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 was that the king said he should not feel himself to be king if he could not appoint the archbishop, and that he considered it his duty to appoint the person he thought fittest. The king secured his own way, and Charles Manners-Sutton (1755–1828) [q. v.] was appointed.

Tomline was with Pitt for the last two days of his life and attended him on his deathbed; the dying statesman's last instructions, under which the bishop was left literary executor, were taken down by Tomline and signed by Pitt (original document in the Orwell Collection), and his last words to the bishop, ‘I cannot sufficiently thank you for all your kindness to me throughout life,’ exhibit the deep and lasting character of their friendship. Though by Pitt's death Tomline's intimate connection with politics came to an end, his advice and assistance were sought by Lord Grenville, with whom he continued in confidential communication.

In 1811 he continued the campaign against Calvinistic doctrines, which he had begun in his episcopal charge in 1803, by the publication of ‘A Refutation of Calvinism.’ The work was widely read, and reached an eighth edition in 1823; it drew its author into controversy with Thomas Scott (1747–1821) [q. v.], Edward Williams (1750–1813), and anonymous writers. In his episcopal charge in 1812 Tomline still showed himself strongly opposed to Roman catholic emancipation, upholding the view that Roman catholic opinions were incompatible with the safety of the constitution, and he wrote to Lord Liverpool desiring to set on foot petitions against the measure, which action the government deprecated. On the death of John Randolph (1749–1813) [q. v.] in 1813 Tomline was offered the see of London by Lord Liverpool, but refused it, as he felt the need of relief from episcopal work which the bishopric of London could not afford. In 1820 he was appointed bishop of Winchester, and at the same time vacated the deanery of St. Paul's.

The memoir of Pitt by Tomline, extending only to 1793, in two quarto volumes, appeared in 1821; a second edition, in three octavo volumes, appeared in 1822. In the preface the author speaks of his qualifications for his task from his long intimacy with Pitt. Much was expected of the work owing to Tomline's unique opportunities of knowledge, and the fact that Pitt's correspondence was in his possession; but Tomline altogether disappointed public expectation by the scanty use he made of Pitt's letters (Quart. Rev. xxxvi. 286). In the opinion of the Edinburgh reviewer the work was ‘composed, not by means of his lordship's memory, but of his scissors.’ Another volume promised in the preface, and which was to deal mainly with Pitt's private life, never appeared, but the bulk of the manuscript for this final volume is among the other Pitt papers at Orwell Park. Tomline's extreme caution made him unwilling to print the work. Writing to his son on 4 Sept. 1822, he says he had made sufficient progress to show him that he must either not tell the whole truth of 1802 or not have the work published till Lord Sidmouth's death; the same, he was sure, would be the case with respect to Lord Grenville in 1803. Though not as interesting as it might have been, the memoir was accurate, and went through four editions. In his account of Pitt's policy in 1791 and of the negotiations between Great Britain and Russia with regard to the conditions of peace between Russia and Turkey, Tomline repeated the severe attack made on Fox by Burke in his observations on the conduct of a minority (published 1793), declaring that the truth of Burke's assertions was proved by authentic documents among Pitt's papers (Memoir of Pitt, ii. 445). This statement was challenged by Robert (afterwards Sir Robert) Adair on 23 May 1821, who denied that he had acted in 1791 as Fox's emissary at the court of St. Petersburg. As Tomline, in the controversy which ensued, fell back upon Burke's authority and Pitt's speeches without quoting the ‘authentic documents,’ Adair's defence of Fox and himself gained credence (, History of the Eighteenth Century, vol. v.;, Life of Pitt, ii. 120). Copies, however, of letters, partially in cipher, from Adair at St. Petersburg to Fox and others, of such a character as to justify, if not conclusively to prove, Tomline's statements and inferences, were at the time when he wrote in his possession, and possibly were not published owing to some pledge having been given to the person through whose agency they were secured (copies of these letters are among the Pitt papers at Orwell Park).

In 1823 Tomline established his claim to a Nova Scotia baronetcy which, on the death of Sir Thomas Pretyman in 1749, had been allowed to lapse (Genealogist, iv. 373), and was served heir male in general on 22 March 1823. Henceforward to the end of his life he was known as Sir George Pretyman Tomline; his eldest son, however, on succeeding to the estates, laid no claim to this honour.

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 aisle. He married in 1784 Elizabeth, eldest daughter and coheir of Thomas Maltby of Germans, Buckinghamshire, a woman of considerable ability and character, who was informed and consulted by her husband on all important political matters in which he was engaged. By her the bishop had three sons: William Edward Tomline, M.P. for Truro; George Thomas Pretyman, chancellor of Lincoln and prebendary of Winchester; and Richard Pretyman, precentor of Lincoln. There is a portrait of Tomline, by J. Jackson, now in the possession of Captain Pretyman at Riby Hall, Lincolnshire; an engraving of this by H. Meyer appears in the ‘Gentleman's Magazine’ and as a frontispiece to Cassan's ‘Bishops of Winchester.’

Tomline's political views are fairly defined by one of his biographers, who described him ‘as a supporter of the prerogative and an uncompromising friend to the existing order of things’ (, Lives of Bishops of Winchester). His judgment and prudence were fully recognised by Pitt, who admitted him to his confidence more unreservedly than any other friend.

TOMLINS, FREDERICK GUEST (1804–1867), journalist, was born in August 1804. He was originally in the employment of Whittaker & Co., publishers, London, as publishing clerk and literary assistant to George Byrom Whittaker [q. v.] Soon after Whittaker's death in 1847, he commenced business as a publisher in Southampton Street, Strand, London, and there issued a publication called ‘The Self-Educator.’ He next opened a shop for new and secondhand books in Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, near the British Museum; but after a while he abandoned business for literary pursuits. In 1831 he was a contributor to Henry Hetherington's ‘Poor Man's Guardian,’ and afterwards to the ‘Weekly Times,’ in which he published the series of articles signed ‘Littlejohn.’ He was for some time sub-editor of ‘Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper,’ and was editorially connected with the ‘Weekly Times’ and with the ‘Leader.’

Tomlins was well acquainted with Shakespeare and Shakespearean literature, and he was the founder of the Shakespeare Society in 1840, and acted as the society's secretary. From 1850 to his death he was the dramatic and fine-art critic of the ‘Morning Advertiser.’ On the death of his uncle, in 1864, he succeeded him as clerk of the Painter-Stainers' Company, an office which had been held by his grandfather. His tragedy, ‘Garcia, or the Noble Error,’ was produced at Sadler's Wells on 12 Dec. 1849 (Sunday Times, 16 Dec. 1849). He died at the Painter-Stainers' Hall, Little Trinity Lane, London, on 21 Sept. 1867, and was buried at St. Peter's Church, Croydon, on 27 Sept.

He was the author of: 1. ‘A Universal Gazetteer, Ancient and Modern,’ 1836, 2 vols. 2. ‘The Past and Present State of Dramatic Art and Literature,’ 1839. 3. ‘A History of England from the Invasion of the Romans,’ 1839, 3 vols.; another edit. 1857, 3 vols. 4. ‘A Brief View of the English Drama, with suggestions for elevating the present condition of the art,’ 1840. 5. ‘The Nature and State of the English Drama,’ 1841. 6. ‘The Relative Value of the Acted and Unacted Drama,’ 1841.

TOMLINS, THOMAS EDLYNE (1762–1841), legal writer, born in London on 4 Jan. 1762, was the eldest son of Thomas Tomlins (d. 1815), solicitor and clerk to the Company of Painter-Stainers, descended from the family of Tomlins in the neighbourhood of Ledbury in Herefordshire and of Hereford. Thomas Edlyne was admitted a scholar at St. Paul's school on 21 Sept. 1769. He matriculated from Queen's College, Oxford, on 27 Oct. 1778, and was called to the bar by the society of the Inner Temple in the Hilary term of 1783. For some years he was editor of the ‘St. James's Chronicle,’ a daily newspaper, and on 30 May 1801 he was appointed counsel to the chief secretary for Ireland. In the same year he became parliamentary counsel to the chancellor of the exchequer for Ireland, a post which he retained until the union of the British and Irish treasuries in 1816. He was knighted at Wanstead House on 29 June 1814, on the recommendation of the Duke of Wellington, and in 1818 was appointed assistant counsel to the treasury. In Hilary term 1823 he was elected a bencher of the Inner Temple, and in 1827 he filled the office of treasurer to the society. In January 1831, on the whigs coming into office, he retired from his post in the treasury. He died on 1 July 1841 at St. Mary Castlegate, York.

Tomlins was the author of:
 * 1) ‘A Familiar Explanation of the Law of Wills and Codicils,’ London, 1785, 8vo; new edition, 1810.
 * 2) ‘Repertorium Juridicum: a General Index

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 of all Cases and Pleadings in Law and Equity hitherto published,’ London, 1786–7, fol. (only the first part was published).
 * 1) ‘Cases explanatory of the Rules of Evidence before Committees of Elections in the House of Commons,’ London, 1796, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘A Digested Index of the first Seven Volumes of Durnford and East's Term Reports in the Court of King's Bench from 1785 to 1798,’ London, 1799, 8vo; 4th edit. carried down to 1810, published in 1812.
 * 3) ‘Statutes at Large, 41 to 49 George III,’ being vols. i. ii. and iii. of the ‘Statutes of the United Kingdom,’ London, 1804–10, 4to.
 * 4) ‘Proceedings of the Court of Enquiry upon the Conduct of Sir Hew Dalrymple,’ London, 1809, 8vo.
 * 5) ‘Index to Acts relating to Ireland passed between 1801 and 1825,’ London, 1825, 8vo; new edit. carried down to 1829, published in 1829.
 * 6) ‘Plain Directions for proceeding under the Act for the Abolition of Imprisonment for Debt,’ 2nd edit., London, 1838, 8vo.

He also superintended several editions of Jacob's ‘Law Dictionary,’ edited Brown's ‘Reports of Cases on Appeals and Writs of Error determined in the High Court of Parliament’ (London, 1803, 8vo), and, as sub-commissioner of the records, took a chief part in editing the ‘Statutes of the Realm’ (9 vols. 1810–24).

His sister, (1763–1828), was born in 1763. In 1797 her brother published ‘Tributes of Affection by a Lady and her Brother’ (London, 8vo), a collection of short poems, most of them by her. Besides contributing several pieces to various periodical publications, she was the author of several novels, of which the most popular was ‘The Victim of Fancy,’ an imitation of Goethe's ‘Werther.’ Others were ‘The Baroness d'Alunton,’ and ‘Rosalind de Tracy,’ 1798, 12mo. She also translated the ‘History of Napoleon Bonaparte’ from one of the works of Louis Pierre Anquetil. Miss Tomlins died at The Firs, Cheltenham, on 8 Aug. 1828 (Gent. Mag. 1828, ii. 471).

Sir Thomas's nephew, (1804–1872), legal writer, born in 1804, was son of Alfred Tomlins, a clerk in the Irish exchequer office, Paradise Row, Lambeth. He entered St. Paul's school on 6 Feb. 1811, and was admitted to practice in London as an attorney in the Michaelmas term of 1827. He died in 1872. He was the author of: He also edited Sir Thomas Littleton's ‘Treatise of Tenures’ (1841, 8vo), revised Tytler's ‘Elements of General History’ (1844, 8vo), translated the ‘Chronicles’ of Jocelin of Brakelond (1844, 8vo) for the ‘Popular Library of Modern Authors,’ and contributed to the Shakespeare Society ‘A New Document regarding the Authority of the Master of the Revels’ which had been discovered on the patent roll (Shakespeare Society Papers, 1847, iii. 1–6).
 * 1) ‘A Popular Law Dictionary,’ London, 1838, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘Yseldon, a Perambulation of Islington and its Environs,’ pt. i. London, 1844, 8vo; complete work, London, 1858, 4to.
 * 3) ‘The New Bankruptcy Act complete, with Analysis of its Enactments,’ London, 1861, 12mo.

TOMLINSON, CHARLES (1808–1897), scientific writer, younger son of Charles Tomlinson, was born in North London on 27 Nov. 1808. His father, who belonged to a Shropshire family, finding himself in poor circumstances, enlisted, and, after serving in Holland, died on the way to India. He left a widow and two sons, Lewis and Charles, who from an early age had to depend for support on their own exertions. Charles studied science, chiefly at the London Mechanics' Institute, under [q. v.], while his elder brother was able to maintain himself as a clerk at Wadham College, Oxford. After graduating B.A. in 1829 Lewis obtained a curacy, and in the following year sent for Charles to assist him in scholastic work. A few years later Lewis obtained a curacy near Salisbury, and with his brother founded a day-school in the city.

During the vacations Charles improved his knowledge of science by attending lectures at University College, London, and elsewhere. He made some attempts at original research, and published papers in Thomson's ‘Records of Science’ and also in ‘The Magazine of Popular Science.’ In 1838 he published the substance of some of these papers under the title ‘The Student's Manual of Natural Philosophy,’ London, 8vo. He also contributed largely to the ‘Saturday Magazine,’ then published by Parker, who found him so useful that he invited him to settle in London. This connection brought him into contact with various scientific men, among others with Sir [q. v.], [q. v.], [q. v.], and [q. v.] On the sudden death of Daniell in 1845 Miller and Tomlinson collaborated in completing a new edition of Daniell's ‘Meteorology,’ which had been interrupted by the author's death.


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Rh "His first food was the sacred meal, his earliest sight the sacred candles, and the family gods growing black with holy oil. He saw his mother pale at her prayers before the holy stone, and he, too, would be lifted by his nurse to kiss it in his turn." (Cont. Symmachum.)

It has been so tough that it is not extirpated yet. In 1877 a correspondent of the Society of Anthropology at Paris wrote about the worship as still prevailing in the valleys of the Pyrenees.

"One comes across these sacred stones most usually near fountains. They are rough blocks of porphyroid, or amphibolite granite, left on the mountain side by glacial action. They are almost invariably shapeless, and rarely present any features that can distinguish them from other great stones strewn about. One might pass them by unnoticed but for the local traditions that attach to them and the veneration with which they are regarded by the natives. In vain do the priests preach against them. They have utterly failed to drive the superstition from the hearts of their people. In vain do they get them smashed up secretly, in hopes of thereby destroying these vestiges of paganism; especially do they use their efforts against such as serve as meeting-places to young men and girls. The natives, when they come on the workmen engaged in the destruction, break out into riot, and stop the work. When they cannot do this, then they collect the fragments, replace them, and continue to surround them with veneration. It is necessary to disperse the débris of the Holy Stone to put an end to the cult; but even then, the place where it stood is regarded as sacred, and sometimes the clergy plant a cross there, as the only means of turning the traditional reverence of the spot into a new direction."

Whether this religion of the black stone of Antibes goes back to Phœnician or to Ligurian religion one

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 Tomlinson was soon after appointed lecturer on experimental science in King's College school.

To Tomlinson was due the perception of several important scientific phenomena. Early in his career his attention was attracted by the singular rotation of fragments of camphor on the surface of water. By investigation he ascertained that many other bodies also possess that property, and that liquids, such as creosote, carbolic acid, ether, alcohol, and essential and fused oils, assume definite figures on the surface of oil and other liquids in a state of chemical purity in chemically clean vessels. These researches obtained for Tomlinson the friendship of Professor Van der Mensbrugghe of the university of Ghent, who found Tomlinson's conclusions of much importance in establishing the theory of the surface tension of liquids.

In 1864 Tomlinson was elected on the council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1867 he became a fellow of the Chemical Society, and in 1872 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. He was also one of the founders of the Physical Society in 1874. Some time before his death he retired from his post at King's College, and the later years of his life were devoted more to literature, and especially to the study of poetry. From 1878 to 1880 he held the Dante lectureship at University College, London. He died at Highgate on 15 Feb. 1897. Before leaving Salisbury he married Miss Sarah Windsor, author of several small manuals and stories.

Besides the works mentioned, Tomlinson was author of: He also edited several scientific works, including a ‘Cyclopædia of Useful Arts,’ 1852–4, 8vo; new edit. 1866; translated Dante's ‘Inferno,’ London, 1877, 8vo; and contributed to ‘Notes and Queries’ and to the eighth edition of the ‘Encyclopædia Britannica.’
 * 1) ‘Amusements in Chess,’ London, 1845, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘Introduction to the Study of Natural Philosophy,’ London, 1848, 12mo.
 * 3) ‘Pneumatics for the Use of Beginners,’ London, 1848, 12mo; 4th edit. 1887, 8vo.
 * 4) ‘Rudimentary Mechanics,’ London, 1849, 12mo; 9th edit. 1867.
 * 5) ‘A Rudimentary Treatise on Warming and Ventilating,’ London, 1850, 12mo; App. 1858.
 * 6) ‘The Natural History of Common Salt,’ London, 1850, 16mo.
 * 7) ‘Objects in Art Manufacture,’ London, 1854, 8vo.
 * 8) ‘Illustrations of the Useful Arts,’ London, 1855–64, 12mo.
 * 9) ‘Illustrations of Trades,’ London, 1860, 4to.
 * 10) ‘The Useful Arts and Manufactures of Great Britain,’ London, 1861, 12mo.
 * 11) ‘On the Motion of Camphor towards the Light,’ London, 1862, 8vo.
 * 12) ‘Experimental Essays,’ London, 1863, 8vo.
 * 13) ‘On the Motions of Eugenic Acid on the Surface of Water,’ London, 1864, 8vo.
 * 14) ‘On the Invention of Printing,’ London, 1865, 8vo.
 * 15) ‘Illustrations of Science,’ London, 1867, 8vo.
 * 16) ‘The Sonnet: its Origin, Structure, and place in Poetry,’ London, 1874, 8vo.
 * 17) ‘Experiments on a Lump of Camphor,’ London, 1876, 16mo.
 * 18) ‘The Literary History of the Divine Comedy,’ London, 1879, 8vo.
 * 19) ‘Sonnets,’ London, 1881, 16mo.
 * 20) ‘Essays, Old and New,’ London, 1887, 8vo.
 * 21) ‘A Critical Examination of Goethe's Sonnets,’ London, 1890, 8vo.
 * 22) ‘Dante, Beatrice, and the Divine Comedy,’ London, 1894, 8vo.

TOMLINSON, MATTHEW (1617-1681), regicide. [See .]

TOMLINSON, NICHOLAS (1765–1847), vice-admiral, born in 1765, third son of Captain Robert Tomlinson of the navy, was from March 1772 borne on the books of the Resolution, guardship at Chatham, of which his father was first lieutenant. He is said to have afterwards made two voyages to St. Helena in the Thetis, and in her to have been also on the North American station. In March 1779 he joined the Charon, with Captain John Luttrell (afterwards Olmius), third earl of Carhampton [see under ]; served as Luttrell's aide-de-camp in the reduction of Omoa; and, continuing in her with Captain Thomas Symonds, was present at the capture of the French privateer Comte d'Artois, and the defence and capitulation of Yorktown. He returned to England in a cartel in December 1781, and on 23 March 1782 was made lieutenant into the Bristol, which went out with convoy to the East Indies. In April 1783, shortly after the Bristol's arrival at Madras, Tomlinson was in command of a working party on board the Duke of Athol, Indiaman, when she was blown up and upwards of two hundred men and officers killed. Tomlinson escaped with his life, but was severely injured. In the Bristol he was present in the fifth action between Suffren and Sir [q. v.]; in September 1784 he was appointed to the Juno, and in her returned to England in 1785. From 1786 to 1789 he served in the Savage sloop on the coast of Scotland. He is said to have been then, for a few years, in the Russian navy, and to have had command of a Russian ship of the line, which he resigned on the immi-


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I am interested in working on English translations of opera libretti in foreign languages, ideally collaboratively edited and presented in parallel text. Would this portal be an appropriate place for such projects?

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  of the war between England and France in the beginning of 1793. In July he was appointed to the Regulus, which ill-health compelled him to leave after a few months. In July 1794 he was appointed to command the Pelter gunboat, in which he ‘performed a variety of dashing exploits,’ capturing or destroying numerous vessels along the French coast, even under the protection of batteries. In July 1795 he was publicly thanked by Sir John Borlase Warren [q. v.] on the quarterdeck of the Pomone for his service in rescuing a party of French royalists after the failure of the attempt at Quiberon.

On 30 Nov. 1795 he was promoted to the command of the Suffisante sloop, in which, in the following May, he captured the French national brig Revanche; and through the summer took or destroyed several privateers, armed vessels, storeships, and traders—a season of remarkable activity and success. The ‘Committee for Encouraging the Capture of French Privateers’ voted him a piece of plate value 50l.; so also did the ‘Court of Directors of the Royal Exchange Assurance;’ and on 12 Dec. 1796 he was advanced to post rank. In the following year, being unable to get employment from the admiralty, he fitted out a privateer, in which he made several rich prizes; but being reported to the admiralty as having used the private signals to avoid being overhauled by ships of war, his name was summarily struck off the list on 20 Nov. 1798. In 1801 he was permitted to serve as a volunteer in the fleet going to the Baltic with Sir Hyde Parker, and, being favourably reported on by him, was restored to his rank in the navy, with seniority, 22 Sept. 1801.

From July 1803 to June 1809 he commanded the Sea Fencibles on the coast of Essex; in the summer of 1809 he fitted out and commanded a division of fireships for the operations in the Scheldt. On returning to England he resumed the command of the Fencibles till they were broken up early in 1810. He had no further employment, but was put on the retired list of rear-admirals on 22 July 1830. He was transferred to the active list on 17 Aug. 1840, and was promoted to be vice-admiral on 23 Nov. 1841. He died at his house near Lewes on 6 March 1847. He married, in 1794, Elizabeth, second daughter and coheiress of Ralph Ward of Forburrows, near Colchester, and had a large family.

Two of Tomlinson's brothers also served in the navy, and retired with the rank of commander after the war. Philip died in 1839; Robert, at the age of eighty-five, in 1844. Each of the three brothers attained the grade of lieutenant in 1782.

[Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biogr. iii. (vol. ii.) 437; O'Byrne's Nav. Biogr. Dict.; Navy Lists.]

TOMLINSON, RICHARD (1827-1871), actor. [See .]

TOMOS, GLYN COTHI (1766-1833), Welsh poet. [See .]

TOMPION, THOMAS (1639–1713), ‘the father of English watchmaking,’ is said to have been born at Northhill, Bedfordshire, in 1639, but the statement cannot be authenticated, as the registers of Northhill go back only to 1672. Tompion, at his death, owned land at Ickwell in this parish. E. J. Wood (Curiosities of Clocks and Watches, 1866, p. 293) quotes from Prior's ‘Essay on Learning’—a work that cannot be identified—the statement that ‘Tompion, who earned a well-deserved reputation for his admirable improvements in the art of clock and watch making but particularly in the latter, originally was a farrier, and began his great knowledge in the equation of time by regulating the wheels of a jack to roast meat.’

Tompion was apprenticed in 1664 to a London clockmaker, and was made free of the Clockmakers' Company on 4 Sept. 1671. The statutes of the Clockmakers' Company compelled every member to work as a journeyman for two years after completing his apprenticeship. But within three years of his setting up in business for himself Tompion had attained so high a reputation that when the Royal Observatory was established in 1676 he was chosen to make the clocks, on whose accuracy important calculations depended. One of these clocks was presented to the Royal Society in 1736; it bears this inscription: ‘Sir Jonas Moore caused this movement to be made with great care Anno Domini 1676 by Thomas Tompion.’ It is a year-going clock. Under the direction of Robert Hooke [q. v.] he made in 1675 one of the first English watches with a balance spring. It was presented to Charles II, inscribed, ‘Robert Hooke inven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit 1675.’ When Edward Barlow, alias Booth [q. v.], applied for a patent for repeating watches, the watch produced in court in March 1687 was made by Tompion for Barlow. Britten says: ‘The theories of Dr. Hooke and Barlow would have remained in abeyance but for Tompion's skilful materialisation of them. When he entered the arena the performance of timekeepers was very indifferent. The principles upon which they were constructed were defective,


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190 not say—probably both Phœnician colonist and Ligurian native shared the same devotion to rude blocks of stone. In Scotland, in Ireland, in Cornwall, in Brittany, among the graves of the dead of the Bronze Age, almost invariably a piece of white quartz or a jade weapon is found. Indeed, the bit of quartz is so constant that a workman engaged in opening one of the barrows will cry out, "Now we are coming on the bones," when he sees it gleam. The bit of quartz or jade pertained to the same category of ideas. It was the rude stone protecting the dead, as the rude stone was the safeguard of the living, the object of worship in life, of hope, of confidence in death. At Antibes, in the wall of the Hôtel de Ville, is the stone with the inscription, already spoken of, to the poor little dancing boy of twelve, from the North. In the museum is an inscription to the memory of a horse, by his sorrowing master. Another shows that at Antibes there was a corporation of Utriculares, that is to say, of boatmen who navigated the sea in vessels sustained by bladders. These were common enough on the lagoons and the rivers, but exceptional on the coast. Perhaps the most interesting excursion that can be made from Cannes is to the isles of Lerins. Of these there are two—Ste. Marguerite and S. Honorat—the latter formerly the seat of the great school and monastery of Lerins. The islands take their name from some mythic Lero, of whose story nothing is known; but Pliny informs us that there had once been a town named Vergoanum situated on one of them which had disappeared before the Christian era, and of which no traces remained. That Ste. Marguerite was occupied by Greeks and

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 and the mechanism was not well proportioned. The movements were regarded as quite subsidiary to the exterior cases, and English specimens of the art had no distinctive individuality. After years of application he, by adopting the invention of Hooke and Barlow, and by skilful proportion of parts, left English watches and clocks the finest in the world, and the admiration of his brother artists.’

In November 1690 Tompion was established in business at the corner of Water Lane in Fleet Street (No. 67), where he remained until his death. Besides watch and clock making, he made barometers and sundials. A fine ‘wheel’ barometer still hangs in King William's bedchamber at Hampton Court bearing the royal monogram. An elaborate and complicated sundial made by him for the king after Queen Mary's death in 1694 is still in its place in the Privy Garden at the same palace. The prices paid to Tompion for these royal commands are not extant, but in 1695 he received 235l. for three ‘horariis’ of gold and silver sent with the mission to the regent of Algiers, and three others to be sent to Tripoli.

In this year (1695) Tompion, in conjunction with William Houghton and Edward Barlow, patented the cylinder escapement, the invention of Barlow (patent dated 7 Will. III, pars. 18 I. No. 1). ‘This invention, although not brought into use immediately, had the most remarkable effect on the construction of watches, for by dispensing with the vertical crown wheel, it admitted of their being made of a flat and compact form and size instead of the cumbrous and ponderous bulk of the earlier period’.

In 1703 the ‘Master of the Clockmakers' Company and Mr. [Daniel] Quare [q. v.] produced letters from Patrick Cadell of Amsterdam stating that Cabrière Lambe and others at Amsterdam had set the names of Tompion, Windmills, and Quare on their work, and called it English’ (Journal of the Clockmakers' Company). The following year (1704) Tompion became master of the company.

In the ‘Affairs of the World’ (October 1700) Tompion was stated to be making a clock for St. Paul's to go for a hundred years without rewinding, to cost 3,000l. or 4,000l., ‘and be far finer than the famous clock at Strasburg.’ If such a project was entertained, it was never carried out.

In his old age Tompion visited Bath, and a memorial of this visit, and possibly of his gratitude to the healing waters, exists in the fine long-case clock in the Pump-room inscribed, ‘The Watch and Sundial was given by Mr. Thos. Tompion, of London, Clockmaker, Anno Dom. 1709.’ It is nine feet high, wound once a month, and is still in going order.

It has been stated that Tompion was a fellow of the Royal Society, but his name does not appear in any of the annual lists of the society.

Tompion died on 20 Nov. 1713, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In the same grave, thirty-eight years later, George Graham, Tompion's favourite pupil and nephew by marriage, was laid. By his will, dated 21 Oct. and proved 27 Nov. 1713, Tompion, who was apparently a bachelor, left his houses, land, &c., at Ickwell in the parish of Northhill to his nephew Thomas, son of his brother James. There are legacies to a niece, wife of Edward Banger (who carried on business as a watchmaker with the younger Thomas Tompion), and a great-niece, but the bulk of the property was left to George Graham and his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Tompion's brother James.

The inscribed stone over Tompion's grave, removed early in the nineteenth century, was replaced by order of Dean Stanley in 1866.

Tompion's portrait was painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller; it is now in the Horological Institute. He is represented in a plain coat and cravat, with a watch movement, inscribed with his name, in his hand. J. Smith made a mezzotint from it in 1697, inscribed ‘Tho. Tompion Automatopœus.’

[Royal Wardrobe Accounts (Record Office); Atkins and Overall's Account of the Clockmakers' Company; Britten's Former Clock and Watch Makers; Noble's Memorials of Temple Bar; Octavius Morgan's Art of Watchmaking; Noble's Continuation of Granger; Chester's Westminster Abbey Register; Stanley's Memorials of Westminster Abbey; Weld's History of the Royal Society; Notes and Queries, 9th ser. iii. 202.]  TOMPSON, RICHARD (d. 1693?), printseller, carried on business in London during the reign of Charles II, and was associated with Alexander Browne [q. v.] in the publication of the latter's ‘Ars Pictoria.’ Like Browne he issued a series of mezzotint portraits of royal and other notable persons of his time, none of which bear the engraver's name. It has been conjectured that these were scraped by Tompson himself, but it is clear that more than one hand was employed upon them; some are entirely in the manner of Paul van Somer [q. v.], while others much resemble that of G. Valck and J. Vandervaart. Tompson is stated to have died in 1693. There is a mezzotint portrait of him en-


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 graved by F. Place from a picture by G. Zoest, and this has been copied by W. Bond as an illustration to Walpole's ‘Anecdotes of Painting.’

[J. Chaloner Smith's British Mezzotinto Portraits; Walpole's Anecdotes (Dallaway and Wornum); Redgrave's Dict. of Artists.]  TOMS, PETER (d. 1777), painter, herald, and royal academician, was son of William Henry Toms, an engraver of note early in the eighteenth century, from whom John Boydell [q. v.], alderman and engraver, took lessons. Toms was a pupil of Thomas Hudson (1701–1779) [q. v.], and practised as a portrait-painter. He met, however, with little success except as a painter of drapery, in which he succeeded so well that about 1753 he was engaged by Sir Joshua Reynolds to paint draperies in his pictures. Subsequently he did similar work for Benjamin West and Francis Cotes. He had in 1746 been appointed Portcullis Pursuivant in the Heralds' College, a post which he held until his death. In 1763 he accompanied the Duke of Northumberland to Ireland as painter to the viceroy, but did not succeed in that country. In 1768 he was elected one of the foundation members of the Royal Academy, an honour due probably to his relations with Reynolds and West. After the death of Cotes, his principal employer, Toms became depressed in spirits, intemperate, and finally committed suicide on 1 Jan. 1777. He had but seldom contributed to the Royal Academy exhibitions.

[Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; Edwards's Anecdotes of Painters; Leslie and Taylor's Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds; Art Journal, 1890, p. 114; Graves's Dict. of Artists, 1760–1880.]  TOMSON, LAURENCE (1539–1608), politician, author, and translator, born in Northamptonshire in 1539, was admitted a demy of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1553, ‘and soon after became a great proficient in logic and philosophy.’ He graduated B.A. in 1559, was elected a fellow of his college, and commenced M.A. in 1564. He accompanied Sir Thomas Hoby [q. v.] on his embassy to France in 1566; and in 1569 he resigned his fellowship. Between 1575 and 1587 he represented Weymouth and Melcombe Regis in the House of Commons, and he was member for Downton in 1588–9. In 1582 he was in attendance at court at Windsor (Cal. Hatfield MSS. ii. 529). According to his epitaph he travelled in Sweden, Russia, Denmark, Germany, Italy, and France; was conversant with twelve languages; and at one period gave public lectures on the Hebrew language at Geneva. He was much employed in political affairs by Sir Francis Walsingham, after whose death he retired into private life. He died on 29 March 1608, and was buried in the chancel of the church at Chertsey, Surrey, where a black marble was erected to his memory with a curious Latin inscription which is printed by Wood.

His works are: 1. ‘An Answere to certeine Assertions and Obiections of M. Fecknam,’ London [1570], 8vo. 2. ‘Statement of Advantages to be obtained by the establishment of a Mart Town in England,’ 1572, manuscript in the Public Record Office. 3. ‘The New Testament … translated out of Greeke by T. Beza. Whereunto are adjoyned brief summaries of doctrine … by the said T. Beza: and also short expositions … taken out of the large annotations of the foresaid authour and J. Camerarius. By P. Loseler, Villerius. Englished by L. Tomson,’ London, 1576, 8vo, dedicated to Sir Francis Walsingham; again 1580, 1587, 1596. Several other editions of Tomson's revision of the Genevan version of the New Testament were published in the whole Bible. 4. ‘A Treatise of the Excellencie of a Christian Man, and how he may be knowen. Written in French. … Whereunto is adioyned a briefe description of the life and death of the said authour (set forth by P. de Farnace). … Translated into English,’ London, 1576, 1577, 1585, 8vo, dedicated to Mrs. Ursula Walsingham. 5. ‘Sermons of J. Calvin on the Epistles of S. Paule to Timothie and Titus … Translated,’ London, 1579, 4to. 6. ‘Propositions taught and mayntained by Mr. R[ichard] Hooker. The same briefly confuted by L. T. in a private letter’ (Harleian MS. 291, f. 183). 7. ‘Treatise on the matters in controversy between the Merchants of the Hanze Towns and the Merchants Adventurers,’ 1590, a Latin manuscript in the Public Record Office. 8. ‘Mary, the Mother of Christ: her tears,’ London, 1596, 8vo. 9. ‘Brief Remarks on the State of the Low Countries’ (Cottonian MS., Galba D vii. f. 163).

[Wood's Athenæ Oxon. (Bliss), ii. 44; Bloxam's Magdalen College Register, iv. 138; Cal. State Papers (Dom. Eliz.); Ames's Typogr. Antiq. (Herbert), pp. 991, 1057, 1077, 1200; Foster's Alumni Oxon. 1500–1714.]  TOMSON, RICHARD (fl. 1588), mariner, may presumably be identified with the Richard Tomson of Yarmouth (July 1570; State Papers, Dom. Eliz., lxxiii. 151), nephew of John Tomson of Sherringham. The mother


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Rh Romans is testified by the finding there of a bilingual inscription. But whatever relics of structures may have been left by its old masters have been used up again and again from mediæval times down to the present. The fortress now standing is a barrack. It was built by Richelieu, considerably enlarged by the Spaniards when they had possession of the island, and then transformed after the plans of Vauban. The fortress was employed mainly as a military or State prison. The most celebrated of its prisoners, or at least him about whom most has been written, was the Man of the Iron Mask. It was due to Voltaire that the story obtained such currency and excited so keen an interest. In his 'Age of Louis XIV., published in 1751, he wrote:—

"Some months after the death of Mazarin an event happened which is without a parallel in history. Moreover, and this is not less remarkable, the event has been passed over in silence by every historian. There was sent with the utmost secrecy to the castle of the Isles of Ste. Marguerite, in the Sea of Provence, a prisoner unknown, of a stature above the average, young, and with features of rare nobility and beauty. On the way the prisoner wore a mask, the chin-piece of which was furnished with springs of steel, so that he could eat without removing it. Order had been given to kill him if he ventured to uncover. He remained at the Isles until a trusted officer, Saint Mars by name, Governor of Pignerol, having been appointed in 1690 to the command of the Bastille, came to Ste. Marguerite to fetch him, and bore him thence always in his mask—to the Bastille. Before his removal he was seen in the isle by the Marquis de Louvois, who remained standing while he spoke to him with a consideration savouring of respect. In the Bastille the unknown was as well bestowed as was possible in that place, and nothing that he asked for was

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 THE PERSONS

of Theban Elders.

, King of Thebes.

A Watchman.

, Son of Creon, betrothed to Antigone.

, the blind Prophet.

A Messenger.

, the Wife of Creon.

Another Messenger.


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192 refused him. He had a passion for lace and fine linen; he amused himself with a guitar; and his table was furnished with the best. The governor rarely sat down in his presence. An old doctor of the Bastille, who had often attended this interesting prisoner, said that, although he had examined his tongue and the rest of his body, he had never seen his face. He was admirably made, said the doctor, and-his skin was of a brownish tint. He spoke charmingly, with a voice of a deeply impressive quality, never complaining of his lot, and never letting it be guessed who he was. This unknown captive died in 1703, and was buried by night in the parish of S. Paul. What is doubly astonishing is this: that when he was sent to Ste. Marguerite there did not disappear from Europe any personage of note. But observe what happened within a few days of his arrival at the isle. The governor himself laid the prisoner's table and then withdrew and locked the door. One day the prisoner wrote something with a knife on a silver plate and threw the plate out of the window towards a boat on the shore, almost at the foot of the tower. A fisherman to whom the boat belonged picked up the plate and carried it to the governor, who, surprised beyond measure, asked the man: ’Have you read what is written on this plate, and has any one seen it in your hands?' 'I cannot read,' answered the fisherman; 'I have only just found it, and no one else has seen it.' He was detained until the governor had made sure that he could not read, and that no other person had seen the plate. 'Go,' he then said. 'It is well for you that you cannot read.'"

How Voltaire could describe the prisoner as "with features of rare nobility and beauty," when he was invariably masked, so that no one could see his face, is certainly remarkable. When Voltaire found that this story had created a sensation, he vouchsafed a solution to it. "The Iron

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, son and heir to the unfortunate Oedipus, having been supplanted by his younger brother Eteocles, brought an army of Argives against his native city, Thebes. The army was defeated, and the two brothers slew each other in single combat. On this Creon, the brother-in-law of Oedipus, succeeding to the chief power, forbade the burial of Polynices. But Antigone, sister of the dead, placing the dues of affection and piety before her obligation to the magistrate, disobeyed the edict at the sacrifice of her life. Creon carried out his will, but lost his son Haemon and his wife Eurydice, and received their curses on his head. His other son, Megareus, had previously been devoted as a victim to the good of the state.


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 Thomas Fisher's house. He had also there, says Wood, a little academy for girls to be taught Latin and Greek, one of whom at fourteen could construe a Greek gospel. The experiment was short-lived, for Tonge, having ‘a restless and freakish head,’ accompanied Colonel Sir Edward Harley [q. v.] to Dunkirk as chaplain to the English garrison in 1660. His stay there was cut short by the sale of Dunkirk to the French in 1661, whereupon Tonge obtained from Harley the small vicarage of Leintwardine in Herefordshire. On 26 June 1666, upon the presentation of Bishop Henchman, he was admitted to the rectory of St. Mary Stayning, and had to flee three months later before the great fire, which burned both his church and parish to the ground. In his homeless condition he gladly accepted a chaplaincy at Tangier. He stayed there about two years, when he became rector of St. Michael's, Wood Street (demolished 1898), to which the parish of St. Mary Stayning was henceforth united. Subsequently, from 1672 to 1677, he held with this the rectory of Aston, in Herefordshire.

Having studied the lucubrations of Anthony Munday, Habernfeld, Prynne, and other plot-mongers and writers against the jesuits, from the time of his return from Tangier, Tonge seems to have definitely formed the design of ekeing out his meagre income by compilations of a like tendency. He commenced upon some translations of polemics against the Society of Jesus by Port Royalists and others, but the market was already overstocked with wares of this kind. What seems to have given Tonge the necessary stimulus to proceed with his investigations was a rumour of a popish plot to murder the king and set up the Duke of York in his place, which he heard from one Richard Greene while he was in Herefordshire in 1675. Tonge was convinced of the genuineness of Greene's allegations ‘because’ the alleged plot was hatched in 1675 during the ‘illegal prorogation’ of parliament (The Popish Massacre .... being part of Dr. Tonge's Collections on that Subject … published for his Vindication, 1679). During the winter of 1676, while residing in the Barbican at the house of Sir Richard Barker, one of the patrons whom he managed to infect with his own abnormal credulity upon the subject of catholic intrigues, Tonge came into contact with Titus Oates, who professed enthusiasm for his great aims. Having already convinced himself by his literary, astrological, and other occult researches that a vast jesuit plot was impending over England, Tonge became the willing dupe of Oates's perjuries [see ]. During July and the early part of August 1678 Tonge incorporated Oates's inventions with his own exaggerated suspicions into the fictitious narrative of the ‘popish plot.’ The narrative was drawn up in documentary form, with forty-three clauses or heads of indictment, and, copies having been made, Tonge handed the scroll to Danby in the middle of August. A few days later he called on Burnet and gave him orally the details of the alleged designs of the papists. Burnet wrote of his strange visitor: ‘He was a gardener and a chymist, and was full of projects and notions. He had got some credit in Cromwell's time, and that kept him poor. He was a very mean divine, and seemed credulous and simple, but I looked on him as a sincere man.’

The affair was at first regarded as a device of Danby's to obtain an augmentation of the king's guards. At this period Tonge and Oates were living at a bell-founder's at Vauxhall, afterwards known as the ‘plot-house,’ and Tonge was busily occupied there during the remainder of August in communicating additional details of the conspiracy to Danby at Wimbledon. He had several interviews with the king himself both at Whitehall, upon the first announcement of the plot (13 Aug.), and afterwards at Windsor; but Charles was thoroughly sceptical as to the genuineness of his revelations. On 6 Sept., as an alternative means of giving publicity to the matter, Tonge applied to Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey [q. v.], a well-known justice of the peace, and prevailed upon him to take down Oates's depositions upon oath. This created some stir, and, on 27 Sept. Tonge was summoned to appear with Oates before the privy council. The alarmist view which they took of the narrative combined with the discovery of Coleman's correspondence [see ] and the murder of Godfrey in the middle of October to provoke an acute panic among the loyal and bigoted protestants, who formed the bulk of the population of London. Tonge appears to have been bewildered by the reign of terror which his weak credulity had done so much to precipitate. From the close of September 1678 he was assigned rooms in Whitehall along with Oates, but after a few months he preferred to withdraw from all association with his quondam ally. He had, however, upon the motion of Sir Thomas Clarges, to appear with Oates at the bar of the House of Commons on 21 March 1678–9. He then gave a long account of his observations of the papists before the discovery of the plot, and


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 of his writings upon the subject (see below). These works, so Oates informed him, ‘so gaul'd the jesuits at St. Omer’ that they despatched Titus to murder the author, but the intended murderer took the opportunity to escape from their clutches and to save his king and his country. This probably represented Tonge's genuine belief in the matter.

In September 1680 Simpson Tonge, the divine's eldest son, was committed to Newgate for aspersions against his father and Oates to the effect that they had concocted the plot between them. A few days later the young man withdrew this charge, and accused Sir Roger L'Estrange [q. v.] of suborning him to the perjury. No weight whatever can be attached to his evidence, as he seems to have acted as the tool of Titus Oates with a view to ‘trepanning’ L'Estrange, the mortal enemy of the plot. Oates's idea was evidently to involve L'Estrange in a colourable charge of tampering with young Tonge to invalidate the ‘protestant’ evidence. The device was exposed by L'Estrange in ‘The Shammer Shamm'd’ (1681, 4to; cf., Narration, 1680, fol.); but it had the effect of driving L'Estrange temporarily from London.

The affair led Israel Tonge to commence an elaborate vindication of his conduct in connection with the plot. Having narrowly escaped censure by the House of Commons for imputing to a member (Sir Edward Dering) a feeling of kindness towards the pope's nuncio (, Debates, viii. 1 sq.), Tonge seems to have proceeded to Oxford in November 1680. He had a design on foot for turning Obadiah Walker [q. v.] out of his fellowship and succeeding to the place. At Oxford, too, he took part in the burning of a huge effigy of the pope, in the body of which, to represent devils, a number of cats and rats were imprisoned. He returned to London before the close of the month, and he died in the house of Stephen College [q. v.] on 18 Dec. 1680. His funeral procession from Blackfriars to St. Michael's, Wood Street, was followed on 23 Dec. by ‘many of the godly party.’ The sermon preached by Thomas Jones of Oswestry was printed with a dedication to the Duke of Monmouth. A committee of the privy council was appointed to examine his papers, but nothing seems to have resulted from their investigations.

An inventory of Tonge's books is in the Record Office (State Papers, Dom. Car. II, p. 409). The same volume contains a very copious and elaborate diary of the events of 1678–9, subscribed ‘Simson Tonge's Journall of the Plot written all with his own hands as he had excerped it out of his father Dr. Tonge's papers a little before he fell into the suborners' hands.’

According to Wood, Tonge excelled in Latin, Greek, poetry, and chronology, but above all in alchymy, on which he spent much time and money. ‘He was a person cynical and hirsute, shiftless in the world, yet absolutely free from covetousness and I dare say from pride.’ He showed great ingenuity in his grammar teaching and also in his botanical studies, and contributed three papers on the ‘Action of Sap’ to the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ (Nos. 57, 58, 68). A vivid description of the learned ‘gown-man’ with his head stuffed full of plots and Marian persecutions, patching up the depositions, with Oates and Bedloe on one side and Shaftesbury on the other, is given in the ‘Ballad upon the Popish Plot’ (see Bagford Ballads, ed. Ebsworth, p. 690). His diatribes against the jesuits, for many years unsaleable, derived a tremendous impetus from the ‘discovery of the plot.’ The chief of them were: 1. ‘Jesuitical Aphorismes; or, a Summary Account of the Doctrines of the Jesuites, and some other Popish Doctors. By Ezerel Tonge, D.D., who first discovered the horrid Popish Plot to his Majesty,’ London, 1679, 4to. 2. ‘The New Design of the Papists detected; or, an Answer to the last Speeches of the Five Jesuites lately executed: viz. Tho. White alias Whitebread, William Harcourt alias Harison, John Gavan alias Gawen, Anthony Turner, and John Fenwick. By Ezrael Tongue, D.D.,’ London, 1679, fol.; an apparently sincere protest against the ‘damnable impiety’ of the victims of the popish plot, on account of their dying declarations of innocence. 3. ‘An Account of the Romish Doctrine in case of Conspiracy and Rebellion,’ London, 1679, 4to. 4. ‘Popish Mercy and Justice: being an account, not of those massacred in France by the Papists formerly, but of some later persecutions of the French Protestants,’ London, 1679, 4to. 5. ‘The Northern Star: The British Monarchy: or the Northern the Fourth Universal Monarchy .... Being a Collection of many choice Ancient and Modern Prophecies,’ London, 1680, fol.; dedicated to Charles II ‘by his majesty's sometime commissionated chaplain, E. T.’ 6. ‘Jesuits Assassins; or, the Popish Plot further declared and demonstrated in their murderous Practices and Principles,’ containing a catalogue of the ‘English Popish Assassins swarming in all places, especially in the city of London,’ proposals for the ‘extirpation of this Bloody


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Rh Mask was without doubt a brother, and an elder brother, of Louis XIV." But the mystery has been solved. We know with certainty who the prisoner was—no one of great importance after all, but one against whom Louis XIV. entertained a bitter and implacable resentment—Ercole Antonio Mattioli. Louis XIV. had a strong desire to obtain the Marquisate of Montferrat, with its capital Cassale; but the marquisate belonged to Charles, Duke of Mantua, a feeble, dissipated, extravagant fool. On the other hand, the Empress and the Spanish party were bitterly hostile to French schemes of aggrandisement. Mattioli acted as a paid agent of the French Government to negotiate in secrecy a sale of Cassale to Louis; and after he had received a good deal of payment for his services, betrayed the whole intrigue to the Austro-Spanish Government. Louis was furious, not only at having failed in this coup d'état but also at being so fooled. Mattioli was lured near to the frontier, and fallen on upon Piedmontese soil, carried off and thrown into the fortress of Pignerol, which was then in the hands of the French. From Pignerol he was afterwards moved to Lerins, and then finally to the Bastille, where he died. The whole story has been thoroughly thrashed out, and that the Man in the Iron Mask was Mattioli and no one else has been conclusively established. It would seem that an attempt was made to fabricate for Napoleon a descent from the Iron Mask, who was assumed to be an elder brother to Louis XIV., and by this means to establish for Napoleon a legitimate right to the throne of the Capets. But the attempt was too

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. Own sister of my blood, one life with me,

Ismenè, have the tidings caught thine ear?

Say, hath not Heaven decreed to execute

On thee and me, while yet we are alive,

All the evil Oedipus bequeathed? All horror,

All pain, all outrage, falls on us! And now

The General’s proclamation of to-day—

Hast thou not heard?—Art thou so slow to hear When harm from foes threatens the souls we love?

. No word of those we love, Antigone,

Painful or glad, hath reached me, since we two

Were utterly deprived of our two brothers,

Cut off with mutual stroke, both in one day.

And since the Argive host this now-past night

Is vanished, I know nought beside to make me

Nearer to happiness or more in woe.

. I knew it well, and therefore led thee forth

The palace gate, that thou alone mightst hear.

. Speak on! Thy troubled look bodes some dark news.

. Why, hath not Creon, in the burial-rite,

Of our two brethren honoured one, and wrought

On one foul wrong? Eteocles, they tell,

With lawful consecration he lays out,

And after covers him in earth, adorned

With amplest honours in the world below.

But Polynices, miserably slain,

They say ’tis publicly proclaimed that none

Must cover in a grave, nor mourn for him;

But leave him tombless and unwept, a store

Of sweet provision for the carrion fowl

That eye him greedily. Such righteous law

Good Creon hath pronounced for thy behoof—


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194 absurd to obtain credence, if ever proposed to Bonaparte. In the Mémorial de Sainte Hélène allusion is made to this.

"Conversation turned on the Mask of Iron, and all that had been said on the subject by Voltaire, Dutens, etc., and what was found in the Mémoires of Richelieu was passed in review. These made him, as is well known, to be the twin brother of Louis XIV., and his elder. Then some one (probably Count de Las Casas) added that on studying genealogical trees, it had been seriously shown that he, Napoleon, was the lineal descendant of the Man in the Iron Mask, consequently legitimate heir to Louis XIII. and to Henry IV. in preference to Louis XIV. and his posterity. The Emperor replied that he had, in fact, heard this, and added that human credulity and love of the marvellous was capable of believing anything; that it would have been quite possible to establish this to the satisfaction of the multitude, and that there would not have lacked men in the senate capable of producing the requisite demonstrations, and these the men who later turned against him when they saw that he was unfortunate.

"Then we went on to discuss the particulars of the fable. The governor of the isle of Ste. Marguerite at the time, so it was said, the man to whose care the Iron Mask was confided, was called M. de Bonpart, a very remarkable fact. This man had a daughter. The young people saw each other and loved. The Governor thereupon communicated with the Court; and it was there decided that no great inconvenience could arise if the unfortunate man were suffered to find in love some alleviation of his misfortunes. Accordingly M. de Bonpart had them married. "He who related this turned red when the facts were disputed. He said that the marriage could be verified by inspection of the register of a certain parish in Marseilles, which he named. He added that the children born of this marriage

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Körner, Christian Gottfried

KÖRNER, kėr'nėr, Christian Gottfried, German jurist and intimate of Schiller: b. Leipzig, 2 July 1756; d. Berlin, 13 May 1831. He studied law at Göttingen and Leipzig and took his degrees in the latter. He then traveled abroad (1779), was appointed councillor of the Consistorial Court at Leipzig (1781), chief judge of the Court of Appeals (1790), privy referendarius in the Privy Council (1798), and was then returned to the Court of Appeals (1811). His strong tendency toward science and art made his home the rendezvous of prominent men in this sphere. He was one of the most trusted and influential friends of Schiller, who resided (1785-87) on his Loschwitz vineyard or his home at Dresden. While Leipzig was under the occupation of the Russian army

he was created government councillor, and was appointed (1815) Privy Councillor of the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, becoming Privy Councillor in Chief. He instigated the first edition of Schiller's works with a biographical sketch (Stuttgart 1812-15). Among his well-known works are ‘Æsthetische Ansichten’ (Leipzig 1808); ‘Versuche über Gegenstände der innern Stadtsverwaltung’ (Dresden 1812); ‘Deutschlands Hoffnungen’ (Leipzig 1813). Of much importance are his ‘Schillers Briefwechsel mit Körner’ (Berlin 1847), enlarged edition by Goedeke (Leipzig 1874); ‘Briefe Wilhelm von Humboldts an Körner,’ issued by F. Jonas (Berlin 1879). His collected works, ‘Gesammelte Schriften,’ together with a biography, were published by A. Stern (Leipzig 1881). Consult Jonas, ‘Christian Gottfried Körner, biographischer Nachrichten über ihn und sein Haus’ (Berlin 1882); Weber, W., ‘Briefe der Familie Körner’ (in Deutsche Rundschau, Vols. XV-XVI).


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Rh were clandestinely removed to Corsica, where the difference of language, or deliberate purpose, caused the name Bonpart to be rendered Bonaparte, or Buonaparte."

Whether it was proposed to Napoleon at one time to circulate this fable is uncertain, What is certain is, that, when he was emperor, he took pains to have the registers of Ajaccio falsified or destroyed, either in preparation for the publication of this fiction, or because they revealed some unpleasant truths, which he was interested in suppressing. The crucial difficulty in the way of formulating this fable was that Saint Mars, and not any M. Bonpart, had been governor of Ste. Marguerite whilst the Iron Mask was there. The last celebrated prisoner at Ste. Marguerite was Marshal Bazaine, who escaped with the assistance of his wife, it can hardly be doubted with the connivance of the governor. Marshal François Achille Bazaine was born at Versailles in 1811, and was destined to be a tradesman by his very bourgeois parents. But as he did not relish the shop, he entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in Algiers, where he sufficiently distinguished himself to be promoted to a lieutenancy, and then become captain of the Foreign Legion in the service of Queen Christina against the Carlists. In 1841 he again served in Algiers, became colonel, and next general of brigade. He was in the Crimean War, and returned from it as general of division. Later he attended the unfortunate Emperor Maximilian to Mexico, when he was raised to the rank of marshal. There he married a rich Creole. His conduct in Mexico was not glorious. He left the emperor in the most menaced position; but whether

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196 this desertion was due to himself or to orders received from Napoleon is not known. After that, for some time nothing was heard of him, but on the breaking out of the war with Prussia and Germany he was appointed to the command of the Third Army Corps. How he surrendered Metz, with 150,000 men, on October 23rd, 1870, is well known. The questions asked of the jury at his trial were these:— 1. Is Marshal Bazaine guilty, on October 28th, 1870, of having signed a capitulation in the open field, at the head of his army? 2. Was the consequence of this capitulation, that the army laid down its arms?

3. Did Marshal Bazaine, both verbally and by writing, correspond with the enemy, without having previously done all that was his duty? 4. Is Marshal Bazaine guilty, on October 28th, 1870, of having capitulated to the enemy, and delivered over the fortress of Metz, over which he had command, without having previously used every effort in his power to defend it, and exhausted every means of holding out that lay open to him in duty and honour?

The jury answered Yes, unanimously, to all these questions, and he was sentenced to degradation and death; but the sentence of death was commuted to imprisonment for twenty years. On December 25th—Christmas Day—1873, he was taken from the Trianon, Versailles, in a close carriage, to Villeneuve l’Etang, and thence conveyed to Antibes, where he was placed on a steamboat and transferred to the fortress of Ste.

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Rh Marguerite. On August 10th, 1874, the director of the prison, named Marchi, found Bazaine's prison empty. The first thought in France, when this news was spread by the telegraph, was that he had been allowed to escape by the connivance of MacMahon. Then details were published which put a romantic gloss on the evasion. In the fortress of Ste. Marguerite three rooms had been placed at the disposal of the prisoner, as well as a little terrace, which latter was reached by a stone bridge with a wall on each side, and here stood a sentinel, on the wall; but he could not see those who passed over the bridge nor what went on upon the terrace, as the latter was partly covered with an awning against the sun. On the terrace, to which led several steps from the bridge, the Marshal had formed for himself a little garden; and whilst working therein one day he found a choked gutter intended for carrying off rain-water from the castle shoots; it was bored through the rock; and he set to work to clear it. By means of sympathetic ink he was able to maintain a correspondence with his wife; and all was planned for his escape. On the evening determined on he asked his gaoler, who usually accompanied him for a stroll on the terrace after dinner, to allow him to walk it alone, and this was readily permitted. After a while Bazaine opened and slammed the gate, and the sentinel supposed that he had passed out of the terrace garden, on his way back to the prison. But that the Marshal, instead, had cleared the drain hole and slipped through, he could not see, because the awning hid from him all view of the terrace. In the drain was a rope, and this Bazaine let down the face of the rock,

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198 making it fast to an iron bar crossing the conduit. The descent was for eighty feet. Below burnt a light, giving him notice that his wife was there awaiting him in a boat. The descent was not a little arduous, and he scratched and bruised his knuckles and knees against the rock, as a high wind was blowing at the time. When he reached the bottom a voice across the water asked who was there, and he struck a match and showed his face. The boat could not come up under the cliff, and he was obliged to plunge into the water to reach it. In the boat were his Creole wife and his nephew, a Mexican, Don Alvarez de Rull. Mme. Bazaine had been in Genoa from August 3rd, and had there hired a pleasure steam-yacht, the Baron Ricasoli, and in this she had either remained in the harbour of Genoa or had gone cruises in it, and had penetrated more than once to the Gulf of Saint Juan. At La Croisette she and her nephew had been set ashore, nominally that she might look at a villa, that she pretended she had an idea of renting. There they hired a boat, and in this they rowed to the foot of the cliff under the foot of the fortress, and awaited the arrival of the Marshal. No sooner was he in the boat than they rowed to the vessel, which had all steam up, and started at full speed for Genoa.

In a letter written by Mme. Bazaine to the French Minister of the Interior, General Chabaud-Latour, dated August 16th, she stated that she had had no confederates. Bazaine also made the same assertion in a letter from Cologne. But no one believed this except the Ultramontane editor of the Univers, who attributed the happy escape to the merits of a consecrated scapular and a thread of the Blessed Virgin's smock, which

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Rh Bazaine wore about his neck. Colonel Villette, who had voluntarily shared the Marshal's imprisonment, and who quitted Ste. Marguerite the day after his escape, was arrested at Marseilles and brought before the magistrates. During the investigation it became clear enough that Bazaine had not been without confederates. The rope by which Bazaine had let himself down had been woven partly out of the cord that had tied up his boxes, partly out of a swing that his children had used, when allowed to share his imprisonment for awhile. Bazaine himself was not skilful enough to have made this rope; it was woven by Villette. The iron bar to which it was asserted that the rope had been fastened was not to be found in the drain; and it was evident that some one must have held the end when the Marshal was let down.

Marchi, the gaoler, protested that he had only allowed Bazaine the liberty he enjoyed, because the latter had given his word of honour not to attempt an escape. Bazaine's valet, Barreau, was certainly implicated in the matter; so was a Colonel Doineau, who, as head of the Bureaux Arabes in Algeria, had been sentenced to death for murder and robbery, but had been pardoned by Napoleon II. He had managed the correspondence between Bazaine and his wife. Several of the warders were guilty at least of negligence, but were let off very easily with one, two, or six months' imprisonment. The island of S. Honorat is smaller than Ste. Marguerite. It is a poor little stony patch in the sea, a miniature of the larger isle, a bank of rocks covered with a thin bed of soil, and rising not above four feet over the sea level. And yet this isle, whose meagre

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200 clumps of pines and whose battered tower hardly attract the attention of the tourists, played a considerable part, through long centuries, in the history of intellectual and religious growth in Europe. In 375 S. Honoratus founded there his religious community, and grouped about him a little family of earnest and intellectual men. In a few years it grew in power, not the power of the sword, but of brain and earnestness of purpose; and this island saved Western Christendom from a grave disaster. The Mussulman has a legend of Creation. According to that, when God was creating man, He took a pellet of clay in His left hand, moulded it into human shape, cast it aside to the left, and said, "This goes to hell, and what care I?" In like manner He worked another ball of clay with His right hand, flung that aside, and said, "And this goes to heaven, and what care I?" Now the master mind of Western Christendom, Augustine of Hippo, had devised the same theory of caprice in the Most High, predestinating to good or ill without reason, and that before Mohammed was born. Divine Grace, he held, was paramount and irresistible, carrying man to happiness or damnation without man being able to determine his course one way or the other. Man, according to Augustine, was a mere "Lump" of sin, damnable, utterly damnable. But God, in His inscrutable providence, indistinguishable from wantonness, chose to elect some to weal, and leave the rest to woe. This was a doctrine that did away with the necessity of man making the smallest endeavour after righteousness, from exercising the least self-control; of man feeling the slightest compunction after committing the grossest sins. Augustine sent his treatise to Abbot

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Rh Valentine of Adrumetium. Valentine, in calm self-complacency, sitting among the ashes of dead lusts, highly approved of this scheme of Predestination. But a monk, Felix, when he heard it read, sprang to his feet and uttered his protest. This protest was reported to Augustine, who boiled over with bad temper at any opposition; and he wrote a violent rejoinder "On Grace and Freewill," in which he insisted again on his doctrine of Fatalism. The theses of Augustine reached Lerins, the nursery of the Bishops of Gaul, and were read there with indignation and disgust. The monks drew up a reply to Augustine that was temperate in tone and sound in argument. Grace, they said, was mighty, but man had freewill, and could respond to it or rebel against it. Augustine answered. He attempted to browbeat these insignificant monks and clergy on a petty islet in the sea. But they were not men to be intimidated by his great name and intellectual powers, not even by his sincere piety. They argued that if his doctrine were true, then farewell for ever and a day to all teaching of Christian morality. Man was but a cloud, blown about by the wind, where the wind listed to carry it. But for these stubborn monks of Lerins it is possible enough that Western Christendom would have accepted a kismet as fatal as that of Mohammedanism, and that, indeed, it would have differed in name and certain outside trimmings only from the Moslem religion. Rome was much inclined to accept Augustine's view, and give it definite sanction. But the Gaulish bishops, bred in the nursery of Lerins, would not hear of this. Finally, in the Council of Orange, in 529, they laid down the

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202 main principle: "We do not believe," they boldly said, "that God has predestined any men to be evil." S. Patrick, the apostle of Ireland, was at one time a pupil at Lerins. The "Confessions of Augustine" are indeed a beautiful picture of the workings of a human soul; but not more tender and beautiful than that revelation of a noble heart given to us in the "Confession of Patrick." Lerins—that is, especially Saint Honorat—was the refuge of the intellect, the science, the literature, of a civilised world going to pieces' into utter wreckage. As Guizot well said:—

"For culture of mind, one thing is requisite, and that is quiet. When the social condition of the world is in convulsion, and all about is barbarity and misery, then study suffers, is neglected and declines. Taste for truth, the sentiment for what is beautiful, are plants as delicate as they are noble. For their cultivation a sweet atmosphere is necessary; they bow their heads and are blighted by storm. Study, literature, intellectual activity, could not battle against general discouragement, universal disaster; they must have a holdfast somewhere, attach themselves to popular convictions, or perish. The Christian religion furnished them with the means of living. By allying themselves to that, philosophy and literature were saved from the ruin that menaced them. One may say, without exaggeration, that the human mind, proscribed, storm-tossed, found its only possible refuge in churches and monasteries. It clung as a suppliant to the altars, and pleaded to be allowed to live under their shelter, and at their service, till better times should arrive, when they would expand in the open air."

Lerins suffered repeatedly and frightfully from the Saracens. Again and again was it ravaged. In 725,

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Rh Porcarius, the abbot, and five hundred monks, were butchered by the Moors. The interesting fortress, with its cloister and quadrangle in the centre, was erected by the monks as a place of refuge from the Moors and Algerine pirates. But worse times were in store, when the Crown came to look on the great abbeys as fiefs, to be given in commendam to laymen, to bastards, to favourites, to harlots, who might enjoy the revenues and ignore the duties. Naturally enough, in such a condition of affairs, Lerins declined. It became a place to which younger sons were relegated, vicious monks were banished; it was resolved into a bastille for evildoers, and sank to so low an ebb that, as a scandal, the abbey was suppressed the year before the Revolution came, and swept all monastic institutions away. To the west of the Île Ste. Marguerite, in the sea pours up a copious spring of fresh water. When the surface of the sea is calm, the upflow can be easily distinguished by the undulations. There are other such springs in the Gulf of Jouan, near Antibes, also at the mouth of the Var; near the shore at Portissol, west of S. Nazaire; another again near Bandol. In 1838, a M. Bazin tapped this latter when sinking a well at Cadière, and such an abundance of water poured forth that the well had to be abandoned. Off Cassis is a very considerable spring in the sea, so strong that it carries floating bodies for a couple of miles from its source. But the largest of all is in the Gulf of Spezzia, and is called La Polla. This has been enclosed by the Italian government, and vessels supply themselves with fresh water from it. The rain which falls on the limestone causses, that

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204 form the terrace to the Maritime Alps, is at once absorbed, and descends through fissures to deep channels, where the accumulated water flows and breaks forth in what are locally called ƒoux, often in large volume, and feed the rivers. Sometimes the streams drop into pot-holes; these are called embues. The Siagne has its source in the Place de la Caille, an ancient lake bed, but sinks, and comes forth 1,500 feet below in the ƒoux of the Siagne. This river receives the Siagnole, which derives its water from a number of these springs that spout out of the rock. But in some cases the rain-water sinks to a level still lower, and then breaks forth in the sea itself.

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Kordofan

KORDOFAN, kŏr-dō-fän', Africa, a province of Egyptian Sudan, between the White Nile and Darfur; area, about 130,000 square miles. The principal articles of export are gum, hides and senna leaves, all monopolized by the government as most lucrative; ivory, cattle, tamarinds, ostrich eggs and feathers, gold, salt, slaves, etc.; the imports spices, sugar, coffee, sulphur, rice, soap, cotton and linen cloth, etc. From 1821 onward Kordofan was subject to the viceroy of Egypt, the country having been subdued by Mehemet Ali. In 1883 it took part in the successful Mahdist revolt, but was trained for Great Britain and Egypt in 1898. Pop. about 300,000.


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206 is now the rue du Paillon. It was flanked on the east by the steep heights of Mont Boron, on the west by the crag of the Château, which latter served as acropolis and was crowned by a temple dedicated probably to Artemis. The site is thought to be where now stands the chapel of the Ste. Suaire, which is square and on old foundations. The Phocœan town lay in the lap of the port of Lympia. But when the province became Roman, then the town occupied by the great families of consular origin, the officials of government, and all the hangers-on, was at Cemenelium, now Cimiez, on the high ground above modern Nice, and dominating the ancient port. Here had been an older Ligurian fortified town, of which some remains exist in the huge blocks laid on one another without cement that formed the defending wall, and on top of which the Romans built their ramparts. The citadel was at the extreme south point of the plateau. In Cemenelium the principal monuments were the palace of the governor of the province, a temple of Diana, another of Apollo, an amphitheatre and baths. All have been destroyed and have disappeared save the wreckage of the amphitheatre, traversed by a road. Roman sepulchral monuments, urns, mosaics, fragments of marble columns, statuettes, have been unearthed in considerable numbers. The Phocœan colonies established on the littoral of the Maritime Alps fell into complete decay when the Romans occupied the country, and towards the end of the third century Nice dwindled to almost nothing. In 578 the Lombards, under the ferocious Alboin, swept over the country and destroyed Cimiez and Nice. The Franks drove back the Lombards into Italy.

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Rh Cimiez remained a heap of ruins, but Nice was re-peopled and rebuilt, not, however, near the port, but on the height of Le Château. The population of this part of the old province revolted against the Franks; and Nice entered into a league with Genoa and other important towns on the Italian Riviera. In 741, however, the province again returned under the domination of the Franks, and it was governed by counts appointed by the sovereign, who resided at Nice in the castle. Here, hard by on the rock, was the cathedral, and down the north-west slope, that was least precipitous, were lodged the private houses. In 775 the abbey of S. Pontius was founded by Siagrius, Bishop of Nice, and Charlemagne, who is supposed to have been his uncle, gave the funds for the building and endowment. This abbey was erected on the rock on which, according to tradition, S. Pontius had suffered martyrdom by decapitation. Profiting by the break-up of the Carolingian dynasty, in 880, Boso, whose sister was married to Charles the Bald, seized on that part of Burgundy which is on this side the Jura, and along with Provence constituted a kingdom, with himself at its head. In 889 the devastations committed by the Saracens extended along the coast, and one town after another was sacked and burnt by them. These ravages continued till 973, when William, Count of Provence, and Gibelin Grimaldi freed the land from this plague. The Saracens had a fortress at Saint Hospice, a curious spur which strikes out from the peninsula of Cap Ferrat, whence they had harassed the neighbourhood of Nice, but had been unable to storm the fortified town on the rock.

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Kordyan

KORDYAN. The revolution of 1830-31 was a prolific source for Polish literary works. Julius Stowacki seized upon the historic incident of the attempted assassination of Tsar Nicholas, who came to Warsaw to be crowned king of Poland, to create a Polish hero for the troubled times. Imitating Byron's ironical attitude, Stowacki in the introduction to his poem treats the contemporary actors in the revolution rather flippantly. Then, representing his own early excesses and lack of faith and the change of mind which he experienced in Switzerland, he makes the hero, Kordyan, look with contempt upon his aristocratic habits and abandon his life of a lovelace, and lets him return to the sands of Mazovia, there by an inner transformation to do good to his native country. Kordyan attends a meeting of revolutionists in Saint John's Church in Warsaw, where he makes an impassioned appeal, one that has become a classic passage in Polish literature, that Nicholas be killed. But the only scene which by modern Polish critics is considered as devoid of romantic exaggeration is where Kordyan, under the influence of the mood induced by the tragic situation, is trying to combat his own hallucination and terror. This, no doubt, is a correct representation of the poet's own struggle with his feverish imagination, caused by his abhorrence of war, just as he became conscious of the moral necessity of joining the ranks of the revolutionists. A good discussion of the poem may be found in G. Sarrazin, ‘Les grands poètes romantiques de la Pologne’ (Paris 1906, pp. 221-225).


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208 Grimaldi destroyed the Saracen citadel, and left of it nothing standing save the tower that remains to this day. The captured Saracens were quartered in a portion of Nice still called lou canton del Sarraïns, and were employed by him in strengthening or rebuilding the walls of the town. To the Saracens are attributed the subterranean magazines, or silos, that are found at S. Hospice, S. Jean, Trinité-Victor, and elsewhere, to contain the plunder they acquired in their marauding expeditions. These are vaulted over, and are still in some instances used as cisterns or store places; but the evidence that they were the work of the Moors is inconclusive. Among those who assisted the Count of Provence against the Saracens was one Bertrand de Balbs, and in reward for his services he was given in fief the barony of Beuil, a vast territory stretching from the Estéron to the Alps, and comprising twenty-two towns and townlets. His descendants kept the barony till 1315, when William de Balbs made himself so odious to his vassals by his tyranny that they murdered him. A brother of the Grimaldi of Monaco had married the only daughter of William de Balbs, and as there was no son the fief passed to him, and he became the founder of the family of Grimaldi of Beuil. The barony remained in the Grimaldi family till 1621, when it was united to the county of Nice. They ran, however, a chance of losing it in 1508. Towards the close of 1507, George Grimaldi, Baron of Beuil, his son John, Augustine Grimaldi, Bishop of Grasse, and Nicolas Grimaldi, seigneur of Antibes, formed a plot to deliver over the county of Nice to Louis XII. The Duke of Savoy was warned, and he

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 towards the so-called ‘Cæsar's Camp.’ Here he entertained select parties on weekdays, and kept open house for guests of every variety on Sunday. His four-o'clock dinners were very substantial, and followed by a dessert from the fruit which he raised with great skill, and by ample supplies of port and madeira. Among the guests were Thurlow, Erskine, and Lord Camelford. Other visitors were Bentham (, Works, x. 404); Coleridge (Table Talk, 8 May 1830, and 16 Aug. 1833); Mackintosh, who had become known to him as his supporter in the Westminster election of 1790 (, Life, i. 71); Godwin (see, Godwin, i. 71) and Paine, both of whom he ridiculed; Gilbert Wakefield; Alexander Geddes [q. v.], the freethinking catholic priest, and William Bosville [q. v.] Horne Tooke, though he became abstemious in later years, often drank freely, and Stephens records disputes with Porson and Boswell, both settled by drinking matches. In both cases Horne Tooke left his antagonists under the table (, ii. 319, 439). Sir Francis Burdett, his neighbour at Wimbledon, introduced James Paull [q. v.], who became a regular guest for a time; but on the duel between Burdett and Paull in 1807, Horne Tooke published a pamphlet (‘A Warning to the Electors of Westminster’) denouncing Paull with great severity (see, ii. 291–334, for an account of the Wimbledon society). Horne Tooke suffered from a local affection from early youth, and became a martyr to gout and other diseases in his later years. He bore his sufferings with much courage, and his mind remained active to the last. He still read voraciously when in tolerable health, and talked calmly of his approaching death. He prepared a tomb to be placed in his garden. It was to be covered by a large block of black Irish marble which Chantrey had procured for him. He died at Wimbledon on 18 March 1812, and desired to be buried under this tomb, over which Burdett was to pronounce a classical oration. The inscription gave simply his name with the dates of birth and death, and added ‘content and grateful.’ It was decided, however, that the tomb would ‘deteriorate the value of his estate,’ and he was therefore buried at Ealing with the usual ceremony. His will bequeaths all his property to his daughter Mary Hart. She and her sister were, it is said, ‘eminently respectable and correct,’ and the omission from his will of the name of the younger implied no resentment. Horne Tooke had also a son named Montague, who was in the East India Company's service.

Horne Tooke is described as a sturdy and muscular man, 5 feet 8½ inches in height. He was ‘comely,’ with a keen eye, and dressed like a substantial merchant. A portrait by Richard Brompton [q. v.], painted during his imprisonment in 1777, is now in the possession of the Rev. Benjamin Gibbons. A bust of him was executed by the elder Bacon for Sir F. Burdett. Another was made during his last illness by Chantrey, and is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. A portrait by Mr. S. Percy was in the exhibition of 1803 (, ii. 503). A portrait in the National Portrait Gallery is attributed to Thomas Hardy, though his fellow-prisoner of that name can hardly have been the painter.

Horne Tooke has suffered in reputation from the hard fate which forced into holy orders a man eminently qualified for a career at the bar. His boundless pugnacity and his shrewdness in legal warfare would have made him a dangerous rival of Dunning and Kenyon. He seems to have been far the shrewdest of the agitators made conspicuous by the Wilkes controversies. He was apparently quite honest, though his public spirit was stimulated by his litigious propensities and love of notoriety. His politics were rather cynical than sentimental. He was a type of the old-fashioned British radical, who represented the solid tradesman's jealousy of the aristocratic patron rather than any democratic principle. He appealed to Magna Charta and the revolution of 1688; ridiculed the ‘rights of man’ theorists; and boasted with some plausibility that he was in favour of anything established. He was even, according to Stephens (ii. 477), a ‘great stickler for the church of England,’ on the ground, that is, of practical utility, and its doctrine correctly interpreted by Hoadly or Paley, not by the orthodox divines.

As a philologist, Horne Tooke deserves credit for seeing the necessity of studying Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, and learnt enough to be much in advance of Johnson in that direction; although his views were inevitably crude as judged by a later standard. His philology was meant to subserve a characteristic philosophy. Locke, he said, had made a happy mistake when he called his book an essay upon human understanding, instead of an essay upon grammar. Horne Tooke, in fact, was a thorough nominalist after the fashion of Hobbes; he especially ridiculed the ‘Hermes’ of Harris, and Monboddo, who had tried to revive Aristotelean logic; held that every word meant simply a thing; and that reasoning was the art


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Rh summoned George and his son to appear before him. They replied with insolence and defied him, relying on French support. But at that moment Louis XII. and the Duke of Savoy had arranged their little quarrel, and when John Grimaldi asked for aid from the Governor of Provence, he was refused. Meantime the garrison of Nice marched against Beuil. The castle, built on a height and surrounded by strong walls, could have stood a long siege, when a tragic event put an end to the struggle. The Baron de Beuil was murdered by his valet, who cut his throat whilst shaving him. The Duke of Savoy outlawed John, the son, and gave the barony to Honoré Grimaldi, brother of George, who had steadily refused to be drawn into the conspiracy. But to return to Nice.

In 1229 a party in the town revolted against the Count of Provence, and expelled those who were loyal to him. Thereupon Romeo de Villeneuve marched on Nice, took the town, and set to work to strengthen the fortifications of the castle, which in future would control it. At that time the castle consisted of a donjon, with an enclosure that had four turrets at the angles. Outside this Romeo built a strong wall that enclosed within the area the cathedral and the houses of the nobility; he cut deep fosses through the rock, and furnished the gates with drawbridges. Later, after the invention of powder, the fortress was further transformed in 1338. After the death of Joanna I. of Naples, Nice took the side of Charles of Durazzo, and in 1388 was besieged by Louis II. of Anjou. The Niçois, unable without help to hold out against him, offered the town to Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, and he entered and took possession.

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 of putting words together. Some of his definitions on this principle became famous; as that truth means simply what a man ‘troweth;’ and that right means simply what is ruled, whence it follows that right and wrong are as arbitrary as right and left, and may change places according to the legislator's point of view. This and other conclusions are criticised at some length by Dugald Stewart in his essays (Works, v. 149–88), who speaks respectfully of the author, though thinking that the doctrine tends to materialism; and by [q. v.] in his ‘Anti-Tooke’ (1824). In this respect Horne Tooke had a great influence upon James Mill, who constantly accepts Tooke's philological doctrines in order to confirm his own philosophy. In the last edition of Mill's ‘Analysis,’ one of the editors, [q. v.], points out many of the misunderstandings into which Mill was thus led.

Horne Tooke had many disciples. Hazlitt in 1810 published a grammar in which the ‘discoveries’ of Horne Tooke were ‘for the first time incorporated.’ [q. v.] was a warm disciple who defended him against Dugald Stewart, and who, in his dictionary (1837), accepted the doctrines of the ‘immortal’ Horne Tooke, the ‘philosophical grammarian who alone was entitled to the name of discoverer.’

‘ἜΠEA ΠTEROENTA, or the Diversions of Purley, Part I,’ appeared in 1786, 8vo. Another edition, with a new second part, was issued in 1798, and again in 1805. An edition in 2 vols. 8vo by Richard Taylor, with additions from the author's copy and the letter to Dunning, appeared in 1829, and has been reprinted. Besides the pamphlets mentioned above, Horne Tooke published a sermon in 1769; an ‘Oration … at a Meeting of the Freeholders of Middlesex,’ in 1770; and a ‘Letter on the reported Marriage of … the Prince of Wales’ in 1787; and he co-operated with Dr. Price in writing ‘Facts addressed to Landowners,’ &c., 1780 (, Life of Price, p. 83).

TOOKE, THOMAS (1774–1858), economist, born at Cronstadt on 29 Feb. 1774, was the eldest son of (1744–1820) [q. v.], at that time chaplain to the British factory at Cronstadt. Thomas began life at the age of fifteen in a house of business at St. Petersburg, and subsequently became a partner in the London firms of Stephen Thornton & Co., and Astell, Tooke, & Thornton. He took no important part in any public discussion of economic questions until 1819, in which year he gave evidence before committees of both Houses of Parliament on the resumption of cash payments by the Bank of England.

As a follower of Ricardo, Horner, and Huskisson, he was a strenuous supporter of the principles embodied in the report of the bullion committee of 1810. The three years which followed the Resumption Act of 1819 were marked by a great fall in the prices of nearly all commodities, and the opinion rapidly gained ground that the fall was due to a contraction of the currency which was assumed to result from the return to cash payments.

To combat this view was the task to which Tooke applied himself in his earliest work, ‘Thoughts and Details on the High and Low Prices of the last Thirty Years,’ published in 1823, and the same line of argument is pursued in his ‘Considerations on the State of the Currency’ (1826) and in a ‘Letter to Lord Grenville’ (1829). His object was to ‘negative the alleged influence of the bank restriction and resumption in raising or depressing general prices beyond the difference between gold and paper,’ and to show that the act of 1819 was practically inoperative so far as any contraction of the currency was concerned. For this purpose he entered upon a detailed examination of the causes which might affect prices, and claimed to establish the conclusion that the variations, both during the period of restriction and after the resumption, were due to circumstances directly connected with the commodities themselves, and not to alterations in the quantity of money.

The same views are developed at greater length in the ‘History of Prices,’ of which the first two volumes, dealing with the period from 1793 to 1837, were published in 1838. His conclusions as regards that period were that the high prices which, speaking generally, ruled between 1793 and 1814


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210 The desolating wars of Charles V. and Francis I. made a desert of Provence. Nice, as a town of the Duke of Savoy, met with only the temporary annoyance of the Spanish and German and Italian troops passing through it to cross the Var. In 1538 Pope Paul III. proposed a meeting between the two sovereigns at Nice, and he met them there on June 18th, 1535; a truce was concluded, to last for ten years. A cross of marble marks the spot where the conference took place. It was thrown down in 1793, in the Revolutionary period, but was again set up some twenty years later. Paul III., in proposing the meeting of the two rival monarchs, had not only an eye to the welfare of the people of Italy, harassed by incessant and desolating war, but also to the interest of his own family. He had been elected Pope in 1534, and at once created Alexander, child of one of his illegitimate sons, Cardinal at the age of fourteen, Archbishop of Anagni when the boy was only fifteen, and Archbishop of Mont Real and Patriarch of Jerusalem when aged sixteen. Another grandson, Ranncio, he created Archbishop of Naples when aged fourteen, and Archbishop of Ravenna at the age of nineteen. Now, when meeting the two sovereigns, he negotiated with Francis to have his granddaughter united to a prince of the house of Valois; but Francis procrastinated, and the marriage did not take place. He was more successful in marrying his grandson Octavio to Margaret of Austria, natural daughter of Charles V. But that Paul did use his utmost endeavours to obtain a truce of ten years is shown by the testimony of the Venetian ambassador who was present at Nice on the occasion of the meeting. He could find no

title: Page:Book of the Riviera.djvu/268