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APPY is it for the Australian colonies that they have men in their midst of high old world training in professions. These men possess the best educations which famous universities can give—educations embracing the aggregation of the knowledge of the past, imparting the necessary, allowing the unworthy to sink into deserved oblivion. Socrates, in his Athenian garden, taught the eager young, who drank deep of the inspiring, intellectual draughts of consummate wisdom, which flowed like heavenly nectar from between his lips. His work is perpetuated in the universities of to-day. At the feet of great professors sit the young men learning lessons which are the outcome of centuries of research. Enter the university, the anxious students; exit, men prepared with the means of fighting with their fellows in life's battle.

They leave these great halls of learning and insinuate themselves into the professions, and have their studies materialised by practice. Some of them attained status in the old countries, and then, either through ill-health, or the desire to leave old encrusted institutions in which was little apparent hope, they came to the sunshiny broad fields of Australia. Freed from the trammels of an ancient civilisation, they now breathe easily, and live with the conviction that their labours may not be in vain, and know that hope and regeneration are the basis of all toil. Their work here may influence the destinies of a growing civilisation.

Such was probably the case with Mr. F. W. Moorhead, B.A., LL.B Educated at an ancient university, he gained an honourable position at the Irish Bar. Ultimately he left the old world, and took up his residence in Western Australia.

Frederick William Moorhead was born in King's County, Ireland, in 1863. The first educational establishment he attended was the Jesuit College of St. Stanislaus, whence he went to the Dublin University. He entered at Trinity College, and there had a brilliant university career. After earnest attention to his studies for some years, in 1885 he attained the B.A. and LL.B. degrees. In the same year he carried off the gold medal for oratory in the Philosophical Society, and the gold medal in the Historical Society. He was moderator in Logic and Philosophy, and medallist with his degree. This is a worthy record, and it proved that Mr. Moorhead was at least able to hold his own in the universities. The more practical outcome of his studies was yet to be evidenced. He now determined to qualify for the Irish Bar, and studied with that end in view. On the 8th June, 1887, he was called.

Then followed two years' anxious practice, and Mr. Moorhead made his way in the legal profession. He chose the Western Circuit, or what is known as the Connaught Bar, as the most promising for his energies, and was there connected with some notable cases. Chief among them were the important historical cases arising out of the notorious Mitchellstown shooting affray. Several Nationalists were holding a political meeting at Mitchellstown in 1888, when a posse of police, in order to disperse the gathering, fired upon them and killed several men. Much political capital was made out of the affair. An inquest was held, and Mr. Moorhead was retained as counsel for several of the Nationalists. During his career at the Irish Bar, it was seen that he possessed certain gifts of oratory. He was an earnest pleader, and presented his briefs as only his countrymen can present them.

In June, 1889, Mr. Moorhead left his native land to begin practice in Western Australia. He believed that here was greater opening for his energies, and he did not take long in attaining some notability. After fulfilling the necessary six months' qualification, he was admitted to the Western Australian Bar on 9th February, 1890. His success in the first few cases established his name, and the firm of Moorhead and Northoe, of which he is a member, has now an extensive connection. In civil, criminal, or common law, Mr. Moorhead has been retained in numbers of important cases heard before the chief courts of the colony. His legal knowledge is extensive, and his forensic talents are great. Some of his addresses to the courts have been impassioned and marked with oratorical powers. In 1893, he was appointed City Solicitor to Perth, and he is also solicitor to the Citizens' Life Association, besides several large mining companies.

Although he has been resident in the colony but a few years, Mr. Moorhead has already taken some part in public matters. At the general elections for the first House Assembly, in 1890, he was requisitioned and constantly pressed to stand for the Geraldton constituency. He eventually acquiesced with the wishes of his friends, but on polling-day was defeated

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184 There had been talk of him and Mrs. Brent when she was a girl and he little more than a boy, on the old Pipeclay diggings years ago; but he very seldom spoke to, and never of, her, and he treated her with the greatest respect. It was noticed that while other diggers gave her clothes to make and mend, he never did; but he saw that her water cask was kept filled, in dry weather, from the spring on the flat, and that a load of cut firewood was dumped at the back of the hut occasionally.

Log Paddock was nearly done, and there were fewer diggers than selectors in the vicinity. The children went to a small "provisional" school, over the ridges—where, by the way, little else than geography was provided, the teacher being well up in that branch, and no other.

Little Harry Moore went there occasionally, and was taken in strict and motherly custody, from the time he left his father's hut until he returned to it, by little Lily Brent. Mrs. Foster looked after little Harry's stomach, and the seats of his breeches, while the father was at work; and little Harry usually slept at her place while Tom was on night shift. The child knew her as "Aunty Foster" all his life, and every male in the vicinity was "uncle" to him.

Now, along about this Christmas time, Aunty Foster got another suspicion. On one or two occasions Tom thanked her for certain repairs and additions to his son's wardrobe, which she couldn't remember—wasn't responsible for, in fact; and it puzzled her vaguely, but she was past bothering over riddles. But

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Entablature


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Talk:The Science of Getting Rich

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title: Talk:The Science of Getting Rich


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Entail

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Entail


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 BOWLER, THOMAS WILLIAM (d. 1869), landscape painter, was born in the Vale of Aylesbury. His general talent was noticed by Dr. Lee, F.R.S., who obtained for him the office of assistant-astronomer under Sir T. Maclear at the Cape. After four years, he resigned his post at the observatory, and established himself successfully in Cape Town as an artist and teacher of drawing. He painted a panorama of the district, and published, in 1844, 'Four Views of Cape Town;' in 1854, 'South African Sketches,' a series of ten lithographs of scenes at the Cape of Good Hope; and in 1865, 'The Kafir Wars,' a series of twenty views, with descriptive letterpress by W. R. Thomson. In 1857 he exhibited at the rooms of the Society of British Artists a drawing of the Royal Observatory, Cape Town; and in 1860, at the Royal Academy, two views of Cape scenery. In 1866 he visited Mauritius and made a number of drawings, but a fever there permanently weakened his health, and coming to England he died from an attack of bronchitis, 24 Oct. 1869.

His lithographs are somewhat in the style of Harding, and show facility in handling the chalk and some power of composition.

 BOWLES, CAROLINE ANNE. [See .]  BOWLES, EDWARD (1613–1662), presbyterian minister, was born in February 1613 at Sutton, Bedfordshire. His father, Oliver Bowles, B.D., minister of Sutton, was one of the oldest members of the Westminster Assembly, and author of: Bowles was educated at Catherine Hall, Cambridge, under Sibbes and Brownrigge. He was chaplain to the second Earl of Manchester, and after the surrender of York, 15 July 1644, was appointed one of the four parliamentary ministers in that city, officiating alternately at the minster and Allhallows-on-the-Pavement. On 10 June 1645 the House of Commons voted him 100l. as one of the ministers in the army. His preaching is said to have been extremely popular, even with hearers not of his own party. Among the presbyterians of the city and district he was the recognised leader; nay, it is said that, without being a forward man, 'he ruled all York.' On 29 Dec. 1657 he wrote to Secretary Thurloe, urging the suppression of preachers who advocated the observance of Christmas. Matthew Pool, the commentator, thought more of his judgment than of any other man's. He was a man of some humour. In 1660 he was active in the restoration of the monarchy, accompanying Fairfax to Breda, and incurring some odium with his friends for over-zeal. He did not, however, flinch from his presbyterianism, though report said that the deanery of York was offered to him. Bradbury relates that Bowles, on leaving London after the Restoration, said to Albemarle, 'My lord, I have buried the good old cause, and I am now going to bury myself.' Excluded from the minster, he continued to preach at Allhallows, and subsequently at St. Martin's, besides conducting a Thursday lecture at St. Peter's. The parishioners of Leeds petitioned the king in April 1661 for his appointment to that vicarage, but it was given to John Lake (afterwards bishop of Chichester). Efforts were made (Calamy says by Tillotson and Stillingfleet) to induce him to conform ; but when asked in his last illness what he disliked in conformity, he replied 'The whole.' Calamy reckons him among the silenced ministers, but he died just before the act came into force, and was buried on 23 Aug. 1662. His wife, who predeceased him, was a grand-daughter of Matthew Hutton, archbishop of York, and widow of John Robynson of Dighton. Bowles's portrait (which has been photographed) was in 1869 the property of Leonard Hartley of Middleton Tyas, a collateral descendant. He published: The will, dated 9 July 1707, codicil 21 Aug. 1710, of the presbyterian Dame Sarah Hewley (born 1627, died 23 Aug. 1710), widow of Sir John Hewley, knt. (died 1697), left a large estate to found several trusts for almshouses, preachers, and students ; a condition of admission to the almshouses being the repeating of Mr. Edward Bowles's catechism. The trust having descended to anti-trinitarian hands, a suit was begun on 18 June 1830, which ended in the removal of the trustees by a judgment of the House of Lords given on 5 Aug. 1842.
 * 1) 'Zeale for God's House quickned: a Fast Sermon before the Assembly of the Lords, Commons, and Divines,' 1643, 4to.
 * 2) 'De Pastore Evangelico,' 1649, 4to; 1655 and 1659, 16mo (published by his son, and dedicated to the Earl of Manchester).
 * 1) 'The Mystery of Iniquity yet working,' &c., 1643, 4to (he means popery).
 * 2) 'Manifest Truth,' 1646, 4to (a narrative of the proceedings of the Scotch army, and vindication of the parliament, in reply to a tract called 'Truths Manifest').
 * 3) 'Good Counsell for Evil Times,' 1648, 4to (sermon [Eph. v. 15, 16] at St. Paul's, before the Lord Mayor of London).
 * 4) 'The Dutie and Danger of Swearing,' 1655 (sermon at York).
 * 5) 'A Plain and Short Catechism' (anon), 8th edit. 1676, 8vo (reprinted in Calamy's 'Continuation' and in James's 'History').


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 of the Society of British Artists in Suffolk Street. His works are mostly portraits and figure-subjects of domestic character.

He periodically visited his native town, and is author of a number of poems in the Westmoreland dialect, and of some of sentimental strain in ordinary English. He died at his house in Charlotte Street, Fitzroy Square, London, 27 Dec. 1867.

His writings have been collected under the title 'Rustic Studies in the Westmoreland Dialect, with other scraps from the sketch-book of an artist,' London and Kendal, 1868. A pamphlet, 'Specimens of the Westmoreland Dialect,' by Rev. T. Clarke, William Bowness, &c., Kendal, 1872, contains one poem from the above-named collection.

 BOWRING, JOHN (1792–1872), linguist, writer, and traveller, was born at Exeter on 17 Oct. 1792. He was descended from an ancient Devonshire family, which gave its name to the estate of Bowringsleigh, in the parish of West Allington. For many generations the Bowrings had been engaged in the woollen trade of Devon, and in 1670 an ancestor coined tokens for the payment of his workmen bearing the inscription, with a wool-comb for a device, 'John Bowring of Chulmleigh, his half-penny.' Sir John was the eldest son of Mr. Charles Bowring, of Larkbeare. He was first placed under the care of the Rev. J. H. Bransby, of Moretonhampstead, and subsequently under that of Dr. Lant Carpenter.

Bowring entered a merchant's house at Exeter on leaving school, and during the next four years laid the foundation of his linguistic attainments. According to the brief memoir written by his son, he learned French from a refugee priest, Italian from itinerant vendors of barometers and mathematical instruments, while he acquired Spanish and Portuguese, German and Dutch, through the aid of some of his mercantile friends. He afterwards acquired a sufficient acquaintance with Swedish, Danish, Russian, Servian, Polish, and Bohemian, to enable him to translate works in those languages. Magyar and Arabic he also studied with considerable success, and in later life, during his residence in the East, he made good progress in Chinese. In 1811 Bowring became a clerk in the London house of Milford & Co., by whom he was despatched to the Peninsula. He subsequently entered into business on his own account, and in 1819-20 travelled abroad for commercial purposes, visiting Spain, France, Belgium, Holland, Russia, and Sweden. In. France he made the acquaintance of Cuvier, Humboldt, Thierry, and other distinguished men. On his return from Russia in 1820 he published his 'Specimens of the Russian Poets.' In 1822 he was arrested at Calais, being the bearer of despatches to the Portuguese ministers announcing the intended invasion of the Peninsula by the Bourbon government of France. He was thrown into prison and passed a fortnight in solitary confinement. The real object of his imprisonment was to extort from him admissions which would enable the Bourbon government to prosecute the French liberals. Canning, then British foreign minister, insisted upon an indictment or a release. Bowring was eventually released without trial, but as he had been accused of complicity in the attempt to rescue the young sergeants of La Rochelle, who were executed for singing republican songs, he was condemned to perpetual exile from France. Lord Archibald Hamilton brought the illegality of the arrest before the House of Commons, but Canning explained that the proceedings, however despotic, were warranted by the then existing laws of France. Bowring published a pamphlet entitled 'Details of the Imprisonment and Liberation of an Englishman by the Bourbon Government of France,' 1823. In 1830, Bowring was the writer of an address from the citizens of London congratulating the French people on the revolution of July. He headed the deputation which bore the address to Paris, was welcomed at the hotel de ville, and was the first Englishman received by Louis-Philippe after his recognition by the British government.

Bowring's intimate friend and adviser, Jeremy Bentham, founded, in 1824, the 'Westminster Review,' intended as a vehicle for the views of the philosophical radicals. The editorship was first offered to James Mill, but declined by him on the ground of the incompatibility of the post with his official work. Bowring and Southern eventually became the first editors of the 'Review,' the former taking the political and the latter the literary department ; but subsequently the management passed into Bowring's hands alone. Bowring not only wrote many of the political articles, but also papers on the runes of Finland, the Frisian and Dutch tongues, Magyar poetry, and a variety of other literary subjects. In 1824 Bowring issued his 'Batavian Anthology' and 'Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain ;' in 1827 appeared his 'Specimens of the Polish Poets,' and 'Servian


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 Popular Poetry;' in 1830 'Poetry of the Magyars;' and in 1832 'Cheskian Anthology.' He published Bentham's 'Deontology' (1834) in two volumes, and nine years subsequently he edited a collection of the works of Bentham, accompanied by a biography, the whole consisting of eleven volumes. The university of Groningen conferred upon him, in 1829, the degree of LL.D. In 1828 Bowring was appointed a commissioner for reforming the system of keeping the public accounts, by Mr. Herries, then chancellor of the exchequer ; but his appointment was cancelled at the instance of the Duke of Wellington, who objected to Bowring's radical opinions. He was, however, authorised to proceed to Holland, for the purpose of examining the method pursued by the financial department of that country. He prepared a report, the first of a long series on the public accounts of various European states. It was during this visit to the continent that he translated 'Peter Schlemihl' from the German at the suggestion of Adelung. During a stay in Madrid Bowring had published in Spanish his 'Contestacion á las Observaciones de Don Juan B. Ogavan sobre la esclavitud de los Negros,' being an exposition of the arguments in favour of African slavery in Cuba. At a later period he translated into French the 'Opinions of the Early Christians on War,' by Thomas Clarkson. His 'Matins and Vespers' (1823) went into many editions, both in England and the United States, and his 'Minor Morals' (1834-9), recollections of travel for the use of young people, were likewise very popular. For his 'Russian Anthology' he received a diamond ring from Alexander I, and for his works on Holland, some of which were translated into Dutch, a gold medal from the king of the Netherlands. In 1831 Bowring who had sought official employment in consequence of commercial disasters was associated with Sir H. Parnell in the duty of examining and reporting on the public accounts of France, 'a task which was so satisfactorily performed that he was appointed secretary to the commission for inspecting the accounts of the United Kingdom.' Bowring visited Paris, the Hague, and Brussels, and examined the finance departments of their various governments. The first report made by the commission led to a complete change in the English exchequer, and was the foundation of all the improvements which have since been made. The second report, dealing with the military accounts, was carried into immediate effect. Bowring and Mr. Villiers (afterwards Earl of Clarendon) were appointed, in 1831, commissioners to investigate the commercial relations between England and France, and presented two elaborate reports to parliament. On the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 Bowring appeared as a candidate for the representation of Blackburn, but, though popular with the mass of the people, he lost the election by twelve votes. He now went over to France, where he made close investigation into the silk trade ; and in 1833 he visited Belgium on a commercial mission for the government. His exertions in the south of France in the succeeding year led to a free-trade agitation in the wine districts. In 1835 he went through the manufacturing districts of Switzerland, and reporting to parliament on the trade of that country, he showed the great advantages that had been reaped from the system of free trade. He was in Italy in the autumn of 1836, when he reported to Parliament on the state of our commercial relations with Tuscany, Lucca, the Lombardian and Pontifical states. Bowring had been returned to parliament for the Clyde burghs in 1835, but losing his seat at the general election of 1837, he now travelled in Egypt, Syria, and Turkey on another commercial mission for the government. During this tour Bowring visited every part of Egypt as far as Nubia in the south, traversed Syria from Aleppo to Acre, and returned by way of Constantinople and the Danube. Shortly after his arrival in England he accepted an invitation to a public dinner at Blackburn. This was in September 1838 ; and, halting at Manchester on his way to Blackburn, Bowring met Cobden and others at the York Hotel, the result of this meeting being the formation of the Anti-Corn Law League. In 1839 Bowring was deputed to proceed to Prussia with the object of inducing that country to modify her tariff on English manufactures. He was met by the objection that, 'so long as the English corn laws imposed a prohibitive tariff on foreign grain, it was useless to ask Germany to relax her heavy duties on English goods.' Bowring was the chief author of the important report to parliament on the import duties, which led to the proposed but unsuccessful measure for the relaxation of the English tariff by the whigs, and to Sir Robert Peel's great revised tariff scheme of 1842. Convinced of the necessity for the abolition of the corn laws, Bowring again sought a seat in parliament for the purpose of advocating this measure. Defeated at Kirkcaldy, he was elected for Bolton in 1841. He was a frequent speaker on commercial and fiscal questions, on education, the factory acts, and similar subjects. He took an active


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 and also of the Italian order of St. Michael and St. Lazarus; and he was an honorary member of many of the learned societies of Europe. He received no fewer than thirty diplomas and certificates from various academies and other learned bodies and societies. Bowring was twice married: first, in 1816, to a daughter of Mr. Samuel Lewin, of Hackney, who died in 1858; secondly, to a daughter of Mr. Thomas Castle, of Bristol. His eldest son by the former marriage, Mr. J. C. Bowring, presented to the British Museum a fine collection of coleoptera, consisting of more than 84,000 specimens, known by the name of the Bowringian collection. His second son, Mr. Lewin Bowring, was Lord Canning's private secretary through the Indian mutiny of 1857, and held for some time the post of chief commissioner of Mysore and Coorg. A third son, Mr. E. A. Bowring, C.B., represented his native city of Exeter in parliament from 1868 to 1874, and was made companion of the Bath for his services in connection with the Great Exhibition of 1851. He is also known in literature for his translations of Goethe, Schiller, and Heine.

The following is a complete list of the works of Sir John Bowring:
 * 1) 'Some Account of the State of the Prisons in Spain and Portugal,' published in the 'Pamphleteer,' 1813.
 * 2) 'Observations on the State of Religion and Literature in Spain,' published in the series 'New Voyages and Travels,' 1820.
 * 3) 'Contestacion á las Observaciones de Don Juan B. Ogavan sobre la Esclavitud de los Negros,' 1821.
 * 4) 'Observations on the Restrictive and Prohibitory Commercial System from MSS. of Jeremy Bentham,' 1821.
 * 5) 'Details of the Arrest, Imprisonment, and Liberation of an Englishman,' 1823.
 * 6) 'Russian Anthology,' 1820-3.
 * 7) 'Matins and Vespers,' 1823.
 * 8) 'Batavian Anthology,'.
 * 9) 'Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain,' 1824.
 * 10) 'Peter Schlemihl' (translation from Chamisso), 1824.
 * 11) 'Hymns,'.
 * 12) 'Servian Popular Poetry,' 1827.
 * 13) 'Specimens of the Polish Poets,' 1827.
 * 14) 'Sketch of the Language and Literature of Holland, being a Sequel to "Batavian Anthology,"' 1829.
 * 15) 'Poetry of the Magyars,' 1830.
 * 16) 'Cheskian Anthology,' 1832.
 * 17) 'Deontology,' 1834.
 * 18) 'Minor Morals,' 1834-9.
 * 19) 'Observations on Oriental Plague and Quarantines,' 1838.
 * 20) 'The Influence of Knowledge on Domestic and Social Happiness,' 1842.
 * 21) 'Jeremy Bentham's Life and Works,' 1843.
 * 22) 'Manuscript of the Queen's Court; a Collection of old Bohemian Lyrico-epic Songs, with other ancient Bohemian Poems,' 1843.
 * 23) 'A Speech delivered on the occasion of the Opening of the Barker Steam Press,' 1846.
 * 24) 'The Political and Commercial Importance of Peace,' 1846 (?).
 * 25) 'The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins, and Accounts,' 1854.
 * 26) 'The Kingdom and People of Siam,' 1857.
 * 27) 'A Visit to the Philippine Isles,' 1859.
 * 28) 'Ode to the Deity,' translated from the Russian, 1861.
 * 29) 'On Remunerative Prison Labour as an Instrument for promoting the Reformation and diminishing the Cost of Offenders,' 1865.
 * 30) 'Translations from Petöfi,' 1866.
 * 31) 'On Religious Progress beyond the Christian Pale,' 1866.
 * 32) 'Siam and the Siamese,' a discourse in connection with the Sunday Evenings for the People, 1867.
 * 33) 'The Flowery Scroll,' translation of a Chinese novel, 1868.
 * 34) 'The Oak,' original tales and sketches by Sir J. B., &c., 1869.
 * 35) 'A Memorial Volume of Sacred Poetry,' to which is prefixed a memoir of the author by Lady B., 1873.
 * 36) 'Autobiographical Recollections of Sir John Bowring,' 1877.

 BOWTELL, JOHN (1753–1813), topographer, born in the parish of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, in 1753, became a bookbinder and stationer there. He compiled a history of the town, keeping it by him unprinted; collected fossils, manuscripts, and other curiosities; and was a member of the London College Youths. He was also an enthusiastic bell-ringer, and in 1788, at Great St. Mary's, Cambridge, he rang on the 30-cwt. tenor bell as many as 6,609 harmonious changes 'in the method of bob maximus, generally termed "twelve-in."' Bowtell had no family, and dying on 1 Dec. 1813, aged 60, he made the following important bequests for the benefit of Cambridge: 7,000l. to enlarge Addenbrooke's Hospital; 1,000l. to repair Holy Trinity; 500l. to repair St. Michael's; 500l. to apprentice boys belonging to Hobson's workhouse; and his 'History of the Town' and other manuscripts, his books, his fossils, and curiosities, to Downing College. He was buried at St. Michael's, where the Addenbrooke's Hospital governors erected a tablet to his memory. The governors also placed a portrait of him in their court-room.


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 miracle which is the subject of one of the triads (Myv. Arch. 1st ser. p. 44).

This is the Llandaff account of Teilo, meant to bring out his position as second bishop of the see. In Rhygyfarch's ‘Life of St. David,’ written before 1099, Teilo appears, on the other hand, as a disciple of that saint (Cambro-British Saints, pp. 124, 135); and, according to Giraldus Cambrensis (Itinerary, ii. 1, MS. d. vi. 102, of Rolls edit.), he was his immediate successor as bishop of St. David's. There is, however, no reason to suppose he was a diocesan bishop at all. Like others of his age, he founded monasteries (many of them bearing his name), and Llandaff was perhaps the ‘archimonasterium’ (for the term see Lib. Land. pp. 74, 75, 129) or parent house (Cymmrodor, xi. 115–16). Dedications to St. Teilo are to be found throughout South Wales; Rees (Welsh Saints, pp. 245–6) gives a list of eighteen, and a number of other ‘Teilo’ churches, which have disappeared or cannot be identified, are mentioned in the ‘Liber Landavensis.’ That David and Teilo worked together appears likely from the fact that of the eighteen Welsh dedications to Teilo all but three are within the region of David's activity, and outside that district between the Usk and the Tawy in which there are practically no ‘Dewi’ churches.

There are no recognised dedications to Teilo in Cornwall or Devon, though Borlase seeks (Age of the Saints, p. 134) to connect him with Endellion, St. Issey, Philleigh, and other places. The two forms of the saint's name, Eliud and Teilo (old Welsh ‘Teliau’), are both old (see the marginalia of the ‘Book of St. Chad,’ as printed in the 1893 edition of the Lib. Land.) Professor Rhys believes the latter to be a compound of the prefix ‘to’ and the proper name Eliau or Eiliau (Arch. Cambr. 5th ser. xii. 37–8). Teilo's festival was 9 Feb.

 TELFAIR, CHARLES (1777?–1833), naturalist, was born at Belfast about 1777, and settled in Mauritius, where he practised as a surgeon. He became a correspondent of Sir William Jackson Hooker [q. v.], sending plants to Kew, and established the botanical gardens at Mauritius and Réunion. He also collected bones of the solitaire from Rodriguez, which he forwarded to the Zoological Society and to the Andersonian Museum, Glasgow. In 1830 he published ‘Some Account of the State of Slavery at Mauritius since the British Occupation in 1810, in Refutation of Anonymous Charges … against Government and that Colony,’ Port Louis, 4to. He died at Port Louis on 14 July 1833, and was buried in the cemetery there. There is an oil portrait of Telfair at the Masonic Lodge, Port Louis, and Hooker commemorated him by the African genus Telfairia in the cucumber family. His wife, who died in 1832, also communicated drawings and specimens of Mauritius algæ to Hooker and Harvey.

 TELFER, JAMES (1800–1862), minor poet, son of a shepherd, was born in the parish of Southdean, Roxburghshire, on 3 Dec. 1800. Beginning life as a shepherd, he gradually educated himself for the post of a country schoolmaster. He taught first at Castleton, Langholm, Dumfriesshire, and then for twenty-five years conducted a small adventure school at Saughtrees, Liddisdale, Roxburghshire. On a very limited income he supported a wife and family, and found leisure for literary work. From youth he had been an admirer and imitator of James Hogg (1770–1835) [q. v.], the Ettrick Shepherd, who befriended him. As a writer of the archaic and quaint ballad style illustrated in Hogg's ‘Queen's Wake,’ Telfer eventually attained a measure of ease and even elegance in composition, and in 1824 he published a volume entitled ‘Border Ballads and Miscellaneous Poems.’ The ballad, ‘The Gloamyne Buchte,’ descriptive of the potent influence of fairy song, is a skilful development of a happy conception. Telfer contributed to Wilson's ‘Tales of the Borders,’ 1834, and in 1835 he published ‘Barbara Gray,’ an interesting prose tale. A selected volume of his prose and verse appeared in 1852. He died on 18 Jan. 1862.


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 TELFORD, THOMAS (1757–1834), engineer, was born on 9 Aug. 1757 at Westerkirk, a secluded hamlet of Eskdale, in Eastern Dumfriesshire. He lost his father, a shepherd, a few months after his birth, and was left to the care of his mother, who earned a scanty living by occasional farm work. When he was old enough he herded cattle and made himself generally useful to the neighbouring farmers, and grew up so cheerful a boy that he was known as ‘Laughing Tam.’ At intervals he attended the parish school of Westerkirk, where he learned nothing more than the three R's. He was about fifteen when he was apprenticed to a mason at Langholm, where a new Duke of Buccleuch was improving the houses and holdings of his tenantry, and Telford found much and varied work for his hands to do. His industry, intelligence, and love of reading attracted the notice of a Langholm lady, who made him free of her little library, and thus was fostered a love of literature which continued with him to the end of his busy life. ‘Paradise Lost’ and Burns's ‘Poems’ were among his favourite books, and from reading verse he took to writing it. His apprenticeship was over, and he was working as a journeyman mason at eighteenpence a day, when at two-and-twenty he found his rhymes admitted into Ruddiman's ‘Edinburgh Magazine’ (see, Siller Gun, ed. 1836, p. 227). A poetical address to Burns entreating him to write more verse in the spirit of the ‘Cotter's Saturday Night’ was found among Burns's papers after his death, and a portion of it was published in the first edition of Currie's ‘Burns’ (1800, App. ii. note D). The most ambitious of Telford's early metrical performances was ‘Eskdale,’ a poem descriptive of his native district, which was first published in the ‘Poetical Museum’ (Hawick, 1784), and was reprinted by Telford himself with a few additions, and for private circulation, some forty years afterwards. Southey said of it, ‘Many poems which evinced less observation, less feeling, and were in all respects of less promise, have obtained university prizes.’

Having learned in the way of his trade all that was to be learned in Eskdale, Telford removed in 1780 to Edinburgh, where the new town was in course of being built, and, skilled masons being in demand, he easily found suitable employment. He availed himself of the opportunities which his stay afforded him for studying and sketching specimens of the older architecture of Scotland. After spending two years in Edinburgh he resolved on trying his fortune in London, whither he proceeded at the age of twenty-five. His first employment was as a hewer at Somerset House, then in course of erection by Sir William Chambers. Two years later, in 1784, Telford received a commission (it is not known how procured) to superintend the erection, among other buildings, of a house for the occupation of the commissioner of Portsmouth dockyard. Here he had opportunities, which he did not neglect, for watching dockyard operations of various kinds, by a knowledge of which he profited in after life. His work in his own department gave great satisfaction. He amused his leisure by writing verses, and he improved it by studying chemistry. By the end of 1786 his task was completed, and now a new and wider career was opened to him.

One of Telford's Dumfriesshire acquaintances and patrons was a Mr. Johnstone of Westerhall, who assumed the name of Pulteney on marrying a great heiress, the niece of William Pulteney, earl of Bath [q. v.] Before Telford left London for Portsmouth Mr. (afterwards Sir William) Pulteney had consulted him respecting some repairs to be executed in the family mansion at Westerhall, and took a great liking to his young countryman. Pulteney became through his wife a large landowner in the neighbourhood of Shrewsbury, which he long represented in parliament. When Telford's employment at Portsmouth came to an end, Pulteney thought of fitting up the castle at Shrewsbury as a residence, and invited Telford to Shrewsbury to superintend the required alterations. Telford accepted the invitation, and while he was working at the alterations the office of surveyor of public works for Shropshire became vacant. The appointment was bestowed on Telford, doubtless through the influence of Pulteney. Of Telford's multifarious, important, and trying duties in this responsible and conspicuous position, it must suffice to say that he discharged them most successfully and made himself personally popular, so much so that in 1793, without solicitation on his part, he was appointed by the Shropshire county magnates sole agent, engineer, and architect of the Ellesmere canal, projected to connect the Mersey, the Dee, and the Severn. It was the greatest work of the kind then in course of being undertaken in the United Kingdom. On accepting the appointment Telford resigned the county surveyorship of Shropshire. His salary as engineer of the Ellesmere canal was only 500l. a year, and out of this he had to pay a clerk, a foreman, and his own travelling expenses.

The labours of Telford as engineer of the


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 Ellesmere canal include two achievements which were on a scale then unparalleled in England and marked by great originality. The aqueducts over the valley of the Ceiriog at Chirk and over the Dee at Pont-Cysylltau have been pronounced by the chief English historian of inland navigation to be ‘among the boldest efforts of human invention in modern times.’ The originality of the conception carried out lay in both cases not so much in the magnitude of the aqueducts, unprecedented as this was, as in the construction of the bed in which the canal was carried over river and valley. A similar feat had been performed by Brindley, but he transported the water of the canal in a bed of puddled earth, and necessarily of a breadth which required the support of piers, abutments, and arches of the most massive masonry. In spite of this the frosts, by expanding the moist puddle, frequently produced fissures which burst the masonry, suffering the water to escape, and sometimes causing the overthrow of the aqueducts. For the bed of puddled earth Telford substituted a trough of cast-iron plates infixed in square stone masonry. Not only was the displacement produced by frosts averted, but there was a great saving in the size and strength of the masonry, an enormous amount of which would have been required to support a puddled channel at the height of the Chirk and Pont-Cysylltau aqueducts. The Chirk aqueduct consisted of ten arches of forty span each, carrying the canal 70 ft. above the level of the river over a valley 700 ft. wide, and forming a most picturesque object in a beautiful landscape. On a still larger scale was the Pont-Cysylltau aqueduct over the Dee four miles north of Chirk and in the vale of Llangollen; 121 ft. over the level of the river at low water the canal was carried in its cast-iron trough, with a water-way 11 ft. 10 in. wide, and nineteen arches extending to the length of 1,007 ft. The first stone of the Chirk aqueduct was laid on 17 June 1796, and it was completed in 1801. The first stone of the other great aqueduct was laid on 25 June 1795, and it was opened for traffic in 1805. Of this Pont-Cysylltau aqueduct Sir Walter Scott said to Southey that ‘it was the most impressive work of art which he had ever seen’ (, p. 159).

In 1800 Telford was in London giving evidence before a select committee of the House of Commons which was considering projects for the improvement of the port of London. One of these was the removal of the old London Bridge and the erection of a new one. While surveyor of public works for Shropshire Telford had had much experience in bridge-building. Of several iron bridges which he built in that county, the earliest, in 1795–8, was a very fine one over the Severn at Buildwas, about midway between Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth; it consisted of a single arch of 130 feet span. He now proposed to erect a new London Bridge of iron and of a single arch. The scheme was ridiculed by many, but, after listening to the evidence of experts, a parliamentary committee approved of it, and the preliminary works were, it seems, actually begun. The execution of the bold project was not proceeded with, on account, it is said, of difficulties connected with making the necessary approaches (ib. p. 181). But Telford's plan of the new bridge was published in 1801, and procured him favourable notice in high quarters, from the king and the Prince of Wales downwards.

Telford's skill and energies were now to be utilised for an object very dear to him, the improvement of his native country. At the beginning of the century, at the instance of his old friend Sir William Pulteney, who was governor of the British Fisheries Society, he inspected the harbours at their various stations on the northern and eastern coasts of Scotland, and drew up an instructive and suggestive report. Telford's name was now well known in London, but doubtless this report contributed to procure him in 1801 a commission from the government to undertake a far wider Scottish survey. This step was taken from considerations partly connected with national defence. There was no naval station anywhere on the Scottish coasts, and an old project was being revived to make the great glen of Scotland, which cuts it diagonally from the North Sea to the Atlantic, available as a water-way for ships of war as well as for traffic. The results of Telford's investigations were printed in an exhaustive report presented to parliament in 1803. Two bodies of commissioners were appointed to superintend and make provision for carrying out his recommendations, which included the construction of the Caledonian canal in the central glen already mentioned, and, what was still more urgently needed, extensive road-making and bridge-building in the highlands and northern counties of Scotland. Telford was appointed engineer of the Caledonian canal, the whole cost of which was to be defrayed by parliamentary grants. The expenditure on the road-making and bridge-building, to be planned by him, was to be met only partly by parliamentary grants, government supplying one half of the money required wherever the landowners were ready to contribute the other


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 half. The landowners as a body cheerfully accepted this arrangement, while Telford threw himself body and soul into both enterprises with a patriotic even greater than his customary professional zeal.

The chief roads in the highlands and northern counties of Scotland had been made after the rebellions of 1715 and 1745 purely for military purposes, and were quite inadequate as means of general communication. The usefulness, such as it was, of these military roads was moreover marred by the absence of bridges: for instance, over the Tay at Dunkeld and the Spey at Fochabers, these and other principal rivers having to be crossed by ferry-boats, always inconvenient and often dangerous. In mountainous districts the people were scattered in isolated clusters of miserable huts, without possibility of intercommunication, and with no industry so profitable as the illicit distillation of whisky. ‘The interior of the county of Sutherland being inaccessible, the only track lay along the shore among rocks and sands, which were covered by the sea at every tide.’ In eighteen years, thanks to the indefatigable energy of Telford, to the prudent liberality of the government, and to the public spirit of the landowners, the face of the Scottish highlands and northern counties was completely changed. Nine hundred and twenty miles of good roads and 120 bridges were added to their means of communication. In his survey of the results of these operations and of his labours on the Caledonian canal Telford speaks not merely as an engineer, but as a social economist and reformer. Three thousand two hundred men had been annually employed, and taught for the first time the use of tools. ‘These undertakings,’ he said, ‘may be regarded in the light of a working academy, from which eight hundred men have annually gone forth improved workmen.’ The plough of civilisation had been substituted for the former crooked stick, with a piece of iron affixed to it, to be drawn or pushed along, and wheeled vehicles carried the loads formerly borne on the backs of women. The spectacle of habits of industry and its rewards had raised the moral standard of the population. According to Telford, ‘about 200,000l. had been granted in fifteen years,’ and the country had been advanced ‘at least a century.’

The execution of Telford's plans for the improvement of Scottish harbours and fishing stations followed on the successful inception of his road-making and bridge-building. Of the more important of his harbour works, that at the great fishery station Wick, begun in 1808, was the earliest, while about the latest which he designed was that at Dundee in 1814. Aberdeen, Peterhead, Banff, Leith, the port of Edinburgh, are only a few of his works of harbour extension and construction which did so much for the commerce and fisheries of Scotland, and in some cases his labours were facilitated by previous reports on Scottish harbours made by Rennie [see, 1783–1821], whose recommendations had not been carried out from a lack of funds. In this respect Telford was more fortunate, considerable advances from the fund accumulated by the commissioners of forfeited estates in Scotland being made to aid local contributions on harbour works.

Of Telford's engineering enterprises in Scotland the most conspicuous, but far from the most useful, was the Caledonian canal. Though nature had furnished for it most of the water-way, the twenty or so miles of land which connected the various fresh-water lochs forming the main route of the canal, some sixty miles in length, stretched through a country full of engineering difficulties. Moreover the canal was planned on an unusually large scale, for use by ships of war; it was to have been 110 feet wide at the entrance. From the nature of the ground at the north-eastern and south-western termini of the canal immense labour was required to provide basins from which in all twenty-eight locks had to be constructed from the entrance locks at each extremity, so as to reach the highest point on the canal a hundred feet above high-water mark. Between Loch Eil, which was to be the southernmost point of the canal, and the loch next to it on the north, Loch Lochy, the distance was only eight miles, but the difference between their levels was ninety feet. It was necessary to connect them by a series of eight gigantic locks, to which Telford gave the name of ‘Neptune's Staircase.’ The works were commenced at the beginning of 1804, but it was not until October 1822 that the first vessel traversed the canal from sea to sea. It had cost nearly a million sterling, twice the amount of the original estimate. Still worse, it proved to be almost useless in comparison with the expectations which Telford had formed of its commercial promise. This was the one great disappointment of his professional career. His own theory for the financial failure of the canal was that, while he had reckoned on a very profitable trade in timber to be conveyed from the Baltic to the western ports of Great Britain and to Ireland, this hope was defeated by the policy of the government and of parliament in levying an almost prohibitory duty on Baltic


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 timber in favour of that of Canada. He himself reaped little pecuniary profit from the time and labour which he devoted to the canal. As its engineer-in-chief during twenty-one years he received in that capacity only 237l. per annum.

While engaged in these Scottish undertakings, Telford was also busily occupied in England. He had numerous engagements to construct and improve canals. In two instances he was called on to follow, with improved machinery and appliances, where Brindley had led the way. One was the substitution of a new tunnel for that which had been made by Brindley, but had become inadequate, at Harecastle Hill in Staffordshire on the Grand Junction canal; another was the improvement, sometimes amounting to reconstruction, of Brindley's Birmingham canal, which at the point of its entrance into Birmingham had become ‘little better than a crooked ditch.’ Long before this Telford's reputation as a canal-maker had procured him a continental reputation. In 1808–10 he planned and personally contributed to the construction of the Gotha canal, to complete the communication between the Baltic and the North Sea. Presenting difficulties similar to those which he had overcome in the case of the Caledonian canal, the work was on a much larger scale, the length of the artificial canal which had to be made to connect the lakes being 55 miles, and that of the whole navigation 120 miles. In Sweden he was fêted as a public benefactor, and the king conferred on him the Swedish order of knighthood, honours of a kind never bestowed on him at home.

The improvement of old and the construction of new roads in England were required by the industrial development of the country, bringing with it an increased need for safe and rapid postal communication. A parliamentary committee in 1814 having reported on the ruinous and dangerous state of the roads between Carlisle and Glasgow, the legislature found it desirable, from the national importance of the route, to vote 50,000l. for its improvement. Sixty-nine miles, two-thirds of the new and improved road, were placed under Telford's charge, and, like all his English roads, it was constructed with a solidity greater than that obtained by the subsequent and more popular system of Macadam. Of Telford's other English road improvements the most noticeable were those through which the mountainous regions of North Wales were permeated by roads with their accompanying bridges, while through the creation of a new and safe route, under the direction of a parliamentary commission, from Shrewsbury to Holyhead, communication between London and Dublin, to say nothing of the benefits conferred on the districts traversed, was greatly facilitated. But the very increase of traffic thus caused made only more apparent the inconvenience and peril attached to the transit of passengers and goods in open ferry-boats over the dangerous straits of Menai. It was resolved that they should be bridged. The task having been entrusted to Telford, the execution of it was one of his greatest engineering achievements.

Telford's design for the Menai bridge was based on the suspension principle, of which few English engineers had hitherto made any practical trial. Telford's application of it at Menai was on a scale of enormous magnitude. When it had been approved by eminent experts, and recommended by a select committee of the House of Commons, parliament granted the money required for the execution of the scheme. The main chains of wrought iron on which the roadway was to be laid were sixteen in number, and the distance between the piers which supported them was no less than 550 feet; the pyramids, this being the form which the piers assumed at their utmost elevation, were 53 feet above the level of the roadway, and the height of each of the two principal piers on which the main chains of the bridge were to be suspended was 153 feet. The first stone of the main pier was laid in August 1819, but it was not until six years afterwards that things were sufficiently advanced for the difficult operation of hoisting into position the first of the main chains, weighing 23½ tons between the points of suspension. On 26 April 1825 an enormous assemblage on the banks of the straits witnessed the operation, and hailed its success with loud and prolonged cheering. Telford himself had come from London to Bangor to superintend the operations. Anxiety respecting their result had kept him sleepless for weeks. It is said that when on the eventful day some friends came to congratulate him on his success, they found him on his knees engaged in prayer. Soon afterwards, in 1826, Telford erected a suspension bridge on the same principle as that at Menai over the estuary of the Conway.

During the speculative mania of 1825–6 a good many railways were projected, among them one in 1825 for a line from London to Liverpool. The canal proprietors, alarmed at the threatened competition with their water-ways, consulted Telford, whose advice was that the existing canal systems should


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 be made as complete as possible. Accordingly he was commissioned to design the Birmingham and Liverpool junction from a point on the Birmingham canal near Wolverhampton to Ellesmere Port on the Mersey, an operation by which a second communication was established between Birmingham on the one hand, and Liverpool and Manchester on the other. This was the last of Telford's canals. It is said that he declined the appointment of engineer to the projected Liverpool and Manchester railway because it might injuriously affect the interests of the canal proprietors.

Among the latest works planned by Telford, and executed after he was seventy, were the fine bridges at Tewkesbury (1826); a cast-iron bridge of one arch, and that at Gloucester (1828) of one large stone arch; the St. Katherine Docks at London, opened in 1828; the noble Dean Bridge at Edinburgh (1831); the skilfully planned North Level drainage in the Fen country (1830–4); and the great bridge over the Clyde at Glasgow (1833–5), which was not opened until rather more than a year after Telford's death. His latest professional engagement was in 1834, when, at the request of the great Duke of Wellington, as lord warden of the Cinque ports, he visited Dover and framed a plan for the improvement of its harbour.

During his latest years, when he had retired from active employment and deafness diminished his enjoyment of society, he drew up a detailed account of his chief engineering enterprises, to which he prefixed a fragment of autobiography. Telford was one of the founders, in 1818, of the society which became the Institute of Civil Engineers. He was its first president, and sedulously fostered its development, bestowing on it the nucleus of a library, and aiding strenuously in procuring for it a charter of incorporation in 1828. The institute received from him its first legacy, amounting to 2,000l.

Telford died at 24 Abingdon Street, Westminster, on 2 Sept. 1834. He was buried on 10 Sept. in Westminster Abbey, near the middle of the nave. In the east aisle of the north transept there is a fine statue of him by Bailey. A portrait by Sir Henry Raeburn belonged to Mrs. Burge in 1867 (Cat. of Portrait Exhibition at South Kensington, 1868, No. 166). A second portrait, by Lane, belongs to the Institute of Civil Engineers.

Although Telford was unmarried and his habits were inexpensive, he did not die rich. At the end of his career his investments brought him in no more than 800l. a year. He thought less of professional gain than of the benefits conferred on his country by his labours. So great was his disinterested zeal for the promotion of works of public utility that in the case of the British Fisheries Society, the promoters of which were animated more by public spirit than by the hope of profit, while acting for many years as its engineer he refused any remuneration for his labour, or even payment for the expenditure which he incurred in its service. His professional charges were so moderate that, it is said, a deputation of representative engineers once formally expostulated with him on the subject (, p. 317). He carried his indifference to money matters so far that, when making his will, he fancied himself worth only 16,000l. instead of the 30,000l. which was found to be the real amount. He was a man of a kindly and generous disposition. He showed his lifelong attachment to his native district, the scene of his humble beginnings, not merely by reproducing as soon as he became prosperous the poem on Eskdale which he had written when he was a journeyman mason, but by remitting sums of money every winter for the benefit of its poorer inhabitants. He also bequeathed to aid in one case, and to establish in another, free public libraries at Westerkirk and Langholm in his native valley.

Telford was of social disposition, a blithe companion, and full of anecdote. His personality was so attractive as considerably to increase the number of visitors to and customers of the Salopian coffee-house, afterwards the Ship hotel, which for twenty-one years he made his headquarters in London. He came to be considered a valuable fixture of the establishment. When he left it to occupy a house of his own in Abingdon Street, a new landlord of the Salopian, who had just entered into possession, was indignant. ‘What!’ he exclaimed, ‘leave the house? Why, sir, I have just paid 750l. for you!’ (, p. 302).

Telford's love of literature and of verse-writing clung to him from his early days. At one of the busiest periods of his life he is found now criticising Goethe and Kotzebue, now studying Dugald Stewart on the human mind and Alison on taste. He was the warm friend of Thomas Campbell and of Southey. He formed a strong attachment to Campbell after the appearance of the ‘Pleasures of Hope,’ and acted to him as his helpful mentor. Writing to Dr. Currie in 1802, Campbell says: ‘I have become acquainted with Telford the engineer; a fellow of infinite humour and of strong enterprising mind. He has almost made me a bridge-builder already; at least he has inspired me


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 with new sensations of interest in the improvement and ornament of our country. … Telford is a most useful cicerone in London. He is so universally acquainted and so popular in his manners that he can introduce one to all kinds of novelty and all descriptions of interesting society.’ Campbell is said to have been staying with Telford at the Salopian when writing ‘Hohenlinden,’ and to have adopted ‘important emendations’ suggested by Telford (, p. 384). Telford became godfather to his eldest son, and bequeathed Campbell 500l. He left a legacy of the same amount to Southey, to whom it came very seasonably, and who said of Telford, ‘A man more heartily to be liked, more worthy to be esteemed and admired, I have never fallen in with.’ There is an agreeable account by Southey of a tour which he made with Telford in the highlands and far north of Scotland in 1819. He records in it the vivid impressions made on him by Telford's roads, bridges, and harbours, and by what was then completed of the Caledonian canal. Extracts from Southey's narrative were first printed by Dr. Smiles in his ‘Life of Telford.’ Southey's last contribution to the ‘Quarterly Review’ (March 1839) was a very genial and appreciative article on Telford's career and character. Southey's article was a review of an elaborate work which appeared in 1838, as the ‘Life of Thomas Telford, Civil Engineer, written by himself, containing a Descriptive Narrative of his Professional Labours, with a Folio Atlas and Copper Plates, edited by John Rickman, one of his Executors, with a Preface, Supplement, Annotations, and Index.’ In this volume Telford's accounts of his various engineering enterprises, great and small, are ample and luminous. Rickman added biographical traits and anecdotes of Telford. The supplement contains many elucidations of his professional career and a few of his personal character, among the former being his reports to parliament, &c., and those of parliamentary commissioners under whose supervision some of the most important of his enterprises were executed. In one of the appendices his poem on ‘Eskdale’ is reprinted. There is also a copy of his will. ‘Some Account of the Inland Navigation of the County of Salop’ was contributed by Telford to Archdeacon Plymley's ‘General View of the Agriculture of Shropshire’ (London, 1802). He also wrote for Sir David Brewster's ‘Edinburgh Encyclopædia,’ to the production of which work he gave financial assistance, the articles on ‘Bridges,’ ‘Civil Architecture,’ and ‘Inland Navigation;’ in the first of these, presumably from his want of mathematical knowledge, he was assisted by A. Nimmo.

[The personal as distinguished from the professional autobiography of Telford given in the volume edited by Rickman is meagre, and ceases with his settlement at Shrewsbury. The one great authority for Telford's biography is Dr. Smiles's Life, 1st ed. 1861; 2nd ed. 1867 (to which all the references in the preceding article are made). Dr. Smiles threw much new and interesting light on Telford's personal character, as well as on his professional career, by publishing for the first time extracts from Telford's letters to his old schoolfellow in Eskdale, Andrew Little of Langholm. There is a valuable article by Sir David Brewster on Telford as an engineer in the ‘Edinburgh Review’ for October 1839. Telford as a road-maker is dealt with exhaustively in Sir Henry Parnell's Treatise on Roads, wherein the Principles on which Roads should be made are explained and illustrated by the Plans, Specifications, and Contracts made use of by Thomas Telford, Esq., London, 1833.]  TELYNOG (1840-1865), Welsh poet. [See .]

TEMPEST, PIERCE (1653–1717), printseller, born at Tong, Yorkshire, in July 1653, was the sixth son of Henry Tempest of Tong by his wife, Mary Bushall, and brother of Sir John Tempest, first baronet. It is said that he was a pupil and assistant of [q. v.], and some of the prints which bear his name as the publisher have been assumed to be his own work; but there is no actual evidence that he ever practised engraving. Establishing himself in the Strand as a book and print seller about 1680, Tempest issued some sets of plates of birds and beasts etched by Francis Place and John Griffier from drawings by Francis Barlow; a few mezzotint portraits by Place and others, chiefly of royal personages; and a translation of C. Ripa's ‘Iconologia,’ 1709. But he is best known by the celebrated ‘Cryes of the City of London,’ which he published in 1711, a series of seventy-four portraits, from drawings by Marcellus Laroon the elder [q. v.], of itinerant dealers and other remarkable characters who at that time frequented the streets of the metropolis; the plates were probably all engraved by John Savage (fl. 1690–1700) [q. v.], whose name appears upon one of them. Tempest died on 1 April 1717, and was buried at St. Paul's, Covent Garden, London. There is a mezzotint portrait of him by Place, after G. Heemskerk, with the motto ‘Cavete vobis principes,’ and the figure of a nonconformist minister in the ‘Cryes’ is said to represent him.


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 THE PERVERSE WIDOW Calf as I was, Make way for the Defendant's Witnesses. This sudden Partiality made all the County immediately see the Sheriff also

was become a Slave to the fine Widow. During the Time her Cause was upon Tryal, she behaved herself, I warrant you, with such a deep Attention to her Business, took Opportunities to have little Billets handed to her Council, then would be in such a pretty Confusion, occasioned, you must know, by acting

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 THE PERVERSE WIDOW unaccountable Creatures, that secretly rejoice in the Admiration of Men, but indulge themselves in no further Consequences. Hence it is that she has ever had a Train of Admirers, and she removes from her Slaves in Town to those in the Country, according to the Seasons of the Year. She is a reading Lady, and far gone in the Pleasures of Friendship; She is always accompanied by a Confident, who is Witness to her daily Protestations against our Sex, and consequently a Bar to her first Steps towards Love, upon the Strength of her own Maxims and Declarations.

"However, I must needs say this accomplished Mistress of mine has distinguished me above the rest, and has been known to declare Sir was the Tamest and most Human of all the Brutes in the Country. I was told she said so, by one who thought he rallied me; but upon the Strength of this slender Encouragement, of being thought least destestable, I made new Liveries, new paired

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 THE PERVERSE WIDOW greater Share of Knowledge, Wit, and good Sense, than is usual even among Men of Merit. Then she is beautiful beyond the Race of Women. If you won't let her go on with a certain Artifice with her Eyes, and the skill of Beauty, she will arm her self with her real Charms, and strike you with Admiration instead of Desire. It is certain that if you were to behold the whole Woman, there is that Dignity in her Aspect, that Composure in her Motion, that Complacency in her Manner, that if her Form makes you hope, her Merit makes you fear. But then again, she is such a desperate Scholar, that no Country-Gentleman can approach her without being a Jest. As I was going to tell you, when I came to her House I was admitted to her Presence with great Civility; at the same time she placed her self to be first seen by me in such an Attitude, as I think you call the Posture of a Picture, that she discovered new Charms, and I at last came towards her with such an Awe as made me

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 THE PERVERSE WIDOW my Coach-Horses, sent them all to Town to be bitted, and taught to throw their Legs well, and move all together, before I pretended to

cross the Country and wait upon her. As soon as I thought my Retinue suitable to the Character of my Fortune and Youth, I set out from hence to make my Addresses. The particular Skill of this Lady has ever been to inflame your Wishes, and yet command Respect. To make her Mistress of this Art, she has a 13


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  [Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Chaloner Smith's British Mezzotinto Portraits; Dodd's manuscript Hist. of Engravers in Brit. Mus. (Addit. MS. 33406); information from Major Tempest of Broughton Hall.]

TEMPLE,. [See, 1711-1779.]

TEMPLE, HENRY, first (1673?–1757), born about 1673, was the eldest surviving son of Sir John Temple, speaker of the Irish House of Commons [see under ]. On 21 Sept. 1680, when about seven years old, he was appointed, with Luke King, chief remembrancer of the court of exchequer in Ireland, for their joint lives, and on King's death the grant was renewed to Temple and his son Henry for life (6 June 1716). It was then worth nearly 2,000l. per annum (, Works, 1883 ed. vi. 416). Temple was created, on 12 March 1722–3, a peer of Ireland as Baron Temple of Mount Temple, co. Sligo, and Viscount Palmerston of Palmerston, co. Dublin. He sat in the English House of Commons for East Grinstead, Sussex, 1727–34, Bossiney, Cornwall, 1734–1741, and Weobly, Herefordshire, 1741–47, and was a supporter of Sir Robert Walpole's administration. In the interest of Walpole he offered Dr. William Webster in 1734 a crown pension of 300l. per annum if he would turn the ‘Weekly Miscellany’ into a ministerial paper (, Lit. Anecdotes, v. 162). Sir Charles Hanbury Williams wrote several skits upon ‘Little Broadbottom Palmerston’ (Works, i. 189, ii. 265, iii. 36). He was cured at Bath in 1736 of a severe illness (, Practical Essay on Warm Bathing, 2nd edit. pp. 60–2). Palmerston added the garden front to the house at East Sheen (, Environs, i. 371), and greatly improved the mansion of Broadlands, near Romsey, Hampshire (Hist. MSS. Comm. 14th Rep. App. ix. 251). The volume of ‘Poems on several Occasions’ (1736) by Stephen Duck [q. v.], the ‘thresher,’ patronised by Queen Caroline, includes ‘A Journey to Marlborough, Bath,’ inscribed to Viscount Palmerston. Part of the poem describes a feast given by the peer annually on 30 June to the threshers of the village of Charlton, between Pewsey and Amesbury, Wiltshire, in honour of Duck, a native of that place. The dinner is still given every year, and its cost is partly provided from the rent of a piece of land given by Lord Palmerston.

Palmerston was a correspondent of the Duchess of Marlborough, and some angry letters passed between him and Swift in January 1725–6 (Works, 1883 edit. xvii. 23–29). He helped Bishop Berkeley in his scheme concerning the island of St. Christopher (Hist. MSS. Comm. 7th Rep. App. p. 242), and he presented to Eton College in 1750 four large volumes on heraldry, which had been painted for Henry VIII by John Tirol (ib. 9th Rep. App. i. 357). He died at Chelsea on 10 June 1757, aged 84.

He married, first, Anne, only daughter of Abraham Houblon, governor of the Bank of England. She died on 8 Dec. 1735, having had issue, with other children, a son Henry, who married, on 18 June 1735, Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Colonel Lee, whose widow, Lady Elizabeth, had become in May 1731 the wife of Edward Young the poet. Henry Temple's wife died of consumption at Montpellier, on her way to Nice, in October 1736. He was usually considered the Philander, and his wife was certainly the Narcissa, of Young's ‘Night Thoughts’ (Night iii.). As a protestant she was denied Christian burial at Montpellier, and was finally buried in the old protestant burial-ground of the Hôtel-Dieu at Lyons, 729 livres having been paid for permission to inter her remains there (, Handbook to France, 1892, ii. 27). The widower married, on 12 Sept. 1738, Jane, youngest daughter of Sir John Barnard [q. v.], lord mayor of London, and left at his decease, on 18 Aug. 1740, Henry Temple, second viscount Palmerston [q. v.] The first Lord Palmerston married as his second wife, 11 May 1738, Isabella, daughter of Sir Francis Gerard, bart., and relict of Sir John Fryer, bart. She died on 10 Aug. 1762.

[Burke's Extinct Peerage; Lodge's Irish Peerage, ed. Archdall, v. 240–4; Chester's Westminster Abbey Registers, pp. 7, 382; Johnson's Poets, ed. Cunningham, iii. 330–2.]

TEMPLE, HENRY, second (1739–1802), son of Henry Temple (d. 1740) by his second wife, and grandson of Henry, first viscount [q. v.], was born on 4 Dec. 1739. At a by-election on 28 May 1762 he was returned to parliament in the interest of the family of Buller for the Cornish borough of East Looe, and sat for it until 1768. He subsequently represented the constituencies of Southampton (1768–74), Hastings (1774–80 and 1780–84), Boroughbridge in Yorkshire (1784–90), Newport, Isle of Wight (1790–96), and Winchester (1796 to death). He seconded the address in December 1765. In the same month he was appointed to a seat at the board of trade. From September 1766 to December 1777 he was a lord of the admiralty, and from the latter date to the accession of the Rockingham ministry in March 1782 he was a lord of the


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 THE PERVERSE WIDOW before so much Company, that not only I but the whole Court was prejudiced in her Favour; and all that the next Heir to her Husband had

to urge, was thought so groundless and frivolous, that when it came to her Council to reply, there was not half so much said as every one besides in the Court thought he could have urged to her Advantage. You must understand, Sir, this perverse Woman is one of those 11


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User talk:141.161.197.172

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 treasury. He was a member of the committee nominated by Lord North in November 1772 to inquire into the affairs of the East India Company, but he did not attain to distinction in political life.

Throughout his life Palmerston was fond of travel, of social life, and of the company of distinguished men. He was walking with Wilkes in the streets of Paris in 1763 when the patriot was challenged by a Scotsman serving in the French army. Late in the same year he passed through Lausanne, when Gibbon praised his scheme of travel and prophesied that he would derive great improvement from it. He was elected a member of the Catch Club in 1771, and Gibbon dined with him on 20 May 1776 at ‘a great dinner of Catches.’ He was created a D.C.L. of Oxford on 7 July 1773. At his first nomination on 1 July 1783 for ‘The Club’ he was, against Johnson's opinion, rejected; but on 10 Feb. 1784 he was duly elected (, ed. Napier, iv. 163). A letter from him in 1777 is in Garrick's ‘Correspondence’ (ii. 270–1); Sir Joshua Reynolds often dined at his house, and Palmerston was one of the pall-bearers at the funerals of Garrick and Reynolds. Under the will of Sir Joshua he had the second choice of any picture painted by him, and he selected the ‘Infant Academy.’

[q. v.] accompanied Palmerston to the continent in 1767, and made many drawings of scenes which they visited. When at Spa they met Frances, only daughter of Sir Francis Poole, bart., of Poole Hall, Chester. She was ten years older than Lord Palmerston, but ‘agreeable, sensible, and so clever,’ that, although he desired a fortune and she was poor, he married her on 6 Oct. 1767 (, Letters, p. 174; Notes and Queries, 4th ser. vii. 340). She died at the Admiralty, Whitehall, London, on 1 June 1769, having had a daughter born on 17 May, and was buried in a vault under the abbey church of Romsey, Hampshire. A mural tablet to her memory, with an inscription in prose by her husband, was placed under its west window. His lines on her death, beginning with the words

have been much admired, and are often attributed to Mason.

Palmerston married, as his second wife, at Bath, on 5 Jan. 1783, Mary, daughter of Benjamin Thomas Mee, and sister of Benjamin Mee, director of the Bank of England; like her husband, she revelled in society. The house at Sheen, their favourite resort, is described as ‘a prodigious, great, magnificent old-fashioned house, with pleasure-grounds of 70 acres, pieces of water, artificial mounts, and so forth;’ and their assemblies at the town house in Hanover Square were famous (, Memoirs, iii. 271–2). No schoolboy was ‘so fond of a breaking-up as Lord Palmerston is of a junket and pleasuring.’ Their life is made a ‘toil of pleasure.’

Early in April 1802 Palmerston was very ill, but ‘in good spirits, cracking his jokes and reading from morning to night.’ He died of an ossified throat at his house in Hanover Square, London, on 16 April 1802. His widow died at Broadlands (the family seat near Romsey, Hampshire, which Palmerston had greatly enlarged and adorned) on 20 Jan. 1805. Both of them were buried in the vault under Romsey church, and against the west wall of the nave a monument, by Flaxman, was erected to their memory. Of their large family, the eldest was the statesman,, third viscount Palmerston [q. v.]

Palmerston's ‘Diary in France during July and August 1791’ was published at Cambridge in 1885 as an appendix to ‘The Despatches of Earl Gower, English Ambassador at Paris’ (ed. O. Browning).

Verses by Lord Palmerston are in Lady Miller's ‘Poetical Amusements at a Villa near Bath’ (i. 12, 52–7, 60–3), the ‘New Foundling Hospital for Wit’ (i. 51–9), and Walpole's ‘Royal and Noble Authors’ (ed. Park, v. 327–8). Those in the first of these collections are described by Walpole as ‘very pretty’ (Letters, vi. 171), but they were ridiculed by Tickell in his satire, ‘The Wreath of Fashion.’ His mezzotint portraits were sold by Christie & Manson in May 1890; his pictures in April 1891.

TEMPLE, HENRY JOHN, third in the peerage of Ireland (1784–1865), statesman, was the elder


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 son of Henry Temple, second viscount [q. v.], by his second wife, Mary, daughter of Benjamin Thomas Mee of Bath. He was born at his father's English estate, Broadlands, Hampshire, on 20 Oct. 1784. Much of his childhood was spent abroad, chiefly in Italy, and at home his education was begun by an Italian refugee named Ravizzotti; but in 1795 he entered Harrow, where he rose to be a monitor, and thrice ‘declaimed’ in Latin and English at speeches in 1800. Althorp and Aberdeen were among his schoolfellows. In 1800 he was sent to Edinburgh to board with Dugald Stewart [q. v.] and attend his lectures. Here, says Lord Palmerston (in a fragment of autobiography written in 1830), ‘I laid the foundation for whatever useful knowledge and habits of mind I possess.’ Stewart gave him a very high character in every respect; and to moral qualities the boy added the advantage of a strikingly handsome face and figure, which afterwards procured him the nickname of ‘Cupid’ among his intimates. From Edinburgh he proceeded to Cambridge, where he was admitted to St. John's College on 4 April 1803 (Register of the College). Dr. Outram, afterwards a canon of Lichfield, was his private tutor, and commended his pupil's ‘regularity of conduct.’ At the college examinations Henry Temple was always in the first class, and he seems to have regarded the Cambridge studies as somewhat elementary after his Edinburgh training. He joined the Johnian corps of volunteers, and thus early showed his interest, never abated, in the national defences. He did not matriculate in the university till 27 Jan. 1806, and on the same day he proceeded master of arts without examination, jure natalium, as was then the privilege of noblemen (Reg. Univ. Cambr.) By this time he had succeeded to the Irish peerage on his father's death on 16 April 1802.

In 1806, while still only an ‘inceptor,’ he stood in the tory interest for the seat of burgess for the university, vacant by the death of Pitt, and, though Lord Henry Petty won the contest, Palmerston was only seventeen votes below Althorp, the second candidate. In the same year, at the general election, he was returned for Horsham at a cost of 1,500l.; but there was a double return, and he was unseated on petition 20 Jan. 1807. After again contesting Cambridge University in May 1807, and failing by only four votes, he soon afterwards found a seat at Newtown, Isle of Wight, a pocket borough of Sir Leonard Holmes, who exacted the curious stipulation that the candidate, even at elections, should ‘never set foot in the place.’ By the influence of his guardian, Lord Malmesbury, he had already (3 April 1807) been appointed a lord of the admiralty in the Portland administration, and his first speech (3 Feb. 1808) related to a naval measure. He rose to defend the government against an attack directed upon them for not laying before the house full papers on the recent expedition to Denmark. The speech was a vindication of the necessity of secrecy in diplomatic correspondence. Although a rare and only on great occasions an eloquent speaker, he was a close observer of current political movements, and a journal which he kept from 1806 to 1808 shows that he early devoted particular attention to foreign affairs. In October 1809 the new prime minister, Spencer Perceval, offered Palmerston conditionally the choice of the post of chancellor of the exchequer, of a junior lordship of the treasury with an understood succession to the exchequer, or of secretary at war with a seat in the cabinet. The young man consulted Lord Malmesbury and other friends, but he had already made up his mind. He clearly realised the dangers of premature promotion, and accordingly declined the higher office, accepting the post of secretary at war, but without a seat in the cabinet. He was sworn of the privy council on 1 Nov. 1809.

Palmerston entered upon his duties at the war office on 27 Oct. 1809, and held his post for nearly twenty years (till 1828) under the five administrations respectively of Perceval, Lord Liverpool, Canning, Lord Goderich, and (for a few months) the Duke of Wellington. Apparently he was content with his work, for he successively declined Lord Liverpool's offers of the post of chief secretary for Ireland, governor-general of India, and the post office with an English peerage. Like not a few English statesmen of high family and social tastes, he had at that time little ambition, and performed his official labours more as a duty to his country than as a step to power. He was, in fact, a man of fashion, a sportsman, a bit of a dandy, a light of Almack's, and all that this implied; also something of a wit, writing parodies for the ‘New Whig Guide.’ His steady attachment to his post is the more remarkable, since the duties of the secretary at war were mainly concerned with dreary financial calculations, while the secretary for war controlled the military policy. Palmerston held that it was his business to stand between the spending authorities—i.e. the secretary for war and the commander-in-chief—and the public, and to control and economise military expenditure in the best


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 interests of the country without jeopardising the utmost efficiency of its troops and defences. In the same way he maintained the ‘right of entrée to the closet,’ or personal access to the sovereign, which his predecessor had surrendered in favour of the commander-in-chief. Besides asserting the rights of his office, Palmerston had a laborious task in removing the many abuses which had crept into the administration of his department. In the House of Commons he spoke only on matters concerning his office, and maintained absolute silence upon Liverpool's repressive measures. Some of his official reforms excited the animosity of interested persons, and a mad lieutenant, Davis, attempted to assassinate him on the steps of the war office on 8 April 1818. Fortunately the ball inflicted only a slight wound in the hip, and Palmerston, with characteristic magnanimity, paid counsel to conduct the prisoner's defence.

During nearly the whole of his tenure of the war office he sat as a burgess for Cambridge University, for which he was first returned in March 1811, and was re-elected in 1812, 1818, 1820, and 1826, the last time after a keen contest with Goulburn. He was once more returned for Cambridge in December 1830, but was rejected in the following year on account of his resolute support of parliamentary reform. He complained that members of his own government used their influence against him, and recorded that this was the beginning of his breach with the tories. His next seat was Bletchingley, Surrey (18 July 1831), and when this disappeared in the Reform Act he was returned for South Hampshire (15 Dec. 1832). Rejected by the South Hampshire electors in 1834, he remained without a seat till 1 June 1835, when he found a quiet and steadfast constituency in Tiverton, of which he continued to be member up to his death, thirty years later.

With the accession of Canning to power in 1827, Palmerston received promises of promotion. Although as foreign secretary Canning had found his colleague remarkably silent, and complained that he could not drag ‘that three-decker Palmerston into action’ except when his own war department was the subject of discussion, the new prime minister did not hesitate to place him in the cabinet, and even to offer him the office of chancellor of the exchequer, as Perceval had done nearly twenty years before. The king, however, disliked Palmerston, and Canning had to revoke his promise. Palmerston took the change of plan with his usual good temper; but when, some time afterwards, Canning offered him (at the king's suggestion, he explained) the governorship of Jamaica, Palmerston ‘laughed so heartily’ in his face that Canning ‘looked quite put out, and I was obliged to grow serious again’ (autobiographical fragment in Life of Palmerston, ed. 1879, i. 105–8). Palmerston's jolly ‘Ha, ha!’ was a thing to be remembered. Presently Canning offered him the governor-generalship of India, as Lord Liverpool had done before, but it was declined on the score of climate and health. After the prime minister's sudden death (8 Aug. 1827) and the brief administration of ‘Goody Goderich,’ which expired six months later [see ], Canning's supporters, including Palmerston, resolved ‘as a party’ to continue in the Duke of Wellington's government. The differences, however, between the ‘friends of Mr. Canning’ and the older school of tories—the ‘pig-tails,’ as Palmerston called them—were too deep-rooted to permit an enduring alliance, and in four months (May 1828), on the pretext of the East Retford bill, the Canningites left the government, as they had entered it, ‘as a party.’

Canning's influence moulded Palmerston's political convictions, especially on foreign policy. Canning's principles governed Palmerston's conduct of continental relations throughout his life. The inheritance of a portion of Canning's mantle explains the isolation and independence of Palmerston's position during nearly the whole of his career. He never belonged strictly to any party or faction. Tories thought him too whiggish, and whigs suspected him of toryism, and he certainly combined some of the principles of both parties. The rupture between the Canningites and the tories threw the former into the arms of the whigs, and after 1828 Palmerston always acted with them, sometimes in combination with the Peelites or liberal-conservatives. But though he acted with whigs, and liked them and agreed with them much more than with the tories (as he wrote to his brother, Sir William Temple, 18 Jan. 1828), he never was a true whig, much less a true liberal. He pledged himself to no party, but judged every question on its merits.

During the two years of opposition in the House of Commons, Palmerston's attention was closely fixed upon the continental complications, especially in Portugal and Greece. On 1 June 1829 he made his first great speech on foreign affairs, his first public declaration of foreign policy, and his first decided oratorical success. He denounced the government's countenance of Dom Miguel, lamented that England had not shared with France


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 the honour of expelling the Egyptians from the Morea, and ridiculed the absurdity of creating ‘a Greece which should contain neither Athens, nor Thebes, nor Marathon, nor Salamis, nor Platæa, nor Thermopylæ, nor Missolonghi.’ In home affairs he interfered but little. Since 1812 he had consistently advocated and voted for catholic emancipation; he had voted against the dissenters' disabilities bill in 1828 because no provision had been made on behalf of the Roman catholics; and in the great debate of 1829 he spoke (18 March) with much spirit on behalf of emancipation, which he predicted, in his sanguine way, would ‘give peace to Ireland.’ His influence and reputation had by this time grown so considerable that the Duke of Wellington twice sought his co-operation in 1830 as a member of his cabinet; but, apart from other differences, Palmerston's advocacy of parliamentary reform made any such alliance impossible.

When Lord Grey formed his administration in 1830 Palmerston became (22 Nov.) secretary of state for foreign affairs, and he held the office for the next eleven years contiuously, except for the four months (December 1834 to April 1835) during which Sir Robert Peel was premier. His first negotiation was one of the most difficult and perhaps the most successful of all. The Belgians, smarting under the tyranny of the Dutch and inspirited by the Paris revolution of July, had risen on 28 Aug. 1830, and severed the factitious union of the Netherlands which the Vienna congress had set up as a barrier against French expansion. The immediate danger was that Belgium, if defeated by Holland, would appeal to the known sympathy of France, and French assistance might develop into French annexation, or at least involve the destruction of the barrier fortresses. The Belgians were fully aware of England's anxiety on this point, and played their cards with skill. Lord Aberdeen, who was at the foreign office when the revolution took place, wisely summoned a conference of the representatives of the five powers, when it became evident that the autocratic states, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, were all for maintaining the provisions of the treaty of 1815, and Russia even advocated a forcible restoration of the union. They agreed, however, in arranging an armistice between the belligerents pending negotiations. Palmerston, coming into office in November, saw that the Belgians could not go longer in double harness, and, supported by France, he succeeded within a month in inducing the conference to consent (20 Dec.) to the independence of Belgium as a neutral state guaranteed by the powers, who all pledged themselves to seek no increase of territory in connection with the new arrangement. If it was difficult to get the autocratic powers to agree to the separation, it was even harder to persuade France to sign the self-denying clause, and the attainment of both objects is a striking testimony to Palmerston's diplomatic skill. The articles of peace were signed by the five powers on 27 Jan. 1831. The Dutch accepted but the Belgians refused them, and, in accordance with their policy of playing off France against England, they proceeded to elect as their king Louis-Philippe's son, the Duc de Nemours. Palmerston immediately informed the French government that the acceptance of the Belgian crown by a French prince meant war with England, and he prevailed upon the conference still sitting in London to agree to reject any candidate who belonged to the reigning families of the five powers. France alone stood out, and some irritation was displayed at Paris, in so much that Palmerston had to instruct our ambassador (15 Feb. 1831) to inform Sebastiani that ‘our desire for peace will never lead us to submit to affront either in language or in act.’ So early had the ‘Palmerstonian style’ been adopted. Louis-Philippe had the sense to decline the offer for his son, and, after further opposition, the Belgians elected Prince Leopold as their king, and accepted the London articles (slightly modified in their favour) on Palmerston's ultimatum of 29 May. It was now the turn of the Dutch to refuse; they renewed the war and defeated the Belgian army. France went to the rescue, and the dangers of French occupation again confronted the cabinet. It demanded the finest combination of tact and firmness on the part of Palmerston to secure on 15 Sept. 1832 the definite promise of the unconditional withdrawal of the French army. On 15 Nov. a final act of separation was signed by the conference, and, after some demur, accepted by Belgium. Holland still held out, and Antwerp was bombarded by the French, while an English squadron blocked the Scheldt. The city surrendered on 23 Dec. 1832; the French army withdrew according to engagement; five of the frontier fortresses were dismantled without consultation with France; and Belgium was thenceforward free. The independence of Belgium has been cited as the most enduring monument of Palmerston's diplomacy. It was the first stone dislodged from the portentous fabric erected by the congress of Vienna, and the change has stood the test of time. Belgium


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 was the only continental state, save Russia, that passed through the storm of 1848 unmoved.

Palmerston had always taken a sympathetic interest in the struggle of the Greeks for independence, and had opposed in the Wellington cabinet of 1828, and afterwards in parliament, the limitation of the new state of Greece to the Morea. He alone in the cabinet had advocated as early as 1827, in Goderich's time, the despatch of a British force to drive out Ibrahim Pasha, and had consistently maintained that the only frontier for Greece against Turkey was the line from Volo to Arta which had been recommended by Sir Stratford Canning and the other commissioners at Poros, but overruled by Lord Aberdeen. When Palmerston came into office he sent Sir Stratford on a special embassy to Constantinople, and this frontier was at last conceded by Turkey on 22 July 1832 (, Life of Stratford Canning, i. 498).

The troubles in Portugal and Spain engaged the foreign secretary's vigilant attention. He had condemned the perjury of the usurper Miguel while in opposition, and when in office he sent him ‘a peremptory demand for immediate and full redress’ in respect to the British officers imprisoned at Lisbon, which was at once complied with. On the arrival of Dom Pedro, however, in July 1832, to assert his own and his daughter's interests, Miguel began a series of cruel persecutions and arbitrary terrorism, which filled the gaols and produced general anarchy. English and French officers were actually maltreated in the streets. Both countries sent ships of war to protect their subjects, and Dom Pedro was supported by a large number of English volunteers. Palmerston hoped to work upon the moderate ministry in Spain, which had just replaced the ‘apostolicals,’ and induce them to co-operate in getting rid of Dom Miguel, whose court was a rallying point for their opponents, and in sending Dom Pedro back to Brazil. He founded this hope partly on the analogy between Spain and Portugal in the disputed succession, a daughter and a rival uncle being the problem in each case. Accordingly he sent Sir Stratford Canning on a special mission to Madrid, near the close of 1832, to propose ‘the establishment of Donna Maria on the throne as queen [of Portugal], and the relinquishment by Dom Pedro of his claim to the regency during the minority of his daughter’ (Life of Stratford Canning, ii. 25). Though Queen Christina of Spain was favourable, Canning found the king, Ferdinand VII, and his minister, Zea Bermudez, obdurate, and returned to England without accomplishing his purpose. Before this Palmerston's Portuguese policy had been censured in the House of Lords, but the commons had approved the support of Donna Maria and constitutionalism, and recognised that our friendly and almost protective relations with Portugal justified our interference. The death of Ferdinand, on 29 Sept. 1833, created in Spain, as was foreseen, a situation closely parallel to that in Portugal. Ferdinand, with the consent of the cortes, had repealed the pragmatic sanction of 1713 in favour of his daughter Isabella, who thus became queen; while her uncle, Don Carlos, like Miguel in Portugal, denied the validity of her succession, and claimed the throne for himself. In this double crisis Palmerston played what he rightly called ‘a great stroke.’ By his sole exertions a quadruple alliance was constituted by a treaty signed on 22 April 1834 by England, France, Spain, and Portugal, in which all four powers pledged themselves to expel both Miguel and Carlos from the peninsula. He wrote in high glee (to his brother, 21 April 1834): ‘I carried it through the cabinet by a coup de main.’ Beyond its immediate purpose, he hoped it would ‘serve as a powerful counterpoise to the holy alliance.’ The mere rumour was enough for the usurpers: Miguel and Carlos fled from the peninsula. But France soon showed signs of defection. Palmerston seems to have wounded the sensibility of ‘old Talley,’ as he called him; and Talleyrand, on his return to Paris in 1835, is said to have avenged this by setting Louis-Philippe against him. The late cordiality vanished, and Spain was again plunged in anarchy. The presence of a British squadron on the coast and the landing of an auxiliary legion under De Lacy Evans did little good, and aroused very hostile criticism in England. Sir H. Hardinge moved an address to the king censuring the employment of British troops in Spain without a declaration of war; but after three nights' debate Palmerston got up, and in a fine speech lasting three hours turned the tables on his opponents, and carried the house completely with him. The government had a majority of thirty-six, and the minister was cheered ‘riotously.’ His Spanish policy had achieved something. ‘The Carlist cause failed,’ as he said; ‘the cause of the constitution prevailed,’ and he had also defeated the schemes of Dom Miguel in Portugal.

If France showed little cordiality towards the end of the Spanish negotiations, she was much more seriously hostile to Palmerston's eastern policy, and that policy has been more