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 Modern Science and Anarchism. By PETER KROPOTKIN. A New and Revised Translation, with three additional chapters, and a useful and interesting Glossary. pages; Paper Covers, 6d. net; also in Art Cambric, Is. 6d. net. Postage, paper l|d., cloth 3d. "As a survey of modern science in relation to society this book would be hard to beat The glossary of about 16 crowded pages is alone worth the price of the volume." Maoriland Worker. The Conquest of Bread. By PETER KROPOTKIK. A Xev and Cheaper Edition. Cloth, Is. net; postage 2|d. God and the State. By MICHAEL BAKUNIN. A neio edition, revised from the original Manuscript. With a new Portrait. Paper cover, 6d. net; cloth, Is. net. Postage Id. and 2d. LIBERTY AND THE GREAT LIBERTARIANS. An Anthology on Liberty. Edited and Compiled, with Preface, Introduction, and Index, by CHARLES T. SPHADINO. Presenting quickly and succinctly the best utterauces of the greatest thinkers on every phase of human freedom. Many valuable quotations from suppressed, ignored, and hitherto inaccessible sources. Price 6s. 6d. net, postage 4d. FREEDOM PRESS, 127 OSSULSTON STREET, LONDON, N.V


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 FJREEDOM. A JOURNAL OP ANARCHIST COMMUNISM. (Established 1886. ) Monthly, Id. Annual Subs& ivtion, Is. Gd.postfr PAMPHLET AND^ BOOK LIST. ANARCHIST COMMUNISM. By PETER KROPOTKIN| ANARCHISM. By PETER KRCPOTKIN. Id. ANARCHIST MORALITY. By PETER KROPOTKIN. THE WAGE SYSTEM. By PETER KROPOTKIN. Id. A TALK ABOUT ANARCHIST COMMUNISM Two WORKERS. By E. MALATESTA. Id. THE STATE : ITS HISTORIC ROLE. By PETER KROPOTKJ EXPROPRIATION. By PETER KROPOTKIN. Id. LAW AND AUTHORITY. By PETER KROPOTKIN. THE PYRAMID OF TYRANNY. By D. NIKUAVENHI THE PLACE OF ANARCHISM IN SOCIALIST] EVOLUTION. By PETER KROPOTKIN. Id. AN APPEAL TO THE YOUNG. By PETER KROPOTI THE COMMUNE OF PARIS. By PETER KROPOTKJ EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION. ByELiSKE THE SOCIAL GENERAL STRIKE. By A. RoLi.i THE CHICAGO MARTYRS. With Portraits. Id.i DIRECT ACTION v. LEGISLATION. By J. BLAIR SMJ WARS AND CAPITALISM. By P. KROPOTKIN. 1( THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-17| PETER KROPOTKIN. 6s. net ; postage 4d. MUTUAL AID. By PETER KROPOTKIN. 3s. fid. FIELDS, FACTORIES, AND WORKSHOPS. B KROPOTKIN. Cloth, Is. net, postage 3d. ANARCHISM. By Dr. PAUL ELTZBACHER. With s. 6d. net, postage 4d NEWS FROM NOWHERE. By WM. MORRIS. paper Is. ; postage 2d. FAMOUS SPEECHES OF THE EIGHT ^ ANARCHISTS. Is. 3d, postage 2d. Orders, with cash (postage |d. each pamphlet), FREEDOM PRESS, 127 OSSULSTON STREET, LONDON,

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text: User:Carl wood boo

title: User:Carl wood boo


text:
Pheidippides

 * Χαίρετε, νικῶμεν.

First I salute this soil of the blessed, river and rock! Gods of my birthplace, dæmons and heroes, honour to all! Then I name thee, claim thee for our patron, co-equal in praise —Ay, with Zeus the Defender, with Her of the ægis and spear! Also, ye of the bow and the buskin, praised be your peer, Now, henceforth and forever,—O latest to whom I upraise Hand and heart and voice! For Athens, leave pasture and flock! Present to help, potent to save, Pan—patron I call!

Archons of Athens, topped by the tettix, see, I return! See, 't is myself here standing alive, no spectre that speaks! Crowned with the myrtle, did you command me, Athens and you, "Run, Pheidippides, run and race, reach Sparta for aid! Persia has come, we are here, where is She?" Your command I obeyed, Ran and raced: like stubble, some field which a fire runs through, Was the space between city and city: two days, two nights did I burn Over the hills, under the dales, down pits and up peaks.

Into their midst I broke: breath served but for "Persia has come! Persia bids Athens proffer slaves'-tribute, water and earth; Razed to the ground is Eretria—but Athens, shall Athens sink, Drop into dust and die—the flower of Hellas utterly die, Die, with the wide world spitting at Sparta, the stupid, the stander-by? Answer me quick, what help, what hand do you stretch o'er destruction's brink? How,—when? No care for my limbs!—there's lightning in all and some— Fresh and fit your message to bear, once lips give it birth!"

O my Athens—Sparta love thee? Did Sparta respond? Every face of her leered in a furrow of envy, mistrust, Malice,—each eye of her gave me its glitter of gratified hate! Gravely they turned to take counsel, to cast for excuses. I stood Quivering,—the limbs of me fretting as fire frets, an inch from dry wood: "Persia has come, Athens asks aid, and still they debate? Thunder, thou Zeus! Athené, are Spartans a quarry beyond Swing of thy spear? Phoibos and Artemis, clang them 'Ye must'!"

No bolt launched from Olumpos! Lo, their answer at last! "Has Persia come,—does Athens ask aid,—may Sparta befriend? Nowise precipitate judgment—too weighty the issue at stake! Count we no time lost time which lags through respect to the Gods! Ponder that precept of old, 'No warfare, whatever the odds In your favour, so long as the moon, half-orbed, is unable to take Full-circle her state in the sky!' Already she rounds to it fast: Athens must wait, patient as we—who judgment suspend."

Athens,—except for that sparkle,—thy name, I had mouldered to ash! That sent a blaze through my blood; off, off and away was I back, —Not one word to waste, one look to lose on the false and the vile! Yet "O Gods of my land!" I cried, as each hillock and plain, Wood and stream, I knew, I named, rushing past them again, "Have ye kept faith, proved mindful of honours we paid you erewhile? Vain was the filleted victim, the fulsome libation! Too rash Love in its choice, paid you so largely service so slack!

"Oak and olive and bay,—I bid you cease to enwreathe Brows made bold by your leaf! Fade at the Persian's foot, You that, our patrons were pledged, should never adorn a slave! Rather I hail thee, Parnes,—trust to thy wild waste tract! Treeless, herbless, lifeless mountain! What matter if slacked My speed may hardly be, for homage to crag and to cave No deity deigns to drape with verdure?—at least I can breathe, Fear in thee no fraud from the blind, no lie from the mute!"

Such my cry as, rapid, I ran over Parnes' ridge; Gully and gap, I clambered and cleared till, sudden, a bar Jutted, a stoppage of stone against me, blocking the way. Right! for I minded the hollow to traverse, the fissure across: "Where I could enter, there I depart by! Night in the fosse? Athens to aid? Though the dive were through Erebos, thus I obey— Out of the day dive, into the day as bravely arise! No bridge Better!"—when—ha! what was it I came on, of wonders that are?

There, in the cool of a cleft, sat he—majostical Pan! Ivy drooped wanton, kissed his head, moss cushioned his hoof: All the great God was good in the eyes grave-kindly—the curl Carved on the bearded cheek, amused at a mortal's awe, As, under the human trunk, the goat-thighs grand I saw. "Halt, Pheidippides!"—halt I did, my brain of a whirl: "Hither to me! Why pale in my presence?" he gracious began: "How is it,—Athens, only in Hellas, holds me aloof?

"Athens, she only, rears me no fane, makes me no feast! Wherefore? Than I what godship to Athens more helpful of old? Ay, and still, and forever her friend! Test Pan, trust me! Go, bid Athens take heart, laugh Persia to scorn, have faith In the temples and tombs! Go, say to Athens, 'The Goat-God saith: When Persia—so much as strews not the soil—is cast in the sea, Then praise Pan who fought in the ranks with your most and least, Goat-thigh to greaved-thigh, made one cause with the free and the bold!'

"Say Pan saith: 'Let this, foreshowing the place, be the pledge!' " (Gay, the liberal hand held out this herbage I bear —Fennel—I grasped it a-tremble with dew—whatever it bode) "While, as for thee..." But enough! He was gone. If I ran hitherto— Be sure that, the rest of my journey, I ran no longer, but flew. Parnes to Athens—earth no more, the air was my road: Here am I back. Praise Pan, we stand no more on the razor's edge! Pan for Athens, Pan for me! I too have a guerdon rare!

Then spoke Miltiades. "And thee, best runner of Greece, Whose limbs did duty indeed,—what gift is promised thyself? Tell it us straightway,—Athens the mother demands of her son!" Rosily blushed the youth: he paused: but, lifting at length His eyes from the ground, it seemed as he gathered the rest of his strength Into the utterance—"Pan spoke thus: 'For what thou hast done Count on a worthy reward! Henceforth be allowed thee release From the racer's toil, no vulgar reward in praise or in pelf!'

"I am bold to believe, Pan means reward the most to my mind! Fight I shall, with our foremost, wherever this fennel may grow,— Pound—Pan helping us—Persia to dust, and, under the deep, Whelm her away forever; and then,—no Athens to save,— Marry a certain maid, I know keeps faith to the brave,— Hie to my bouse and home: and, when my children shall creep Close to my knees,—recount how the God was awful yet kind, Promised their sire reward to the full—rewarding him—so!"

Unforeseeing one! Yes, he fought on the Marathon day: So, when Persia was dust, all cried "To Akropolis! Run, Pheidippides, one race more! the meed is thy due! 'Athens is saved, thank Pan,' go shout!" He flung down his shield, Ran like fire once more: and the space 'twixt the Fennel-field And Athens was stubble again, a field which a fire runs through, Till in he broke: "Rejoice, we conquer!" Like wine through clay, Joy in his blood bursting his heart, he died—the bliss!

So, to this day, when friend meets friend, the word of salute Is still "Rejoice!"—his word which brought rejoicing indeed. So is Pheidippides happy forever,—the noble strong man Who could race like a God, bear the face of a God, whom a God loved so well; He saw the land saved he had helped to save, and was suffered to tell Such tidings, yet never decline, but, gloriously as he began, So to end gloriously—once to shout, thereafter be mute: "Athens is saved!"—Pheidippides dies in the shout for his meed.

title: Pheidippides


text:
User talk:Arnab Bhowmick

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title: User talk:Arnab Bhowmick


text:
User talk:TDC~enwikisource

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User talk:Larm224

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title: User talk:Larm224


text:
Saul

 * Saul a libretto by Handel and Jennings
 * Saul, a poem by Robert Browning
 * Saul, a poem by George Gordon Byron
 * Saul, a poem by Lydia Huntley Sigourney.

title: Saul


text: Index:Examiner, Journal of Political Economy, v2n12.djvu


text: The Right to Ignore the State/Anarchist Communism


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Page:Examiner, Journal of Political Economy, v2n12.djvu/1

AND

DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE CAUSE OF STATE RIGHTS AND FREE TRADE. The Powers not Delegated to the United States, by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the People. . . ''Amendments to the Constitution, Art. X.''

Freedom of Industry, as sacred as freedom of speech or of the press. . . Jefferson.

THE GENUINE BOOK OF NULLIFICATION.

Being a true—not an apochryphal—history, chapter and verse, of the several examples of the recognition and enforcement of that sovereign State remedy, by the different States of this confederacy, from 1798 down to the present day. (As originally published in the Charleston Mercury.) To which are added the opinions of distinguished statesmen, on State rights doctrines. By HAMPDEN.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The assertion having been repeatedly made, by various writers in the Consolidation journals of this city, and throughout the country, that the rightful and peaceable, though much vituperated, State remedy of Nullification had never been in reality recognized, vindicated, or enforced, by any of the States of this Union; and, further, that it was not until the adoption by the State Rights Party here, in 1827–'28 of the so called "Carolina Doctrines," that this legitimate exercise of State Sovereignty was ever even heard of, or known; I have in consequence, and in refutation of these unfounded declarations, thought it proper to analyse, and collect for publication the several instances in which this Safety Valve, (if I may so say), of the growing Usurpations of our General Government—this antiseptic conservative of our sacred Constitution—has been called into use by the Legislatures of the States; and to show that whether it be for good or for evil has hitherto depended—as it always must depend—upon the propriety of the occasion, and the justice of the cause.

HAMPDEN.

Charleston, October 1st, 1831.

"To this compact each State acceded as a State, and is an integral party. Its co-states forming, as to itself, the other party," and "as in all other cases of compact among parties having no common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself, as well of infractions, as of the mode and measure of redress."—

"I confess that when the Confederation was formed, Congress ought to have been invested with more extensive powers—But when the States saw that Congress indirectly aimed at Sovereignty, they were jealous, and therefore it was that they refused further concessions."—

"You have given to Congress the sword and the purse, and they will take the rest whether you will it or not."—.

"Is it consonant with reason, with wisdom, with policy, to suppose that in a Legislature where a majority of persons sit whose interests are greatly different from ours that we should have the smallest chance of receiving adequate advantages?—certainly not."—.

"In order that the General Government should preserve itself, it is necessary it should presserve justice between the several states."—

"An Act of usurpation is not obligatory—it is not law—Any man may be justified in his resistance to it—Let him be considered as a criminal by the General Government—yet his own fellow citizens alone can convict him—They are his jury—and if they pronounce him innocent, not all the powers of congress can hurt him—and innocent they certainly will pronounce him, if the supposed law which he resisted was an act of usurpation."—Ib.

"It may safely be received as an axiom in our political system, that the State Governments, will, in all possible contingencies, afford complete security against invasions of the public liberty by the National Authority. Projects of usurpations cannot be masked under pretences so likely to escape the penetration of select bodies of men, as of the people at large.  The Legislatures will have better means of information.  They can discover the danger at a distance; and, possessing all the organs of civil power and the confidence of the people, they can at once adopt a regular plan of opposition, in which they can combine all the resources of the community."—. [ Federalist, No. 28. ]

"If regardless of our duty as citizens, and our solemn obligations as Representatives—regardless of the Rights of our constituents—regardless of every sanction human and divine, we are ready to violate the Constitution we have sworn to defend; will the people submit to our unauthorized acts; will the states sanction our usurped power? Sir, they ought not to submit: they would deserve the chains which these measures are forging for them if they did not resist."—Mr. , on the Alien Bill.

"The history of the United States forcibly admonishes the people of America that they should suffer no invasion of their political Constitutions (however trivial the instance may appear,) to pass away without a determined persevering resistance. The future evils of a bad example in Government are far heavier than any immediate mischief that can possibly result.  Every unreproved invasion of our political constitutions invites the crusades of arbitrary power against the public liberties; and while examples are supposed to justify the most dangerous measures, a capacity for augmentation gradually increases." Virginia Report, 1821, on Federal usurpations.


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24 are inaccurate; half the inferences are mere guesses. And yet it changed the thought of the world. What is the explanation of this paradox?

Much, no doubt, was due to charm of style. If you want to be read, still more if you want to be widely read, you must be readable. In Montesquieu's time, books on political and legal science were, as a rule, unreadable. But the Spirit of Laws was, and still is, an eminently readable book. No one before Montesquieu had dealt in so lively and brilliant a manner with the dry subject of laws and political institutions. The book reflects the personality of the writer. His personality is not obtruded in the foreground, like that of Montaigne, but it is always present in the background, and its presence gives a human interest to an abstract topic. You see the two sides of the author; the favourite guest of Parisian salons, and the solitary student, the desultory and omnivorous reader. He lived, we must remember, in an age when conversation was cultivated as a fine art. That untranslatable word 'esprit,' which was in the mouth of every eighteenth-century Frenchman, meant, in its narrowest and most special sense, the essence of good conversation. Montesquieu had, like other Frenchmen of his time, thought much about the art of conversation, and had practised it in the best salons—where, however, he had the reputation of being more of a listener than a talker—and the

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 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF

Volume 1

1895-1896

Reprinted with the permission of the original publishers

JOHNSON REPRINT CORPORATION NEW YORK, NEW YORK


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Rh rules that he laid down for good writing are practically the rules for good conversation. 'To write well,' he says somewhere, 'you must skip the connecting links, enough not to be a bore, not so much as to be unintelligible .' Hence his book is not so much a dissertation as a causerie. It rambles pleasantly and unmethodically from point to point, welcomes digressions, and often goes off at a tangent. You feel yourself in the presence of a learned, witty, and urbane talker, who does not wish to monopolize the talk, but desires to elicit that free, responsive play of thought which is essential to good conversation. 'I don't want to exhaust the subject,' he says, 'for who can say everything without being a deadly bore .' And again, 'My object is not to make you read; but to make you think .'

But Montesquieu is also a man of the closet, a man who spent long, solitary hours in his library at La Brède, filling note-books with copious extracts, and condensing his thoughts in maxims and reflections. And he is too often unable to resist the temptation of utilizing the contents of his notebooks without considering sufficiently whether they are relevant to or assist the progress of his argument. Indeed, he is essentially a 'fragmentary' thinker, sententious rather than continuous, and constitutionally reluctant, perhaps unable, to follow out persistently long trains of thought. But these peculiarities, though they detract from the scientific merit of his book, make it more readable. So

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Rh Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by which the king placed his kingdom under British protection.

See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin, Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827); Vason, Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815); A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893); B. H. Thomson, The Diversions of a Prime Minister (London, 1894).  TONGKING, a province of French Indo-China, and protectorate of France, situated between 20° and 23½° N. and 102° and 108½° E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang-Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking comprises three regions: (1) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river), which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two mountainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan, enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking. It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that, forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however, has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks. Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song-Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches, communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides and the Canal des Bambous.

The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near that of Annam, has a length of 375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao, and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations. Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial deposits of the delta accumulate.

The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August, the temperature ranges between 82° and 100° F., but from October to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in August and September.

In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are common. The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and in general the flora approximate to that of southern China.

The Annamese (see ), who form the bulk of the population of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the

rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts—the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Thôs the regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, and their eyes are often almost straight.

Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incomparably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree (Daphne odora), cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation of silkworms is of growing importance.

Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao.

Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manufacture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a widespread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit.

The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of £3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at £1,393,674 in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats, gamboge.

The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance, reaching in 1905 a value of £1,146,000. This trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao, thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with embankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land communication of the region. (For railways, see .)

The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct administration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protectorate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over the protectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France. Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories, the latter administered by commandants. In each province there is a council of native “notables,” elected by natives and occupied with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works. There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) for the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local government and educational system are analogous to those of (q. v.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a criminal court sit at Hanoi; there are tribunals of first instance and tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of the An-Sat or native judge of the province.

The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904:—

The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to £417,723, while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies and general staff, public works and the civil guard.

For the early history of Tongking, see and. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801, when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annamese territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking, attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hostilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking,

title: Page:EB1911 - Volume 27.djvu/19


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/McKinley, William

McKIN'LEY, Author:William McKinley (1843-1901). The twenty-fifth President of the United States, born at Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, of Scotch-Irish ancestry. His great-grandfather, David McKinley, a soldier of the Revolution, was a resident of York County, Pa., and removed thence to Ohio, where, in 1829, his grandson William married Nancy Allison. From this marriage came nine children, the seventh of whom, the subject of this sketch, was early engaged, as had been his father and grandfather before him, in the iron industry. He secured, however, a partial education at the Poland Academy, and later entered Allegheny College, at Meadville, Pa., although he soon withdrew and engaged in teaching school. He was thus occupied at the outbreak of the Civil War, and early enlisted, being mustered into the Twenty-third Ohio Volunteers on June 11, 1801. The colonel of the regiment was William S. Rosecrans, and its lieutenant-colonel Stanley Matthews, while Rutherford B. Hayes later served as colonel, the regiment becoming especially conspicuous and being engaged in some nineteen battles during the war, first serving under General McClellan in western Virginia. At the close of his first winter's service McKinley was made commissary-sergeant and was soon attached to the staff of Colonel Hayes. After the spring of 1862 the regiment was transferred to Washington, and later took an active share in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam. McKinley especially distinguished himself at Antietam, when, at great personal risk, he carried a supply of food from the rear to the soldiers at the front. For this gallantry he was recommended for promotion by Colonel Hayes, and under date of September 23, 1862, was made second lieutenant, and on February 7, 1863, was commissioned first lieutenant. McKinley continued with his regiment throughout the war, serving as an aide both to General Hancock and to General Crook, repeatedly rendering effective services, and gaining particular prominence by his work at Opequan Creek, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek, for which he was brevetted major on March 13, 1865. He had already, on July 25, 1804, been commissioned captain, but the brevet title was that by which he was commonly known in later life.

Major McKinley was mustered out of the volunteer service on July 25, 1865, and immediately took up the study of law in the office of Judge Glidden, completing his preparation by a course at the Albany Law School. Being admitted to the bar in 1867, he established himself at Canton, Ohio, his home for the remainder of his life, and although Stark County was Democratic, he, a Republican, was elected its prosecuting attorney in 1869. In 1875, when the Republican candidate for Governor was Colonel Hayes, McKinley took an active part in the campaign. He was himself

elected to Congress in the year following, and served in the Lower House for seven consecutive terms. In his first term, in connection with the Wood Tariff Bill, he upheld the protectionist policy, although his early views on the subject have been considered as less positive than those which he expressed in his later years. Not only upon that subject did the development of his views seem to some to show inconsistencies, but also with reference to financial questions was there an even more marked change, inasmuch as he stood with the Western wing of his party in favor of the remonetization of silver, and voted for the Bland-Allison Bill, even against the veto of President Hayes. When Garfield was transferred to the Senate, McKinley succeeded him as a member of the Ways and Means Committee of the House. In the same term he spoke vigorously against the repeal of the Federal Election Law, and his speech on the subject was used as a campaign document in 1880. In that campaign he served as a member of the Republican National Committee, was chairman of the Ohio State Convention, and was himself reëlected to Congress. In the next national campaign also he took an active part, drafting the tariff plank in the Republican platform. In the succeeding administration he became a leader in opposition to the Mills Bill and to President Cleveland's plan of tariff reform. Again in the campaign of 1888 he prepared the tariff plank of the Republican platform, being chairman of the Committee on Resolutions. He was one of the managers of the campaign of John Sherman, although at one time it seemed that the convention would be turned to himself. He prevented that contingency, however, by a vigorous speech. By this time he was recognized as a distinctively national leader, and although Thomas B. Reed secured the Speakership of the House, McKinley was made chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, and in that position framed and carried through Congress the highly protectionist tariff which bears his name. (See .) In the election of 1890 he was defeated. Ending his Congressional service in 1891, he was in the same year elected Governor of Ohio by a plurality of more than 21,000 over Campbell, who in 1890 had carried the State by 11,000, and the success was emphasized in 1893, when McKinley was reëlected by about 81,000 plurality. The four years of his service as Governor were marked by the establishment of a State Board of Arbitration, by improvement in the organization of the National Guard, and by other evidences of effective administration. His first term, however, was disturbed by serious embarrassment in his personal finances, from which he was relieved by the assistance of a number of friends, chiefly friends whose political relations with the Governor seemed at times to make the relief more prolific of criticism than insolvency would have been. His second term was marked by the activity of the corporate interests, particularly of the promoters and backers of street railways, and the Governor's connection with legislation on these matters was such as to provoke much hostile comment. His policy with reference to the charitable institutions of the State also was such as to give his opponents opportunity for severe criticism, although in general his administrations were such as to enhance his reputation outside of his State and to mark him still more

plainly as a national leader. He was thus the natural and the leading candidate before the Saint Louis Convention in 1890, where on the first ballot he received 661½ votes. Coming out now strongly for the gold standard, in accordance with his party's platform, he quieted the fears aroused by his earlier course and even by his support of the Sherman Bill so late as 1890, and took a vigorous lead in the work against the free-silver campaign of Bryan. His personal campaign was unusual in that he remained at Canton throughout, making, however, some 300 speeches from his own porch and there addressing in the aggregate probably a million persons. Although he received in the popular vote a plurality of only about 600,000 votes in a total of more than 14,000,000 votes, he nevertheless received 271 electoral votes as against 176 cast for Bryan. Garret A. Hobart was elected Vice-President. McKinley's first administration was characterized particularly by the events and policies incident to the acquisition of extensive colonial possessions. The war with Spain, precipitated by the conditions in Cuba, resulted through the treaty of December 10, 1898, in the annexation of Porto Rico, of the Philippine Islands, and of Guam, upon the payment to Spain of $20,000,000, and resulted also in the termination of Spanish sovereignty in Cuba. For the remainder of McKinley's service as President, the efforts of the Administration were directed to the organization and maintenance of proper local administration throughout Cuba, to the general improvement of the material and social condition of the people, and to the preparation of the inhabitants for the conduct of a general republican form of government, which was to be instituted under the direction of the President's successor. Equally without precedent in our history were the exigencies presented in the problem of administering colonial dependencies, a problem which in the early years was made still more difficult by the protracted warfare carried on by portions of the Philippine population. Through the efficiency of the administrators selected by the President, and especially through the effective work of the commission headed by Judge William H. Taft, the close of McKinley's first administration saw the greater portion of the newly acquired islands in a condition of peace and with an orderly administration of government, in which the natives shared, and with most of the attendant circumstances such as to justify the claim that the assumption of the duties of colonial administration had been successfully effected. By this development, however, many new problems, both of politics and of jurisprudence, were presented, and in such a manner as to make impressive the fact that under McKinley the nation had entered upon what in various respects seemed to be a new course of development. Furthermore, during his administration, in August, 1898, Hawaii finally became a part of the United States, and two years later received a Territorial Government, with the right to a delegate in Congress. At the close of 1809 negotiations were concluded by which the tripartite control of ../Samoa/ (q.v.) was terminated, and the United States secured control of Tutuila with the harbor of Pago-Pago. A number of reciprocity treaties were concluded, so that from many points of view the Administration seemed engaged in an expansion of influence and of territory through the methods of peace as well as through those of war. As the representative of these lines of policy, and as the one through whom especially these policies had been carried to a successful issue, McKinley gained a position of unusual prestige and was looked upon as embodying the successes which under his lead the people had achieved. In 1900 he was again nominated, and received 292 electoral votes, while Bryan, again his competitor, received only 155. Theodore Roosevelt was elected Vice-President. The mass of people came to regard McKinley with an esteem and a confidence rarely shown for so long a period to any public leader. He had in a high degree the ability to foresee the trend of public thought and so to shape his course as to render certain the public approval. Being able to ignore petty controversies, having a fine sense of relative proprieties, and being a man of devotion to high principles, he was regarded as preëminently a good man, while the events of his administration made it natural that he should be regarded by many as one of the few great Presidents. His untiring devotion to his invalid wife, Ida Saxton, whom he had married in 1871, and who survived him, aroused the admiration of the whole nation. In the full swing of triumph following his second inauguration and incident to a general recognition of the success of his work in the new possessions, the President was stricken by an assassin, Czolgosz (q.v.), while holding a public reception at the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, on September 6, 1901. On the day preceding the President had delivered an address on reciprocity, and just as he was proposing a policy which might have made his second administration fully as momentous as had been his first, his service was ended in an instant. The surgeons who were summoned operated almost immediately upon the wounded man, and thus made possible the fight for life which was then carried on, and at times with every prospect of success, until finally, on September 14th, the President passed away. With hope already restored, the actual end came so suddenly as to make a most profound impression both in this country and abroad, and the day of the burial was observed throughout the nation with unusual indications of grief and of deep sorrow. The interment was at Canton, where an appropriate monument is to be erected through general subscriptions. No adequate biography has been published. For a review of the public affairs during McKinley's Presidency, see the article on.


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26 also do the little asides by which he takes his readers into his confidence, as when he reminds himself that if he dwells too much on the absence of any need for virtue in a monarchy, he may be suspected of irony, or when he gives expression to the feelings of lassitude and discouragement which overtake him towards the end of his task.

Charm of style, then, counts for much in explaining Montesquieu's influence. But freshness and originality count for much more. The orthodox way of dealing with a subject of political or legal science was to start from general propositions laid down authoritatively, and derived either from Aristotle, or, more often, from the Roman jurists, and to deduce from them certain general conclusions. Bodin's great treatise on the Republic, to which Montesquieu was much indebted, especially for his theory on the influence of climate, was framed on these lines. But Montesquieu broke away from the old lines. His starting-point was different. He began at the other end. He started from the particular institutions, not from the general principles.

I have dwelt at length, perhaps at undue length, on the Persian Letters, not because, as has been inaccurately said, the Spirit of Laws is merely a continuation of the earlier work, but because the Montesquieu of the Spirit of Laws is still the Montesquieu of the Persian Letters, matured and ripened by twenty-seven years of study and experience, but in essentials still the same.

He began his literary career with no preoccupied theory or object, but as a detached and irresponsible critic and observer of man in his infinite diversity, the man ondoyant et divers of Montaigne. And he retained

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The New International Encyclopædia/McKinley, Mount

McKINLEY, (called by the Russians Bolshaya, and by the Shushitna Indians Traleyka). The highest peak of North America. It is situated in South Central Alaska between the sources of the Kuskokwim and the Shushitna rivers, 150 miles north of the head of Cook Inlet (Map:, E 3). It is covered with snow and surrounded by glaciers, and towers from the rough and saw-toothed ridge of the Alaska Mountains to the height of 20,464 feet above the sea.


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Page:Miscellaneous Papers on Mechanical Subjects.djvu/71

Rh there must be greater allowance and looseness in the fits than would be requisite if better oil, as sperm oil, were used, I need scarcely say how much more advisable it is to have the more accurate fit and use the best oil, than to have a loose fit and use the inferior oil, which causing more friction consumes greater power.

Again, a good workman acquires by experience an intuitive knowledge of the allowances in size which are requisite in various cases; and if a suitable decimal system of notation be adopted, there will be no difficulty, with the power of measurement we now possess, in registering minute differences; and so the knowledge gained by the experienced workman may be imparted to others in precise terms, which to the young beginner will be of invaluable service. Much important information may by these means be stored up, and at any time reference can be made to the experience of the past, which will then run no risk of being lost through disuse, inattention, or other causes.

The deterioration of templates or patterns of size, from their becoming worn or altered in process of time, is productive of great inconvenience, as many of us perhaps have experienced. For when an original standard was thus altered, it was irretrievably lost, because there were no means of ascertaining and recording the exact


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Page:The new British province of South Australia.djvu/39

 the Eastern extremity of Lake Alexandrina and Cape Wiles, the distance in a straight line being about 220 miles, the extent of land washed by the waters either of the ocean or of the lake, amounts to about 1,400 miles. Here, then, are ample means of transport, for exchange among the settlers themselves, and for conveying to Nepean Bay and Port Lincoln produce fit for exchange in distant markets; while those fine harbours will be most serviceable for the landing of emigrants, stock, and goods, and for the future management of trade with the neighbouring colonies, and with distant countries. Considering the probable security of Coffin's Bay; the long line of coast, West of that harbour, whereon Captain Flinders observed the indications of several rivers; and the facility of making a road between Coffin's Bay and Port Lincoln, the latter harbour, which for extent, security, and facility of access, is surpassed by none in the world, seems formed by nature to become the central mart of South Australia.

The following description of the Southern part of Australia was compiled by Mr. Gouger, who has paid much attention to the subject; and it will, we imagine, be found, with the aid of the accompanying maps, sufficiently full and clear to enable every one who shall examine it to judge of the eligibility of that part of the world for the purposes of colonization.

Introduction.— This account of the natural circumstances of that part of Australia, between the 132° and 141° of East longitude, which is intended to form the site of the new colony, is compiled from the reports of various persons who have visited the locality. The honour of the discovery of this country is due to Captain Flinders


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 and his party, who, in the year 1802, in His Majesty's Ship Investigator, and employed by his Majesty's Government, explored the whole southern coast. From the expensive work published by Captain Flinders, entitled 'A Voyage to Terra Australis,' in two vols, quarto, much of this report is taken.

Mr. Westall, the artist who accompanied the expedition, has kindly furnished such facts as he recollects which are likely to be interesting, and which are not embodied in Captain Flinders's narrative. This gentleman possesses still some sketches which he made at the time, from which a very accurate opinion may be formed of the kind of country. It is to be regretted that these sketches have not been published—those of Port Lincoln, Sleaford Mere, and Memory Cove, with a sight of which we have been favoured by Mr. Westall, are most interesting.

Next in order to Captain Flinders, as well in time as in merit, is the expedition under Captains Baudin and Freycinet, having on board a naturalist of considerable note, M. Peron, This party fell in with Flinders at Encounter Bay, and thus, by a few days only, the discovery of those magnificent inlets, Spencer's and St. Vincent's Gulfs was anticipated by the British voyagers. Some long extracts have been made from the history of their voyage written by M. Peron.

In the year 1815, Captain Dillon, the well-known discoverer of the remains of La Perouse, visited this part of the Southern Coast; his object was commercial, and he remained in the neighbourhood three months. He has been good enough to favour us with some account of his voyage; and of this use has been made in the narrative which follows.

Captain Sutherland, late commander of the Ship 'Lang,' who has been for many years employed in the trade between England and New Holland, and who, from being a proprietor of land in Van Diemen's Land, has resided there for a length of time, visited this part,


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64 measure. It is of great importance to the manufacturer who makes parts of machines in large quantities to have the means of referring to an accurate fixed measure: it will enable him to reproduce at any time a facsimile of what he has once made, and so preserve a system of sizes of the fitting parts unaltered. The greatest care should be taken to make standards of size correctly at first, and to preserve them unaltered. Errors in the standards are not only propagated in the copies, but are superadded to the errors in the workmanship, which will occur in the course of manufacture; and this is especially likely to occur in cases where one manufacturer supplies parts of machines for the use of another.

My argument is shortly this:—If we had a better system of notation for our measures, in which small differences in size were expressed in terms conveying their value to the mind, the importance of minute and accurate measurements would become more familiar, more appreciated, and more generally applied. Many operations would by that means be more easily and effectually performed, and in some cases greater safety will be the result. Take for instance the present method of proving guns, which are proved by firing them with a considerable charge of powder and shot. If the barrel


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 state; for preserving, that is, in the colony the attributes of society and civilization: thirdly, the natural circumstances of the country about to be colonized.

Since, however, the attractiveness of the colony to persons of all classes, by which alone persons of all classes would be induced to settle there, must depend upon measures for preserving in the colony the attributes of society and civilization, and these again must in part, depend upon the fitness of the country for the purposes of colonization, it has been thought best, in considering separately the three parts of the subject, to reverse the order in which they have been stated above; beginning with the natural features of the country, proceeding to the mode of colonizing that waste region, and concluding with the inducements to the removal of persons of all classes. Besides these three divisions of the subject, there will be a chapter on the position of the colony with relation to other parts of the world, one on the government of the new Province, and some concluding remarks and suggestions of a practical nature.


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 harbour? Means of communication are required for the purposes of exchange. But there can be no exchange without surplus produce; that is, produce over and above what is consumed by the producers. In order to raise a great surplus produce, or in other words a great produce in proportion to the amount of capital and the number of hands employed, it is necessary that capital and labour should be skilfully employed; and the skilful employment of capital and labour in a new colony depends, not on the existence of natural means of communication, but on the mode of colonization adopted. For the present case, in which it is hoped to maintain in the colony the same skilful application of capital and labour as takes place in England, good natural means of communication are most desirable. The attention of the reader is, therefore, particularly directed to the form of the southern coast of Australia. Between the limits of the colony, which in a straight line comprise a distance of 500 miles, the extent of coast, including the coasts of Kangaroo Island and the shores of Lake Alexandria, amounts to about 2,150 miles; and between


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Rh stands the proof without manifest injury, it is passed as a good one, while it may in the very process of proof have received such permanent injury as to render it highly dangerous for use. How much better it would be after proving the barrel to measure it, and ascertain accurately if any, and what, permanent alteration had taken place, and retain or reject it accordingly. This would be substituting an exact and satisfactory system for an uncertain and dubious trial; but, inasmuch as the degrees of alteration will be various, and the differences in their measurement very minute, a better system of notation with the improved mode of measuring is required, to enable this and other similarly useful applications to be made.

After careful thought and a comparison of different scales, I have come to the conclusion that the scale for standards of size given in the accompanying Table is the one I would recommend to be adopted. I have endeavoured to arrange one which would be easily intelligible to the ordinary workman, and that would in every possible case coincide with the old system, so as not to cause more expense in altering the present sizes than may be absolutely necessary. I am perfectly aware that other scales may be devised more complete and more advantageous in many respects, if we were now prepared not merely to Rh


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 to ascertain, what indeed is well known, that much land in New South Wales is fit for producing wine, oil, rice, tobacco, and silk; but in the instance of this new colony, when it is proposed to transplant, not people merely, but society, and to maintain in the new place the means of employing capital in the most skilful way, for whatever purpose; in this case, the probable state of the colonial society should always be borne in mind by those who would draw just conclusions from what has been ascertained respecting natural circumstances.

7. After questions of soil and climate, the most important circumstance in a region about to be colonized, is the natural means of communication. This is a consideration of great moment to those, at least, who, intending to settle in a new place, propose to establish there the desires and powers of society. To a few persons scattered over a wide district, whose labour was divided, not only into separate fractions, but also amongst many occupations, between whom, consequently, there could be but little exchange, and who could not raise commodities exchangeable in distant markets, the best natural means of communication would be of but little value. Of what great use, for instance, is the excellent harbour of King George's Sound to the few scattered, or rather isolated Englishmen, who are wandering about in that neighbourhood? What reason have settlers that remain at the Swan River, not yet raising food enough for their own subsistence, and quite incapable of producing commodities for exchange in distant markets, to regret that Gage's Roads are not a good


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66 revolutionise, but to abandon what has been manufactured and is now in use. But would not that be going too far? As long as the machines already made are in existence, the sizes of their parts cannot be abandoned; and these considerations have induced me to propose a scale which shall combine the greatest possible advantages with the least possible change.

It would be desirable that those establishments which may decide upon adopting the decimal scale should introduce rules having the inch divided into tenths and their subdivisions, which would soon become as familiar to the workman as the eighth scale he now uses.

The scale proposed for the wire-gauge commences with the smallest size and increases by thousandths of an inch up to half an inch. Contrary to the custom usually adopted in marking the wire-gauge, I have called the smallest size No. 1, being 1-1000th of an inch, No. 2 being 2-1000ths of an inch, and so on; increasing up to No. 20 by 1-1000th of an inch between each number; from No. 20 to 40 by 2-1000ths; from No. 40 to No. 100 by 5-1000ths of an inch. I propose therefore to suppress the use of the numbers of designation which have been hitherto employed for the various wire-gauges, and simply call the sizes by their expressive


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Page:The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 Volume 3.djvu/613

 (Federal Government should also possess the exclusive right of declaring on what terms the privileges of citizenship and naturalization should be extended to foreigners.)

(XVI) ''The assent of the Legislature of States shall be sufficient to invest future additional Powers in U. S. in C. ass. and shall bind the whole confederacy.''

[XVII] The said States of N. H. &c guarrantee [sic] mutually each other and their Rights against all other Powers and against all Rebellion &c.

[XVIII] (The next article provides for the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus—the trial by jury in all cases, criminal as well as civil—the freedom of the press and the prevention of religious tests as qualifications to offices of trust or emolument. …

There is also an authority to the national legislature, permanently to fix the seat of the general government, to secure to authors the exclusive right to their performances and discoveries, and to establish a Federal University.)

[XIX] The Articles of Confederation shall be inviolably observed unless altered as before directed, and the Union shall be perpetual.


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Rh numbers in thousandths of an inch, as shown in the accompanying table of wire-gauges; a change which will, I think, render the new scale easily intelligible and convenient for use. Rh


text: Index:Examiner, Journal of Political Economy, v2n20.djvu


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Report of a Committee of the Legislature of Virginia, on the Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over the case of Cohen v. Virginia, Jan. 9, 1821.

The committee of the house of delegates, to whom was referred so much of the governor's message as informs the general assembly, that the commonwealth of Virginia "is cited and admonished to be and appear at a supreme Court of the United States, to be holden at Washington, on the first Monday in February next, pursuant to a writ of error filed in the clerk's office of the quarterly session court of the borough of Norfolk, in a cause wherein Philip I. Cohn and Mendez I. Cohen are plaintiffs in error, and the said commonwealth is defendant, to show cause, if any there be, why the judgment rendered against the said Philip I. Cohen and Mendez I. Cohen, as in the said writ of error mentioned, should not be corrected, and why speedy justice should not be done to the parties in that behalf," respectfully submit to the consideration of the house of delegates the following report and resolutions:

By an act of congress, power has been given to the corporation of the city of Washington, to authorize the drawing of lotteries, for effecting the improvement of that city. The corporation of the city of Washington have accordingly established lotteries for that purpose; and lottery tickets have been vended and distributed within the jurisdictional limits of the commonwealth, in open defiance of a positive statute of her legislature, which forbade it.

The committee are unwilling to believe, that the congress of the United States, representing as they always should, the justice, the wisdom, and the interests of the people, could so far forget the sacred obligations under which they were convened to legislate, as to delegate to the corporation of the city of Washington, authority to vend and distribute these tickets through the union, in open defiance of the constituted authorities of the respective states; because, it is believed that such a delegation of authority is new and unheard of; supported by no experience; justified by no analogy; without example of our ancestors, or root in the constitution.

But, under present circumstances, when the right of the federal legislature to delegate this


text: Index:Examiner, Journal of Political Economy, v2n21.djvu


text: United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/3rd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 64


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Page:Examiner, Journal of Political Economy, v2n21.djvu/8

Report of a Committee of the Legislature of Virginia, on the Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over the case of Cohen v. Virginia, Jan. 9, 1821.

(CONCLUDED.)

Upon the whole, if the reasoning of the committee be correct, the conclusion is that no constitutional power resides in the federal authorities to make the state tribunals subordinate to, and controllable by, the supreme court of the United States.


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68 {| style="text-align:center;border:2px solid black;border-collapse:collapse"
 * + MR WHITWORTH'S PROPOSED DECIMAL SCALE.
 * colspan="3" style="border-bottom:1px solid black" | STANDARDS OF SIZE.
 * style="border:3px double black;border-width:0 3px;width:3em" |
 * colspan=8 style="border-bottom:1px solid black" | WIRE-GAUGE.
 * colspan=3 style="border-bottom:1px solid black" | Proposed Standards of Size for Taps and Dies.
 * style="border:3px double black;border-width:0 3px;width:3em" |
 * colspan=2 style="border-bottom:1px solid black" | Standard Wire-Gauge.
 * style="border:3px double black;border-width:0 3px;width:2em" |
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Birmingham Wire-Gauge.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Lancashire Wire-Gauge.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Metal of Plate-Gauge.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Needle Wire-Gauge.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Music Wire-Gauge.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | No. of Screw Threads per Inch.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Sizes.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | New Standard of Size. Decimals of an Inch.
 * style="border:3px double black;border-width:0 3px;width:3em" |
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Value of each No. in Decimals of and Inch.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | New Nos. of Gauge. Thousandths of and Inch.
 * style="border:3px double black;border-width:0 3px;width:2em" |
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Nos. of Gauge corresponding to New Nos.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Nos. of Gauge corresponding to New Nos.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Nos. of Gauge corresponding to New Nos.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Nos. of Gauge corresponding to New Nos.
 * style="border:1px solid black" | Old Nos. of Gauge corresponding to New Nos.
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text: United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/Lists and Tables/Table 5


text: The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix D


title: User:67.230.207.62


text:
User talk:Nous le peuple

--Eliyak T · C 18:10, 14 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nous le peuple


text:
User talk:Gideonlow

--Eliyak T · C 18:13, 14 December 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gideonlow


text:
Page:Language and the Study of Language.djvu/97

III.] of what is unnecessary. No language, indeed, in the mouths of a people not undergoing mental and moral impoverishment, gives up, upon the whole, any of its resources of expression, lets go aught of essential value for which it does not retain or provide an equivalent. But an item may be dropped here and there, which, upon reflection, seems a regrettable loss. And a language may, at least, become greatly altered by the excessive prevalence of the wearing-out processes, abandoning much which in other and kindred languages is retained and valued. It is the more necessary that we take notice of the disorganizing and destructive workings of this tendency, inasmuch as our English speech is, above all other cultivated tongues upon the face of the earth, the one in which they have brought about the most radical and sweeping changes.

It has already been remarked that, in the earliest traceable stage of growth of our language, the first person singular of its verbs was formed by an ending mi, of which the m in am is a relic, and the only one which we have left. In Latin, too, it remains in the present indicative of only two words, sum and inquam, and in Greek, in the comparatively small class of "verbs in mi," like tithēmi, didōmi. But the history of verbal conjugation can be better illustrated by considering the changes wrought upon another set of endings, those of the plural. At the same early period of its development, the tongue from which ours is descended had an elaborate series of terminations to denote the first, second, and third persons plural of its verbs. In the oldest form in which we can trace them—when, however, they had already acquired the character of true formative elements—they were masi, tasi, and nti. By origin, they were pronominal compounds, which had "grown on" to the end of the verbal root—that is to say, had first been habitually spoken in connection with the root, then attached to it, and finally integrated with it, in the manner already illustrated: they meant respectively, 'I and thou', i.e. 'we'; 'he and thou', i.e. 'ye'; and 'they'. Thus lagamasi, lagatasi, laganti, for instance, signified at first, in a manner patent to every speaker’s apprehension, 'lie-we', 'lie-ye', 'lie-they': it would


text:
Halbert and Hob

Here is a thing that happened. Like wild beasts whelped, for den, In a wild part of North England, there lived once two wild men Inhabiting one homestead, neither a hovel nor hut, Time out of mind their birthright: father and son, these—but— Such a son, such a father! Most wildness by degrees Softens away: yet, last of their line, the wildest and worst were these.

Criminals, then? Why, no: they did not murder and rob; But, give them a word, they returned a blow—old Halbert as young Hob: Harsh and fierce of word, rough and savage of deed, Hated or feared the more—who knows?—the genuine wild-beast breed.

Thus were they found by the few sparse folk of the country-side; But how fared each with other? E'en beasts couch, hide by hide, In a growling, grudged agreement: so, father and son aye curled The closelier up in their den because the last of their kind in the world.

Still, beast irks beast on occasion. One Christmas night of snow, Came father and son to words—such words! more cruel because the blow To crown each word was wanting, while taunt matched gibe, and curse Competed with oath in wager, like pastime in hell,—nay, worse: For pastime turned to earnest, as up there sprang at last The son at the throat of the father, seized him and held him fast.

"Out of this house you go!"—(there followed a hideous oath)— "This oven where now we bake, too hot to hold us both! If there's snow outside, there's coolness: out with you, bide a spell In the drift and save the sexton the charge of a parish shell!"

Now, the old trunk was tough, was solid as stump of oak Untouched at the core by a thousand years: much less had its seventy broke One whipcord nerve in the muscly mass from neck to shoulder-blade Of the mountainous man, whereon his child's rash hand like a feather weighed.

Nevertheless at once did the mammoth shut his eyes, Drop chin to breast, drop hands to sides, stand stiffened—arms and thighs All of a piece—struck mute, much as a sentry stands, Patient to take the enemy's fire: his captain so commands.

Whereat the son's wrath flew to fury at such sheer scorn Of his puny strength by the giant eld thus acting the babe new-born: And "Neither will this turn serve!" yelled he. "Out with you! Trundle, log! If you cannot tramp and trudge like a man, try all-fours like a dog!"

Still the old man stood mute. So, logwise,—down to floor Pulled from his fireside place, dragged on from hearth to door,— Was he pushed, a very log, staircase along, until A certain turn in the steps was reached, a yard from the house-door-sill.

Then the father opened eyes—each spark of their rage extinct,— Temples, late black, dead-blanched,—right-hand with left-hand linked,— He faced his son submissive; when slow the accents came, They were strangely mild though his son's rash hand on his neck lay all the same.

"Hob, on just such a night of a Christmas long ago, For such a cause, with such a gesture, did I drag—so— My father down thus far: but, softening here, I heard A voice in my heart, and stopped: you wait for an outer word.

"For your own sake, not mine, soften you too! Untrod Leave this last step we reach, nor brave the finger of God! I dared not pass its lifting: I did well. I nor blame Nor praise you. I stopped here: and, Hob, do you the same!"

Straightway the son relaxed his hold of the father's throat. They mounted, side by side, to the room again: no note Took either of each, no sign made each to either: last As first, in absolute silence, their Christmas-night they passed.

At dawn, the father sate on, dead, in the selfsame place, With an outburst blackening still the old bad fighting-face; But the son crouched all a-tremble like any lamb new-yeaned.

When he went to the burial, someone's staff he borrowed—tottered and leaned. But his lips were loose, not locked,—kept muttering, mumbling. "There! At his cursing and swearing!" the youngsters cried: but the elders thought "In prayer." A boy threw stones: he picked them up and stored them in his vest.

So tottered, muttered, mumbled he, till he died, perhaps found rest. "Is there a reason in nature for these hard hearts?" O Lear, That a reason out of nature must turn them soft, seems clear!

title: Halbert and Hob


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Page:Language and the Study of Language.djvu/98

76 have seemed as superfluous, in using these forms, to put the subject pronouns a second time before them, as it would seem to us now to say I did loved, for I loved. But the consciousness of the origin of the endings becoming dimmed, and their independent meaning lost from view, they were left to undergo the inevitable process of reduction to a simpler form. As they appear in the Latin, they have suffered a first process of abbreviation, by rejection of the final vowel of each: they have become mus, tis, and nt, as in legimus, legitis, legunt, 'we read, ye read, they read.' The ancient Gothic, the most primitive of the Germanic dialects, exhibits them in a yet succincter form, the first two having been cut down to their initial letter only; thus, ligam, ligith, ligand. Thus far, each ending has, through all its changes, preserved its identity, and is adequate to its office; however mutilated and corrupted in form, they are still well distinguished from one another, and sufficiently characteristic. But it was now coming to be usual to put the pronouns before the verb in speaking. At first added occasionally, for greater emphasis, they had, as the pronominal character of the endings faded altogether from memory, become customary attendants of the verb in all the persons—save as, in the third person, their place was taken by the more varied subjects which that person admits. Since, then, the expressed subjects were of themselves enough to indicate the person, distinctive endings were no longer needed. Under the influence of this consideration, the Anglo-Saxon had reduced all the plural terminations to one—ath in the present, on in the imperfect—saying we licgath, ge licgath, hi licgath. Although this last was, in its inception, much such a blunder as is now committed by the vulgar among ourselves who say I is, says I, and so on, it was adopted and ratified by the community, because it was only a carrying out of the legitimate tendency to neglect and eliminate distinctions which are practically unnecessary; and all the other Germanic dialects have done the same thing, in whole or in part. We, finally, have carried the process to its furthest possible limit, by casting off the suffixes altogether; and with them, in this particular verb, even the final consonant of the root: as we say I lie, so we also say we lie, ye lie, they lie.


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text:
User:Sasan700

 * About Me; Sasan700

title: User:Sasan700


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Page:Language and the Study of Language.djvu/99

III.] We do not feel that we have thus sacrificed aught of that distinctness of expression which should be aimed at in language; we lie is not less unambiguous than lagamasi; it is, in fact, a composition of equivalent elements in another mode; just as I did love is, in a different form, the same combination with I loved.

In the declension of our nouns we have effected a more thorough revolution, if that be possible, than in the conjugation of our verbs. The ancient tongue from which our English is the remote descendant inflected its nouns, substantive and adjective, in three numbers, each containing eight cases. Of the numbers, the Anglo-Saxon had almost wholly given up one, the dual, retaining only scanty relics of it in the pronouns; and, of the cases, it had in familiar use but four—the nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative—with traces of a fifth, the instrumental. The dual, indeed, on account of its little practical value, has disappeared in nearly all the modern languages of our family, its duties being assumed by the plural; and the prepositions have long been usurping the office of the case-endings, and rendering these dispensable. In English, now, all inflection of the adjective has gone out of use, and we have saved for our substantives only one of the cases, the genitive or possessive—to which a few of the pronouns add also an accusative or objective: thus, he, his, him, they, their, them, etc. Here, too, we should be loth to acknowledge that we have given up what the true purposes of language required us to keep, that we can speak our minds any less distinctly than our ancestors could, with all their apparatus of inflections.

A remarkable example of the total abandonment of a conspicuous department of grammatical structure, without any compensating substitution, is furnished in our treatment of the matter of gender. The grammatical distinction of words as masculine, feminine, or neuter, by differences of termination and differences of declension, had been from the very earliest period the practice of all the languages of the family to which the English belongs. It was applied not alone to names of objects actually possessed of sex, but to all, of whatever kind, even to intellectual and abstract terms; the whole language was the scene of an immense personification,


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 Book III. Rh


text:
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 434


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78 sexual qualities were attributed to everything in the world both of nature and of mind: often on the ground of conceptions and analogies which we find it excessively difficult to recognize and appreciate. This state of things still prevailed in the Anglo-Saxon: nouns were masculine, feminine, and neuter, according to the ancient tradition (for example, tôth, 'tooth,' was masculine; syn, 'sin,' was feminine; and wîf, 'wife, woman,' was neuter); and every adjective and adjective-pronoun was declined in the three genders, and made to agree with its noun in gender as well as in number and case, just as if it were Latin or Greek. But in that vast decay and ruin of grammatical forms which attended the elaboration of our modern English out of its Saxon and Norman elements, the distinctive suffixes of gender and declension have disappeared along with the rest; and with them has disappeared this whole scheme of artificial distinctions, of such immemorial antiquity and wide acceptance. It has completely passed from our memory and our conception, leaving not a trace behind; the few pronominal forms indicative of sex which we have saved—namely, he, she, it, his and him, her, and its—we use only according to the requirements of actual sex or its absence, or to help a poetic personification; and we think it very inconvenient, and even hardly fair, that, in learning French and German, we are called upon to burden ourselves with arbitrary and unpractical distinctions of grammatical gender.

The disposition to rid our words of whatever in them is superfluous, or can be spared without detriment to distinctness of expression, has led in our language, as in many others, to curious replacements of an earlier mode of indicating meaning by one of later date, and of inorganic origin—that is to say, not produced for the purpose to which it is applied. Thus we have a few plurals, of which men from man, feet from foot, and mice from mouse are familiar examples, which constitute noteworthy exceptions to our general rule for the formation of the plural number. Comparison of the older dialects soon shows us that the change of vowel in such words as these was originally an accident only; it was not significant, but euphonic; it was called out


text:
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 440 The writing called Malachim.

Rh


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III.] by the vowels of certain case-endings, which assimilated the vowels of the nouns to which these were attached. So little was the altered vowel in Anglo-Saxon a sign of plurality, that it was found also in one of the singular cases, while two of the plural cases exhibited the unchanged vowel of the theme. Man, for instance, was thus declined:

But the nominative and accusative singular exhibited one vowel, and the nominative and accusative plural another; and so this incidental difference of pronunciation between the forms of most frequent occurrence in the two numbers respectively came to appear before the popular apprehension as indicative of the distinction of number; its genesis was already long forgotten, as the case-endings which called it out had disappeared; and now it was fully invested with a new office—though only in a few rather arbitrarily selected cases: the word book, for example, has the same hereditary right to a plural beek, instead of books, as has foot to a plural feet, instead of foots. The case is quite the same as if, at present, because we pronounce nătional (with "short a") the adjective derived from nātion, we should come finally to neglect as unnecessary the suffix al, and should allow nātion and nătion to answer to one another as corresponding substantive and adjective.

A very similar case of substitution of distinctions originally accidental for others of formal and organic growth appears also in some of our verbs. From dælan, 'to deal,' the Anglo-Saxon formed, by the usual suffixes of conjugation, the imperfect dælde and the participle dæled. In our mouthing over of these forms to suit our ideas of convenient pronunciation, we have established a difference of vowel sound among them, saying I dēal, but he dĕalt and we have dĕalt. Here is an internal distinction, of euphonic


text:
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Zain Vau He Daleth Gimel Beth Aleph

Samech Nun Mem Lamed Caph Iod Teth Cheth

Tau Schin Res Kuph Zade Pe Ain

There is moreover another fahion amongt the Cabalits, formerly had in great eteem, but now it is o common, that it is placed amongt prophane things, and it is this. The twenty even Characters of the Hebrews may be divided into three Claes, whereof every one contains nine letters. The firt, viz. which are the eals or marks of imple numbers, and of intellectuall things, ditributed into nine orders of Angels. The econd hath the marks of tens, and of Celetial things, in the nine Orbs of the heavens. The third hath the other four letters, with the five final, by order, viz. which are marks of hundreds and inferior things, viz. four imple Elements, and of five kinds of perfect compounds. They do now and then ditribute


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80 origin, accompanying and auxiliary to the external distinction of conjugational endings. But, among the not inconsiderable number of verbs exhibiting this secondary change of vowel, there are a few, ending in d, in which we have elevated it to a primary rank, casting away the endings as inconvenient and unnecessary. Thus, where the Anglo-Saxon says lædan, lædde, læded, and rædan, rædde, ræded, we say I lēad, he lĕd, we have lĕd, and I rēad, he rĕad, we have rĕad—not even taking the trouble, in the latter instance, to vary the spelling to conform to the pronunciation.

Yet another analogous phenomenon has a much higher antiquity, wider prevalence, and greater importance, among the languages of the Germanic family: it is the change of radical vowel in what we usually call the "irregular" conjugation of verbs. The imperfect and participle of sing, for example, are distinguished from one another and from the present solely by a difference of vowel: thus, sing, sang, sung. Other verbs exhibit only a twofold change, their participle agreeing with either the present or the imperfect; thus, come, came, come; bind, bound, bound. That this mode of conjugation is Germanic only, proves that it arose after the separation of the Germanic languages from the greater family of which these form a branch. It is, in fact, like the other changes of vowel in declension and conjugation which we have just been considering, of euphonic origin, and it has acquired its present value and significance in comparatively modern times: indeed, the English alone has suffered it to reach its full development as a means of grammatical expression, by generally rejecting all aid from other sources than the variation of vowels in distinguishing the verbal forms from one another. In the Anglo-Saxon, it still wore in great measure a euphonic aspect: that language had its separate affixes for the infinitive and participle; it said singan, 'to sing,' and sungen, 'sung;' and its present, ic singe, and its preterit, ic sang, were distinguished in every person but one by terminations of different form: the varying scale of vowels, then, was only auxiliary to the sense, not essential—and it had, and still has, to a considerable extent, the


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III.] same value in the other Germanic dialects, ancient and modern. Moreover, there were other frequent changes of vowel in verbal conjugation, in other forms than these; the second and third persons singular present often differed from the first, and in a very large class of verbs the preterit plural differed from the singular. Thus, from helpan, 'to help', for example, we have ic helpe, 'I help'; he hylpth, 'he helpeth'; ic healp, 'I helped'; we hulpon, 'we helped'; and finally holpen, 'helped'—a fivefold play of vowel change. We, in our unconscious endeavour to utilize what was practically valuable in this condition of things, and to reject the rest from use, have retained and now admit, at most, a threefold variation, and have made it directly and independently significant, by casting away the needless terminations.

An interesting illustration of the way in which phonetic corruption sometimes creates a necessity for new forms, and leads to their production, is to be noted in connection with this subject. The Germanic preterits were originally formed by means of a reduplication, like the Greek and some of the Latin perfects; but the variation of a radical vowel had, to no small extent, supplanted it, assuming its office and causing its disappearance in the great majority of ancient verbs. Its recognition as the sign of past meaning, and its application to the formation of preterits from new verbs, were thus broken up and rendered ineffective. At the same time, the change of vowel was too irregular and seemingly capricious to supply its place in such uses; there was no single analogy presented before the minds of the language-makers, which could be securely and intelligently followed. Hence, for all derivative and denominative verbs—additions by which every language is constantly enriching its stores of verbal expression—a new kind of past tense had to be formed, by composition with the old reduplicated preterit did, as has been already explained. This being soon converted into a suffix, and the number of preterits formed by means of it increasing greatly and rapidly, it became by degrees the more common indicator of past action, and was


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20 All sweet voices are the echoes

That in varied tones reply

To that Voice which through the ages

Sings earth’s lullaby.

Oftentimes a sleepless infant

For a season frets and cries:

All at once an unseen finger

Curtains up the little eyes.

So the cradled child He nurses

God will tranquillise.

His the all-enfolding Presence;

Oh, what tutelage it brings


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Rh Yet lives there on the sacred page No record of a word from him: God’s Ark he guards, a silent sage, Pure as the Cherubim.

But sweeter than the sweetest word Recorded of the wise and good, His silence is a music heard On high, and understood.

Blessed are all who take their part Amid the carol-singing throng; Thrice blest the meditative heart Whose silence is a song


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, ye winds and sing, ye waters,

May the music of your song

Silence all the dark forebodings

That have plagued the world too long;

He who made your voices tuneful

Comes to right the wrong.

Warble on, ye feathered songsters,

Lift your praises loud and high,


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Rh Merry lark, and thrush, and blackbird,

In the grove and in the sky

Make your music, shame our dumbness,

Till we make reply.

Children's laughter is a music

Flowing from a hidden spring,

Which, though men misdoubt its virtue,

Well is worth discovering;

Slowly dies the heart that knows not

How to laugh and sing.

Hark, a cradle-song! the Singer

Is the Heart of God Most High;


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Mackinder, Halford John

MACKINDER, mạ-kĭn'dėr, Halford John, English author and educator: b. Gainsborough, 15 Feb. 1861. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford; in 1883 was president of the Oxford Union; Burdett-Coutts University scholar 1884; barrister, Inner Temple 1886; reader in geography, Oxford University 1887-1905; and from 1903-08 director of the London School of Economics and Political Science. He was leader of the Mount Kenya Expedition 1899; and has been member (Unionist) for the Camlachie division of Glasgow since 1910. He has written ‘Britain and the British Seas’ (1902); ‘The Rhine’ (1908); ‘Elementary Studies in Geography’ (12th ed., 1914); ‘Eight Lectures on India’ (1910), etc.