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 foundation stops of an organ, the open and the stopped diapason (see ), and to a standard of musical pitch, as in the French diapason normal (see ).

 DIAPER (derived through the Fr, from the Gr. , through, and  , white; the derivation from the town of Ypres, “d’Ypres,” in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known for centuries before its existence), the name given to a textile fabric, formerly of a rich and costly nature with embroidered ornament, but now of linen or cotton, with a simple woven pattern; and particularly restricted to small napkins. In architecture, the term “diaper” is given to any small pattern of a conventional nature repeated continuously and uniformly over a surface; the designs may be purely geometrical, or based on floral forms, and in early examples were regulated by the process of their textile origin. Subsequently, similar patterns were employed in the middle ages for the surface decoration of stone, as in Westminster Abbey and Bayeux cathedral in the spandrils of the arcades of the choir and nave; also in mural painting, stained glass, incised brasses, encaustic tiles, &c. Probably in most cases the pattern was copied, so far as the general design is concerned, from the tissues and stuffs of Byzantine manufacture, which came over to Europe and were highly prized as ecclesiastical vestments.

 DIAPHORETICS (from Gr. , to carry through), the name given to those remedies which promote perspiration. In health there is constantly taking place an exhalation of watery vapour from the skin, by which not only are many of the effete products of nutrition eliminated, but the body is kept cool. Under exertion or in a heated atmosphere this natural function of the skin is increased, sweating more or less profuse follows, and, evaporation going on rapidly over the whole surface, little or no rise in the temperature of the body takes place. In many forms of disease, such as fevers and inflammatory affections, the action of the skin is arrested, and the surface of the body feels harsh and dry, while the temperature is greatly elevated. The occurrence of perspiration not unfrequently marks a crisis in such diseases, and is in general regarded as a favourable event. In some chronic diseases, such as diabetes and some cases of Bright’s disease, the absence of perspiration is a marked feature; while, on the other hand, in many wasting diseases, such as phthisis, the action of the skin is increased, and copious exhausting sweating occurs. Many means can be used to induce perspiration, among the best known being baths, either in the form of hot vapour or hot water baths, or in that part of the process of the Turkish bath which consists in exposing the body to a dry and hot atmosphere. Such measures, particularly if followed by the drinking of hot liquids and the wrapping of the body in warm clothing, seldom fail to excite copious perspiration. Numerous medicinal substances have the same effect.

DIAPHRAGM (Gr. , a partition). The diaphragm or midriff (Anglo-Saxon, mid, middle, hrif, belly) in human anatomy is a large fibro-muscular partition between the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; it is convex toward the thorax, concave toward the abdomen, and consists of a central tendon and a muscular margin. The central tendon (q, fig. 1) is trefoil in shape, its leaflets being right, left and anterior; of these the right is the largest and the left the smallest. The fleshy fibres rise, in front from the back of the xiphoid cartilage of the sternum (d), laterally by six serrations, from the inner surfaces of the lower six ribs, interdigitating with the transversalis, posteriorly from the arcuate ligaments, of which there are five, a pair of external, a pair of internal, and a single median one. The external arcuate ligament (h) stretches from the tip of the twelfth rib (b) to the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra in front of the quadratus lumborum muscle (o), the internal and middle are continuations of the crura which rise from the ventro-lateral aspects of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, the right (e) coming from three, the left (f) from two. On reaching the level of the twelfth thoracic vertebra each crus spreads out into a fan-shaped mass of fibres, of which the innermost join their fellows from the opposite crus, in front of the aortic opening (k), to form the middle arcuate ligament; the outer ones (g) arch in front of the psoas muscle (n) to the tip of the costal process of the first lumbar vertebra to form the internal arcuate ligament, while the intermediate ones pass to the central tendon. There are three large openings in the diaphragm; the aortic (k) is behind the middle arcuate ligament and transmits the aorta, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct. In the right leaflet is an opening (sometimes called the hiatus quadratus) for the inferior vena cava and a branch of the right phrenic nerve (m), while in front and a little to the left of the aortic opening is one for the oesophagus and the two pneumogastric nerves (l), the left being in front and the right behind.

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 and also why at the council of Constance he took rank not as a cardinal but as a simple bishop (, iv. 591;, xxvii. 818). In 1412 he lent the king five hundred marks as a contribution towards the expenses of his foreign expedition (, viii. 767). On 20 Oct. 1414 Hallam was appointed with nine colleagues to act as the English ambassadors at the council summoned to meet shortly at Constance (ib. ix. 167), and further to conclude a treaty with Sigismund, king of the Romans (ib. 168 f.); they arrived at Constance on 7 Dec. (, iv. 23), Hallam being provided with sixty-four horses and a great company of attendants (, p. 46). He took with him a treatise, written at his request by Dr. Richard Ullerston or Ulverstone, an Oxford divine, in 1408, and entitled ‘Petitiones quoad Reformationem Ecclesiæ militantis’ (printed by, i. 1128–71). This treatise Hallam is said to have produced at the council. During its earlier sessions he seems to have guided the action of the English ‘nation,’ in securing for it an independent vote, and uniting it closely with the German ‘nation’ and with King (afterwards Emperor) Sigismund in a definitely reforming policy. Of the several objects for which the council was summoned that for which he sought earnestly to claim precedence was the reformation of the church ‘in capite et in membris.’ Such an aim naturally placed him in opposition to John XXIII, the pope to whom he owed his highest preferment; and he made himself conspicuous by the energy with which he denounced his conduct (witness his famous declaration, ‘Rogo dignum esse Iohannem papam,’ 11 March 1415, ib. iv. 1418, and Fasti, p. 21), and asserted that the council was superior to the pope (ib. iv. 59). John mentions Hallam's hostility as one of the causes which drove him to flee from Constance and take refuge at Schaffhausen, 21 March (Informationes Papæ, &c., ib. ii. 160). The bishop appears, indeed, to have taken an active share in the negotiations concerning Pope John; on 17 April he signed on behalf of the English nation the council's letter to the kings and princes of Europe, relating the facts of the pope's flight and its issues (ib. iv. 125–9); on 13 May he was placed upon a commission to hear appeals (ib. 172); on the following day he gave his assent on the part of his nation to the suspension of Pope John (ib. 183). The trials of Hus and of Jerom of Prague and the condemnation of Wycliffe's doctrines seem to have interested him less; once, perhaps, he interposed a question during the second hearing of Hus, 7 June (ib. 310), and again on 5 July, the day before his death, Hallam took part in a committee of the nations at the Franciscan convent which sat to urge the prisoner by any means to recant his errors (ib. 386 f., 432). There is also a hint of the bishop's desire for fair play and moderation in dealing with Jerom of Prague, 23 May (ib. 218). But it would be a mistake to suppose that he looked with the smallest approval upon the religious movement in Bohemia, which doubtless appeared to him, as to the mass of the ‘reforming’ members of the council, in the light of a vexatious obstacle to the success of their hopes.

On 19 Dec. 1415 Hallam was present at a congregation of the nations, when the German president made an emphatic protest against the council's delay in attacking serious and admitted abuses in the church, particularly simony (ib. 556 f.). On 4 Feb. 1416 Hallam joined in signing the articles of Narbonne relative to the admission to the council of Benedict XIII's supporters (ib. 591), and on 5 June he made a speech on the reception of the ambassadors from Portugal (ib. 788). After the treaty made with Sigismund during his visit to England in 1416, Hallam was placed upon commissions for the purpose of entering into alliances with various powers, the king of Arragon, the princes of the empire and other nobles of Germany, the Hanse towns, and the city of Genoa, 2 Dec. 1416 (, ix. 410–16, cf. 437). Just before Sigismund was expected back at Constance, Hallam and the other English bishops celebrated the prospect of a speedy termination of their labours by a banquet to the burghers of the city on Sunday, 24 Jan. 1417, followed by a ‘comœdia sacra’—evidently a sort of mystery play—in Latin, on the subject of the nativity of Christ, the worship of the magi, and the murder of the holy innocents (ib. 1088 f.). On the 27th, when the king arrived, Sir John Forester reports to Henry V that after the first solemn reception had taken place ‘thanne wente my lord of Salisbury to fore hestely to the place of the general consayl … and he entryde into the pulpette: war the cardenal Cameracence [Ailly], chief of the nation of France and 3our special enemy, also had purposith to have y maad the collation to for the kyng, in worschip of the Frenche nation: bot my lord of Salisbury kepte pocession in worschip of 3ow and 3owr nation; and he made ther ryth a good collation that plesyde the kyng ryth well’ (ib. ix. 434). Two days later the English bishops were received with marked consideration by the king, and on the 31st they entertained him at a great feast


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 by order of the parliament in Edinburgh Castle, and there was some talk of indicting him for treason, when having 'on his knees at the bar craved pardon' (Acts of Parliament of Scotland, viii. 247 a), he was restored to his seat in parliament. After the revolution of 1688 he was one of the members of the Scotch aristocracy who met in London in January 1689, and invited the Prince of Orange to assume the government and to summon a convention of the estates of Scotland. In that convention he contributed to the settlement of the crown of Scotland on William and Mary. In June 1689 he was appointed one of the commissioners for exercising the office of clerk of register. In the preceding April he had succeeded Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun (1655-1716) [q. v.] as captain of the troop of horse raised in Haddingtonshire (ib. ix. 27 b}, and in command of it he was present at the battle of Killiecrankie, 27 July 1689, on which day he was appointed a member of the Scotch privy council. In 1693 he was one of the farmers of the poll-tax in Scotland, and from 1695 to 1697 of the excise. He was a warm supporter of the Darien scheme, being one of the few subscribers of 1,000l. to the funds of the South African Company.

On the accession of Queen Anne, Belhaven was continued a member of the Scotch privy council. In the new Scotch parliament of 1703 he was a strenuous advocate of the Act of Security, and a spirited speech of his on it delivered in that year was printed for popular circulation. He was accused, to all appearance unjustly, of having taken part in the so-called 'Scotch plot' of the same year for a Stuart restoration. Belhaven was appointed a commissioner of the Scotch treasury in the ministry of 1704, and was removed when it was dismissed in 1705. He was a passionate opponent of the union. Another speech published at the time of delivery was made, 21 July 1705, in support of a resolution protesting against the nomination of a successor to Queen Anne to the crown of Scotland without limitations of its regal authority. On 2 Nov. 1706 he denounced the proposed union in a famous speech, the only specimen of Scotch parliamentary oratory which has found its way into English collections of rhetorical masterpieces. Lord Marchmont replied that a short answer to this long and terrible speech would suffice. 'Behold he dreamed, but lo ! when he awoke, behold it was a dream' (, Abstract of Proceedings, p. 44). Hence the title of 'The Vision' given to some contemporary doggerel verses ridiculing Belhaven's speech, which, according to the catalogue of the British Museum, may have been written by Thomas Hamilton, sixth earl of Haddington [q. v.] 'The Vision' was published as a broadsheet at Edinburgh, 1706 (reprinted in London the same year as by a person of quality), and with a reply to it, 'A Scot's Answer to a British Vision,' is given in the second series of 'Various Pieces of Scottish Fugitive Poetry' (1823 ?). 'Belhaven's Vision' is also the title of a superior metrical piece warmly eulogising him (London, 1729), but probably published much earlier. The famous speech of 2 Nov. 1706, with another delivered by Belhaven on the 16th of the same month, was printed as a broadside at Edinburgh and reprinted in London in a pamphlet cried about the streets,' according to Defoe, who has given both speeches in his history of the union, and who attacked Belhaven in his 'Review' for 12 March 1707.

Belhaven with other opponents of the union was imprisoned at Edinburgh, and in April 1708 brought in custody to London, as suspected of favouring the attempted French invasion [see, 1655-1716]. He was examined by the English privy council and admitted to bail, dying a few days afterwards, 21 June 1708, of inflammation of the brain, caused or aggravated, it has been surmised, by wounded pride (cf., Appendix, p. 44, and , Hist. of Great Britain, 1787, ii. 159). A eulogistic 'elegy' on him in doggerel verse was printed as a broadside at Edinburgh soon after his death. Lockhart of Carnwath accuses him of want of fixity of principle, and charges him with making 'long premeditated harangues,' but admits that he was a 'well-accomplished gentleman in most kinds of learning, well acquainted with the constitution of Scotland, and a skilful parliamentary strategist.' Macky (Memoirs, p. 236) caricatures him as 'a rough, fat, black, noisy man, more like a butcher than a lord.' In the obituary notice of him in Boyer (ib.) he is described as of 'a good stature, well set, of a healthy constitution, black complexion and graceful manly presence,' as having 'a quick conception, with a ready and masculine expression,' and as being 'steady in his principles both in politics and religion.' There is a portrait of him, with a brief and valueless memoir in Pinkerton's 'Scottish Gallery,' 1799. Belhaven was the author of 'An Advice to the Farmers of East Lothian to Labour and Improve their Grounds.' One of its monitions is quoted in the 'Edinburgh Review' for November 1814 (p. 87), art. 'Agriculture of Scotland.' By his wife Belhaven left two sons, John, third lord, who was appointed governor of Barbadoes, but was drowned on his way out


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DICTIONARY OF NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY Hailes HAILES,, Scottish judge. [See 1726–1792.]  HAILS or HAILES, WILLIAM ANTHONY (1766–1845), miscellaneous writer, son of a shipwright, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on 24 May 1766. An accident in his childhood prevented him from attending school till his eleventh year. He learnt the alphabet from an old church prayer-book, and his father taught him writing and arithmetic. He remained at school only three years, after which he worked as a shipwright for sixteen years. During this time he acquired a good knowledge of Latin and Greek, and also studied Hebrew, together with some other oriental languages. He wrote several papers for the 'Classical Journal,' and contributed to the 'Gentleman's Magazine' and 'Monthly Magazine.' Hails ultimately became a schoolmaster at Newcastle, but had only moderate success. He was a Wesleyan methodist, and preached occasionally in the chapel of his sect at Newcastle. He died at Newcastle on 30 Aug. 1845.

Hails wrote: Many of Hails's writings evoked published replies.
 * 1) 'Nugæ Poeticæ,' Newcastle-upon-Tyne(?), 1806.
 * 2) 'An Enquiry concerning the Invention of the Life Boat,' claiming William Wouldhave of South Shields to be the inventor, Newcastle, 1806.
 * 3) 'A Voice from the Ocean,' Newcastle(?), 1807.
 * 4) 'Tract No. 6,' published by the Society for the Propagation of Christianity among the Jews, 1809.
 * 5) 'The Pre-existence and Deity of the Messiah defended on the indubitable evidence of the Prophets and Apostles.'
 * 6) 'Socinianism unscriptural. Being an examination of Mr. Campbell's attempt to explode the Scripture Doctrine of human depravity, the Atonement, &c.,' two pamphlets on the Socinian controversy, both published at Newcastle in 1813.
 * 7) 'The Scorner reproved,' Newcastle, 1817.
 * 8) 'A letter to the Rev. W. Turner. Occasioned by the publication of Two Discourses preached by him at the 6th Annual Meeting of the Association of Scottish Unitarian Christians,' Newcastle, 1818. A second 'Letter' was published in the following year.
 * 9) 'Remarks on Volney's "Ruins," or a Survey of the Revolutions of Empires,' 1825.
 * 10) 'The First Commandment: a Discourse,' Newcastle, 1827.
 * 11) 'A Letter to C. Larkin, in reply to his Letter to W. Chapman on Transubstantiation,' Newcastle, 1831.

 HAILSTONE, JOHN (1759–1847), geologist, born near London on 13 Dec. 1759, was placed at an early age under the care of a maternal uncle at York, and was sent to Beverley school in the East Riding. [q. v.] was a younger brother. John went to Cambridge, entering first at Catharine Hall, and afterwards at Trinity College, and was second wrangler of his year (1782). He was elected fellow of Trinity in 1784, and four years later became Woodwardian professor of geology, an office which he held for thirty years. He went to Germany, and studied geology under Werner at Freiburg for about twelve months. On his return to Cambridge he devoted himself to the study and collection of geological specimens, but did not deliver any lectures. He published, however, in 1792, ‘A Plan of a course of lectures.’ The museum was considerably enriched by him. He married, and retired to the vicarage of Trumpington, near Cambridge, in 1818, and worked zealously for the education of the poor


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  Thomas Birch, A.M., F.R.S., new edit., 1813; Collins's Peerage; Burnet's Hist. of his own Time; The Marlborough Despatches; Millner's Journals of Battles and Sieges under Marlborough; Sir A. Alison's Military Life of Marlborough; Coxe's Life of Marlborough; Lediard's Life of Marlborough; Anderson's Scottish Nation; R. Cannon's Records of 1st and 7th Regiments of Foot; Luttrell's Brief Relation; Macaulay's Hist.; Story's Wars in Ireland, 1689–92; War Office Records. This article owes much to notes kindly supplied by Charles Dalton, esq.]

HAMILTON, GEORGE (1783–1830), biblical scholar and divine, born at Armagh in 1783, while his father was dean, was the fourth son of Hugh Hamilton, D.D. [q. v.], bishop of Ossory, and Isabella, eldest daughter of Hans Widman Wood of Rossmead, co. Westmeath. Having entered Trinity College, Dublin, on 10 June 1799, under the tutorship of the Rev. Bartholomew Lloyd, he graduated B.A. 1804 and M.A. 1821. He married, first, Sophia, daughter of George Kiernan of Dublin, by whom he had issue; and secondly, Frances, daughter of Rear-admiral Sir Chichester Fortescue, Ulster king-of-arms, who survived him. In 1809 he was presented to the rectory of Killermogh in the diocese of Ossory, which benefice he held as long as he lived. He was a conscientious parish priest and an early and zealous promoter of religious societies in connection with the church of Ireland. He died 10 Aug. 1830, and was buried in the churchyard of Killermogh, where there is a brief inscription to his memory.

Besides some separate sermons and papers in religious periodicals, Hamilton published: 1. ‘A General Introduction to the Study of the Hebrew Scriptures, with a Critical History of the Greek and Latin Versions, of the Samaritan Pentateuch, and of the Chaldee Paraphrases,’ Dublin, 1813. 2. ‘A Letter to the Rev. Peter Roe, M.A., November 1813, with Papers on Apostolick Practice and Ecclesiastical Establishments’ (printed in ‘The Evil of Separation from the Church of England considered,’ 2nd edit. London, 1817). 3. ‘Observations upon Mr. O'Callaghan's pamphlet against Bible Societies,’ Kilkenny, 1818. 4. ‘Codex Criticus of the Hebrew Bible, being an attempt to form a Standard Text of the Old Testament,’ London, 1821. 5. ‘Observations on a passage in the Medea of Seneca, and on the Argument against the Evidence of Prophecy drawn from it by Deistical Writers’ (read before the Royal Irish Academy, 22 Jan. 1821, and printed in their ‘Transactions,’ vol. xiv.) 6. ‘Observations on the Rev. Hart Symons's late publication, entitled “A Light to the House of Israel,”’ London, 1821. 7. ‘A Letter to Rabbi Herschell, showing that the Resurrection is as credible a fact as the Exodus, and that the tract called “Toldoth,” giving the Jewish account of the Resurrection, is no more worthy of credit than Tacitus's “History of the Jews”’ (printed in or before 1824). 8. ‘Tracts upon some leading Errors of the Church of Rome,’ London, 1824. 9. ‘The Claims of the Church of Rome to be the appointed Interpreter as well as the Depositary of the Word of God considered, in a correspondence between the Rev. George Hamilton and the Rev. N. Shearman,’ Dublin, 1825. 10. ‘Observations on the Present State of the Roman Catholic English Bible, addressed to the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin [Dr. Murray],’ Dublin, 1825. 11. ‘A Second Letter to the Most Rev. Dr. Murray, on the Present State of the English Roman Catholic Bible,’ Dublin, 1826. 12. ‘The Scripture Authority of the Christian Sabbath vindicated against Roman Catholics and Separatists’ (anonymous), Dublin, 1828.

[Todd's Cat. of Dublin Graduates, p. 247; Burke's Landed Gentry, 3rd edit. p. 513; Christian Examiner (September 1830), x. 721; Blacker's Contributions towards a proposed Bibliotheca Hibernica, No. vii., in the Irish Ecclesiastical Gazette (May 1876), xviii. 153; Roe's Thoughts on the Death of the Rev. George Hamilton (reprinted in Madden's Memoir of the Rev. Peter Roe, pp. 451–61); Cæsar Otway's Scenes in the Rotunda, Dublin; McGhee's Life and Death of the Kiernan Family.]

HAMILTON, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802–1871), politician, was born at Tyrellas, co. Down, on 29 Aug. 1802. He was elder son of the Rev. George Hamilton of Hampton Hall, co. Dublin, who died in March 1833, by Anna, daughter of Thomas Pepper of Ballygarth Castle, co. Meath. His grandfather, George Hamilton (d. 1793), who was a baron of the exchequer from 1777 to 1793, was a nephew of Hugh Hamilton, bishop of Ossory [q. v.] He was sent to Rugby School in 1814, and matriculated from Trinity College, Oxford, 15 Dec. 1818, took his B.A. degree in 1821, and was created D.C.L. 9 June 1853. Soon after leaving the university he settled on his paternal estate and began to take a part in the public political meetings in Dublin. At the general election in 1826 he became a candidate for the representation of that city, but after a severe and expensive contest lasting fourteen days was defeated by a small majority. In 1830 and 1832 he again unsuccessfully contested the seat for Dublin. At the close of another election for Dublin in January 1835 the numbers were: O'Connell 2,678, Ruthven 2,630, Hamilton 2,461, West 2,455. A petition was, however, presented;


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 The fleshy fibres on each side of this opening act as a sphincter. Passing between the xiphoid and costal origins in front are the superior epigastric arteries, while the other terminal branches of the internal mammaries, the musculo-phrenics, pass through between two costal origins.

Through the crura pass the splanchnic nerves, and in addition to these the left crus is pierced by the vena azygos minor. The sympathetic nerves usually enter the abdomen behind the internal arcuate ligaments. The phrenic nerves, which are the main supply of the diaphragm, divide before reaching the muscle and pierce it in a number of places to enter its abdominal surface, but some of the lower intercostal nerves assist in the supply. The last thoracic or subcostal nerves pass behind the external arcuate ligament.

For the action of the diaphragm see.

 DIARBEKR (Kara Amid or Black Amid; the Roman Amida), the chief town of a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on a basaltic plateau on the right bank of the Tigris, which here flows in a deep open valley. The town is still surrounded by the masonry walls of black basalt which give it the name of Kara or Black Amid; they are well built and imposing on the west facing the open country, but almost in ruins where they overlook the river. A mass of gardens and orchards cover the slope down to the river on the S.W., but there are no suburbs outside the walls. The houses are rather crowded but only partially fill the walled area. The population numbers 38,000, nearly half being Christian, comprising Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Turkomans, Armenians, Chaldeans, Jacobites and a few Greeks. The streets are 10 ft. to 15 ft. wide, badly paved and dirty; the houses and shops are low, mostly of stone, and some of stone and mud. The bazaar is a good one, and gold and silver filigree work is made, peculiar in character and design. The cotton industry is declining, but manufacture of silk is increasing. Fruit is good and abundant as the rich volcanic soil is well watered from the town springs. The size of the melons is specially famous. To the south, the walls are some 40 ft. high, faced with large cut stone blocks of very solid construction, with towers and square bastions rising to 500 ft. There are four gates: on the north the Kharput gate, on the west the Rum, on the south the Mardin, and on the east the Yeni Kapu or new gate. A citadel enclosure stands at the N. E. corner and is now partly in ruins, but the interior space is occupied by the government konak. The summer climate in the confined space within the town is excessively hot and unhealthy. Epidemics of typhus are not unknown, as well as ophthalmia. The Diarbekr boil is like the “Aleppo button,” lasting a long time and leaving a deep scar. Winters are frequently severe but do not last long. Snow sometimes lies, and ice is stored for summer use. Scorpions noted for the virulence of their poison abound as well as horse leeches in the tanks. The town is supplied with water both by springs inside the town and by aqueducts from fountains at Ali Punar and Hamervat. The principal exports are wool, mohair and copper ore, and imports are cotton and woollen goods, indigo, coffee, sugar, petroleum, &c.

The Great Mosque, Ulu Jami, formerly a Christian church, occupies the site of a Sassanian palace and was built with materials from an older palace, probably that of Tigranes II. The remains consist of the façades of two palaces 400 ft. apart, each formed by a row of Corinthian columns surmounted by an equal number of a Byzantine type. Kufic inscriptions run across the fronts under the entablature. The court of the mosque is entered by a gateway on which lions and other animals are sculptured. The churches of greatest interest are those of SS. Cosmas and Damian (Jacobite) and the church of St James (Greek). In the 19th century Diarbekr was one of the largest and most flourishing cities of Asia, and as a commercial centre it now stands at the meeting-point of several important routes. It is at the head of the navigation of the Tigris, which is traversed down stream by keleks or rafts supported by inflated skins. There is a good road to Aleppo and Alexandretta on the Mediterranean, and to Samsun on the Black Sea by Kharput, Malatia and Sivas. There are also routes to Mosul and Bitlis.

Diarbekr became a Roman colony in 230 under the name of Amida, and received a Christian bishop in  325. It was enlarged and strengthened by Constantius II., in whose reign it was taken after a long siege by Shapur (Sapor) II., king of Persia. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who took part in the defence, gives a detailed account of it. In the later wars between the Persians and Romans it more than once changed hands. Though ceded by Jovian to the Persians it again became annexed to the Roman empire, and in the reign of Anastasius ( 502) was once more taken by the Persians, when 80,000 of its inhabitants were slain. It was taken c. 638 by the Arabs, and afterwards passed into the hands of the Seljuks and Persians, from whom it was finally captured by Selim I. in 1515; and since that date it has remained under Ottoman rule. About 2 m. below the town is a masonry bridge over the Tigris; the older portion being probably Roman, and the western part, which bears a Kufic inscription, being Arab.

The vilayet of Diarbekr extends south from Palu on the Euphrates to Mardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian plain, and is divided into three sanjaks—Arghana, Diarbekr and Mardin. The headwaters of the main arm of the Tigris have their source in the vilayet.

Cereals, cotton, tobacco, rice and silk are produced, but most of the fertile lands have been abandoned to semi-nomads, who raise large quantities of live stock. The richest portion of the vilayet lies east of the capital in the rolling plains watered by tributaries of the Tigris. An exceptionally rich copper mine exists at Arghana Maden, but it is very imperfectly worked; galena mineral oil and silicious sand are also found.

 DIARRHOEA (from Gr. , through,  , flow), an excessive looseness of the bowels, a symptom of irritation which may be due to various causes, or may be associated with some specific disease. The treatment in such latter cases necessarily varies, since the symptom itself may be remedial, but in ordinary cases depends on the removal of the cause of irritation by the use of aperients, various sedatives being also prescribed. In chronic diarrhoea careful attention to the diet is necessary.

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 DIARY, the Lat. diarium (from dies, a day), the book in which are preserved the daily memoranda regarding events and actions which come under the writer’s personal observation, or are related to him by others. The person who keeps this record is called a diarist. It is not necessary that the entries in a diary should be made each day, since every life, however full, must contain absolutely empty intervals. But it is essential that the entry should be made during the course of the day to which it refers. When this has evidently not been done, as in the case of Evelyn’s diary, there is nevertheless an effort made to give the memoranda the effect of being so recorded, and in point of fact, even in a case like that of Evelyn, it is probable that what we now read is an enlargement of brief notes jotted down on the day cited. When this is not approximately the case, the diary is a fraud, for its whole value depends on its instantaneous transcript of impressions.

In its primitive form, the diary must always have existed; as soon as writing was invented, men and women must have wished to note down, in some almanac or journal, memoranda respecting their business, their engagements or their adventures. But the literary value of these would be extremely insignificant until the spirit of individualism had crept in, and human beings began to be interesting to other human beings for their own sake. It is not, therefore, until the close of the Renaissance that we find diaries beginning to have literary value, although, as the study of sociology extends, every scrap of genuine and unaffected record of early history possesses an ethical interest. In the 17th century, diaries began to be largely written in England, although in most cases without any idea of even eventual publication. Sir William Dugdale (1605–1686) had certainly no expectation that his slight diary would ever see the light. There is no surviving record of a journal kept by Clarendon, Richard Baxter, Lucy Hutchinson and other autobiographical writers of the middle of the century, but we may take it for granted that they possessed some such record, kept from day to day. Bulstrode Whitelocke (1605–1675), whose Memorials of the English Affairs covers the ground from 1625 to 1660, was a genuine diarist. So was the elder George Fox (1624–1690), who kept not merely “a great journal,” but “the little journal books,” and whose work was published in 1694. The famous diary of John Evelyn (1620–1706) professes to be the record of seventy years, and, although large tracts of it are covered in a very perfunctory manner, while in others many of the entries have the air of having been written in long after the event, this is a very interesting and amusing work; it was not published until 1818. In spite of all its imperfections there is a great charm about the diary of Evelyn, and it would hold a still higher position in the history of literature than it does if it were not overshadowed by what is unquestionably the most illustrious of the diaries of the world, that of Samuel Pepys (1633–1703). This was begun on the 1st of January 1660 and was carried on until the 29th of May 1669. The extraordinary value of Pepys’ diary consists in its fidelity to the portraiture of its author’s character. He feigns nothing, conceals nothing, sets nothing down in malice or insincerity. He wrote in a form of shorthand intelligible to no one but himself, and not a phrase betrays the smallest expectation that any eye but his own would ever investigate the pages of his confession. The importance of this wonderful document, in fact, lay unsuspected until 1819, when the Rev. John Smith of Baldock began to decipher the MS. in Magdalene College, Cambridge. It was not until 1825 that Lord Braybrooke published part of what was only fully edited, under the care of Mr Wheatley, in 1893–1896. In the age which succeeded that of Pepys, a diary of extraordinary emotional interest was kept by Swift from 1710 to 1713, and was sent to Ireland in the form of a “Journal to Stella”; it is a surprising amalgam of ambition, affection, wit and freakishness. John Byrom (1692–1763), the Manchester poet, kept a journal, which was published in 1854. The diary of the celebrated dissenting divine, Philip Doddridge (1702–1751), was printed in 1829. Of far greater interest are the admirably composed and vigorously written journals of John Wesley (1703–1791). But the most celebrated work of this kind produced in the latter half of the 18th century was the diary of Fanny Burney (Madame D’Arblay), published in 1842–1846. It will be perceived that, without exception, these works were posthumously published, and the whole conception of the diary has been that it should be written for the writer alone, or, if for the public, for the public when all prejudice shall have passed away and all passion cooled down. Thus, and thus only, can the diary be written so as to impress upon its eventual readers a sense of its author’s perfect sincerity and courage.

Many of the diaries described above were first published in the opening years of the 19th century, and it is unquestionable that the interest which they awakened in the public led to their imitation. Diaries ceased to be rare, but as a rule the specimens which have hitherto appeared have not presented much literary interest. Exception must be made in favour of the journals of two minor politicians, Charles Greville (1794–1865) and Thomas Creevey (1768–1838), whose indiscretions have added much to the gaiety of nations; the papers of the former appeared in 1874–1887, those of the latter in 1903. The diary of Henry Crabb Robinson (1775–1867), printed in 1869, contains excellent biographical material. Tom Moore’s journal, published in 1856 by Lord John Russell, disappointed its readers. But it is probable, if we reason by the analogy of the past, that the most curious and original diaries of the 19th century are still unknown to us, and lie jealously guarded under lock and key by the descendants of those who compiled them.

It was natural that the form of the diary should appeal to a people so sensitive to social peculiarities and so keen in the observation of them as the French. A medieval document of immense value is the diary kept by an anonymous curé during the reigns of Charles VI. and Charles VII. This Journal d’un bourgeois de Paris was kept from 1409 to 1431, and was continued by another hand down to 1449. The marquis de Dangeau (1638–1720) kept a diary from 1684 till the year of his death; this although dull, and as Saint-Simon said “of an insipidity to make you sick,” is an inexhaustible storehouse of facts about the reign of Louis XIV. Saint-Simon’s own brilliant memoirs, written from 1691 to 1723, may be considered as a sort of diary. The lawyer, Edmond Barbier (1689–1771), wrote a journal of the anecdotes and little facts which came to his knowledge from 1718 to 1762. The studious care which he took to be correct, and his manifest candour, give a singular value to Barbier’s record; his diary was not printed at all until 1847, nor, in its entirety, until 1857. The song-writer, Charles Collé (1709–1783), kept a journal historique from 1758 to 1782; it is full of vivacity, but very scandalous and spiteful. It saw the light in 1805, and surprised those to whom Collé, in his lifetime, had seemed the most placid and good-natured of men. Petit de Bachaumont (1690–1770) had access to remarkable sources of information, and his Mémoires secrets (a diary the publication of which began in 1762 and was continued after Bachaumont’s death, until 1787, by other persons) contains a valuable mass of documents. The marquis d’Argenson (1694–1757) kept a diary, of which a comparatively full text was first published in 1859. In recent times the posthumous publication of the diaries of the Russian artist, Marie Bashkirtseff (1860–1884), produced a great sensation in 1887, and revealed a most remarkable temperament. The brothers Jules and Edmond de Goncourt kept a very minute diary of all that occurred around them in artistic and literary Paris; after the death of Jules, in 1870, this was continued by Edmond, who published the three first volumes in 1888. The publication of this work was continued, and it produced no little scandal. It is excessively ill-natured in parts, but of its vivid picturesqueness, and of its general accuracy as a transcript of conversation, there can be no two opinions.

 DIASPORE, a native aluminium hydroxide, AlO(OH), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with göthite and manganite. It occurs sometimes as flattened crystals, but usually as lamellar or scaly masses, the flattened surface being a direction of perfect cleavage on which the lustre is markedly pearly in character. It is colourless or greyish-white, yellowish, sometimes violet in colour, and varies from translucent to

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Rh over the facts submitted to the scientific world by Boucher de Perthes was violent and of short duration. The immense antiquity of man was established and accepted on all sides just before Mr. Darwin published his book on The Origin of Species. The palaeolithic implements, though not improbably made 150,000 years ago, do not, any more than do the imperfect skulls occasionally found in association with them, indicate a condition of the human race more monkey-like than is presented by existing savage races. The implements themselves are manufactured with great skill and artistic feeling. Within the last ten years much rougher flint implements, of peculiar types, have been discovered in gravels which are 500 feet above the level of the existing rivers. These Eoliths of the South of England indicate a race of men of less-developed skill than the makers of the Palaeoliths, and carry the antiquity of man at least as far back beyond the Palaeoliths as these are from the present day. We have as yet found no remains giving the direct basis for conclusions on the subject; but judging by the analogy (not by any means a conclusive method) furnished by the history of other large animals now living alongside of man—such as the horse, the rhinoceros, the tapir, the wolf, the hyaena, and the bear—it is not improbable that it was in the remote period known as the lower Miocene—remote as compared with the gravels in which Eoliths occur—that Natural Selection began to favour that increase in the size of the brain of a large and not very powerful semi-erect ape which eventuated, after some hundreds of thousands of years, in the breeding-out of a being with a relatively enormous brain-case, a skilful hand, and an inveterate tendency to throw stones, flourish

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18 sticks, protect himself in caves, and in general to defeat aggression and satisfy his natural appetites by the use of his wits rather than by strength alone—in which, however, he was not deficient. Probably this creature had nearly the full size of brain and every other physical character of modern man, although he had not as yet stumbled upon the art of making fire by friction, nor converted his conventional grunts and groans, his screams, laughter, and interjections into a language corresponding to and thenceforth developing his power of thought.

The leading feature in the development and separation of man from amongst other animals is undoubtedly the relatively enormous size of the brain in man, and the corresponding increase in its activities and capacity. It is a very striking fact that it was not in the ancestors of man alone that this increase in the size of the brain took place at this same period, viz. the Miocene. The great mammals such as the titanotherium, which represented the rhinoceros in early Tertiary times, had a brain which was in proportion to the bulk of the body, not more than one-eighth the volume of the brain of the modern rhinoceros. Other great mammals of the earlier Tertiary period were in the same case; and the ancestors of the horse, which are better known than those of any other modern animal, certainly had very much smaller brains in proportion to the size of their bodies than has their descendant.

We may well ask to what this sudden and marked increase in the size of the brain in several lines of the animal pedigree is due. It seems that the inborn

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diary

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diary


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Rh hereditary nervous mechanism by which many simple and necessary movements of the body are controlled and brought into relation with the outer world acting upon the sense-organs, can be carried in a relatively small bulk of brain-substance. Fish, lizards, and crocodiles with their small brains carry on a complex and effective life of relation with their surroundings. It appears that the increased bulk of cerebral substance means increased 'educability'—an increased power of storing up individual experience—which tends to take the place of the inherited mechanism with which it is often in antagonism. The power of profiting by individual experience, in fact educability, must in conditions of close competition be, when other conditions are equal, an immense advantage to its possessor. It seems that we have to imagine that the adaptation of mammalian form to the various conditions of life had in Miocene times reached a point when further alteration and elaboration of the various types, which we know then existed, could lead to no advantage. The variations presented for selection in the struggle for existence presented no advantage—the 'fittest' had practically been reached, and was destined to survive with little change. Assuming such a relative lull in the development of mere mechanical form, it is obvious that the opportunity for those individuals with the most 'educable' brains to defeat their competitors would arise. No marked improvement in the instrument being possible, the reward, the triumph, the survival would fall to those who possessed most skill in the use of the instrument. And in successive generations the bigger and more educable brains would survive and mate, and thus bigger and bigger brains be produced.

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20 It would not be difficult (though not, perhaps, profitable) to imagine the conditions which have favoured the continuation of this process to a far greater length in the Simian line of the pedigree than in other mammalian groups. The result is that the creature called Man emerged with an educable brain of some five or six times the bulk (in proportion to his size and weight) of that of any other surviving Simian. Great as is this difference, it is one of the most curious facts in the history of man's development that the bulk of his brain does not appear to have continued to increase in any very marked degree since early Palaeolithic times. The cranial capacity of many savage races and of some of the most ancient human skulls is only a little less than that of the average man of highly-civilized race. The value of the mental activities in which primitive man differs from the highest apes may be measured in some degree by the difference in the size of the man's and the ape's brain; but the difference in the size of the brain of Isaac Newton and an Australian black-fellow is not in the remotest degree proportionate to the difference in their mental qualities. Man, it would seem, at a very remote period attained the extraordinary development of brain which marked him off from the rest of the animal world, but has ever since been developing the powers and qualities of this organ without increasing its size, or materially altering in other bodily features4.

The origin of Man by the process of Natural Selection is one chapter in man's history; another one begins

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56 entitled 'The Significance of the Increased Size of the Cerebrum in recent as compared with extinct Mammalia,' Cinquantenaire de la Société de Biologie, Paris, 1899, pp. 48–51.

It has been pointed out to me by my friend Dr. Andrews, of the Geological Department of the British Museum, that the brain cavity of the elephants was already of relatively large size in the Eocene members of that group, which may be connected with its persistence through subsequent geological periods.

NOTE 5 (p. 23).

It would be an error to maintain that the process of Natural Selection is entirely in abeyance in regard to Man. In an interesting book, The Present Evolution of Man, Mr. Archdall Reid has shown that in regard to zymotic diseases, and also in regard to the use of dangerous drugs such as alcohol and opium, there is first of all the acquirement of immunity by powerful races of men through the survival among them of those strains tolerant of the disease or of the drug, and secondly, the introduction of those diseases and drugs by the powerful immune race, in its migrations, to races not previously exposed either to the diseases or the drugs, and a consequent destruction of the invaded race. The survival of the fittest is, in these cases, a survival of the tolerant and eventually of the immune.

NOTE 6 (p. 26).

'Religion means the knowledge of our destiny and of the means of fulfilling it.'—Life and Letters of Mandell Creighton, sometime Bishop of London, vol. ii. p. 195.

NOTE 7 (p. 29).

This has been established in the case of the Typanosoma Brucei, a minute parasite living in the blood of big game in South-East Africa, amongst which it is disseminated by a blood-sucking fly, the Glossina morsitans or Tsetze fly

title: Page:Nature and Man.djvu/59


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diatomaceae


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Fellow-citizens of the United States: In compliance with a custom as old as the government itself, I appear before you to address you briefly, and to take in your presence the oath prescribed by the Constitution of the United States to be taken by the President “before he enters on the execution of his office.”


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Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/143

OULD Jesus come to me, Mither,

The morrow's Christmas morn,

Wearin' the bonny smile he had

That day that he was born,

Around his head a wreath o' light,

And not a twig o' thorn,—

I'd open wide the doore, Mither,

The way that he'd come in;

And not to gi' him pain at all,

I'd keep my heart from sin;

And all I could to pleasure him

I'd right at once begin.

Not in a stall should he be laid,

But on me own fine bed;

And half me porridge wi' me own

Small spoon should he be fed,

The while his Mither smiled, and shared

Wi' you the bit o' bread.


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122 'T would be a time o' joy, Mither!

But thinkin' o' they things,

'T is may-be well he should be there,

Wi' ward o' angel-wings;

I doubt they'd miss him so!—the kine,

The shepherds, and the kings!


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Christmas Eve


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these became worse when John, having quarrelled with his wife, found that she too was supported against him by Samuel. Sir Edward died on 29 March 1739, leaving more to Samuel than John (his successor in the baronetcy) thought was a second son's share, but less than Samuel had expected. An angry quarrel was the result. John, joining with his son who was of age, cut off the entail, and, on his son's death shortly after, announced his intention of leaving the property to one of the sons of his eister Eleanor, wife of Mr. Samuel Foote of Truro and mother of the comedian [q.v.] Goodere's rage was excessive, and for some months the brothers held no communication. In November 1740 Samuel was appointed to the command of the Ruby, then lying in King's Road, Bristol, and she was still there on Sunday, 18 Jan., when Samuel, being on shore, learned that his brother, Sir John, was dining with a Mr. Smith, an attorney of the city. On this Samuel sent a note to Smith, saying that, having heard his brother was there, he would be glad to meet him if Smith would allow him to come in. Accordingly in the evening he went to Smith's house, and the two brothers smoked and drank together, and to all appearance made up their quarrel. But, as John was walking towards his lodgings, be was seized by Samuel's orders, carried down to the boat, taken on board the Ruby, and confined in a spare cabin, the captain telling the men on deck not to mind his cries, as he was out of his mind, and would have to be watched to prevent his attempting his own life. Three men were chosen to attend the prisoner, and these three men, after being well primed with brandy, and on the promise of large rewards, went into the cabin early next morning( 19 Jan. 1741), put a rope round Sir John's neck, and strangled him, Samuel meanwhile standing sentry at the door with a drawn sword to prevent any interference. He had apparently intended to put to sea at once, but Smith, having had information the previous night that a gentleman resembling guest had been taken a prisoner on board the Ruby, applied to the mayor for an investigation. This was mode at once. Goodere and his vile tools were apprehended on a charge of wilful murder, were tried on 26 March, found guilty, and sentenced to death. They were all four hanged on 15 April 1741.

Goodere married Miss Elizabeth Watts of Monmouthshire, and by her left issue three daughters and two sons. Of the daughters two died unmarried; the third, Anne, married John Willyams, a commander in the navy, and was the mother of the Rev. [q. v.] Of the two sous, twins, born in 1729, the elder, Edward Dineley, died a lunatic in 1761; the other, John Dineley [see ], died a poor knight of Windsor in 1809. Samuel, on the death of his brother John, should have succeeded to the baronetcy. He appears, however, to have been indicted as Samuel Goodere, esq., and Ralph Bigland, in his manuscript collections in the Heralds' College (information supplied by Mr. A. Scott Gatty, York Herald), speaks of his sons Edward Dineley-Goodere and John Dineley-Goodere as successive baronets, following their murdered uncle. But Burke thinks that the baronetcy descended in due course to Samuel and to his sons after him. Collins (Baronatege 1741 ) speaks of the baronetcy as extinct; so also does Wotton (Baronetage.ed. 1771),specifying' 'attainted.' Nash (Hist. of Worcestershire, i. 972) says that Sir Edward Dineley-Goodere succeeded his grandfather, which is certainly wrong, and was succeeded by his brother, Sir John Dinelev-Goodere {so also Gent. Mag. 1809, pt. ii. p. 1034). It is probable that Collins and Wotton are right; that the baronetcy became extinct in 1741, on the sentence of Samuel Goodere, though the twins may have been allowed the title by courtesy.

 GOODFORD, CHARLES OLD (1812–1884), provost of Eton, second son of John Goodford of Chilton-Cantelo, Somersetshire, who died in 1835, by Charlotte, fourth daughter of Montague Cholmeley of Easton, Lincolnshire, was born at Chilton-Cantelo 15 July 1812, and entered at Eton in 1826. He proceeded to King's College, Cambridge, in 1830, whence he took his B.A. 1836, M.A. 1839, and D.D. 1853. He was elected a fellow of his college, but did not long retain his fellowship, as on 28 March 1844 he married Katharine Lucia, third daughter of George Law of Lincoln's Inn. While still an undergraduate he returned to Eton and became an assistant-master in 1835. It was not long before he succeeded his former tutor, John Wilder, in charge of a large and important schoolhouse, in which a number of the resident boys were from his own


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 Goodgroome adjacent counties. As a house-master he was liberal and kind, but his management was not equal to his good intentions. In 1853 he succeeded Edward Craven Hawtrey, D.D., as head-master at Eton. His rule on the whole was beneficial to the college. He aimed at a very complete reconstruction of the system of teaching; he made discipline a reality, while he abolished many vexatious rules which had needlessly restricted liberty, and would have done more but for the veto of the provost. In 1854 he edited ‘P. Terentii Afri Comœdiæ,’ a work which he printed chiefly to present as a leaving book to his sixth-form boys. On the death of Dr. Hawtrey, Lord Palmerston, in ignorance of the needs of Eton, and much against Goodford's own wishes, appointed him provost of Eton, a position which he held from 27 Jan. 1862 to his death. Under the Cambridge University commission of 1860, and more particularly under the royal commission of 1865, great changes and improvements were made in the college. Goodford held the small family living of Chilton-Cantelo from 1848 to his death. He died at The Lodge, Eton, 9 May 1884, and was buried in the Eton cemetery 14 May.

[Lyte's Eton College, 1875, pp. 475–8, 517, 519, Times, 10 May 1884, p. 7, 12 May p. 9, and 15 May p. 5; Academy, 17 May 1884, pp. 349–50; Graphic, 7 June 1884, pp. 546, 549, with portrait; Illustrated London News, 17 May 1884, pp. 465, 475, with portrait.]  GOODGROOME, JOHN (1630?–1704?), composer, lutenist, singer, and teacher, was one of a family of musicians, born at Windsor, and bred up a chorister. He was present at the coronations of Charles II, James II, and William and Mary, as one of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal. In 1666 Goodgroome succeeded Notario and Henry Purcell the elder as musician in ordinary for the lute and voice and lute and violl, at the fee of 40l., and 16l. 2s. 6d. yearly for livery, while his post in the chapel choir was worth from 70l. to 73l. According to Wood, Goodgroome was a ‘rare songster, and taught some persons to sing.’ Four airs by Goodgroome, with bass for theorbo lute, or bass violl, were published in J. Playford's ‘Select Airs,’ and subsequently in the ‘Treasury’ of March 1669, and three of these, arranged for two and three voices, in the ‘Musical Companion,’ 1673; other music is in the Lambeth Palace Library, and two manuscript songs in the Fitzwilliam collection. Pepys records the visits of Theodore Goodgroome as his or his wife's singing-master from 1 July 1661 occasionally until 31 Aug. 1667. A John Goodgroome, organist of St. Peter's, Cornhill, 1725, may have been the son of John or Theodore Goodgroome, or of William Goodgroome, who is in the register of St. Dionys Backchurch, 1701, as music-master. The date of John Goodgroome's death is given in the Old Cheque-book, 15 May 1704.

[Wood's MSS., Bodl. Lib.; Rimbault's Old Cheque-book of the Chapel Royal; State Papers communicated by Mr. W. B. Squire; Chamberlayne's Angliæ Notitia, 1692, p. 171, and following years; Pepys's Diary, i. 249 et seq.; Harleian Society's Registers, iii. 140.]

GOODHUGH, WILLIAM (1799?–1842), compiler, born about 1799, was for some time a bookseller at 155 Oxford Street. In order to render himself a competent bibliographer he acquired a knowledge of many of the oriental and most of the modern languages. He distinguished himself by his learned criticisms on John Bellamy's translation of the Bible in the ‘Quarterly Review’ for April 1818 and July 1820. In 1840 he issued proposals for a society to be called the ‘Dugdale Society,’ for the elucidation of British family antiquity by the publication of inedited documents and by systematic reference to those already printed, but the project was not encouraged. He died at Chelsea on 23 May 1842, aged 43, leaving a son and a daughter. During the three years preceding his death he had been engaged in the compilation of a bible cyclopædia, but he only lived to prepare the work down to the letter ‘r.’ It appeared in two folio volumes. He also published: 1. ‘The Gate to the French, Italian, and Spanish Unlocked’ (anon.), 12mo, London, 1827. 2. ‘The Gate to the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac Unlocked by a new and easy method of acquiring the accidence’ (anon.), 8vo, London, 1827. 3. ‘The English Gentleman's Library Manual, or a Guide to the Formation of a Library of Select Literature,’ 8vo, London, 1827. 4. ‘Motives to the Study of Biblical Literature in a course of introductory lectures,’ 8vo, London, 1838; another edition, without Goodhugh's name, was issued in 1839.

[Gent. Mag. new ser. xviii. 215; Allibone's Dict. of Engl. Lit. i. 699.]

GOODINGE, THOMAS (1746–1816), divine, born in 1746, son of Thomas Goodinge, barrister-at-law, was educated at Gloucester, and entered Trinity College, Oxford, 14 Jan. 1762 (B.A. 1766, and in 1778 both M.A. at Cambridge and D.C.L. at Oxford). In 1765 he was engaged for a few months as an assistant in the college school at Salisbury, and afterwards became principal of the college school of Worcester. In 1769 he was ordained deacon, and in 1771 was presented to the living of Bredicot in Worcestershire. In December


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OME home! The Land that sent you forth

From East and West, from South and North,

Looks wistfully beyond her gates,

Extends her arms and waits—and waits!

At duty's call she stilled her woe;

She smiled through tears and bade you go

To face the death you would not shun.

Brave hearts, return! Your task is done.

Not as you journeyed come you back!

A glory is about your track

Of deeds that vanquished tyranny

And set a tortured people free:

Deeds, sprung of manhood's finest grace,

That envious Time shall not efface;

Deeds that proclaim a Nation's worth,

And crown the Land that gave them birth.

America but waits to greet

And bless you, kneeling at her feet,


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 Goodman 1773 he married Maria Hale, daughter of Robert Hale of Marylebone, London. In 1775 he opened a private school at Bevere. He was head-master of the grammar school at Leeds in 1779, became rector of Hutton in Somersetshire in 1788, and in 1789 rector of Cound in Shropshire. Here he lost his wife in September 1810, and during his remaining years he resided in Shrewsbury. He died 17 July 1816.

Goodinge was a sound scholar, a powerful preacher, and a successful schoolmaster. He commenced a translation of Lycophron, but relinquished it on the appearance of Meen's translations in 1800. He was a good botanist.

[Gent. Mag. vol. lxxxvi. pt. ii. p. 94, vol. lxxxvii. pt. ii. p. 182; Chambers's Biog. Illustr. of Worcestershire.]  GOODMAN, CARDELL or CARDONNELL (1649?–1699), actor and adventurer, was son of a clergyman of the same names at one time settled in Shaftesbury, Dorsetshire, and on 18 March 1651 removed from the benefice of Freshwater, Isle of Wight, by order of the council of state (Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1651). The son went to St. John's College, Cambridge, and proceeded B.A. in 1670. According to his own admissions, as related by Cibber, he was expelled from the university ‘for being one of the hot-headed sparks who were concerned in the cutting and defacing the Duke of Monmouth's picture, then chancellor of that place.’ Soon after he appeared in London, and became one of the pages of the back-staircase to Charles II, but after five years' service he was dismissed for negligence. Two years previous to his dismissal he inherited 2,000l. by his father's death, which he rapidly squandered among the rakes of the town. He then attached himself to the king's company at Drury Lane Theatre, and made what was probably his first appearance as Polysperchon in the ‘Rival Queens, or Alexander the Great,’ 4to, 1677. Here, according to Cibber, he made rapid advances in reputation, and he is mentioned by Downes as taking the parts of Alexas in Dryden's ‘All for Love,’ Pharnaces in ‘Mithridates, king of Pontus,’ by Lee, acted in 1678, and Valentinian in the tragedy of ‘Valentinian,’ adapted by the Earl of Rochester from Beaumont and Fletcher's play, and performed at Drury Lane in 1685. The characters in which he won his chief success were Julius Cæsar and Alexander the Great. Cibber mentions with some warmth the generous praise he bestowed upon Goodman when he was playing the part of the chaplain in Otway's ‘Orphan,’ and how confidently he predicted his future success. In 1682, when a fusion took place between the duke's and the king's company, he supported Mohun in opposing the united actors, although he joined them about three years later. According to Cibber the highest salary paid to hired actors at that period was 6s. 3d. per diem, which he pleads as some excuse for Goodman's excesses. As a proof of his poverty Cibber relates that Captain Griffin and ‘Scum’ Goodman—‘as he was styled by his enemies’—were driven to share the same bed and the same shirt, and that a duel was fought on Goodman's appropriating the common clothing out of his turn. His scanty livelihood also led him to commit a highway robbery. He was condemned, but speedily pardoned by James II, and ‘his Majesty's servant returned to the stage a hero.’ His latter years were rendered more affluent by his becoming the paramour of the Duchess of Cleveland, but he was shortly detected in an attempt to poison two of her children, brought to trial for a ‘misdemeanour,’ and fined heavily. In 1688 he withdrew from the stage, and became a gamester, a profession in which he soon proved an expert, especially at ombre. Out of gratitude to King James for sparing his life, Goodman became a Jacobite, and on the death of Queen Mary was connected with the Fenwick and Charnock plot to kill William III (1696–7). When the scheme was discovered, Goodman, who was committed to the Gatehouse, was offered a free pardon if he would inform against his more illustrious accomplice, Sir John Fenwick [q. v.], a condition he would have been quite disposed to accept had not Fenwick's friends sought him at the ‘Fleece’ in Covent Garden, and at the ‘Dog’ in Drury Lane, where he eventually agreed to accept 500l. a year with a residence abroad. He escaped to France, and died there of a fever in 1699, aged about 50.

[Luttrell's Rel. of State Affairs; Doran's Annals of the Engl. Stage; Colley Cibber's Apology, ed. Robert Lowe; Downe's Roscius Anglicanus; Theophilus Lucas's Memoirs of the most famous Gamesters.]  GOODMAN, CHRISTOPHER (1520?–1603), puritan divine, member of an old Cheshire family, was probably born (1520) in Chester. When about eighteen he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, graduating as B.A. 4 Feb. 1541, and M.A. 13 June 1544. In 1547 he became a senior student at Christ Church, and was proctor in 1549 (Oxf. Univ. Reg., Oxf. Hist. Soc., i. 217). He proceeded B.D. in 1551, and is said to have become Lady Margaret professor of divinity about 1548 (, Fasti, iii. 518;, Athenae, ed. Bliss, i. 721 ; , Fasti, i. 120, 132 ; Oxf.


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134 I do not consider it necessary at present for me to discuss those matters of administration about which there is no special anxiety or excitement.

Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to


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 Goodman Univ. Reg. i. 199, 217). At Oxford Goodman made friends with Bartlet Green [q. v.], who had sought him out ' for his learning and godly and sober behaviour' (, Acts and Monuments, ed. Townsend, vii. 732-4, 738). Goodman left England in 1554, and on 23 Nov. his name appears among the signatures to a letter from the exiles at Strasburg. He afterwards joined the schism among the reformers at Frankfort, and withdrew with Whittingham [q. v.] and other leading exiles to Geneva, whence they united in writing a letter to the Frankfort congregation to defend their departure. The brethren at Geneva chose Knox and Goodman in September 1555 for their pastors, and the two formed a lifelong friendship. During his exile Goodman took part in Coverdale's translation of the Bible, helped Knox in the 'book of common order,' and wrote some very acrimonious tracts. The most famous was entitled 'How superior Powers ought to be obeyed of their subjects, and wherein they may lawfully be by God's word disobeyed and resisted . . .' Geneva, 1558. The book, in favour of Wyatt's rebellion, bitterly attacked Mary and the government of women in general, a fact which afterwards drew down Elizabeth's displeasure upon the author. Knox's 'First Blast of the Trumpet' was published in the same year, and the tracts were secretly circulated in England. Their violence was generally disapproved, even by their own party. Goodman also published while abroad a 'Commentary upon Amos,' in which he likens Mary to Proserpine, queen of Hades. So bitter was the feeling about his book that Goodman did not dare to return to England on Elizabeth's accession. In June 1559 Knox earnestly begged Goodman, 'whose presence I thirst for more than she that is my own flesh,' to join him at Edinburgh, and after repeated entreaties Goodman went to Scotland early in September, acting as escort to Knox's wife and family from Geneva. In October he was made one of the council appointed by the lords of the congregation to treat of religion, he and Knox preaching daily in 'the Scots camp' (Zurich Letters, Parker Soc. 1558-79, p. 60, 1 Dec. 1559). In November he became minister of Ayr. In the following July Goodman was appointed to St. Andrews. He also went about Scotland preaching, and in August 1560 spent ten days in the Isle of Man, where he preached twice (State Papers, Scotch Ser. ' 1509-1603, p. 161, and For. Ser. 1560-1, p. 259). Two years later he and Knox went together to visit some of the reformed churches in Scotland. Intercessions were meanwhile made for his return to England, though Calvin exhorted him to finish his work in Scotland. Cecil, to whom he wrote with indiscreet zeal, told Sadler in 1559 that, next to Knox, Goodman's name was the most odious of his party to Elizabeth. The Earl of Mar favoured his views, and in 1562 asked leave to bring him in his train to a projected meeting between Elizabeth and Mary. Warwick from Havre begged (in December) Dudley and Cecil to give 'so worthy an instrument' employment with his army in Normandy. At last by Randolph's advice he ventured into England in the winter of 1565. He went to Ireland (January 1566) as chaplain to Sir Henry Sidney, the new lord deputy, who in the spring of 1567 recommended him to be bishop of Dublin, and promised him the deanery of St. Patrick's (State Papers, Ireland, Elizabeth, 1556-7, pp. 325, 327). Goodman, however, received neither of these offices. It was probably when Sidney returned to England in 1570 that he was appointed to the living of Alford, near Chester, and made archdeacon of Richmond. In the next year he was deprived by Bishop Vaughan for nonconformity, and in April 1571 brought before the ecclesiastical commissioners at Lambeth. He was obliged to make a full recantation of his published opinions, and a protest in writing of his dutiful obedience to the queen's person and her lawful government (see, Annals, n. i. 140). In June he was again examined before Archbishop Parker, 'beaten with three rods,' and forbidden to preach. He complained (26 July) to Leicester of his hard treatment (Addit. MS. 32091, f. 246). In August he returned to Chester. On 21 Nov. 1580 Randolph writes to Leicester, soliciting leave for Goodman to revisit Scotland (, Cal. State Papers, 1547-80, p. 688). In 1584 Goodman refused to subscribe to the articles and the service book, and Archbishop Whitgift complained of his perversity to the lord treasurer. Having no living he was not however again examined, but allowed to spend the rest of his days peacefully at Chester. When Ussher came to England to collect books for the Dublin Library, he visited Goodman (4 June 1603), then 'very ancient,' and lying on his deathbed. In after days the archbishop would often repeat the 'grave wise speeches ' he heard from the old man, who must have died shortly after his visit (, Life, ed. Elrington, i. 23). Goodman was buried at Chester, in St. Bride's Church. Wood gives a Latin epigram written upon him by his 'sometime friend,' John Parkhurst, containing a play upon his name, 'Gudmane.' He is said by Wood to have written a commentary on Amos.


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 Goodman  [State Papers, Scotch Ser. 1509-1603 pp. 119, 181, 183, 226; Foreign Ser. 1558-9 p. 335, 1559-60 pp. 49, 52, 73, 125, 1562 pp. 51, 233, 273, 562, 602, 1565 pp. 514, 534; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 721; Strype's Memorials, ed. 1822, vol. iii. pt. ii. pp. 131, 187; Annals, vol. i. pt. i. pp. 152, 182, 187, 343, &c., vol. ii. pt. i. p. 140 ; Life of Parker, ii. 66 ; Troubles at Frankfort (Phenix), ii. 44; Original Letters (Parker Soc.) 2nd ser., Goodman to Peter Martyr; Sadler, i. 510; McCrie's Life of Knox, i. 284, 300, 328, 510, 532, 561, ii. 138, 270, 328, 384, 442; Maitland's Essays on the Reformation, pp. 103, 112, 116, 126, 171, 177. 196; Heylyn's Hist. of the Reformation, ii. 182, 297; Ormerod's Cheshire, ii. 727; Fuller's Church Hist. bk. ix. p. 77.]  GOODMAN, GABRIEL (1529?–1601), dean of Westminster, born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, about 1529, was second son of Edward Goodman (d. 1620), merchant and burgess of Ruthin, by his wife Cecily, daughter of Edward Thelwall of Plâs-y-ward. He proceeded B.A. from Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1549–50, and was fellow of Jesus College till 28 Sept. 1555, graduating M.A. in 1553, and acting for a long time as chaplain to Sir William Cecil, with whom he was always on intimate terms. He was created D.D. in 1564 as a member of St. John's College. He became rector of South Luffenham, Rutlandshire, 30 Sept. 1558; rector of the first portion of the church of Waddesdon, Buckinghamshire, 1559, and of the second portion 25 Nov. 1569; canon of Westminster 21 June 1560, and was in April 1561 a prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral. On 23 Sept. 1561 he was appointed dean of Westminster, but continued to hold much other preferment. He preached at court 13 Feb. 1561–2, and was a Lent preacher at court 1565–6. He subscribed the Thirty-nine Articles in the convocation of 1562–3, and voted against suggested changes in the ceremonies and liturgy of the church. In 1563 John Feckenham, the late abbot of Westminster, was placed in his custody. In August 1564 he was at Cambridge preparing for the queen's visit to the university. In 1570 a suggestion that Goodman should succeed Grindal as bishop of London was opposed by Archbishop Parker on the ground that although ‘a sad, grave man,’ Goodman was in Parker's private judgment ‘too severe.’ Neither Parker's recommendation that Goodman should be made bishop of Norwich in 1575, nor Aylmer's request that he should be appointed to the see of Rochester in November 1581, nor Whitgift's proposal that the bishopric either of Rochester or Chichester should be conferred on him in 1584, produced any result. Goodman was repeatedly nominated a commissioner for causes ecclesiastical in the court of high commission; was a commissioner for visiting the Savoy Hospital in 1570; assisted in the condemnation of the Dutch anabaptists in 1575; aided Lord Burghley to settle a dispute respecting the validity of certain graces granted at Cambridge in 1580; was a commissioner to represent the primate at the convocation of 1586, and a royal commissioner for the settlement of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1589. Goodman acted as an executor of Lord Burghley's will in 1598. He died on 17 June 1601, and was buried in St. Benedict's Chapel, Westminster Abbey. A monument with a bust in a gown was erected in St. Peter's Church, Ruthin.

Goodman showed himself much interested in educational and charitable schemes. In 1570 he provided for the erection at Chiswick of a home for sick Westminster scholars. Two scholarships were founded in his name at St. John's College, Cambridge, by a deed dated 20 Feb. 1578–9, the endowment being the gift of Mildred, Lord Burghley's wife. As overseer of the will of Frances, countess of Sussex, he took part in the inauguration of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. In 1590 he founded Christ's Hospital at his native town of Ruthin, for a president, warden, and twelve poor inmates, and in 1595 added to the foundation a grammar school. Camden was always an intimate friend. Goodman assisted him in his ‘Britannia,’ to which he prefixed Latin verses in 1586, and bequeathed to him a gold ring with a turquoise stone. By his will, dated 2 March 1600–1, Goodman left bequests to almost all the officials of Westminster Abbey, to the town of Ruthin, to the parishes in which he had lived, and to various members of the Cecil family. His household stuff was bequeathed to his hospital at Ruthin, and many rare books and manuscripts, chiefly bibles, together with legacies to poor scholars, were left to Christ's College, Cambridge (with a portrait of Lady Margaret Beaufort, the foundress), to Sidney Sussex College (with a portrait of the foundress), to St. John's College, Cambridge, to Jesus College, Cambridge, and to Jesus College, Oxford. A Chaldean Lexicon was left to Sir Thomas Bodley for his library.

Goodman translated in 1568 the first epistle to the Corinthians for the Bishops' Bible (, Correspondence, p. 336). He helped, both with literary aid and money, Dr. William Morgan in his Welsh translation of the Bible. A continuation by him of Dr. Bill's ‘Order of the Government of the Colledge of Westminster’ appears, with a letter to Lord


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1861] with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so." Those who nominated and elected me did so with full knowledge that I had made this and many similar declarations, and had never recanted them. And, more than this, they placed in the platform for my acceptance, and as a law to themselves and to me, the clear and emphatic resolution which I now read:

 * Resolved, That the maintenance inviolate of the rights of the States, and especially the right of each State to order and control its own domestic institutions according to its own judgment exclusively, is essential to that balance of power on which the perfection and endurance of our political fabric depend, and we denounce the lawless invasion by armed force of the soil of any State or Territory, no matter under what pretext, as among the gravest of crimes.

I now reiterate these sentiments; and, in doing so, I only press upon the public attention the most conclusive evidence of which the case is susceptible, that the property, peace, and security of no section are to be in any wise endangered by the now incoming administration. I add, too, that all the protection which, consistently with the Constitution and the laws, can be given, will be cheerfully given to all the States when lawfully demanded, for whatever cause—as cheerfully to one section as to another.

There is much controversy about the delivering up of fugitives from service or labor. The clause I now read is as plainly written in the Constitution as any other of its provisions:

  No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in


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 136 of any law or regulation therein be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

It is scarcely questioned that this provision was intended by those who made it for the reclaiming of what we call fugitive slaves; and the intention of the lawgiver is the law. All members of Congress swear their support to the whole Constitution—to this provision as much as to any other. To the proposition, then, that slaves whose cases come within the terms of this clause "shall be delivered up," their oaths are unanimous. Now, if they would make the effort in good temper, could they not with nearly equal unanimity frame and pass a law by means of which to keep good that unanimous oath?

There is some difference of opinion whether this clause should be enforced by national or by State authority; but surely that difference is not a very material one. If the slave is to be surrendered, it can be of but little consequence to him or to others by which authority it is done. And should anyone in any case be content that his oath shall go unkept on a merely unsubstantial controversy as to how it shall be kept?

Again, in any law upon this subject, ought not all the safeguards of liberty known in civilized and humane jurisprudence to be introduced, so that a free man be not, in any case, surrendered as a slave? And might it not be well at the same time to provide by law for the enforcement of that clause in the Constitution which guarantees that "the citizen of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States."


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 register of St. Stephen's, Jackson gives the following entry as possibly referring to him: 'John Goodwin Jn whites Alley, vitler was buried the 3rd of September 1665.' By his early marriage he had seven children, two of whom died in 1645. His portrait, engraved in 1641, 'aetat 47,' by [q. v.], represents a man of fine features, wearing beard and moustache, his scanty hair almost hidden by an embroidered skull-cap.

Goodwin published besides the works already mentioned: 1. 'The Saints' Interest in God,' &c., 1640, 12mo. 2. 'God a Good Master,' &c., 1641, 12mo (dedicated to Elizabeth Hampden, mother of the patriot). 3. 'The Return of Mercies,' &c., 1641, 12mo. 4. 'The Christian's Engagement,' &c., 1641, 12mo. 5. 'Impedit ira animum, or Animadversions vpon. . . George Walker,' &c., 1641, 4to (Walker's 'Defence,' to which this is a reply, was published by Goodwin). 6. 'Impvtatio Fidei, or a Treatise of Justification,' &c., 1642, 4to. 7. 'The Butcher's Blessing, or the Bloody Intentions of Romish Cavaliers,' &c., 1642 (Jackson). 8. 'Innocencies Triumph, or an Answer to ... William Prynne,' &c., 1644, 4to (two editions same year, defends his 'Θεομαχία'). 'Innocency and Truth Triumphing,' &c., 1645, 4to (continuation of No. 8). 10. 'Calumny Arraign'd,' &c., 1645, 4to (answer to Prynne's reply). 11. 'A Vindication of Free Grace,' &c., 1645, 4to (ed. by Samuel Lane, contains sermon 28 April 1644 by Goodwin, taken in shorthand by Thomas Rudyard). 12. 'Twelve. . . Serious Cautions,' &c., 1646, 4to. 13. 'Some Modest and Humble Queries,' &c., 1646 (Jackson). 14. 'Anapologesia Tes Antapologias, or The Inexcusablenesse of ... Antapologia,' &c., 1646, 4to (first and only part; against Edwards). 15. 'A Candle to see the Sunne,' &c., 1647, 4to (appendix to 'Hagiomastix'). 16. 'A Postscript ... to ... Hagiomastix,' &c., 1647, 4to. 17. 'Sion College Visited, or Animadversions on a Pamphlet of W. Jenkyns,' &c., 1647 (i.e. January 1648), 4to. 18. 'Nεοφυτοπρεβύτερος, or The Youngling Elder ... for the instruction of W. Jenkyn,' &c., 1648, 4to. 19. 'The Unrighteous Judge,' &c., 1648 (i.e. 18 Jan. 1649), 4to (reply to Sir Francis Nethersole). 20. 'Truth's Conflict with Error,' &c., 1650, 4to (from shorthand report by John Weeks of disputations on universal redemption by Goodwin against Vavasor, Powell, and John Simpson). 21. 'The Remedy of Unreasonableness,' &c., 1650 (Jackson). 22. 'Moses made Angry; a Letter ... to Dr. Hill,' &c., 1651 (Jackson). 23. 'Confidence Dismounted, or a Letter to Mr. Richard Resbury,' &c., 1651 (Jackson). 24. 'Εἰρηνομαχία, The Agreement and Distance of Brethren,' &c., 1652, 4to; 1671, 8vo. 25. 'A Paraphrase,' &c., 1652, 4to; second edition with title 'An Exposition of the Nineth Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans,' &c., 1653, 4to (dedicated to the Lord Mayor, [q. v.]). 26. Philadelphia, or XL Queries,' &c., 1653, 4to (on baptism). 27. 'Thirty Queries,' &c., 1653 (Jackson; on the magistrate's authority in religion). 28. 'The Apologist Condemned,' &c., 1653 (Jackson, a vindication of No. 27). 29. 'Dissatisfaction Satisfied in Seventeen. . . Queries,' &c., 1654 (Jackson). 30. 'Peace Protected,' &c., 1654, 4to (amplification of No. 29; contains a warning against the 'fift monarchic' men). 31. 'A Fresh Discovery of the High Presbyterian Spirit,' &c., 1654, 4to (curious controversy with six London booksellers, Thomas Underhill, Samuel Gellibrand, John Rothwell, Luke Fawne, Joshua Kirton, and Nathaniel Webb, who petitioned for the restraint of the press). 32. 'The Six Booksellers Proctor Non-suited,' &c., 1655, 4to. 33. 'Mercy in her Exaltation,' &c., 1655, 4to (funeral sermon, 20 April, for Daniel Taylor). 34. 'The Foot out of the Snare,' &c., 1656, 4to (by John Toldervy, who had been a quaker; part by Goodwin). 35. 'Triumviri, or the Genius ... of ... Richard Resbury, John Pawson, and George Kendall,' &c., 1658, 4to. Calamy mentions his 'Catechism,' which has not been identified. Posthumous was 36. 'Πλήρωμα τὰ Πνευματικόν, or a Being Filled with the Spirit,' &c., 1670, 4to, with recommendatory epistle by Ralph Venning; it is included in Nichols' series of standard divines. Goodwin edited Fenner's 'Divine Message,' 1645. Jackson (p. 57) quotes. Goodwin ('Innocencies Triumph,' p. 4) as claiming the authorship of the 'Plea for Liberty of Conscience ' which forms part of a reply to Adam Steuart, originally issued with the title ' MS. to A. S.' 1644, and again with the title 'A Reply of Two of the Brethren,' &c., 1644. But Jackson has misread his reference. Goodwin distinctly assigns the piece to another pen ' ingaged in the same warfare.' The error has misled Underhill and Masson.

[Life by Jackson, 1822; Wood's Athenae Oxon. 1692, ii. 65, 85, 168, 219, 288 (mentions his having been a preacher at St. Mary's, Dover), 334; Barlow's Genuine Remains, 1693, pp. 122 sq.; Calamy's Account, 1713, p. 53; Calamy 's Continuation, 1727, i. 78; Palmer's Nonconf. Memorial, 1802, i. 196; Burnet's Own Time, 1724, i. 67, 163; Neal's Hist. of the Puritans, 1822, ii. 238, 305, iii. 230, 461, iv. 227; Collier's Eccl. Hist. ed. Barham, 1841, viii. 107, 177; Cheynell's Rise of Socinianisme, 1643, p. 56; Cheynell's Divine Trinunity, 1650, pp. 441 sq.;


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 1861] I take the official oath to-day with no mental reservations, and with no purpose to construe the Constitution or laws by any hypercritical rules. And while I do not choose now to specify particular acts of Congress as proper to be enforced, I do suggest that it will be much safer for all, both in official and private stations, to conform to and abide by all those acts which stand unrepealed, than to violate any of them, trusting to find impunity in having them held to be unconstitutional.

It is seventy-two years since the first inauguration of a President under our National Constitution. During that period fifteen different and greatly distinguished citizens have, in succession, administered the executive branch of the government. They have conducted it through many perils, and generally with great success. Yet, with all this scope of precedent, I now enter upon the same task for the brief constitutional term of four years under great and peculiar difficulty. A disruption of the Federal Union, heretofore only menaced, is now formidably attempted.

I hold that, in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution, the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments. It is safe to assert that no government proper ever had a provision in its organic law for its own termination. Continue to execute all the express provisions of our National Constitution, and the Union will endure forever—it being impossible to destroy it except by some action not provided for in the instrument itself.

Again, if the United States be not a government proper, but an association of States in the


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 transparent. It may be readily distinguished from other colourless transparent minerals, with a perfect cleavage and pearly lustre—mica, talc, brucite, gypsum—by its greater hardness of 6–7. The specific gravity is 3·4. When heated before the blowpipe it decrepitates violently, breaking up into white pearly scales; it was because of this property that the mineral was named diaspore by R. J. Haüy in 1801, from , “to scatter.” The mineral occurs as an alteration product of corundum or emery, and is found in granular limestone and other crystalline rocks. Well-developed crystals are found in the emery deposits of the Urals and at Chester, Massachusetts, and in kaolin at Schemnitz in Hungary. If obtainable in large quantity it would be of economic importance as a source of alumina.

 DIASTYLE (from Gr. , through, and  , column), in architecture, a term used to designate an intercolumniation of three or four diameters.

 DIATOMACEAE. For the knowledge we possess of these beautiful plants, so minute as to be undiscernible by our unaided vision, we are indebted to the assistance of the microscope. It was not till towards the close of the 18th century that the first known forms of this group were discovered by O. F. Müller. And so slow was the process of discovery in this field of scientific research that in the course of half a century, when Agardh published his Systema algarum in 1824, only forty-nine species included under eight genera had been described. Since that time, however, with modern microscopes and microscopic methods, eminent botanists in all parts of the civilized world have studied these minute plants, with the result that the number of known genera and species has been greatly increased. Over 10,000 species of diatoms have been described, and about 1200 species and numerous varieties occur in the fresh waters and on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. Rabenhorst, in the index to his Flora Europaea algarum (1864) enumerated about 4000 forms which had up to that time been discovered throughout the continent of Europe.

The diatoms are more commonly known among systematic botanists as the Bacillarieae, particularly on the continent of Europe, and although such an immense number of very diverse forms are included in it, the group as a whole exhibits a remarkable uniformity of structure. The Bacillarieae is one of the large groups of Algae, placed by some in close proximity to the Conjugatae and by others as an order of the Brown Algae (or Phaeophyceae), but their characters are so distinctive and their structure is so uniform as to warrant the separation of the diatoms as a distinct class. The affinities of the group are doubtful. The diatoms exhibit great variety of form. While some species are circular and more or less disk-shaped, others are oval in outline. Some are linear, as Synedra Ulna (fig. 2), others more or less crescentic; others again are cuneate, as Podosphenia Lyngbyii (fig. 3); some few have a sigmoid outline, as Pleurosigma balticum (fig. 4); but the prevailing forms are naviculoid, as in the large family Naviculaceae, of which the genus Navicula embraces upwards of 1000 species. They vary also in their modes of growth,—some being free-floating, others attached to foreign bodies by simple or branched gelatinous stalks, which in some species are short and thick, while in others they are long and slender. In some genera the forms are simple, while in others the frustules are connected together in ribbon-like filaments, or form, as in other cases, zigzag chains. In some genera the individuals are naked, while in many others they are enclosed in a more or less definite gelatinous investment. The conditions necessary to their growth are moisture and light. Wherever these circumstances coexist, diatomaceous forms will almost invariably be found. They occur mixed with other organisms on the surface of moist rocks; in streamlets and pools, they form a brownish stratum on the surface of the mud, or cover the stems and leaves of water plants or floating twigs with a furry investment. Marine forms are usually attached to various sea-weeds, and many are found in the stomachs of molluscs, holothurians, ascidians and other denizens of the ocean. The fresh-water forms are specifically distinct from those incidental to salt or brackish water,—fresh-water species, however, are sometimes carried some distance into the sea by the force of the current, and in tidal rivers marine forms are carried up by the force of the tide. Some notion may be formed of the extreme minuteness of these forms from the fact that one the length of which is th of an inch may be considered as beyond the medium size. Some few, indeed, are much larger, but by far the greater proportion are of very much smaller dimensions.

Diatoms are unicellular plants distinguished from kindred forms by the fact of having their soft vegetative part covered by a siliceous case. Each individual is known as a frustule, and the cell-wall consists of two similar valves nearly parallel to each other, each valve being furnished with a rim (or connecting-band) projecting from it at a right angle.

One of these valves with its rim is slightly smaller than the

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 Chapter 2 Air Force Opposition to International Conventions on Space The Air Force had a major impact on the evolution of outer space law during the 1950s through its close relationship to the Air Coordinating Committee (ACC). Before Sputnik I, the United States had resisted the efforts of Professor Cooper and others to establish an international convention for outer space. US opposition was, in large part, due to the strong and particularly active role that the Air Force played within the ACC. Early Air Force Actions Affecting Outer Space Law The idea for creating the ACC emerged on 26 December 1944. In a memorandum, Assistant Secretary of War for Air Robert A. Lovett recommended establishing an interdepartmental committee “to obtain the information and guidance necessary to make demobilization policies and procedures as effective as possible in preserving the productive capacity required for future national defense.” On 27 March 1945, Acting Secretary of State Joseph C. Grew, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of Navy James Forrestal, and Secretary of Commerce Henry A. Wallace signed the “Interdepartmental Memorandum Regarding Organizing of Air Coordinating Committee.” On 19 September 1946, President Harry S Truman issued Executive Order 9781, Establishment of the Air Coordination Committee. Under Truman’s executive order, the Air Coordinating Committee held the authority to establish US policy regarding international law affecting air and outer space. The ACC had authority to take its views directly to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as representing those of the United States. Given that the ICAO had a Legal Committee, the ACC created a parallel Legal Subcommittee (later division). The purpose of the subcommittee was to “provide machinery to develop and coordinate the policies which would guide the positions to be taken by the US delegation to the Legal Committee” of the ICAO. The Air Force, which only recently had been separated from the Army, was