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A, the letter, derivation of, 464.

a, flattening of, in dance, etc., 43.

a or an, article, 115.

-able, 40-41.

abstract, 112.

Abyssinia, Semitic languages of, 297, 299.

Abyssinian group of Hamitic languages, 341, 343.

Accent, makes unity of word, 56; how produced, 89; its various place in different languages, 95-6.

Accidental correspondences between words unrelated, 185, 243-4, 387-91.

Achæmenidan monuments, 222; character in which they are written, 460.

Acquisition of language, how made, 11-20; acquisition of mental training and knowledge involved in it, 442-5.

Adelung, referred to, 4.

Adjectives, in Indo-European language, 275; English nouns directly convertible into, 282.

Adverbs in Indo-European language, 275-6.

Æolic dialect of ancient Greek, 221.

Afghan or Pushto language, 192, 224.

Africa, languages of, 297, 299, 340-46.

again, 115.

Agglutinative structure of Scythian languages, 316-20; of Dravidian, 327.

Agglutinative tongues, their characteristics, classification, and relations, 360-65.

Ainos, language of, 329.

alas, 277.

Albanian language. descendant of ancient Illyrian, 191, 290-91, 355.

Alemannic dialect of Old High-German, 163, 211.

Alforas of Australia, language of, 340.

Algonquin group of American languages, 350.

ally, 29.

alms, 29, 102, 387.

alphabet, 460.

Alphabet, spoken, structure and relations of, 91; primitive alphabet of Indo-European language, 265; its development, 266; limited alphabets of Polynesian languages, 338.

Alphabet, written, germs of in Egypt, 454-5; derivation of alphabetic cuneiform, 460; syllabic alphabets, 460-61; Semitic alphabet and its derivatives, 461-3; Greek and its derivatives, 463; Latin, 464-6; English, 466-7.

also, 111, 114.

Altaic family of languages—see Scythian.

am, 62-3, 115, 135, 267.

America, the English language in, 151, 171-4.

America, aboriginal languages of, 346-53; their variety and changeableness, 346-7; probable unity, 348; polysynthetic structure 348; principal groups in North America, 350-51; question of their relation to Asiatic languages, 330, 351; absurd theories respecting this, 352; importance to us of their study, 352.

American aborigines, examples of picture-writing by, 450-52.

Amharic language, of Abyssinia, 297, 299.

an or a, article, 115.

-ana, 140.

Analogies, extension of prevailing, its influence in producing the changes of language, 27-8, 82, 85.

Analogies between linguistic and certain physical sciences, 46-7, 52.

Analysis, etymological, of words, 55 seq.; is the retracing of a previous historical synthesis, 65-7, 251-4; indispensable in comparison of languages, 246.

Analytical tendency in modern languages, 120, 279; its ground, 280-86.

and, 115. (475)


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476. Andaman islands, people and language of, 339.

Anglo-Saxon language, ancestor of English, 24; its relations to the other Germanic languages, 210.

Animals lower than man. mental action of, 414-17, 439; how near some of them approach to capacity of language, 415, 440; reason of their incapacity, 438-40.

Annamese language, 336.

Antiquity of human race, 205, 382-3.

apprehend, 112, 133.

Arabic alphabet, origin and diffusion of, 462.

Arabic language, 294, 296-7, 301 seq., 306; its literature, 299-300; its spread, 299, 300, 346, 375.

Aramaic branch of Semitic languages, 297, 298.

Arbitrariness and conventionality of words, as signs for ideas, 14, 32, 71, 102, 438.

Armenian language, 192, 224; character in which it is written, 463.

Armorican language of Brittany, 190, 218.

Arrow-headed characters—see Cuneiform.

Articles, origin of, 115, 276.

Articulate sounds, how produced, 70, 87-91; their systematic arrangement and relations, 91; transitions, 92-8; office as means of expression, 421-3; have no inherent natural significance, 430-31; cannot represent exactly inarticulate sounds, 431-2.

Artificial languages, 50-51, 444; artificial terminology, 122.

Aryan branch of Indo-European language, 192, 201.

Aryan, name for Indo-European, 192.

as, 111, 114.

Asia, languages of, 192, 222-7, 294-337, 354-5.

Aspirates, or aspirated mutes, 93, 265 note.

Assimilation of consonants, 93-4.

Assimilation of dialects, 160-61, 181.

Association, mental, the only tie between words and their meanings, 14, 71, 128, 409-10.

Assyrian people and language, 295, 297.

Athapaskan group of American languages, 350.

attend, 178.

Attenuation of the meaning of words and elements of words, 114-20.

Attic dialect of ancient Greek, 221.

Augment in Indo-European verbs, 267, 292.

Australia, language of, 339-40.

Austrian dialect of Old High—German, 211; Austrian dialectic elements in modern German, 163.

Auxiliary and relational words, their production, 117-20.

Avesta, Zoroastrian scripture, 222.

Aztecs, language of, 351.

Baber, the emperor, memoirs of, 313.

Bantu family—see South-African.

Bashkir, Turkish language, 310.

Basque language, in Spain, 191, 353-4, 363.

Bavarian dialect of Old High-German, 163, 211.

be, 115.

bear, 242.

become, 108.

befall, 113.

Beginnings, of Indo-European language, 250 seq.; of language in general, 423-6.

Bengali language, 224.

Beowulf, Anglo—Saxon poem, 210.

Berber languages, 341, 343.

better, 331.

bishop, 244, 387.

blame, 262.

blast, 262.

Bleek, Dr. W. H. J., referred to, 344 note.

board, 107.

boatswain, 72.

body, 115.

Bohemian language, 191, 214.

Bopp, Professor Franz, referred to, 5, 200, 245 note.

Bornu, language of, 346.

Borrowing of foreign words, its range and amount, 185, 197-8; into English vocabulary, 143-7.

bow-wow, 425.

Bow-wow theory of origin of language, 426 seq.

Brahui language, 327.

breakfast, 56.

Breton language, 190, 218.

brother, 196.

Brown, Rev. N., referred to, 337 note.

Bulgarian language. 191, 214.

Buriats, language of, 312.

Burmese language, 336, 359.

Burnouf, M. Eugene, referred to, 5.

Bushmen, language of, 341, 345.

butterfly, 71.

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Rh C, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Cæsar, 105-6.

calculate, 130.

Caldwell, Rev. R., referred to 327 note.

calm, 468.

Cambodian language, 336.

can, 111.

Canaanitic branch of Semitic languages, 297.

Canarese language, 326.

candid, 127, 133.

candidate, 126, 127, 131, 133.

Carthage, language of, 295, 298.

Cases, their number, origin, and office in Indo-European language, 271-5; their loss in English, 77; in other languages, 274; replacement, 280-81; cases in Semitic language, 304; in Scythian, 319.

Castrén, Professor Alexander, referred to, 310, 315.

Caucasian languages, 354-5.

Celtic languages, obliterated by Latin in southern Europe, 166, 216-17; by Germanic language in England, 169; their classification, age, literatures, etc., 190, 215-18; their position in Indo-European family, 204.

Celtomania, 216.

Central America, language and culture of, 347, 351.

Chaldee language, 297, 298.

Champollion, referred to, 341.

Chances, doctrine of, as applied to linguistic resemblances, 390.

Change, linguistic, its kinds, necessity, and universality, 24-33; forces producing it, 35-46, 48-9; considerations determining it in special cases, 41; phonetic or external change, 42-3; constructive, 55-65, 70, 73-4; destructive, 74-98; internal change, of meaning, 100-135, 141-2; relations of external and internal change, 101; varying rate and kind of change, 137-53; processes of change are what, 154; linguistic change causes the growth of dialects, 154-5, 159; generally of slow and gradual progress, 44, 123, 183, 277-8; exceptional cases of rapid change, 137, 291, 347.

charity, 102.

Cheremiss language, 309.

Cherokee language, 350; word-phrase of, 349; alphabet of native invention, 461.

Chinese language, its age. 233-4, 332; monosyllabic character, 257, 330-31, 359; history, literature, etc., 332-6; merit, 336, 367; supplemented by its written characters, 458; compared with English, 331, 471-2.

Chinese writing, preceded by use of knotted cords, 450, 455; history of, 455-9; relation to the spoken language, 458.

Choctaw language, 350.

Chuana family—see South-African.

Chukchi language, 329.

church, 472.

Church-Slavic language, 214.

Circassian language, 354.

Civilization, degree of, of Indo-European mother-tribe, 207-8.

Classification of languages, by genetic relationship, how effected, 185-6, 290; review of families thus established, 292-357; its uncertainties, 323, 357-8; its preëminent value, 369-70; classification by structural correspondence, 358-67; by positive value, 367-9.

Classification of conceptions, learned along with language, 12.

cleave, 387.

Clicks in South African languages, 345.

Clothing, analogy between language and, 401-3.

Cochin-China, language of, 336.

cock, 429.

cockade, 429.

Comanche language, 351.

Combination of independent elements into words, 55-67; our words universally so made up, 65-7, 251-5; combination promotes, and is aided by, phonetic change, 70, 73-4; accompanied by change of meaning, 116; now of limited range in English, 143, 147-8, 282.

comfort, 133.

Communication, its possibility makes the unity of a language, 22, 157; it keeps language uniform, 155-61, 183; impulse to it, the immediate producer of spoken language, 403-5; of writing, 448-9.

Community, makes and changes language, 45, 123, 148, 404; preserves unity of a language, 155; how and within what limits it works, 156-8, 161; effects of external conditions upon, 159.

Comparative method in modern study of language, 3, 240-48; how to be applied, 241-6; not a mere comparison of words, 246-7; its universal reach, 248.


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478 Comparative philology, 3, 241.

Composition of words—see Combination.

concrete, 112.

Confucius, representative man of China, 333.

Conjugation, forms of, in Indo-European language, 266-9; in its later dialects, 269-70; their loss by phonetic corruption in English, 75-7, 86-7; conjugational forms in Semitic language, 303; in Scythian, 319-20.

Conjugations, irregular and regular, in English, 79-82.

Conjugations, of Semitic verb, 304; of Scythian, 319; of South-African, 345.

Conjunctions, in Indo—European language, 276.

Consciousness, different degrees of, in the processes of language-making, 40-41, 50, 121-4.

Consciousness, different subjection of mental action to, in man and lower animals, 440.

Conservative forces in linguistic tradition, 31, 43-4, 148-51, 159.

Consonants and vowels, relation of, 89, 91.

Constraining influence of acquisition of language on mental action, 445-6.

Conventionality of words, as signs of ideas, 14, 32, 71, 128, 148, 409-10, 438.

copper, 130.

Coptic language, 340-41; writing, 455.

coquette, 429.

Corean language, 329.

Cornish language, 216, 218.

could, 468.

count, 261.

court, etc., 108.

cover, 388.

Craik, Rev. G. L., referred to, 211 note.

Creek language, 350.

Crow, its power of numeration, 415-17.

Cultivated or learned dialects, 149-51, 182-4.

Cultivation of a language, its meaning and effect, 182-4.

Culture and education, conservative influence of, on language, 17, 149-51, 158-9.

Culture, only possible by means of language, 441; won in the acquisition of language, 441-5.

Cuneiform characters, origin of, 459-60; monuments, in these characters, of Persia, 222; of Assyria, 295; Persian language of, 222; Semitic, 306; asserted Ugrian 314-15.

Curtius, Professor George, referred to, 200.

Cymric group of Celtic languages, 190, 217.

Cyril; Slavic Bible-version of, 214.

czar, 106.

-d ending of English preterits, origin of, 60, 81-2, 117, 235.

daguerreotype, 39.

dahlia, 146.

Dakota language, 350.

Danish language, 212.

Darfur, language of, 346.

daughter, 196.

Dead languages 149-50.

Deaf-mutes, language of, 410-11, 413, 422; thought of, 414.

dealt, 79.

dear me!, 277.

Decimal system of numeration, on what founded, 419.

Declension, forms of, in Indo-European language, 270-74; in its later dialects, 274-5; their loss by phonetic corruption, 77-9.—See also Cases.

Dekhan, languages of; 224, 326.

Delaware or Algonquin group of American languages 350.

Demotic, later Egyptian, alphabet, 455.

Dialects, their prevalence, 153-4; their explanation, 154-62; causes which bring about dialectic diversity, 154-5; which restrain it, 155-6, 159; which reduce it, 160-61; illustrations of dialectic divergence and convergence, 162-74; dialects of English, 170-71; in America, 171-4; dialectic growth everywhere inevitable, 174, 181-2; dialect and language convertible terms, 175; erroneous views respecting dialects, 177-84; dialectic differences always imply original unity, 178-84.

did, 268; forms ending of English preterits, 60-61, 81-2, 235; auxiliary, 117.

Ding-dong theory of origin of language, 427.

discuss, 112.

Divine origin of language, in what sense to be accepted, 399-403.

duff, 116, 262.

don, 116, 262.

Doric dialect of ancient Greek, 221.

double, 62.

Dravidian languages of southern India, 198, 326-7.


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Rh Dual number, in verbs 267; in nouns 273; its loss, 274.

Dutch language, 164, 211.

E, the letter, derivation of, 464.

Eddas, Old Norse collections, 212.

Education gained in the acquisition of language, 13, 15-16, 441-5.

Education, conservative influence of, upon language, 17, 149-51, 158-9.

Egypt, languages of, 150, 234, 340-43.

Egyptian modes of writing, 452-4.

Ehkili language, 299.

ēither or eīther, 43, 95.

electricity, 129.

English language, how acquired by its speakers, 10-22; its differences in individuals, 16-22; what, in general, it is, 22; how kept in existence, 23; its constant change, 24; causes and modes of this change, 25-31, 140-48; examples of the changes which have brought it into its present state, 55-65, 70-87, 92-5, 97, 102-34; its derivation and history, 24, 31, 99, 147, 169-70; its periods, 210; mixture of Germanic and other elements in it, 84, 144, 170, 185, 198, 373, 472-3; its fundamental structure chiefly Germanic, 170, 198; position and relations as a Germanic language, 187-9, 210-13; as an Indo-European language, 189-200; its analytical character, 279, 282, 284; prevailing monosyllabism, 264-5, 279; comparison with Chinese, 331, 471-2; its dialects, 170-71; transfer to America, 171-2; British and American forms of, 172-4; prospects as a world language, 470; merits, 470-74.

English orthography, anomalies of, 94, 467-9; reform desirable, 469-70.

English spoken alphabet, structure and relations of, 91.

English written alphabet, derivation and character of, 466-7.

Erse, or Scotch Gaelic, language, 190.

Eskimo language, 330, 350, 351.

Esthonia, Scythian languages in, 309.

Ethiopian or Abyssinian group of Hamitic languages, 341, 343.

Ethiopic or Geëz, a Semitic, language, 297, 299.

Ethnology, bearing of linguistic science on, 8, 370-94.

Etruscan language, 354.

Etymology, the foundation of linguistic science, 54-5. 238; its uncertainties, dangers, and ill-repute, 239, 386-94; modern improvements of, 240, 244, 386-7; is not the whole science, 247; false etymologies, 388-90.

Etymology of a word the explanation of its origin, not the ground of its use, 14, 128-9, 132-4.

Euguvine tablets, Umbrian monuments, 220.

Euphony, seat of, in the mouth, not the ear, 90.

Europe, languages of, 186-91, 209-21, 309-10, 353-5.

Expression, dependent upon an external inducement, not an internal impulse, 403-5, 420-21; always incomplete, 20, 109-11, 406-7; variety of expression for same idea in different languages, 407-9; the voice as means of, 421-3.

eye, 101.

F, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Families of languages, how established, 290-92.

Family languages, so called, 363.

Farrar, Rev. F. W., referred to, vi. note.

Farther India, languages of, 336-7.

father, 179.

Fellatah language, 346.

Finnish language, 191, 309, 320, 361; its literature, 314.

Finno-Hungarian branch of Scythian language—see Ugrian.

Firdusi, Persian poet, 223, 325.

five, 196.

Flemish language, 211.

Florida group of American languages, 350.

for, 114.

forehead, 56.

forget, 113.

forgive, 113.

Formative elements, 63-7; derived from words originally independent, 66, 251-5; their production gradual and unreflective, 124; aided by phonetic corruption, 73-4; accompanying change of meaning, 117; extensibility of their application, 83-4; their distinction as primary and secondary, 255.

fortnight, 56.

frail, 111.

Frankish dialect of Old High-German, 163, 211.

Freedom of mental action restricted by acquisition of language, 445-6.

French language, 164-5, 189, 218-19;


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480 Germanic and Celtic elements in, 168, 169, 374.

Fricative sounds, in alphabet, 91.

Frisian language, 211.

-ful, suffix, 57, 73.

Fulah language, 346.

Fusion of dialects into one, 161; causes determining character of result, 168-9.

Future in Romanic languages, 118; in Anglo-Saxon and English, 119; in Indo-European language, 268.

G, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Gabelentz, H. C. von der, referred to, 339 note.

Gadhelic group of Celtic languages, 190, 217.

Gaelic languages, 190, 217.

Galla language, 341.

Gallatin, Albert, referred to, 349 note.

galvanism, 39, 129.

Gaulish languages of France etc., 216-17.

Geëz or Ethiopic language, 297, 299.

Gender, grammatical, in Indo-European languages, 77-8, 273-4; lost in English, 78; in other languages, 275; gender in Semitic verbs, 303; nouns, 304; in Hamitic languages, 342; gender wanting in Scythian languages, 319; in other families, 342-3.

Genetic relationship of languages, 186, 290; their classification by it—see Classification.

Genius of individuals, its effect on language, 123.

genteel, gentile, gentle, 111.

Geology, general analogy between and linguistic science, 47; analogies in special points, 62, 184, 253, 265, 382.

Georgian language, 354-5.

German language, history of, 162-4.

Germanic languages, 187-9; their classification, age, literatures, etc., 210-13; permutation of consonants in, 97-8; verbal conjugation of, 80-82, 269-70.

Germanic race, its part in history, 231.

Gesture as means of expression, 422-3, 431.

get, 108.

Gonds, language of, 327.

Gothic language, 213.

-graph, 140.

Greece, founder of Indo—European preeminence, 230-31.

Greek language, 190, 220-22.

green, 125.

Greenland, language of, 350.

Grimm, Professor Jacob, referred to, 4, 5; his law of permutation of consonants in Germanic languages, 97-8.

Grout, Rev. L., referred to, 344 note.

grow, 115.

Guess, George, inventor of Cherokee alphabet, 461.

Gypsy language, 225.

H, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Habit, the ground of ability in language, 117, 147-8 282.

Hadley, Professor James, referred to, 84 note, 213 note.

Hamitic family of languages, 341-3.

hand, 115.

Harmonic sequence of vowels in Scythian languages, 318, 362.

have, 117-18, 199.

head, 107, 115.

Hebrew language, 294, 296, 297, 306, 308; its alphabet, 462.

Heldensagen, Middle High-German, 212.

Heliand, Old Saxon poem, 211.

help, 30, 81, 82.

Heyse, Professor K. W. L., referred to, 427.

Hieratic, later Egyptian, writing, 455.

Hieroglyphic writing, 450-59; of Egypt, 452-5; of China, 455-6; hieroglyphic origin of cuneiform writing, 459.

High-German languages, 163-4, 188, 210, 211-12.

hill, 14.

Himalayas, languages of, 337.

Himyaritic language, 297, 299.

Hindi language, 224.

Hindustani language, 224.

Historical spelling in English, 94, 467.

Hodgson, Mr. B. H., referred to, 337 note.

home, 133.

Homer, poems of, 221.

Homonyms in English, 334-5, 387; in Chinese, 334; how distinguished in Chinese writing, 456-7.

horse, 195.

Hottentots, language of, 341; clicks in it, 345.

Human race, its antiquity, 205, 382-3; its unity not determinable by language, 383-94.

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, referred to, 5, 367.

Hungarian language, 191, 309, 320, 361; its literature, 314; traces of polysynthesis in, 349.

Huzvaresh or Pehlevi language, 223.


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Rh I, the letter, derivation of, 464, 465.

I (pronoun), 101.

Icelandic language, 203, 212.

Ideas antecedent to their names, 125, 412.

Illyrian language, 191.

Imitation of natural signs, efficient principle in the origin of language, 426-31; not servilely precise, 431-2.

important. 112.

Inaccuracies of speech, their causes and their part in the history of language, 27-31, 36-7.

inapplicabilities, 64.

Incorporative or polysynthetic structure, 348-9, 354, 363.

India, languages of, 224-9, 326-7; occupation of its northern part by Indo-European peoples, 201, 326.

Indian, 130.

Individuals, all changes of language ultimately their work, 35-46, 123-4, 125, 148, 154-5, 404; their diversity causes divergence of dialects, 154-5; differences of their speech within the same community, 16-22, 156-8, 181.

Indo-European family of languages, other names for, 192; how composed, 186-92, 210-29; genetic relationship of its constituents, 193, 197, 378; evidences of their common descent, 193-200; interconnections of its branches, 203-4; place and time of its original speakers unknown, 200-205; their civilization, 205-8; importance of the family to linguistic science, 3, 229-37; age and variety of its dialects, 233-6; earliest history of development, 250-87; historical beginnings, 250-66; root, pronominal and verbal, 258-63; primitive spoken alphabet, 265; growth of forms and parts of speech, 266-77; rate and continuousness of growth, 277-3; synthetic and analytic development, 279-86; characteristic structure of Indo-European language, 292-4, 361-3; question of its ultimate connection with Semitic language, 307, 361, 394; its limits probably mainly coincident with those of a race, 377-9.

Indo-Germanic family—see Indo-European.

Inflectional languages, 358.

Inflective character of Indo-European language, 293, 361; wherein it consists, 293-4, 366 note; Semitic language inflective, 300, 361; value of inflective principle, 362.

Instinct and reason, 439.

intellect, 112.

Intellectual terms derived from physical, 111-13.

Interjectional theory of origin of language, 426-7, 429-30.

Interjections, 276-7.

Internal change in language, 100-121.

Invention of language by men, what is meant by, 443-4.

Ionic dialect of ancient Greek, 221.

Iranian branch of Indo-European language, 192, 222-4.

Irish language, 190, 217, 218.

Iroquois group of American languages, 350.

Irregularities in English declension and conjugation, 78-81.

irrevocability, 254.

is, 63, 115, 179.

island, 468.

isle, 468.

-ism, 140.

Isolating languages—see Monosyllabic.

Italian language, 165, 168, 189, 219.

Italic group of Indo-European languages, 220.

its, 30.

J, the letter, derivation of, 465, 466.

Jagataic Turkish language, 313.

Japanese language, 328-9; modes of writing, 329, 460-61.

Japhetic family—see Indo-European.

K, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Kafir group of South-African languages, 345.

Kalevala, Finnish poem, 314.

Kalmucks, language of, 312.

Kamchatkan language, 329.

Karen language, 336.

Khalkas, language of, 312.

Khitan, Tungusic dynasty, 312.

Khonds, language of, 327.

Kin, Tungusic dynasty, 312.

kind, 108.

kine, 44.

Kirghiz language, 310.

knight, 42.

Kols, language of, 327.

Koran, Mohammedan scripture, 299.

Koriak language, 329.

Kotars, language of, 327.

Kroatian language, 214.

Kurdish language, 192, 224.

Kurilian language, 328, 329.

Kwanto, of Farther India, 336.


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 kye, 44.

Labial series of articulate sounds, 91.

laird, 388.

Language, in what aspect the subject of linguistic science, 6, 10, 54; interest of inquiries into, 7-8; how acquired by those who speak, 11-22; 1 what a language is, 22; how kept in existence, 23; dead languages, 149-150; constant change or growth of language, 24-33; Iay what instrumentality produced, 35-46, 125, 154; processes of growth, 55-135; rate and kind of growth, and causes affecting it, 137-53; dialects, 153-85; the various forms of human language and their genetic classification, 185-229, 294-357; other modes of classification, 357-70; relation of language to race, 14-15, 370-83; its evidence incapable of determining the question of human unity, 383-94; language an institution, the work of its speakers, 48, 401-3, 442-5; its conventional character, 32, 409-10; it is a social product and possession, 404; part taken by individuals and by the community, respectively, in its production, 45, 148, 154-6, 171; language not identical with thought, nor indispensable to it, but its instrument and aid, 405-21; its imperfection as means of expression, 20, 109-11, 406-7; its value to man, 440-47; education involved in its acquisition, 13, 15-16, 441-3; its constraining influence on mental action, 445-6; its work supplemented by writing, 447-9; origin of language, in what sense divine, 399-403; desire of communication its direct impulse, 403-5; its beginnings of what kind, 421-6; how produced, 426-34; example of development of a language from such beginnings, 250-87; language a human possession only, 399, 414-17, 438-40.

Language, science or study of—see Linguistic science.

Langue d'oc, 164, 218.

Lapps, language of, 191, 309.

Latin language, its age, literature, etc., 219-20; its relations in Italy, 165, 220; history of its extension in southern Europe, 165-9; causes of this, 375, 378, 382; its artificially prolonged existence, 150; its modern descendants, 167, 216-19; its spoken alphabet, 465; its written alphabet, 463-4, 465-6.

Latin words, introduction of into English, 143-6; Latinized style of English, 146.

learn, 262.

led, 80.

Lena, branch of Turkish language upon, 310-11.

Lepsius, Professor R., referred to, 92 note, 341 note, 344 note.

Lesgbian language, 355.

-less, 58.

Lettish language, 191, 215.

Libyan languages, 341, 343.

lie, 75-6.

Life of a language, what is meant by, 32, 35; its analogy with that of an organized being, or of a race of such, 46; the processes constituting—see Change, linguistic.

like, in such and which, 57, 70; in -ly, 58-60, 70, 73; the verb, 108, 113.

likewise, 114.

Lingual series of articulate sounds, 19.

Linguistic change or growth—see Change, linguistic.

Linguistic evidence of race, its nature and limitations, 371-9.

Linguistic scholars, differences of temperament among, 324.

Linguistic science, of recent development, 1; its preparatory stages, 1-3; its progress, 3-6; its material, 6, 50, 230; its objects and their interest, 6-8; what it seeks in language, 10, 54, 237; analogies between it and certain physical sciences, 46-48, 52; it is a historical science, 48-52; its truly scientific character, 53; its method, 52, 54-5, 237-48; its dependence on Indo-European comparative philology, 4, 233-7.

Literary culture, its influence on the history of language, 23, 37, 43-5, 148-51, 159-60, 182-4.

Literary languages, 149-50, 174; their usual origin, 164.

Lithuanian group of languages, 191, 215.

Little-Russian language, 214.

Livonia, Scythian languages of, 309.

Livonian language, 191, 215.

Local dialects, acquired in learning to talk, 16-17.

Loo-Choo islands, language of, 329.

lord, 388.

lore, 262.


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Rh Loss of words from the vocabulary of a language, 27, 98-100.

Louis, St., of France, as language-maker, 38.

love, 260.

Low German languages, 188, 210-11.

luna etc., 103, 104.

lunatic, 105, 130, 131.

Luther's influence on history of German language, 163.

-ly, 58-60, 63, 83, 124, 235.

Lyell, Sir Charles, referred to, 47 note.

magnet, 130.

Magyar—see Hungarian.

Mahratta language, 224.

Malayalam or Malabar language, 326.

Malay language, 338.

Malay-Polynesian family of language, 337-9.

Man, Isle of, its language, 190.

Man, sole possessor of language, 399, 438; difference of his mental capacity and action from that of the lower animals, 414-16, 438-40; the artificer of his own speech, 48, 401-3, 442-5; value of speech to him, 440-47.

Manchu language, 312, 313, 320; its written character, 313, 462.

Mandingo language, 346.

manumit, 130.

manure, 111.

Marsh, Mr. G. P., referred to, 211 note.

me, 196, 430.

mean, 263.

Melanesian family of languages, 339.

men, 79.

Mental action of men and animals, comparison of, 414-17, 438-40.

Mesopotamia, Semitic languages of, 295.

Mexico, language and culture of, 347, 349, 351; writing of, 451-2.

Middle High-German period and literature, 212.

Migration, effect of, on language, 202.

Minnesingers, 212.

mint, 130.

minute, 111.

Mishna, Rabbinic Hebrew work, 297.

Mithridates, work of Adelung etc., 4.

Mitsjeghian language, 355.

Mixture of language, 197-9; of elements in English language, 84, 143-4, 170, 185, 472-3.

Mixture of races, 374; its effect upon language, 160-61, 168, 374-6.

Mnemonic objects, as forerunners of writing, 450.

Modern Greek language, 221.

Mœso-Gothic language, 60, 199, 213, 235

Mohammed, arouser of the Arab race, 296.

money, 130, 131, 247-8.

Mongolian family—see Scythian.

Mongolian branch of Scythian languages, 311-12, 313, 320; its written character, 313, 462.

Monosyllabic family of languages, 330-37; monosyllabic class, 358-65.

Monosyllabism, primitive, of Indo-European language, 255-66, 279-86; secondary monosyllabism of English etc., 264, 279; compared with Chinese. 331, 472.

month, 104.

Moods of Indo-European verb, 268; of Semitic, 303.

moon, 103-5.

Moral terms derived from physical, 111-13.

Moravian language, 214.

Mordwinian language, 309.

Morphological correspondence as sign of genetic relationship, 291, 332, 357-8; systems of morphological classification, 358-67.

mother, 196.

mountain, 14.

Müller, Professor Max, quoted or referred to, vii, 4 note, 35, 51 note, 177 note, 180, 317, 360, 363, 427.

Mutes, class of articulations, 91; aspirated, 265 note.

Mutes, language of-see Deaf-mutes.

Nabatean literature, 298.

Names-giving, processes of; 25-6, 38-42, 103-31, 411-12, 424-6; different degrees of reflectiveness in, 121-4, are historical, and founded in convenience only, 127, 129; comparative ease of naming different classes of conceptions, 194-5.

Namollo language, 329.

Nasal articulations, 91.

National character as expressed in speech, 152.

Negative prefix, 292.

Negritos, language of, 339.

Nestorian people and language, 298.

Netherlands, language of, 211.

Newfoundland, 71-2.

New Guinea and neighboring islands, language of, 339.


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484 New High-German period of German, 212.

Nibelungen-lied, old German epic, 212.

Nomadic languages, so called, 363.

Normans, adoption of French language by, 169; their introduction of it into England, 169, 189.

Norwegian language, 212.

Nouns, substantive and adjective, their development from roots, 270-75; question whether nouns or verbs are original, 423-6.

Numbers, in conjugation, 267; in declension, 273; in Semitic languages, 303, 304; in Polynesian languages, 339.

Numerals as proofs of Indo-European unity. 194; examples, 196.

Numeration in Indo-European and other languages, 419; reason of its usual decimal basis, 419.

O, the letter, derivation of, 464.

Obsolete and obsolescent words, 98-9.

of, 111, 114, 120.

off, 111, 114.

Old Bactrian language, 222.

Old High-German period of German, 211.

Old Norse language—see Icelandic.

Old Prussian language, 191, 215.

Old Saxon language, 211.

Old Slavonic language, 214.

-ology, 140.

Onomatopœia, the main effective principle in the origination of language, 425-6, 428-34.

Onomatopoetic theory of origin of language, 426.

or, 115.

Organism of language, what is meant by, 35, 46.

Origin of language, approximation to it by historical research, 397-8; doctrine of divine origin, in what sense alone true, 399-403; due to an external inducement, the desire of communication, 403-5; language not originated by thought, but by men for the uses of thought, 405-21; characteristic mental action of men, leading to it, 414-18, 438-40; beginnings of language, of what kind, 421-6; exemplified in beginnings of Indo-European language, 250-61; various theories to account for their production, 426-7; onomatopœia, or imitation of natural sounds, the main efficient principle, 427-34, 437.

Orochon, Tungusic tribes, 312.

Oscan language, 165, 220.

Osmanli Turkish, 314.

Ossetic language, 192, 224.

Ossianic poems, 217.

Ostiaks, language of, 309.

Otomi language, 348 note.

Ottoman Turkish. 314.

ought, owed, owned, 111.

P, the letter, derivation of, 465.

pagan, 131.

page, 387.

Palatal series of articulations, 91.

Pali language, 225.

Papuans, language of, 339.

parchment, 130.

Parsis, and their language, 222-3.

Passives, origin of, in Indo-European language, 268.

Past time, Indo-European verbal forms indicating, 267-8.

Pazend language, 223.

Pegu, language of 336.

Pehlevi language, 223.

Permian language, 309.

Permutation of consonants in Germanic languages, 97-8.

Persian or Iranian branch of Indo-European languages, 192, 198, 222-4.

Person, verbal endings or, their origin, 75, 266-7, 303, 319; their loss in English, 75-7; they distinguish gender in Semitic, 303; double form of person in Polynesian languages, 339.

Peru, its culture, 347; its mode of writing, 450.

Peshito, Syriac Bible-version, 298.

Petra, inscriptions of, 299.

petroleum, 146.

Phenician language, 294-5, 297; alphabet of, 461-2; its diffusion, 462-3.

Phonetic change, 27-31, 42-3, 51, 69-98; how brought about, 28, 42, 69; most rife in compound forms, 70; aids the constructive processes of language, 73-4; its destructive action, 74-87; conversion of sounds into one another, 87-94; this dependent on the mode of physical production of sounds, 87-91; its causes only partially explainable, 95-7; permutation of consonants, peculiar phonetic change in Germanic languages, 97-8.

Phonetic principle in writing, its development in Egyptian writing, 454; its introduction into Chinese, 456; phonetic cuneiform, 460; steps of


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Rh development of a purely phonetic alphabet, 460-63.

Phonetic spelling for English, 467-70.

Phrases, formation of, 116.

Physical causes, their effect on language, 138, 152-3.

Physical evidence of race, compared with linguistic, 370-82, 397.

Physical sciences, analogies of linguistic science with, 46-7, 52.

Physical structure of men does not determine their language, 371-2.

Physical terms converted to intellectual and moral, 111-13.

Picture-writing, 450-53; its analogy with onomatopoetic speech, 451.

Plan of this work, 8-10.

-ple, 62

please, 113.

Plural, irregular and regular in English, 78-9, 82-3; in Indo-European language, 272-3; in Scythian, 319; pluralizing words in Chinese, 335.

Polabian language, 214.

Polish language, 191, 214.

Polynesia, languages of, 337-40.

Polysynthetic structure of American languages, 348-9; of Basque, 354; traces of it in Hungarian, 349; polysynthetic class, 363.

pono (Latin), derivatives of in English, 120-21.

Pooh-pooh theory of origin of language, 426.

Portuguese language, 189, 219.

possess, 112.

Possessive case in English, 77, 82, 274.

post, 107.

Pott, Professor A. F., referred to, 5.

Prakrit languages, 225.

preach, 262.

Prefixes, their rarity in Indo-European language, 292; their prevalence in Polynesian, 339; in African, 344-5.

Prepositions, in Indo-European language, 274, 276, 292.

Present tense in Indo-European language, special theme of, 269.

priest, 102.

Process of linguistic growth, what it is, 154.

Processes pf linguistic growth—see Change, linguistic.

Pronominal roots, Indo-European, 258-9; whether primitive, 261.

Pronouns, their nature, 258; derivation, in Indo-European language, 258-9; declension, 275; part played by pronouns in form-making, 266, 271, 290, 303, 319; pronouns as evidences of Indo-European unity, 194; examples, 196.

Proper names, derivation of, 105.

propose, 112.

Provençal language, 164, 218, 219.

Punic language, 297, 298.

Pushto language—see Afghan.

Q, the letter, derivation of, 465, 466.

queer, 113.

Quippos, Peruvian substitute for writing, 450.

R, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Rabbinic Hebrew, 297.

Race, relation of language to, 14, 160-61. 371-2; value of language as evidence of, 370-76, 381.

Races, different advantage gained from language by, 446-7.

Rask, Professor Rasmus, referred to, 5.

Rate of linguistic change, its variety and the circumstances affecting it, 31-2, 137-9, 148-53.

read, 80.

Reason and instinct, 438-9.

red tape, 125.

Reduplication, in Indo-European verb, 267-8; in Polynesian, 338-9.

Reflectiveness, different degrees of, in the processes of word-making, 40-41, 50-51, 121-4.

Reflexive or middle forms of Indo-European verbs, 268.

reign, 468.

Relational and auxiliary words, 117-20; in monosyllabic languages, 335-7.

Relationship, names of, as signs of Indo-European unity, 195; examples, 196.

Relative words, their derivation, 114.

reliable, 40-41.

Renan, M. Ernest, referred to, vii. note, 177 note, 284-6.

reproach, 113.

Rhæto-Romanic language, 189, 218.

right, 113.

Rig-Veda, 226.

Romaic, or Modern Greek, language, 221.

Romanic languages, their origin, 165-8, 189; age, literature, etc., 218-19; futures of, 118.

romantic, 131.

Roots, monosyllabic, the germs of Indo-European language, 255-66, 279-86; their sufficiency, 257; their division into pronominal and verbal, 258-9,


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 261; examples, 259; their significance, 259-60, 285; how far absolutely primitive, 261-4; difficulties and objections answered, 256-7. 260-66, 279-86; development of inflective speech from them, 266-77, 286; roots at the basis of all linguistic development, 289, 397; triliteral Semitic roots, 301; fixedness of Scythian roots, 317; roots of Polynesian language, 338; of Egyptian, 342; roots of Chinese and other monosyllabic languages, their words also, 330-32, 334-7; various treatment of roots, in languages of different structure, 360; futility of comparison of roots of different families, 392-4; roots, how originated, 426-34; of what character and office, 423-6; their scantiness at the outset, 434.

rubber, 130.

Russian language, 191, 214; its synthetic character, 281.

Ruthenian language, 214.

-s, as ending, in English, of third person singular present of verbs, 63, 93, 267; of possessive case, 82; of plural, 82.

Sabean language, 299.

Sabellian or Sabine language, 220.

Samaritan language, 297.

Samoyedic branch of Scythian language, 309-10.

Sanskrit language, 150, 192, 225-9; its intrusion into India, 201; its importance to Indo—European philology, 4, 228-9.

Santal language, 327.

Sassanian inscriptions, 223.

Scandinavian group of Germanic languages, 188, 210, 212.

Schlegels, the brothers August Wilhelm and Friedrich von, referred to, 5.

Schleicher, Professor August, quoted or referred to, vi., 47 note, 163 note, 200, 203, 214 note, 272 note, 303 note, 331 note; his system of morphological notation explained, 364-7.

schooner, 38.

Science of language—see Linguistic science.

Scythian or Altaic family of languages, 308-21, 324-28; its branches, their age and literature, and history of the races speaking them, 308-15; uncertainty of the tie connecting them, 315-16, 320-21, 324; characteristic structural features, 316-20.

second, 108-9.

Semitic alphabet, 461-3.

Semitic family of languages, 234, 294-308; its branches, their age and literature, and history of the races speaking them, 294-300; characteristic structural features, 300-306, 360-61; triliteral roots, 301-3; internal flexion, 301, 361; conjugation, 303; declension, 304; syntax, 304; stiffness of meaning and persistence of form in Semitic words, 304-5; asserted connection, with this family, of Egyptian and other African dialects, 306-7, 343; of Indo-European family, 307, 394.

Semivowels, 91.

Servian language, 191, 214.

seven, 196.

Shah-Nameh, Persian epic of Firdusi, 223, 325.

shall and will, 86, 118.

Shelter, analogy between language and, 401-3.

Shemitic family—see Semitic.

Shi-King, Chinese classic, 332.

-ship, 60.

Shoshonee language, 350.

Siamese language, 336.

Sibilants, 91.

Sigismund of Germany, as language-maker, 36.

Signification of words, changes of, 100-123.

Silent letters in English words, 28.

Sinai, inscriptions of, 299.

Sioux language, 350.

Siryanian language, 309.

sister, 387.

Skipetar language—see Albanian.

slave, 131.

Slavic or Slavonic branch of Indo-European languages, 191, 213-15.

Slovakian language, 214.

Slovenian language, 214.

smith, 105.

Smith, 105.

Smithsonian Institution, 353.

Social nature of man, relation of speech to, 403-5, 440-41.

Sonant and surd letters, 91; their exchanges, 92-3.

Sorbian language, 214.

sound, 387.

Sounds, articulate—see Articulate.

South-African family of languages, 344-5.

sovereign, 468.

spake, 29.


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Rh Spanish language, 189; 219; German and Arabic elements in, 168.

Spirants, 91; their derivation, 92.

spirit, 112.

splash, 425.

State languages, so called, 363.

Steinthal, Professor H., referred to vi., 338 note, 367. 448 note, 450 note.

Structure, characteristic, of different families of language, 291-4, 357-69.

Study of language—see Linguistic science.

subject, 112.

Subjunctive mood, origin of, 268; loss of, in English, 86-7.

substantial, 112.

Substantive verb, derivation of, 115; wanting in Semitic, 304.

such, 57.

Suffixes, how produced, 57-64; their universal presence in Indo-European words, 65, 292; primary and secondary, 255.

sun, 103-4.

Suras, language of, 327.

Surd and sonant letters, 91; their exchanges, 92.

sure, 111.

Swabian dialect of Old High-German, 211; of Middle High-German, 163, 212.

Swedish language, 212.

Swift, Dean, caricature of etymological processes by, 389-90.

sycophant, 130.

Syllabic modes of writing, 460-61.

Syllable, nature of, 89.

Symbolism, signs of, in Semitic word-formation, 302; in beginnings of speech, 430.

Symbols, forerunners of writing, 449.

sympathy, 112.

Synonymous words, 110.

Syriac language, 294, 297, 298, 306; alphabet, its diffusion, 313, 462.

Syro-Arabian family—see Semitic.

Talmuds, 298.

Tamil language, 326.

Tamulian languages, 326.

Targums, 298.

Tartaric or Tataric family—see Scythian.

Tartar and Tatar, 38.

Technical vocabularies, their relation to a language, 19, 23, 156.

telegram, 40.

telegraph, 83, 146.

Telinga or Telugu language, 326.

Tenses, development of Indo-European, 266-70; Semitic, 303; Scythian, 320; modern preterits in Germanic languages, 79-82, 117; English perfects and futures, 117-19; Romanic futures, 118.

Terminology, artificial production of a, 122.

-th, ending of third person singular present in English verbs, 63, 93, 267.

-th, noun suffix, 64.

than, 115.

thank, 111.

that, pronoun, 430.

that, conjunction, 114.

the, 114, 115.

thou, 196.

Thought, relation of language and, 403-21; the two not identical, 405-11; not coterminous, 411; how far thought is carried on in language, 412-13; its processes aided by speech, 417-21: such thought as ours only made possible by expression, 420; insufficiency of language as expression of thought, 20, 109-11, 406-7.

three, 196.

throng, 262.

Tiberius of Rome, as language-maker, 36.

Tibetan language, 337.

Time, peculiar treatment of, in Semitic verb, 303.

to, infinitive sign, 119.

topgallantsails, 72.

Tradition, the means by which a language is kept in existence, 23; its defects, and their consequences, 27-32; causes aiding its strictness, 148-51; tradition of speech and knowledge together, 441-5; its guiding influence on the mind, 445-6.

Triliterality of Semitic roots, 301-3.

Troubadours, songs of, 218.

true, 64, 179.

truth, 64.

Tudas, language of, 327.

Tulu language, 326.

Tungusic branch of Scythian language, 312.

Turanian family, so called, 309; origin and first application of the name, 325.

turkey, 130.

Turkish branch of Scythian language, 191-2; divisions, age, literature, etc., 310-11, 313-14; characteristic structural features, 198, 318-20.

Turkomans, language of, 311.

two, 196.


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488 U, the letter, derivation of, 465.

Ugrian, or Finno-Hungarian, branch of Scythian language, 309, 320, 361; age, literature, etc., 314.

Uigur Turkish language, 311, 313; alphabet, 313, 462.

Ulfilas, Gothic bishop, 213.

Umbrian language, 165, 220.

understand, 113, 133.

Unity of the human race, not demonstrable by evidence of language, 383-94.

Ural-Altaic family—see Scythian.

Urdu language, 224.

Usage, the sole standard of correct speech, 14, 32, 36-40, 128; good and bad usage, 16-17, 22.

Usbeks, language of 311.

V, the letter, derivation of, 464, 465, 466.

Value of language, 440-47.

Variety of expression for same thought, 407-9.

Variety of human races, not demonstrable by evidence of language, 384-5.

Vater, referred to, 4.

Vedas, Hindu scripture, and their language, 225-7.

Vei language and alphabet, 346.

vend, 262

Vendidad, geographical notices in, 201 note.

Verbal roots, 259.

Verbs and verbal forms, their development in Indo European languages, 266-70; Semitic verb, 303; Scythian, 319-20; Polynesian, 338; question whether verbs or nouns are earliest, 423-6.

verity, 178.

viz., 459.

Vocabulary, different extent of, in persons of different age and condition, 18-20; changes of, 25-7; its increase, 25-6, 41, 139; its reduction, 27, 98-100, 139; impregnation with fuller knowledge, 123, 141; enrichment by borrowing, 143-5.

Vocabulary, English, its extent, 18; part of it used by different classes, 18-20; found in Shakspeare and Milton, 23; its changes, 25-7, 140-47.

Vocabulary, primitive Indo-European, attempted restoration of, 205-6.

Voice, as means of expression, 421-3.

Volga, Mongol tribes on, 312.

Volscian language, 220.

Voltaire on etymology, 386.

Vowel and consonant, relation of, 39, 91.

Vowels, changes of value of, 94-5; classification and harmonic sequence of, in Scythian languages, 318; imperfect designation of, in some alphabets, 461-3.

W, the letter, derivation of, 466.

Wallachian language, 189, 218.

was, 115.

Wedgwood, Professor H., referred to, vi. note.

Welsh language, 190, 217-18.

which, 57.

who, relative, 115.

whole, 242.

will and shall, 86, 118.

Woguls, language of, 309.

women, 468.

Words, mere signs, not depictions of ideas, 20-22, 32, 70-71. 111; the sole tie between words and ideas a mental association, 14, 32, 409; words posterior to the conceptions they represent, 125-6, 411-12; their value to us dependent on conventional usage, not etymology, 14, 128-9, 132—4, 404, 409; how far we think in or with words, 410-20; word—making a historical process, 126-9; history of words, why studied, 129; linguistic science founded on their study, 54-5; its method, 238-9, 247-8; words made up of elements originally independent, 55-67; their phonetic changes, 69-98; their changes of meaning, 100-121; identity of words and roots in monosyllabic langunges, 330-31.

work, 30.

Wotiak language, 309.

Writing, auxiliary and complement of speech, 447; parallelisms between its origin and history and those of speech, 448, 449, 451, 453, 456, 457, 458, 459; desire of communication its primary impulse, 448; not at first connected with and subordinated to spoken language, 449; its forerunners and historical beginnings, 449-50; picture-writing, 450-52; hieroglyphs, 452 seq.; Egyptian writing, 452-5; Chinese, 455-9; cuneiform, 459-60; syllabic, 460-61; Semitic or Phenician, 461-3; Greek and its derivatives, 463 seq.; Latin, 465; English, 466.

wrong, 113.


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Rh wrought, 30, 111.

X, the letter, derivation of, 466.

Y, the letter, derivation of, 464, 466.

Yakut language, 310-11.

Yamato, Japanese dialect, 328.

ye, you, 30.

Yenisean language, 355.

Yukagiri language, 330.

Z, the letter, derivation of, 466.

Zend-avesta, 201 note, 222.

Zend language, 150, 222.

Zingian family—see South-African.

Zoroaster, 222.

zounds, 277.

Zulu language, 344-5.


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Rh to you I will copy any dress he sends. Mrs. Shaldin can't possibly have a dress like that."

"All very well and good, and that's what we'll do. Still we must wait until Mrs. Shaldin comes back. Don't you see, Abramka, I must have exactly the same style that she has? Can't you see, so that nobody can say that she is in the latest fashion?"

At this point Semyonov entered the room cautiously. He was wearing the oddest-looking jacket and the captain's old boots. His hair was rumpled, and his eyes were shining suspiciously. There was every sign that he had used the renewal of friendship with the doctor's men as a pretext for a booze.

"I had to stand them some brandy, your Excellency," he said saucily, but catching his mistress's threatening look, he lowered his head guiltily.

"Idiot," she yelled at him, "face about. Be off with you to the kitchen."

In his befuddlement, Semyonov had not noticed Abramka's presence. Now he became aware of him, faced about and retired to the kitchen sheepishly.

"What an impolite fellow," said Abramka reproachfully.

"Oh, you wouldn't believe—" said the captain's wife, but instantly followed Semyonov into the kitchen.

Semyonov aware of his awful misdemeanour, tried to stand up straight and give a report.

"She will come back, your Excellency, day after to-morrow toward evening. She sent a telegram."

"Is that true now?"

"I swear it's true. Shuchok saw it himself."

"All right, very good. You will get something for this."

"Yes, your Excellency."

"Silence, you goose. Go on, set the table."

Abramka remained about ten minutes longer with the captain's wife, and on leaving said:

"Let me assure you once again, Mrs. Zarubkin, you needn't worry; just select the style, and I will make a gown for you that the best tailor in Paris can't beat." He pressed his hand to his heart in token of his intention to do everything in his power for Mrs. Zarubkin.