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{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Hener was the hero-king, Heaven-born, dear to us, Showing his shield A shelter for peace. Esaias Twiner—Fridthjof's Saga. Canto XXI. St. 7. Broad-based upon her people's will. And compassed by the inviolate sea. | author = Tennyson | work = To the Queen. St. 9. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Wordsworth) In that fierce light which beats upon a throne. | author = Tennyson | work = Idylls of the King. Dedication. L. 26. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Royalty | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Titles are abolished; and the American Republic swarms with men claiming and bearing them. Thackeray—Round Head Papers. On Ribbons. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Royalty | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Le roi regne, il ne gouverne pas. The king reigns but does not govern. Thiers. In an early number of the National, a newspaper under the direction of himself and his political friends six months before the dissolution of the monarchy. July 1, 1830. Jan Zamoyskl in the Polish and Hungarian Diets. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Bismarck}}) | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Royalty | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Le premier qui fut roi, fut un soldat heureux; Qui sert bien son pays, n'a pas besoin d'aieux. The first king was a successful soldier; He who serves well his country has no need of ancestors. Voltaire—Merope. I. 3. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Royalty | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Hail to the crown by Freedom shaped—to gird An English sovereign's brow! and to the throne Whereon he sits! whose deep foundations he In veneration and the people's love. Wordsworth—Excursion. Bk. IV. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Tennyson) A partial world will listen to my lays, While Anna reigns, and sets a female name Unrival'd in the glorious lists of fame. Young—Force of Religion. Bk. I. L. 6. RUIN Should the whole frame of nature round him break In ruin and confusion hurled, He, unconcerned, would hear the mighty crack, And stand secure amidst a falling world. | author = Addison | work = Horace. Ode III. Bk. III. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Ruin | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = And when 'midst fallen London they survey The stone where Alexander's ashes lay, Shall own with humble pride the lesson just By Time's slow finger written in the dust. Mrs. Baubauld—Eighteen Hundred and Eleven. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Goldsmith, London Magazine, Macaulay, Shelley, Volney, Walpole, White}}) | topic = Ruin | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt Ruin | num = 22 | text = There is a temple in ruin stands, Fashion'd by long forgotten hands: Two or three columns, and many a stone, Marble and granite, with grass o'ergrown! | author = Byron | work = Siege of Corinth. | place = St. 18. | note = | topic = Ruin | page = 686 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 23 | text = While in the progress of their long decay, Thrones sink to dust, and nations pass away. | author = Earl of Carlisle | work = On the Ruins of Pœstum. | place = | note = | seealso = Same idea in {{sc|Pope}}'s Messiah. | topic = Ruin | page = 686 }}


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704

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = One ship drives East, and one drives West, By the selfsame wind that blowsIt's the set of the sails, and not the gales, Which determines the way it goes. Ella Wheeler Wilcox—Winds of Fate. SHIPWRECK | seealso = (See also {{sc|Ships) Some hoisted out the boats, and there was one That begged Pedrillo for an absolution, Who told bim to be damn'd,—in his confusion. | author = Byron | work = Don Juan. Canto II. St. 44. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell— Then shriek'd the timid, and stood still the brave,— Then some leap'd overboard with fearful yell, As eager to anticipate their grave. | author = Byron | work = Don Juan. Canto II. St. 52. Again she plunges' bark! a second shock Bilges the splitting vessel on the rock; Down on the vale of death, with dismal cries, The fated victims shuddering cast their eyes In wild despair; while yet another stroke With strong convulsion rends the solid oak: Ah Heaven!—behold her crashing ribs divide! She loosens, parts, and spreads in ruin o'er the tide. Falconer—Shipwreck. Canto III. L. 642. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = And fast through the midnight dark and drear, Through the whistling sleet and snow, Like a sheeted ghost, the vessel swept Towards the reef of Norman's Woe. | author = Longfellow | work = The Wreck of the Hesperus. St. 15. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Naufragium sibi quisque facit. Each man makes his own shipwreck. Lucanus—Pharsalia. I. 499. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Through the black night and driving rain A ship is struggling, all in vain. To live upon the stormy main;— Miserere Domine! Adelaide A. Procter—The Storm. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = But hark! what shriek of death comes in the gale, And in the distant ray what glimmering sail Bends to the storm?—Now sinks the note of fear! Ah! wretched mariners!—no more shall day Unclose his cheering eye to light ye on your way! Mrs. Radcliffe—Mysteries of Udolpho. Shipwreck. 16 O, I have suffer'd With those that I saw suffer: a brave vessel, Who had, no doubt, some noble creature in her, Dash'd all to pieces. O, the cry did knock Against my very heart! Poor souls, they perTempest. Act I. Sc. 2. L. 5. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A rotten carcass of a boat, not rigged, Nor tackle, sail, nor mast; the very rats Instinctively have quit it. Tempest. Act I. Sc. 2. L. 146. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 15 | text = Every drunken skipper trusts to Providence. But one of the ways of Providence with drunken skippers is to run them on the rocks. Bernard Shaw—Heartbreak House. Act III. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Improbe Neptunum accusat, qui iterum naufragium facit. He wrongly accuses Neptune, who makes shipwreck a second time. Syrus. Gellius. 17. 14; Macrobius— Satires. II. 7. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Apparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto. Here and there they are seen swimming in the vast flood. Vergil—Æneid. I. 118. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Or shipwrecked, kindles on the coast False fires, that others may be lost. Wordsworth—To the Lady Fleming. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 704 }}

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Rh

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 460 LINDEN LINNET LINDEN Tibia

LINGUISTS

) | topic = | page = 460 }}


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760

{{Hoyt quote | num = 20 | text = The virtue lies In the struggle, not the prize. | author = Monckton Milnes | cog = (Lord Houghton) | work = The World to the Soul. | place = 9. 1. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Goethe}})


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780

TEARS

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = We weep when we are born, Not when we die! T. B. Aldrich—Metempsychosis. Phrase found in Les Paroles Remarquables, Us Bon Mots et les Maximes Orientaux. Ed. by Gallant.. (1694) | seealso = (See also {{sc|King Lear) Dear Lord, though I be changed to senseless And serve the Potter as he turn his wheel, I thank Thee for the gracious gift of tears! T. B. AiimiCH—Two Moods. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Filius istarum lacrymarum. A child of those tears. St. Augustine—Confessions. Bk. III. 12. It cannot be, that a child of those tears (of mine) shall perish. Words of his mother when St. Augustine was influenced by the Manichean Heresy. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = And friends, dear friends,—when it shall be That this low breath is gone from me, And round my bier ye come to weep, Let One, most loving of you all, Say, "Not a tear must o'er her fall; He giveth His beloved sleep." E. B. Browning—The Sleep. St. 9. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Thank God for grace, Ye who weep only! If, as some have done, Ye grope tear-blinded in a desert place And touch but tombs,—look up! Those tears will run Soon in long rivers down the lifted face, And leave the vision clear for stars and sun. E. B. Browning—Tears. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = So bright the tear in Beauty's eye, Love half regrets to kiss it dry. | author = Byron | work = Bride of Abydos. Canto I. St. 8. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Oh! too convincing—dangerously dear— In woman's eye the unanswerable tear! That weapon of her weakness she can wield, To save, subdue—at once her spear and shield. | author = Byron | work = Corsair. Canto II. St. 15. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = What gem hath dropp'd, and sparkles o'er his chain? The tear most sacred, shed for other's pain, That starts at once—bright pure—from Pity's mine, Already polish'd by the hand divine! | author = Byron | work = Corsair. Canto II. St. 15. She was a good deal shock'd; not shock'd at tears, For women shed and use them at their liking; But there is something when man's eye appears Wet, still more disagreeable and striking. | author = Byron | work = Don Juan. Canto V. St. 118. There is a tear for all who die, A mourner o'er the humblest grave. | author = Byron | work = Elegiac Stomas. On the Death of Sir Peter Parker, Bart. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A stoic of the woods,—a man without a tear. Campbell—Gertrude of Wyoming. Pt. I. St. 23. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = For Beauty's tears are lovelier than her smile. Campbell—Pleasures of Hope. Pt. I. L. 180. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Tears | page = 780 }}


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840

VOICE

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = The Angel ended, and in Adam's ear So charming left his voice, that he awhile Thought hirn still speaking, still stood fix'd to hear. | author = Milton | work = Paradise Lost. | place = Bk. VIH. L. 1.

| seealso = (See also {{sc|Homer) A Locanian having plucked all the feathers off from a nightingale and seeing what a little body it had, "surely," quoth he, "thou art all voice and nothing else." (Vox et prseterea nihil.) Plutarch—Laconic Apothegms. Credited to Lacon Incert. XTTT, by Lepsius. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Seneca) Her voice was like the voice the stars Had when they sang together. Dante Gabriel Rossettt—The Blessed Damozel. St. 10. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A sweet voice, a little indistinct and muffled, which caresses and does not thrill; an utterance which glides on without emphasis, and lays stress only on what is deeply felt. George Sand—Handsome Lawrence. Ch. III. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Vox nihil aliud quam ictus aer. The voice is nothing but beaten au Seneca—Naturalinum Qwzstionvm. Bk. II. oq | seealso = (See also {{sc|Plutarch}}) | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = I thank you for your voices: thank you: Your most sweet voices. Coriolanus. Act II. Sc. 3. L. 179. Her voice was ever soft, Gentle and low, an excellent thing in woman. King Lear. Act V. Sc. 3. L. 272. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = But I will aggravate my voice so that I will roar you as gently as any sucking dove. Midsummer Night's Dream. Act I. Sc. 2. L. 83. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = And rolling far along the gloomy shores The voice of days of old and days to be. | author = Tennyson | work = The Passing of Arthur. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Voice | page = 840 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = He ceased; but still their trembling ears retained The deep vibrations of his witching song. Thomson—Castte of Indolence. Canto 1. Sk on | seealso = (See also {{sc|Homer)


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Rh to a good family and moved habitually in the best society.

His milieu and his point of view were different from those of typical bourgeois, such as Marais and Barbier. He was a country gentleman, and was fond of strolling about his vineyards, and talking to his tenants and labourers. 'I like talking to peasants,' he said; 'they are not learned enough to reason perversely.' But his attitude towards them was that of a great Whig nobleman or squire. Of their feelings and points of view he could know nothing. The third estate, which was nothing and was to be everything, was to him, for most purposes, an unknown world. But, though he was not wholly free from the faults of his class and his time, he was a great gentleman, with a genuine public spirit, a genuine love of liberty, a genuine hatred of oppression, cruelty, intolerance, and injustice. Among the three great political thinkers of the day, Montesquieu stands for liberty, as Voltaire stands for efficiency, and Rousseau for equality. If Lord Acton's projected History of Liberty had ever seen the light, Montesquieu would doubtless have been among its greatest heroes.

In the next place Montesquieu belonged to a hereditary caste—the caste which supplied the staff of

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 INTRODUCTION

design of this work is to give a condensed exposition of certain significant phases of the Far Eastern question since it assumed its present shape and tendency, especially in its relations to Western civilization and the interests of the United States of America.

The material was gathered in the course of several sojourns in the Far East, made during the last six years, when I visited all the localities chiefly affected by recent great events, and was at times an observer of and participant in those events. While I have exercised the privilege of using my own judgment in determining facts and weighing policies and conditions, and have endeavored to write without animus, I have, in submitting them to the test of analysis, not hesitated to face the logic of my conclusions.

To the extent that the inherent importance of its subject, rather than any merit it may have, draws attention to the book, I will be content if it shall aid in restoring, in America and elsewhere.

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vi a critical instinct in respect to matters of great moment to the whole world.

I beg to acknowledge my indebtedness to the publishers of Scribner's Magazine for permission to reproduce here, in part, matter which has previously appeared in its columns.

THOMAS F. MILLARD. NEW YORK, February 15, 1906.

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 CONTENTS CHAPTER I

A STARTING POINT

Some Premises of the New Far Eastern Question — Nothing Fundamental Settled by the Russo-Japanese War — Injection of a New Element — Relation of Publicity to Prevalent Western Opinion — The British and Japanese Propagandas — Their Method and Results Analysed — Attitude of the American Press — Real Issues of the Late War — Importance to the Western World of a Clear Knowledge of the Facts and Understanding of the Issues — An Effort Toward Sanity. . . Page 1

CHAPTER II

THE TRUE POSITION OF JAPAN

Popular Opinion in Japan — Sentimental Impulses of the People — Government by an Oligarchy — Elements in Political Life — Foundation of Prevailing Misconceptions — Manufacture of Public Opinion — Popular Enthusiasm for the War — Japan's Real Position Among the Nations — Still an Oriental Power — The National Ambition — The Military Programme — Possible Future Opponents.

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CHAPTER III

THE TRUE POSITION OP JAPAN (Concluded) Foundations of National Wealth — Situation of Japanese Agriculture — Only Half the National Domain Now Cultivated — Mineral Resources of the Country — The Fishing Industry — Industrial Japan — Subsidized Industries — Condition of Japanese Labor — Foreign Commerce of the Country — Estimate of the National Wealth — Effects of the War — The Financial Situation — Future Possibilities. . . Page 33

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blindness

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bliss, Cornelius Newton


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10 his leave of absence, and hasten without an hour's delay to the front. I begged so hard not to be left behind that I finally prevailed. The result was that I found myself in a few hours on the extreme wing of the Army of the Potomac, in an isolated Virginia farm-house, finishing my honeymoon alone. I had so besought him to allow me to come that I did not dare own to myself the desolation and fright I felt. In the preparation for the hurried raid which my husband had been ordered to make he had sent to cavalry head-quarters to provide for my safety, and troops were in reality near, although I could not see them.

The general's old colored servant, Eliza, comforted me, and the Southern family in the house took pity upon my anxiety. It was a sudden plunge into a life of vicissitude and danger, and I hardly remember the time during the twelve years that followed when I was not in fear of some immediate peril, or in dread of some danger that threatened. After the raid was ended, we spent some delightful weeks together, and when the regular spring campaign began I returned to Washington, where I remained until the surrender and the close of the war.

After that we went to Texas for a year, my husband still acting as major-general in command of Volunteers. In 1866 we returned to Michigan, and the autumn of the same year found us in Kansas, where the general assumed charge of the 7th (Regular) Cavalry, to which he had been assigned, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Regular Army. We remained in Kansas five years, during which time I was the only officer's wife

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Rh who always followed the regiment. We were then ordered, with the regiment, to Kentucky. After being stationed in Elizabethtown for two years, we went to Dakota in the spring of 1873.

When orders came for the 7th Cavalry to go into the field again, General Custer was delighted. The regiment was stationed in various parts of the South, on the very disagreeable duty of breaking up illicit distilleries and suppressing the Ku-klux. Fortunately for us, being in Kentucky, we knew very little of this service. It seemed an unsoldierly life, and it was certainly uncongenial; for a true cavalryman feels that a life in the saddle on the free open plain is his legitimate existence.

Not an hour elapsed after the official document announcing our change of station had arrived before our house was torn up. In the confusion I managed to retire to a corner with an atlas, and surreptitiously look up the territory to which we were going. I hardly liked to own that I had forgotten its location. When my finger traced our route from Kentucky almost up to the border of the British Possessions, it seemed as if we were going to Lapland.

From the first days of our marriage, General Custer celebrated every order to move with wild demonstrations of joy. His exuberance of spirits always found expression in some boyish pranks, before he could set to work seriously to prepare for duty. As soon as the officer announcing the order to move had disappeared, all sorts of wild hilarity began. I had learned to take up a safe position on top of the table; that is, if I had

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12 not already been forcibly placed there as a spectator. The most disastrous result of the proceedings was possibly a broken chair, which the master of ceremonies would crash, and, perhaps, throw into the kitchen by way of informing the cook that good news had come. We had so few household effects that it was something of a loss when we chanced to be in a country where they could not be replaced. I can see Eliza's woolly head now, as she thrust it through the door to reprimand her master, and say, "Chairs don't grow on trees in these yere parts, gen'l." As for me, I was tossed about the room, and all sorts of jokes were played upon me before the frolic was ended. After such participation in the celebration, I was almost too tired with the laughter and fun to begin packing.

I know that it would surprise a well-regulated mover to see what short work it was for us to prepare for our journeys. We began by having a supply of gunny-sacks and hay brought in from the stables. The saddler appeared, and all our old traps that had been taken around with us so many years were once more tied and sewed up. The kitchen utensils were plunged into barrels, generally left uncovered in the hurry; rolls of bedding encased in waterproof cloth or canvas were strapped and roped, and the few pictures and books were crowded into chests and boxes. When these possessions were loaded upon the wagon, at the last moment there always appeared the cook's bedding to surmount the motley pile. Her property was invariably tied up in a flaming quilt representing souvenirs of her friends' dresses. She followed that last instalment

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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paranoia

PARANOIA (Gr. , beyond, and  , to understand), a chronic mental disease, of which systematized delusions with or without hallucinations of the senses are the prominent characteristics. The delusions may take the form of ideas of persecution or of grandeur and ambition; these may exist separately or run concurrently in the same individual, or they may become transformed in the course of the patient's life from a persecutory to an ambitious character. The disease may begin during adolescence, but the great majority of the subjects manifest no symptoms of the affection until full adult life.

The prominent and distinguishing symptom of paranoia is the delusion which is gradually organized out of a mass of original but erroneous beliefs or convictions until it forms an integral part of the ordinary mental processes of the subject and becomes fused with his personality. This slow process of the growth of a false idea is technically known as “systematization,” and the resulting delusion is then said to be “systematized.” As such delusions are coherently formed there is no manifest mental confusion in their expression. Notwithstanding the fixity of the delusion it is subject in some cases to transformation which permits of the gradual substitution of delusions of grandeur for delusions of persecution. It happens also that periods of remission from the influence of the delusion may occur from time to time in individual cases, and it may even happen, though very rarely, that the delusion may permanently disappear.

It is necessary to point out that there is undoubtedly what may be called a paranoiac mental constitution, in which delusions may appear without becoming fixed or in which they may never appear. The characteristics of this type of mind are credulity, a tendency to mysticism and a certain aloofness from reality, combined, as the case may be, with timidity and suspicion or with vanity and pride. On such a soil it is easy to understand that, given the necessary circumstances, a systematized delusional insanity may develop.

The term paranoia appears to have been first applied by R. von Krafft-Ebing in 1879 to all forms of systematized delusional insanity. Werner in 1889 suggested its generic use to supplant Wahnsinn and Verriicktheit, the German equivalents of mental states which originally meant, respectively, the delusional insanity of ambition and the delusional insanity of persecution—terms which had become hopelessly confused owing to divergences in the published descriptions of various authors.

The rapid development of clinical study has now resulted in the isolation of a comparatively small group of diseases to which the term is applied and the relegation of other groups bearing more or less marked resemblances to it to their proper categories. Thus, for example, it had formerly been held that acute paranoia was frequently a curable disease. It is now proved that the so-called acute forms were not true paranoias, many of them being transitory phases of E. Kraepelin's dementia praecox, others being terminal conditions of acute melancholia, of acute confusional insanity, or even protracted cases of delirium tremens. While it removes from the paranoia group innumerable phases of delusional insanity met with in patients labouring under secondary dementia as a result of alcoholism or acute insanity, such a statement does not exclude patients who may have had, during their previous life, one or more attacks of some acute mental disease, such as mania, for the paranoiac mental constitution may be, though rarely, subject to other forms of neurosis. Attempts have been made to base a differential diagnosis of paranoia upon the presence or absence of a morbid emotional element in the mind of the subjects, with the object of referring to the group only such cases as manifest a purely intellectual disorder of mind. Though in some cases of the disease the mental symptoms may, at the time of observation, be of a purely intellectual nature, the further back the history of any case is traced the greater is the evidence of the influence of preceding emotional disturbances in moulding the intellectual peculiarities. Indeed it may be said that the fundamental emotions of vanity or pride and of fear or suspicion are the groundwork of the disease. We are justified therefore in ascribing the intellectual aberrations which are manifested by delusions, in part at least, to the preponderating influence of morbid emotions which alter the perceptive and aperceptive processes upon which depend the normal relation of the human mind to its environment. Although, generally speaking, paranoiacs manifest marked intellectual clearness and a certain amount of determination of character in the exposition of their symptoms and in their manner of reacting under the influence of their delusions, there is, without any doubt, an element of original abnormality in their mental constitution. Such a mental constitution is particularly subject to emotional disturbances which find a favourable field of operation in an innate mysticism allied with credulity which is impervious to the rational appeal of the intellect. In those respects the paranoiac presents an exaggeration of, and a departure from, the psychical constitution of normal individuals, who, while subject both to emotion and to mystic thought, retain the power of correcting any tendency to the predominance of these mental qualities by an appeal to reality. It is just here that the paranoiac fails, and in this failure lies the key to the pathological condition. For the present the question as to whether this defect is congenital or acquired owing to some superimposed pathological condition cannot be answered. However that may be, it is frequently ascertained from the testimony of friends and relatives that the patients have always been regarded as “queer,” strange, and different from other people in their modes of thought. It is usually stated that nervous or mental diseases occur in the family histories of over 50% of the subjects of this affection.

Paranoia is classified for clinical purposes according to the form of delusion which the patients exhibit. Thus there are described the Persecutory, the Litigious, the Ambitious and the Amatory types. It will be observed that these divisions depend upon the prevalence of the primary emotions of fear or suspicion, pride or vanity and love.

According to V. Magnan, the course of paranoia is progressive, and each individual passes through the stages of persecution and ambition successively. Many authorities accept Magnan's description, which has now attained to the distinction of a. classic, but it is objected to by others on the ground that many cases commence with delusions of ambition and manifest the same symptoms unchanged during their whole life, while other patients suffering from delusions of persecution never develop the ambitious form of the disease. Against these arguments Magnan and his disciples assert that the relative duration of the stages and the relative intensity of the symptoms vary widely; that in the first instance the persecutory stage may be so short or so indefinite in its symptoms as to escape observation; and that in the second instance the persecutory stage may be so prolonged as within the short compass of a human life to preclude the possibility of the development of an ambitious stage. As however there exist types of the disease which, admittedly, do not conform to Magnan's progressive form it will be more convenient to adopt the ordinary description here.

1. Persecutory Paranoia.—This form is characterized by delusions of persecution with hallucinations of a painful and distressing character. In predisposed persons there is often observed an anomaly of character dating from early life. The subjects are of a retiring disposition, generally studious, though not brilliant or successful workers. They prefer solitude to the society of their fellows and are apt to be introspective, self analytical or given to unusual modes of thought or literary pursuits. Towards the commencement of the insanity the patients become gloomy, preoccupied and irritable. Suspicions regarding the attitude of others take possession of their minds, and they ultimately come to suspect the conduct of their nearest relatives. The conversations of friends are supposed by the patient to be interlarded with phrases which, on examination, he believes to contain hidden meanings, and the newspapers appear to abound in veiled references to him. A stray word, a look, a gesture, a smile, a cough, a shrug of the shoulders on the part of a stranger are apt to be misinterpreted and brooded over. The extraordinary prevalence of this imagined conspiracy may lead the patient to regard himself as a person of great importance, and may result in the formation of delusions of ambition which intermingle themselves with the general conceptions of persecution, or which may wholly supplant the persecutory insanity.

At this juncture, however, it generally happens that hallucinations begin to appear. These, in the great majority of instances, are auditory and usually commence with indefinite noises in the ears, such as ringing sounds, hissing or whistling. Gradually they assume a more definite form until isolated words and ultimately formed sentence are distinctly heard. There is great diversity in the completeness of the verbal hallucinations in different patients. Some patients never experience more than the subjective annoyance of isolated words generally of an insulting character, while others are compelled to listen to regular dialogues carried on by unknown voices concerning themselves. A not uncommon form of verbal hallucination is formulated in the complaint of the patients that “all their thoughts are read and proclaimed aloud.” Even more than the enforced listening to verbal hallucinations this “thought reading” distresses the patient and often leads him to acts of violence, for the privacy of his inmost thoughts is, he believes, desecrated, and he often feels helpless and desperate at a condition from which there is no possible escape.

Though some of the subjects do not develop any other form of hallucination, it is unfortunately the lot of others to suffer, in addition, from hallucinations of taste, smell or touch. The misinterpretation of subjective sensations in these sense organs leads to the formulation of delusions of poisoning, of being subjected to the influence of noxious gases or powders, or of being acted on by agencies such as electricity. Such are the persons who take their food to chemists for analysis; who complain to the police that people are acting upon them injuriously; who hermetically seal every crevice that admits air to their bedrooms to prevent the entrance of poisonous fumes; or who place glass castors between the feet of their beds and the floor with the object of insulating electric currents. Such patients obtain little sleep; some of them indeed remain awake all night—for the symptoms are usually worse at night—and have to be content with such snatches of sleep as they are able to obtain at odd times during the day. It is obvious that a person tormented and distracted in the way described may at any moment lose self-control and become a danger to the community. But perhaps the most distressing and most distracting of all hallucinations are those which for want of a better name are termed “sexual.” The subjects of these hallucinations, both male and female, under the belief that improper liberties are taken with them, are more clamant and threatening than any other class of paranoiac.

During the course of a disease so distressing in its symptoms the patient's suspicions as to the authors of his persecution vary much in indefiniteness. He often never fixes the direct blame upon any individual, but refers to his persecutors as “they” or a “society,” or some corporate body such as “lawyers,” “priests” or “freemasons.” It not infrequently happens however, that suspicions gradually converge upon some individual or that from an early stage of the disease the patient has, generally under the influence of hallucinations, fixed the origin of his trouble upon one or two persons. When this takes place the matter is always serious from the point of view of physical danger to the inculpated person, especially if the patient is of a violent or vindictive disposition.

The persecutory type of the disease may persist for an indefinite period—even for twenty or thirty years—without any change except for the important fact that remissions in the intensity of the symptoms occur from time to time. These remissions may be so marked as to give rise to the belief that the patient has recovered, but in true paranoia this is hardly ever the case, and sooner or later the persecution begins again in all its former intensity.

2. Ambitious Paranoia.—After a long period of persecution a change in the symptoms may set in, in some cases, and the intensity of the hallucinations may become modified. At the same time delusions of grandeur begin to appear, at first faintly, but gradually they increase in force until they ultimately supplant the delusions of persecution. At the same time the hallucinations of a disagreeable nature fade away and are replaced by auditory hallucinations conformable to the new delusions of grandeur. Undoubtedly, however, this form of paranoia may commence, so far as can be observed, with delusions of grandeur, in which case there is seldom or never a transformation of the personality or of the delusions from grandeur to persecution, although delusions of persecution may engraft themselves or run side by side with the predominant ambitious delusions.

The emotional basis of ambitious paranoia is pride, and every phase of human vanity and aspiration is represented in the delusions of the patients. There is moreover considerably less logical acumen displayed in the explanations of their beliefs by such patients than in the case of the subjects of persecution. Many of them affect to be the descendants of historical personages without any regard for accurate genealogical detail. They have no compunction in disowning their natural parents or explaining that they have been “changed in their cradles” in order to account for the fact that they are of exalted or even of royal birth. Dominated by such beliefs paranoiacs have been known to travel all over the world in search of confirmation of their delusions. It is people of this kind who drop into the ears of confiding strangers vague hints as to their exalted origin and kindred, and who make desperate and occasionally alarming attempts to force their way into the presence of princes and rulers. The sphere of religion affords an endless field for the ambitious paranoiacs and some of them may even aspire to divine authority, but as a rule the true paranoiac does not lose touch with earth. The more extravagant delusions of persons who call themselves by divine names and assume omnipotent attributes are usually found in patients who have passed through acute attacks of insanity such as mania or dementia praecox and are mentally enfeebled.

A not uncommon form of paranoia combining both ambition and persecution is where the subject believes that he is a man of unbounded wealth or power, of the rights to which he is, however, deprived by the machinations of his enemies. These patients frequently obtain the knowledge on which they base their delusions through auditory hallucinations. They are often so troublesome, threatening and persistent in their determination to obtain redress for their imagined wrongs, that they have to be forcibly detained in asylums in the public interest. On the whole, however, the ambitious paranoiac is not troublesome, but calm, dignified, self-possessed, and reserved on the subject of his delusions. He is usually capable of reasoning as correctly and of performing work as efficiently as ordinary people. Many of them, however, while living in society are liable to give expression to their delusions under the influence of excitement, or to behave so strangely and unconventionally on unsuitable occasions as to render their seclusion either necessary or highly desirable.

3. Amatory Paranoia.—A distinguishing feature of this form of paranoia is that the subjects are chivalrous and idealistic in their love. Some of them believe that they have been “mystically” married to a person of the opposite sex usually in a prominent social position. The fact that they may have never spoken to or perhaps never seen the person in question is immaterial. The conviction that their love is reciprocated and the relationship understood by the other party is unshakable, and is usually based upon suppositions that to a normal mind would appear either trivial or wholly unreal. The object of affection, if not mythical or of too exalted a position to be approached, is not infrequently persecuted by the admirer, who takes every opportunity of obtruding personally or by letter the evidences of an ardent adoration. The situation thus created can easily become complicated and embarrassing before it is realized that the persistent wooer is insane.

The failure of their schemes or repeated repulses may, in the case of some patients, originate delusions of persecution directed, not against the object of affection, but against those who are supposed to have conspired to prevent the success of the patient's desires. Under the influence of these delusions of persecution the patient may lose self-control and resort to violence against his supposed persecutors.

The subjects of this form of paranoia are in the majority of instances unmarried women well advanced in years who have led irreproachable lives, or men of a romantic disposition who have lived their mental lives more in the realm of chimeras than in the region of real facts. The delusions in this form of paranoia are never accompanied by hallucinations.

Closely allied, if not identical with amatory paranoia, is the form in which jealousy forms the basis of morbid suspicions with or without definite delusions. The subject is usually poor in mental resource, but proud, vindictive and suspicious. It is eminently a condition which arises spontaneously in certain persons whose mental constitution is of the paranoiac type, i.e. persons who are naturally credulous, mystical and suspicious. The subjects are extraordinarily assiduous in watching the objects of their jealousy, whether husbands, wives or sweethearts. Their conduct in this respect is fertile in producing domestic dispeace and unhappiness, and in the case of unmarried persons in creating complicated or delicate situations. It not infrequently happens, just as in the case of the class of amatory paranoiacs, that delusions of persecution establish themselves, usually directed towards persons who are believed to have secured the affections of the object of jealousy. The disease then follows the ordinary course of the insanity of persecution but usually without hallucinations of the senses. The subjects are highly dangerous and violent. Under the influence of their delusions murder and even mutilation may be resorted to by the male, and poisoning or vitriol-throwing by the female subjects.

4. Litigious Paranoia (paranoia querulans).—The clinical form of litigious paranoia presents uniform characteristic features which are recognized in every civilized community. The basic emotion is vanity, but added to that is a strong element both of acquisitiveness and avarice. Moreover the subjects are, as regards character, persistent, opinionative and stubborn. When these qualities are superadded to a mind of the paranoiac type, which as has been pointed out, is more influenced by the passions or emotions than by ordinary rational considerations, it can readily be appreciated that the subjects are capable of creating difficulties and anxieties which sooner or later may lead to their forcible seclusion in the interests of social order.

It is important to observe that the rights such people lay claim to or the wrongs they complain of may not necessarily be imaginary. But, whether imaginary or real, the statement of their case is always made to rest upon some foundation of fact, and is moreover presented, if not with ability, at any rate with forensic skill and plausibility. As the litigants are persons of one idea, and only capable of seeing one side of the case—their own—and as they are actuated by convictions which preclude feelings of delicacy or diffidence, they ultimately succeed in obtaining a hearing in a court of law under circumstances which would have discouraged any normal individual. Once in the law courts their doom is sealed. Neither the loss of the case nor the payment of heavy expenses have any effect in disheartening the litigant, who carries his suit from court to court until the methods of legal appeal are exhausted. The suit may be raised again and again on some side issue, or some different legal action may be initiated. In spite of the alienation of the sympathy of his relations and the advice of his friends and lawyers the paranoiac continues his futile litigation in the firm belief that he is only defending himself from fraud or seeking to regain his just rights. After exhausting his means and perhaps those of his family and finding himself unable to continue to litigate to the same advantage as formerly, delusions of persecution begin to establish themselves. He accuses the judges of corruption, the lawyers of being in the pay of his enemies and imagines the existence of a conspiracy to prevent him from obtaining justice. One of two things usually happens at this stage. Though well versed in legal procedure he may one day lose self-control and resort to threats of violence. He is then probably arrested and may on examination be found insane and committed to an asylum. Another not uncommon result is that finding himself non-suited in a court of law he commits a technical assault upon, it may be, some high legal functionary, or on some person in a prominent social position, with the object of securing an opportunity of directing public attention to his grievances. The only result is, as in the former instance, his medical certification and incarceration.

Paranoia is generally a hopeless affection from the point of view of recovery. From what has been stated regarding its genesis and slow development it is apparent that no form of ordinary medical treatment can be of the least avail in modifying its symptoms. The best that can be done in the interests of the patients is to place them in surroundings where they can be shielded from influences which aggravate their delusions and in other respects to make their unfortunate lot as pleasant and as easy to endure as possible.

As has been frequently stated, the subjects of most forms of paranoia are liable to commit crime, usually of violence, which may lead to their being tried for assault or murder. The question of their responsibility before the law is therefore one of the first importance (see also Insanity: Law). The famous case of McNaghten, tried in 1843 for the murder of Mr Drummond, private secretary to Sir Robert Peel, is, in this connexion, highly important, for McNaghten was a typical paranoiac labouring under delusions of persecution, and his case formed the basis of the famous deliverance of the judges in the House of Lords, in the same year, on the general question of criminal responsibility in insanity. Answer 4 of the judges' deliverance contains the following statement of law: If "he labours under such partial delusion only and is not in other respects insane we think he must be considered in the same situation as to responsibility as if the facts to which the delusion exists were real. For example, if under the influence of his delusion he supposes another man to be in the act of attempting to take away his life, and he kills that man, as he supposes, in self-defence, he would be exempt from punishment. If his delusion was that the deceased had inflicted a serious injury to his character and fortune, and he killed him in revenge for such supposed injury, he would be liable to punishment." In considering this deliverance it must be remembered that it was given under the influence of the enormous public interest created by the McNaghten trial. It has also to be remembered that in a criminal court the term responsibility means liability to legal punishment. The dictum laid down in answer 4 is open to several objections. (1) It is based upon the erroneous assumption that a person may be insane on one point and sane on every other. This is a loose popular fallacy for which there is no foundation in clinical medicine. The systematization of a delusion involves, as has been pointed out, the whole personality and affects emotion, intellect and conduct. The human mind is not divided into mutually exclusive compartments, but is one indivisible whole liable to be profoundly modified in its relation to its environment according to the emotional strength of the predominant morbid concepts. (2) It does not take into account the pathological diminution of the power of self-control. The influence of continued delusions of persecution, especially if accompanied by painful hallucinations, undermines the power of self-control and tends ultimately to reduce the subject towards the condition of an automaton which reacts reflexly and blindly to the impulse of the moment. (3) The opinion is further at fault in so far as it assumes that the test of responsibility rests upon the knowledge of right and wrong, which implies the power to do right and to avoid wrong, an assumption which is very far from the truth when applied to the insane. The number of insane criminals who possess no theoretical knowledge of right and wrong is very few indeed, so few that for practical purposes they may be disregarded.

The true paranoiac is a person of an anomalous mental constitution apart from his insanity; although he may to outward appearances be able, on occasion, to converse or to act rationally, the moment he is dominated by his delusions he becomes not partially but wholly insane; when in addition his mind is distracted by ideas of persecution or hallucinations, or both, he becomes potentially capable of committing crime, not because of any inherent vicious propensity but in virtue of his insanity. There is therefore no middle course, from the medical point of view, in respect to the criminal responsibility of the subjects of paranoia; they are all insane wholly, not partially, and should only be dealt with as persons of unsound mind.

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paranoia


text:
Talk:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paranoia

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868

WHIP-POOR-WILL

WICKEDNESS

 * 1) Wife ##


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Rh

{{Hoyt quote | num = 5 | text = In every mess I find a friend, In every port a wife. Charles Dibdin—Jack in his Element. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Gat)

{{Hoyt quote | num = 6 | text = It's my old girl that advises. She has the head. But I never own to it before her. Discipline must be maintained. | author = Dickens | work = Bleak House. | place = Ch. XXVII. | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = You know I met you, Kist you, and prest you close within my arms, With all the tenderness of wifely love. Dryden—Amphitryon. Act III. Sc. 1. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Flesh of thy flesh, nor yet bone of thy bone. Du Bartas—Divine Weekes and Workes. Fourth Day. Bk. II. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = An undutiful Daughter will prove an unmanageable Wife. Benj. Franklin—Poor Richard. (1752) | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = He knows little who will tell his wife all he knows. Fuller—Holy and Profane State. Maxim VII. The Good Husband. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = She commandeth her husband, in any equal matter, by constant obeying him. Fuller—Holy and Profane State. The Good Wife. Bk. I. Maxim I. 1 Ch. I. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = One wife is too much for most husbands to bear, But two at a time there's no mortal can bear. Gay—Beggar's Opera. Act II. Sc. 2. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = They'll tell thee, sailors, when away, In every port a mistress find. Gay—Sweet William's Farewell. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Dibdin}}) | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Roy's wife of Aldivalloch, Roy's wife of Aldivalloch, Wat ye how she cheated me As I cam o'er the braes of Balloch. Attributed to Mrs. Grant, of Carron, but claimed for a shoemaker in Cabrach. (About 1727) | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Now die the dream, or come the wife, The past is not in vain, For wholly as it was your life Can never be again, my dear, Can never be again. Henley—Echoes. XLX. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Andromache! my soul's far better part. Homer—Iliad. Bk. VI. L. 624 | note = {{sc|Pope}}'s trans. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A wife, domestic, good, and pure, Like snail, should keep within her door; But not, like snail, with silver track, Place all her wealth upon her back. W. W. How—Good Wives. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Britaine}} under {{sc|Woman}}) | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Alas! another instance of the triumph of hope over experience. Samuel Johnson. Referring to the second marriage of a friend who had been unfortunate in his first wife. Sir J. Hawkins's Collective Ed. of Johnson, 1787. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Being married to those sleepy-souled women is just like playing at cards for nothing: no passion is excited and the time is filled up. I do not, however, envy a fellow one of those honeysuckle wives for my part, as they are but creepers at best and commonly destroy the tree they so tenderly cling about. | author = Samuel Johnson | work = Remark as Recorded by Mrs. Piozzi. | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = He knew whose gentle hand was at the latch, Before the door had given her to his eyes. Keats—Isabella. St. 3. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Sail forth into the sea of life, O gentle, loving, trusting wife, And safe from all adversity Upon the bosom of that sea Thy comings and thy goings be! For gentleness and love and trust Prevail o'er angry wave and gust; And in the wreck of noble lives Something immortal still survives. | author = Longfellow | work = Building of the Ship. L. 368. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = But thou dost make the very night itself Brighter than day. | author = Longfellow | work = Christus. The Divine Tragedy. The First Passover. Pt. III. L. 133. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Le ciel me prive d'une epouse qui ne m'a jamais donn6 d'autre chagrin que celui de sa mort. Heaven deprives me of a wife who never caused me any other grief than that of her death. Louis XIV. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = How much the wife is dearer than the bride. Lord Lyttleton—An Irregular Ode. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = O wretched is the dame, to whom the sound, "Your lord will soon return," no pleasure brings. | author = Maturin | work = Bertram. | place = Act II. Sc. 5. | note = | topic = Wife | page = 869 }}


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870

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = She looketh well to the ways of her household, and eateth not the bread of idleness. XXXI. 27. Fat, fair and forty. Scott—St. Roman's Well. Cb. VII. Prince Regent's description of what a wife should be. Found in an old song, The One Horse Shay. Sung by Sam Cowell in the sixties. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Trench) As for my wife, I would you had her spirit in such another; The third o' the world is yours; which with a snaffle You may pace easy, but not such a wife. Antony and Cleopatra. Act II. Sc. 2. L. 61. O ye gods, Render me worthy of this noble wife! Julius Cmsar. Act II. Sc. 1. L. 303. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Happy in this, she is not yet so old But she may learn; happier than this, She is not bred so dull but she can learn; Happiest of all is, that her gentle spirit Commits itself to yours to be directed. Merchant of Venice. Act III. Sc. 2. L. 162. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A light wife doth make a heavy husband. Merchant of Venice. Act V. Sc. 1. L. 130. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = I will be master of what is mine own; She is my goods, my chattels; she is my house, My household stuff, my field, my barn, My horse, my ox, my ass, my anything; And here she stands, touch her whoever dare. Taming of the Shrew. Act III. Sc. 2. L. 231. Wriyj man, she is mine own, And I as nch in having such a jewel As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl, The water nectar and the rocks pure gold. Two Gentlemen of Verona. Act II. Sc. 4. L. 168. Should all despair That have revolted wives, the tenth of mankind Would hangthemselves. Winter's Tale. Act I. Sc. 2. L. 198. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = It is a woman's business to get married as soon as possible, and a man's to keep unmarried as long as he can. Bernard Shaw—Man and Superman. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Disraeli}} under {{sc|Matrimony}}) | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = My dear, my better half. Sir Philip Sidney—Arcadia. Bk. III. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Of earthly goods, the best is a good wife; A bad, the bitterest curse of human life. Smontdes. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Wife | page = 870 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Light household duties, ever more inwrought With placid fancies of one trusting heart That lives but in her smile, and turns From life's cold seeming and the busy mart, With tenderness, that heavenward ever yearns To be refreshed where one pure altar burns. Shut out from hence the mockery of life; Thus liveth she content, the meek, fond, trusting wife. | author = Elizabeth Oakes Smith | work = The Wife. | page = 870 }}


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168

{{Hoyt quote | num = 17 | text = None who e'er knew her can believe her dead; Though, should she die, they deem it well might be Her spirit took its everlasting flight In summer's glory, by the sunset sea, That onward through the Golden Gate is fled. Ah, where that bright soul is cannot be night. R. W. Gilder—"H. H." | seealso = (See also {{sc|Aldrich, Hood) | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Death | page = }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 18 | text = Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can honour's voice provoke the silent dust, Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death? Gray—Elegy. St. 11. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Death | page = 168 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 19 | text = He pass'd the flaming bounds of place and time: The living throne, the sapphire blaze, Where angels tremble while they gaze, He saw; but blasted with excess of light, Closed his eyes in endless night. Gray—Progress of Poesy. III. 2. L. 99. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Death | page = 168 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 20 | text = Fling but a stone, the giant dies. Matthew Green—The Spleen. L. 93. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Death | page = 168 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 21 | text = When life is woe, And hope is dumb, The World says, "Go!" The Grave says, "Come!" | author = Arthur Guiterman | work = Betel-Nuts. | topic = Death | page = 168 }}


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paralysis

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paralysis


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Talk:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paralysis

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallels

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallels


text:
Talk:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallels

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallel Motion


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Talk:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallel Motion

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{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Certainly tins is a duty, not a sin. "Cleanliness is indeed next to godliness." John Wesley—Sermon XCII. On Dress. Quoted by Rowland Hill as a saying of Whitefield's. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Talmud) CLOUDS Have you ever, looking up, seen a cloud like to a Centaur, a Pard, or a Wolf, or a Bull? Aristophanes—Clouds. Gerard's trans. (Compare Hamlet. III. 2) | topic = | page = }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Rocks, torrents, gulfs, and shapes of giant size And ghtt'ring cliffs on cliffs, and fiery ramparts rise. Beattie—Minstrel. | place = Bk. I. I saw two clouds at morning Tinged by the rising sun, And in the dawn they floated on And mingled into one. John G. C. Brainard—I Saw Two Clouds at Morning. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Were I a cloud I'd gather My skirts up in the air, And fly I well know whither, And rest I well know where. Robert Brjdgbb^—Elegy. The Cliff Top. A Claud. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = O, it is pleasant, with a heart at ease, Just after sunset, or by moonlight skies, To make the shifting clouds be what you please, Or let the easily persuaded eyes Own each quaint likeness issuing from the mould Of a friend's fancy. Coleridge—Fancy in Nubibus. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Our fathers were under the cloud. / Corinthians. X. 1. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Though outwardly a gloomy shroud, The inner half of every cloud Is bright and shining: I therefore turn my clouds about And always wear them inside out To show the lining. | trans = Ellen Thorneycropt Fowler | cog = (Mrs. A. L. Felton) | work = Wisdom of Folly. | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = The clouds,—the only birds that never sleep. Victor Hugo—The Vanished City. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = There ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand. I Kings. XVIII. 44. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = See yonder little cloud, that, borne aloft So tenderly by the wind, floats fast away Over the snowy peaks! | author = Longfellow | work = Ckristus. The Golden Legend. Pt.V. L. 145. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = By unseen hands uplifted in the light Of sunset, yonder solitary cloud Floats, with its white apparel blown abroad, And wafted up to heaven. | author = Longfellow | work = Michael Angela. Pt. II. 2. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = But here by the mill the castled clouds Mocked themselves in the dizzy water. E. L. Masters—Spoon River Anthology. Isaiah Beethoven. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Was I deceiv'd, or did a sable cloud Turn forth her silver lining on the night? | author = Milton | work = Comus. L. 22. There does a sable cloud Turn forth her silver lining on the night, And casts a gleam over this tufted grove. | author = Milton | work = Comus. L. 223. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 122 }}


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CLOVER Trifolium


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 * 1) COCK ##

 * 1) COLOGNE ##

COLUMBINE Aguilegia Canadensis

COMFORT

COMMERCE (See Business) COMPANIONSHIP


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 POETS POISON

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = A bard here dwelt, more fat than bard becomes Who void of envy, guile and lust of gain, On virtue still and nature's pleasing themes Poured forth his unpremeditated strain. Thomson—Castle of Indolence. Canto I. St. 68. (Last line said to be "writ by a friend of the author.")

Poets lose half the praise they should have got, Could it be known what they discreetly blot. Edmund Waller—Miscellanies. Upon the Earl Of Roscommon's Translation of Horace—Ars Poetica. L. 41. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Swift)

3 God, eldest of Poets. William Watson—England, my England.

4 He saw wan Woman toil with famished eyes; He saw her bound, and strove to sing her free. He saw her fall'n; and wrote "The Bridge of Sighs"; And on it crossed to immortality. William Watson-—Hood.

5 Threadbare his songs seem now, to lettered ken: They were worn threadbare next the hearts of men. William Watson—Longfellow.

6 A dreamer of the common dreams, A fisher in familiar streams, He chased the transitory gleams That all pursue; But on his lips the eternal themes Again were new. William Watson—The Tomb of Burns.

It was Homer who inspired the poet. Wayland-—The Iliad and the Bible.

8 In Spring the Poet is glad, And in Summer the Poet is gay; But in Autumn the Poet is sad, And has something sad to say. Byron Forceythe Willson—Aviumn Song.

9 That mighty orb of song, The divine Milton. Wordsworth—Excursion. Bk. I. L. 252. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 609 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 10 And, when a damp Fell round the path of Hilton, in his hand The '1 hing became a trumpet; whence he blew Soul-animating strains,—alas! too few. Wordsworth—Miscellaneous Sonnets. Pt. II. Scorn not the Sonnet.

11 Blessings be with them, and eternal praise, Who gave us nobler loves, and nobler cares,—The Poets, who on earth have made us heirs Of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays! Wordsworth—Personal Talk.

12 I thought of Chatterton, the marvellous Boy, The sleepless Soul that perished in his pride; Of him who walked in glory and in joy, Following his plough, along the mountain side. Wordsworth—Resolution and Independence. St. 7

POISON

13 What's one man's poison, signior, Is another's meat or drink. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = Love's Cure. Act III. Sc. 2. Same in Lucretius. IV. 627.

Vipera Cappadocem nocitura mormordit; at ilia Gustato pent sanguine Caj uadceis. A deadly echidna once bit a Cappadocian; she herself died, having tasted the Poisonflinging blood. Demodocus. Trans, of his Greek Epigram. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Goldsmith, Wolcot)

15 Un gros serpent nr.ordit Aurele. Que croyez-voLS qu'il arriva? Qu' Aurele en mourut? Bagatelle! Ce fut le serpent qui creva. In a MS. commonplace book, written probably at end of 18th Cen. See Aotes and Queries. March 30, 1907. P. 246. Same attributed to VlAiti'Lv.iiiiJ..—Nat. ad Ijoc. II. 421.

16 Hier aupres de Charenton I in serpent morait Jean Freron, Que croyez-vous qu'il arriva? Ce fut le serpent qui creva. Imitation from the Greek. Found also in (Emres Complets de Voltaire. III. P. 1002. (1817) Printed as Voltaire's; attributed to Piron; claimed for Freron.

The man recover'd of the bite, The dog it was that died. | author = Goldsmith | work = Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog. | note = Same idea in Manasses—Fragmenla. Ed. Boissonade. I. 323. (1819) | seealso = | seealso = (See also {{sc|Demodocus) }}

18 While Fell was reposing himself in the hay, A reptile concealed bit his leg as he lay; But, all venom himself, of the wound he made light, And got well, while the scorpion died of the bite. Lessing—Paraphrase of Demodocus. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Demodocus)

19 All men carry about them that which is povson to serpents: for if it be true that is reported, they will no better abide the touching with man's spittle than scalding water cast upon them: but if it happen to light within their chawes or mouth, especially if it come from a man that is fasting, it is present death. Pliny—Natural History. Bk. VII. Ch. II. Holland's trans. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 609 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = In gahrend Drachengift hast du Die Milch der frommen Denkart mir verwandelt. To rankling poison hast thou turned in me the milk of human kindness. Schiller—Wilhelm Tell. IV. 3. 3. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 609 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Venenum in auro bibitur. Poison is drunk out of gold. Seneca—Thyestes. Act III. 453. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 609 }}


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640

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Fitted him to a T. | author = Samuel Johnson | work = Boswell's Life of Johnson. (1784) | seealso = (See also {{sc|"performed, etc.")

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = From the crown of our head to the sole of our foot. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = The Honest Man's Fortune. Act II. Sc. 2. Thos. MiddleTon—A Mad World, My Masters. Act I. Sc. 3. Pliny—Natural History. Bk. VII. Ch. XVII Much Ado About Nothing. Act III. Sc. 2. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Glass, China, and Reputation, are easily crack'd and never well mended. Benj. Franklin—Poor Richard. (1750)

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = God save the mark! Henry IV. Pt. I. Act I. Sc. 3. L. 57. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 7 Going as if he trod upon eggs. | author = Burton—Anatomy of Melancholy. Pt. III. Sect. II. Memb. 3.

8 Go to Jericho. Let them all go to Jericho, And ne'er be seen againe. Mercurius Aulicus. (1648) Quoted in the AtiitwEum, Nov. 14, 1874.

9 Go West, young man! Go West. John L. B. Soule—In the Terre Haute Express. (1851)

10 Go West, young man, and grow up with the country. Horace Greeley—Hints toward Reform. In an editorial in the Tribune. | seealso = (See also {{sc|"westward Ho")

11 Hail, fellow, well met. Swift—My Lady's Lamentation.

12 Harp not on that string. Richard III. Act IV. Sc. 4. L. 366. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 13 He can give little to his servant that licks his knife. Herbert—Jacula Prudentum.

14 He comes not in my books. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = The Widow.

15 He did not care a button for it. Rabelais—Works. Bk. II. Ch. XVI. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 16 Here's metal more attractive. Hamlet. Act III. Sc. 2. L. 115.

17 Hide their diminished heads. | author = Milton | work = Paradise Lost. | place = Bk. IV. L. 35.

Hier lies that should fetch a perfect woman over the coles. Sir Gyles Goosecappe. (1606)

19 His bark is worse than his bite. | author = Herbert | work = Country Parson. Ch. XXIX. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 20 Hit the nail on the head. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = Love's Cure. Act II. Sc. 1. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 21 Hold one another's noses to the grindstone hard. Burton—Anatomy of Melancholy. Pt. III. Sec. I. Memb. 3. 22

Hold their noses to the grindstone. Thos. Middleton—Blurt, Master Constable. Act III. Sc. 3.

23 Honey of Hybla. Henry IV. Pt. I. Act I. Sc. 2. L. 47.

24 How well I feathered my nest. Rabelais—Works. Bk. II. Ch. XVII.

25 I have other fish to fry. | author = Cervantes—Don Quixote. Pt. II. Ch. XXXV.

26 I have you on the hip. Merchant of Venice. Act IV. Sc. 1. L. 334.

27 I'll have a fling. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = Rule a Wife and Have a Wife. III. 5. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 28 I'll make the fur Fly 'bout the ears of the old cur. Butler—Hudibras. Pt.I. Canto III. L. 278.

29 I'll put a spoke among your wheels. | author = Beaumont and Fletcher | work = Mad Lover. III. 5.

30 In the name of the Prophet—figs. Horace And James Smith—Rejected Addresses. Johnson's Ghost.

31 Leap out of the frying pan into the fire. Cervantes—Don Quixote. Pt. I. Bk. III. Ch. IV. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 32 Let the worst come to the worst. | author = Cervantes—Don Quixote. Bk. III. Ch. V. Marston—DutchCourteaan. Actlll. Sc. 1.

33 Love all, trust a few, Do wrong to none. All's Weil That Ends Well. Act I. Sc. 1. L. 73. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Proverbs | page = 640 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 34 Love, and a Cough, cannot be hid. | author = Herbert | work = Jacula Prudentum.

35 Made no more bones. Du Bartas—The Maiden Blush.

36 Make ducks and drakes with shillings. George Chapman—EashmrdHo. Actl. Sc. L


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Plowden 1806, 8vo. 11. ‘An Historical Letter to C. O'Conor, D.D., heretofore styling himself Columbanus, upon his five Addresses or Letters to his Countrymen,’ Dublin, 1812, 8vo. 12. ‘A Second Historical Letter to Sir J. C. Hippisley … upon his public conduct in the Catholic Cause … Occasioned by his Animadversions upon the Author in the House of Commons in 1814,’ Paris, 1815, 8vo. 13. ‘A Disquisition concerning the Law of Alienage and Naturalisation, according to the Statutes in force between the 10th of June 1818 and the 25th of March 1819 … illustrated in an elaborate opinion of counsel upon the claim of Prince Giustiani to the Earldom of Newburgh,’ Paris, 1818, 8vo. 14. ‘Human Subornation; being an elementary Disquisition concerning the civil and spiritual Power and Authority to which the Creator requires the submission of every human being. Illustrated by references to occurrences in the agitation of … Catholic Emancipation,’ London, 1824, 8vo.

He was not the compiler of a disreputable work attributed to him, entitled ‘Crim. Con. Biography,’ 2 vols., London, 1830, 12mo.

[Biogr. Dict. of Living Authors, 1816; Evans's Cat. of Engraved Portraits, n. 20387–9; Foley's Records, iv. 560, vii. 603; Gent. Mag. 1829, i. 374; Georgian Era, ii. 547; Martin's Privately Printed Books, 2nd edit. p. 200; Monthly Review, new ser. xiv. 261; Watt's Bibl. Brit.]

 PLOWDEN, WALTER CHICHELE (1820–1860), consul in Abyssinia, youngest son of Trevor Chichele Plowden of the Bengal civil service, was born on 3 Aug. 1820, and educated at Dr. Evan's school, Hampstead. At the age of nineteen he entered the office of Messrs. Carr, Tagore, & Co., in Calcutta; but sedentary life was so uncongenial to him that he resigned in 1843, and embarked for England. At Suez he met Mr. J. T. Bell, and joined him in an expedition into Abyssinia to discover the sources of the White Nile. He remained in that country till 1847, and was shipwrecked in the Red Sea, on his way to England. In 1848 he was appointed consul in Abyssinia, with a mission to Ras Ali. He remained in the interior till February 1860, when he took leave of King Theodore. Near Gondar, on the Kaka river, he was attacked by a rebel chieftain, and was wounded and taken prisoner. He was ransomed by the authorities of Gondar on 4 March, and carried into the town, where he died of his injuries on 13 March 1860.

His manuscripts were forwarded to his brother, Trevor Chichele Plowden, by whom they were published as Travels in Abyssinia and the Galla Country, 8vo, London, 1868.

 PLUGENET, ALAN (d. 1299), baron, was son of Alan de Plugenet, by Alicia, sister of Robert Walerand (d. 1273); another account makes him son of Andrew de la Bere (, Complete Peerage, vi. 254). His family was settled at Preston Pluchenet in Somerset. He fought on the king's side in the barons' war, and was rewarded in 1265 with the manor of Haselberg, Northamptonshire, from the lands of William Marshall (, Barons' War, p. 300 n.; Deputy-Keeper Publ. Rec. 49th Rep. p. 137;, Hist. Exchequer). In 1267 his uncle Robert Walerand, whose brother's sons, Robert and John Walerand, were both idiots, granted him the reversion of Kilpeck Castle, Hereford, with other lands in Somerset, Dorset, and Wiltshire, for a yearly payment of 140l. and a sparrow-hawk (, Hist. of Wiltshire, Cawden, p. 25). Walerand had also granted Plugenet his estate at Haselberg, Somerset, for the yearly rent of one rosebud (Feet of Fines, p. 55, Somerset Record Soc.) Plugenet and his son had custody of the Walerand estates till the death of John Walerand in 1309, when Plugenet's son Alan was found the true heir (Liber de Antiquis Legibus, pp. lxvi–ii, Camd. Soc.; Cal. Patent Rolls, Edward I, 1281–92, pp. 12, 117, 462). Plugenet was governor of Dunster Castle in 1271. In 1282 he served in the Welsh war. In June 1287 he was sent to Wales, and continued there two years (ib. p. 271). By his oppressive conduct as king's steward he is alleged to have provoked the rising under Rhys ap Meredith in 1287, when Droselan Castle was captured by Edmund, earl of Lancaster (Annales Monastici, iii. 338; cf. Flores Historiarum, iii. 66). Plugenet was, however, entrusted with the duty of repairing the castle, and on the completion of the work was made its constable (Cal. Pat. Rolls, Edw. I, 1281–92, pp. 289, 293, 301, 320). On 24 Jan. 1292 he was present with the king at Westminster, and on 18 Aug. of that year was employed on a commission of gaol delivery at Exeter (ib. pp. 469, 520). In 1294 he was summoned for the war of Gascony, and in 1297 was one of the council for the young Prince of Wales during the king's absence in Flanders (, Chron. p. 179, Rolls Ser.) He died in 1299, having been summoned to parliament as a baron from 1292 to 1297. Rishanger (u.s.) describes him as a knight of tried discretion.


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viii CHAPTER IV

THE SEIZURE OF KOREA

The Policed Struggle Between Japan and Russia in Korea — Antecedents to the Late War — Japanese and Russian Diplomatic Methods Compared — The Ante-Bellum Negotiations — Advantage of the Japanese — Control of lieations — Intcrmption of Tdcpaph Seryiee — Mr. PaTMTa ObtoaaeM — The Breaking off of Diplo- maUe Relations — The Sttoation in Seoul — Landing of Japanese Troops — The Sitoation at Oiemul-po — Dip- lomatie Dinncn at Seoul— The Critical Momflnt. Page 60 CHAPTER V A QUESTION OF NEUTRALITY Arrival at Cbemnl-po of the Japanese Fleet — Admiral Uriu's Ultimatum — Action of Foreign Naval Commanders — The "Vicksbuic" Incident — Conduct of the Russian Naval Commander — Failure of the Neutral Intervention — Opening of the Figjbt — Destiuction of the Russian Shme — International Aspects of the Incident — Dmlo- matic Correspondence — The Russian CSiaiges — The Jap- anese Reply — The Truth About the Matter. • Page 65 CHAPTER VI JAPAN IN KOREA Assurances of Japan RespectingHer Intentions in Korea — Ante-Bellum Statements — The First Protocol — This Re- markable Instrument Examined — Usurpation of Korean Autonomy — Coercion of the Korean Emperor and Cabinet — Resort to Intimidation — The Emperor's Vain Appeals to the Foreum Ministers — Construction of Railways — The Second Protocol — Further Abolition of Korean Au- tonomy — Effects of the Japanese Occupation — Attempt at Financial Reform Page 80 CHAPTER VII JAPAN IN KOREA {CarUinwd) Effects of the Japanese Occupation upon Foreign Interests in Korea -^ Predominlmde of American' Interests -^ Prosper- ity During the War — Japanese Removal of Foreim Ad- visers — Political Pressure upon Commercial and Indus-

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II.], it is improperly and falsely formed; as we say "to rely on" anything, our derivative adjective, if we make one, should be relionable, not reliable: finally, it is low-caste; A, B, and C, those prime authorities in English style, are careful never to let it slip from their pens. The other side, however, are obstinate, and do not yield the point. The first objection, they retort, is insufficient; no one can properly oppose the enrichment of the language by a synonym, which may yet be made to distinguish a valuable shade of meaning—which, indeed, already shows signs of doing so, as we tend to say "a trustworthy witness," but "reliable testimony." The second is false: English etymology is by no means so precise in its application of the suffix able as the objectors claim; it admits laughable, meaning 'worthy to be laughed at,' unaccountable, 'not to be accounted for,' indispensable, 'not to be dispensed with,' as well as many other words of the same kind; and even objectionable, 'liable to objection,' marriageable, 'fit for marriage,' and so forth. As for the third objection, whatever A, B, and C may do, it is certain that D, F, and H, with most of the lower part of the alphabet (including nearly all the X's, Y's, and Z's, the unknown quantities), use the new form freely; and it is vain to stand out against the full acceptance of a word which is supported by so much and so respectable authority. How the dispute is likely, or ought, to terminate, need not concern us here; it is only referred to because, while itself carried on in full consciousness, and on paper, it is a typical illustration of a whole class of discussions which go on silently, and even more or less unconsciously, in the minds before which is presented, for acceptance or rejection, any proposed alteration in the subsisting usages of speech. Is it called for? is it accordant with the analogies of the language? is it offered or backed by good authority? these are the considerations by which general consent is won or repelled; and general consent decides every case without appeal.

Downright additions, however, to the vocabulary of a spoken tongue, even those who hold to the doctrine of the organic life of language will probably be willing to ascribe to human agency; since no man in his sober senses, it would


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42 seem, could possibly maintain that, when some individual mind has formed a conception or drawn a deduction, or when some individual ingenuity has brought forth a product of any of the modes of activity of which man is capable, language itself spontaneously extrudes a word for its designation! He who sees is likewise he who says; the ingenuity that could find the thing was never at a loss to devise also its appellation.

But the case is not otherwise with those gradual changes which bring about the decay of grammatical structure, or the metamorphosis of phonetic form, in a language. Though they go on in a more covert and unacknowledged way than the augmentations of a vocabulary, they are due to the action of the same forces. If we write knight, and pronounce it nīt, while our ancestors spelled the word cniht, and made its every letter distinctly audible (giving the i our short i-sound, as in pin)—just as the Germans even now both write and speak the same word knecht—we know that it is not because, by any force inherent in the word itself, the fuller form grew into the simpler, but because the combination kn, as initial, was somewhat difficult for men's organs to utter, and therefore began to lose its k, first, in the mouths of careless and easy speakers; and the corruption went on gaining in popularity, until it became the rule of our speech to silence the mute before the nasal in all such words (as in knife, knit, gnat, gnaw, etc.); because, moreover, the sound of the guttural h after a vowel became unpopular, men's organs shrinking from the effort of producing it, and was finally got rid of everywhere (being either left out entirely, as in nigh, ought, or turned into f, as in laugh, cough); while, at the same time, the loss of this consonant led to a prolongation of the vowel i, which was changed into the diphthongal sound we now give it; in company, too, with so many other of the "long i's" of the older language, that our usual name at present for the diphthong is "long i." And so in all the multitude of similar cases. There is no necessity, physiological or other, for the rustic's saying kău for cow; only the former is a lazy drawling utterance, which opens the mouth less widely than the latter. A precisely


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II.] similar flattening of the simple sound of a, in such words as grăsp, grăft, dănce—which but a brief time since were universally pronounced grâsp, grâft, dânce (â as in far), and are so still in certain localities—is now so common as to have become the accepted mode of utterance; but no one fails to recognize in it a corruption of the previous pronunciation, made current by example and imitation, prompted and recommended by that lazy habit of mouth which has occasioned the dimming of so many of our clear vowels. The pronunciation eīther and neīther seems at the present time to be spreading in our community, and threatening to crowd out of use the better-supported and more analogical ēither and nēither; but it is only by the deliberate choice of persons who fancy that there is something nicer, more recherché, more "English," in the new sound, and by imitation of these on the part of others. Such phonetic changes, we are accustomed to say, are inevitable, and creep in of themselves; but that is only another way of saying that we know not who in particular is to blame for them. Offences must needs come, but there is always that man by whom they come, could we but trace him out.

It is unnecessary to dwell longer upon this point, or to illustrate it more fully, inasmuch as even those who teach the independent existence and organic growth of language yet allow that phonetic change is the work of men, endeavouring to make things easy to their organs of speech.

A language in the condition in which ours is at present, when thousands of eyes are jealously watching its integrity, and a thousand pens are ready to be drawn, and dyed deep in ink, to challenge and oppose the introduction into it of any corrupt form, of any new and uncalled-for element, can, of course, undergo only the slowest and the least essential alteration. It is when the common speech is in the sole keeping of the uncultivated and careless speakers, who care little for classical and time-honoured usages, to whom the preferences of the moment are of more account than


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44 in the past or in the future, that mutation has its full course. New dialects are wont to grow up among the common people, while the speech of the educated and lettered class continues to be what it has been. But the nature of the forces in action is the same in the one case as in the other: all change in language is the work of the will of its speakers, which acts under the government of motives, through the organs of speech, and varies their products to suit its necessities and its convenience. Every single item of alteration, of whatever kind, and of whatever degree of importance, goes back to some individual or individuals, who set it in circulation, from whose example it gained a wider and wider currency, until it finally won that general assent which is alone required in order to make anything in language proper and authoritative. Linguistic change must be gradual, and almost insensible while in progress, for the reason that the general assent can be but slowly gained, and can be gained for nothing which is too far removed from former usage, and which therefore seems far-fetched, arbitrary, or unintelligible. The collective influence of all the established analogies of a language is exerted against any daring innovation, as, on the other hand, it aids one which is obvious and naturally suggested. It was, for instance, no difficult matter for popular usage to introduce the new possessive its into English speech, nor to add worked to wrought, as preterit of work, nor to replace the ancient plural kye or kine (Anglo-Saxon cy, from cu, 'cow') by a modern one, cows, formed after the ordinary model: while to reverse either process, to crowd its, worked, and cows out of use by substitution of his, wrought, and kine, would have been found utterly impracticable. The power of resistance to change possessed by a great popular institution, which is bound up with the interests of the whole community, and is a part of every man's thoughts and habitual acts, is not easily to be overestimated. How long has it taken to persuade and force the French people, for instance, into the adoption of the new decimal system of weights and measures! How have they been baffled and shamed who have thought, in these latter days, to amend in a few points, of


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II.] obvious desirability, our English orthography! But speech is a thing of far nearer and higher importance; it is the most precious of our possessions, the instrument of our thoughts, the organ of our social nature, the means of our culture; its use is not daily or hourly alone, but momently; it is the first thing we learn, the last we forget; it is the most intimate and clinging of our habits, and almost a second nature: and hence its exemption from all sweeping or arbitrary change. The community, to whom it belongs, will suffer no finger to be laid upon it without a reason; only such modifications as commend themselves to the general sense, as are virtually the carrying out of tendencies universally felt, have a chance of winning approval and acceptance, and so of being adopted into use, and made language.

Thus it is indeed true that the individual has no power to change language. But it is not true in any sense which excludes his agency, but only so far as that agency is confessed to be inoperative except as it is ratified by those about him. Speech and the changes of speech are the work of the community; but the community cannot act except through the initiative of its individual members, which it follows or rejects. The work of each individual is done unpremeditatedly, or as it were unconsciously; each is intent only on using the common possession for his own benefit, serving therewith his private ends; but each is thus at the same time an actor in the great work of perpetuating and of shaping the general speech. So each separate polyp on a coral-bank devotes himself simply to the securing of his own food, and excretes calcareous matter only in obedience to the exigencies of his individual life; but, as the joint result of the isolated labours of all, there slowly rises in the water the enormous coral cliff, a barrier for the waves to dash themselves against in vain. To pick out a single man, were he even an emperor, and hold him up to view in his impotence as proof that men cannot make or alter language, is precisely equivalent to selecting one polyp, though the biggest and brightest-coloured of his species, off the growing reef, and exclaiming over him, "See this weak and puny


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46 creature! how is it possible that he and his like should build up a reef or an island?" No one ever set himself deliberately at work to invent or improve language—or did so, at least, with any valuable and abiding result; the work is all accomplished by a continual satisfaction of the need of the moment, by ever yielding to an impulse and grasping a possibility which the already acquired treasure of words and forms, and the habit of their use, suggest and put within reach. In this sense is language a growth; it is not consciously fabricated; it increases by a constant and implicit adaptation to the expanding necessities and capacities of men.

This, again, is what is meant by the phrases "organic growth, organic development," as applied to language. A language, like an organic body, is no mere aggregate of similar particles; it is a complex of related and mutually helpful parts. As such a body increases by the accretion of matter having a structure homogeneous with its own, as its already existing organs form the new addition, and form it for a determinate purpose—to aid the general life, to help the performance of the natural functions, of the organized being—so is it also with language: its new stores are formed from, or assimilated to, its previous substance; it enriches itself with the evolutions of its own internal processes, and in order more fully to secure the end of its being, the expression of the thought of those to whom it belongs. Its rise, development, decline, and extinction are like the birth, increase, decay, and death of a living creature.

There is a yet closer parallelism between the life of language and that of the animal kingdom in general. The speech of each person is, as it were, an individual of a species, with its general inherited conformity to the specific type, but also with its individual peculiarities, its tendency to variation and the formation of a new species. The dialects, languages, groups, families, stocks, set up by the linguistic student, correspond with the varieties, species, genera, and so on, of the zoölogist. And the questions which the students of nature are so excitedly discussing at the present day—the nature of specific distinctions, the derivation of species by


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II.] individual variation and natural selection, the unity of origin of animal life—all are closely akin with those which the linguistic student has constant occasion to treat. We need not here dwell further upon the comparison: it is so naturally suggested, and so fruitful of interesting and instructive analogies, that it has been repeatedly drawn out and employed, by students both of nature and of language.

Once more, a noteworthy and often-remarked similarity exist between the facts and methods of geology and those of linguistic study. The science of language is, as it were, the geology of the most modern period, the Age of Man, having for its task to construct the history of development of the earth and its inhabitants from the time when the proper geological record remains silent; when man, no longer a mere animal, begins by the aid of language to bear witness respecting his own progress and that of the world about him. The remains of ancient speech are like strata deposited in bygone ages, telling of the forms of life then existing, and of the circumstances which determined or affected them; while words are as rolled pebbles, relics of yet more ancient formations, or as fossils, whose grade indicates the progress of organic life, and whose resemblances and relations show the correspondence or sequence of the different strata; while, everywhere, extensive denudation has marred the completeness of the record, and rendered impossible a detailed exhibition of the whole course of development.

Other analogies, hardly less striking than these, might doubtless be found by a mind curious of such things. Yet they would be, like these, analogies merely, instructive as illustrations, but becoming fruitful of error when, letting our fancy run away with our reason, we allow them to determine our fundamental views respecting the nature of language and the method of its study; when we call language a living


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At that moment, Madame de Portenduère, alone with the curé in her cold little parlor on the ground floor, had just finished confiding her troubles to this good priest, her only friend. In her hand she held the letters that the Abbé Chaperon had just returned to her after having read them, and which had completed the measure of her worries. Sitting in her easy-chair on one side of the square table covered with the remains of dessert, the old lady looked at the curé, who, on the other side, huddled in his armchair, was stroking his chin with the gesture common to theatrical valets, mathematicians and priests, and which betrays some reflection over a difficult problem.

This little parlor, lighted by two windows facing the road and wainscoted with gray painted woodwork, was so damp, that the lower panels showed the geometrical cracks of rotten wood when it is no longer preserved but by paint. The tiled floor, red and rubbed by the old lady’s only servant, required little rounds of matting in front of each seat, upon one of which the abbé was keeping his feet. The curtains, of old, light-green damask with green flowers, were drawn, and the outer blinds had been shut. Two candles lit up the table, leaving the room in shadow. Is it necessary to say that between the two windows was a fine pastel by Latour of the 147