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 ton (for Warburton's relations to Sterne, see under ; cf., Letters, ed. Cunningham, iii. 298). Macaulay, in his copy of the letters between Warburton and Hurd, wrote ‘bully and sneak,’ which is a slashing but not inaccurate summary of the general impression. Warburton, blustering and reckless as he was, is more attractive than his prim sycophant. He had at least some warm blood in his veins, and was capable of friendship and good fellowship. He deserves the credit of having denounced the slave trade in a sermon before the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1766 (Works, x. 29, &c.). Cradock says that when Warburton visited Hurd at his country living, he insisted on being taken round to the neighbours, whom Hurd had not condescended to visit, and making Hurd give them a good dinner. In his own house he could be sociable and pleasant, though he rather boasts to Hurd of his unsuitability to a court atmosphere (see, Illustrations, vol. ii., for an account of his conversations with a Dr. Cumming). He sometimes shocked Hurd by his indifference to decorum, and neither his sermons nor his anecdotes were always of episcopal dignity. He used, says Cradock, to send for a basket of rubbish from the circulating libraries, and laugh over them heartily during intervals of study. The intervals seem to have become longer than the studies. He says that he was naturally so indolent and desultory that he could only get himself to his task by setting the press to work and being forced to supply copy. This was written to Doddridge on 2 Feb. 1740–1. He adds that the greater part of his fifth and sixth books of ‘The Divine Legation’ is still unwritten. He has promised to have the whole volume (books iv. v. vi.) ready by Lady-day, and, according to Hurd, the book was in fact ready by May 1741 (, Lit. Illustrations, p. 823).

Warburton's works are: 1. ‘Miscellaneous Translations in Prose and Verse from Roman Poets, Orators, and Historians,’ 1724, 12mo. 2. ‘A Critical and Philosophical Enquiry into the Causes of Prodigies, Miracles …’ 1727 (these two were reprinted by Parr in ‘Tracts by Warburton and a Warburtonian,’ 1789). 3. ‘The Alliance between Church and State; or the Necessity and Equity of an established Religion and a Test Law demonstrated from the Essence and End of Civil Society …’ 1736; a second edit. in 1741, a third in 1748, a fourth in 1765, and a tenth in 1846. 4. ‘The Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the principles of a Religious Deist, from the Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State of Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish Dispensation. In six books,’ published in January 1737–8. This volume includes books i. ii. iii. The second volume, including books iv. v. vi., appeared in 1741. A second edit. of vol. i. appeared in November 1738, a third in 1742, a fourth (in two vols.) in 1755, and a fifth in 1766. A second edition of vol. ii. appeared in 1742, a third in 1758, a fourth in 1765 (as vols. iii. iv. and v.) in continuation of the two vols. of the fourth edition of the first part. 5. ‘A Vindication of the Author … from the Aspersions of the Country Clergyman's Letter on the Weekly Miscellany of Feb. 24, 1737–8,’ 1738, 8vo. 6. ‘A … Commentary on Mr. Pope's “Essay on Man,” in which is contained a Vindication … from the Misrepresentations of … M. de Crousaz … In six letters,’ 1739, reprinted with alterations from the ‘History of the Works of the Learned’ (December 1738 to May 1739). In 1742 it was remodelled as ‘A Critical and Philosophical Commentary on Mr. Pope's “Essay on Man,” in which is contained a Vindication …’ 7. ‘Remarks on several occasional Reflections in answer to’ [Middleton, Pococke, Mann, and Richard Grey], with ‘a general Review of the Argument of the “Divine Legation,”’ and an ‘Appendix in Answer to’ [Stebbing], 1744. A second part appeared in 1745, ‘in answer to the Rev. Drs. Stebbing and Sykes,’ &c. 8. ‘The Works of Shakspear … with Comments and Notes by Mr. Pope and Mr. Warburton,’ 1747 (often reprinted). 9. ‘A Letter from an Author to a Member of Parliament concerning Literary Property,’ 1747, 8vo. 10. ‘A Letter to the Editor of the Letters on the spirit of Patriotism …’ 1749 (‘A Letter to Viscount B——, occasioned by his Treatment of a deceased Friend,’ 1749, is also doubtfully attributed to Warburton). 11. ‘Julian, or a Discourse concerning the Earthquake and Fiery Eruption which defeated that Emperor's Attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem,’ &c., 1750; 2nd edit. 1757. 12. ‘A View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy in four Letters to a Friend,’ 1754 (first two letters) and 1755 (third and fourth). 13. ‘Remarks on Mr. David Hume's Essay on the Natural History of Religion, by a Gentleman of Cambridge, in a Letter to the Rev. Dr. W—— …’ 8vo, 1757. 14. ‘A rational Account of the Nature and End of the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper,’ 1761, 12mo. 15. ‘The Doctrine of Grace, or the Office and Operation of the Holy Spirit vindicated from the Insults of Infidelity and the Abuses of Fanaticism,’ 1762, 2 vols. 12mo. In 1742 Warburton published a ‘Dissertation on the Origin of Books of


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 Chivalry,’ prefixed to Jervas's translation of ‘Don Quixote.’

Warburton published a number of separate sermons, three during the rebellion of 1745; and in 1753 and 1754 two volumes of sermons preached at Lincoln's Inn, called ‘Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion,’ &c., and a third volume in 1767. He wrote in 1747 prefaces to the ‘Remarks’ of Catharine Cockburn [q. v.] upon Dr. Rutherforth, and to Towne's ‘Critical Inquiry.’ For the ‘Legal Judicature in Chancery’ and the ‘Apology for Sir R. Sutton,’ see above. A collective edition of Warburton's ‘Works’ in 7 vols. 4to was published at the expense of his widow in 1788, under Hurd's superintendence. It included some previously unpublished fragments, parts of the ninth book of the ‘Divine Legation,’ ‘Directions for the Study of Theology,’ and notes upon Neal's ‘History of the Puritans.’ In 1794 Hurd published a ‘Discourse by way of general Preface to the Quarto Edition,’ being chiefly a life of Warburton. Only 250 copies were printed of this and the preceding. The ‘Works,’ with the ‘discourse’ prefixed, were published in 12 vols. 8vo in 1811. The ‘Letters from a late eminent Prelate [Warburton] to one of his Friends [Hurd],’ ‘first printed by Hurd for the benefit of Worcester Infirmary,’ were republished as a ‘second edition’ in 1809.

[Hurd, in the discourse above mentioned, gave the first account of Warburton's life. Though it does not condescend to much detail, it gives some original information. The life by John Selby Watson (1863) is tiresome, but collects most of the ascertainable facts. There are a great many references in Nichols's Lit. Anecd. (see index). Vol. v. 529–658 gives a full list of his works, with references to answers, &c., and biographical information, with many letters from different sources. Vol. ii. of Nichols's Illustrations (pp. 1–654) gives letters to Stukeley (from the originals), to Des Maizeaux, and to Birch (some of which had been printed by Maty in the New Review), both from the manuscripts in the British Museum, to Nathaniel Forster (from the originals), correspondence with Concanen and Theobald (from the originals); and the same volume, pp. 811–36, gives letters to Doddridge (fully printed from originals first published, with some omissions, in Stedman's Collection of Doddridge's Correspondence, 1790). In 1841 Francis Kilvert published a selection from Warburton's unpublished papers, communicated by the widow of the Rev. Martin Stafford Smith. These include letters from Sherlock, Hare, Charles Yorke, and some others, besides fragmentary papers by Warburton and a few charges and sermons. Numerous references to Warburton are in Elwin and Courthope's edition of Pope's Works (see index). See also Cradock's Literary and Miscellaneous Memoirs (1828), i. 4, 179, 187, iv. 107, 188, 200–6, 335; Bishop Newton's Autobiography; Walpole's Letters (Cunningham), vol. i. p. lxii, iii. 92, 298, iv. 132, 159, 171, 183, 217, 339, vi. 105, vii. 318; Boswell's Johnson (Birkbeck Hill), see index; Johnson's Life of Pope; Prior's Malone, pp. 344, 370, 430, 445; Hutchinson's Durham (1781), ii. 274; Le Neve's Fasti, i. 224, 441, 450, iii. 300. Information has been kindly given by Rev. A. F. Sutton of Brant Broughton. For criticisms of Warburton's writings see Quarterly Review (article by Dr. Whitaker); Hunt's Religious Thought in England, iii. 146–51, &c. An excellent summary of Warburton's life is in Mark Pattison's Essays (1889), ii. 119–76, from a review of Watson's life contributed to the National Review of 1863; cf. the article from Essays and Reviews, reprinted in the same volume. See also D'Israeli's Quarrels of Authors.]

WARD. [See also .]

WARD, EDWARD (1638–1714), chief baron of the exchequer, born in June 1638, was the second son of William Ward of Preston, Rutland. He was educated under Francis Meres [q. v.] at the free school, Uppingham. Having been previously a student at Clifford's Inn, he was admitted in June 1664 at the Inner Temple; he was called to the bar in 1670, and soon obtained a good practice in the exchequer court. His connections were chiefly with the whigs, and his first important public appearance was as one of the counsel for William, lord Russell [q. v.], in July 1683. On 6 Nov. of the following year he was leading counsel for his father-in-law, Thomas Papillon [q. v.], in the action for false imprisonment brought against him by Sir William Pritchard [q. v.] Ward's argument was interrupted by Chief-justice Jeffreys, who declared that he had made a long speech ‘and nothing at all to the purpose,’ and did not understand what he was about. When Ward persisted and Jeffreys repeated his observations, ‘there was a little hiss begun’ in the court. The judge appeared daunted, and finally allowed him to call his witnesses. The verdict went against his client, but in 1688 Ward was at length able to settle matters with Pritchard. On 25 Nov. 1684 he appeared in the exchequer court for Charles Gerard, first earl of Macclesfield [q. v.], in the action of scandalum magnatum against John Starkey, a juryman of Cheshire, by which county he had recently been presented as a disaffected person. In 1687 Ward became bencher of his inn, of which he was also Lent reader in 1690 and treasurer in 1693. On 12 April 1689 he was appointed by William III a justice of the common pleas, but was excused, by his own desire,

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Ward four days later. In July of that year he acted as one of the counsel for Dr. Elliot, Captain Vaughan, and Mr. Mould, who were impeached by the commons for circulating King James's declaration. He was appointed attorney-general on 30 March 1693, and was knighted at Kensington on 30 Oct. He was sworn serjeant-at-law on 3 June, and on 8 June 1695 was named lord chief baron of the exchequer. In the following March he was one of the judges who tried Robert Charnock [q. v.] and his associates for treason. He was one of those judges who in January 1700 declined to give an opinion in ‘the bankers' case upon the writ of error’. In May of the same year he acted as one of the commissioners of the great seal.

The most important case over which Ward presided was the trial of Captain William Kidd [q. v.] and his associates for piracy and murder in May 1701 (State Trials, xiv. 143, 180). He died at his house in Essex Street, Strand, on 14 July 1714. He was buried at Stoke Doyle, Northamptonshire, where he had purchased the lordship of the manor in 1694. He left a sum of money in charity to the parish. Evelyn mentions him as one of the subscribers to Greenwich Hospital in 1696. A portrait was engraved by R. White in 1702 from a painting by Kneller.

Ward married, on 30 March 1676, Elizabeth, third daughter of Thomas Papillon, afterwards sheriff of London. They had ten surviving children. Two of the sons were eminent lawyers. The eldest, Edward, rebuilt Stoke Doyle church and erected in it a handsome monument to his father. Jane, the eldest daughter, married Thomas Hunt of Boreatton, in the parish of Baschurch, Shropshire, and was ancestress of the Ward-Hunt family.

[Inscription on monument at Stoke Doyle, per the Rev. G. M. Edmonds; Admission-book of the Inner Temple; Masters of the Bench of the Inner Temple, privately printed, 1883; Luttrell's Brief Hist. Relation, passim; State Trials, x. 319–71, 1338–1418, xii. 1291–8, 1378, xiii. 451, xiv. 123, 234; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1689–90, pp. 59, 65; Bridges's Hist. of Northamptonshire (Whalley), ii. 377–8; Le Neve's Knights, p. 445; Noble's Contin. of Granger's Biogr. Hist. ii. 181; Foss's Judges of England; Memoirs of T. L. Papillon, ed. A. F. Papillon, 1887, pp. 46, 241–5, 247–9, 390.]

WARD, EDWARD (1667–1731), humourist, of ‘low extraction’ and with little education, was born in Oxfordshire in 1667 (, Miscellanies, vol. v. pref.). He tells as that his father and ancestors lived in prosperity in Leicestershire (Nuptial Dialogues, 1710, dedication). In early life he visited the West Indies, and afterwards he began business as a publican in Moorfields. By 1699 he had moved to Fulwood's Rents, where he kept a punch-shop and tavern (probably the King's Head), next door to Gray's Inn, until his death. Giles Jacob (Poetical Register, 1723) says: ‘Of late years he has kept a public-house in the city (but in a genteel way), and with his wit, humour, and good liquor, has afforded his guests a pleasurable entertainment; especially the high-church party.’ In a book called ‘Apollo's Maggot in his Cups,’ Ward professed great indignation at this account, and said that his house was not in the city, but in Moorfields. Oldys says that Ward lived for a time in Gray's Inn, then in Clerkenwell and Moorfields successively, and finally in Fulwood's Rents, where he would entertain any company who invited him with stories and adventures of the poets and authors he had known.

In consequence of his attacks on the government in his ‘Hudibras Redivivus,’ 1705, he was indicted; and, on pleading guilty, he was ordered to stand twice in the pillory, at the Royal Exchange and Charing Cross, to pay a fine of forty marks, and to find security for good behaviour (, Brief Relation of State Affairs, vi. 36, 57, 107; Gent. Mag. October 1857). When pilloried he received rough usage from the mob; ‘as thick as eggs at Ward in pillory,’ says Pope (Dunciad, iii. 34). Elsewhere Pope writes that Ward's vile rhymes were exported to the colonies, to be changed for bad tobacco (ib. i. 234).

Ward died at Fulwood's Rents on 20 June 1731, and was buried on the 27th in St. Pancras churchyard (Gent. Mag. 1731, p. 266;, Environs of London, iii. 371). His wife and daughter are mentioned in a poetical will made in 1725, and printed in ‘Applebee's Weekly Journal’ for 28 Sept. 1731. A man of considerable natural parts and with a gift of humour, ‘Ned Ward,’ as he is frequently called, imitated Butler's ‘Hudibras’ both in his style and in his attacks on the whigs and low-church party. Though vulgar and often grossly coarse, his writings throw considerable light on the social life of the time of Queen Anne, and especially on the habits of various classes in London; but much allowance has to be made for exaggeration (Gent. Mag. October 1857, ‘London in 1699: Scenes from Ned Ward’).

Ward is twice referred to in the ‘Art of Sinking in Poetry’ (, Works, ed. Elwin and Courthope, x. 362, 390). Noble (Continuation of Granger, ii. 262) mentions four


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 portraits of Ward: (1) engraving by Vandergucht, prefixed to the ‘Nuptial Dialogues;’ (2) engraving by W. Sherwin, prefixed to ‘Hudibras Redivivus,’ 1716; (3) engraving by Sympson; (4) mezzotint, dated 1714.

Ward's writings are found collected in sets of various dates and varying completeness. His ‘Miscellaneous Writings in Verse and Prose’ were issued in six volumes, with general title-pages dated from 1717 to 1724. Perhaps the most important of his works is the ‘London Spy,’ originally published in monthly folio parts, beginning in November 1698, and reprinted, ‘compleat, in eighteen parts,’ in octavo, in 1703. This book (whose name was no doubt borrowed from the ‘Turkish Spy’) throws much light on the times, especially on the life of the taverns and coffee-houses. In 1703 appeared also ‘The Second Volume of the Writings of the Author of the London Spy,’ a collection of twenty ephemeral pieces, often of great coarseness; a ‘Third Volume,’ with similar contents, was published in 1706; the ‘Fourth Volume’ (1709) contained the ‘London Terræ Filius.’ The curious ‘Secret History of the Calves-head Club; or the Republican Unmasked,’ appeared first in 1703; there was a seventh edition, enlarged, in 1709, and the book was reissued as ‘The Whigs Unmasked’ in 1713. ‘Hudibras Redivivus; or a Burlesque Poem on the Times,’ was issued in twelve quarto parts, between August 1705 and June 1707; it is written in imitation of Butler, and is a violent attack on the low-church party, with descriptions of the scenes of profanity or hypocrisy witnessed by the author during his rambles through London. In 1709 Ward issued ‘Marriage Dialogues,’ which were expanded in 1710 into ‘Nuptial Dialogues and Debates;’ ‘The Diverting Works of Cervantes, with an Introduction;’ ‘The History of the London Clubs, or the Citizens' Pastime’ (reprinted in 1896), and ‘The Secret History of Clubs’ (a lengthy volume). ‘Vulgus Britannicus; or the British Hudibras,’ in five parts, 1710, is a satire on the whigs and the mob. ‘The Life and Notable Adventures of Don Quixote de la Mancha; merrily translated into Hudibrastic Verse, by Edward Ward,’ appeared in two volumes in 1711–12. ‘The History of the Grand Rebellion, digested into Verse,’ was published in 1713, in three volumes; the portraits were subsequently used for Clarendon's ‘History.’

The following is a list of Ward's other writings as originally published, so far as they can be traced: 1. ‘The Poet's Ramble after Riches,’ 1691, 4to (in verse; speaks of his poverty). 2. ‘A Dialogue between Claret and Darby Ale: a Poem,’ 1692 (November 1691), 4to. 3. ‘The Miracles performed by Money: a Poem,’ 1692, 4to. 4. ‘Female Policy detected; or the Arts of a designing Woman laid open,’ 1695, 12mo. 5. ‘Sot's Paradise; or the Humours of a Derby Ale-House, with a Satire on the Ale,’ 1698, fol. 6. ‘Bacchanalia; or a Description of a Drunken Club: a Poem,’ 1698, fol. 7. ‘Ecclesia et FactionFactio [sic]: a Dialogue between the Bow Steeple Dragon and the Exchange Grasshopper,’ 1698, fol. 8. ‘A Trip to Jamaica,’ 1698, fol. 9. ‘The World Bewitched: a Dialogue between two Astrologers and the Author,’ 1699, 4to. 10. ‘A Trip to Ireland,’ 1699, fol. 11. ‘O Raree-show, O Pretty-show, or the City-feast,’ n.d. 12. ‘A Walk to Islington,’ 1699, fol. 13. ‘The Insinuating Bawd, or the Repenting Harlot,’ by D. B. 1699, fol. 14. ‘Modern Religion and Ancient Loyalty: a Dialogue,’ 1699, fol. 15. ‘The Cock-Pit Combat; or the Baiting of the Tiger,’ 1699, s. sh. fol. 16. ‘A Hue and Cry after the Man-midwife, who delivered the Sand-Bank of their Money,’ s. sh. fol. (verse). 17. ‘A Trip to New England,’ 1699, fol. 18. ‘A Frolick to Horn Fair,’ 1700, fol. 19. ‘The Reformer, exposing the Vices of the Age; in several Characters,’ 1700, 12mo. 20. ‘The Dancing School,’ 1700, fol. 21. ‘A Step to Stir-Bitch Fair, with Remarks upon the University of Cambridge,’ 1700, fol. 22. ‘The Rambling Rakes; or London Libertines,’ 1700, fol. 23. ‘The Metamorphosed Beau,’ 1700, fol. 24. ‘A Journey to Hell; or a Visit paid to the Devil: a Poem,’ three parts, 1700, fol. 25. ‘Three Nights' Adventures,’ 1701, fol. 26. ‘The Revels of the Gods; or a Ramble through the Heavens,’ 1701, fol. 27. ‘The City Madame and the Country Maid,’ 1702, fol. 28. ‘The Rise and Fall of Madame Coming-Sir,’ 1703, fol. 29. ‘Bribery and Simony,’ 1703, fol. 30. ‘The Libertine's Choice; or the Mistaken Happiness of the Fool in Fashion,’ 1704, 4to (verse). 31. ‘All Men Mad; or England a Great Bedlam: a Poem,’ 1704, 4to. 32. ‘Helter-skelter; or the Devil upon two Sticks,’ 1704, 8vo. 33. ‘The Dissenting Hypocrite; or Occasional Conformist,’ 1704, 8vo. 34. ‘Honesty in Distress, but relieved by no Party,’ 1705, 4to (verse). 35. ‘A Legacy for the Ladies, by Thomas Brown … the second part by Mr. Edward Ward,’ 1705, 8vo. 36. ‘Fair Shell, but a Rotten Kernel; or a Bitter Nut for a Facetious Monkey,’ 1705, 4to (verse).


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 37. ‘The Humours of a Coffee-House,’ June to August 1707, seven quarto weekly numbers. 38. ‘The Wooden World Dissected, in the Character of a Ship of War,’ 1707, 12mo. 39. ‘The London Terræ Filius; or the Satirical Reformer,’ five numbers, 1707–8, 8vo. 40. ‘The Forgiving Husband and Adulterous Wife,’ 1708, 8vo (verse). 41. ‘The Wars of the Elements; or a Description of a Sea-Storm,’ 1708, 8vo. 42. ‘The Modern World Disrobed,’ 1708, 8vo; republished about 1710, as ‘Adam and Eve stripped of their Furbelows; or the Fashionable Virtues and Vices of both Sexes exposed to Public View.’ 43. ‘Mars stript of his Armour; or the Army displayed in all its true Colours,’ 1709, 8vo. 44. ‘The Rambling Fuddle-caps; or a Tavern-struggle for a Kiss,’ 1709, 8vo. 45. ‘The Poetical Entertainer,’ 1712, 8vo. 46. ‘The Field Spy; or the Walking Observator, a Poem,’ 1714, 8vo. 47. ‘The Republican Procession; or the Tumultuous Cavalcade,’ 1714, 8vo. 48. ‘The Morning Prophet; or Faction revived by the Death of Queen Anne: a Poem,’ 1714, 4to. 49. ‘The Lord Whiglove's Elegy,’ 1714, 8vo. 50. ‘A Vade-Mecum for Malt-Worms; or a Guide to Good Fellows,’ 1715, 8vo. 51. ‘A Guide for Malt-Worms; the Second part; done by several Hands,’ n.d. 8vo. 52. ‘St. Paul's Church; or the Protestant Ambulators: a Burlesque Poem,’ 1716, 8vo. 53. ‘British Wonders,’ 1717, 8vo. 54. ‘A Seasonable Sketch of an Oxford Reformation, written originally in Latin by John Allibond, D.D.,’ 1717, 8vo. 55. ‘The Tory Quaker; or Aminadab's New Vision,’ 1717, 8vo. 56. ‘The Delights of the Bottle; or the Compleat Vintner: a merry Poem,’ 1720, 8vo. 57. ‘The Northern Cuckold; or the Garden-House Intrigue,’ 1721, 8vo. 58. ‘The Merry Traveller,’ pt. i. 1721, 8vo. 59. ‘The Wandering Spy; or the Merry Travellers,’ pt. ii. 1722, 8vo. 60. ‘The Dancing Devils; or the Roaring Dragon; as it was acted at both Houses,’ 1724, 8vo. 61. ‘News from Madrid,’ 1726, 8vo. 62. ‘Durgen; or a Plain Satire upon a Pompous Satirist [Pope],’ 1729, 8vo. 63. ‘Apollo's Maggot in his Cups; or the Whimsical Creation of a little Satirical Poet,’ 1729, 8vo. 64. ‘The Basia of Secundus,’ translated by Fenton and Ward, 1731, 12mo. 65. ‘The Ambitious Father; or the Politician's Advice to his Son: a Poem in five cantos,’ 1733. 66. ‘A Fiddler's Fling at Roguery,’ 1734, 8vo. The following pieces, printed in the collected works (1703–6), probably first appeared separately, although copies in that form seem now unprocurable: 67. ‘Battle without Bloodshed; or Martial Discipline buffooned by the City Train-Bands.’ 68. ‘The Dutch Guards' Farewell to England.’ 69. ‘The Charitable Citizen.’ 70. ‘A Satire against Wine.’ 71. ‘A Poem in Praise of Small-Beer.’ 72. ‘A Poem on the Success of the Duke of Marlborough.’ 73. ‘Fortune's Bounty.’ 74. ‘A Protestant Scourge for a Popish Jacket.’ 75. ‘A Musical Entertainment.’ 76. ‘A Satire against the Corrupt Use of Money.’ 77. ‘A Dialogue between Britannia and Prudence.’ The ‘Hudibrastic Brewer; or a Prosperous Union between Malt and Metre,’ is a satire upon ‘the brewing poet W–d.’

[Biogr. Dram.; Cibber's Lives of the Poets, iv. 293; Brit. Mus. Cat.; Lowndes's Bibliographer's Manual; Retrospective Review, iii. 326–328; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. iv. 341, 509, 4th ser. xi. 143. There is a manuscript copy of ‘Honesty in Distress’ in a commonplace book in the Brit. Mus. (Addit. MS. 23904, f. 56).]

WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816–1879), historical painter, born in Pimlico on 14 July 1816, was the younger son of Charles James Ward (1781–1858), by his wife, Mary Ford, sister-in-law of Horatio or Horace Smith [q. v.] The father was employed in Messrs. Coutts's bank. As a boy, Ward made original designs from the novels of Smollett and Fielding, Washington Irving's ‘Sketch-book,’ and his uncle Horace Smith's ‘Brambletye House.’ After spending a short time at several schools in London, he was sent for a year to the studio of John Cawse (1779–1862) in Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, to learn oil-painting. Here he made many acquaintances in the theatrical world, and painted a picture of Miss Cawse, Braham, and Penson, in a scene from ‘Fra Diavolo.’ In 1830 he gained a silver palette from the Society of Arts for a pen-and-ink drawing. In 1835 he was introduced by Chantrey and Wilkie to the schools of the Royal Academy. He had already exhibited in 1834 a picture of the comedian O. Smith as Don Quixote. His second venture in 1835 was less successful. His picture, ‘The Dead Ass,’ from Sterne's ‘Sentimental Journey,’ was accepted, but not hung ‘for want of space.’ To resist the temptation to paint and exhibit prematurely in London, Ward resolved to study abroad. He started in July 1836, spent some weeks in Paris and Venice, and proceeded to Rome, where he remained about two years and a half. He drew from the antique, copied pictures, and worked industriously in the studio of Cavaliere Filippo Agricola, director of the academy of St. Luke,


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 a classical painter of the David period, whose accomplished though formal draughtsmanship was a useful corrective to Ward. In 1838 he gained a silver medal from the academy of St. Luke for historical composition. His first important picture, ‘Cimabue and Giotto,’ painted at Rome, was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1839. In the autumn of that year Ward returned to England, stopping for some time at Munich to study fresco-painting under Cornelius.

From 1840 till the time of his death Ward was a constant exhibitor at the Royal Academy, and his pictures enjoyed great popularity. The subjects of the majority were taken from English history of the seventeenth century, or from French history of the period of the revolution and the first empire. To these should be added a remarkable group of pictures of English social life in the eighteenth century, scenes in the life of Dr. Johnson and Oliver Goldsmith being favourite subjects. These three branches of study were illustrated by the pictures which he exhibited in the years immediately following his return to England. ‘Napoleon in the Prison of Nice in 1794’ was purchased by the Duke of Wellington at the British Institution in 1841. In the same year he sent ‘Cornet Joyce seizing the King at Holmby, 1647,’ to the Royal Academy. In 1842 scenes from Shakespeare appeared at both galleries. In 1843 he exhibited at the Royal Academy ‘Dr. Johnson reading the Manuscript of the Vicar of Wakefield,’ followed by ‘A Scene from the Early Life of Goldsmith,’ in 1844, and ‘A Scene in Lord Chesterfield's Ante-room in 1748,’ in 1845. This picture was the first which made Ward's name widely known. It was purchased by Robert Vernon [q. v.], and is now in the National Gallery of British Art. ‘The Disgrace of Lord Clarendon,’ of which a small replica from the Vernon collection is in the National Gallery, was painted for Lord Northwick in 1846. In 1847 Ward was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. In that year he exhibited the ‘South Sea Bubble,’ also in the National Gallery, and a portrait of Maclise. The fourth of the National Gallery pictures, ‘James II receiving the News of the Landing of the Prince of Orange at Torbay,’ was exhibited in 1850. ‘The Royal Family of France in the Temple,’ 1851, and ‘Charlotte Corday going to Execution,’ 1852, increased the artist's reputation. In 1853 he was commissioned to paint eight historical pictures for the corridor of the House of Commons. It was not the first time that his name had been mentioned in connection with the decoration of the Houses of Parliament, for he had sent a cartoon, ‘Boadicea animating the Britons,’ to the first competitive exhibition at Westminster Hall in 1843. It did not obtain a premium, and he refrained from competing again. The first two of the subjects now assigned to him, ‘The Execution of Montrose’ and ‘The last Sleep of Argyll,’ were painted in oils; but the commissioners of fine arts found that they were unsuitable to the positions for which they were intended, and he was requested to repeat them in fresco. The originals fetched high prices. The remainder of the series, ‘Alice Lisle concealing Fugitives,’ ‘Monk declaring for a Free Parliament,’ ‘The Escape of Charles II with Jane Lane,’ ‘The Landing of Charles II,’ ‘The Acquittal of the Seven Bishops,’ and ‘William and Mary receiving the Lords and Commons,’ were painted in fresco on slabs of slate from finished studies, and then fixed in position. It was found necessary, to preserve the surface from the effects of gas, to cover them with glass, and this, in addition to the bad light in the corridor, makes it impossible to see them to advantage. In some cases the finished studies, in others replicas in oils or watercolours of these subjects, were exhibited during several years at the Royal Academy.

In March 1855 Ward was elected an academician. He had now settled at Slough, near Windsor, where he continued chiefly to reside for the remainder of his life, though he also occupied a house at Notting Hill for several years. In 1857 he was commissioned by the queen to paint ‘Napoleon III being invested with the Order of the Garter at Windsor,’ and the ‘Visit of Queen Victoria to the Tomb of Napoleon I.’ The most important of his later pictures were ‘Antechamber at Whitehall during the dying moments of Charles II,’ 1861; ‘Hogarth's Studio, 1739,’ 1863; ‘Luther's first Study of the Bible,’ 1869, which was purchased by subscription and presented to the British and Foreign Bible Society; ‘The Eve of St. Bartholomew,’ 1873; ‘Marie-Antoinette in the Conciergerie,’ 1874; ‘Lady Teazle,’ 1875; ‘The last Interview between Napoleon I and Queen Louise at Tilsit,’ 1877. In 1876, after a tour in Normandy and Brittany, he exhibited several pictures of modern French life. He took great interest about this time in the foundation of the Windsor Tapestry Works under the presidency of Prince Leopold. In 1877 he designed four cartoons of hunting subjects for Christopher Sykes, for the decoration of the staircase at 11 Hill Street, Mayfair, now the property of the Duke of Newcastle. He was more success-


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 ful in another large cartoon for tapestry, ‘The Battle of Aylesford,’ which he designed for Henry Brassey's mansion, Preston Hall, near Aylesford, Kent.

After 1874 Ward's nervous system suffered from ill-health, and on 10 Jan. 1879 he was found in his dressing-room with a self-inflicted wound in the throat, to which he succumbed on 15 Jan. He was buried on 22 Jan. in his father's grave in the old churchyard at Upton, Buckinghamshire. Ward married, on 4 May 1848, Henrietta, daughter of George Raphael Ward, and granddaughter of (1769–1859) [q. v.], herself an artist of distinction, who was not related to him by birth. He left several children, who have carried on the artistic traditions of their parents' families. A portrait of Ward, by George Richmond, in the possession of Mrs. E. M. Ward, has been engraved by William Holl, jun. A large number of Ward's pictures have been engraved. The merits of the originals—smooth finish and accuracy of details—appealed strongly to the taste of the artist's own day, which greatly favoured historical genre-painting.

WARD, HENRY GEORGE (1797–1860), colonial governor, the eldest son of  [q. v.] of Gilston Park, Hertfordshire, by his wife Catherine Julia, daughter of C. J. Maling of West Herrington, Durham, was born in London on 27 Feb. 1797. Educated at Harrow, and sent abroad to learn languages, he became in 1816 attaché to the British legation at Stockholm, under Sir [q. v.]; was transferred to The Hague in 1818, and to Madrid in 1819. He was appointed minister plenipotentiary to Mexico in October 1823, returned to England in 1824; again went out to Mexico in 1825, but returned and retired from the diplomatic service in 1827.

In December 1832 Ward entered the House of Commons, sitting as member for St. Albans till 1837, and for Sheffield till 1849. His general reputation was that of an advanced liberal. His career in parliament was chiefly marked by his hostility to the Irish church, respecting which he annually moved a resolution. In political polemics he took an active part, and founded and edited the ‘Weekly Chronicle’ for the purpose of supporting his views with the public. He was also much occupied with railway enterprise in the days of the early speculation. In 1846 he became secretary to the admiralty.

In May 1849 Ward was appointed lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, then under the protection of the British crown. He arrived at Corfu on 2 June 1849, and found himself at once in a difficult position. He had to meet an assembly which had just obtained great concessions from his predecessor, and expected even greater complaisance from a new administrator of well-known liberal principles. He was quickly aware that the concessions made were unwise. He found the assembly unworkable and prorogued it. On 1 Aug. 1849 he proclaimed an amnesty to those who had taken part in the rebellion in Cephalonia against Lord Seaton's rule [see, first ]. By the end of August he was answered by a fresh outbreak. Proceeding to Cephalonia, he took vigorous action in person and at once. By October a somewhat serious rebellion had been suppressed. His action was unsuccessfully attacked in the House of Commons. The rest of his time was comparatively free from incident, though he did not hesitate to use his prerogative powers, banishing on occasion editors of papers and even members of assembly. His general administration of the islands was considered able and successful. He left on 13 April 1855.

Ward was now promoted to the government of Ceylon, where he arrived in May 1855. His administration coincided with a period of growth and development, to which his sound judgment materially contributed. His first speech (1855) dealt with the questions of railway communication, so that he may be considered as the father of that enterprise in Ceylon; in succeeding years he developed general schemes for communications, telegraphs, and coolie immigration. He also consolidated the public service. On the outbreak of the Indian mutiny he had no hesitation in despatching all the European troops in the colony to Bengal. In June 1860 Ward was appointed to be governor of Madras, at a time when many anxious questions were awaiting settlement. He landed in India in July, was almost immediately struck down by cholera, and died at Madras on 2 Aug. 1860. He was buried in the church at Fort St. George, Madras. He was made a G.C.M.G. in 1849. A statue has been erected to him at Kandy, Ceylon. Ward was a keen sportsman all his life, and was an expert fencer and pistol shot. A volume of his ‘Speeches and Minutes’ in Ceylon appeared at Colombo in 1864.

Ward married, in 1824, Emily Elizabeth


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 daughter of Sir John Swinburne, baronet, of Capheaton. By her he had issue. He was the author of ‘Mexico in 1825–7,’ which is still a standard work as far as relates to the mining reports which it contains.

[Annual Register, 1860, p. 497; Kirkwall's Four Years in the Ionian Islands, vol. i. ch. vii.; Speeches and Minutes of Sir H. G. Ward (in Ceylon), Colombo, 1864; private information.]

WARD, HUGH (1580?-1635), Irish writer. [See .]

WARD, JAMES (1769–1859), engraver and painter, was born in Thames Street, London, on 23 Oct. 1769. He began to study engraving while still little more than a child, working for a time under John Raphael Smith [q. v.], and then serving an apprenticeship of nine years under his own brother, William Ward (1766–1826) [q. v.] He reached excellence very early, some of his best mezzotints being produced before he was of age. During the later years of his apprenticeship he also studied painting, and in 1794, before he was twenty-five years old, he was appointed ‘painter and mezzotint engraver to the Prince of Wales.’ His first picture was exhibited in 1790, and works by him are extant which cannot have been painted much later than this and yet bear no obvious signs of youth and inexperience. His early works were chiefly domestic scenes, bearing a strong resemblance to the productions of George Morland, who married his sister Anne. The first indication he gave of the great excellence he was afterwards to reach as a painter of animals was in a picture of ‘Bull-baiting,’ which was at the Royal Academy in 1797. From that time onwards he was a lavish contributor to the academy and the British Institution. His exhibited works reach a total of four hundred. The best of them all, perhaps, is the ‘Alderney Bull and Cow,’ now in the National Gallery, which he painted in confessed rivalry with Paul Potter's ‘Bull’ at The Hague. In 1817 Ward was premiated by the directors of the British Institution for his sketch of an ‘Allegory of Waterloo,’ and moreover commissioned to paint a picture from it four times the size of the sketch, for which he was to be paid 1,000l. Such an order might have been destruction to a more robust individuality than his. As it was, it only meant the waste of a year or two, after which he resumed his normal march. The ‘Waterloo’ was presented by the directors to Chelsea Hospital, where it still exists in a state of considerable dilapidation. In the Royal Agricultural Society Ward found patrons more congenial than the directors of the Royal Institution, and during the middle section of his life his industry was almost exclusively devoted to the painting of animals. These he treated in a style entirely his own, robust, searching, and full of character. He was a good colourist; his handling is always vigorous, expressive, and personal; his interest was keenly alive to the build and structure of everything he painted. His ‘Fighting Bulls,’ in the South Kensington Museum, has been compared, not unjustly, to the work of Rubens, which it resembles in colour, in vigour of movement, and in the unity with which its author has seen his subject. As a painter of animals Ward's chief patrons were Lord de Tabley and John Allnutt of Clapham. Towards the end of his life Ward divagated into a great variety of subjects, but his fame, which is still unequal to his merit, will always rest on his dealings with the animal world.

Ward was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1807, and an academician in 1811. Between 1792 and 1855 he contributed 298 pictures to its exhibitions. In 1830 he went to live at Cheshunt, where he died, 23 Nov. 1859, in his ninety-first year. His portrait, painted by himself at the age of seventy-nine, hangs in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Another portrait, painted by Edward Matthew Ward [q. v.], was lent by the latter to the third loan exhibition at South Kensington in 1868 (Cat. No. 573).

His son, (1798–1878), engraver, was born in 1798. He studied under his father and in the schools of the Royal Academy. At one time he was much employed in making miniature copies of the portraits by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He is better known, however, by his engraved portraits, which show considerable skill. He died on 18 Dec. 1878, leaving a daughter Henrietta, the wife of Edward Matthew Ward [q. v.], herself an artist of some ability.

[Autobiography; Redgrave's Dictionary; Bryan's Dictionary; Graves's Dictionary; Gent. Mag. 1860, i. 192; William and James Ward, by Mrs. Julia Frankau, 1904.]

WARD, JAMES (1800–1885), pugilist and artist, eldest son of Nicholas Ward, a butcher, was born near Ratcliffe Highway, London, on 26 Dec. 1800; the inscription on his tombstone states in error that he was born on 14 Dec. At the age of twelve he became a rigger in the East India docks, and soon after was employed as cabin-boy in a collier trading to Sunderland. At an early period he commenced taking great interest in


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 pugilistic encounters, and in 1817 gained various victories over some of his companions. His first noticeable fight was at the Red Lion, Whitechapel, in 1821, when he encountered and conquered Rasher. As he was at this time a coal-whipper, and when stripped rather dark in appearance, he became known as ‘the Black Diamond.’ His first introduction to the Fives Court, St. Martin's Lane, took place on 22 Jan. 1822, when in sparring matches with Davies and Spencer he showed that the old system of defence was too slow and methodical to insure safety against his quick sight and rapid action. His first appearance in the field was at Moulsey Hurst, Surrey, on 12 June 1822, when in fifteen minutes he beat Dick Acton, and on 10 Sept. following he beat Burke of Woolwich. On 22 Oct. he met Bill Abbot, the conqueror of Tom Oliver [q. v.], at Moulsey Hurst, when, to please his patron, he allowed Abbot to be declared the victor; but, on confessing his fault, all bets were declared off. On 4 Feb. 1823, at Wimbledon Common, he in twenty rounds, occupying nineteen minutes, completely defeated Ned Baldwin, known as ‘Whiteheaded Bob.’ While endeavouring to retrieve his character he went into the provinces on a sparring tour, in company with Maurice Delay and George Weston, and at Lansdown, on 2 July, beat Rickens, the champion of Bath. Returning to London, he was matched to fight Joseph Hudson for 100l. a side at Moulsey Hurst on 11 Nov. 1823, but in thirty-five minutes he was obliged to strike his colours to his opponent. On 21 June 1824, at Colnbrook, Buckinghamshire, without himself receiving a scratch, he, in a fifty minutes' fight, completely conquered a skilful boxer, Philip Sampson, ‘the Birmingham youth.’ He again met Sampson at Perry Lodge, four miles from Stony Stratford, on 28 Dec. 1824, when, although heavy rain fell, there were five thousand spectators on the ground. The luck was still against Sampson, who from the first never had much chance of a victory.

Ward was now at the height of his fame, and on 20 Feb. 1825 he challenged Tom Cannon for 500l. The encounter took place near Warwick on 19 July, in very hot weather, in the presence of twelve thousand persons, including an unusual number of the upper classes, and a large amount of money was laid on the result. In the tenth round Cannon fell insensible. Ward was proclaimed the winner, and on 22 July, at the Fives Court, was presented with a belt as the ‘British Champion.’ For some time after this event no one was willing to stand up against the champion, but at last, on 2 Jan. 1827, at Royston Heath, Cambridgeshire, he met Peter Crawley, when in twenty-six minutes, occupying eleven rounds, Ward was badly beaten. The next encounter was with Jack Carter, on 27 May 1828, at Shepperton Range, Middlesex, in the presence of a large muster of pugilists, when at the close of the seventieth round Carter was so much punished that the timekeepers led him away.

On 10 March 1829 Ward was matched to fight Simon Byrne at Leicester; but at the very last moment, when some fifteen thousand persons had assembled, Ward refused to encounter Byrne. Very strong remarks were made on his conduct, his backers left him, his friends forsook him, the Fair Play Club expunged his name from their list, and all the supporters of the ring turned their backs on him.

For three years Ward rested. Then, on 12 July 1831, he met Simon Byrne for 200l. a side, at Willeycott, near Stratford-on-Avon, in wet weather, but in the presence of an immense crowd. The fight lasted one hour and seventeen minutes, and, with the defeat of Byrne, ended Ward's last battle for the championship of England. On the following Thursday he was presented with a second champion's belt by Tom Spring at the Tennis Court, Windmill Street, London. Ward now offered to fight any man in the world for 500l. a side, but the challenge was not accepted, and on 25 June 1832 he wrote to the editor of ‘Bell's Life in London’ stating that he was retiring from the ring, and would hand over the champion's belt to the first man who proved himself worthy of it.

He subsequently carried on business as a tavern-keeper, first at the Star Hotel in 1832, and then at the York Hotel, Williamson Square, Liverpool. In 1853 he removed to London, and became in succession host of the Rose, 96 Jermyn Street, 1854; of the Three Tuns, 429 Oxford Street, 1855; of the King's Arms, Whitechapel, 1858–60; of the George in Ratcliffe Highway, and lastly of the Sir John Falstaff, Brydges Street (now known as Catherine Street).

Soon after settling in Liverpool in 1832, he became not only a connoisseur and purchaser of pictures, but also an artist in oils, producing numerous landscapes and other pieces of unquestionable merit. In 1846, 1849, and 1850 he was an exhibitor at the Liverpool exhibitions, and his pictures were much praised by the daily press. Perhaps his best known work is ‘The Sayers and Heenan Fight,’ a very large picture, containing 270 portraits, shown in 1860. The inhabitants of Liverpool were so proud of the


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 success of a new artist in the town that they presented him with a service of plate and entertained him at a public dinner. Stacey Marks, who saw several of Ward's pictures, gave a very favourable account of them.

As a musician he was also talented, being a performer on the violin, flute, flageolet, piano, and guitar, and he was an expert pigeon-shooter and quoit-player.

After several failures in business, by the assistance and votes of his friends he retired to the Licensed Victuallers' Asylum in the Old Kent Road, London, where he died on 2 April 1884; he was buried in Nunhead cemetery on 8 April. On 8 Sept. 1831 he married Eliza, daughter of George Cooper, hotel-keeper, Edinburgh; the issue of this marriage was one daughter, Eleanor, born in Liverpool on 1 Sept. 1832. She was educated by Sir Julius Benedict, and became well known as an accomplished pianoforte performer.

 WARD, JAMES CLIFTON (1843–1880), geologist, was born at Clapham Common on 13 April 1843. His father, James Ward, was a schoolmaster; his mother's maiden name was Mary Ann Morris. He entered the Royal School of Mines in 1861, where he gained the Edward Forbes medal in 1864. Next year he was appointed to the geological survey, and for some time worked in Yorkshire on the millstone, grit, and coal measures near Sheffield, Penistone, Leeds. In 1869 he was transferred to the Lake district, where he remained for the next eight years, engaged on the survey of the country around Keswick; that town, to which his parents had removed, being his headquarters. When his work here was finished he was transferred in 1877 to Bewcastle to examine the lower carboniferous rocks. Before the end of the next year he retired from the survey, being ordained, and licensed to the curacy of St. John's, Keswick, in December 1878. Early in 1880 he was appointed vicar of Rydal; but died on 15 April of the same year. He married in the beginning of 1877 Elizabeth Anne Benson of Cockermouth, who survived him. By her he had two children.

Ward was a man of a singularly attractive nature; wide in his sympathies and culture, fond of art, though even more happy among beautiful scenery, and an enthusiastic geologist. He was among the first to appreciate the importance of Clifton Sorby's method of using the microscope for the study of the composition and structures of rocks, and applied it to the old lavas and ash-beds of the Lake district. He advocated Ramsay's hypothesis of the glacial origin of lake basins, applying it to those in his own district, and put forward views in regard to metamorphism which at the present day would find few supporters [see ]. But his excellent work in surveying the northern part of the Lake district will always give him a high place among our field geologists.

He wrote a small manual on natural philosophy (1871), and another on geology (1872), and was the author of the valuable memoir published by the geological survey on the northern part of the Lake district (1876), the map of which was also his work. He was also part author of two survey memoirs on the Yorkshire coalfields. Twenty-three papers appear under his name in the Royal Society's catalogue, the most important of which were published in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.’ Two of these, in the volumes for 1874 and 1876, deal with the glaciation of the Lake district, and three in 1875 and 1876 with the structure of its rocks and questions of metamorphism. His influence was distinctly stimulative; during his residence at Keswick he often lectured on geology, and took a leading part in founding the Cumberland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science, together with local societies which were affiliated to it.

 WARD, JOHN (fl. 1613), composer, was the author of ‘The First Set of English Madrigals to 3, 4, 5, and 6 parts, apt for both Viols and Voyces. With a Mourning Song in memory of Prince Henry,’ printed by T. Snodham, London, 1613, 4to. The book is in six parts, the words and music for each voice being printed separately. It is dedicated to Sir [q. v.], remembrancer of the exchequer. One of the madrigals for five voices, ‘Hope of my Hart,’ was arranged by Thomas Oliphant, and


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  in 1847; and another, ‘Upon a Banke of Roses,’ was republished by Novello & Co. in 1890. The best known of the collection, however, is ‘Dye not, fond Man,’ arranged for six voices, which has always remained popular among madrigal singers. One of the madrigals, also, was edited by Mr. W. Barclay Squire for Breitkopf and Haertel with English and German words. Ward contributed two pieces to Sir Thomas Leighton's ‘Tears or Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soule,’ 1614, and two anthems by him are included in Barnard's ‘First Book of Selected Church Musick’ (1641). One of them, ‘Let God arise,’ has a very elaborate organ part. As this collection only included the works of deceased musicians, Ward died before 1641. John Ravenscroft's ‘Psalter,’ published in 1621, contains a few settings by Ward, and there are several fancies for five and for six viols by him in the collection of music in British Museum Additional MSS. 17786–96. Three very elaborate anthems with verses, besides an unpublished madrigal, are in Addit. MSS. 29372–7. One of the ‘Songs’ by [q. v.] was dedicated to Ward.

 WARD, JOHN? (fl. 1603–1615), pirate, commonly known as Captain Ward, is said to have been originally a fisherman of Feversham, then to have been at Plymouth, a ragged, drunken fellow, hanging about the alehouses, and answering to the name of Jack Ward. It is not improbable that between Feversham and Plymouth came a period of semi-piratical adventure in the West Indies (, History of England, iii. 66). Afterwards he served in some capacity—apparently a petty officer—on board the Lion's Whelp. This cannot have been earlier than 1601 (, History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, p. 121), but was more probably two or three years later. It would seem to have been in the summer of 1603 that, while in the Lion's Whelp at Portsmouth, he learned that a recusant from near Petersfield, intending to fly the country, had realised his property, and put the money, amounting to about 2,000l., together with jewels and plate, on board a small bark of twenty-five tons for a passage to Havre. Ward persuaded some of his shipmates to join him in seizing this bark. They got leave to go on shore as for a merry-making, and in the night took a boat and rowed on board her. There were only two men on board, who offered no resistance; they forthwith put to sea, and in the morning examined their prize, but only to learn that on the previous evening the owner of the property, having had his suspicions roused, had landed everything except the provisions that had been put on board for the voyage. So the pirates feasted heartily, while Ward explained to them that, booty or no booty, it was impossible for them to go back to Portsmouth. Accordingly they ran down Channel, till coming across an unsuspecting French ship, they slipped alongside, jumped on board, and made themselves masters of her. They then went to Plymouth, lay for a while in Cawsand Bay, got together several recruits from among Ward's old alehouse acquaintances, and sailed for the Mediterranean. Making a couple of prizes on their way, they came off Algiers, where Ward joined with a certain Captain Gifford in an attempt to burn the Turkish galleys. This utterly failed, with the loss of many of their men; and Ward, having sold his prizes and ransomed those of his men who were prisoners, made friends with the Turks, and for the following years cruised, especially against the Venetians and the Knights of St. John, under the Turkish or Tunisian flag, making Tunis his principal port, and building there a palace, ‘beautified with rich marble and alabaster,’ ‘more fit for a prince than a pirate,’ and second only to that of the bey in its magnificence. In 1615 [q. v.], being at Tunis, dined and supped with him several times, and speaks of him as having ‘turned Turk’ on account of being banished from England. It does not seem that he ever returned to England. Ward's name is probably best known as that of the hero of the ballad ‘Captain Ward and the Rainbow,’ which is historical only so far as the names are concerned. There was a Captain Ward, there was a king's ship Rainbow, but that the two ever fought is a balladmonger's fiction. So also is the statement put into Ward's mouth—‘I never wronged an English ship.’ Though his wealth was got together mostly at the expense of the Venetians, he seems to have plundered all that came in his way with exemplary impartiality.


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 WARD, JOHN (fl. 1642–1643), poet, was a native of Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire. He was a man of strong puritan feeling, and on the outbreak of the civil war served as a trooper under the Earl of Bedford [see, first ]. On 13 Dec. 1642 he took part, under Sir [q. v.], in the action in which Lord Grandison was captured in Winchester. Ward celebrated the event in a poem entitled ‘The taking of Winchester by the Parliament's Forces. As also the surrendring up of the Castle. By I. W., an eye-witness’ (London, 1642, 4to), in which he gives a most detailed account of the whole skirmish, and laments over Grandison's subsequent escape from captivity. In the same year Ward also published another longer poem, entitled ‘An Encouragement to Warre, or Bellum Parliamentale; shewing the Unlawfulnesse of the late Bellum Episcopale’ (London, 4to), which bore on the title-page an elaborate engraving representing the prelates being borne away ‘as stuble before the wind.’ The poem consists of a long list of the moral and theological shortcomings of the cavaliers. The poem was reissued in 1643, with a fresh title-page, under the title ‘The Christian's Incouragement earnestly to contend

To this issue was added ‘The Humble Petition of the Protestant Inhabitants’ of part of Ireland, of which, however, Ward was not the author.

 WARD, JOHN (1679?–1758), biographer of the Gresham professors, son of John Ward, a dissenting minister, by his wife, Constancy Rayner, was born in London about 1679. For some years he was a clerk in the navy office, prosecuting his studies in leisure hours with the assistance of John Ker, who kept an academy, first in Highgate and afterwards in St. John's Square, Clerkenwell. He left the navy office in 1710, and opened a school in Tenter Alley, Moorfields, which he kept for many years. In 1712 he became one of the earliest members of a society composed principally of divines and lawyers, who met periodically in order to read discourses upon the civil law or upon the law of nature and nations. On 1 Sept. 1720 he was chosen professor of rhetoric in Gresham College (, Gresham Professors, p. 334).

Ward was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, under the presidency of Sir Isaac Newton, on 30 Nov. 1723. He was often elected a member of the council of that society, and in 1752 he was appointed one of the vice-presidents (, Hist. of the Royal Society, App. No. 4, p. xxxvi). In August 1733 he made a journey through Holland and Flanders to Paris. He was elected on 5 Feb. 1735–6 a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, of which he became director on 15 Jan. 1746–7. In April 1753 he was appointed vice-president of that society (, Chronological List, p. 6). He had joined another society formed by a number of noblemen and gentlemen for the encouragement of learning. Among the works printed at their expense were John Davis's edition of the ‘Dissertations of Maximus,’ issued under the supervision of Ward, and ‘Ælianus, De Natura Animalium,’ edited by Abraham Gronovius, who gratefully acknowledges the assistance he received from Ward. On 20 May 1751 the university of Edinburgh conferred upon Ward the degree of LL.D. He afterwards became a member of the Gentlemen's Society at Spalding. On the establishment of the British Museum he was elected one of the trustees. He died in his apartments in Gresham College on 17 Oct. 1758, and his remains were interred in the dissenters' burial-ground, Bunhill Fields.

A portrait of him was presented to the British Museum by Thomas Hollis, who had been under his tuition. An anonymous portrait is in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

His principal works are: [q. v.] published a defence of his dissertation in 1727, and to this Ward replied in
 * 1) ‘De ordine, sive de venusta et eleganti tum vocabulorum, tum membrorum sententiæ collocatione,’ London, 1712, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘De Asse et partibus ejus commentarius,’ London, 1719, 8vo (anon.); reprinted in ‘Monumenta vetustatis Kempiana,’ 1720.
 * 3) ‘Ad Con. Middletoni de medicorum apud veteres Romanos degentium conditione dissertationem, quæ servilem atque ignobilem eam fuisse contendit, responsio,’ London [February 1726–7], 8vo.
 * 1) ‘Dissertationis … de medicorum Romæ degentium conditione ignobili et servili defensio examinata,’ London, 1728, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘The Lives of the Professors of Gresham College, to which is prefixed the Life of the Founder, Sir Thomas Gresham,’ London, 1740, fol. There is in the British Museum an interleaved copy of this valuable biographical work, with numerous manuscript additions and corrections by the


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 :: author. It was evidently prepared for the press as the second edition. Several manuscript compilations by him are preserved in the British Museum, including: He also rendered valuable assistance in the publication of De Thou's ‘History,’ 1728; Ainsworth's ‘Latin Dictionary,’ 1736, and also the editions of 1746 and 1752; the works of Dr. George Benson; and the second edition of Martin Folkes's ‘Table of English Gold Coins.’ He translated into Latin the eighth edition of Dr. Mead's ‘Discourse of the Plague’ (1723), edited William Lily's ‘Latin Grammar’ in 1732, and contributed numerous papers to the ‘Philosophical Transactions.’
 * 1) ‘Four Essays upon the English Language,’ London, 1758, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘A System of Oratory, delivered in a course of lectures publickly read at Gresham College, London,’ London, 1759, 2 vols. 8vo. The original manuscript is in the British Museum (Addit. MSS. 6263, 6264).
 * 3) ‘Dissertations upon several Passages of the Sacred Scriptures,’ London, 1761, 8vo. The original manuscript is in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 6267).
 * 1) ‘Journal of an Excursion through Holland and Part of Flanders to Paris,’ 1753 (Addit. MSS. 6235, 6236).
 * 2) ‘Collections relating to the British Museum, 1753–8’ (Addit. MS. 6179).
 * 3) ‘Memoirs relating to Gresham College’ (Addit. MSS. 6195–203).
 * 4) ‘Miscellaneous Collections relating to Gresham College’ (Addit. MSS. 6193, 6194, 6206).
 * 5) ‘Monumental and other inscriptions in Greek, Latin, and English’ (Addit. MS. 6243).
 * 6) ‘Carmina puerilia’ (Addit. MS. 6242, p. 1).
 * 7) ‘Essay on Polygamy’ (Addit. MS. 6262, f. 115).

WARD, JOHN (1781–1837), mystic, known as ‘Zion Ward,’ was born at the Cove of Cork, now Queenstown, on 25 Dec. 1781. In July 1790 his parents took him to Bristol, where at twelve years of age he was apprenticed to a shipwright, and got into bad habits. His father took him to London in 1797, where he learned shoemaking from his brother, but soon went on board the Blanche man-of-war as a shipwright, and was present at the engagement with the Danes at Copenhagen on 2 April 1801. In 1803 he was paid off at Sheerness, got married, and supported himself as a shoemaker. He had been brought up a Calvinist, but, removing to Carmarthen, he joined the methodists at his wife's instance. Unable to experience conversion, he returned to London, resolving to ‘never more have anything to do with religion.’ A casual hearing of [q. v.] at Lant Street Chapel, Southwark, led him to join the baptists. On Garrett's death (1806) he connected himself with the independents; in 1813 he joined the Sandemanians [see ], who sent him out as a village preacher.

Just after the death of [q. v.] her ‘Fifth Book of Wonders,’ 1814, came into his hands. Its universalism captivated him, and he began to preach it. This led to his rejoining the methodists, who made him a local preacher, but soon dismissed him for heresy. The Southcottians would not receive him. Convinced by the instance of Joanna Southcott that prophecy is ‘a living gift,’ he resorted to various claimants to inspiration. In this way he fell in with Mary Boon of Staverton, Devonshire, a Sabbatarian fanatic, who professed to be Joanna Southcott revived. He became ‘reader’ of the letters she dictated (for she could neither read nor write) for the benefit of her London followers. At length, in 1825, he conceived himself to be the recipient of an illumination surpassing that of his instructress. His followers reckon their years from this point, 1826 being ‘First year, new date.’

In 1827 he gave up shoemaking to proclaim his divine call. His wife and family thought him mad. He was brought before a Southwark magistrate (Chambers), and committed to Newington workhouse for six months. On his liberation (20 Nov. 1828) he claimed to be ‘a new man, having a new name,’ Zion. He called himself also ‘Shiloh,’ as being the spiritual offspring expected of Joanna Southcott. He obtained a coadjutor in Charles William Twort (d. 1878, aged 93), in concert with whom he began (1829) to print tracts. He made converts in the course of personal visits to Nottingham, Chesterfield, Worksop, Blyth, Barnsley, Birmingham, and Sheffield. In 1831 he preached regularly at Borough Chapel, Southwark, and in September he attracted notice by two discourses at the Rotunda, Blackfriars Road, made notorious by the preaching of (1784–1844) [q. v.]

In 1832 Ward and Twort came into collision with the authorities at Derby. They had posted placards announcing an address on a fast day, 15 July. These were thrice torn down by a local clergyman, James Dean (d. 1882), on whom, under provocation of the torn placards, Twort committed an assault. Ward and Twort were indicted for blasphemy and assault. Tried on 4 Aug. before Sir [q. v.], Twort was convicted of the assault, and both were found


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 ERMELO, a district and town of the Transvaal. The district lies in the south-east of the province and is traversed by the Drakensberg. In it are Lake Chrissie, the only true lake in the country, and the sources of the Vaal, Olifants, Komati, and Usuto rivers, which rise within 30 m. of one another. The region has a general elevation of about 5500 ft. and is fine agricultural and pastoral country, besides containing valuable minerals, including coal and gold. Ermelo town, pop. (1904) 1451, is by rail 175 m. S.E. of Johannesburg, and 74 m. S.S.W. of Machadodorp on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway. A government experimental farm, with some 1000 acres of plantations, is maintained here.

  ERMINE, an alternative name for the stoat (Putorius ermineus), apparently applicable in its proper sense only when the animal is in its white winter coat. This animal measures 10 in. in length exclusive of the tail, which is about 4 in. long, and becomes bushy towards the point. The fur in summer is reddish brown above and white beneath, changing in the winter of northern latitudes to snowy whiteness, except at the tip of the tail, which at all seasons is black. In Scottish specimens this change in winter is complete, but in those found in the southern districts of England it is usually only partial, the ermine presenting during winter a piebald appearance. The white colour is evidently protective, enabling the animals to elude the observations of their enemies, and to steal unobserved on their prey. It also retains heat better than a dark covering, and may thus serve to maintain an equable temperature at all seasons within the body. The colour change seems to be due to phagocytes devouring the pigment-bodies of the hair, and not to a moult.

The species is a native of the temperate and subarctic zones of the Old World, and is represented in America by a form which can scarcely be regarded as specifically distinct. It inhabits thickets and stony places, and frequently makes use of the deserted burrows of moles and other underground mammals. Exceedingly sanguinary in disposition, and agile in its movements, it feeds principally on rats, water-rats and rabbits, which it pursues with pertinacity and boldness, hence the name stoat, signifying bold, by which it is commonly known. It takes readily to water, and will even climb trees in pursuit of prey. It is particularly destructive to poultry and game, and has often been known to attack hares, fixing itself to the throat of its victim, and defying all the efforts of the latter to disengage it. The female brings forth five young ones about the beginning of summer. The winter coat of the ermine forms one of the most valuable of commercial furs, and is imported in enormous quantities from Norway, Sweden, Russia and Siberia. It is largely used for muffs and tippets, and as a trimming for state robes, the jet black points of the tails being inserted at regular intervals as an ornament. In the reign of Edward III. the wearing of ermine was restricted to members of the royal family; but it now enters into almost all state robes, the rank and position of the wearer being in many cases indicated by the presence or absence, and the disposition, of the black spots. (See also .)

 ERMINE STREET. Documents and writers of the 11th and succeeding centuries occasionally mention four “royal roads” in Britain—Icknield Street, Erning or Ermine Street, Watling Street and Foss Way—as standing apart from all other existing roads and enjoying the special protection of the king. Unfortunately these authorities are not at all agreed as to their precise course; the roads themselves do not occur as specially privileged in actual legal or other practice, and it is likely that the category of Four Roads is the invention of a lawyer or an antiquary. The names are, however, attested to some extent by early charters which name them among other roads, as boundaries. From these charters we know that Icknield Street ran along the Berkshire downs and the Chilterns, that Ermine Street ran more or less due north through Huntingdonshire, that Watling Street ran north-west across the midlands from London to Shrewsbury, and Foss diagonally to it from Lincoln or Leicester to Bath and mid-Somerset. This evidence only proves the existence of these roads in Saxon and Norman days. But they all seem to be much older. Icknield Street is probably a prehistoric ridgeway along the downs, utilized perhaps by the Romans near its eastern end, but in general not Roman. Ermine Street coincides with part of a line of Roman roads leading north from London through Huntingdon to Lincoln. This line is followed by the Old North Road through Cheshunt, Buntingford, Royston, and Huntingdon to Castor near Peterborough; and thence it can be traced through lanes and byways past Ancaster to Lincoln. Watling Street is the Roman highway from London by St Alban’s (Verulamium) to Wroxeter near Shrewsbury (Viroconium). Foss is the Roman highway from Lincoln to Bath and Exeter. Hence it has been supposed, and is still frequently alleged, that the Four Roads were the principal highways of Roman Britain. This, however, is not the case. Icknield Street is not Roman and the three roads which follow Roman lines, Ermine Street, Watling Street, and Foss, held no peculiar position in the Romano-British road system (see Icknield Street and Watling Street have been applied to other roads of Roman or supposed Roman origin. This, however, is wholly the work of Elizabethan or subsequent antiquaries and deserves no credence.
 * Roman). In later times, the names Ermine Street,

The derivations of the four names are unknown. Icknield, Ermine and Watling may be from English personal names; Foss, originally Fos, seems to be the Lat. fossa in its occasional medieval sense of a bank of upcast earth or stones, such as the agger of a road.

 ERMOLDUS NIGELLUS, or, was a monk of Aquitaine, who accompanied King Pippin, son of the emperor Louis I., on a campaign into Brittany in 824. Subsequently he was banished from Pippin’s court on a charge of inciting the king against his father, and retired to Strassburg, where he sought to regain the emperor’s favour by writing a poem on his life and deeds. About 830 he obtained his recall, and has been identified with Hermoldus, who appears as Pippin’s chancellor in 838. Ermoldus was a cultured man with a knowledge of the Latin poets, and his poem, In honorem Hludovici imperatoris, has some historical value. It consists of four books and deals with the life and exploits of Louis from 781 to 826. He also wrote two poems in imitation of Ovid, which were addressed to Pippin.

His writings are published in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores, Band 2 (Hanover, 1826 fol.); by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Latina, tome 105 (Paris, 1844); and by E. Dümmler in the Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini, Band 2 (Berlin, 1881–1884). See W. O. Henkel, Über den historischen Werth der Gedichte des Ermoldus Nigellus (Eilenburg, 1876); W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band 1 (Berlin, 1904); and A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica, pp. 430-431 (Berlin, 1896).

 ERNE, the name of a river and two lakes in the north-west of Ireland. The river rises in Lough Gowna, county Longford, 214 ft. above sea-level, flows north through Lough Oughter with a serpentine course and a direction generally northward, and then broadens into the Upper Lough Erne, a shallow irregular sheet of water 13 m. long, so beset with islands as to present the appearance of a number of water-channels ramifying through the land. The river then winds past the town of Enniskillen on its island, and enters Lough Erne, a beautiful lake nearly 18 m. long and 5 m. in extreme width, containing many islands, but less closely covered with them than the upper lough. One of them, Devenish, is celebrated for its antiquarian remains (see ). The river then runs westward to Donegal Bay, forming a fine fall at (q.v.). Lough Erne contains trout and pike. These waters admit of navigation by small steamers, but little trade is carried on. The area of

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ermelo

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ermelo


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ermine

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ermine


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perdiccas

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perdiccas


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ermoldus Nigellus


text:
Author:Edwyn Robert Bevan

Works

 * The House of Seleucus (1902) (2 vols.:
 * Jerusalem under the High Priests (1904) (reprinted 1918, 1930)
 * The House of Ptolemy (1927)
 * Indian Nationalism: An Independent Estimate (1913)
 * Stoics and Sceptics (1913)
 * Brothers all: The War and the Race Question (1914)
 * Peace with Empire: The Problem (1915)
 * German War Aims (1917)
 * The Method in the Madness: A fresh Consideration of the Case between Germany and Ourselves (1917)
 * Ancient Mesopotamia: The Land of The Two Rivers (1918)
 * German Social Democracy During the War (1918)
 * The German Empire of Central Africa as the Basis of a New German World Policy (1918) with Emil Zimmermann
 * Hellenism and Christianity (1921)
 * The Hellenistic Age (1923) with J. B. Bury, E. A. Barber, W. W. Tarn
 * The House of Ptolemy (1927)
 * The World of Greece and Rome (in Benn's Sixpenny Library) (1927)
 * Later Greek Religion (1927)
 * Sibyls and Seers: A Survey of Some Ancient Theories of Revelation and Inspiration (1928)
 * Thoughts on Indian Discontents (1929)
 * Jerusalem under the high priests: five lectures on the period between Nehemiah and the New Testament (1930)
 * The hope of a world to come; underlying Judaism and Christianity (1930)
 * The Poems of Leonidas of Tarentum (1931)
 * Christianity (1932) Home University Library of Modern Knowledge
 * Our Debt to the Past (1932) with others
 * After Death (1934) with others
 * Symbolism and Belief (1938) Gifford Lectures
 * Holy Images: An Inquiry Into Idolatry and Image-Worship in Ancient Paganism and in Christianity (1940)
 * Christians in a World at War (1940)

Translations

 * The Prometheus Bound of Aeschylus (1902)
 * The Seven Against Thebes of Æschylus (1912)

title: Author:Edwyn Robert Bevan


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Page:Pierre.djvu/166

152 themselves. I am all unguarded and magnanimous with Pierre; therefore you see his weakness, and therefore only. In reserves men build imposing characters; not in revelations. He who shall be wholly honest, though nobler than Ethan Allen; that man shall stand in danger of the meanest mortal's scorn.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edward the Black Prince


text:
Page:Pierre.djvu/167

 BOOK VI

ISABEL, AND THE FIRST PART OF THE STORY OF ISABEL

I

wishful that the hour would come; half shuddering that every moment it still came nearer and more near to him; dry-eyed, but wet with that dark day's rain; at fall of eve, Pierre emerged from long wanderings in the primeval woods of Saddle Meadows, and for one instant stood motionless upon their sloping skirt.

Where he stood was in the rude wood road, only used by sledges in the time of snow; just where the outposted trees formed a narrow arch, and fancied gateway leading upon the far, wide pastures sweeping down toward the lake. In that wet and misty eve the scattered, shivering pasture elms seemed standing in a world inhospitable, yet rooted by inscrutable sense of duty to their place. Beyond, the lake lay in one sheet of blankness and of dumbness, unstirred by breeze of breath; fast bound there it lay, with not life enough to reflect the smallest shrub or twig. Yet in that lake was seen the duplicate, stirless sky above. Only in sunshine did that lake catch gay, green images; and these but displaced the imaged muteness of the unfeatured heavens.

On both sides, in the remoter distance, and also far beyond the mild lake's further shore, rose the long, mysterious mountain masses; shaggy with pines and hemlocks, mystical with nameless, vapoury exhalations, and in that dim air black with dread and gloom. At 5em

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  The student may be referred for further information to the following works:—Marsilii Ficini opera (Basileae, 1576); Marsilii Ficini vita, auctore Corsio (ed. Bandini, Pisa, 1771); Roscoe’s Life of Lorenzo de’ Medici; Pasquale Villari, La Storia di Girolamo Savonarola (Firenze, Le Monnier, 1859); Von Reumont, Lorenzo de’ Medici (Leipzig, 1874).

 FICKSBURG, a town of Orange Free State 110 m. by rail E. by N. of Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 1954, of whom 1021 were whites. The town is situated near the north bank of the Caledon river and is the capital of one of the finest agricultural and stock-raising regions of the province. It has direct railway communication with Natal and an extensive trade. In the neighbourhood are petroleum wells and a diamond mine. In the fossilized ooze of the Wonderkop, a table mountain of the adjacent Wittebergen, are quantities of petrified fish.

 FICTIONS, or legal fictions, in law, the term used for false averments, the truth of which is not permitted to be called in question. English law as well as Roman law abounds in fictions. Sometimes they are merely the condensed expression of a rule of law,—e.g., the fiction of English law that husband and wife were one person, and the fiction of Roman law that the wife was the daughter of the husband. Sometimes they must be regarded as reasons invented in order to justify a rule of law according to an implied ethical standard. Of this sort seems to be the fiction or presumption that every one knows the law, which reconciles the rule that ignorance is no excuse for crime with the moral commonplace that it is unfair to punish a man for violating a law of whose existence he was unaware. Again, some fictions are deliberate falsehoods, adopted as true for the purpose of establishing a remedy not otherwise attainable. Of this sort are the numerous fictions of English law by which the different courts obtained jurisdiction in private business, removed inconvenient restrictions in the law relating to land, &c.

What to the scientific jurist is a stumbling-block is to the older writers on English law a beautiful device for reconciling the strict letter of the law with common sense and justice. Blackstone, in noticing the well-known fiction by which the court of king’s bench established its jurisdiction in common pleas (viz. that the defendant was in custody of the marshal of the court), says, “These fictions of law, though at first they may startle the student, he will find upon further consideration to be highly beneficial and useful; especially as this maxim is ever invariably observed, that no fiction shall extend to work an injury; its proper operation being to prevent a mischief or remedy an inconvenience that might result from the general rule of law. So true it is that in fictione juris semper subsistit aequitas.” Austin, on the other hand, while correctly assigning as the cause of many fictions the desire to combine the necessary reform with some show of respect for the abrogated law, makes the following harsh criticism as to others:—“Why the plain meanings which I have now stated should be obscured by the fictions to which I have just adverted I cannot conjecture. A wish on the part of the authors of the fictions to render the law as uncognoscible as may be is probably the cause which Mr Bentham would assign. I judge not, I confess, so uncharitably; I rather impute such fictions to the sheer imbecility (or, if you will, to the active and sportive fancies) of their grave and venerable authors, than to any deliberate design, good or evil.” Bentham, of course, saw in fictions the instrument by which the great object of his abhorrence, judiciary law, was produced. It was the means by which judges usurped the functions of legislators. “A fiction of law.” he says, “may be defined as a wilful falsehood, having for its object the stealing legislative powers by and for hands which could not or durst not openly claim it, and but for the delusion thus produced could not exercise it.” A partnership, he says, was formed between the kings and the judges against the interests of the people. “Monarchs found force, lawyers fraud; thus was the capital found” (Historical Preface to the second edition of the Fragment on Government).

Sir H. Maine (Ancient Law) supplies the historical element which is always lacking in the explanations of Austin and Bentham. Fictions form one of the agencies by which, in progressive societies, positive law is brought into harmony with public opinion. The others are equity and statutes. Fictions in this sense include, not merely the obvious falsities of the English and Roman systems, but any assumption which conceals a change of law by retaining the old formula after the change has been made. It thus includes both the case law of the English and the Responsa Prudentum of the Romans. “At a particular stage of social progress they are invaluable expedients for overcoming the rigidity of law; and, indeed, without one of them, the fiction of adoption, which permits the family tie to be artificially created, it is difficult to understand how society would ever have escaped from its swaddling clothes, and taken its first steps towards civilization.”

The bolder remedial fictions of English law have been to a large extent removed by legislation, and one great obstacle to any reconstruction of the legal system has thus been partially removed. Where the real remedy stood in glaring contrast to the nominal rule, it has been openly ratified by statute. In ejectment cases the mysterious sham litigants have disappeared. The bond of entail can be broken without having recourse to the collusive proceedings of fine and recovery. Fictions have been almost entirely banished from the procedure of the courts. The action for damages on account of seduction, which is still nominally an action by the father for loss of his daughter’s services, is perhaps the only fictitious action now remaining.

Fictions which appear in the form of principles are not so easily dealt with by legislation. To expel them formally from the system would require the re-enactment of vast portions of law. A change in legal modes of speech and thought would be more effective. The legal mind instinctively seizes upon concrete aids to abstract reasoning. Many hard and revolting fictions must have begun their career as metaphors. In some cases the history of the change may still almost be traced. The conception that a man-of-war is a floating island, or that an ambassador’s house is beyond the territorial limits of the country in which he resides, was originally a figure of speech designed to set a rule of law in a striking light. It is then gravely accepted as true in fact, and other rules of law are deduced from it. Its beginning is to be compared with such phrases as “an Englishman’s house is his castle,” which have had no legal offshoots and still remain mere figures of speech.

Constitutional law is of course honeycombed with fictions. Here there is hardly ever anything like direct legislative change, and yet real change is incessant. The rules defining the sovereign power and fixing the authority of its various members are in most points the same as they were at the last revolution,—in many points they have been the same since the beginning of parliamentary government. But they have long ceased to be true in fact; and it would hardly be too much to say that the entire series of formal propositions called the constitution is merely a series of fictions. The legal attributes of the king, and even of the House of Lords, are fictions. If we could suppose that the effects of the Reform Acts had been brought about, not by legislation, but by the decisions of law courts and the practice of House of Commons committees—by such assumptions as that freeholder includes lease-holder and that ten means twenty—we should have in the legal constitution of the House of Commons the same kind of fictions that we find in the legal statement of the attributes of the crown and the House of Lords. Here, too, fictions have been largely resorted to for the purpose of supporting particular

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, Peter (1540?-1621)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, Peter (1588-1666)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, Peter Egerton


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, Rowland Eyles Egerton-


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Warburton, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, Edward (1638-1714)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, Edward (1667-1731)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, Edward Matthew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, Henry George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, James (1769-1859)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, James (1800-1885)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, James Clifton


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, John (fl.1613)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, John? (fl.1603-1615)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, John (fl.1642-1643)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ward, John (1679?-1758)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Edward (1453-1471)


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Rh had killed, to a proper place, where there was plenty of wood and water; there they kindled great fires, into which, their way was, to throw a number of stones, where they continued till they were red hot; then they applied themselves to dig two great pits in the earth, into one of which, upon the bottom, they were wont to lay some of these hot

stones as a pavement, upon them they would place the raw flesh, bound up hard in green sedge or bulrushes; over these bundles was fixed another layer of hot stones, then a quantity of flesh, and this method was observed till the pit was full. In this manner their flesh was sodden or stewed till it was fit to eat, and then they uncovered it; and, when the hole was emptied, they began their meal."

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 "Come, my pretty young gent, and I'll tell you your fortune true."

I thought it rather mercenary, but, having spent an hour or so at the Farmers' Arms, I went and sat on my heel in front of her, since she didn't rise. She took my wrist in her bony hand, which seemed startlingly white, like a skeleton one, but it may have been a play of moonlight or daylight through a hole in the hedge. Her hair was grey under the hood, a dirty grey, her face was hollow, but the lower half squarish, in thin lines, like her mouth. But her eyes! I hadn't noticed them so much in daylight—perhaps they had contracted like a cat's—but now they seemed the blackest and most piercing I had ever seen. Piercing, but like a shining black wall when you tried to look into them. And they were fastened on mine. I thought of cheap mesmerism or hypnotism, and all the old tricks and patter, as she repeated in a harsh, cracking voice—

"Oh, I've heard that before," I said; "tell me something new, granny? "

"The old before the new," she said; "the old before the new." Then, after a pause that seemed no pause, and with a distant humming in my ears and a sudden feeling of helplessness and heaviness, came a voice, or voices—they didn't seem hers—as of a hundred imps singing round in a great mile wide circle—


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I had fingers and toe to the dust to start up, but she held me as a vice, and I felt a great heaviness and a weight on my shoulders, as if Sampson's hands were there, and I went down again. Heaviness and weight vanished. But I had laughed my last, as far as she was concerned. I had had my laugh through, and was done with—had no further use for it for the time being. The last time I had heard those lines sung it was by a young woman, a girl of eighteen, in a fourth rate pub in Sydney, and she was recklessly drunk—and she had been a schoolmate of mine. It brought as much of the tale of the dead, dead past back to me as I wanted just then, and I let the old gipsy know that without speaking.

" Ah! " she said. " You have brown eyes, and your people may have been of our people once. But you fear the black eyes! You fear the black eyes! "

That was a fact anyway.

Then she, she was sitting on a black box of some kind, folded her skeleton hands on her lap, and turned a little to face the full moon that was just looking over the hedge, and which can look with more expression over an English hedge than over any sea, mountain, plain, bush or scrub in Australia.

Then, taking my hand again, and holding it on her bony knee, she began to sing—and in another voice, but low and sweet, as of an old woman who could sing


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 of the Germans, but also for those of other Teutonic peoples. Other works on the German constitution and German laws are K. F. Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte (Göttingen, 1843–1844); R. Schröder, Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1889 and again 1902); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887–1892), and Grundzüge der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1901–1903), and E. Mayer, ''Deutsche und französische Verfassungsgeschichte vom 9.-11. Jahrhundert'' (Leipzig, 1899).

Manners and customs are dealt with in J. Scherr’s Deutsche Kultur- und Sittengeschichte (Leipzig, 1852–1853); J. Lippert’s Deutsche Sittengeschichte (Vienna and Prague, 1889); O. Henne am Rhyn’s Kulturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes (Berlin, 1886); the Geschichte des deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1891–1898) of H. Gerdes, and F. von Löher’s Kulturgeschichte der Deutschen im Mittelalter (Munich, 1891–1894). Among the works on husbandry may be mentioned: K. Bücher, Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft (Tübingen, 1893); K. T. von Inama-Sternegg, Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1879–1901), and K. Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1886). For antiquities see M. Heyne, ''Fünf Bücher deutscher Hausaltertümer von den ältesten geschichtlichen Zeiten bis zum 16. Jahrhundert'' (Leipzig, 1899–1903), and L. Lindenschmit, Handbuch der deutschen Altertumskunde (Brunswick, 1880–1889). For the history of the German church see A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (Leipzig, 1887–1903); F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (Göttingen, 1846–1848), and J. Friedrich, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (Bamberg, 1867–1869). For finance see K. D. Hüllmann, Deutsche Finanzgeschichte des Mittelalters (1805); for the administration of justice, O. Franklin, Das Reichshofgericht im Mittelalter (Weimar, 1867–1869), and A. Stölzel, Die Entwicklung des gelehrten Richtertums in deutschen Territorien (Stuttgart, 1872); for the towns and their people see J. Jastrow, Die Volkszahl deutscher Städte zu Ende des Mittelalters und zu Beginn der Neuzeit (Berlin, 1886); F. W. Barthold, Geschichte der deutschen Städte und des deutschen Bürgertums (Leipzig, 1850–1854), and K. Hegel, Städte und Gilden der germanischen Völker im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1891); and for manufactures and commerce see J. Falke, Die Geschichte des deutschen Handels (Leipzig, 1859–1860); H. A. Mascher, Das deutsche Gewerbewesen von der frühesten Zeit bis auf die Gegenwart (Potsdam, 1866); F. W. Stahl, Das deutsche Handwerk (Giessen, 1874); the numerous writings on the history of the Hanseatic League and other works. The nobles and the other social classes have each their separate histories, among these being C. F. F. von Strantz, Geschichte des deutschen Adels (Breslau, 1845), and K. H. Roth von Schreckenstein, Die Ritterwürde und der Ritterstand (Freiburg, 1866).

The Germans have produced some excellent historical atlases, among them K. von Spruner’s Historisch-geographischer Handatlas (Gotha, 1853); a new edition of this by T. Menke called Handatlas für die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit (Gotha, 1880), and G. Droysen’s Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas (Leipzig, 1886). The historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Knüll’s Historische Geographie Deutschlands im Mittelalter (Breslau, 1903); in F. H. Müller’s Die deutschen Stämme und ihre Fürsten (Hamburg, 1852), and in many other works referring to the different parts of the country.

English books on the history of Germany are not very numerous. There is a short History of Germany by James Sime (1874), another by E. F. Henderson (1902), and A History of Germany 1715–1815 by C. T. Atkinson (1909). H. A. L. Fisher’s Medieval Empire (1898) is very useful for the earlier period, and J. Bryce’s Holy Roman Empire is indispensable. There is a translation of Janssen’s Geschichte by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (1896, fol.), and there are useful chapters in the different volumes of the Cambridge Modern History. Two English historians have distinguished themselves by their work on special periods: Carlyle with his History of Friedrich II., called the Great (1872–1873), and W. Robertson with his History of the Reign of Charles V. (1820). There is also E. Armstrong’s Charles V. (London, 1902). Among German historical periodicals are the Historische Zeitschrift, long associated with the name of H. von Sybel, and the Historisches Jahrbuch.

In guides to the historical sources and to modern historical works Germany is well served. There is the Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious volume, and the learned Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (Berlin, 1893–1894) of W. Wattenbach; A. Potthast’s Bibliotheca historica medii aevi (Berlin, 1896), and the ''Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen seit der Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts'' (Berlin, 1886–1887) of O. Lorenz and A. Goldmann.

 GERMERSHEIM, a fortified town of Germany in Rhenish Bavaria, at the confluence of the Queich and the Rhine, 8 m. S.W. of Speyer. Pop. (1905) 5914. It possesses a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church, a synagogue, a progymnasium and a hospital. The industries include fishing, shipbuilding and brewing. Germersheim existed as a Roman stronghold under the name of Vicus Julius. The citadel was rebuilt by the emperor Conrad II., but the town itself was founded in 1276 by the emperor Rudolph I., who granted it the rights of a free imperial city. From 1330 to 1622, when it was conquered by Austria, the town formed part of the Palatinate of the Rhine. From 1644 to 1650 it was in the possession of France; but on the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia it was again joined to the Palatinate. In 1674 it was captured and devastated by the French under Turenne, and after the death of the elector Charles (1685) it was claimed by the French as a dependency of Alsace. As a consequence there ensued the disastrous Germersheim war of succession, which lasted till the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Through the intervention of the pope in 1702, the French, on payment of a large sum, agreed to vacate the town, and in 1715 its fortifications were rebuilt. On the 3rd of July 1744 the French were defeated there by the imperial troops, and on the 19th and 22nd of July 1793 by the Austrians. In 1835 the new town was built, and the present fortifications begun.

 GERMISTON, a town of the Transvaal, 9 m. E. of Johannesburg. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 29,477, of whom 9123 were whites. It lies 5478 ft. above the sea, in the heart of the Witwatersrand gold-mining district, and is an important railway junction. The station, formerly called Elandsfontein Junction, is the meeting-point of lines from the ports of the Cape and Natal, and from Johannesburg, Pretoria and Delagoa Bay. Though possessing a separate municipality, Germiston is practically a suburb of (q.v.).  GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS [] (1551–1627), canon lawyer, diplomatist and archbishop of Tarantaise, belonged to the family of the marquises of Ceve, in Piedmont, where he was born. As archdeacon at Turin he was a member of the commission appointed by Pope Clement VIII. to edit the Liber septimus decretalium; and he also wrote Paratitla on the five books of the Decretals of Gregory IX. He represented the duke of Savoy at the court of Rome under Clement VIII. and Paul V., and was ambassador to Spain under Kings Philip III. and IV. He died on the 4th of August 1627. Germonius is best known for his treatise on ambassadors, De legatis principum et populorum libri tres (Rome, 1627). The book is diffuse, pedantic and somewhat heavy in style, but valuable historically as written by a theorist who was also an expert man of affairs. (See .)  GERO (c. 900–965), margrave of the Saxon east mark, was probably a member of an influential Saxon family. In 937 he was entrusted by the German king Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, with the defence of the eastern frontier of Saxony against the Wends and other Slavonic tribes; a duty which he discharged with such ability and success that in a few years he extended the Saxon frontier almost to the Oder, and gained the chief credit for the suppression of a rising of the conquered peoples in a great victory on the 16th of October 955. In 963 he defeated the Lusatians, compelled the king of the Poles to recognize the supremacy of the German king, and extended the area of his mark so considerably that after his death it was partitioned into three, and later into five marks. Gero, who is said to have made a journey to Rome, died on the 20th of May 965, and was buried in the convent of Gernrode which he had founded on his Saxon estates. He is referred to by the historian Widukind as a preses, and is sometimes called the “great margrave.” He has been accused of treachery and cruelty, is celebrated in song and story, and is mentioned as the “ marcgrâve Gêre” in the Nibelungenlied.

 GEROLSTEIN, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, attractively situated on the Kyll, in the Eifel range, 1100 ft. above the sea, 58 m. W. of Andernach by rail, and at the junction of lines to Trèves and St Vith. The castle of Gerolstein, built in 1115 and now in ruins, affords a fine view of the Kyllthal. Gerolstein is celebrated for its lithia waters, which are largely exported. Pop. (1900) 1308.  GÉRÔME, JEAN LÉON (1824–1904), French painter, was born on the 11th of May 1824 at Vesoul (Haute-Saône). He went to Paris in 1841 and worked under Paul Delaroche, whom he

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 11.djvu/925


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Germiston

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Germiston


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Germonius, Anastasius


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gero

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gero


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gerolstein

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gerolstein