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 task to submit the different forms of the Muscineae, the Vascular Cryptogams, and the Gymnosperms to exact investigation in order to ascertain all the details in the process of development in these plants, the formation of the embryo, the succession of cells at the apex, the first appearance and further growth of the lateral organs; and the more careful the observation, the more clearly even to its farthest results does the correctness of the alternation of generations asserted by Hofmeister everywhere appear. It does not fall within the limit of this history to pursue the subject further, and to show how the doctrine of alternation of generations and the knowledge of the morphology of the Cryptogams were further advanced by later and distinguished researches, such as those of Cramer on the Equisetaceae, of Pringsheim on Salvinia (1862), of Nägeli and Leitgeb on the formation of roots in the Cryptogams, of Hanstein on the germination of the Rhizocarps, and of others.

.

The method of investigation which starts from the first steps towards the formation of the embryo before and after fertilisation, and follows the advancing segmentation and growth through all the stages of development up to the final completion of the embryo-plant, has led since 1850 in the case of the Muscineae, Vascular Cryptogams, and Phanerogams to great certainty in the morphological explanation of the organs, while the determination of affinities has ceased to be arbitrary and insecure; the way was now known which would lead to the desired end, whenever it was sought to establish the affinities of a genus of Cryptogams or of the larger groups of Phanerogams; the day of ingenious guessing and trying was over; the only plan was patient investigation, and this always yielded a result of lasting value.

The case was quite different with the Thallophytes still in


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 1850; what was certainly known about them only showed how uncertain the rest was; the Algae, Fungi, and Lichens presented a chaotic mass of obscure forms in contrast with the well-ordered knowledge of the Muscineae and Vascular plants. In the Mosses and Ferns the series of developments within the limits of the species was so set forth in its several stages, that all the important points in the advancing growth were clearly ascertained, while the alternation of generations at once sharply distinguished and connected together the chief sections in the development; on the other hand the development of the Algae and Fungi seemed to break up into a disorderly and motley throng of forms that appeared and disappeared, and it seemed scarcely possible to discover their regular genetic connection. Here the important point was to determine which of the known forms belonged to one and the same cycle of development, for these plants go back at the most various stages of development to the segregation of single cells, which are the beginning of a new development either repeating or carrying on the old one. The beginnings of the most different species of Algae lay mixed up together in the same drop of water, those of quite different Fungi grew together and even upon one another on the same substratum; in the Lichens, Fungus and Alga were united together. Such was the case with the small and microscopic species; the large Seaweeds, the Mushrooms, and the large Lichens were easier to distinguish specifically, but less if possible was known of their development than of that of the microscopic Thallophytes.

Nevertheless the knowledge of individual forms in these organisms had been considerably extended before 1850. Collectors and amateurs, intent only on determining what is immediately presented to the eye and making little enquiry into origin and affinities, were indefatigable in adding to their collections, and made catalogues and proposed various systems founded on external marks taken at pleasure. The names of species were counted by thousands, their characters filled thick

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 {| style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; border: 1px solid black; width: 50%;"
 * If you've missed any of the previous numbers, you will be pleased to know that there are a limited number o! copies still available. They may not be obtainable long, and you are urged to take advantage of this opportunity to acquire these fascinating numbers:
 * No. 1. (Featuring Merritt, Leinstar, Hodgson, C. A. Smith, etc.)
 * No. 2. (Includes Keller, Wright, Endore, Howard, Fisher, etc.)
 * No. 3. (Merritt, Lovecraft, Moore, Bradbury, Grendon, etc.)
 * No. 4. (Bond, Miller, Dunsany, Van Vogt, Smith, etc.)
 * No. 5. (C. L. Moore, Bloch, Chambers, Owen, Benét, etc.)
 * No. 6. (Merritt, Williamson, Lovecraft, Hamilton, McClusky, etc.)
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 * No. 9. (Kline, Hodgson, Wandrei, Miller, Leiber, etc.)
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 * }
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text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bureaucracy

BUREAUCRACY, government by departments of state, acting with some measure of independence of each other, instead of government by the heads of those departments acting as a cabinet on their joint responsibility.


text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bürger, Gottfried August

BÜRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST, (bürg'er), a German poet, born in Molmerswende, Anhalt, Dec. 31, 1747. Shakespeare and Percy's “Reliques of English Ballad Poetry” had a decisive influence in giving direction to his efforts at poetic expression. “Lenore” (1773), established his reputation as a poet, which was sustained by the ballads that followed it, “The Parson's Daughter,” “The Wild Huntsman,” “The Song of the Brave Man,” “Kaiser and Abbot.” Specimens of his burlesque ballads are “The Robber Count,” “The Wives of Weinsberg.” He died in Göttingen, June 8, 1794.


text: Index:Quentin Massys (1875).djvu

title: Index:Quentin Massys (1875).djvu


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. No, thanks, I've had enough.

. Come come, another to my success; you know old Dykvort has been keeping me these two months, while I've been working for the prize: now if I win, I'll repay him and get my fill, but if not, I had better get all I can now. Come at my expense, or rather his.

 * Enter.

. Very well, I'll not be churlish.

. Will you join us Sir?

. I thank you. (they are served)

. I am a stranger here. You have a fine city.

. Aye, the finest in the world.

. The first Iron Workers.

. The largest commerce.

. The bravest citizens.

. I observe a great number of them.

. Of course 'tis the festival—you know of that?

. No, not a word.

. Heavens! its the talk of all Holland these three months.—You've seen our magnificent cathedral, Notre Dame?

. I passed it to day.

. Well, our noble rulers have proclaimed that whoever shall fashion the noblest piece of Iron Work for its altar shall receive a purse of gold, a ring, and robe, and be crowned as first Artisan of Antwerp in the public square.

. And first of us means first of all the world.

. Of course whoever wins will be a made man: so all the most practised craftsmen in the Netherlands

. Aye! and in France,

. Or Germany!

have been for months striving for it.

title: Page:Quentin Massys (1875).djvu/6


text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Burgess, Charles Frederick

BURGESS, CHARLES FREDERICK, an American chemist and engineer; born in Oshkosh, Wis., June 5, 1873. After graduating from the University of Wisconsin, he entered its faculty as instructor and assistant professor of electrical engineering in 1895. Of an inventive turn of mind, he developed several new processes in electrolysis, and in 1904 was made investigator of electrolytic iron alloys for the Carnegie Institute and President of the Northern Chemical Engineering Laboratories. In 1910 he wrote “The Strength of the Alloys of Nickel and Copper with Electrolytic Iron.”


text:
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 IN

BY

ALFRED DEAKIN.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

PRINTED BY J. P. DONALDSON, ELIZABETH STREET,

title: Page:Quentin Massys (1875).djvu/4


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Rh beds. Next morning the police, who investigated the matter, found evidence that the house had been wilfully and deliberately set fire to. Some one had stepped on to a hedge, and had lighted three lucifer matches, and in drawing them from his pocket had drawn out and dropped at the same time two halfpenny stamps. The first two matches had failed. The third took effect. Who had been the incendiary was not discovered. Of course the circumstance first mentioned may be entirely unconnected with the second. But there can be no doubt that bitter animosities are bred by the charges of "ill-wishing" and "overlooking" which are made by the White Witches. They are far too shrewd to name names, but they contrive to kindle and direct suspicions in their dupes which may lead to serious results. It is very difficult to bring these cases home, and on this immunity they trade. But it is devoutly to be hoped that some day certain of these gentry will be tripped up, and then, though magistrates can no more send them to the stake, they will send them to cool their heels in gaol, and richly they will deserve the punishment.


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60 any one suspected was to throw her into a pond! If she sank, why she sank and was drowned, but had the satisfaction of being aware that her character was cleared, whereas if she floated, she was a convicted witch and was burnt. I am not, however, sure that we are not too lenient with the professional White Witch nowadays, as the following incident will show. I do not name the locality, certainly not the persons, for nothing was proved. A certain cattle-dealer three years ago was much troubled because his daughter who had had influenza did not rally, but was rather strange in her head. He went to the county capital to consult the White Witch. The latter showed him a glass of water, and said that the person who had overlooked his child was fair-haired and stout. Further, that she had never been inside his doors, but that she would enter them on the following Saturday. The cattle-jobber looking into the glass of water thought he saw a face—it was that of a woman who lived not far from him. What he really saw was, of course, his own reflected, but with the words of the witch ringing in his ears and guided by his imagination he conceived that he saw a neighbour. He returned home full of conviction and wrath. Next night the husband of the fair-haired, stout woman woke after midnight, and heard a strange crackling sound. He hastily dressed, and went outside his door, when he saw that the thatch of his house was in flames. He hastened to rouse his wife and family, there were six who slept in the house, and he had barely drawn them outside, before the roof fell in and the cottage was converted into one great bonfire. By the merest accident it was that six persons were not burned in their


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Rh me and said, "Why, sir, you have been putting me in the papers." "Well, old friend," said I, "I said in it nothing but what was true." "True, aye, aye, sir, true as gospel. The doctors in Plymouth and Mr. Budd, of North Tawton, gave me up, but Old Snow cured me. I met him on the platform of Tiverton station, and told him my case. He looked me hard in the eye, and said some words, and bade me go home and I was cured. Well, sir, from that day I mended. You see now what I am."

A friend wrote to me: "In 1891, my head man had an attack of influenza, and this fell on his nerves, and convinced that he had been ill-wished, he consulted a White Witch at Callington, who informed him that he had been ’overlooked' by one of his own profession, and that he had applied too late for a cure to be effected."

Now the person who exhorted him to have recourse to the White Witch was his daughter, who was mistress at the school of the parish. The man eventually recovered, but not through the aid of the White Witch. I know a farmer, a God-fearing, sensible man, and thriving in his farm and piling up money, to whom recourse is continually had to stanch wounds, and to cure abscesses, by striking the place and reciting certain mystic sentences. A witch, white or black, must communicate the secret of power to one of an opposite sex before he or she can die—that is well known. That in many cases the imagination acting on the nervous system acts curatively "goes without saying." It is that which really operates in the faith cures and in the Lourdes miracles. What a bad time witches, white or black, must have had when the short way with G


text: Devonshire Characters and Strange Events/White Witches


text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Burgess, Edward

BURGESS, EDWARD, an American naval architect born in West Sandwich, Mass., June 30, 1848. He was educated at Harvard, where he graduated in 1871, and became secretary of the Boston Society of Natural History. He was instructor of entomology at Harvard from 1879 to 1883. He then became a designer of sailing yachts. In 1884 he designed the “Puritan,” the winner of the America's Cup in 1885; and a year later the “Mayflower,” the winner in 1886. He died in Boston, Mass., July 12, 1891.


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Rh

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text:
Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Burgess, (Frank) Gelett

BURGESS, (FRANK) GELETT, an American author and artist; born in

Boston, Jan. 30, 1866. He was educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, from which he graduated in 1887. He embraced civil engineering as a profession, and had considerable railway experience (1887-1890) in California. In 1896 he took up literary work and speedily attracted favorable attention. Most of his writings were illustrated by himself. His work is of a whimsical and humorous nature. Among his publications are “Vivette” (1897); “Goops and How to Be Them” (1900); “The Picaroons” (1904); “Are You a Bromide?” (1906); “Love in a Hurry” (1913); “Mrs. Hope's Husband” (1917); etc.


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Rh

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 but apparently with little ground, that he was connected by family with Sir Anthony Van Dyck. He was possibly related to Philip Van Dyk, a well-known portrait-painter at Amsterdam, who died in 1752.

[Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Graves's Dict. of Artists (1760–1892); Cat. of National Portrait Gallery, 1888.]  VANE, FRANCES ANNE, (1713–1788), daughter of Francis Hawes of Purley Hall, near Reading, one of the South Sea directors, was born at Purley in 1713. Her father's finances were disorganised in 1721 (when the estates of the South Sea directors were sold), and she had little or no dowry, but her striking beauty won her a titled suitor, and she married, when nineteen, Lord William, second son, by his second wife, of James Douglas, fourth duke of Hamilton and first duke of Brandon [q. v.] The bridegroom had no ostensible means of supporting his wife, and Queen Caroline named the pair the ‘handsome beggars.’ Two years later, Lord William, who had recently been appointed M.P. for Lanarkshire, died at his house in Pall Mall (11 July 1734). After an interval of ten months Lady Anne took as her second husband, in May 1735, William Vane, second Viscount Vane (1714–1789), for whom she always expressed an exaggerated abhorrence. Lord Vane, who inherited a large fortune (largely out of the Newcastle estates), was the third but eldest surviving son of William Vane, created Viscount Vane by patent dated Dublin, 13 Oct. 1720. The second viscount, who upon his marriage had but recently succeeded to the title, was thus a great-grandson of Sir Henry Vane (1613–1662) [q. v.], the regicide. He was distinguished through life by his sensitive uprightness in politics, and by a doting fondness for his wife which led him to ignore her most flagrant peccadilloes. Lady Vane, or ‘Lady Fanny’ as she was now called, was the finest minuet dancer in England, and as extravagant as the most capricious of danseuses. As early as January 1737 his lordship had occasion to advertise in the papers for the recovery of his wife, and for the next thirty years her escapades were both frequent and costly. She entertained large parties at the family seat of Fairlawn in Kent, where she diverted her guests by ridiculing her husband. At Bath, where she frequently led the balls, at Tunbridge Wells, and at other resorts, she set up temporary establishments, her tenure of which was generally terminated by the sale of the furniture to pay her gambling debts. Her husband for a time, in order to escape from the importunity of her creditors, was compelled to reside within the rules of the king's bench. Her name had already become conspicuous in the annals of gallantry when in 1751 she caused a sensation by paying Smollett to insert, as chapter eighty-one, in his novel ‘Peregrine Pickle,’ her ‘Memoirs of a Lady of Quality.’ This most impudent and repulsive narrative, by the side of which Smollett's sins against good taste appear venial, was compiled by Lady Vane from materials afforded by her own experience with the aid, it is said, of Dr. John Shebbeare [q. v.] She is stated to have given the work to her husband to read. The viscount steadily refused to sue for a divorce. Fortunately for him the lady was incapacitated by disease before his ruin was complete. She spent the last twenty years of her life in bed, studying the philosophy of Lord Chesterfield, died in Curzon Street, where she had an establishment for many years apart from her husband, on 31 March 1788, and was buried in the family vault of the Vanes at Shipborne in Kent. Her charms were best known, wrote an acquaintance, ‘to a race of men departed long since; the Duke of Leeds and Lord Kilmorey are almost the only survivors of her fame and beauty.’ The testimony to her beauty is as strong as to the fact that she remained to the last a stranger to the veriest rudiments of good feeling. With the death of her husband, the second Lord Vane, in 1789 the title became extinct. The British Museum print-room has a ‘watch paper’ portrait (one and three-quarter inches in diameter) of ‘Lady Vane’ in winter dress, engraved in 1787.

Dr. Johnson's verse (in the Vanity of Human Wishes), ‘Yet Vane could tell what ills from beauty spring,’ referred not to her, but to her distant connection, Anne Vane (1705–1736), maid of honour to Queen Caroline and mistress to Frederick, prince of Wales. Anne Vane, known as ‘the Hon. Mrs. Vane,’ was the eldest daughter of Gilbert Vane, second lord Barnard, and was sister of the Earl of Darlington. Her mother, Mary, daughter of Alderman Morgan Randyll, left a bad reputation upon her death, 4 Aug. 1728. In 1732 Anne Vane had a son, who was publicly christened Cornwell Fitz-Frederick Vane. She lay in with little mystery in St. James's Palace, yet it was doubted whether the prince was the parent, and Horace Walpole states that ‘Fred,’ Lord Hervey, and the first Lord Harrington each confided to Sir Robert Walpole that he was the father of the child. The infant died on 26 Feb. 1735–6, and the unhappy mother, at Bath, a


text:
Author:John Thomas Denny

Works

 * Horses and roads (1880)

title: Author:John Thomas Denny


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 few weeks later, on 27 March (see letter of Miss Vane to Mrs. Howard in Suffolk Correspondence, i. 407 sq., and note; cf. Addit. MS. 22629, f. 28;, Westm. Abbey Reg. p. 345; , Memoirs, passim; Gent. Mag. 1736, p. 168; and art. ). Some of her experiences are lightly touched in ‘The Secret History of Vanella’ (1732). There is an engraving of Mrs. Vane by Faber after Vanderbank, and she was the model for Hogarth's Anne Boleyn in the picture of 1729. She seems to have answered Horace Walpole's description of ‘My Lady Vane’ as a ‘living academy of lovelore’ almost as well as the original.

[A Letter to the Rt. Hon. the Lady V—ss V. Occasioned by the Publication of her Memoirs in the Adventures of Peregrine Pickle, London, 1751, 8vo, a well-earned remonstrance; Gent. Mag. 1788 i. 368, 461, 1789 i. 575, 403; Burke's Extinct Peerage; Collins's Peerage, ed. Brydges, 1812, i. 547, iv. 524; Chambers's Memoir of Smollett, pp. 58 sq.; Boswell's Life of Johnson, ed. Hill, v. 49; Walpole's Corresp. ed. Cunningham, i. 91, 177, ii. 242, 391, v. 14, 15; Jesse's Court of Hanover; Warburton's Horace Walpole and his Contemporaries, 1851, i. 234; J. Chaloner Smith's Cat. of British Mezzotinto Portraits, p. 435.]

VANE, HENRY, the elder (1589–1655), secretary of state, born on 18 Feb. 1589, was the eldest son of Henry Vane or Fane of Hadlow, Kent, by his second wife, Margaret, daughter of Roger Twysden of East Peckham, Kent (, Peerage, ed. Brydges, iv. 502; cf. art. ). He matriculated from Brasenose College, Oxford, on 15 June 1604, was admitted a student of Gray's Inn in 1606, and was knighted by James I on 3 March 1611. At the age of twenty-three he married Frances Darcy, daughter of Thomas Darcy of Tolleshurst Darcy, Essex (, History of the Family of Wray, ii. 113). Immediately after his marriage, writes Vane in an autobiographical sketch, ‘I put myself into court, and bought a carver's place by means of the friendship of Sir Thomas Overbury, which cost me 5,000l.’ Next year he devoted the 3,000l. of his wife's portion to purchasing from Sir Edward Gorge a third part of the subpœna office in chancery, and later so ingratiated himself with the king that James gave him the reversion of the whole office for forty years (ib.) In 1617 Sir David Foulis sold him the post of cofferer to the Prince of Wales, and he continued to hold this office after Charles had became king (Court and Times of James I, i. 462). About 1629 he became comptroller of the king's household in place of John, first baron Savile [q. v.] (Court and Times of Charles I, ii. 16;, iv. 507). Finally, in September 1639 he was made treasurer of the household (ib. p. 513).

Vane's career at court was interrupted by a quarrel with Buckingham, from whom he underwent ‘some severe mortification’ mentioned by Clarendon, but he made his peace with the favourite, and after Buckingham's death was in high favour with Lord-treasurer Weston (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1625–6, p. 10; Rebellion, vi. 411). He represented Lostwithiel in the parliament of 1614, Carlisle from 1621 to 1626, and Retford in 1628, but took no important part in the debates of the house. In February and again in September 1629, and in 1630, Charles sent Vane to Holland in the hope of negotiating a peace between the United Provinces and Spain, and obtaining the restoration of the palatinate by Spanish means (, History of England, vii. 101, 108, 170; cf., Lives of the Princesses, v. 476–9). In September 1631 he was despatched to Germany to negotiate with Gustavus Adolphus; but as Charles merely offered the king of Sweden 10,000l. per month, and expected him to pledge himself to effect the restitution of the palatinate, Gustavus rejected the proposed alliance. Vane's negotiations were also hindered by a personal quarrel with Gustavus, but he gave great satisfaction to his own master. ‘Through your wise and dexterous carriage of that great business,’ wrote Cottington to him, ‘you have saved his majesty's money and his honour’ (, v. 488–504;, vii. 188–205; , ii. 107, 129, 166–174).

A letter from Sir Tobie Matthew to Vane, written about the same time, adds further testimony of Vane's favour at court (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1631–3, p. 437). Clarendon, who is throughout very hostile to Vane, describes him as a man ‘of very ordinary parts by nature, and he had not cultivated them at all by art, for he was very illiterate. But being of a stirring and boisterous disposition, very industrious and very bold, he still wrought himself into some employment.’ For the office of controller and similar court offices, continues Clarendon, he was very fit, ‘and if he had never taken other preferment he might probably have continued a good subject, for he had no inclination to change, and in the judgment he had liked the government both of church and state, and only desired to raise his fortune, which was not great, and which he found many ways to improve’ (Rebellion, vi. 411). Vane began


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mearns, Duncan


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mears, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Meath, Lords of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mechi, John Joseph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Medbourne, Matthew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Mede, Joseph


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alligator

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alligator


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Vane life with a landed estate of 460l. per annum; in 1640 he was the owner of lands worth 3,000l. a year. He had sold his ancestral estate of Hadlow, and bought in its place Fairlawn in Kent, at a cost of about 4,000l. He also purchased the seignories of Raby, Barnard Castle, and Long Newton in the county of Durham, at a cost of about 18,000l. (, History of the Wrays, ii. 113). In May 1633 he entertained the king at Raby (, ii. 178). In 1635 he was granted the wardenship of all forests and chases within the dominion of Barnard Castle, and in the following year the custody of Teesdale Forest and Manwood Chase (, iv. 511;, ii. 112).

Vane's political importance dates from 1630, when he became a member of the privy council. Sir Thomas Roe describes him about that time, in a letter to the queen of Bohemia, as being ‘of the cabinet,’ that is, one of those councillors in whom the king most confided (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1629–1631, p. 306). On 20 Nov. 1632 he was appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty, and on 10 April 1636 one of the commissioners for the colonies, and between 1630 and 1640 he was continually employed on different administrative commissions (, iv. 510). When the disturbances began in Scotland he was appointed one of the eight privy councillors to whom Scottish affairs were entrusted, and was one of the peace party in that committee (Strafford Letters, ii. 186). On 3 Feb. 1640 the king, to the general surprise, appointed Vane secretary of state in place of Sir John Coke. This was effected, in spite of Strafford's opposition, ‘by the dark contrivance of the Marquis of Hamilton and by the open and visible power of the Queen’ (, Rebellion, ii. 48, 54; vi. 411;, History of England, ix. 87; , Sidney Papers, ii. 631, 634).

The intimacy between Vane and Hamilton dated from Vane's mission to Germany, and increased during the first Scottish war, when Vane was the intermediary between Hamilton and the king (, Lives of the Hamiltons, ed. 1852, pp. 24–30, 155, 165, 175). With Strafford Vane had been for some time on apparently friendly terms, but the mismanagement of the war against the Scots, and differences as to the policy to be pursued towards them in the future, caused a breach (Strafford Letters, ii. 325, 419–28). It became permanent when Strafford on his creation as an earl (12 Jan. 1640) selected Baron Raby as his second title, ‘a house,’ says Clarendon, ‘belonging to Sir H. Vane, and an honour he made an account should belong to him too.’ This, continues Clarendon, was an act ‘of the most unnecessary provocation’ on Strafford's part, ‘though he contemned the man with marvellous scorn … and I believe was the loss of his head’ (Rebellion, ii. 101; cf., Memoirs, p. 141).

On the meeting of the Short parliament of April 1640, in which Vane sat for Wilton, he was charged to demand supplies for the war from the commons. On 4 May he informed the house that the king was willing to surrender ship-money, adding that his master would not be satisfied with less than twelve subsidies in return. The debate showed that the king's demand would be refused, and led to the dissolution of parliament on 5 May. Clarendon, who attributes the breach entirely to Vane's mismanagement, charges him with misrepresenting the temper of parliament to the king, and even with ‘acting that part maliciously, and to bring all into confusion’ in order to compass Strafford's ruin (Rebellion, ii. 76;, Memoirs, p. 147). Another contemporary rumour was that Vane brought about the dissolution in order to save himself from prosecution as a monopolist (, Resolved Man's Resolution, pp. 13–18). But Vane was evidently acting by the king's instructions, and Clarendon omits to mention the dispute about the military charges and the intended vote against the Scottish war which complicated the question at issue (, History of England, ix. 113–17). The king did not regard Vane as going beyond his orders, and continued to employ him as secretary. Throughout the second Scottish war he was with the king, and his letters show that he was full of confidence even after the defeat at Newburn (Hardwicke Papers, ii. 174; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1640–1, p. 154). Vane took part as an assistant in the debates of the great council and in the negotiations with the Scots at Ripon (ib. ii. 224; Notes of the Treaty at Ripon, pp. 18, 33). In the Long parliament, where, as in the Short parliament, Vane represented Wilton, he was fortunate enough to escape attack. This he owed partly to the fact that he had not been concerned in the most obnoxious acts of the government, partly to his son's connection with the opposition leaders.

In Strafford's trial Vane's evidence as to the words used by him in the meeting of the privy council on 5 May 1640 was of paramount importance. He asserted positively that Strafford had advised an offensive war with Scotland, telling the king, ‘You have an army in Ireland; you may employ it to


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United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 522

§ 522. Exemptions

(a)

 * (a) In this section—
 * (1) “dependent” includes spouse, whether or not actually dependent; and
 * (2) “value” means fair market value as of the date of the filing of the petition or, with respect to property that becomes property of the estate after such date, as of the date such property becomes property of the estate.

(b)

 * (b)
 * (1) Notwithstanding section 541 of this title, an individual debtor may exempt from property of the estate the property listed in either paragraph (2) or, in the alternative, paragraph (3) of this subsection. In joint cases filed under section 302 of this title and individual cases filed under section 301 or 303 of this title by or against debtors who are husband and wife, and whose estates are ordered to be jointly administered under Rule 1015(b) of the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure, one debtor may not elect to exempt property listed in paragraph (2) and the other debtor elect to exempt property listed in paragraph (3) of this subsection. If the parties cannot agree on the alternative to be elected, they shall be deemed to elect paragraph (2), where such election is permitted under the law of the jurisdiction where the case is filed.
 * (2) Property listed in this paragraph is property that is specified under subsection (d), unless the State law that is applicable to the debtor under paragraph (3)(A) specifically does not so authorize.
 * (3) Property listed in this paragraph is—
 * (A) subject to subsections (o) and (p), any property that is exempt under Federal law, other than subsection (d) of this section, or State or local law that is applicable on the date of the filing of the petition at the place in which the debtor’s domicile has been located for the 730 days immediately preceding the date of the filing of the petition or if the debtor’s domicile has not been located at a single State for such 730-day period, the place in which the debtor’s domicile was located for 180 days immediately preceding the 730-day period or for a longer portion of such 180-day period than in any other place;
 * (B) any interest in property in which the debtor had, immediately before the commencement of the case, an interest as a tenant by the entirety or joint tenant to the extent that such interest as a tenant by the entirety or joint tenant is exempt from process under applicable nonbankruptcy law; and
 * (C) retirement funds to the extent that those funds are in a fund or account that is exempt from taxation under section 401, 403, 408, 408A, 457, or 501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.
 * If the effect of the domiciliary requirement under subparagraph (A) is to render the debtor ineligible for any exemption, the debtor may elect to exempt property that is specified under subsection (d).
 * (4) For purposes of paragraph (3)(C) and subsection (d)(12), the following shall apply:
 * (A) If the retirement funds are in a retirement fund that has received a favorable determination under section 7805 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, and that determination is in effect as of the date of the filing of the petition in a case under this title, those funds shall be presumed to be exempt from the estate.
 * (B) If the retirement funds are in a retirement fund that has not received a favorable determination under such section 7805, those funds are exempt from the estate if the debtor demonstrates that—
 * (i) no prior determination to the contrary has been made by a court or the Internal Revenue Service; and
 * (ii)
 * (I) the retirement fund is in substantial compliance with the applicable requirements of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986; or
 * (II) the retirement fund fails to be in substantial compliance with the applicable requirements of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 and the debtor is not materially responsible for that failure.
 * (C) A direct transfer of retirement funds from 1 fund or account that is exempt from taxation under section 401, 403, 408, 408A, 414, 457, or 501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, under section 401(a)(31) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, or otherwise, shall not cease to qualify for exemption under paragraph (3)(C) or subsection (d)(12) by reason of such direct transfer.
 * (D)
 * (i) Any distribution that qualifies as an eligible rollover distribution within the meaning of section 402(c) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 or that is described in clause (ii) shall not cease to qualify for exemption under paragraph (3)(C) or subsection (d)(12) by reason of such distribution.
 * (ii) A distribution described in this clause is an amount that—
 * (I) has been distributed from a fund or account that is exempt from taxation under section 401, 403, 408, 408A, 414, 457, or 501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986; and
 * (II) to the extent allowed by law, is deposited in such a fund or account not later than 60 days after the distribution of such amount.

(c)

 * (c) Unless the case is dismissed, property exempted under this section is not liable during or after the case for any debt of the debtor that arose, or that is determined under section 502 of this title as if such debt had arisen, before the commencement of the case, except—
 * (1) a debt of a kind specified in paragraph (1) or (5) of section 523 (a) (in which case, notwithstanding any provision of applicable nonbankruptcy law to the contrary, such property shall be liable for a debt of a kind specified in section 523 (a)(5));
 * (2) a debt secured by a lien that is—
 * (A)
 * (i) not avoided under subsection (f) or (g) of this section or under section 544, 545, 547, 548, 549, or 724 (a) of this title; and
 * (ii) not void under section 506 (d) of this title; or
 * (B) a tax lien, notice of which is properly filed;
 * (3) a debt of a kind specified in section 523 (a)(4) or 523 (a)(6) of this title owed by an institution-affiliated party of an insured depository institution to a Federal depository institutions regulatory agency acting in its capacity as conservator, receiver, or liquidating agent for such institution; or
 * (4) a debt in connection with fraud in the obtaining or providing of any scholarship, grant, loan, tuition, discount, award, or other financial assistance for purposes of financing an education at an institution of higher education (as that term is defined in section 101 of the Higher Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 1001)).

(d)

 * (d) The following property may be exempted under subsection (b)(2) of this section:
 * (1) The debtor’s aggregate interest, not to exceed $15,000 in value, in real property or personal property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence, in a cooperative that owns property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence, or in a burial plot for the debtor or a dependent of the debtor.
 * (2) The debtor’s interest, not to exceed $2,400 in value, in one motor vehicle.
 * (3) The debtor’s interest, not to exceed $400 in value in any particular item or $8,000 in aggregate value, in household furnishings, household goods, wearing apparel, appliances, books, animals, crops, or musical instruments, that are held primarily for the personal, family, or household use of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor.
 * (4) The debtor’s aggregate interest, not to exceed $1,000 in value, in jewelry held primarily for the personal, family, or household use of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor.
 * (5) The debtor’s aggregate interest in any property, not to exceed in value $800 plus up to $7,500 of any unused amount of the exemption provided under paragraph (1) of this subsection.
 * (6) The debtor’s aggregate interest, not to exceed $1,500 in value, in any implements, professional books, or tools, of the trade of the debtor or the trade of a dependent of the debtor.
 * (7) Any unmatured life insurance contract owned by the debtor, other than a credit life insurance contract.
 * (8) The debtor’s aggregate interest, not to exceed in value $8,000 less any amount of property of the estate transferred in the manner specified in section 542 (d) of this title, in any accrued dividend or interest under, or loan value of, any unmatured life insurance contract owned by the debtor under which the insured is the debtor or an individual of whom the debtor is a dependent.
 * (9) Professionally prescribed health aids for the debtor or a dependent of the debtor.
 * (10) The debtor’s right to receive—
 * (A) a social security benefit, unemployment compensation, or a local public assistance benefit;
 * (B) a veterans’ benefit;
 * (C) a disability, illness, or unemployment benefit;
 * (D) alimony, support, or separate maintenance, to the extent reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor;
 * (E) a payment under a stock bonus, pension, profitsharing, annuity, or similar plan or contract on account of illness, disability, death, age, or length of service, to the extent reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor, unless—
 * (i) such plan or contract was established by or under the auspices of an insider that employed the debtor at the time the debtor’s rights under such plan or contract arose;
 * (ii) such payment is on account of age or length of service; and
 * (iii) such plan or contract does not qualify under section 401(a), 403(a), 403(b), or 408 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.
 * (11) The debtor’s right to receive, or property that is traceable to—
 * (A) an award under a crime victim’s reparation law;
 * (B) a payment on account of the wrongful death of an individual of whom the debtor was a dependent, to the extent reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor;
 * (C) a payment under a life insurance contract that insured the life of an individual of whom the debtor was a dependent on the date of such individual’s death, to the extent reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor;
 * (D) a payment, not to exceed $15,000, on account of personal bodily injury, not including pain and suffering or compensation for actual pecuniary loss, of the debtor or an individual of whom the debtor is a dependent; or
 * (E) a payment in compensation of loss of future earnings of the debtor or an individual of whom the debtor is or was a dependent, to the extent reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor.
 * (12) Retirement funds to the extent that those funds are in a fund or account that is exempt from taxation under section 401, 403, 408, 408A, 414, 457, or 501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986.

(e)

 * (e) A waiver of an exemption executed in favor of a creditor that holds an unsecured claim against the debtor is unenforceable in a case under this title with respect to such claim against property that the debtor may exempt under subsection (b) of this section. A waiver by the debtor of a power under subsection (f) or (h) of this section to avoid a transfer, under subsection (g) or (i) of this section to exempt property, or under subsection (i) of this section to recover property or to preserve a transfer, is unenforceable in a case under this title.

(f)

 * (f)
 * (1) Notwithstanding any waiver of exemptions but subject to paragraph (3), the debtor may avoid the fixing of a lien on an interest of the debtor in property to the extent that such lien impairs an exemption to which the debtor would have been entitled under subsection (b) of this section, if such lien is—
 * (A) a judicial lien, other than a judicial lien that secures a debt of a kind that is specified in section 523 (a)(5); or
 * (B) a nonpossessory, nonpurchase-money security interest in any—
 * (i) household furnishings, household goods, wearing apparel, appliances, books, animals, crops, musical instruments, or jewelry that are held primarily for the personal, family, or household use of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor;
 * (ii) implements, professional books, or tools, of the trade of the debtor or the trade of a dependent of the debtor; or
 * (iii) professionally prescribed health aids for the debtor or a dependent of the debtor.
 * (2)
 * (A) For the purposes of this subsection, a lien shall be considered to impair an exemption to the extent that the sum of—
 * (i) the lien;
 * (ii) all other liens on the property; and
 * (iii) the amount of the exemption that the debtor could claim if there were no liens on the property;
 * exceeds the value that the debtor’s interest in the property would have in the absence of any liens.
 * (B) In the case of a property subject to more than 1 lien, a lien that has been avoided shall not be considered in making the calculation under subparagraph (A) with respect to other liens.
 * (C) This paragraph shall not apply with respect to a judgment arising out of a mortgage foreclosure.
 * (3) In a case in which State law that is applicable to the debtor—
 * (A) permits a person to voluntarily waive a right to claim exemptions under subsection (d) or prohibits a debtor from claiming exemptions under subsection (d); and
 * (B) either permits the debtor to claim exemptions under State law without limitation in amount, except to the extent that the debtor has permitted the fixing of a consensual lien on any property or prohibits avoidance of a consensual lien on property otherwise eligible to be claimed as exempt property;
 * the debtor may not avoid the fixing of a lien on an interest of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor in property if the lien is a nonpossessory, nonpurchase-money security interest in implements, professional books, or tools of the trade of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor or farm animals or crops of the debtor or a dependent of the debtor to the extent the value of such implements, professional books, tools of the trade, animals, and crops exceeds $5,000.
 * (4)
 * (A) Subject to subparagraph (B), for purposes of paragraph (1)(B), the term “household goods” means—
 * (i) clothing;
 * (ii) furniture;
 * (iii) appliances;
 * (iv) 1 radio;
 * (v) 1 television;
 * (vi) 1 VCR;
 * (vii) linens;
 * (viii) china;
 * (ix) crockery;
 * (x) kitchenware;
 * (xi) educational materials and educational equipment primarily for the use of minor dependent children of the debtor;
 * (xii) medical equipment and supplies;
 * (xiii) furniture exclusively for the use of minor children, or elderly or disabled dependents of the debtor;
 * (xiv) personal effects (including the toys and hobby equipment of minor dependent children and wedding rings) of the debtor and the dependents of the debtor; and
 * (xv) 1 personal computer and related equipment.
 * (B) The term “household goods” does not include—
 * (i) works of art (unless by or of the debtor, or any relative of the debtor);
 * (ii) electronic entertainment equipment with a fair market value of more than $500 in the aggregate (except 1 television, 1 radio, and 1 VCR);
 * (iii) items acquired as antiques with a fair market value of more than $500 in the aggregate;
 * (iv) jewelry with a fair market value of more than $500 in the aggregate (except wedding rings); and
 * (v) a computer (except as otherwise provided for in this section), motor vehicle (including a tractor or lawn tractor), boat, or a motorized recreational device, conveyance, vehicle, watercraft, or aircraft.

(g)

 * (g) Notwithstanding sections 550 and 551 of this title, the debtor may exempt under subsection (b) of this section property that the trustee recovers under section 510 (c)(2), 542, 543, 550, 551, or 553 of this title, to the extent that the debtor could have exempted such property under subsection (b) of this section if such property had not been transferred, if—
 * (1)
 * (A) such transfer was not a voluntary transfer of such property by the debtor; and
 * (B) the debtor did not conceal such property; or
 * (2) the debtor could have avoided such transfer under subsection (f)(1)(B) of this section.

(h)

 * (h) The debtor may avoid a transfer of property of the debtor or recover a setoff to the extent that the debtor could have exempted such property under subsection (g)(1) of this section if the trustee had avoided such transfer, if—
 * (1) such transfer is avoidable by the trustee under section 544, 545, 547, 548, 549, or 724 (a) of this title or recoverable by the trustee under section 553 of this title; and
 * (2) the trustee does not attempt to avoid such transfer.

(i)

 * (i)
 * (1) If the debtor avoids a transfer or recovers a setoff under subsection (f) or (h) of this section, the debtor may recover in the manner prescribed by, and subject to the limitations of, section 550 of this title, the same as if the trustee had avoided such transfer, and may exempt any property so recovered under subsection (b) of this section.
 * (2) Notwithstanding section 551 of this title, a transfer avoided under section 544, 545, 547, 548, 549, or 724 (a) of this title, under subsection (f) or (h) of this section, or property recovered under section 553 of this title, may be preserved for the benefit of the debtor to the extent that the debtor may exempt such property under subsection (g) of this section or paragraph (1) of this subsection.

(j)

 * (j) Notwithstanding subsections (g) and (i) of this section, the debtor may exempt a particular kind of property under subsections (g) and (i) of this section only to the extent that the debtor has exempted less property in value of such kind than that to which the debtor is entitled under subsection (b) of this section.

(k)

 * (k) Property that the debtor exempts under this section is not liable for payment of any administrative expense except—
 * (1) the aliquot share of the costs and expenses of avoiding a transfer of property that the debtor exempts under subsection (g) of this section, or of recovery of such property, that is attributable to the value of the portion of such property exempted in relation to the value of the property recovered; and
 * (2) any costs and expenses of avoiding a transfer under subsection (f) or (h) of this section, or of recovery of property under subsection (i)(1) of this section, that the debtor has not paid.

(l)

 * (l) The debtor shall file a list of property that the debtor claims as exempt under subsection (b) of this section. If the debtor does not file such a list, a dependent of the debtor may file such a list, or may claim property as exempt from property of the estate on behalf of the debtor. Unless a party in interest objects, the property claimed as exempt on such list is exempt.

(m)

 * (m) Subject to the limitation in subsection (b), this section shall apply separately with respect to each debtor in a joint case.

(n)

 * (n) For assets in individual retirement accounts described in section 408 or 408A of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, other than a simplified employee pension under section 408(k) of such Code or a simple retirement account under section 408(p) of such Code, the aggregate value of such assets exempted under this section, without regard to amounts attributable to rollover contributions under section 402(c), 402(e)(6), 403(a)(4), 403(a)(5), and 403(b)(8) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, and earnings thereon, shall not exceed $1,000,000 in a case filed by a debtor who is an individual, except that such amount may be increased if the interests of justice so require.

(o)

 * (o) For purposes of subsection (b)(3)(A), and notwithstanding subsection (a), the value of an interest in—
 * (1) real or personal property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence;
 * (2) a cooperative that owns property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence;
 * (3) a burial plot for the debtor or a dependent of the debtor; or
 * (4) real or personal property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor claims as a homestead;
 * shall be reduced to the extent that such value is attributable to any portion of any property that the debtor disposed of in the 10-year period ending on the date of the filing of the petition with the intent to hinder, delay, or defraud a creditor and that the debtor could not exempt, or that portion that the debtor could not exempt, under subsection (b), if on such date the debtor had held the property so disposed of.

(p)

 * (p)
 * (1) Except as provided in paragraph (2) of this subsection and sections 544 and 548, as a result of electing under subsection (b)(3)(A) to exempt property under State or local law, a debtor may not exempt any amount of interest that was acquired by the debtor during the 1215-day period preceding the date of the filing of the petition that exceeds in the aggregate $125,000 in value in—
 * (A) real or personal property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence;
 * (B) a cooperative that owns property that the debtor or a dependent of the debtor uses as a residence;
 * (C) a burial plot for the debtor or a dependent of the debtor; or
 * (D) real or personal property that the debtor or dependent of the debtor claims as a homestead.
 * (2)
 * (A) The limitation under paragraph (1) shall not apply to an exemption claimed under subsection (b)(3)(A) by a family farmer for the principal residence of such farmer.
 * (B) For purposes of paragraph (1), any amount of such interest does not include any interest transferred from a debtor’s previous principal residence (which was acquired prior to the beginning of such 1215-day period) into the debtor’s current principal residence, if the debtor’s previous and current residences are located in the same State.

(q)

 * (q)
 * (1) As a result of electing under subsection (b)(3)(A) to exempt property under State or local law, a debtor may not exempt any amount of an interest in property described in subparagraphs (A), (B), (C), and (D) of subsection (p)(1) which exceeds in the aggregate $125,000 if—
 * (A) the court determines, after notice and a hearing, that the debtor has been convicted of a felony (as defined in section 3156 of title 18), which under the circumstances, demonstrates that the filing of the case was an abuse of the provisions of this title; or
 * (B) the debtor owes a debt arising from—
 * (i) any violation of the Federal securities laws (as defined in section 3(a)(47) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934), any State securities laws, or any regulation or order issued under Federal securities laws or State securities laws;
 * (ii) fraud, deceit, or manipulation in a fiduciary capacity or in connection with the purchase or sale of any security registered under section 12 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 or under section 6 of the Securities Act of 1933;
 * (iii) any civil remedy under section 1964 of title 18; or
 * (iv) any criminal act, intentional tort, or willful or reckless misconduct that caused serious physical injury or death to another individual in the preceding 5 years.
 * (2) Paragraph (1) shall not apply to the extent the amount of an interest in property described in subparagraphs (A), (B), (C), and (D) of subsection (p)(1) is reasonably necessary for the support of the debtor and any dependent of the debtor.


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 reduce this kingdom.’ In the theory of the prosecution ‘this kingdom’ meant England, not Scotland, and Vane declined to offer any explanation of the words, though much pressed by Strafford's friends (, Trial of Strafford, pp. 545, 546). Other privy councillors present could not remember the words, but Vane persisted in his statement, relying doubtless on the notes of the discussion which he had taken at the time. The notes themselves had been seen by the king and burnt by his orders a short time before the meeting of the parliament, but on 10 April Pym produced a copy which he had obtained from the younger Vane, which corroborated the secretary's evidence. Vane owned the notes, but refused further explanations, and expressed great wrath with his son. Clarendon regards Vane's anger as a comedy played to deceive the public, but admits that for some time after ‘there was in public a great distance observed between them.’ There is no evidence, however, to justify either this theory of collusion, or the further statement that Vane had been throughout the trial the secret assistant of the prosecution (, Rebellion, iii. 130–8;, Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion, pp. 327–35; , History of England, ix. 229, 328. The original copy of the notes, now among the manuscripts of the House of Lords, is printed in Hist. MSS. Comm. 3rd Rep. p. 3. It disappeared mysteriously, and was found among the king's papers taken at Naseby; , Memorials, i. 127; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1640–1, p. 559).

Vane thought that Strafford's attainder would reconcile king and people. ‘God send us now a happy end of our troubles and a good peace’ was his comment on the passing of the bill (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1640–1, p. 571). He did not see that it put an end to his prospects of remaining in the king's service, as its effects were for a time delayed by the difficulty of finding a suitable successor. He was even appointed one of the five commissioners of the treasury when Juxon resigned in May 1641.

In August 1641 Vane accompanied Charles I to Scotland, and as no successor to Windebank, his former colleague in the secretaryship, had yet been appointed, he was charged to correspond with (Sir) Edward Nicholas [q. v.], clerk of the council. His letters during this period are printed in the ‘Nicholas Papers’ (i. 1–60). Although his post as treasurer of the household had already been promised to Thomas, second baron Savile (afterwards Earl of Sussex) [q. v.], he was confident that he should keep both it and the secretaryship (ib. p. 46). But as soon as Charles returned to London he gave the treasurership to Savile, and a few days later dismissed Vane from the secretaryship and all other posts at court (4 Nov. 1641). It was remarked at the time that Vane had ‘the very ill luck to be neither loved nor pitied of any man,’ and the king was convinced of his treachery (ib. i. 283;, Rebellion, iv. 79, 100 n.; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1641–3, pp. 81, 189, 192).

Vane lost no time in joining the opposition. On 13 Dec. 1641 Pym moved that Vane's name should be added to the committee of thirty-two for Irish affairs (, p. 449). Two months later, when the militia bill was drawn up, parliament nominated him as lord lieutenant of Durham (10 Feb. 1642; Commons' Journals, ii. 424). When the civil war broke out the county, which was predominantly royalist in feeling, fell at once under the control of the royalists, and Vane exercised no real authority there till after its reconquest at the end of 1644. John Lilburne, bitterly hostile to all the Vanes, because Sir Henry had been one of his judges, accused him of causing the loss of Durham by negligence and treachery, but the charge met with no belief from parliament (The Resolved Man's Resolution, 1647, pp. 13–18; England's Birthright, 1649, p. 19; Legal Fundamental Liberties, 1649, pp. 19, 45).

Vane was a member of the committee of both kingdoms from its first establishment (7 Feb. 1644). In April 1645 he was employed as one of its representatives with the Scottish auxiliary army (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1644–5, p. 416. His letters during this mission are printed in the Calendar and in Portland Papers, vol. i.) At the Uxbridge treaty parliament asked the king to make Vane a baron, and ordinances for the payment of his losses during the war further show his favour with the parliament (Commons' Journals, iii. 426, 690, iv. 361). These losses were very considerable, as Raby was three times occupied by the royalists, and after its recapture became a parliamentary garrison. He says, probably with truth, ‘In my losses, plunderings, rents, and destructions of timber in my woods, I have been damnified to the amount of 16,000l. at least’ (, ii. 114).

Vane continued to sit in parliament after the king's execution, but a proposal to appoint him a member of the council of state in February 1650 was negatived by the house (, History of the Commonwealth, i. 273; Commons' Journals, vi. 369). He represented Kent in the Protector's first parliament (Old Parliamentary History, xx. 300). He died about May 1655, and royalists


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 ich verbs ch is broad, not slender as in other districts, as ceannachaidh, or rather ceannchaidh, will buy, for ceannaichidh; cheannchadh, would buy, for cheannaicheadh; dh' éireachadh, would rise, for dh’ eiricheadh or dh' éireadh; sanntachaidh, will covet, for sanntaichidh. Shaw in his Analysis uses beannuchibh for beannaichibh, coiruchidh for coirichidh (will blame), mhothuchas for mhothaicheas (will perceive, etc.), and others. Ch is broad in such cases also in Kintyre and in some instances at least in Jura, and so no doubt in Islay also.

In one instance—seiche, hide—ch sounds h in Arran.

Final ch is silent almost invariably in Arran when it comes into contact with the slender vowel i, as in doilich, difficult, etc., ‘doili,' or ‘doiligh’; in nouns ending in ich as buainich, a reaper, ‘buainigh’; in oblique cases in ich as coilich, ‘coiligh,’ genitive singular and nominative plural of coileach, cock, in verbs in ich as éirich, rise, ‘ìre'; imich, go ‘imi’; and so on. Shaw has abuigh for abuich, ripe; anabuidh for anabuich, unripe; caoraidh for caoraich, sheep, and renders ‘Picts’ na Cruinnith for na Cruithnich.

That the same thing is at least fairly common in Kintyre is shown by the following list, probably far from being a full one, in which ch has been noted as being si1ent—abaich, doilich, Di-Domhnaich, éirich, ‘ìri,’ fiadhaich (wild), ionnsaich (learn), mallaichte ‘mollaite.’ MacAlpine has abuidh and fiadhaidh along with the usual forms, and, under Càisg, ‘didònaidh càisg, Easter Sunday,’ for Di-Domhnaich.

Some of the instances in which slender ch is heard in Arran are doiliche, more difiicult; oidhche might (in Manx oie); bruich, boil; cluich, play; deich, ten; and deicheamh tenth, but not deichnear, ten persons! Ith, eat, is sometimes i' and sometimes ich. Bàthaich, a byre, is bàiche, and dùthaich, country, dùiche. The former is bòcha in Kintyre, where also bruich and cluich have ch.

c and g

In initial position g and c in borrowed words sometimes


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Vane reported that he had committed suicide, owing to remorse for his share in Strafford's death (Nicholas Papers, ii. 354, iii. 20). His widow, Frances, lady Vane, died on 2 Aug. 1663, aged 72, and was buried at Shipborne, Kent (, ii. 123). Portraits of Vane and his wife by Vandyck are in the possession of Sir Henry Vane of Hutton Hall, Cumberland, and a portrait of Vane by Mirevelt is in the possession of Lord Barnard (see Cat. of the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866, Nos. 601, 651, 673).

Vane's eldest son, Sir Henry (1613–1662) [q. v.], is noticed separately. George, the second son, born in 1618, was knighted on 22 Nov. 1640. He was parliamentary high sheriff of Durham in September 1645, and apparently treasurer of the committee for the county. Many of his letters to his father on the affairs of the county are printed in the calendar of domestic state papers (1644 pp. 47, 96, 120, 162, 174, 274, 288, 299, 310, ib. 1645 pp. 124, 222;, Memorials, i. 222). He married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sir Lionel Maddison of Rogerly, Durham, and was buried at Long Newton in the same county on 1 May 1679 (, Peerage, iv. 518;, Durham, iii. 214). Charles, the fourth son, matriculated from Magdalen College, Oxford, on 17 March 1637. On 16 Jan. 1650 the parliament appointed him agent of the Commonwealth at Lisbon, in which capacity he demanded Prince Rupert's expulsion from Portuguese ports, but was obliged to leave and take refuge on board Blake's fleet (, History of the Commonwealth, i. 202, 333; Report on the Duke of Portland's MSS.)

Two other sons, William and Walter, were soldiers in the Dutch service (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1645–7 p. 45, 1644–5 p. 310). Walter, who was knighted, seems to have been royalist in his sympathies, and a large number of intercepted letters from him to friends in England are printed in the ‘Thurloe Papers.’ In 1665 Charles II employed him as envoy to the elector of Brandenburg (Stowe MS. 191, f. 6; Addit. MS. 16272). Vane was colonel of a regiment of foot in the English service in 1667, and on 12 Aug. 1668 was appointed colonel of what was known as the Holland regiment (, Army Lists, i. 83, 98, 107). He was killed serving under the Prince of Orange at the battle of Seneff in August 1674 (, Letters, 1712 pp. 47, 88, 97), and was buried at the Hague.

Of Vane's daughters, Margaret married Sir Thomas Pelham, bart., of Holland, Sussex; Frances married Sir Robert Honeywood, knight, of Pett in the county of Kent; Anne married Sir Thomas Liddell of Ravensworth, Durham; Elizabeth married Sir Francis Vincent of Stoke Dabernon, Surrey (, iv. 519).

[A life of Vane is given by Collins under the title of Earl of Darlington, Peerage, ed. Brydges, iv. 505. An autobiographical fragment by Vane, extracts from the registers of Shipborne, and other particulars are contained in Dalton's Hist. of the Wrays of Glentworth, vol. ii.; Clarendon's Hist. of the Rebellion, ed. Macray; other authorities mentioned in the article.]  VANE, HENRY, the younger  (1613–1662), statesman and author, eldest son of Sir Henry Vane the elder [q. v.], was baptised on 26 May 1613 at the church of Debden, near Newport, Essex, and educated at Westminster school under Lambert Osbaldeston (, Athenæ, iii. 578; private information). ‘I was born a gentleman,’ he said in his speech on the scaffold, ‘and had the education, temper, and spirit of a gentleman as well as others, being in my youthful days inclined to the vanities of the world, and to that which they call good fellowship, judging it to be the only means of accomplishing a gentleman.’ About the age of fifteen he became converted to puritanism, and regarded his former course of life as sinful (Trial, p. 87; cf., Life of Vane, p. 8). At sixteen Vane was sent to Oxford, and became a gentleman commoner of Magdalen Hall, ‘but when he was to be matriculated as a member of the university, and so consequently take the oath of allegiance and supremacy, he quitted his gown, put on a cloak, and studied notwithstanding for some time in the said hall’ (, iii. 578). After leaving the university he spent some time at Geneva or Leyden (, Rebellion, iii. 34;, Letters, i. 463). In 1631 his father sent him to Vienna in the train of the English ambassador, and a number of his letters are among the foreign state papers in the record office (, Life of Vane, p. 6).

On his return in February 1632 Sir Tobie Matthew [q. v.] found him extremely improved. ‘His French is excellently good, his discourse discreet, and his fashion comely and fair; and I dare venture to foretell that he will grow a very fit man for any such honour as his father's merits shall bespeak, or the king's goodness impart to him’ (ib. p. 8). A familiar story represents Vane's later hostility towards the king as caused by an insult which Charles put upon him at court during his early life. He himself says, however, that the king showed him great favour, and promised to make him one of the privy chamber in ordinary (Cal. State


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The New International Encyclopædia/Dictionary

DICTIONARY (ML. dictionarius, word-book, from Lat. dictio, word, from dicere, to say). In its original and most common application, a work which is linguistic in character, being a compilation of all or a portion of the words of a language arranged according to some exact order, usually the alphabetical one, with brief explanations and definitions. In later and more elaborate dictionaries additional information of an appropriate character is included within the scope of the work. Thus etymologies, indications of pronunciation, and variations in orthography may be given, while a still further expansion includes citations which illustrate the use of a word. The name is said to have been used for the first time by Joannes de Garlandia, who died in A.D. 1250. He described his book containing a classified list of words as a dictionarius. In its use the word dictionary is no longer confined to a simple linguistic compilation, but is applicable to works on special or technical subjects, which through the medium of an alphabetical classification of words belonging to that subject give appropriate and detailed information. These dictionaries on special subjects are very numerous, such as biographical, historical, bibliographical, geographical, philosophical, mathematical, zoological, medical, and architectural dictionaries.

The following terms are more or less synonymous with dictionary — vocabulary, which is a list of works restricted to a single work or to some division of the language, e.g. the vocabulary of Cæsar's Gallic War; lexicon, a word applied by English-speaking people to a dictionary of some foreign language, as Hebrew, Greek, or Latin; glossary, a partial dictionary of words of a certain dialect or of antiquated or technical terms accompanied by glosses or explanations; thesaurus (verborum), i.e. a treasury of words, an elaborate dictionary with many references and full explanations, more unfamiliar are idioticon, from Greek, idiōtikos, belonging to an individual, and onomasticon; the former, common in Germany, indicates a dictionary of words of a dialect; the latter, from the Greek, onoma, name, is a dictionary of names, as the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux of the second century — a Greek dictionary in ten books containing words arranged according to their meaning. Index denotes a vocabulary without explanatory matter arranged in alphabetical order, often placed at the close of a book to indicate more exactly and definitely the contents thereof. The gazetteer and concordance should be mentioned as having certain characteristics of dictionaries. The first is a geographical dictionary with names of places, seas, rivers, etc., in alphabetical order, with a brief account of each. The word was used first by Lawrence Echard, whose work was entitled The Gazetteer; or, Newsman's Interpreter — A Geographical Index (11th ed., London, 1716). In part ii. the author speaks of his work as “The Gazetteer.” A concordance is an index of various passages in a book classified according to certain leading words which are arranged in an alphabetical order. As this was first made for the Bible, Johnson defines it as “a book which shows in how many texts of Scripture any word occurs.” Thus, as examples, may be cited: Cruden, A Complete Concordance to the Old and New Testaments (London, 1859); Clarke, Concordance to Shakespeare (ib., 1827); Brightwell, A Concordance to the Entire Works of Alfred Tennyson (ib., 1869).

. The earliest dictionary of which there is any mention is that made in Nineveh in the reign of Asshurbanipal in the seventh century B.C., which is impressed on a number of clay tablets in cuneiform letters. Arabic scholars early busied themselves with dictionary-making, a work very necessary for a language as copious as theirs. The first to attempt to gather the entire Arabic vocabulary in one work was probably Khalil ibn Ahmed of Oman (died 791). He adopted an arrangement not alphabetical, but according to certain phonetic and physiological principles. Of Khalil's many successors, Mukarram ibn Mansur, an Egyptian (died 1311), and al-Firuzabadi, a Persian by birth, whose travels, however, entitled him to be called a citizen of the Oriental world (died 1414), may be mentioned. The work of the former (Cairo, 1300 sqq.) filled 20 volumes, and the Camus (‘dictionary’) of the latter, preserved only in part, extended to 60, or, according to some accounts, to 100 volumes. While in a certain sense Hebrew lexicography began with the Massoretic (sixth-eighth centuries), the real production of dictionaries dated from the tenth century, and took its origin and stimulus from the study of Arabic. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (died 942) was the first lexicographer: David Kimchi (c.l200), author of the Book of Roots, was the greatest. Menahem ben Sarug (c.960) made a dictionary arranged according to stems. Judah Hayyuj (c.1000) propounded the theory of triliteral roots, and his work was continued by Rabbi Jonah (Ibn Janah, c.1030). Sanskrit dictionaries begin at a very early date in the glossary of Yaska to the Rig-Veda (about the fifth century B.C. ), and they continue to be for the most part collections of rare words and meanings, being designed especially for the authors who composed the artificial poetry which is so prevalent in India. These dictionaries, the most of which were written after the fifth century A.D., are invariably in verse, and are divisible into the two general classes of lexicons of synonyms and homonyms. Alphabetic arrangement begins only in the latter period of the homonymous dictionaries. The older works of this class arrange the words in order of importance, while the synonymous dictionaries are classified according to subjects. Other modes are according to number of syllables in the word, its gender, or its final letter. The number of native Sanskrit lexicons is over fifty, and of them the Amara-kōśa (q.v.) is the most frequently quoted. There are also special dictionaries on botany, medicine, and astronomy, as well as Buddhistic glossaries in Pali, and polyglot lexicons in Sanskrit, Tibetan, Mongolian, and even Chinese. ( See Zachariæ, Indische Wörterbücher, Strassburg, 1897.) Of Old and Middle Iranian (Avestan and Palilavi) there are but two native dictionaries, one Avestan-Palilavi, and the other Pahlavi-Pazand (both edited by Haug; and Jamaspji, Bombay and London, 1867-70, the former also by Reichelt, Vienna, 1900). In Modern Persian there is a long list of lexicons, both general and special, which are based upon Arabic models, the oldest one, perhaps, written by Asadi, Firdusi's teacher, dating from the eleventh century. In the classical languages, Greek and Latin, we find evidences of lexicographical work at an early period. Dictionaries of language in a form with which we are familiar are of modern origin. They are an outgrowth of the importance of Greek and Latin literature to the scholars of the Middle Ages, and may be traced to the mediæval custom of inserting marginal glosses or explanatory words in texts of classical authors. The bilingual dictionary in particular is due to the closer intercourse of the various nations of the more modern world. The Greeks and Romans did not conceive of a work containing all the words of their own or of a foreign language, and their early dictionaries were simply glossaries of unusual words or phrases. Athenæus tells of Alexandrian scholars such as Zenodotus, librarian of the great library, who compiled books containing foreign phrases and a glossary of Homer; and of Artemidorus of B.C. 240, who prepared a book of technical terms on cooking. Both have been lost. According to Suidas, Apollonius, the Sophist of the days of Augustus, wrote the earliest Greek lexicon, which was entitled , {Lexeis Homērikai), or Homeric Words, published last by Bekker, of Berlin, 1833. This is the most ancient extant. Other Alexandrian lexicographers were Ælius Mœris ( A.D. 100), the Atticist, who wrote a Greek (Attic) lexicon (edited by Hudson, Oxford, 1712), and Harpocration (fourth century), who composed a lexicon of the Attic orators (edited by Dindorf, Oxford, 1853).

Ammonius, professor of grammar at Alexandria, prepared a book of homonyms, published by Valekenaer in 1739 (also Leipzig, 1822). In this same book is edited the work of Zenodotus on the cries of animals, which is similar to Vincento Caralucci's Lexicon Vocum quæ a Brutis Animalibus Emittuntur (Perugia, 1779). Hesychius, of the latter part of the fifth century A.D., wrote a lexicon containing short explanations of Greek words with quotations from authors. The first edition is the Aldine (Venice, 1514), the latest that of Schmidt (Jena, 1867). Orion, of Thebes, Egypt, of about the same period, wrote an etymological dictionary, which was printed last in 1820 at Leipzig by Sturz. Erotian, a physician of Nero, prepared a lexicon on Hippocrates arranged in alphabetical order by a later writer, edited by Klein, Leipzig, 1865. Julius Pollux, of Naueratis, Egypt, who was made professor of rhetoric at Athens by the Emperor Commodus, wrote the Onomasticon referred to above, which is a work of great value for the language and for the study of antiquities. It first appears in the Aldine edition (Venice, 1500). There is an edition by Dindorf (Leipzig, 1824). The most famous of Greek writers of glossaries is Suidas,

whose period is thought to be the tenth century A.D. He prepared an alphabetical dictionary of words, with place and personal names and many quotations from Greek writers and scholars. This book was first printed at Milan in 1499 and again in an excellent edition by Bernhardy, Halle, 1853. Other Byzantine lexicographers are Photius of the ninth century (edition by Naber, Lyden, 1864), and John Zonaras of the twelfth century (edition by Tittmann, Leipzig, 1808). Gaisford, at Oxford, published in 1848 a Greek glossary of the eleventh century known as Etymologicum Magnum, which contains many passages from different writers and many references of an historical and mythological character. Eudocia Augusta, of Macrembolis, wife of Constantine XI. and Romanus IV. (1059-71), prepared an historical and mythological dictionary which she called, Iōnia, Bed of Violets. In the work of Crastoni, a native of Piacenza, we have the first Greek and Latin lexicon. There is an Aldine edition of 1497. To the same time belong Guarina's Thesaurus, and that of Thomas, known as the monk Theodolus. In 1572 at Geneva appeared the Thesaurus Grææ Linguæ of Henri Estienne (Stephanus), reëdited by Dindorf at Paris, 1865, the most complete Greek lexicon published. The first Greek-English lexicon is that of John Jones, London, 1823, although the work of John Pickering, which was incomplete, dates in 1814. The most useful Greek-English lexicon is the Liddell and Scott (8th ed., New York, 1897), also in abridged form. Pape, Wörterbuch der griechischen Eigennamen (Brunswick, 1875-80) is of value for proper names. Special Greek lexicons worthy of mention are: Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, by J. H. Thayer, a revision of Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti (London, 1889); Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods, by E. A. Sophocles, revised by J. H. Thayer (ib., 1887), and for modern Greek, , Modern-Greek-English and English-Modern-Greek, by Contopoulos (3d ed. Athens, 1889).

In Latin lexicography we think first of M. Terentius Varro, who wrote De Lingua Latina, a work on etymology and the uses of words, then of Verrius Flaceus, living in the days of Augustus, who wrote De Verborum Significata, which is extant in the compilation of Pompeius Festus, entitled De Significatione Verborum, which was abridged by Paulus Diaconus of the eighth century. The words are arranged alphabetically. This work has been of great service in giving information on antiquities and grammar. Less familiar are the dictionary of Papias of the eleventh century based on glossaries of the sixth and seventh, and the Catholicon or Summa of Giovanni Balbi. dating about 1286 and now a curiosity as printed by Gutenberg in 1460. It passed through twenty editions. The earliest polyglot was the work of an Augustine monk, Colepino, dating at Reggio 1502. At first it was a Latin-Greek lexicon, then extended to include Italian, French, and Spanish, and finally in the edition at Basel in 1590 there were eleven languages. The great Latin dictionaries are Thesaurus Linguæ Latinæ of Robert Estienne (Paris, 1531), reëdited down to 1734: and the Totius Lexicon Latinitatis by Forcellini (Padua, 1771, this edition being published with

the names of Facciolati and Forcellini as editors; 3d ed., 1831). The Latin words are given Greek and Italian equivalents, and are illustrated by examples from classical literature. The latest (fifth) edition is that of De Vit (Prato, 1858-79), with the Onomasticon Totius Latinitatis as a supplement. This is the greatest of all Latin lexicons. The first Latin-English lexicon of any account was edited by Sir Thomas Elyot (London, 1538; 3d ed. 1545). Before this there had appeared the Promptorium Parrulorum by Galfridus Grammaticus (1499), the Medulla Grammatica in manuscript (1483), and the Ortus (garden) Vocabulorum of Wynkyn de Worde (1500). Then in 1552 a Richard Huloet published his English-Latin Abecedarium with English definitions, and in 1570 appeared Maniputus Vocabulorum Puerorum, a rhyming dictionary of English and Latin words by Peter Levins, and finally the Alvearic by John Baret, which had three languages, English, Latin, French. In 1736 Robert Ainsworth published his Latin-English dictionary, which passed through many editions. The best Latin lexicons of to-day are: Latin-English Dictionary, White and Riddle (London, 1880), and English-Latin Dictionary ( ib., 1869); Harper's Latin Dictionary, which is based on Freund's Latin-German Lexicon, in English, by Andrews (New York, 1856), and which is revised by Lewis and Short (ib., 1886); Georges, Deutsch-Lateinisches und Lateinisch-Deutsches Wörterbuch (4 vols., Leipzig, 1880-85). This last is most accurate and satisfactory and next to the Forcellini contains the most words of any Latin lexicon. The greatest Latin lexicon of modern times is the Thesaurus Linguaæ Latinæ (Leipzig, 1900 et seq.), which is due mainly to the genius of Edward Wölfflin of Munich. It is edited, under the supervision of the five great German academies, by the most distinguished classical scholars of Germany. It has reached — in 1902 — 360 pages, and the word last treated is artus, a fact which shows the great scope of this work. For mediæval Latin the only lexicon of importance is the Du Cange, Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediæ et Infimæ Latinitatis (1733-36, edited by Henschel; 16 vols., Paris, 1882-88).

. The earliest work on lexicography in England was directed to the extension of our knowledge of Latin. To such a purpose are due the Latin-English dictionaries of the latter period of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth, which are mentioned above. With a similar purpose. Minsheu published in 1617 his great polyglot Guide to the Tongues, explaining English words by those from ten foreign languages. The English Expositor of John Bullokar (1616) was the first English dictionary in the strict sense of the term, as it gave both words and definitions in English. In the seventeenth century we find the dictionary of Henry Cockeran (1623), the Glossographia of Thomas Blount (1656); Phillips, The New World of English Words (1658); and Elisha Coles' English Dictionary (1677). In the early part of the eighteenth century there appeared the first dictionary which attempted to give a complete collection of words of the language, the Universal Etymological English Dictionary of Nathan Bailey (1721). In his preface to the first volume the author declares that he is the first to attempt in English to trace the derivation of English words on a large scale, although he refers to the work of Blount in his Glossography and Skinner in his Etymologicon (1671). He also marked accents to aid in pronunciation. Bailey's dictionary passed through twenty-four editions before the close of the century and was the standard until the publication of Johnson's Dictionary. In 1755 Dr. Samuel Johnson published, after seven years of labor, his famous dictionary. This was a most remarkable achievement and was epoch-making in the history of the language, for it determined the form, meaning, and use of English words. Dr. Johnson also introduced the custom of illustrating the use of words by quotations from the best writers. Whatever is said on the etymological side belongs to that time and is not in accord with present knowledge. This work passed through many editions, of which the last is that of Robert Gordon Latham (London, 1866), which is not of any great value today save from an historic point of view. Johnson's Dictionary simply imitated Bailey's in the use of accents to indicate pronunciation. The first dictionary which gave attention to orthoëpy is that of Kenrick (London, 1773), likewise Perry, Royal Standard English Dictionary (Boston, 1777), and the Complete Dictionary of the English Language by the famous elocutionist, Thomas Sheridan (London, 1780). The object of this work is stated to be “to establish a plain and permanent standard of pronunciation.” In 1791 John Walker published Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language. In this work pronunciation is the main object, and the author declares his design to be “to give a kind of history of pronunciation and to register its present state.” This dictionary has had a wide circulation and has a reputation to-day, although it is not a reliable guide for the pronunciation of the present time, but rather supplies information as to the pronunciation at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1836 B. H. Smart published his New Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language. This is also designated “Walker Remodelled.” The New Dictionary, by Richardson, published also in London, 1836 (new ed., New York, 1863), is valuable for many citations from authors in chronological arrangement, which, however, have unfortunately been abridged in the later edition. The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language by John Ogilvie (London, 1850) is an encyclopædic lexicon, literary, scientific, and technological. A new edition by Charles Annandale dates in 1883. This formed the model of the Century Dictionary, mentioned below. Similar to the Imperial Dictionary is the Encyclopædic Dictionary by Robert Hunter (London, 1879-88). In 1806 Noah Webster published his Compendious Dictionary and in 1828 he brought out his great American Dictionary of the English Language, which was followed by abridged editions. Besides many editions containing minor changes complete revisions of the large dictionary were made in 1847 by Chauncey A. Goodrich and in 1864 and 1890 by Noah Porter. This last revision is entitled Webster's International Dictionary. It has an appendix with valuable tables, e.g. a pronouncing biographical dictionary and pronouncing gazetteer. An extensive Supplement of 25,000 words edited by W. T. Harris was added in 1900. The Webster dictionaries were the initial works in lexicography in the United States. The

Dictionary of the English Language by Joseph E. Worcester dates from 1859. It has gone through many editions, the last of which contains a supplement with 12,500 new words and an appendix with pronouncing dictionary and pronouncing gazetteer. In the introduction are found a Catalogue of English Dictionaries and a History of English Lexicography. A useful college and school dictionary is that of the Rev. James Stormonth. It is a dictionary of standard English and is convenient for reference in matters of pronunciation. Recent years have been prolific of important English dictionaries. Since 1890, besides the last edition of Webster mentioned above, have appeared: The Century Dictionary, an encyclopædic lexicon of the English language, prepared under the supervision of William D. Whitney, in six volumes (New York, 1891), a most elaborate work looking to completeness in vocabulary, especially in scientific and technical terms. A Standard Dictionary of the English Language, prepared under the supervision of Isaac K. Funk and Francis A. March (New York, 1893-95). This work is more concise in its treatment of words than the last named, but is very complete in its vocabulary. It has ten appendices, e.g. lists of proper names, disputed spellings, etc. The greatest of all dictionaries of the English language is entitled, A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, founded mainly on matter collected by the Philological Society, edited by James A. H. Murray and Henry Bradley. “The purpose of this dictionary is to furnish an adequate account of the meaning, origin, and history of English word now in general use or known to have been in use at any time during the last seven hundred years.” It aims to give pronunciation, etymology, the history of words, and illustrative examples from all periods. About half of it had been published in 1902.

The form and contents of the dictionary of the present day are the result of the experience of years of lexicographical work. The alphabetical order is now accepted as the best, while the historic development in the definitions is also a feature of modern times. Other arrangements were according to the subject, or again according to roots, both of which are extremely inconvenient and unsatisfactory.

. The following special dictionaries are of importance to English-speaking people: Synonyms — Roget, Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (latest ed., London, 1892); Crabb, English Synonyms Explained (latest ed., New York, 1898). Etymology — Skeat, An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (2d ed., London, 1884); in abridged form, A Concise Etymological Dictionary (2d ed. London, 1885); Mueller, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der englischen Sprache (2d ed. Cöthen, 1878); Wedgewood, A Dictionary of English Etymology (2d ed. London, 1872; not reliable); Palmer, Folk Etymology (London, 1882; a dictionary of corruptions in words). Dictionaries of Names — Benjamin E. Smith. Century Cyclopædia of Names, a supplement to the Century Dictionary (New York, 1894); Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World, edited by Thomas and Baldwin (Philadelphia, 1882); Putnam, Globe Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World (New York, 1888); Johnston, General Dictionary of Geography (Edinburgh, 1882); Blackie, Dictionary

of Place-Names, with derivations (London, 1887). Dialect Dictionaries — Wright, The English Dialect Dictionary (London, 1898, et seq.), in 1902 extends to the letter L. Middle English (1100-1500) — A Middle English Dictionary, twelfth to fifteenth century, last edition by Strattmaan Bradley (London, 1891); Mätzner, Altenglische Sprachproben (Berlin, 1876-96, et seq.; incomplete, the second volume contains the dictionary); Mayhew and Skeat, A Concise Dictionary of Middle English (Oxford, 1888); Alexander Schmidt, Shakespeare Lexikon (Berlin, 1874), may be referred to as useful in the historical study of the language. Americanisms — Bartlett, Dictionary of Americanisms (Cambridge, Mass., 1877); Farmer, Americanisms, Old and New (New York, 1899).

Dictionaries of Modern European Languages. — German — Flügel, A Universal German-English and English-German Dictionary (4th ed., Brunswick, 1891); Flügel, Schmidt, and Tanger, Wörterbuch der Englischen and Deutschen und Deutschen und Englischen Sprache (New York, 1895-96); Whitney, Dictionary of the English and German Languages (New York, 1877); Köhler, German and English Dictionary (New York, 1881); Lucas, Dictionary of the English and German Languages (Bremen, 1854-68). Dutch — Calisch, Complete Dictionary of the English and Dutch Languages (Tiel, 1890). Danish — Ferrall-Repp-Rosing, Danish-English and English-Danish Dictionary (Copenhagen, 1873). Swedish — Nilsson-Widmark-Collin, English-Swedish Dictionary (Stockholm, 1891); Oman, Swedish-English Dictionary (Örebro, 1889). Norwegian — Geelmuyden, English-Norwegian Dictionary (Christiania, 1880). French — Spiers and Surenne, French and English Pronouncing Dictionary (New York, 1891); Bellows, Pocket ''Dictionary. French-English and English-French'' (London, 1891); Hamilton-Legros, Dictionnaire international français-anglais (Paris, 1891). Italian — Baretti. Italian-English and English-Italian Dictionary (London, 1877); James and Grassi, Dictionary of the English and Italian Languages (Leipzig, 1884); Millhouse, New English and Italian Pronouncing Dictionary (Milan, 1889). Spanish — Velasquez, New Pronouncing Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages, revised and enlarged by Gray and Iribas (New York, 1901); Seoane, Neuman, and Baretti, Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages (New York, 1874). Portuguese — Valdez, Portuguese-English and English-Portuguese Pronouncing Dictionary (Lisbon, 1879); Michaelis, New Dictionary of the English and Portuguese Languages (Leipzig, 1894). Russian — Alexandrow, Complete English-Russian Dictionary (Saint Petersburg, 1879). Turkish — Redhouse, Turkish and English Dictionary (London, 1880). Polish — Baranouski, Anglo-Polish Lexicon (Paris, 1884). Hungarian — Bizonfy, English-Hungarian (Budapest, 1878), and Hungarian-English (ib., 1886).

The dictionaries mentioned above are those which may be classed as belonging to language lexicons. All others are to be looked for under the class to which they belong.

The most important foreign dictionaries of modern times are: German — The great German dictionary is Deutsches Wörterbuch of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. There are nine volumes with

three in an unfinished state. The first was published at Leipzig in 1854. The object of this work is to give the vocabulary of the literary language from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The scope of the work includes the history and etymology of words and the illustration by quotations of their history and meaning. Since the death of Wilhelm (1859) and Jacob Grimm (1863), other distinguished scholars of Germany have carried on the work. Schade, Altdeutsches Wörterbuch (Halle, 1872-82); Kluge, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (Strassburg, 6th ed. 1899); Wiegand, Deutsches Wörterbuch (Cressen, 1873); Sanders, Ergänzungs-Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache (Berlin, 1885); Diefenbach and Wülcker, Hoch- und Niederdeutsches Wörterbuch der mittleren und neueren Zeit (Basel, 1885). French — The great French dictionary is Dictionnaire de la langue française. “All the words found in the dictionary of the French Academy and all the terms used in science, art, and ordinary life.” By M. P. E. Littré. This dictionary was published in Paris, 1863-72, with a supplement, 1878-82; Larousse, Grand Dictionnaire universel du XIXème siècle (15 vols., Paris, 1866-76). In a new edition under title: Nouveau Larousse illustré (Paris, 1901-02). This is a mine of information, but should perhaps be classed with encyclopædias. It contains many articles of a biographical, historical, and geographical character in addition to the common words, and many proper names; Bescherelle, Nouveau Dictionnaire national, ou dictionnaire universel de la langue française (Paris, 1887); Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française et de tous ses dialectes du IXème au XVème siècle (Paris, 1881-85, Complément, 1895); Hatzfeld-Darmesteter-Thomas, Dictionnaire général de la langue française (2 vols., Paris, 1890-1900). Spanish — Bareia, Primer diccionario general etimológico de la lengua española (Madrid, 1881-83); Cuesta, Diccionario enciclopédico de la lengua española (2 vols., Madrid, 1872). Castilian — Cuervo, Diccionario de construcción y regimen de la lengua castellana (to letter D; Madrid, 1866-94); Monlau, Diccionario etimológico de la lengua castellana (Madrid, 1881); Donadiu y Puignau, Diccionario de la lengua castellana (4 vols., Barcelona, 1890-95); Serano, Diccionario universal de la lengua castellana (Madrid, 1876-81). Catalan — Lobernia y Esteller, Diccionari de la llengua catalana (2 vols., Barcelona, last edition undated). Portuguese — Caldas Aulete, Diccionario contemporaneo da lingua portugueza (Lisbon, 1881); Michaelis, New Dictionary of the Portuguese and English Languages (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893). Italian — Fanfani, Vocabulario della lingua parlata italiana (Florence, 1881); Tommaseo and Bellini, Dizionario della lingua italiana (4 vols., Turin, 1861-79); Patrocchi, Novo Dizionario universale della lingua italiana (2 vols., Milan, 1894). Provençal — Mistral, Dictionnaire Provençal-Français (Paris, 1886). Sardinian — Spano, Vocabulario Sardo-Italiano, Italiano-Sardo (Cagliari, 1851). Icelandic — Gleasby and Vigfusson, An Icelandic-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1874). Danish — Kalkar, Ordbog til det aldre Danske Sprog (Copenhagen, incomplete). Dutch — Dale, Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal (4th ed. Gravenhage, 1885-99, 9-N); Franck, Etimologische Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal (Gravenhage, 1884-92); Calisch, New Complete Dictionary of the English and Dutch Languages (2 vols., Siel-Campagne, 1875). Gothic — Balg, A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language (Mayville, Wis., 1887-89). Welsh — Evans, Dictionary of the Welsh Language (Carmathen, 1887, incomplete). Irish — Foley, English-Irish Dictionary (Dublin, 1855). Slavonic — Miklosich, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der slavischen Sprachen (Vienna, 1886). Russian — Dahl, Russian Dictionary (Moscow, 1862-66-73). Polish — Rykaczewski, Complete Polish Dictionary (Berlin, 1860). Gypsy — Swart and Crofton, Dictionary of Gypsy (London, 1875). Turkish — Redhouse, Turkish Dictionary, English-Turkish and Turkish-English (London, 1880); Zenker, Turkish-arabisch-persisches Handwörterbuch (Leipzig, 1866-76). Arabic — Arabic-French: Belot, Vocabulaire arabe-français a l'usage des etudiants (4th ed. Beirout, 1896); Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon (London, 1863-77); Steingass, Arabic-English Dictionary (London, 1884); Newman, Dictionary of Modern Arabic (London, 1871). Chinese — Chinese-Latin: Dictionarium Linguæ Sinicæ Latinum — founded on the work of C. L. J. de Guignes (Ho Kien Fou, 1877); Perny, Dictionnaire français-latin-chinois (Paris, 1869).