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230 expectation of accumulation through production, and that universal barbarism did not prevail. But now, under the railroad and its accompanying telegraph system, if anybody makes a pronunciamiento at Chihuahua, the Executive at the city of Mexico knows all the particulars immediately; within a few days a trained regiment or battalion is on the spot, and all concerned are so summarily treated that it is safe to say that another similar lesson will not soon be required in that locality. The new railroad constructions were, therefore, absolutely essential to Mexico as a condition for a healthy national life, and the country could well afford to make great sacrifices to obtain and extend them, apart from any considerations affecting trade development.

But the American railroads in Mexico have, in addition, already done much to arouse the most stubbornly conservative people on the face of the globe from their lethargy, and in a manner that no other instrumentality probably could have effected. When the locomotive first appeared, it is said that the people of whole villages fled affrighted from their habitations, or organized processions with religious emblems and holy water, to exorcise and repel the monster, During the first year of the experience of the "Mexican Central," armed guards also were considered an

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Rh essential accompaniment of every train, as had been the case on the "Vera Cruz Railroad" since its opening in 1873. But all this is now a matter of the past; and so impressed is the Government with the importance of keeping its railroad system safe and intact, that the Mexican Congress recently decreed instant execution, without any formal trial, to any one caught in the act of wrecking or robbing a train. That any improved methods of intercommunication between different people or countries—common roads, vessels, rail-roads, or vehicles, or the like—increase the production and exchange of commodities, is accepted as an economic axiom. But there could be no more striking and practical illustration of this law than a little recent experience on the line of the "Mexican National Railroad." The corn-crop, which is the main reliance of the people living along the present southern extension of this road for food, had for several years prior to 1885 failed by reason of drought; and, under ordinary circumstances, great suffering through starvation would inevitably have ensued. The natives, however, soon learned that with the rail-road had come a ready market, at from two and a half to three cents per pound, for the fiber known as ixtle the product of a species of agave, which grows in great abundance in the

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232 mountainous regions of their section of country, and which has recently come into extensive use in Europe and the United States for the manufacture of brushes, ladies' corsets, mats, cordage, etc. And so well have they improved their knowledge and opportunities, that the quantity of ixtle transported by the "Mexican National Railroad" has risen from 224,788 pounds in 1882 to 700,341 in 1883; to 3,498,407 in 1884; and 3,531,195 in the first seven months of 1885; while with the money proceeds the producers have been able to buy more corn from Texas than they would have obtained had their crops been successful, and have had, in addition, and probably for the first time in their lives, some surplus cash to expend for other purposes. What sort of things these poor Mexican people would buy if they could, was indicated to the writer by seeing in the hut of a laborer, on the line of the "Mexican Central Railroad"—a place destitute of almost every comfort, or article of furniture or convenience—a bright, new, small kerosene-lamp, than which nothing that fell under his observation in Mexico was more remarkable and interesting. Remarkable and interesting, because neither this man nor his father, possibly since the world to them began, had ever before known anything better than a blazing brand as a

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Rh method for illumination at night, and had never had either the knowledge, the desire, or the means of obtaining anything superior. But at last, through contact with and employment on the American railroad, the desire, the opportunity, the means to purchase, and the knowledge of the simple mechanism of the lamp, had come to this humble, isolated Mexican peasant; and, out of the germ of progress thus spontaneously, as it were, developed by the wayside, may come influences more potent for civilization and the elevation of humanity in Mexico than all that church and state have been able to effect within the last three centuries.

The projection and extension of the American system of railroads into Mexico commanded the almost universal approval of the people of the United States. It was regarded as a measure

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234 in the interest of civilization, and as likely to be mutually and largely beneficial to the people of both nations. But for the United States and Mexico to maintain their present tariff restrictions on the international trade of the two countries is to simply neutralize in a great degree the effect of the railways, and create conditions so antagonistic to the idea which a railway represents that the investment of a large amount of money in their construction by citizens of the United States, under existing circumstances, would seem almost akin to dementia. For it must be obvious that these restrictions produce exactly the same result as if, after the railways had been completed, an earthquake had thrown up a ridge directly across the lines, so steep and precipitous on the northern side as to add from thirty to forty per cent to the cost of all merchandise passing from the United States into Mexico, and so much more difficult of ascent on the southern side as to add some ninety per cent to the cost of all goods passing from Mexico into the United States. And, if such a physical calamity had actually occurred, the stockholders might reasonably doubt whether the lines were worth operating.

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Rh But, at the same time, if there are any who expect that trade would immediately and largely increase between the two countries if all tariff restrictions were mutually abolished, they are certain to be disappointed. A large proportion of the people of Mexico—possibly nine tenths—will for the present buy nothing imported, whether there is a high tariff or no tariff—not because they do not want to, but because they are so poor that they can not buy under any circumstances; while the limited wealthy class will buy what they want of foreign products, irrespective of high duties.

Again, the internal trade or distribution of merchandise in Mexico is, furthermore, largely in the hands of the Germans, who learn the language and conform to the customs and prejudices of the country much more readily than the Americans or English. They will work longer than an American or Englishman for a smaller price, and they naturally prefer the products of their own countries; and German manufactures have been especially popular, "because they are as cheap as they are poor"; and the advantage of paying more for what will last longer is something very difficult to impress upon the ordinary Mexican.

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236 In fact, cheapness in the eyes of the German merchant is the first essential in respect to the merchandise in which he proposes to deal, quality being regarded as of secondary importance.

Another matter which practically works against the extension of trade with the United States is, that American houses will not sell their goods on the long credits demanded by Mexican purchasers. A gentleman conversant, through long residence in Mexico, thus writes in respect to this matter: "It is a serious mistake to look upon Mexican credit as something to be let alone. I can say with confidence, after diligent investigation, that mercantile credit in Mexico will average up as satisfactory as in the United States. Among the large mercantile houses in the interior of Mexico, as well as the importers, and the large sugar, grain, cotton, and cattle raisers, the moral sense in a square business dealing is as keen and as just and responsible as among the general run of customers in the United States. They are slow, but pay their bills, make few business compromises, and still fewer failures. From actual

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Rh that the "Mexican Central Railroad" now carries considerable freight that comes to New York by European steamers, and is thence transported, in bond, by rail directly through to Mexico; to which it may be added that some $300,000 of this freight, during the past year, is understood to have been English agricultural machinery, which has been bought in preference to the world-wide famous American farm machinery and implements, and carried past, as it were, the very doors of the American competing factories!

For such a singular result there are two explanations. One is, that not only in Mexico, but in all the Central and South American countries, the English and the German merchants take special pains, not only to adapt their merchandise to the peculiar tastes bf the people with whom they wish to deal, but also to cultivate their good-will. The representatives of the United States, as a general rule, do neither.

A quick witted American merchant, who has had abundant opportunities for observation in Central and South America, recently wrote to the author in respect to this matter as follows: "My experiences lead me to the conclusion that Americans are not fitted for doing an export trade in foreign countries, except, may be, English-speaking countries. The characteristic of our people to

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240 carry with them everywhere their home habits, customs, ideas, affinities, etc., dominates every movement they make in foreign countries, and we utterly refuse to consider ourselves other than proprietors of the house where we are only the guests. Such an attitude as this blocks the way at once to successful mercantile movements on our part, and gives rise to prejudice and aversion on the part of the people whose patronage we want." Sir Spencer St. John, the British minister in Mexico, in a recent (1885) report to Lord Rosebury, British Secretary of Foreign Affairs, also says: "In the course of a very long experience I have noted that the average English commercial man of the present day is unfit to compete with the thrifty and industrious German. The former is bent on the pursuit of pleasure, while the latter gives himself no leisure until his future is assured. In fact, the Germans are our most active competitors in every mercantile transaction. There can be no doubt that up to the present time the English commercial community have shown the utmost apathy and indifference to the trade of this country, and have left to the Germans, French, and Spaniards the management of a commerce a fair share of which would fall to them if they would show the same qualities of thrift and industry which have distinguished their competitors."

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Rh Another explanation is that our European competitors in foreign trade recognize at the outset, and at all times, that trade, especially when involving radical innovations on old-time precedents and usages, is not of spontaneous growth, but has got to be cultivated; that it is a system in which product is to be given for product, and service for service, and therefore, from its very nature, can not be a "one-sided business." Accordingly, the German and English merchants in Mexico take in exchange for such wares as they desire to sell, and at a certain price, whatever the Mexicans have to offer of their products. The American merchant, on the other hand, finding that the commercial policy of his country is based on the assumption that such a system of exchanges is not desirable, and that its existing laws make reciprocal trade difficult, does not seem even to attempt it. And in connection with this subject it may be stated, that during recent years German merchants have bought merchandise in New York, which American manufacturers have acquired particular advantages in producing, shipped the same to Hamburg, and, after re-exporting to Mexico, sold them at cheaper rates than any American engaged in direct trade could afford to offer! How such a result, which on its face seems so mysterious and paradoxical, is accomplished, may

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242 be best explained by example. Thus, the German, who has become thoroughly conversant with Mexican methods of doing business, could sell say $3,000 worth of American cottons, furniture, sewing-machines, and the like, at cost, or possibly even less than cost, because his system of selling is to exchange them for $3,000 worth of Mexican products, which he can afterward sell, it may be, at $5,000, or a sum which would give him a fair return for all his risks and for long credits, and also reimburse him for all the expenses of extended transportation. And the Mexicans are contented with their share of the transaction, because nothing better is offered to them. Hence also an explanation of what may seem to be paradoxical: that although the import and export trade of the United States with Mexico is larger than that of any other nation, there are comparatively few American dealers or distributors of merchandise permanently established in Mexico. Thus, for example, while the consumption of American imports in the district of Guaymas, on the Pacific coast of Mexico, was for the year 1885 (according to consular returns) over sixty-five per cent of the total importations, or $1,490,450 out of an aggregate of $2,041,940, there were at the same time but three American importing mercantile firms whose sales amounted to $100,000 per annum—the great bulk of

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Rh the business being in the hands of Mexican, German, and Spanish houses. As showing also how the trade in this district has increased within recent years to the benefit of the United States, it may be also mentioned that, while in 1870 the imports from the United States were only $203,600, out of a total of $1,003,600, they were, for 1885 (as above stated), $1,490,450, out of a total of $2,041,940. It is also the judgment of those well qualified to express an opinion, that, as one effect of the recent discourteous refusal of the United States to negotiate a commercial reciprocity treaty, the number of American firms or agencies doing business permanently in Mexico will notably diminish.

That the ratification of the contemplated treaty for commercial reciprocity between the United States and Mexico would have increased to some extent, and perhaps considerably, the volume of American exports, can not be doubted. Thus, for example, there are no articles of which Mexico stands in greater need than wagons and carts, barbed fence-wire, and petroleum and its derivatives for warming and lighting. In respect to the two first named, the existing Mexican tariff is almost prohibitory, and, as a consequence, it is asserted that there is not a respectable vehicle in any of the frontier towns of Mexico; and no

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244 means, in the absence of wood, of supplying a pressing and increasing need for fencing on the great haciendas; while the cost of all petroleum products is so much enhanced as to greatly restrict their consumption for illumination and almost entirely preclude their use for warming, and this in a country destitute in great part of any cheap natural supply of either wood or coal. The removal of all duties on the import of merely these few articles into Mexico, as was provided in the proposed treaty, and their consequent very great cheapening, would therefore have been a boon to the people of Mexico, which they would not have failed to take advantage of to the utmost extent of their ability; and, for meeting any demand thus created, the manufacturers of the United States would have nothing to fear from any foreign competitors.

On the other hand, the arguments that have thus far proved most potent in preventing the ratification of such a treaty, on the part of the United States, have been based on the assumption that the free importation of Mexican raw sugars and unmanufactured tobacco would prove injurious to the American sugar and tobacco interests. But the entire fallacy, or rather utter absurdity, of such assumptions would seem to be demonstrated: First, in respect to sugar, by the

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Rh fact that, with unrefined sugar selling in Mexico for a much higher price (from twelve to twenty-four cents retail) than the same article in the United States, there have not yet been sufficient inducements for them to fully supply the domestic demand of the country for sugar from its undoubtedly great natural resources—five and a half dollars’ worth of sugar having been exported from the United States into Mexico, in 1883, for every one dollar's worth imported during the same year from Mexico into the United States; and, secondly in respect to tobacco, by the testimony, based on careful investigation, of some of the best manufacturing authorities in the United States, that, while the best grades of tobacco for cigar purposes can now be raised in the United States at from ten to fifteen cents per pound, the cost of Mexican tobacco of a corresponding quality ranges from twenty-five to fifty cents per pound.

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246 It is difficult to see, therefore, what valid objections from merely trade considerations can be offered to the consummation of such a measure on the part of the United States, or to affirm which of the two countries would be the greatest gainer from the adoption of such a policy. Nay, more, it would be difficult for any one to show wherein anything of commercial or industrial disadvantage could accrue to the United States, even if it were to allow every domestic product of Mexico to be imported into her territory free of all import taxes or restrictions—articles subject to internal revenue taxes in the United States being manifestly excepted—without asking any like concessions from Mexico in return. Such a proposition may at first seem preposterous, but let us reason a little about it. In the first place, it is exactly the policy which Great Britain now offers to Mexico. Can the United States afford to bid less for the trade of the American Continent than her great commercial rival?

Again, Mexico wants, or is likely to want, everything which the United States especially desires to sell, and the only drawback to a great extension of trade between the two countries is the lack of ability on the part of Mexico to pay for what she wants. And this inability at the present time is very great. Apart from the precious

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Rh metals, the quantity and value of domestic merchandise which Mexico can export to pay for such foreign products as she may desire, as already pointed out, are comparatively small, and consist almost exclusively of the most crude natural products. For the year 1883 nearly eleven twelfths of all her exports (other than the precious metals) consisted of the ixtle and heniquen fibers; woods, mainly dye and ornamental; coffee, hides and skins, vanilla, horse-hair, catechu, dye-stuffs (indigo, orchil, and cochineal), and sarsaparilla. What Mexico would sell to the United States, if all tariff restrictions were removed from her exports, would be such crude materials as have been specified—all articles of prime necessity to the American manufacturer. Reduced to terms of labor, the exchanges would substantially be the product of twelve hours' hand-labor in Mexico for one hour's labor with machinery in the United States.

The Committee of Ways and Means of the Forty-ninth United States Congress (first session) reported, however, adversely to the ratification of the proposed commercial treaty with Mexico, and in consequence of this action, and its sanction by the United States House of Representatives, all negotiations in respect to the treaty have terminated. The reasons presented as having led

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248 the committee (almost unanimously) to these conclusions were mainly four: First, because Mexico is so poor; second, because "the American citizen living in Mexico, and pursuing the peaceful avocations of industry and commerce, is without adequate protection to life and property"; third, because "permanent and desirable commercial relations with a government and people so estranged from us in sentiment are without promise of substantial and successful results"; and, fourth, because the trade which the United States would offer to Mexico under the treaty would be more valuable than the corresponding trade which Mexico would offer to the United States.

The first of these reasons is economic; the second political; the third, having due regard to its meaning, may be well termed "Mongolian"; while the fourth is simply absurd. Reviewing them briefly and in order, it may be said, in respect to the first that poor countries are the very ones with which it is especially desirable that the United States should cultivate trade; for, if the volume of trade be small, the profit of such trade is large—as is always the case where the results of rude or hand labor are exchanged for machinery product. And it is in virtue of the carrying out of this policy—i. e., trading with ruder and even barbarous nations—that Great

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Rh Britain has, more than from almost any other one cause, attained her present commercial supremacy. Again, if the facts constituting the basis for the second reason are as alleged, commercial isolation and restriction are no remedy for them. Commercial intimacy between nations is always productive of political good-fellowship, as isolation and restriction are of enmity; and for promoting amity with Mexico the modern drummer is likely to prove, for the present, a far better missionary than either the diplomatist or the soldier; and, as for the third, one might think that a precedent had been borrowed by the committee from China, where commercial intercourse with the United States itself, in common with Europe, was, until very recently, combated on the ground that the inhabitants of these countries were "foreign devils," with whom the enlightened Chinese ought not to be brought in contact.

In respect to the fourth reason, the language of the report of the committee reads as follows: "We open to Mexico a trade with sixty million people. We receive, in return, the advantage of trading, to a limited extent, with a comparatively small, heterogeneous population of ten million. We offer them a trade more valuable than that of any other nation of the globe."

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250 To this it may be rejoined that the ratification of a commercial treaty between any two countries does not involve, or carry with it, the slightest obligation on the part of the people of such countries to trade. That is a matter in which private self-interest is exclusively determinate, and government, except through the exercise of absolute and despotic power, absolutely powerless. AH that a free government can legitimately effect, in ratifying a commercial treaty of reciprocity with another country, is to remove obstacles which have come to stand in the way of the people of the two contracting countries following their own natural instincts and desires for bettering their material condition. Trade, as respects individuals and nations alike, can not long be continued unless it is mutually advantageous to all that are parties to it; and there is no possible contingency in which the people of Mexico would profit more, in the sense of satisfying their wants and desires, from trading with the United States, than the people of the United States would profit from trading with Mexico, unless the American people have less shrewdness and discernment in respect to trade than the Mexicans, and are not likely to profit by experience. Were an individual merchant, having warehouses filled to overflowing with all manner

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Rh of cheap and desirable goods, and greatly desirous of custom, to adopt the policy which the committee assumed to be desirable in respect to nations similarly situated, he would advertise that he did not consider it expedient to trade with people living in small towns, or comparatively poor districts, irrespective of their means of payment, or the profits that might accrue on the transactions. It has also been forcibly pointed out, by Hon. Abram Hewitt (in a minority report in favor of the ratification of the treaty), that Mexico, being rudely rebuffed in her desire to strengthen her commercial relations with the United States, may, while preserving its political autonomy, nevertheless contract such trade relations with England or Germany as to practically occupy the position of a colony to one or both of these countries, so far as its trade and commerce are concerned; "and that hence, in rejecting the Mexican reciprocity treaty, the United States practically rejects the Monroe doctrine, by turning that country, with its resources and possibilities of development," over to some European nationality.

One other point, bearing on this subject, may be also worthy of consideration by no small part of the American people. Twenty years ago, the attempt to advocate or expound any form of

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252 religious belief in Mexico other and different from that held by the Roman Catholic Church would have been attended with imminent deadly peril; and, under such circumstances, Protestantism had not attained any considerable foothold in that country. Then, the permission to send missionaries freely and safely into Mexico would have been regarded by the various Protestant sects of the United States as a great privilege, and the prospect of obtaining it would undoubtedly have seemed to them to warrant the putting forth of great effort, the large expenditure of money, and an earnest appeal to their Government for good offices and friendly intervention. But now that the Mexican Government, without foreign intervention or agency, and at great risk and cost to itself, has proclaimed, established, and maintained, through all its territory, the great principle of freedom of religious belief, utterance, and worship for all—and this valued privilege has come to the Protestant sects in the United States without effort and without cost—they regard the matter with indifference; do not seem to even care to acquaint themselves with the facts in the case; and exhibit no evidence of reciprocal kindly feeling or sympathy toward Mexico for her enlightened and liberal policy. It would not, therefore, be surprising, but rather in accord

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Rh with ordinary human nature, if, hereafter, when the representatives of the American Protestant churches visit Mexico, preaching the universal brotherhood of man, and love and charity to one's neighbors, and, in virtue of their character as missionaries, claiming (at least indirectly) a higher religious culture and elevation for their countrymen than that of the Mexicans, if the latter should turn round and satirically ask how all such professions comport with the recent (1886) narrow, extraordinary, and almost insulting assertion of the House of Representatives of the United States (through the indorsement of the report of their committee), "that to speak of permanent and desirable commercial relations" with the Government and people of Mexico "is without hope of success or promise of substantial and permanent results."

Such, then, in conclusion, are the views of the writer respecting Mexico, its Government, and its people, and the present and future relations of the United States to Mexico. If he has offered anything, in the way of fact or argument, which may induce a belief, by the people of the former, that the subject is worthy of a larger

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10 that he produced the "Gates of Paradise," "America," "Visions of the Daughters of Albion," "Europe: a Prophecy," the "Book of Urizen," the "Song of Los," "Ahania," the "Four Zoas," and the plates for Stedman's "Narrative of a Five Years' Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam," and for Young's "Night Thoughts." And here he saw the vision of the "Ancient of Days" and his one ghost: "When talking on the subject of ghosts, he was wont to say they did not appear much to imaginativeimen, but only to common minds, who did not see the finer spirits. A ghost was a thing seen by the gross bodily eye, a vision by the mental. 'Did you ever see a ghost?' asked a friend. 'Never but once,' was the reply. And it befel thus. Standing one evening at the garden-doorin Lambeth, and chancing to look up, he saw a horrible grim figure, 'scaly, speckled, very awful,' stalking downstairs towards him. More frightened than ever before or after, he took to his heels and ran out of the house." In September, 1800, Blake and his wife and sister were at Felpham, near Bognor, neighbours of William Hayley. Flaxman had introduced him to this man, Cowper's friend and biographer, and a poet whom people visiting Bognor went out of their way to see, "as if he had been a Wordsworth." Blake was to illustrate his ballads and the additional letters to his life of Cowper, and to engrave Maria Flaxman's designs for his "Triumphs of Temper." What is more important, Blake here conceived, and possibly wrote, his "Milton" and "Jerusalem," and certain shorter poems. He had at first high spirits at Felpham. Being now away from all his friends, he wrote a few letters; but it would be


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Portal talk:India

Tamil Nadu and CC BY-SA
I'm putting together an item for this week's Signpost; I noticed that the Indian state of Tamil Nadu has recently decreed that government works should be released under the CC BY-SA license: https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikimediaindia-l/2016-August/012649.html

I'm looking for a comment from one or two Wikisource editors, who can comment on what this might mean for Wikisource. Just a simple sentence on the kind of information that might make its way onto Wikisource pages, and what volunteers might do with it (like translation, for instance) would be very helpful.

If anybody actually know more about this decree, that would be helpful too, of course. Please contact me by email, via this form, if you can comment, for attribution. Pinging a few who have worked on Indian law in the past:     -Pete (talk) 20:35, 16 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Pete, I have replied to an email from Tony regarding this. Please let me know if you need more info. --Ravidreams (talk) 05:41, 17 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Hi, thank you, I saw your reply after posting this message. It looked excellent to me. is taking the lead on this story, I'm just helping him gather some comments; I'd imagine that a comment or two from an independent Wikisource editor might supplement your more official/informed nicely, but it will be his call. By the way, back in 2008 I worked to pass a law putting government works into the public domain in my home state of Oregon; your comments about taking a patient, long-term approach are very resonant, it was very difficult work, even with strong allies. Kudos! (We were, however, more successful in getting the Oregon legislature to stop claiming copyright over the text of the laws themselves.) -Pete (talk) 07:44, 17 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Hi, good to know about the work you did in Oregon. Getting the Oregon legislature to stop claiming copyright over the text of the laws themselves is an interesting read and useful reference. Thanks, again.--Ravidreams (talk) 09:08, 17 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Pinging, and  from | CIS A2K -- Hargup (talk) 11:42, 17 August 2016 (UTC)
 * --Info-farmer (talk) 15:48, 17 August 2016 (UTC)
 * This is a great news. I hope other govts also follow suite. Some departments of Govt of Karnataka, like Kannada & Culture and DSERT (Education) have realised the importance of open knowledge. Dept of Kannada and Culture has re-released about 122 books published by it under CC. University of Mysore re-released the entire 14 volumes of the Kannada Encyclopedia under CC. -Pavanaja (talk) 09:37, 18 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Great points, . Didn't have time to work that into the main story, which has now been published -- but I'm sure our readers would appreciate seeing that in the comment thread. Could you mention it there? w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2016-08-18/News_and_notes -Pete (talk) 18:04, 18 August 2016 (UTC)

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Deletion request opened for Indonesian Civil Code
Please take a look at this deletion request. This DR puts also the PD-IndonesianGov tag in question in regard to English translations of Indonesian law texts. Comments are welcome. --AFBorchert (talk) 10:31, 16 March 2012 (UTC)

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hale, George Ellery

HALE, GEORGE ELLERY (1868-), American astronomer, was born at Chicago, Ill., June 29 1868. He studied at the Harvard College Observatory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (B.S. 1890). He was director of the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory, in Chicago, from 1890 to 1896. From 1892 to 1905 he was at the university of Chicago as associate professor of astrophysics, as professor (from 1897), and as director of the Yerkes Observatory (after 1895). In 1904 he became director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory (Cal.) of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. He invented the spectroheliograph first used in 1892 for photographing solar prominences and won an international reputation for his solar and stellar spectroscopic work. He was awarded the Janssen medal by the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1894, the Rumford medal by the American Academy in 1902, the Draper medal in 1903, a gold medal by the Royal Astronomical Society in 1904, the Bruce medal by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1916, and the Janssen medal by the Astronomical Society of France in 1917. From 1892 to 1895 he was an editor of Astronomy and Astrophysics and thereafter of The Astrophysical Journal. He was the author of The Study of Stellar Evolution (1908) and Ten Years' Work of a Mountain Observatory (1915), besides numerous papers in the Contributions from the Mount Wilson

Observatory and other scientific publications. He was a member of many learned societies at home and abroad.


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36 the appearance which has so alarmed you today."

As soon as the father had given the worm to Robin, he was preparing to depart for another, but, to his surprise, all the rest of the nestlings begged him to stay, declaring they had rather go without their meal, on condition he would but remain at home and take care of them. "Stay at home and take care of you!" said he; "why, is that more necessary now than usual?" The mother then related the strange occurrence which had occasioned this request. "Nonsense!" said he; "a monster! great eyes! large mouth! long beak! I don't understand such stuff. Besides, as it did them no harm, why are they to be in such terror now it is gone?" "Don't be angry, dear father," said Pecksy, "for it was very frightful indeed." "Well," said he, "I will fly all around the orchard, and perhaps I may meet this monster." "Oh, it will eat you up! it will eat you up!" said Flapsy. "Never fear," said he; and away he flew.

The mother then again attempted to calm them, but all in vain; their fears were now redoubled for their father's safety; however, to their great joy, he soon returned. "Well," said he, "I have seen this monster." The little ones then clung to

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 Rh their mother, fearing the dreadful creature was just at hand.

"What, afraid again?" cried he; "a parcel of stout hearts I have in my nest, truly! Why, when you fly about in the world, you will in all probability see hundreds of such monsters, as you call them, unless you choose to confine yourselves to a retired life; nay, even in woods and groves you will be liable to meet some of them, and those of the most mischievous kind." "I begin to comprehend," said the mother, "that these dear nestlings have seen the face of a man." "Even so," replied her mate; "it is a man, no other than our friend the gardener, who has so alarmed them."

"A man!" cried Dicky; "was that frightful thing a man?" "Nothing more, I assure you," answered his father, "and a good man too, I have reason to believe; for he is very careful not to frighten your mother and me when we are picking up worms, and has frequently thrown crumbs to us when he was eating his breakfast." "And does he live in this garden?" said Flapsy. "He works here very often," replied her father, "but is frequently absent." "Oh, then," cried she, "pray take us abroad when he is away, for indeed I cannot bear to see him." "You are a little simpleton," said the father, "and if you

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38 do not endeavour to get more resolution, I will leave you in the nest by yourself when I am teaching your brothers and sister to fly and peck; and what will you do then? for you must not expect we shall go from them to bring you food."

Flapsy, fearful that her father would be quite angry, promised to follow his direction in every respect; and the rest, animated by his discourse, began to recover their spirits.

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hammann, Otto

HAMMANN, OTTO (1852-), German journalist and Foreign Office official, born Jan. 23 1852 at Blankenhain. He was engaged in journalism from 1877 to 1893 and was appointed, in 1894, Director of the Press Section of the German Foreign Office, a post which he continued to hold until 1916. Hammann was the trusted adviser of Prince Bülow, who always kept an attentive eye upon public opinion as reflected or created in the press. He had personally played a leading part in the defensive campaign of the Imperial Chancellor, Count Caprivi, and the Foreign Secretary, Baron Marshall von Bieberstein, in the early 'nineties, against the Bismarckian fronde. His business was to inspire the German and, as far as possible, the foreign press in a sense favourable to German policy and above all to obtain full and accurate information with regard to the personality and circumstances of journalists. His position enabled him to acquire a great deal of exclusive information with regard to the more secret ways of German policy and he embodied a considerable portion of what he knew in the three volumes of reminiscences which he published after the Revolution, Der neue Kurs, Erinnerungen (1918); Zur Vorgeschichte des Weltkriegs and Um den Kaiser, Erinnerungen aus den Jahren 1906-1909 (1919).


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 {| class="wikitable" style="borders:1px solid black"|

Of.

Magical Elements of Peter de

 * Abano.

.

The of.

Arbatel of.

 * }


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Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy

 * Of Geomancy - Attributed to Henry Cornelius Agrippa
 * Of Occult Philosophy, Of Magical Ceremonies: The Fourth Book - Attributed to Henry Cornelius Agrippa
 * Heptameron: or, Magical Elements attributed to Peter de Abano (see also, Wikipedia entry on Peter de Abano)
 * Isagoge: An Introductory Discourse on the nature of such Spirits as are exercised in the sublunary Bounds; their Original, Names, Offices, Illusions, Powers, Prophecies, Miracles; and how they may be expelled and driven away - attributed to Georg Pictorius Villinganus
 * Of Astronomical Geomancy - attributed to Gerard Cremonensis (see also, Wikipedia entry Gerard Cremonensis)
 * Arbatel of Magick author unknown (see also, Wikipedia article on the Arbatel of Magick)

title: Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hammarskjöld, Hjalmar

HAMMARSKJÖLD, HJALMAR (1862-), Swedish statesman, was born in 1862, and educated at Upsala University, where he became professor of civil law. He gradually established his reputation as a jurist, and took a prominent part in national politics. In 1901 he joined von Otter's Ministry, and was Minister of Justice till it resigned in 1902. In the latter year he was elected president of the Göta High Court. In 1905 he joined Lundeberg's Government, formed after the dissolution of the union with Norway, as Minister of Education. He was one of Sweden's four representatives in the negotiations with Norway at Karlstad. After the resignation of the Lundeberg Government he became, in Nov. 1905, Swedish Minister in Copenhagen, and in 1907 governor (landshövding) of the province (län) of Upsala. He had often acted meanwhile as expert in constitutional law on behalf both of Sweden and of other countries. He was Swedish delegate at the international conference in Paris with regard to literary copyright in 1896, and at the Hague conferences in regard to private international law in 1900 and 1904. From 1904 he was Swedish member of the Hague International Board of Arbitration, and in 1907 he was Sweden's leading delegate to the Hague Peace Conference. In 1908 he was appointed member of the Board of Arbitration in regard to the question of the sea boundary between Sweden and Norway, and in the same year he acted as president of the Franco-German Board of Arbitration in regard to the Casablanca affair. He was chairman of the Swedish committee for drafting the Swedish-German treaty of commerce in 1910-1; Swedish delegate at the Spitzbergen conferences of 1910 and 1912; in 1909 juridical adviser in the Swedish-Norwegian Board of Arbitration in regard to the right of Swedish Laplanders to graze their reindeer in

Norway; and in 1913 president of the Franco-Italian Board of Arbitration for the solution of certain freight disputes. In Feb. 1914 he succeeded Staaff as prime minister, retaining this post during the World War until 1917.


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Bill Bailey, Won't You Please Come Home?

On one summer's day Sun was shining fine, The lady love of old Bill Bailey was hanging clothes on de line In her back yard, and weeping hard; She married a B. and O. brakeman, Dat took and throw'd her down, Bellering like a prune-fed calf, wid a big gang hanging 'round; And to dat crowd, She yelled out loud:

Won't you come home, Bill Bailey, won't you come home? She moans de whole day long; I'll do de cooking, darling, I'll pay de rent; I knows I've done you wrong; 'Member dat rainy eve dat I drove you out, Wid nothing but a fine tooth comb? I knows I'se to blame; well, ain't dat a shame? Bill Bailey, won't you please come home?

Bill drove by dat door, In an automobile, A great big diamond, coach and footman, hear dat big wench squeal: "He's all alone," I heard her groan; She hollered thro' that door, "Bill Bailey, is you sore? Stop a minute; won't you listen to me? Won't I see you no more?" Bill winked his eye, As he heard her cry:

Won't you come home, Bill Bailey, won't you come home? She moans de whole day long; I'll do de cooking, darling, I'll pay de rent; I knows I've done you wrong; 'Member dat rainy eve dat I drove you out, Wid nothing but a fine tooth comb? I knows I'se to blame; well, ain't dat a shame? Bill Bailey, won't you please come home?


text: Talk:Bill Bailey, Won't You Please Come Home?


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Portal talk:Kosovo

Replying to jan.kamenicek from this article's portal: giving proper reply here on kosovo's "independence"
Article needs to point out that kosovo is in a state of limbo as not all United Nations approved its "independence," thus they do not enjoy all the rights of UN and elsewhere, especially north kosovo as it is almost 100% serbian and christian. 181.228.200.155 05:10, 15 March 2023 (UTC)

 * A portal is not an article. A portal is a list of works that we host (or intend to host) on the topic. The commentary you suggest belongs on the linked Wikipedia page. This is one of the key differences between Wikisource and Wikipedia. Beeswaxcandle (talk) 05:29, 15 March 2023 (UTC)

 * correct statement is: partially recognized nation of kosovo...

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Author:Hughie Cannon

Songs

 * Bill Bailey, Won't You Please Come Home? (1902)

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Calls JDentry, but with a leading (x-large) asterisk.

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hankow

HANKOW, China (see 12.919). At the mouth of the Han river a great commercial entrepôt is provided for China by the three large cities, Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang, at the point where the Han flows into the Yangtsze. Prior to the commencement of disorder in 1911 the development of railway communications in the interior of China had largely increased the wealth and importance of this great distributing centre. Hankow, on the N. bank of the Yangtsze, is the terminus of the completed Peking-Hankow trunk line, and Wuchang, on the S. bank, the terminus of the line, in process of construction, from Canton. But during the turmoil of the revolution, and on more than one occasion thereafter, Hankow suffered materially because of its strategical importance to the contending factions. On Nov. 1 1911 two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire as the result of a bombardment by the imperialists; nevertheless, the population of the three cities united was reckoned by the Maritime Customs in 1916 at 1,321,280 and in 1920 at about 1,500,000.

(J. O. P. B.)

title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hankow


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hann, Julius von

HANN, JULIUS VON (1839-1921), Austrian meteorologist, was born at Linz, Upper Austria, March 23 1839, and was educated at the Gymnasium of Kremünster and afterwards at Vienna. From 1865 to 1868 he was master at the Oberrealschule at Linz, and in 1865 was appointed editor of the Zeitschrift für Meteorologie. In 1877 he became director of the Meteorologische Zentralanstalt and professor of meteorology at the university of Vienna. In 1897 he was appointed professor at Graz, but in 1900 returned to Vienna as professor of cosmical physics. His meteorological researches were of the greatest value and importance (see 18.266, 286). His published works include Allgemeine Erdkunde (with F. von Hochstetter and A. Pokorny, 1872; 5th ed. 1896); Handbuch der Klimatologie (1883; latest ed. 1908); and Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (1901; latest ed. 1914), besides numerous meteorological papers contributed to the Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Vienna. Dr. Hann was in 1912 made a foreign knight of the Prussian Ordre Pour le Mérite. He celebrated the jubilee of his doctorate in 1918, and died at Vienna Oct. 1 1921.


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Change icon
I think an icon like File:Incomplete-document.svg (left) would be more suitable than the current file, which is a "rewrite" icon. Inductiveload— talk/contribs  01:07, 6 December 2010 (UTC)
 * I'm fine with changing it. —Spangineer (háblame) 22:03, 6 December 2010 (UTC)

Adding info to incomplete tag
The thought occurred to me that it would be prudent to add a couple lines to the inc. tag description stating the fact that along with the work being incomplete, it might also contain errors from the proofreading and/or validation process; and that even when a work is marked "complete" (i.e., fully validated), there may still be errors between what we produce here and the original source text. You may also wish to add a link somewhere in the template directing the editor/reader to a page that directs them to ways in which they can either link to the Index for the particular source for reference/comparison, or click on the page numbers in the Mainspace to link to the specific page that may be in question. Londonjackbooks (talk) 19:55, 14 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I agree with the notion, but I'm not sure the "incomplete" template is the right place -- because the general disclaimer applies even to "complete" texts. Do you still think this needs work ? I feel that more clarity on this point, with a readily accessible link to the complete source document (and perhaps suggestions on how to view a DjVU file) would be worthwhile. -Pete (talk) 18:29, 8 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Hello :) Wow, this was some time ago. Let me review it and try to think where I was "at" at the time of writing and whether it still makes sense to me or not. I'll get back with you! Thanks, Londonjackbooks (talk) 18:51, 9 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Okay. I may have been being reactive at the time. Probably came across some work tagged as incomplete and took issue with the quality. I think "Incomplete" is sufficient to imply errors may be present. It may be redundant to link to the Index from the template, as the template is placed in the Main where there is already an avenue to the Index—which may not be obvious to a new editor, but hopefully new editors will alight on some beginner help page and familiarize themselves with the basics first... Further thoughts? Hope all is well... Londonjackbooks (talk) 19:38, 9 May 2019 (UTC)

"...without a source" category
This template incorrectly adds the "incomplete texts without a source" (emphasis mine) category to this work. I'm not sure whether this is an occasional glitch, or something that gets added to all texts marked "incomplete" (I'm not great at reading complex template code). Any ideas how this can be fixed? -Pete (talk) 18:31, 8 May 2019 (UTC)
 * You need to add the parameter "scan=yes" to indicate that it has a source. --EncycloPetey (talk) 21:08, 8 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Ah, thanks for that. (example) But I think this is not the proper default setting -- it should be the other way around. If something is tagged as "incomplete," there's no reason to assume the editor wanted to identify it as lacking a source. Shouldn't it default to a value that indicates "unknown," and require "no" to be entered manually? -Pete (talk) 21:52, 8 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Never mind, I realized there is documentation I had overlooked on the main page. Looks more complicated than I had realized, and I don't really see what the best improvement would be. -Pete (talk) 21:56, 8 May 2019 (UTC)

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hara, Takashi

HARA, TAKASHI (1856-1921), Japanese statesman, was born at Morioka in Feb. 1856. His early studies were made at the now defunct Law College of the Department of Justice, but he abandoned the law, before graduating, in favour of journalism, joining the staff of the Hochi Shimbun, an important Tokyo daily newspaper. He acted as special correspondent in Korea in 1882, when the late Marquess Inouye was envoy to that country,

and subsequently entered the diplomatic service as a junior official in the Foreign Office. He was then appointed consul at Tientsin and in 1886 became secretary and chargé d'affaires in Paris. When the late Marquess Inouye was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Mr. Hara became his personal secretary. In 1892 he was appointed director of the commercial bureau at the Foreign Office and was promoted in 1895 to Vice-Minister of the Department. He was sent as minister to Korea from 1896-7, when he again turned to newspaper control and became chief editor of the Osaka Mainichi. Still deeply interested in politics he was one of the right-hand men of the late Prince Hirobumi Ito, when the latter organized the Seiyu-Kai (Liberal) party in Aug. 1900, and subsequently became its leading spirit. From the end of 1900 to May 1901 he filled the chair of the Minister of Communications in the Ito Ministry. Reverting once again to journalism he then became the chief editor of the Osaka Shimpo, and was elected a member of the House of Representatives for his native city in 1902, being reëlected at each subsequent election. In 1906, he definitely abandoned his journalistic career in favour of affairs of State and was appointed Minister for Home Affairs in the first Saionji Ministry. On the fall of this Cabinet in 1908 he spent two years visiting Europe and America. Returning to Japan he accepted the portfolio of the Minister for Home Affairs in the second Saionji administration, which was in office from 1911 to 1912. During the short period of the Katsura administration Mr. Hara held no office, but returned to his former position at the Ministry for Home Affairs for the third time under the Yamamoto administration of 1913 to early in 1914. When this Cabinet resigned, owing to the rejection of the Budget by the House of Peers, Mr. Hara retired for a time from active politics, though still retaining his leadership of the Seiyu-Kai. The Terauchi administration, which was generally considered to be conservative, came to an end in the autumn of 1918, and Mr. Hara was invited to form a Cabinet which might appreciate the growing desires and aspirations of the people of Japan towards liberalism. On Sept. 29 1918 Mr. Hara, the first commoner to become prime minister of Japan, formed an administration based, for the first time in the history of Japanese political development, on strictly parliamentary principles. He was assassinated on Nov. 4 1921 in Tokyo.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bryant, Jacob


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bryce, Alexander


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hardie, James Keir

HARDIE, JAMES KEIR (1856-1915), British Labour politician, was born at Newarthill in Lanarkshire Aug. 15 1856. His father, a ship's carpenter, was frequently out of work owing to illness and the decline of his trade, and his mother had to go out to work soon after her son was born. Being unable to send him to school she taught him reading herself, and when only six years old he had to earn money as a message boy. A year or two later he began work in the mines and earned his living underground for 16 years, often working 12 and 14 hours a day. At 22 years he was acting as local miners' secretary. After victimization in consequence of a strike he obtained work at Cumnock, Ayrshire, and was shortly afterwards elected secretary of the Ayrshire Miners' Association. Advanced Radical ideas attracted him, and before he was 25 years old he was to the fore in political meetings. He helped Henry George in his land agitation and was a staunch co-worker with Robert Smillie in the miners' movement. At the Trade Union Congress in 1887 he attacked the secretary,

Mr. Broadbent, for supporting capitalist candidates at elections, thus starting the campaign for Independent Labour representation which he brought into prominence in 1888 by contesting Mid-Lanark as an Independent Labour candidate. From this time on he worked unceasingly for an independent political party for the workers. At the general election of 1892 he was elected for S. West Ham and appeared at Westminster as the first Labour member. In 1893 he presided over the first conference of the Independent Labour party and the following year was elected chairman of the party, an office to which he was reëlected annually until 1899. In 1895 he had lost his seat in Parliament, but in 1900 he was elected for Merthyr Tydfil. In the great strike in the South Wales coal-field in 1898 he addressed, together with Robert Smillie, huge meetings of miners, and in the general election of 1906 he was reëlected to Parliament for Merthyr Tydfil. In addition to his work for the Labour and Socialist movement at home he was one of the most ardent pioneers of international socialism, and visited many countries in his endeavour to bring together the workers of different lands. The collapse of the International on the outbreak of the World War was a great sorrow to him, and is thought to have hastened his death, which took place in 1915 when he had only just completed his fifty-ninth year.


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 Rh case its adherents are secretly undermining some temporal tyranny whose conquest it would as yet be hopeless to attempt by open assault. These appear to be the very best ends which Secret Societies have ever acknowledged or professed as justifying and demanding their institution. Of such as have sprung from meaner or lighter motives, and have intentionally worked for selfish or fantastic or obstructive purposes, it is not here necessary to speak.

Judging them à priori, by deduction from their own first principles without induction of historical facts and fancies, my opinion is that even the best of such Secret Societies, formed and carried on for these best objects, always must have been and always must be failures; that at the best the results cannot pay the expense of the elaborate machinery, that the business must be carried on at a heavy and continually-increasing ratio of loss. But I have had no experience in any such Society, and I am well aware that deductions from first principles are often in reality as foolishly wrong as they appear logically right; the reader will therefore please to bear in mind that my statements state mere inferences, and are liable to be dispersed to the four w4nds by statements of facts from some member of a noble brotherhood. It would be tiresome to begin nearly every sentence with "I should judge," or some similar phrase; let it, then, be understood once for all that the following are mere fancy portraits, and may be very vile caricatures of the originals.

A Secret Society must come into being with a glow of enthusiasm and a vigorous activity; but the enthusiasm becomes a narrow fanaticism or dies out altogether, the activity degenerates into busybodyism or sets into an unprogressive routine like that of a squirrel in its cage. The spirit of fraternity either discovers that it cannot harmonise the little world of the Society, and gradually


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 192 perishes of atrophy, or in its hunger grasps at husks and straw in the absence of grain; or it narrows into the exclusiveness of a clique or coterie, cherishing rather a pharisaical contempt than a yearning love for the mass of uninitiate mankind.

If the object of the Society be the hidden conservation and secret culture of some truth, it probably appears, in the course of a not long time, that instead of the truth expanding the intellects of its votaries to its breadth and greatness, they are contracting it to the measure of their own narrow littleness. The first warm intoxication is soon followed by a very cold sobriety, if not by shuddering nausea. And the truth adopted and professed by the Society will be even narrower than the intellect of almost any one of its members; for all will assent only to some proposition shorn of everything very offensive to one or the other; hence the result is a maimed, mutilated, semi-vital compromise; it will not soar with the birds, it will not walk with the beasts, so it flits about bat-like in the dusk lower air. For a meeting is always less wise than a man. The branches lopped off from their tree of knowledge will be precisely the most vigorous individual offshoots. Thus the sublime and fruitful doctrine withers into an abstract formula, the sacred watchwords become jargon and cant; the conservation which was enterprised in the spirit of progress is continued in the spirit of obstructiveness. In the meantime the outward air has become milder, the temperature of the human zone has ameliorated; and while this tree of knowledge has been cut and trimmed lest it should shatter the glass walls of its conservatory, and has languished in the lack of natural warmth and light, not all the similar germs left to the rough nursing of open nature have perished; some have thriven, deep-rooted and strong-boughed from their warfare with tempests, and contrast in their robust


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 CHAPTER II

we seek to ascertain the actual teaching of our Lord on the subject of marriage we find ourselves confronted with some grave difficulties. It is very important that these should be seriously considered, for they disallow many natural and attractive misconceptions. There are, then, three broad conditions which determine our knowledge of the mind of Christ on this and other matters.

In the first place we can never wisely or rightly forget that we possess the tradition of the Master's teaching in documents which, though generally trustworthy, are not actually contemporary or first-hand authorities. Christ Himself wrote nothing: two of our four Gospels are admittedly not the work of Apostles; and neither of the others is certainly 22

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 Rh integral majesty with this sickly mutilated dwarf. It remains then for the Society simply to enfranchise its members by abolishing itself, or (the course it will probably pursue for many years) to take refuge in pretence and deceit, asserting peculiar and mysterious virtues for its specimen, which is only uncommon by stunted deformity, and claiming for it heavenly powers in the absence of earthly fruits.

Secret Societies whose aim is direct action, as the overthrow of political tyranny, are likely to fail yet more conspicuously. The energy and skill which should be employed in pressing onward are mainly absorbed in the endless work of keeping the complex machine and its intricate gear in order. If the Society be swayed by a council, it will go to wreck by internal incoherences; and, at any rate, with the utmost possible harmony, a council of war never equals the inspired daring of a general. If it be wielded by one man, it may hold together and prove a most formidable engine; but will probably prove yet more formidable to the enemies than to the friends of the tyranny it was constructed to overthrow. Every member in the moment of suffering initiation abdicates his personal freedom, loses the very essence of his manhood, is no longer a living will, but the blind and dumb slave of some other unknown will, and must exist thenceforth under a despotism far more absolute than the worst which can grow up publicly to oppress mankind. And the secresy in which all the members are involved intensifies and raises to higher powers the evil of mutual distrust, which is the deepest foundation of all tyrannies in the world. Try to conceive the state of a member in social converse, when the subject of talk is the Government or the Society as rumour with its thousand tongues describes it. The man who speaks most loudly against the Government may be a brother member, may be


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 194 a spy of the Government; the man who speaks most loudly against the Society may be a member in the confidence of some of the chiefs, if not of the Chief, and may be a genuine supporter of the Government. The man who communicates some sign of fraternity and wishes to converse intimately on the Society, may be a real devoted member, may be one who without taking on the vows of initiation has discovered this sign, may be a Government spy who has been charged to get initiated in order to thoroughly betray, may be a double Judas who sells Government secrets to the Chief, and Society secrets to the Government. As a double Judas, he may be at bottom more the friend of the Chief than of the Government, or more the friend of the Government than of the Chief: he may have the connivance of the Chief in denouncing unimportant members and mysteries to the Government; he may have the connivance of the Government in revealing unimportant or quasi-important State secrets to the Society; and except the Chief himself no member can be sure that his own sacrifice may not be considered expedient in the interests of the Society. There are thus wheels within wheels whirling and intervolving to make the soundest head dizzy. Where all move in darkness you cannot discern whether your companions wear a single or a sevenfold veil. All the members must breathe that frenzying atmosphere of preternatural suspicion, which was the miasma of the Reign of Terror: I suspect, thou suspectest, he suspects; we, you, and they suspect, and are suspected; and we suspect that we are suspected, and are suspected that we suspect. Why should not the Chief himself be a super-subtle minion of the State? How can the Chief himself know whether large numbers of the affiliated are or are not subtle minions of the State? Why should not the Chief himself, even if sincere, have ends beyond ends in view which the mass of the Society have no knowledge of, and can but set their brains whirling by


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 Apostolic. We are fairly justified by the facts disclosed and appraised by critical scholars in believing that the account of the life and teaching of our Lord, and the broad lines of His character, are faithfully given in the four Gospels, but our reasonable assurance does not extend to an exact knowledge of the very words of Christ, nor are we able to escape from a large measure of uncertainty as to His actual teaching.

Thus it happens that we are rarely able to adduce the supreme authority of Christ in the discussion of any question of practical morals. The principles of His religion are clearly stated, and therefore we have in the Gospels the postulates of a sound handling of practical questions, but direct pronouncements on practical problems are few, if indeed it can be said that any exist at all, and we abuse the Gospels to our own hurt if we treat them as legislative codes, or as casuistical treatises. Even in the crucial matter of marriage we shall find that our Lord's recorded teaching is

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 Rh guessing at? Why—as the Society is a state within the State—may there not be a society within the Society, ready to overthrow it in the moment it overthrows the State? And after all, should the Society succeed and become the ruling power, what a tenfold more terrible tryanny would this unknown phantom Chief exercise than any known Czar, Sultan, Emperor, King, Oligarchy, Timocracy, or Ochlocracy.

Thus it appears to me that the best Secret Societies (earnest and not sportive in their ends) must inherently be bad. They are based on the erroneous assumption that the thoughts and sentiments of mankind, that human nature, can be improved by machinery; that the Spirit of the Ages, the Zeitgeist, can be hurried forward by cunningly devised wheels and pistons. The wind that bloweth where it listeth wall work windmills well-planted to catch its breath, the stream flowing ever unhasting, unresting, wall work watermills well-placed to meet its current; but mill-sails cannot direct the wind, nor mill-wheels engender rivers.

In contrast to such Chinese ingenuities, so clever and so futile, there always have been and always will be in the world countless genuine Secret Societies of the most open, while of the most hidden, character. Continuous and unadulterate these have flowed, separate streams through the Sea of Time, from an antiquity which makes all nobilities and castes unreverend; holding in solution secrets and mysteries so august, so ineffable, that those of Illuminati and Rosicrucians, and even the Eleusinian and the Orphean and the Osirean, are jejune and puerile compared with them.

Their members are affiliated for life and death in the instant of being born; without ceremonies of initiation, without sponsorial oaths of fidelity. Their bond of union is a natural affinity, quite mysterious in its principles and


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24 not free from ambiguity. Either the different statements of the Evangelists are not wholly harmonious, or the text of the crucial passages is uncertain, or, finally, the passages themselves are capable of more than one rendering.

In the next place we have to remember that we are living under circumstances extraordinarily remote from those which conditioned the teachings of Christ—so far, I mean, as His teachings must be supposed so to have been conditioned. We cannot fairly separate His pronouncements on marriage from the situation, social and political, which originally called them forth. Take for example Christ's prohibition of divorce, either absolute, if we accept the version of His words given by St. Mark and St. Luke, or with the single exception of adultery if we prefer that given by St. Matthew. Can we simply carry over the words of the Gospel without explanation to the conditions of our own time? "There is danger of making marriage too difficult," said a very wise Christian bishop—Phillips Brooks. His

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 196 elements, precise and assured in its results as the combination and proportions of oxygen and hydrogen in water, or oxygen and nitrogen in air. No spy or traitor, no unworthy or uncongenial brother, can obtain entrance among them, any more than a hemlock or a lily can be adopted into the family of the roses, any more than an ape or a tiger can pass as one of a herd of elephants. Their esoteric doctrines are the most spontaneous and independent thoughts of each and every of their members; their secret watchwords are the most free and public expressions of their members; their mysterious signals are telegraphed in the most careless gestures which all eyes may see. The watchwords and symbols change from generation to generation, the supreme secrets are immutable from the beginning to the end of Time. Exactly what they cherish and adore as the inmost mystery of their being, their whole being ever strives to utter most clearly abroad to the senses and hearts and intellects of the whole world; thus the mystery still inviolate must for ever be inviolable, for there can be no new or better means of expression and interpretation: only the initiated ever truly hear and read it, to all others it is sound without meaning and letters without significance. They are without machinery to regulate and propagate themselves; yet the rank of each brother is fixed with more than heraldic precision, and no one who should be of the confraternity ever fails to be gathered into it; and it endures aggregating throughout the centuries and the millenniums, while creeds and systems collecting millions of money and scattering thousands of missionaries languish and die away. They have not consciously signs of fraternity; yet a brother shall recognise a brother immediately by a glance, a gesture, a casual word, and the two shall be straightway as if they had been intimate from childhood. They have no set councils or lodges: yet the


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 biographer extracts from the Bishop's note book the following suggestive passage, which will serve to illustrate the present argument:

Without question there is much force in such contentions. The existence of a careful and legal regulation of marriage in all its bearings is a fact which bears plainly on the practical application of Christ's words, and

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 Rh experience of the senators is their shield, and the daring of the young members their sword; and they are thus, though dispersed throughout all the countries and cycles, ever ready in battle-array to repel or to assault. They are of all characters and professions; and each human being, while belonging supremely to one, belongs in lower degrees to many of them, for every point in the circle of his nature touches a point in the circle of some other nature.

In the noblest of these confraternities, very rarely in the lifetime of any one member does he come into personal contact with another of the same rank, almost never into personal contact with more than two or three others of the same rank; yet their spirit of fraternity is perfect, and with the dead of his brotherhood each may hold frequent and solemn communion. These rare meetings of the living seldom occur in the bustling streets and busy marts; but in places and times of extreme seclusion and tranquillity, or extreme agitation and strife. In the stillness of the library, the oratory, the studio; in the tumult and terror of the battle, the plague, the revolution, the shipwreck; brothers meet unforebodingly by twos and threes. The still meetings are their eucharistic love-feasts, the others are their Thermopylæ banquets: and the rapture of the agony in these transcends the rapture of the joy in those. In the moment of their coming together the whole past life of the one is revealed to the other; infinite mutual love and reverence consecrate their meeting and their parting. From drinking together the glorious wine of communion, they go their ways to live yet more nobly or to die more grandly, rejoicing in the death as in the life.

But it must be admitted that these loftiest of the Open Secret Societies, which exist everywhere and endure with the æon of our race, are parodied and counterfeited and traduced by ingenious Societies of the artificial kind, and


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 198 that many simple people confuse the parody with the original, the artificial with the natural. I shall have to speak of the respective parodies in speaking of a few of the originals; for one must come to the concrete in order to be plain and intelligible. In the concrete, however, I care only to describe somewhat in detail a few of the best and most generally distinguished. It is bad work dwelling on the bad; and it would be endless work trying to mention all the orders, genera, species, sub-species, and so on, through an infinitude of divisions and subdivisions.

II.

There is the Open Secret Society of the Heroes. Their mystery has been published in books, in songs, in world-famous deeds of life and death, to all men of all nations and languages; yet only the heroic brotherhood really comprehend it, and are fully possessed by its inspiration. Other men may have transient glimpses of its meaning, and may thrill with its divine enthusiasm in rare moments; but soon the great door shuts, and they are cowering again in the darkness and the cold; nor can they even truly remember these rare moments in other hours and days, though they remember well enough the words of the chant or the details of the action with which the inspiration happened to be connected. But one of the brotherhood understands and feels always. The mystery which he understands so thoroughly and feels so triumphantly is simply this: That in the whole range of the universe, from highest heaven to deepest hell, there is no thing or circumstance, creature or being, dreadful to a man; that out of himself there is nothing which a man need fear; that no nature can be born into a realm unconquerable by that nature; and, moreover, that the


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 especially since this regulation has been the work of the Christian State. In view of our Lord's doctrine about the State, and of His recognition of the legitimacy of the Mosaic legislation as a necessary concession to the hardness of men's hearts, it is much to be considered whether His declarations about marriage ought to be applied without many modifications to the circumstances of the modern world.

A representative example of the teaching which I deprecate as implying an indefensible handling of the Gospel is provided in Bishop Gore's deservedly popular exposition of the Sermon on the Mount. The passage runs thus:

"Our Lord proclaimed, as a prominent law of His new kingdom, the indissolubility of marriage. And for us as Christians it is perfectly plain that not all the parliaments or kings on earth can alter the law of our Lord. And if any ministers of Christ, or persons claiming to represent the Church of Christ, ever dare to let the commandment of men, in however high places, override the law of Christ, they are simply behaving in a way which brings them under the threat which our Lord so solemnly uttered: 'Whosoever shall be ashamed of me

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 Rh most dazzling lightning of ecstasy leaps from the blackest storm of danger. But neither he who writes nor he who reads is any nearer to the heart of the mystery through this interpretation: if he is of the brotherhood his pulse beat in unison with the throbs of this heart before; if he is not of the brotherhood his pulse will never beat in unison with these throbs, save at intervals and for moments similar to those in which the hands of a clock that does not go accurately may agree with the hands of another which is keeping true time.

The ingenious parodies of this natural Society of the Heroes are the armies of the nations, those elaborate artificial organisations or aggregations whose spirit and tradition are popularly supposed to be heroism. Yet any one who is acquainted with an army or with portions of an army has learned that genuine heroes are nearly as rare in the military as in any other trade. The battle blood-drunkenness and Schwärmerei of congregated thousands by no means imply true heroism. I have known pretty well some of the men who rode and rode well in the Balaclava Light Cavalry Charge; some brave fellows, and some good fellows not specially brave; but I do not remember a hero amongst them. How many soldiers cringe to their officers, how


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 200 many sneak and spy to get promotion, how many would swear falsely to any extent to escape a punishment, how few in the smallest matter dare act against the ordinary opinion of their comrades. And perhaps as a rule the officers are even less heroic than the men. A few of the brotherhood are in the army, a number not so small in the navy; the others are scattered through all trades and professions, are of all ages and of both sexes; you shall find them not in camps nor in men-of-war, but in garrets and lighthouses, in huts and cottages, in hospitals and schools, in wild forests and sober manses. And they abound rather among the poor and ignorant who wrestle naked with the fierce myrmidons of destiny, than among the rich and learned who fight within golden armour and shoot scientific missiles from afar.

There is the Open Secret Society of the Saints. In how many books, in how many lovely lives, have their mysteries

longish siege? These bookwrights are as ready to bestow plenary absolution on every soldier who fairly did his duty there, as was Pope Urban on the first crusaders, "What shall I do to be saved?" asks the scamp or debauchee or desperado of a novel; "Go to the Crimea and thou shalt be saved," exclaims the enraptured novelist.

[Since the above was written, the general acclamation and worship of that vilest Blatant Beast, Jingoism, the most dastardly as it is the most vauntful and rapacious and bloodthirsty of big Bullies, have revealed an immeasurably deeper degradation of our English manhood than could have been foreboded sixteen years ago. The Court, the Senate, Pall-Malldom, the majority of the nobles and clergy and middle classes, have vied with the slums, the music halls, the hirelings of the Press, and the cosmopolitan gamblers of the Exchange, in despicable glorification of this hideous Idol, whose front is of brass and the rest of it clay tempered with blood. We have crouched at the feet of the sons of Levi for discipline in English honour and patriotism; our Queen has hailed our fitting Tyrtaeus in a bard of vulgar comic songs. Soldiers successful— or even unsuccessful!—in brutally iniquitous battue-wars against tribes of ill-armed savages, have been bepraised and honoured and dowered as if they were the heroes of another Waterloo. All signs point to a thoroughly disastrous and disgraceful collapse of our whole military system should we find ourselves involved in a European war.—March, 1881.]


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 and of my words in this adulterous and sinful generation, the Son of Man also shall be ashamed of him, when He cometh in the glory of His Father with the holy angels'. Beyond all question for the Church, and for all who desire to call themselves Christians, it is absolutely out of the question to regard those as married who, having been divorced, have been married again contrary to the law of Christ, during the lifetime of their former partner. It is quite true that this indissolubility of marriage may press hardly upon individuals in exceptional cases. But so does every law which is for the welfare of mankind in general: and, press it hardly or softly, the words of our Lord are quite unmistakable. He who refused to legislate on so many subjects legislated on this, and the simple question arises whether we prefer the authority of Christ to any other authority whatever."

The attentive reader will detect a fallacy in the different senses of the crucial word "law." The "law" of Christ's kingdom is a moral principle; the "law" which "the parliaments or kings on earth" can alone "alter" is a statute of the realm. They do not "override the law of Christ" when, following the example of Moses, which Christ certainly sanctioned, they recognise "the hardness of men's hearts" as a reason for permitting in

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 Rh been published! yet how dark and unintelligible is their simplest vernacular to the learned as to the ignorant, to the learned even more than to the ignorant, who are not of the Society! These are they who know, and live up to the knowledge, that love is the one supreme duty and good, that love is wisdom and purity and valour and peace, and that its infinite sorrow is infinitely better than the world's richest joy.

The solemn artificial burlesques of this Open Secret Society are the Churches, the caricatures of its mysteries are the theologies, the parodies of its sacred watchwords and symbols are the creeds and the rituals and the ceremonies. These Churches have been elaborated and organised by man as patent reservoirs and cisterns (with a parson-tap for nearly every street) of the Waters of Life; and, behold, these waters scarcely flow into them at all, but turn away and make for themselves truly secret and mysterious channels; and stream in pure perennial rills through the souls of humble men and women whom the great chartered companies (strictly limited) for the exploitation of religion despise and perhaps detest; through the souls of poor servants and bondsmen who can barely read or read not at all, of barbarians and idolaters who never heard of the Atonement or the Trinity, of heresiarchs and infidels who never enter kirk or chapel or mosque or cathedral or temple, and whom all the sects furiously revile and persecute and condemn to the abomination of desolation.

Do not be surprised or disappointed if you find very few of this holy sisterhood and brotherhood in the hierarchy of canonised saints, of pontiffs and patriarchs, cardinals, archbishops, bishops, brahmans, imans, lamas; very few of them in the great universities and colleges among the learned divines and subtle theologians, very few of them in monasteries and nunneries, very few of them among the


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 202 priests and the presbyters, scarcely any of them in the most devout circles of the "religious world." Sometimes when one, being full of scorn and indignation, seeks relief in riant mockery of this Established State Church of ours, this clever church which manages so well to serve at once both God and Mammon, this spiritual church whose real Trinity is an abstract God the Creator, and a fictitious Christ the Redeemer, and a very substantial Holy Ghost of Bumbleism the Conservator; sometimes then a keen pang pierces one's breast, and the gloom of past time is filled with reproachful eyes as the gloom of night with pale stars. Full of sad reproach, and of love whose sweetness is the worst gall and wormwood of reproach, they gaze down upon him, these eyes of holy bliss and sorrow, these faces worn with suffering and fasting and self-renunciation, yet shining with ineffable beatitude; the eyes and the lineaments of true brothers and sisters of this Sacred Order, who being Christians were yet also indeed Saints. And in every pale regard one reads the sad question: Did I, O my friend, live and die thus and thus that you should laugh and fleer? And at first one is smitten with shame and remorse, but when he has reflected a little he replies humbly: Belovèd and pure and beautiful souls, these whom I was mocking are not of you, though indeed they assume your name; they are of the fraternities of those who in your lifetimes mocked and hated and persecuted and killed you; they have caught up your solemn passwords because these are now passwords to wealth and worldly honour, which for you were passwords to the prison and the scaffold and the stake; they have clothed themselves with your sheep's clothing because wolves have long been extinct in our England, and sheep browse securely in the fattest pastures by the sweetest rivers; but they hate with a bitter hatred and fear all who are possessed by the spirit which possessed you; they are behind their age as you


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 Rh were in the forefront of yours; they desecrate your holy mysteries, they stereotype your rapturous prayers into jargon and cant; for your eucharistic wine they have publican's gin-and-water, and your eucharistic bread they butter on both sides and flavour with slander at tea. Even I, poor heathen and cynic, am nearer to you, ye holy ones, than are ninety-nine in a hundred of these.

There is the Open Secret Society of the Philosophers. Many of them have endeavoured to utter their mystery, and their writings are in all languages; but none save the initiated can read them. These are they who know that the world is but a poor expression of thought, that action is but a rude hieroglyph of soul; that silent and pure and eternal, above the fleeting noisy world with its agitation of action and passion, rests the sphere of intellect, the realm of ideas. These are they of whom Emerson has written worthily: "But I cannot recite, even thus rudely, laws of the intellect, without remembering that lofty and sequestered class of men who have been its prophets and oracles, the high-priesthood of the pure reason, the Trismegisti, the expounders of the principles of thought from age to age. When, at long intervals, we turn over their abstruse pages, wonderful seems the calm and grand air of these few, these great spiritual lords, who have walked in the world—these of the old religion—dwelling in a worship which makes the sanctities of Christianity look parvenues and popular; for 'persuasion is in soul, but necessity is in intellect.' This band of grandees, Hermes, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Plato, Plotinus, Olympiodorus, Proclus, Synesius, and the rest, have somewhat so vast in their logic, so primary in their thinking, that it seems antecedent to all the ordinary distinctions of rhetoric and literature, and to be at once poetry and music and dancing and astronomy and mathematics. I am present at the sowing of the seed of the world. With


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 204 a geometry of sunbeams the soul lays the foundations of nature. The truth and grandeur of their thought is proved by its scope and applicability, for it commands the entire schedule and inventory of things for its illustrations. But what marks its elevation, and has even a comic look to us, is the innocent serenity with which these babe-like Jupiters sit in their clouds, and from age to age prattle to each other and to no contemporary. Well assured that their speech is intelligible, and the most natural thing in the world, they add thesis to thesis, without a moment's heed of the universal astonishment of the human race below, who do not comprehend their plainest argument; nor do they ever relent so much as to insert a popular or explaining sentence; nor testify the least displeasure or petulance at the dulness of their amazed auditory."

Very ponderous burlesques of this Open Secret Society are exhibited in the universities and colleges and schools. Professors build up complicated systems with the lumber they have gathered into their uninhabited upper storeys, and these systems pass for philosophy. Other erudite professors are salaried to expound Plato and the rest; brilliant and acute scholars win reputation by writing brilliantly about ideas, archetypes, dialectics, realism, nominalism, and so forth; but where among the professors and the scholars are the Platonists? Some quiet modest man, who has never read a work on metaphysics and knows nothing of the systems, shall meet with a golden sentence of Plato or Spinoza, Bacon or Berkeley, Fichte or Schelling, and at once feel: This is what I have known so long, yet could never thus express. But he has expressed it in his life, which is utterance far superior to the most eloquent rhetoric.


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 Rh III.

There is the Open Secret Society of the Poets. These are they who feel that the universe is one mighty harmony of beauty and joy; and who are continually listening to the rhythms and cadences of this eternal music whose orchestra comprises all things from the shells to the stars, all beings from the worm to man, all sounds from the voice of the little bird to the voice of the great ocean; and who are able partially to reproduce these rhythms and cadences in the language of men. In all these imitative songs of theirs is a latent undertone, in which the whole infinite harmony of the whole lies furled; and the fine ears catch this undertone and convey it to the soul, wherein the furled music unfurls to its primordial infinity, expanding with rapturous pulses and agitating with awful thunders this soul which has been skull-bound, so that it is dissolved and borne away beyond consciousness, and becomes as a living wave in a shoreless ocean. If, however, these their poems be read silently in books, instead of being heard chanted by the human voice, then for the eye which has vision an underlight stirs and quickens among the letters, which grow translucent and throb with life; and this mysterious splendour entering by the eyes into the soul fills it with spheric illumination, and like the mysterious music swells to infinity, consuming with quick fire all the bonds and dungeon-walls of the soul, dazing it out of consciousness and dissolving it in a shoreless ocean of light. I have called these entrancements of beauty and joy, but there is intense sadness in the joy and a supernatural awe in the beauty: "Who is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?" sings the magnificent poet of the Canticles; and Plato writes in the


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 206 Phædrus, "He who has been recently initiated, when he sees a godlike countenance, or some bodily form that presents a good imitation of beauty, at first shudders, and some of the old terrors come over him."

The educated, the intelligent, the clever, by thousands, hear these songs sung, and read them in books, and think that they perfectly enjoy and comprehend; and they can discourse very profoundly about metres and diction and canons of art; but they never hear the undertone, and never have vision of the interior illumination, and are never rapt away in the ecstasy: thus the very soul of the poetry must, in truth, ever remain for them a music unheard, a light unseen, a language unknown embodied in their familiar mother-tongue.

Serious parodies of these divine songs abound in every age, and are welcomed by the uninitiate (who are usually what we call persons of liberal culture, for the poor and the ignorant remain grandly indifferent to all such attempts) as the most beautiful utterance of the inmost mysteries of this veritable Secret Society; and the authors thereof win during their lifetime wealth and honour and renown. For many of them can copy with marvellous adroitness the rhythms and rhymes and melodious phrases which are much loved by the true brotherhood, so that not only by others but also by themselves they are believed to be genuine bards. But when one who is initiate hears or reads their productions, he discerns that they are as fair bodies without souls; for the music and the splendour of infinity are not within them, and they are utterly unrelated to eternity.

Many, however, who are not learned and who are quite without profitable talents, shepherd youths and farm maidens, men in great cities who will never get on in the world, rude mountaineers familiar with sounding storms,