ARTS,, or. The distinction between the liberal arts and the practical arts on the one hand, and philosophy on the other, originates in Greek education and philosophy. In the Republic (Bk. xi.) of Plato, and the Politics (viii. 1) of Aristotle, the ‘liberal arts’ are those subjects that are suitable for the development of intellectual and moral excellence, as distinguished from those that are merely useful or practical. The distinction was always made, by the Greek theorists, between music, literature in the form of grammar and rhetoric, and the mathematical studies, and that higher aspect of the liberal discipline termed philosophy. Philosophy was sometimes called the liberal art par excellence. Philo of Judæa, in his attempt to harmonize Hebrew religious literature and Greek philosophy by allegorical interpretation, takes this relationship of the arts and philosophy as the meaning of the union of Abraham with Hagar and Sarah, the former typifying the liberal arts, the latter typifying philosophy. No definite number was ever assigned to the liberal arts by the Greeks, though the distinction later indicated by the terms trivium and quadrivium is clearly drawn in the Republic of Plato. Varro ( B.C. 116-28) reproduces the distinction and the substance of the various ‘liberal arts’ for the Romans, though he includes medicine and architecture, both practical subjects, excluded alike by Greek and by Mediæval thought. Quintilian ( A.D. 35-95) discusses five arts, grammar, rhetoric, music, geometry, and astronomy; but with the subdivision of the first and fourth, there would be added dialectic and arithmetic. By the Fifth Century the number of arts is definitely recognized as seven, both by the churchman Augustine and the pagan Martianus Capella. Cassiodorus, in the Sixth Century, applies the term quadrivium to arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy; probably before that time the term trivium had been applied to grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, to indicate the trinity of the subject rather than simply their elementary character. By the time of Alcuin, in the Eighth Century, a sacred significance is attached to the number seven, and the Church appropriates this organization of human or pagan learning, to which at first it had been extremely hostile. Throughout the Middle Ages the ‘seven arts,’ as combined into the trivium and quadrivium, represent the sum of human learning. Dante, in his Il convito (Bk. II.), identifies them with the seven planetary circles of the heavens, and discovers in each planet the characteristic excellence of the appropriate study. The ‘Seven Liberal Arts’ formed the curriculum of the early universities, and their mastery entitled one to the degree of bachelor, or master ‘in arts.’ For the greater portion of the Middle Ages philosophy had simply been the inclusive term, but with the development of the universities it was recognized as a higher discipline. The Renaissance broke down even this limitation, and hereafter knowledge was no longer confined to these definite and narrow limits. For a survey of the significance of the term liberal arts, consult: Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals (New York, 1807); and also an article on which this is based, by A. F. West, Princeton College Bulletin (1890). See ; ; ; .


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 1822–4, and into German by K. Karmarsch and F. Heeren in 1843. In 1822 Ure was elected F.R.S. In 1829 he published a ‘New System of Geology,’ in which he points out the importance of chemistry and physics to the geologist, but which is chiefly devoted to a criticism of the Huttonian and Wernerian theories, and to the advocacy of the orthodox system of chronology. In 1830 Ure resigned his professorship and went to London, where he practised as an analytical and commercial chemist until his death. In 1834 he became unofficially attached to the board of customs as analytical chemist, receiving two guineas for each analysis performed. He was also requested by the board to investigate methods of estimating the quantity of sugar in sugar-cane juice, and received 800l. for two years' work on this subject.

In 1835 he published his ‘Philosophy of Manufactures,’ in which he deals with the condition of factory workers, and in 1836 ‘The Cotton Manufactures of Great Britain …;’ subsequent editions of both these books, edited by Peter Lund Simmonds, appeared in 1861. In 1839 he published a ‘Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,’ of which a fourth edition appeared in 1853. The book was re-edited by Robert Hunt (1807–1887) [q. v.] in 1860 and 1867, and by Hunt and F. W. Rudler in 1875–8. It was translated into German by K. Karmarsch and F. Heeren in 1843–4 (Prague, 3 vols. 8vo).

In 1843 he published as a pamphlet ‘The Revenue in Jeopardy from Spurious Chemistry,’ in which he attacks William Thomas Brande [q. v.] and Thomas Graham [q. v.] with regard to certain analyses.

Besides the books mentioned, he published ‘A New Systematic Table of the Materia Medica’ (Glasgow, 1813) (, Bibl. Brit.), and a pamphlet on ‘The General Malaria of London’ in 1850. He was an original member of the Royal Astronomical Society and an honorary member of the Geological Society. The Royal Society's ‘Catalogue’ gives a list of fifty-three papers by Ure dealing with physics, pure and applied chemistry. He will be remembered chiefly by his inauguration of popular scientific lectures, and by his popular scientific works, which, in spite of a somewhat inflated and diffuse style, are clear and interesting.

Ure died on 2 Jan. 1857, and was buried in Highgate cemetery. There is a portrait of him by Sir Daniel Macnee [q. v.] in the South Kensington Museum. Ure's eldest son, Alexander Ure, F.R.C.S., was surgeon at St. Mary's Hospital, London, and died in June 1866 (, Dict. of Biogr.; see also Roy. Soc. Cat.)

[Obituaries in Gent. Mag. new ser. 1857, i. 242; Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1857, vol. xiii.; Proceedings of Glasgow Philosophical Society, iv. 103; Dr. Ure, a slight sketch reprinted from the Times and … other periodicals (privately printed, 1875); Ure's own books and scientific papers; Addison's Roll of Glasgow Graduates; Calendar of Anderson's College, 1878–9; Roy. Soc. Cat.; Brit. Mus. Cat.; Cat. of the National Gallery … at South Kensington, 1884.]

URE, DAVID (d. 1798), geologist, born at Glasgow, was the son of a weaver in that city. His father dying while he was still young, he was compelled to labour at his trade for the support of his mother. Resolving to enter the ministry, he obtained an education at the city grammar school, and afterwards at the university of Glasgow, where he graduated M.A. in 1776. His industry was great; he worked at his trade almost all night, studying his books while toiling at the loom. At the university he was a great favourite with the Greek professor, James Moor [q. v.] Dissuaded by him from wasting his energies on the first objects of his enthusiasm, perpetual motion and the philosopher's stone, he turned his attention to the undeveloped science of geology. While a student in divinity he was for some time assistant schoolmaster at Stewarton, and afterwards he taught a subscription school in the neighbourhood of Dumbarton. On 11 June 1783 he was licensed to preach by the presbytery of Glasgow, and afterwards became assistant to David Connell, minister of East Kilbride in Lanarkshire. During his residence in the parish he made careful researches into its history, and devoted himself more especially to the study of its mineral strata. He published the results of his labours in a volume entitled ‘The History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride’ (Glasgow, 1793, 4to), a work worthy especial notice as containing one of the first attempts to deal with the geological features of a small district in a scientific manner. On the death of Connell on 13 June 1790, Ure had some expectation of being appointed his successor, but, finding the parish not unanimous, he set off for Newcastle on foot, and acted for some time as assistant in the presbyterian church in the town. He remained there until he attracted the attention of Sir John Sinclair (1754–1835) [q. v.], who employed him in preparing the first sketches of the agricultural surveys of the counties of Roxburgh, Dumbarton, and Kinross for his ‘Statistical Account of Scotland.’ Ure's treatises were published separately by the London board of agriculture, the first two in


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Uri 1794 and the last in 1797. He superintended the publication of several of the later volumes of the ‘Statistical Account’ and drew up the general indices. In appreciation of his labours in December 1795 he was presented by David Stewart, earl of Buchan, to the parish of Uphall in Linlithgow. He was ordained on 14 July 1796, and died unmarried on 28 March 1798 at Uphall.

[Scots Mag. 1808, pp. 903–5; Scott's Fasti Eccles. Scotican. I. i. 206; Chambers's Biogr. Dict. of Eminent Scotsmen, 1870; Addison's Roll of Glasgow Graduates, 1898.]

URI, JOANNES (1726–1796), orientalist, born in 1726 at Körös in Hungary, studied the oriental languages under J. J. Schultens at Leyden, where he took the degrees of Ph.D. and D.D., and published in 1761 a short treatise on Hebrew etymology called ‘Prima decas originum Hebræarum genuinarum,’ and also (for the Leyden library) an edition of the Arabic poem in honour of the prophet Mohammed called the ‘Burda,’ with a Latin translation and further notes on Hebrew etymology; this work he strangely dedicated ‘Deo ter O. M. atque amicis charissimis dilectissimis.’ In 1766, when the university of Oxford thought the time had come for a catalogue to be made of the oriental manuscripts which had been accumulating in the Bodleian Library for two hundred years, a savant was sought for in Holland to undertake this work, and by the advice of Sir Joseph Yorke (afterwards Baron Dever) [q. v.], then ambassador in the Netherlands, communicated to Archbishop Secker, Uri received an invitation to Oxford, where he was provided with a stipend and set to compile the required catalogue. After twenty years' preparation this catalogue appeared in 1787, bearing the title ‘Bibliothecæ Bodleianæ Codd. MStorum Orientalium videlicet Hebræorum, Chaldaicorum, Syriacorum, &c., Catalogus.’ Little praise, however, can be assigned it; besides numerous mistakes (corrected for the most part in the second volume of the catalogue by Nicoll and Pusey, which appeared in 1835), the arrangement is very faulty, different volumes of the same work frequently being registered many pages apart. While at Oxford he published an edition of some Persian and Turkish letters (1771), and also a short commentary on Daniel's Weeks with some other cruces of Old Testament exegesis. He is said to have given instruction in the oriental languages at Oxford, Joseph White [q. v.] being his most distinguished pupil. In his old age he was discharged by the delegates of the press, but by the kindness of Henry Kett [q. v.] and other friends he obtained a provision for his last years. He died at his lodgings in Oxford on 18 Oct. 1796.

[Gent. Mag. 1796 ii. 884, 1825 ii. 184; Life of Adam Clarke, 1833, vol. ii.; Macray's Annals of the Bodleian Library.]  URIEN (fl. 570), British prince, is first mentioned in the tract known as the ‘Saxon Genealogies’ which is appended to the ‘Historia Britonum’ of Nennius in four manuscripts of that work, and is believed to have been written about 690. According to this, ‘Urbgen’ (the old Welsh form of what still earlier was ‘Urbigena’—see, Arthurian Legend, p. 242) was one of four British chieftains who fought (about 570?) against ‘Hussa,’ king of the Angles of Northumbria. He and his sons also waged war, with varying fortune, against Theodric of the same region. At last he was slain during an expedition which had shut up the English host in the isle of ‘Medcaut’ (probably Lindisfarne), at the instigation of a rival prince ‘Morcant,’ who was jealous of his military fame (, ed. Mommsen, p. 206). It is in favour of the trustworthiness of this account that the writer of the ‘Genealogies’ appears to have had a special interest in the family of Urien. The tenth-century genealogist of Harl. MS. 3859 makes Urien, conformably to Welsh tradition, the son of Cynfarch ap Meirchion (Cymrodor, ix. 173).

Like most of the men who took part in the early conflicts with the English, Urien became a hero of British tradition, and so shadowy is the part he and his family play in the mediæval poems and romances that Professor Rhys inclines to the view that the historical ‘Urbigena’ and a mythological ‘Urogenos’ have united to furnish the traits of the later ‘Urien’ (Arthurian Legend, pp. 242–3). In the ‘Triads’ he appears as one of the three ‘battle bulls’ of the isle of Britain (Myvyrian Archaiology, 1st ser. No. 12;, Four Ancient Books, ii. 456); his death at the hands of Llofan Llaw Ddifro was one of the three atrocious killings of the islands (1st ser. No. 38; Four Ancient Books, ii. 462; Red Book of Hergest, i. 303). Of the poems printed by Skene in the ‘Four Ancient Books of Wales,’ eight from the ‘Book of Taliesin’ (ii. 183–93, 195–6) and two from the ‘Red Book of Hergest’ (ii. 267–73, 291–3) deal with the fortunes of Urien, who is variously described as ‘Lord of Rheged,’ ‘Lord of the evening’ (echwydd), ‘Ruler of Llwyfenydd’ (Lennox), ‘Prince of Catraeth,’ ‘Golden ruler of the North,’


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 and ‘Head of Scotland’ (Prydain). The poems thus agree with the ‘Saxon Genealogies’ in making Urien a powerful chieftain of the Northern Britons, and the statement of one of them that he was killed at ‘Aber Lleu’ (, ii. 270) may be trustworthy, if the mouth of the river Low, opposite Lindisfarne, once bore that name (, Arthurian Localities, 1869).

The name ‘Urbgen’ was borrowed by Geoffrey of Monmouth for his ‘Urbgennius de Badone’ (x. 6, 9; cf. also ix. 12). But the real representative of Urien in his pages is ‘Urianus rex Murefensium,’ one of three brothers in the north to whom Arthur gave Scotia, the Lothians, and Moray respectively (ix. 9, 12). The latter district, which was Urien's share, is made in another passage to include Loch Lomond (ix. 6). From the narrative of Geoffrey, Urien passed into the realm of Arthurian romance, and finally appears in ‘Malory’ as King Vryens of the land of Goire, who married Morgan le Fay, Arthur's sister, and narrowly escaped being murdered by his wife. Glamorganshire antiquarians took ‘Goire’ to be Gower, and accordingly represent Urien as the means of driving out the Irish from the region between the Towy and the Tawy, which he thereupon received as a gift (anrheg) under the name of Rheged (Iolo MSS. 70–1, 78, 86). But the real situation of Rheged remains unknown.

URQUHART, DAVID (1805–1877), diplomatist, born at Braelangwell, Cromarty, in 1805, was the second son of David Urquhart of Braelangwell, by his second wife, Miss Hunter. His father died while David was still a child, and he was brought up by his mother. In 1817 she took him to the continent, where he received his early education. After a year at a French military school he studied at Geneva under Malin, and subsequently travelled in Spain with a tutor. Returning to England in 1821, he spent six months in learning the rudiments of farming, and three or four more as an ordinary workman at Woolwich arsenal, where he acquired some knowledge of gunnery. He matriculated from St. John's College, Oxford, on 31 Oct. 1822. Being prevented by ill-health from continuing his studies there, he was encouraged by Jeremy Bentham, who had a high opinion of his capacity, to travel in the east. In the beginning of 1827 he sailed from Marseilles with Lord Dundonald to take part in the Greek war of independence. On board the brig Sauveur, in company with the steamer Perseverance, he shared in the attack on 28 Sept. 1827 on a Turkish squadron in the bay of Salona. The squadron was destroyed by the two vessels, and their success precipitated the decisive battle at Navarino. Urquhart was afterwards appointed lieutenant on board the frigate Hellas, and took part in the siege of Scio, where he was severely wounded. In November 1828 he left the Greek service, the war being practically at an end.

His elder half-brother, Charles Gordon Urquhart, had also joined the Greeks, and obtained the rank of colonel in the army; he was accidentally killed on 3 March 1828, in the island of Karabusa, of which he had been appointed governor.

In March 1830 David Urquhart was at Argos when the protocol arrived determining the Greek territory. Urquhart decided to examine the frontier personally, and his reports were communicated by his mother to Sir Herbert Taylor, private secretary of William IV. Taylor, impressed by the ability they displayed, submitted them to the king, and transmitted them to the French and Russian governments. In consequence Urquhart was nominated, while he was still abroad, British commissioner to accompany Prince Leopold to Greece. The prince, however, subsequently declined the Greek throne, and the appointment fell through. On his arrival in England Urquhart was immediately presented to the king. In November 1831 he accompanied the ambassador extraordinary, Sir (afterwards Lord Stratford de Redcliffe) [q. v.], to Constantinople, and he returned with him in September 1832. In 1833, on his own proposition, he was despatched on a secret mission to inquire into the openings for British trade in eastern countries, and to examine the restrictions under which it laboured. Arriving at Constantinople early in 1834, he succeeded in obtaining the implicit confidence of the Turkish government, who were at that time embarrassed by the aggressions of Mehemet Ali. England and France held aloof, and the Turks were obliged to seek help from Russia, who in turn demanded considerable concessions [see, third ]. The Turkish officials placed such reliance on Urquhart that they kept him immediately informed of all communications made to them by the Russian ambassador. Lord Palmerston, however, took alarm at Urquhart's intimacy with the Porte, and wrote to the ambassador, Lord Ponsonby, to remove him from Constantinople as a danger to the peace of


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Urquhart Europe. Urquhart returned home to justify himself, and just before his arrival his pamphlet, ‘England, France, Russia, and Turkey,’ appeared and greatly enhanced his reputation. On his return Urquhart found that Melbourne's ministry had been succeeded by that of the Duke of Wellington. He was unable to persuade the duke to make active intervention against Russia.

Lord Melbourne returned to office in April 1835, and on 23 Sept. Urquhart was appointed secretary of embassy at Constantinople. On his arrival in 1836 he found that since 1831 the Russians had prohibited foreigners from trading with Circassia, although their claim to sovereignty over the country was open to question. Urquhart had visited Circassia in 1834, and at his instigation a British schooner, the Vixen, proceeded to Soudjauk Kalé, where she was seized on 26 Nov. 1836 by a Russian warship. The English government recoiled from pressing Russia to extremities on the question, and as an alternative recalled Urquhart on 10 March 1837 on account of his share in promoting the enterprise. A motion in the House of Commons on 21 June 1838 to inquire into Palmerston's conduct was defeated by a small majority; but Palmerston himself admitted in the debate that Urquhart believed that he was acting in accordance with the secret wishes of the English ministry. In another measure in which he was keenly interested Urquhart was equally unsuccessful. Russia, by the treaty of Adrianople, enjoyed considerable commercial advantages over other nations trading with Turkey. With a view to remedying this state of things, Urquhart, before his departure from England in 1835, drew up a treaty with Turkey, which the government promised to transmit to him in Constantinople. This, however, they had failed to do at the time of his recall. The treaty was ratified in 1838, but in so altered a condition that Urquhart considered it valueless and indignantly repudiated the authorship.

Deprived by the death of William IV of the countenance of the king, and of the support of his private secretary, Sir Herbert Taylor, Urquhart found himself unable any longer to promote directly his views on state policy. He continued, however, to labour with unwearied assiduity, and by his numerous writings powerfully influenced public opinion. Already in 1835 he had founded the ‘Portfolio,’ a periodical devoted to diplomatic affairs. In the first number he published a collection of diplomatic papers and correspondence between the Russian government and its agents, which threw light on the secret policy of the imperial cabinet. They had fallen into the hands of the Polish insurgents in 1830, and had been brought to England by Prince Adam Czartoryski, from whose custody they had passed into that of the foreign office. The publication of these documents caused considerable stir, and, although Palmerston in 1838 disclaimed any responsibility, it would hardly have been possible without his tacit connivance. The ‘Portfolio’ was discontinued in 1836, when Urquhart went to the east; but it was revived in 1843, and continued to appear until 1845.

In 1840 he protested against the exclusion of France from participation in the ‘pacification of the Levant’ by publishing ‘The Crisis; or France before the Four Powers’ (London, 8vo; French edit. Paris, 1840, 8vo). In 1843, in ‘An Appeal against Faction’ (London, 8vo), he censured the conduct of the government in refusing an inquiry into the causes of the Afghan war, and in the same year he took a chief part in drawing up the report of the Colonial Society, which charged the promoters of the Afghan and Chinese wars with conspiracy against England. The society refused to ratify the reports, which appeared in the name of the committee alone. In 1844 Urquhart published in the ‘Portfolio,’ and separately in pamphlet form, a paper entitled ‘The Annexation of the Texas: a Case of War between England and the United States,’ a strong censure of the conduct of the United States government towards Mexico.

On 30 July 1847 Urquhart was returned to parliament for the borough of Stafford, for which he sat until July 1852. During 1848, in conjunction with Thomas Chisholm Anstey [q. v.], he persistently urged upon parliament the necessity of an investigation into Palmerston's conduct in the foreign office. The speeches on the subject were published under the title ‘Debates on Motion for Papers with a view to the Impeachment of the Right Honourable Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston.’

At the time of the Crimean war Urquhart strongly deprecated the principle on which English action was based—the substitution of a European protectorate over the Christian subjects of Turkey for that exercised by Russia. He remonstrated against such an interference in the internal affairs of Turkey as contrary to the law of nations, and asserted that the Turks were able unaided to cope with Russia, a prediction verified by the Turkish victories at Oltenitza and Silistria (cf. Times, 11 March 1853). He traversed the country forming societies, under the name of foreign


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The New International Encyclopædia/Delsarte, François Alexandre Nicolas Chéri

DELSARTE, děl-särt', (1811-71). A French-American musician, born in Solesmes, France. He was a pupil of the Conservatoire, was for a time a tenor singer in the Opéra Comique, composed a few melodies, and wrote several romances; but is chiefly known as a teacher in singing and declamation. He sought, by an elaborate system, to present the art of expression as a complete science. His theories have been widely adopted, and are handed down mainly by tradition, as Delsarte wrote very little about them.


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 of the total population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital) where the white outnumbers of the total population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital) where the white outnumbers the coloured population. Here in an area of 1711 sq. m. the inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The urban population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the total population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants at the 1904 census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as Indians, 85,892 as Hottentots, 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as Griquas. The Kaffir and Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes separately classified, while 279,662 persons were described as of mixed race. Divided by sex (including white and black) the males numbered (1904) 1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:—whites, 82.16 females to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared with 1891); coloured, 103.22 females to every 100 males. Of the total population over 14 years old—1,409,975—the number married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the white population this percentage was only reached in adults over 17.

The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ about th of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged in such pursuits numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and 67,278, whereas 99,319 were engaged in domestic employment, and 111,175 in agricultural employment, while 214,982 (mostly children) were dependants. The natives follow domestic and agricultural pursuits almost exclusively.

Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory till 1895. Among the European population the birth-rate is about 33.00 per thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. The birth-rate among the coloured inhabitants is about the same as with the whites, but the death-rate is higher—about 25.00 per thousand.

Immigration and Emigration.—From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 persons availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants from England to the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. The total number of adult immigrants by sea, however, steadily increased from 11,559 in 1891 to 38,669 in 1896, while during the same period the number of departures by sea only increased from 8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took place in the last year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the political position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants, while the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 there were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 departures. Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the immigration figures rose in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures numbered 29,615. This great increase proved transitory; in 1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered 32,282 and 33,775 respectively, while in the same years the emigrants numbered 33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the European population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian extraction constituting the strongest foreign element.

Provinces.—The first division of the colony for the purposes of administration and election of members for the legislative council was into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the western being largely Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly British. With the growth of the colony these provinces were found to be inconveniently large, and by an act of government, which became law in 1874, the country was portioned out into seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. The seven provinces are named from their geographical position: western, north-western, south-western, eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and midland. In general usage the distinction made is into western and eastern provinces, according to the area of the primary division. Griqualand West on its incorporation with the colony in 1880 became a separate province, and when the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was taken over by the Cape in 1895 it also became a separate province (see and ). For electoral purposes the Native Territories (see ) are included in the eastern province.

Chief Towns.—With the exception of Kimberley the principal towns (see separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape Town, had a population (1904) of 77,668, or including the suburbs, 169,641. The most important of these suburbs, which form separate municipalities, are Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg (18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley, the centre of the diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape Town, had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959 inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, 25,220. Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. Uitenhage (pop. 12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Of the other towns Somerset West (2613), Somerset West Strand (3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl (11,293), Wellington (4881), Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon (3508), Worcester (7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are named in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam is distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony are Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West (5478), Victoria West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of Mossel Bay (4206) and George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), Middleburg (6137), Cradock (7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more centrally situated, while in the east are Graham’s Town (13,887), King William’s Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp (2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North (5566), the largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset East (5216). Simon’s Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of the British navy. Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the colony near the Transvaal frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg (2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad (2903) is the capital of Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of Tembuland.

Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, whose headquarters are at O’okiep (2106). Knysna, Port Alfred and Port St Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and Barkly West are two widely separated towns, the first being E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West in Griqualand West. Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the middle course of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on the north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western part of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining region in the east of the colony. The general plan of the small country towns is that of streets laid out at right angles, and a large central market square near which are the chief church, town hall and other public buildings. In several of the towns, notably those founded by the early Dutch settlers, the streets are tree-lined. Those towns for which no population figures are given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000 inhabitants.

Agriculture and Allied Industries .—Owing to the scarcity of water over a large part of the country the area of land under cultivation is restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are pastoralists, whose wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep and goats, horses, and, in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of adequate irrigation much fertile soil is left untouched.

The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000

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 which had been accumulated in all parts of the science; no one really knew what a wealth there was at that time of important facts; least of all was it possible to form a judgment on the matter from the text-books of the period, which were deficient in ideas and facts, and crammed with a superfluous terminology; their mode of treating their subject was trivial and tasteless, and whatever was specially worth knowing and important to the student they did not contain. Those who undertook really scientific enquiries separated themselves from those who dealt with botany after the old schematism of the Linnaean school; but botanical instruction, the propagation of knowledge, was almost everywhere in the hands of this school, though it was the one least fitted for the task; and thus a mass of lifeless phrases was the instruction offered to the majority of students under the name of botany, with the inevitable effect of repelling the more gifted natures from the study. This was the evil result of the old and foolish notion, that the sole or chief business of every botanist is to trifle away time in plant-collecting in wood and meadow and in rummaging in herbaria, proceedings which could do no good to systematic botany even as understood by the Linnaean school. Even the better sort lost the sense for higher knowledge while occupying themselves in this way with the vegetable world; the powers of the mind could not fail after a time to deteriorate, and every text-book of the period on every page supplies proof of this deterioration.

But such a condition of things is dangerous for every science; of what profit is it, that single men of superior merit advance this or that part of the science when a connected view of the whole is wanting, and the beginner has no opportunity of studying the best things in their mutual relations. However, the right man was found at the right moment to rouse easy indolence from its torpor, and to show his contemporaries, not in Germany only but in all countries where botany was studied, that no progress was possible in this


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 affairs committees, to inquire into the conduct of the government. To ventilate their opinions a journal was founded in 1855 entitled the ‘Free Press,’ a name changed in 1866 to the ‘Diplomatic Review,’ which contained, among other contributions, most of Urquhart's own writings on the subject.

In 1864 he was compelled by his health to leave England for the continent, where he resided partly at Montreux, and partly in a house he had built on a spur of Mont Blanc. Abroad he attempted with his usual energy to revive the study of international law, which he considered to be continually violated by modern states in their dealings with each other. This undertaking brought him into close relations with a number of prominent men, such as Le Play and Bishop Dupanloup, and led to his presence at Rome during the Vatican council of 1869 and 1870. In 1876 his health broke down completely. He died at Naples on 16 May 1877, and was buried at Montreux in Switzerland. On 5 Sept. 1854 he married Harriet Angelina, second daughter of Lieutenant-colonel Chichester Fortescue of Dromisken, co. Louth, and sister of Chichester Samuel Parkinson-Fortescue, first baron Carlingford and second baron Clermont. By her he had two sons and two daughters. She was a constant contributor to the ‘Diplomatic Review’ under the name of ‘Caritas,’ and rendered Urquhart the most valuable assistance in his political and literary labours. She died at Brighton in October 1889.

Urquhart was gifted with a rare enthusiasm which often obscured his judgment, but he impressed men of all opinions and nationalities by his earnestness of purpose and the width of his interests. Although he was popularly known as an extravagant Turcophil, he had a thorough knowledge of the politics of Eastern Europe, which was recognised at home by Disraeli and abroad by statesmen like Thiers and Beust. To Urquhart belongs the distinction of promoting the naturalisation of the Turkish bath in the British Isles. He spoke enthusiastically of the merits of the institution in his ‘Pillars of Hercules’ (London, 1850, 2 vols. 8vo), a narrative of travels in Spain and Morocco. The description arrested the attention of the physician Richard Barter [q. v.], who added the Turkish bath to the system of water cure he had established at Blarney, near Cork. In 1856 Barter edited a pamphlet containing extracts from the ‘Pillars of Hercules,’ under the title ‘The Turkish Bath, with a View to its Introduction to the British Dominions,’ and both he and Urquhart lectured on the subject. Urquhart subsequently superintended the erection of the baths in Jermyn Street, London.

Urquhart was author of numerous treatises, chiefly relative to international policy. His style was admirably lucid. Besides the works already mentioned, the principal are: 1. ‘Turkey and its Resources,’ London, 1833, 8vo. 2. ‘The Spirit of the East: a Journal of Travels through Roumeli,’ London, 1838, 2 vols. 8vo; 2nd ed. 1839; translated into German and published in Eduard Widenmann and Wilhelm Hanff's ‘Reisen und Länderbeschreibungen der älteren und neuesten Zeit,’ 1855–60, lief. 17 and 18. 3. ‘An Exposition of the Boundary Differences between Great Britain and the United States,’ Liverpool, 1839, 4to. 4. ‘Diplomatic Transactions in Central Asia,’ London, 1841, 4to. 5. ‘The Mystery of the Danube,’ London, 1851, 8vo. 6. ‘Reflections on Thoughts and Things,’ London, 1844, 8vo; 2nd ser. 1845. 7. ‘Wealth and Want; or Taxation, as influencing Private Riches and Public Liberty,’ London, 1845, 8vo. 8. ‘Statesmen of France and the English Alliance,’ London, 1847, 8vo. 9. ‘Europe at the Opening of the Session of 1847,’ London, 1847, 8vo. 10. ‘The Mystery of the Danube,’ London, 1851, 8vo. 11. ‘Progress of Russia in the West, North, and South,’ London, 1853, 8vo; 5th edit. in the same year. 12. ‘Recent Events in the East,’ London, 1854, 12mo. 13. ‘The War of Ignorance and Collusion: its Progress and Results,’ London, 1854, 8vo. 14. ‘The Occupation of the Crimea,’ London, 1854, 8vo. 15. ‘The Home Face of the “Four Points,”’ London, 1855, 8vo. 16. ‘Familiar Words as affecting the Character of Englishmen and the Fate of England,’ London, 1855, 12mo. 17. ‘The Lebanon: a History and a Diary,’ London, 1860, 2 vols. 8vo. 18. ‘Materials for a True History of Lord Palmerston,’ London, 1866, 8vo. 19. ‘Appeal of a Protestant to the Pope to restore the Law of Nations,’ London, 1868, 8vo; Latin edit. 1869.

[Urquhart's Works; Manuscript Life of Urquhart by Mr. L. D. Collet; private information; Notes and Queries, 9th ser. iv. 3; Addit. MS. 28512, ff. 208–12; Mrs. Bishop's Memoir of Mrs. Urquhart, 1897; Ashley's Life of Palmerston, 1879, ii. 61; Greville Papers, 1888, iii. 334, 413, iv. 122, 123, 164; Doubleday's Political Life of Peel, 1856, ii. 246; Corresp. entre M. Urquhart et l'Evêque d'Orléans [Dupanloup], 1870.]

URQUHART, THOMAS (fl. 1650?), violin-maker, was distinguished among old London makers by the beauty of his style, and especially by the excellence of his varnish. Some of Urquhart's instruments are small in


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 way. This man was, born at Hamburg in 1804, and for many years Professor in Jena. Endowed with somewhat too great love of combat, and armed with a pen regardless of the wounds it inflicted, ready to strike at any moment, and very prone to exaggeration, Schleiden was just the man needed in the state in which botany then was. His first appearance on the scene was greeted with joy by the most eminent among those who afterwards contributed to the real advance of the science, though their paths it is true diverged considerably at a later period, when the time of reconstruction was come. If we were to estimate Schleiden's merit only by the facts which he discovered, we should scarcely place him above the level of ordinarily good botanists; we should have to reckon up a list of good monographs, numerous refutations of ancient errors and the like; the most important of the theories which he proposed, and over which vigorous war was waged among botanists during many years, have long since been set aside. His true historical importance has been already intimated; his great merit as a botanist is due not to what he did as an original investigator, but to the impulse he gave to investigation, to the aim and object which he set up for himself and others, and opposed in its greatness to the petty character of the text-books. He smoothed the way for those who could and would do really great service; he created, so to speak, for the first time an audience for scientific botany capable of distinguishing scientific work from frivolous dilettanteism. Whoever wished from this time forward to take part in the discussion of botanical subjects must address all his powers to the task, for he would be judged by another standard than had hitherto prevailed.

Schleiden, who had commenced his botanical labours with some important researches in anatomy and the history of development, the most valuable of which in matter and form was an enquiry into the development of the ovule before fertilisation (1837), composed also a comprehensive text-book


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 bushels in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and Kaffir corn (a kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing districts are in the south-western and eastern provinces. The yield per acre is fully up to the average of the world’s yield, computed at twelve bushels to the acre. The quality of Cape wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives its name to the Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower hills of Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and Kaffir corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider area than any other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest crop grown. They are often cut whilst still tender, dried and used as forage being known as oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of about 5 ℔ each were produced in 1904). The principal vegetables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold and beet, beans and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, whilst those devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging from 3000 acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers own the farms they occupy.

The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 woolled and 3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There were 2,775,000 angora and 4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000 asses. These figures showed in most cases a large decrease compared with those obtained in 1891, the cause being largely the ravages of rinderpest. Lucerne and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich farms are maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country, young birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated ostriches in 1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over 200,000 since 1891. There are large mule-breeding establishments on the veld.

Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. It is doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to the Cape. The first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, while the cuttings of French vines introduced by the Huguenots about 1688 have given rise to an extensive culture in the south-western districts of the colony. The grapes are among the finest in the world, whilst the fruit is produced in almost unrivalled abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of wine are produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000, and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides 1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those known as Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. The high reputation which they had in the first half of the 19th century was afterwards lost to a large extent. Owing to greater care on the part of growers, and the introduction of French-American resistant stocks to replace vines attacked by the phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th century again acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater part of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the colony. The chief wine-producing districts are those of the Paarl, Worcester, Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and the Cape, all in the south-western regions. Beyond the colony proper there are promising vine stocks in the Gordonia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata district of Tembuland.

Fruit culture has become an important industry with the facilities afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in Europe. The trees whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection and yield the largest harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and apple. Large quantities of table grapes are also grown. Many millions of each of the fruits named are produced annually. The pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees likewise flourish. Cherry trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive was begun in the western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn, Stockenstroom, Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is grown. The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 ℔.

Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to that of diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres are Port Elizabeth and the Cape district. In 1904 the output of the mills was valued at over £2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 bushels of wheat being ground.

Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown property and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries were little developed before 1897 when government experiments were begun, which proved that large quantities of fish were easily procurable by trawling. Large quantities of soles are obtained from a trawling ground near Cape Agulhas. The collection of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is under government control.

Mining.—The mineral wealth of the country is very great. The most valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in Griqualand West and also at Hopetown, and other districts along the Orange river. The diamond-mining industry is almost entirely under the control of the De Beers Mining Company. From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come larger numbers of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the world combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years 1896–1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and a half million carats, of the average annual value of £4,250,000, the average price per carat being £1 : 13 : 3. From the other districts alluvial diamonds are obtained of the average annual value of £250,000–£400,000. They are finer stones than the Kimberley diamonds, having an average value of £3 :2 : 7 per carat.

Next in importance among mineral products are coal and copper. The collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of considerable extent. The Indwe mines are the most productive. The colonial output increased from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 tons in 1904. The copper mines are in Namaqualand, an average of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined yearly. Copper was the first metal worked by white men in the colony, operations beginning in 1852.

Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near Mafeking—the outcrop extending about 30 m.—and, in small quantities, from mines in the Knysna district. In the Cape and Paarl districts are valuable stone and granite quarries. Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which neighbourhood there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown and Uitenhage divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near Cape Town. Many other minerals exist but are not put to industrial purposes.

Trade.—The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities, but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods to and from the Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. The staple exports are diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich feathers, mohair, hides and skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000 ℔ in 1860, had doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 ℔ in 1905 when the export was valued at £1,887,459. In the same year (1905) 471,024 ℔ of ostrich feathers were exported valued at £1,081,187. The chief imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, timber, hardware and machinery. The value of the total imports rose from £13,612,405 in 1895 to £33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped to £20,000,913 in 1905. The exports in 1895 were valued at £16,798,137 and rose to £23,247,258 in 1899. The dislocation of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics brought down the exports in 1900 to £7,646,682 (in which year the value of the gold exported was only £336,795). They rose to £10,000,000 and £16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and in 1905 had reached £33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold valued at £20,731,159.) About 75% of the imports come from the United Kingdom or British colonies, and nearly the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom. The tonnage of ships entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from 10,175,903 in 1895 to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year ths of the tonnage was British. It is interesting to compare the figures already given with those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the colony over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country was under £1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over £4,500,000, in 1874 it exceeded £10,500,000. It remained at about this

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 of general botany, which appeared first in 1842–3, and in much improved editions in 1845 and 1846, and in two subsequent years. The difference between this and all previous text-books is the difference between day and night; in the one, an indolent carelessness and an absence of ideas; in the other, a fulness of life and thought, calculated to influence young minds all the more, because it was in many respects incomplete and still in a state of fermentation. On every page of this remarkable work, by the side of facts really worth knowing, the student found interesting reflections, a lively and generally coarse polemic, and praise and blame of others. It was not a book to be studied quietly and comfortably, but one that excited the reader everywhere to take a side for or against, and to seek for further instruction.

The work is generally quoted as 'Grundzüge der wissenschaftlichen Botanik,' but its chief title is 'Die Botanik als inductive Wissenschaft,' which indicates the point on which Schleiden laid most stress. His great object was to place the study, which had been so disfigured in the text-books as scarcely to wear the semblance of a natural science, on the same footing with physics and chemistry, in which the spirit of genuine inductive enquiry into nature had already asserted itself in opposition to the nature-philosophy of the immediately preceding years. It may seem strange to us now to see a text-book of botany introduced by a formal essay, 131 pages long, on the inductive method of investigation as opposed to dogmatic philosophy, and to find the principles of induction set forth again and again in connection with a great variety of subjects in the book itself. Many objections may be raised to the contents of this introduction; it may be said that many philosophical dicta are misunderstood in it; that Schleiden himself has frequently offended against the rules there laid down, for instance, when he substitutes a formative impulse (nisus formativus) for the vital force which he rejects, which is only introducing vital force again under


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 another name; that it is superfluous to present the history of development as a 'maxim' in Kant's use of the word, instead of showing that the history of development enters naturally and of itself into inductive investigation, and so on. All this will not lessen the historical importance of this philosophic introduction; the traditional way in which descriptive botany was at that time presented to the student was so thoroughly dogmatic and scholastic, trivial and uncritical, that it was necessary to impress upon him in many words, that this is not the method of true investigation of nature.

Passing on to the more special problems of botanical enquiry, Schleiden next dwells on the history of development as the foundation of all insight into morphology, though he overshot the mark when he rejected as unfruitful the simple comparative method, which had produced considerable results in the hands of De Candolle, and was virtually the fruitful element in the doctrine of phyllotaxis of Schimper and Braun. Still he took an active part himself in the study of development in plants, and gave special prominence to embryology; he also discussed the doctrine of metamorphosis from the point of view of the history of development, and pointed to Caspar Friedrich Wolff's treatment of that subject as much clearer than that which had been introduced by Goethe. Finally, Schleiden's mode of dealing with the natural system must be reckoned among the good services which he rendered to method; not because his classification of the vegetable kingdom presents any specially interesting features or brought to light any new affinities, but because we see an attempt made for the first time to give detailed characters drawn from morphology and the history of development to the primary divisions, and because by this means the positive and distinct nature of the Cryptogams was from the first clearly brought out. The old way of treating morphology, as though there were only Phanerogams in the world, and then having recourse to unmeaning negatives in dealing with the Cryptogams, was


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Duran

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Duran


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 thus set aside, much to the profit of the immediate future, which directed its attention specially to the Cryptogams.

Schleiden however did not succeed in securing firm ground for the morphology of the Cryptogams as founded on the history of their development. His investigations into the morphology of the Phanerogams were more successful. His theory of the flower and fruit is an admirable performance for the time, even though we abandon his view of the stalk nature of placentas and some other notions, as we obviously must. As Robert Brown founded the history of the development of the ovule, so Schleiden founded that of the flower, and his example influenced other botanists. Soon investigations into the genesis of the flower was one of the chief occupations of morphologists, and the results of enquiry into development proved to be of great value for the systematic arrangement of the Phanerogams, especially when more exact attention was paid to the sequence of development in the organs of an inflorescence, to abortion, doubling and branching of the stamens, and to the like matters. Duchartre, Wigand, Gelesnoff and many others, were soon working in the same direction with great success. deserves special mention for his enormous perseverance in examining the development of the flower in all the more important families in his 'Organogenic de la fleur,' 1857, and thus producing a standard work, distinguished alike for the certainty of the observations, the simple unbiassed interpretation of the things observed, and the beauty and abundance of the figures—a work which became more important every year for the morphology of the flower.

Schleiden's text-book was the first of its kind that supplied the student with really good figures based on careful observations. With all its many and obvious defects it had one merit which cannot be rated too highly; its appearance at once put botany on the footing of a natural science in the modern sense of the word, and placed it upon a higher platform, extending its horizon by raising its point of view.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, Thomasine Christine

GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, ,, Baroness (1773-1856). A Danish novelist, born at Copenhagen. Born Buntzen, she married at seventeen Peter Andreas Heiberg, and had one son, (q.v.). Her husband was banished for political activity (1799), and she obtained a divorce and married a Swedish political refugee, Baron Ehrensvärd, who assumed in Copenhagen his mother's name, Gyllembourg, and who died in 1815. After this she lived with her son, the poet Heiberg, and at fifty-three began a busy literary career with The Polonius Family (1825). Afterwards she wrote steadily though anonymously till her death. Among her better novels are Near and Far (1841) and Two Generations (1845).


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 Botany appeared all at once as a science rich in subject-matter; Schleiden had not only himself made many investigations and broached new theories, but he everywhere drew attention to what was already before the world and was important; for it is not sufficient as regards the literature of a science that there should be good investigators; it is as necessary that the scientific public, and especially the rising generation of professed students, should be well and sufficiently instructed in the art of distinguishing important from unimportant contributions. It must be distinctly affirmed in this place, that if Schleiden's theory of cell-formation, his strange notion about the embryology of Phanerogams and the like were very quickly shown to be untenable, this does not in the least affect the great historical importance which his writings possess in the sense here indicated.

That others besides Schleiden in the period following 1840 felt strongly, that botany must thenceforward give up its complacent resting in the old ideas, was shown among other things by the addition at this time of new periodicals to the old journal 'Flora.' The 'Botanische Zeitung' was founded by von Mohl and Schlechtendal in 1843, and the 'Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Botanik' by Schleiden and Nägeli. The latter, however, only lived three years, from 1844 to 1846, and was filled almost entirely with Nägeli's contributions. Both publications expressly set themselves the task of representing the new aims in the science. The immediate consequence was that 'Flora' braced up its energies, and endeavoured to do more justice to the modern spirit; excellent notices of botanical works now appeared in it under the exclusive management of Fürnrohr.

Schleiden's productivity in the higher sense of the word expended itself in his labours on the elements of scientific botany. His later somewhat discursive writings exerted no great influence on the further development of the science. The ideal which he had set up for scientific botany and had sketched in its larger outlines, could only be realised by the


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 figure until the development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. The consequent great increase in the carrying trade with the Transvaal led to some neglect of the internal resources of the colony. Trade depression following the war of 1899–1902 turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory results. The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was £12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony being £15,302,854. A “trade balance-sheet” for 1906 drawn up for the Cape Town chamber of commerce by its president showed, however, a debtor account of £18,751,000 compared with a credit account of £17,931,000, figures representing with fair accuracy the then economic condition of the country.

Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. The tariff, revised in 1906, is protective with a general ad valorem rate of 15% on goods not specifically enumerated. On machinery generally there is a 3% ad valorem duty. Books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are on the free list. There is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United Kingdom, machinery from Great Britain thus entering free.

Communications.—There is regular communication between Europe and the colony by several lines of steamships. The British mails are carried under contract with the colonial government by packets of the Union-Castle Steamship Co., which leave Southampton every Saturday and Cape Town every Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m., according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the distance in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers sail once a week, or oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) East London (543 m., three days) and Durban (823 m., four or five days); Mossel Bay being called at once a fortnight. Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated intervals for Port Nolloth.

Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie), starting from Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three chief Cape ports. The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, the eastern route is via the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines of steamers ply between Cape Town and Australian ports, and others between Cape Colony and India.

There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers crossing main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the colony is that which spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is 1480 ft. long and cost £114,000. Of the roads in general it may be said that they are merely tracks across the veld made at the pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally used as a draught animal in country districts remote from railways; sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying 3 to 4 tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted the ox-wagon for bringing agricultural produce to market. The “Scotch cart,” a light two-wheeled vehicle is also much used.

Railways.—Railway construction began in 1859 when a private company built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, 64 m. long, was the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen years. In 1871 parliament resolved to build railways at the public expense, and in 1873 (the year following the conferment of responsible government on the colony) a beginning was made with the work, £5,000,000 having been voted for the purpose. In the same year the Cape Town–Wellington line was bought by the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving subsidies from the government, which owns and works the greater part of the railways in the colony.

The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines from the seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines then begun determined the development of the whole system. The standard gauge in South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways mentioned are of that gauge unless otherwise stated.

The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified under three great systems:—the Western, the Midland and the Eastern.

The Western system—the southern section of the Cape to Cairo route—starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley (647 m.) to Vryburg (774 m.), whence it is continued by the Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking (870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623 m.) and the Belgian Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs via Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen Streams, a station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via Klerksdorp to Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most direct route between Cape Town and the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955 m.)

The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main line runs by Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval’s Pont on the Orange river, whence it is continued through the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal by Bloemfontein to Johannesburg (714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria (741 m.). From Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and Johannesburg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban, and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line (186 m.) runs by Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the main line at Rosmead, from which a junction line (83 m.) runs eastwards, connecting with the Eastern system at Stormberg. From Naauwpoort another junction line (69 m.) runs north-west, connecting the Midland with the Western system at De Aar, and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from Cape Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg via Naauwpoort, 1012 m.)

The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal line runs to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, where it joins the line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. (Distance from East London to Johannesburg, 665 m.) From Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a branch, originally the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.).

The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways running for the most part parallel with the coast. Starting from Worcester, 109 m. from Cape Town on the western main line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via Swellendam and Riversdale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George, Oudtshoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town 666 m.) From Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King William’s Town to Blaney junction on the eastern main line and 31 m. from East London. The Somerset East line crosses, at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line from Port Elizabeth to the north, and by this route the distance between Port Elizabeth and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905 of the Somerset East–King William’s Town line, the nearest railway connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and Stormberg junction—a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom junction on the eastern main line a branch railway goes through the Transkei to connect at Riverside, the frontier station, with the Natal railways. It runs via the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and Kokstad. From Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, a station 51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata (180 m. distant). Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns (307 m. from East London), whence another line 142 m. long goes to Kokstad.

Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all the towns within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked to it by railway. Longer branches run from the capital S.E. to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via Malmesbury (47 m.), and Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A line runs N.W. across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line via Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, a line (111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange river. From Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, whence another line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie river. Another line (179 m.) on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port Elizabeth via Humansdorp to Avontuur.

A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from

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Onslow play classical chamber-music he also learnt the violoncello. Though living almost entirely at Clermont, he frequently visited Paris, and during one of these visits three string quintets by him were performed at Pleyel's house, and published in 1807. Two pianoforte sonatas and a set of quartets followed, and increased his reputation.

At the suggestion of his friends, Onslow attempted dramatic composition, the fruits of which were the operas: 1. ‘L'Alcalde de la Vega,’ in three acts, produced at the Théâtre Feydeau, 10 Aug. 1824. 2. ‘Le Colporteur,’ also in three acts, at the same theatre, 22 Nov. 1827 (cf. Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review, 1825, x. 349). 3. ‘Le Duc de Guise,’ 8 Sept. 1837. None of these achieved more than a succès d'estime, the overture of the second work alone surviving for any length of time. In 1832 Onslow was elected one of the first honorary members of the Philharmonic Society in London, for which he wrote a symphony. In 1829, while boar-hunting near Nevers, Onslow sat down to make a note of a musical idea, when he was struck by a spent ball that lacerated his ear, and left him partly deaf for the remainder of his life. The musical idea he subsequently developed into the once famous quintet, No. 15, each movement of which is named after some phase in his illness. Thus the first when minor is called ‘La douleur,’ when major ‘La fièvre et le délire;’ the andante ‘La convalescence,’ and the finale ‘La guérison.’ On 10 April 1831 his first symphony—an arrangement of an earlier quintet—was played at a Conservatoire concert in Paris, and with some success; eight other symphonies of his were subsequently given at the same concerts. In 1838 he came into a large fortune by the death of the Marquis de Fontages, whose only daughter he had married. In November 1842 he defeated Adolphe Adam by nineteen votes to seventeen for the chair in the Institut rendered vacant by the death of Cherubini (cf. Athenæum, 26 Nov. 1842, p. 1016). Onslow visited Paris for the last time in 1852. He died suddenly, after a walk at daybreak, on 3 Oct. 1853, at Clermont.

His compositions, the number of which is enormous, include: (1) Symphonies, op. 41, 42; (2) thirty-four quintets; (3) thirty-six quartets; (4) six trios for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello; (5) a number of duets for violin and pianoforte; (6) a sextet (op. 30); (7) a septet (op. 79); (8) a nonet (op. 77); (9) sonatas for pianoforte alone, and for pianoforte and another instrument, besides the dramatic and other works mentioned in the text. The earlier quintets (which are by far his best compositions) were written with two violoncello parts, some of which were arranged subsequently, with one violoncello and one double-bass part. Onslow's works, one or two of which are heard even now occasionally, reveal skill, natural talent, and refinement; but he was devoid of the power of self-criticism, and consequently wrote and published too much. His large private means and high social position enabled him to publish all his works, and to secure their performance. But he has been well, if somewhat severely, characterised by a French writer as ‘a composer who passed the half of his life in searching for a [true] musical sense.’

ONSLOW, RICHARD (1528–1571), speaker of the House of Commons, was second son of Roger Onslow of Shrewsbury, by his first wife Margaret, daughter of Thomas Poyner of Shropshire, presumably a member of the family of Poyner settled at Beslow. The family of Onslow had long been settled at Onslow and other places in the county (, Antiq. of Shropshire, vol. x.) Roger Onslow lived chiefly in London, though he belonged to the Mercers' Company of Shrewsbury. His eldest son, Fulk, held the office of clerk of parliament under Elizabeth; married Mary Scott, a widow; died 8 Aug. 1602, aged 86, and was buried at Hatfield, where there is an inscription to his memory in the chancel of the church (, Hertfordshire, ii. 366). Richard Onslow was called to the bar from the Inner Temple, and in 1562 was autumn reader. His progress at the bar must have been very rapid, as in 1563 he was made recorder of London. He sat in the parliaments of 1557–1558 and 1562–3 as member for Steyning, Sussex, and represented that borough till his death. On 27 June 1566 he became solici-


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The New International Encyclopædia/Gyllenborg, Karl

GYLLENBORG,, , Count (1679-1746). A Swedish statesman and author. He was born at Stockholm, and after serving in the Polish War was sent to London as secretary of legation. In 1715 he was made Minister Plenipotentiary, and two years later was imprisoned for five months because of his participation in the plot to reinstate the House of Stuart. In 1723 he was appointed Councilor of State, and in 1738 Prime Minister. While in this office he founded the Hattparti or Hattar (‘Hat’ Party), which instigated the disastrous war with Russia (1741-43), resulting in the loss of the Province of Viborg. He was successively chancellor of the universities of Lund (1728) and Upsala (1739), was a patron of letters and art, and wrote several poems and the first Swedish comedy, Den svenska Sprätthöken (1740). His ''Letters. . . Relating'' to a Design to Raise a Rebellion on His Majesty's Dominions, to be Supported by a Force from Sweden, were published in French and English (1717).


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 Port Nolloth on the west coast to the O’okiep copper mines (92 m.). It has a gauge of 2 ft. 6 in.

The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively short distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the Karroo. The steepest gradient is on the western main line. Having entered the hilly district at Tulbagh Road, where the railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the Hex River Pass is reached soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above the sea. In the next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that distance being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is the most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from East London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. from its starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., at Cathcart (109 m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, where it pierces the Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, the rails are 5450 ft. above the sea. From Sterkstroom to Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The highest railway station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the Zuurberg, on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems. The capital expended on government railways to the end of 1905 was £29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of £10,034. The gross earnings in 1905 were £4,047,065 (as compared with £3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses £3,076,920 (as compared with £1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in 1905 numbered 20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000 ℔).

Posts and Telegraphs.—Direct telegraphic communication between London and Cape Town was established on Christmas day 1879. Cables connect the colony with Europe (1) via Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena, Ascension and St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and Cocos.

An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other lines connect Cape Town with all other South African states, while within the colony there is a complete system of telegraphic communication, over 8000 m. of lines being open in 1906. The telephone service is largely developed in the chief towns. The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely built, at a cost up to 1906 of £865,670, by the government, which in 1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.).

The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the reach of the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts of Gordonia (Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. Since 1890 a yearly average of over 50,000,000 has passed through the post. Of these about four-fifths are letters.

Constitution and Government.—Under the constitution established in 1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature consisted of two chambers, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. Members of the Legislative Council or Upper House represented the provinces into which the colony was divided and were elected for seven years; members of the House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for five years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. At the head of the executive was a governor appointed by the crown. By the South Africa Act 1909 this constitution was abolished as from the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Cape Colony entered the Union as an original province, being represented in the Union parliament by eight members in the Senate and fifty-one in the House of Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the election of members of the House of Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at the establishment of the Union, and are as follows:—Voters must be born or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape province at least twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no distinction being made as to race or colour), must be in possession of property worth £75, or in receipt of salary or wages of not less than £50 a year. No one not an elector in 1892 can be registered as a voter unless he can sign his name and write his address and occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does not qualify for a vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified for election to parliament (see further ). The number of registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 were non-Europeans.

For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting of the same number of members as are elected by the province to the House of Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the council are the same as for the House of Assembly. All voters, European and non-European, are eligible for seats on the council, but any councillor who becomes a member of parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial council. The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation within the province for purely local purposes, and generally controls all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. The council was also given, for five years following the establishment of the Union, control of elementary education. All ordinances passed by the council must have the sanction of the Union government before coming into force. The council is elected for three years and is not subject to dissolution save by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an official appointed by the Union government and styled administrator of the province. The administrator holds his post for a period of five years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting of four persons elected by the provincial council but not necessarily members of that body.

To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the divisional and municipal councils of the province, but the powers of such subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn by the Union parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, which are elected triennially, were established in 1855. In 1908 they numbered eighty-one. The councils are presided over by a civil commissioner who is also usually resident magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the division; can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money on the security of the rates for public works; and return three members yearly to the district licensing court. Their receipts in 1908 were £269,000; their expenditure in the same period was £283,000. The electors to the divisional councils are the owners or occupiers of immovable property. Members of the councils must be registered voters and owners of immovable property in the division valued at not less than £500.

Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for the most part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal Act of 1882. Certain municipalities have, however, obtained special acts for their governance. In 1907 there were 119 municipalities in the province. Under the act of 1882 the municipalities were given power to levy annually an owner’s rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and a tenant’s rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. No rate may exceed 2d. in the £ on the capital value or 8d. in the £ on the annual value. The receipts of the municipalities in 1907 amounted to £1,430,000. During the same period the expenditure amounted to £1,539,000.

Law and Justice.—The basis of the judicial system is the Roman-Dutch law, which has been, however, modified by legislation of the Cape parliament. In each division of the province there is a resident magistrate with primary jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The South Africa Act 1909 created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town, becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over by a judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony, namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham’s Town, and the high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, became local divisions of the Supreme Court of South Africa. Each of these courts consists of a judge-president and two puisne judges. The provincial and local courts, besides their original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which the government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which the validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into question. From the decisions of these courts appeals may be made to the appellate division of the Supreme Court. The judges of the divisional courts go on circuit twice a year. In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at

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