text:
Page:Feilberg.djvu/36

Rh have in numberless instances stood faithfully to them in hardship, danger, and sickness; but as such a project, to ensure a degree of success, requires the devotion of the lives of such men as the Moravian missionaries, together with an outlay of some money and the countenance and assistance of the Government there seems little hopes of anything being done in the matter. In a late letter appearing in your columns "Outis" proposes to make the blacks work.

The idea is a good one, but how are we to get them to work? The plan of bringing them down from Western stations to work on the roast under Ceylon overseers is manifestly absurd. To get any good out of blacks they should be kept as much apart as possible from the whites, with he exception of those who have control over them. They should have large reservations allotted to them, consisting of tracts of good hunting country. A reliable and devoted man, salaried by the Government and thoroughly understanding the nature of blacks, should be associated with missionaries, if they can be got, willing to undertake the care of these creatures, and a system of management might be organised to work pretty well. Numberless objections may, of course, be urged to such a plan, one of which is the difficulty of obtaining a body of men content to sacrifice their time and efforts for the hope that a few of the offspring of their charges may turn out pretty respectable members of society. Another is the expense and the difficulty of getting official support for a scheme of this nature. A third objection is the keeping away of whites from the black flock; a fourth the eradication of vices already acquired from white men and grafted on a soil peculiarly suited to their culture. Although unprepared to combat all these objections and hosts of others which may be offered, I would point out to any who take an interest in the aboriginals, that there are large tracts of country in the Cook district, unfitted for graziers or gold miners, which might with propriety be turned into reservations for blacks. These lands teem with game, and their rivers with fish. The aboriginals on these tracts, moreover, have never come into what is termed friendly contact with white men, which I take it is the worst form of kindness to their race. Above all, these districts abound in a tree known as the cotton tree, which produces some hundreds or thousands of bales of beautiful long-stapled cotton yearly. Now, some time ago when in Java I remarked that this tree was carefully cultivated there, and on enquiry I found that the cotton was much valued for stuffing quilts and many other purposes, and was largely exported to Europe; and I was further much struck with the poor and dwarfed appearance of the trees as compared to the grand specimens abounding in our own colony. Now, if the Dutch can export this cotton with a profit, why cannot we? The gathering of it would be work essentially suited to blacks, and the profits from sales might be devoted to supporting some scheme for their welfare.

White men would be useless to collect this natural production in sufficient quantities. Blacks, on the other hand, would be in their element at such employment, and when wandering from tree to tree through the forest, combining a congenial kind of work with the pleasure of hunting, the aboriginal's soul would not fret, as it invariably does when put to steady labor.

I offer the foregoing suggestions, not because I have any hope of seeing them carried out, but because, just, at this particular time, the blood of the slain blackfellow is shrieking out unusually loud in the columns of your paper, and attention may be thereby called to them.—Yours, &c.,

—Queenslander, June 5, 1880.

,—Having had some fourteen years experience among Queensland blacks, both on inside and outside country, you will perhaps allow me a word on the "Black versus White" controversy.

I am quite aware that at times terrible outrages have been perpetrated on the blacks both by the police and by brutal "white savages;" and I have tried hard to bring to justice one of the latter who deliberately poisoned a number of blacks; but no white man's (i.e., sworn) evidence of the crime being procurable, the then Attorney-General refused to take any action upon the matter. From this you will see that I am ready and anxious to protect blacks from wanton molestation, but I most strongly deprecate the course you are taking in publishing to the world at large a list of horrible atrocities of which you have heard—and as neither names nor dates are given, it is impossible either to verify or contradict them; but even granting that they may be all true, and granting that there is only one side to each

title: Page:Feilberg.djvu/36


text: File:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu


text: Index:PlummerAberration.djvu

title: Index:PlummerAberration.djvu


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/1

252 On the Theory of Aberration and the Principle of Relativity.

By H. C. Plummer, M.A.

I. In a former paper (vol. lxix. p. 496) the theory of aberration has been discussed from the standpoint of ordinary optical theory. This suffices for the conclusion that beyond the astronomical effects as commonly understood no first-order optical effects can be put in evidence, and that, in the absence of greater experimental refinement, it is impossible for the observer to detect his own absolute motion in the ether. With this position the astronomer must be content. If we have reason to be dissatisfied with the results of the efforts hitherto made to determine the constant of aberration, we have little ground for taking into account the second-order effects. But on the other hand an optical experiment has been performed which cannot be reconciled with the ordinary theory, and we have been forced to admit that the theory, if not actually erroneous, can be no more than an approximation to the truth. Meanwhile the electronic theory of matter has been developed, and has embraced in its synthesis an explanation of this difficulty. The result is that the Principle of Relativity, with its far-reaching implications, has obtained a cardinal position in modern science. It is possible that there are some astronomers who are not familiar with the literature of the subject, and to whom an elementary account of the new ideas in physics may be of interest. Accordingly the subject will be approached from the purely optical side, and an attempt will be made to present the theory, which is a product of the last decade and is due chiefly to Professor Lorentz, in the simplest possible way.

2. According to the principle of relativity, it is impossible to find experimental evidence of the absolute motion through the ether. Let us consider the bearing of this on a very simple experiment. Let AB and AC (fig. 1) be actual lengths l' and l at right angles to one another, and let mirrors be placed at B and C perpendicular to AB, AC, so that rays of light from A will be reflected back to A. Now suppose that the whole apparatus is carried through the ether with the velocity v in the direction AB, the velocity of light being U. The time from A to B and back again will be

$t_{1}=l'/(U-v)+l'/(U+v)=2l'U/\left(U^{2}-v^{2}\right).$

But the time by the path AC'A' in the ether will be

$t_{2}=2AC'/U=2l/\sqrt{U^{2}-v^{2}}$|undefined

Hence if $$t_{1}=t_{2}$$,

$l'=l\sqrt{1-v^{2}/U^{2}}$|undefined

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/1


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/2

Jan. 1910. The actual lengths l', l must thus be different if the light-times are the same. Nevertheless no difference can be detected between the lengths by any test that we can apply, or the principle of relativity will be contravened. Hence we are led to admit a universal contraction of all material systems in the direction of their motion through the ether, according to the law

$l'=l\ \cos\ \beta$, where $\sin\ \beta=v/U$.

The dimensions transverse to the motion are considered unaltered.

If it were objected that the light-times considered above could not be determined with sufficient accuracy to support so astonishing an inference, the objection would apply only to the simple form of argument adopted. In practice the light-times can be compared with extraordinary precision by making the beams interfere on returning to A. In fact we are dealing, as it were, with a schematic representation of the Michelson-Morley experiment, the null result of which is the fundamental fact on the optical side which has to be explained.

3. The uniform contraction in one dimension of the moving material system, the possibility of which we have thus been led to entertain, suffices of itself for the discussion of some interesting optical problems. As an example, the position of the focus of a moving parabolic mirror may be chosen. Let BA1B' be the mirror (fig. 2) and F1 its focus when at rest. Let BA2B' be the figure of the mirror when in motion towards a star situated on its axis and F2 the simultaneous position of the point of the (contracted) apparatus which corresponds to F1. The incident wave-front is BCB'. If CF1 is taken as the axis of x and CB as the axis of y, the equation of BA1B' will be

$z^{2}+y^{2}=4f(x+b)$

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/2


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/3

254 where A1F1 = f, A1C = b. If we admit a contraction λ-1 which will make CF1 = λ.CF2, the equation of BA2B' becomes

$z^{2}+y^{2}=4f\lambda(x+b/\lambda)$.

This is a real deformation of the figure of the mirror. But if BA3B' is the surface at which the advancing wave-front actually meets the moving mirror

$A_{2}A_{3}/v=A_{3}C/U=A_{2}C/(v+U)$

where v is the velocity of the mirror, and the virtual surface on which the wave falls becomes

$z^{2}+y^{2}=4f\lambda(1+v/U)\{x+b/\lambda(1+v/U)\}$.

This is still a paraboloid, and the wave BCB' will reach its focus F3 after a time

$t=f\lambda(U+v)/U^{2}+b/\lambda(U+v)$.

Hence no change of focus will be detected provided F2F3 = vt. Now

$\begin{array}{l} CF_{3}=f\lambda(1+v/U)-b/\lambda(1+v/U)\\ \\CF_{2}=f/\lambda-b/\lambda\end{array}$

so that

$F_{2}F_{3}=f\lambda(1+v/U)-f/\lambda+bv/\lambda(U+v)$

which is equal to vt if

$f\lambda.v(U+v)/U^{2}=f\lambda.(U+v)/U+f/\lambda$

or

$\lambda^{-2}=(U+v)\left(1/U-v/U^{2}\right)=1-v^{2}/U^{2}.$

This is the law of contraction previously obtained, and the result is a complete compensation of the optical effect due to the motion of the mirror.

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/3


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/4

Jan. 1910. When a telescope is moving directly towards a star, Veltmann’s theorem shows that the motion will not affect the relative position of the focus to the first order. But a second order effect will remain outstanding, although it will be too small to be ascertained by focal settings. According to our present ideas, however, no effect of any order is to be expected, and our example shows how the compensation operates in a particularly simple case.

4. In what precedes we have contemplated only a change in one dimension of the moving system, or, as it may be expressed, a transformation of one coordinate in space. We have now to consider a related transformation to apparent or, as it is called, "local" time. Let axes be taken attached to the moving system, the measured coordinates being ξ, η, ζ. Let their position at the time t = 0 be the axes fixed in space, the corresponding coordinates being x, y, z. The motion of the system is supposed parallel to the axis of x or ξ.

We now imagine a new system of time τ, which depends not only on the absolute time t but also on the position in space. It is sufficient for our purpose to suppose that

$\tau=at-bx,\ \xi=cx-dt,\ \eta=y,\ \zeta=z.$

All optical phenomena which would be described by an observer at rest in space in terms of x, y, z and t will be described by an observer in motion in terms of ξ, η, ζ and τ. Now one result of the principle of relativity and of the constant velocity of light is that the spherical wave-front

$x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}=U^{2}t^{2}$

must appear to the moving observer as

$\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}+\zeta^{2}=U^{2}\tau^{2},$

for a spherical wave which actually converges to a point in reality must appear to converge to a point and to move with the velocity U. This requires

$(cx-dt)^{2}-U^{2}(at-bx)^{2}\equiv x^{2}-U^{2}t^{2},$

or

$c^{2}-b^{2}U^{2}=1,\ a^{2}-d^{2}-d^{2}U^{-2}=1,\ cd=abU^{2},$

which can be satisfied by

$a=c=\sec\beta,\ bU=d/U=\tan\beta.$

Here β is arbitrary, but we must also have ξ= 0 identical with x = vt, or

$v=d/c=U\ \sin\beta,$

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/4


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/5

256 and thus the complete transformation is determined:

$\begin{array}{l} \tau=t\ \sec\beta-x\ \tan\beta/U\\ \\\xi=x\ \sec\beta-Ut\ \tan\ \beta\\ \\\eta=y,\ \zeta=z,\ \sin\beta=v/U.\end{array}$

5. The physical interpretation of this transformation is simple. The coordinates y and z are unaltered, but we have at any given time t

$\xi_{2}-\xi_{1}=\left(x_{2}-x_{1}\right)\sec\beta.$

The measured distance between two points in the direction of motion is therefore greater than the actual distance in the ratio of sec β : 1. This accords with the idea already entertained that the corresponding dimension of the material system, including any scale which may be used for making measures, is actually diminished in consequence of the motion in the ratio cos β : 1.

At a given position in the ether

$\frac{\partial\tau}{\partial t}=\sec\beta,$

which means that a stationary clock made to synchronise with passing clocks keeping "local" time must be accelerated in the ratio sec β : 1 when compared with the standard time of space t. But on the other hand,

$\frac{d\tau}{dt}=\sec\beta-v\ \tan\beta/U=\cos\beta,$

which means that a "local" clock moving through the ether with the velocity v has a rate retarded in the ratio cos β : 1 when compared with the "standard" clock. The result of the transformation is that we have established a consistent system of apparent time which is such that if we imagine luminous clock-faces at all points of the moving system indicating local time, those which are at equal measured distances from a given station will appear to show the same time, and this a time differing from the local time of the station by an amount equal to the apparent constant distance divided by U.

6. We now see that if the laws of optics relative to the moving system, expressed in terms of ξ, η, ζ and τ, are formally the same as the laws for a stationary system, expressed in terms of x, y, z and t, there will be no possibility of detecting the fact of motion by any optical experiment made with apparatus which is carried with the system.

Now we have from the transformation of § 4,

$\begin{array}{l} \frac{d\xi}{d\tau}=\left(\frac{dx}{dt}-U\ \sin\beta\right)/\left(1-\frac{dx}{dt}\sin\beta/U\right)\\ \\\frac{d\eta}{d\tau}=\frac{dy}{dt}\cos\beta/\left(1-\frac{dx}{dt}\sin\beta/U\right)\\ \\\frac{d\zeta}{d\tau}=\frac{dz}{dt}\cos\beta/\left(1-\frac{dx}{dt}\sin\beta/U\right)\end{array}$

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/5


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/6

Jan. 1910. for the relative velocities. Let W be the absolute velocity of a ray which is parallel to the axis of x or ξ in a moving medium which has the refractive index μ when at rest. Then

$\frac{d\xi}{d\tau}=(W-v)/\left(1-Wv/U^{2}\right).$

But this is μ-1U if the apparent ray-velocity is unaltered by the motion. Hence

$W-v=\mu^{-1}U\left(1-Wv/U^{2}\right)$

or

$W=\mu^{-1}U+\left(1-\mu^{-2}\right)v/\left(1+\mu^{-1}v/U\right).$

The second member on the right is the apparent drift of plane light-waves which are normal to the direction of motion. To the first order it agrees with Fresnel’s expression (1 - μ-2)v and is consistent with Fizeau’s experiment, which cannot be performed accurately enough to verify it to a higher order. For the rest we have a general explanation of the null effect of optical experiments without supposing that the ether is carried along in the neighbourhood of the Earth without relative motion.

7. According to the electromagnetic theory a plane wave of light depends upon two periodic vectors, the components of which contain the factor

$\sin\ 2\pi w\{t-(ax+by+cz)/W\}$,

where a, b, c are the direction cosines of the wave-normal and W is the wave-velocity. To the observer moving with velocity v, the corresponding factor is

$\sin\ 2\pi w'\{\tau-(a'\xi-b'\eta+c'\zeta)/W'\}$.

The transformation of § 4 gives the relations

$\begin{array}{rl} w & =w'(\sec\beta+a'U\ \tan\beta/W')\\ \\wa/W & =w'(a'\ \sec\beta/W'+\tan\ \beta/U)\\ \\wb/W & =w'b'/W'\\ \\wc/W & =w'c'/W'\end{array}$

or, if the transformation be reversed (which only requires the sign of β to be changed),

$\begin{array}{rl} w' & =w\ \sec\beta(1-aU\sin\beta/W)\\ \\a'/W' & =(a/W-\sin\beta/U)/(1-aU\ \sin\beta/W)\\ \\b'/W' & =b\ \cos\beta/W(1-aU\ \sin\beta/W)\\ \\c'/W' & =c\ \cos\beta/W(1-aU\ \sin\beta/W)\end{array}$

The latter equations give

$1/W'^{2}=\left\{ 1-2aW\ \sin\beta/U-\left(1-a^{2}-W^{2}/U^{2}\right)\sin^{2}\beta\right\} \div W^{2}(1-aU\ \sin\beta/W)^{2},$

or

$1/W{}^{2}=\left\{ 1+2a'W'\ \sin\beta/U-\left(1-a'^{2}-W'^{2}/U^{2}\right)\sin^{2}\beta\right\} \div W'^{2}(1+a'U\ \sin\beta/W')^{2},$

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/6


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochs, Adolph S.

OCHS, ADOLPH S. (1858-), American newspaper proprietor, was born in Cincinnati March 12 1858, of Jewish parentage. His father, who had left Bavaria for the United States in 1846, settled in 1865 with his family in Knoxville, Tenn., where the son studied in the public schools and during his spare time delivered newspapers. At the age of 15 he became a printer's devil on a Knoxville paper, and advanced so rapidly that in 1878 he gained control of the reorganized Chattanooga Times, which soon assumed a high position among the papers of the South. The following year he founded a commercial paper called The Tradesman. He was one of the founders of the Southern Associated Press and served as president. In 1896 he obtained control of The New York Times, then in financial difficulties and with circulation greatly diminished. He formed the New York Times Co., placed the paper on a strong financial foundation, and became the majority stockholder. With a daily issue on Aug. 18 1896 of 18,900 (of which over half was returned unsold), the circulation increased rapidly, reaching an average of 352,500 in 1921. Annual receipts exceeded $15,000,000, probably equalling those of any other American paper. On Aug. 18 1921, the 25th anniversary of reorganization, the staff of The New York Times numbered 1,885. It was classed as an independent Democratic publication, and consistently opposed William Jennings Bryan in his presidential campaigns. By its fairness in the presentation of news, editorial moderation and ample foreign service, it secured a high place in American journalism, becoming widely read and influential throughout the country. Beginning with 1896 there was issued weekly a supplement eventually called The New York Times Book Review and Magazine. Gradually other auxiliary publications were added: The Annalist, a financial review appearing on Mondays; The Times Mid-Week Pictorial on Thursdays; Current History Magazine, a monthly, started during the World War. The New York Times Index, started in 1913 and published quarterly, forms an invaluable guide to contemporary events, to be compared only with the similar Index to The Times of London. In 1901 Mr. Ochs became proprietor and editor of the Philadelphia Times, later merged in the Philadelphia Public Ledger, of which he was sole owner from 1902-12, when he sold it to Cyrus W. K. Curtis.


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/7

258 which express the apparent wave-velocity in a moving medium in terms of the absolute, or vice versa. For a vacuum we put W = W' = U, and we have

$\begin{array}{l} w'=w\ \sec\beta(1-a\ \sin\beta)\\ \\a'=(a-\sin\beta)(1-a\ \sin\beta)\\ \\b'=b\ \cos\beta/(1-a\ \sin\beta)\\ \\c'=c\ \cos\beta/(1-a\ \sin\beta).\end{array}$

8. The laws of stellar aberration and of the Doppler effect are at once deducible, as Einstein has shown. For a star situated in the direction making an angle φ with the direction of motion of the observer we have a = - cos φ and a' = - cos φ', where φ' is the apparent direction. Then we see that

$\begin{array}{rl} w'= & w\ \sec\beta(1+\sin\beta\ \cos\phi)\\ \\\cos\phi'= & (\cos\phi+\sin\beta)/(1+\sin\beta\ \cos\phi)\end{array}$

These expressions can, however, be simplified. For the latter equation gives

$\sin\phi'=\cos\beta\ \sin\phi/(1+\sin\beta\ \cos\phi).$

Hence

$w'\sin\phi'=w\ \sin\phi.$

Again,

$\frac{1-\cos\phi'}{1+\cos\phi'}=\frac{(1-\sin\beta)(1-\cos\phi)}{(1+\sin\beta)(1+\cos\phi)}$

or

$\tan\frac{1}{2}\phi'=\sqrt{\frac{U-v}{U+v}}\tan\frac{1}{2}\phi,$|undefined

which puts the law of aberration in an extremely simple form. If we use wave-lengths instead of wave-frequencies we have

$\lambda'/\sin\phi'=\lambda/\sin\phi.$

This form, which connects directly the apparent wave-length with the apparent aberrational position of the star, becomes useless when φ = φ' = 0, but in this case the product of the last two equations gives in the limit

$\lambda'=\sqrt{\frac{U-v}{U+v}}\lambda,$|undefined

which is the new form of Doppler’s principle. It must he remembered that v is the motion of the observer relative to the medium, and that λ depends on the unknown velocity of the source of light relative to the medium. In some cases we may fairly assume that λ is constant, but λ as well as φ is originally unknown and, if the principle of relativity be accepted in its widest extent, remains unknowable.

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/7


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/8

Jan. 1910. 9. The geometrical significance of the new law of aberration is interesting. In the first place we may consider the stereographic projection of the celestial sphere on the tangent plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. The form of the law of aberration

$\tan\frac{1}{2}\phi'=\sqrt{\frac{U-v}{U+v}}\tan\frac{1}{2}\phi$|undefined

shows that the effect of aberration is simply to alter the scale of the projection. But the stereographic projection is a conformal representation of the sphere. Hence actual configurations on the sphere are only changed conformally by the effect of aberration, or in other words any small area is altered only in size and not in shape. We know that aberration merely changes the scale of a photograph of a small part of the sky, and the truth of this fact now becomes independent of the velocity (however large) of the observer. Also stars which appear to lie on a circle at any one time will continue to do so permanently.

Another geometrical representation is obtained by assimilating φ' to the eccentric and φ to the true anomaly in an ellipse whose eccentricity is v/U = sin β. This means that we view the apparent celestial sphere from the centre. Then, to pass from the apparent direction of a star to its actual direction, we must imagine the sphere transformed into an ellipsoid by contracting its dimensions perpendicular to the axis along which motion takes place in the ratio of cos β : 1. The true direction will then be inferred by viewing the ellipsoid of revolution from the focus which is in advance of the centre. Conversely, we may interchange φ and φ' if we employ the other focus. We thus see that if we consider the true celestial sphere to undergo the contraction just specified, the apparent positions of the stars are given by viewing the ellipsoid from that focus which follows the centre.

10. Secular Aberration.— In what precedes, the question of all second-order effects connected with aberration has taken a new form. But we may return to the old order of ideas to consider briefly the subject of secular aberration which arises from the motion of the solar system through the ether of space, and which was first discussed by Villarceau. It is a very simple matter when regarded from the old point of view, but it has led to some apparent confusion. It has been seen (vol. lxix. p. 505) that if the light which leaves a star at the time T is observed at the time t, the observed direction of the star coincides with the actual direction of a fictitious body which is supposed to start from the position of the star at time T, and to continue in motion during the time (t — T) with a velocity equal and parallel to that of the Earth at the time t.

Now the velocity of the Earth is compounded of its velocity v relative to the centre of mass of the solar system and the velocity

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/8


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/9

260 V (supposed constant) of the system. If V' is the resultant and U the velocity of light, we have

$ES=U(t-T),\ SS'=V'(t-T),$

E (fig. 3) being the position of the Earth at time t, S the position of the star at time T, ES' the observed direction, and SS' the virtual displacement of the star. But this displacement is compounded of two, SS0 and S0S', such that

$SS_{0}=V(t-T),\ S_{0}S'=v(t-T).$

Let ES0 = Uτ. If then we ignore the velocity V, as in practice we do, and assume a virtual star in the permanently displaced position SO, we shall infer from observation a fictitious velocity of the Earth v' such that

$S_{0}S'=v(t-T)=v'\tau$

or

$v'/v=(t-T)/\tau=ES/ES_{0}=U/\sqrt{U^{2}+V^{2}+2UV\ \cos\phi},$

where φ is the angle between the true direction of the star and the direction of the secular motion of the solar system. Otherwise expressed, the result is as if the constant of aberration for the given star is changed in the ratio of $$U:\sqrt{U^{2}+V^{2}+2UV\ \cos\phi}$$. This is an elementary deduction of Villarceau’s result, and on the assumed premises no other effect is to be expected.

The subject of secular aberration was discussed by Seeliger, who arrived at results which are quite inadmissible. His expressions for the effects of aberration in R.A. and declination become infinite at the pole, whereas it is obvious that there is no singularity in the neighbourhood of this point in the sky. There is no special connection between the pole and the direction of the operative vectors considered above, and such results can only be due to faulty analysis. It would have been unnecessary to refer

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/9


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/10

Jan. 1910. to this paper, had not the same errors been reproduced by Weinek in an elaborate memoir of recent date. A correct treatment of the question has been given by Schwarzschild on the lines of the present paragraph. But of course the whole question has now entered on a new phase.

11. It is easy to see that the old and the new laws of aberration agree to the first order of small quantities. Beyond the first order, the present accuracy of astronomical observations does not encourage us to look for any means of discriminating between them. Nevertheless it is interesting to ask whether the principle of relativity, as outlined above, has robbed us of the theoretical possibility of detecting the effect of the motion of the solar system through the ether of space. This has been asserted, and we have now to find a satisfactory justification for the assertion. It may be thought that a sufficient argument is contained in the statement italicised in § 6. But this does not appear to cover the case of aberration without a more critical examination. The motion of the observer does affect his observations, even when expressed in terms of the transformed variables, and we cannot dispense with the necessity of explaining in detail how the expected compensation operates when the observations are corrected in a definite, specified manner. And the question is subtle enough to leave ample room for misapprehension. The most obvious instance of this seems worthy of attention. Let us imagine observations made simultaneously by an observer E on the Earth and an observer S on the Sun (or rather the centre of gravity of the solar system, supposed to be moving with uniform velocity through space). Referred in the usual way to a sphere (fig. 4), let S be the apex of the Sun’s ether-velocity V0, and E the apex of the Earth’s ether-velocity V1. Let P represent the true direction of a star, and P0, P1 the positions

which it appears to the observers S and E respectively to occupy. Now we should have complete agreement between the two observers, and total compensation for E, if the correction applied by E had the effect of changing P1 into P0. The observer E must

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/10


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/11

262 suppose that he is moving relatively to S in the direction of some point E' on the great circle SE; and if he is to deduce the position P0 in space from the observed position of the star P1, the point E' must lie also on the great circle P0P1. Since P0, P1, E' are points on the sides of the triangle SPE, and S, E, E' are points on the sides of the triangle PP0P1, we have

$\begin{array}{ccccc} \frac{\sin SE'}{\sin EE'} & \cdot & \frac{\sin EP_{1}}{\sin P_{1}P} & \cdot & \frac{\sin PP_{0}}{\sin P_{0}S}=1\\ \\\frac{\sin P_{0}E'}{\sin P_{1}E'} & \cdot & \frac{\sin P_{1}E}{\sin PE} & \cdot & \frac{\sin PS}{\sin P_{0}S}=1.\end{array}$|undefined

Let

$PS=\phi_{0},\ P_{0}S=\phi'_{0},\ PP_{0}=\phi_{0}\ \phi'_{0}$

$PE=\phi_{1},\ P_{1}E=\phi'_{1},\ PP_{1}=\phi_{1}-\phi'_{1}.$

Hence

$\frac{\sin\ SE'}{\sin\ EE'}=\frac{\sin\left(\phi_{1}-\phi'_{1}\right)}{\sin\phi'_{1}}\cdot\frac{\sin\phi'_{0}}{\sin\left(\phi_{0}-\phi'_{0}\right)}$|undefined

$\frac{\sin P_{0}E'}{\sin P_{1}E'}=\frac{\sin\phi_{1}}{\sin\phi'_{1}}\cdot\frac{\sin\phi'_{0}}{\sin\phi{}_{0}}.$|undefined

The first of these shows that

$\frac{\sin\left(\phi_{1}-\phi'_{1}\right)}{\sin\phi'_{1}}\div\frac{\sin\left(\phi_{0}-\phi'_{0}\right)}{\sin\phi'_{0}}=const.$|undefined

for all stars, which happens to be true according to the ordinary theory of aberration. But it is not true according to the "relativity" law of aberration, which gives

$\frac{\sin\left(\phi-\phi'\right)}{\sin\phi'}=\frac{\sin\beta+(1-\cos\beta)\cos\phi}{\cos\beta}.$

In fact it appears that a law of aberration, which would explain the absence of a visible effect arising from the secular motion by supposing that the corrected observation coincides in space with the standard observation, would require simultaneously

$\sin(\phi-\phi')/\sin\phi'=f_{1}(V),\ \sin(\phi-\phi')/\sin\phi=f_{2}(V),$

and this is not possible. We have then to look in another direction for the explanation of the way in which the "relativity" law effects a compensation, and for the necessary hint I am indebted to Mr. Eddington, who very kindly supplied me with a particular case which was both simple and illuminating.

12. A general proof will now be given. Let the ether-velocity of the observer S be $$V_{0}=U\ \sin\beta_{0}$$, and of the observer E be $$V_{1}=U\ \sin\beta_{1}$$, and let the angle between them be α, being measured from V0 towards V1. The components of V0 along and perpendicular

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/11


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/12

Jan. 1910. to V1 are $$V_{0}\cos\alpha,\ -V_{0}\sin\alpha$$. Hence for E the components of the apparent velocity of S are (by § 6)

$\frac{V_{0}\cos\alpha-U\ \sin\beta_{1}}{1-V_{0}\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{1}/U},\ \frac{-V_{0}\sin\alpha\ \cos\beta_{1}}{1-V_{0}\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{1}/U}$|undefined

or

$\frac{U\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}-\sin\beta_{1}\right)}{1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}},\ \frac{-U\ \sin\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}}{1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}}.$|undefined

Now E must infer that his own velocity relative to S, $$V_{10}=U\ \sin\beta_{10}$$, has these components reversed in sign; and if θ be the angle between V1 and the resultant we have

$\sin\beta_{10}\cos\theta=\left(\sin\beta_{1}-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\right)/\left(1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}\right)$

$\sin\beta_{10}\cos\theta=\sin\alpha-\sin\beta_{0}\ \cos\beta_{1}/\left(1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}\right)$

and we deduce

$\cos\beta_{10}=\cos\beta_{0}\ \cos\beta_{1}/\left(1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}\right).$

We take the z-axis perpendicular to V0 and V1 throughout, and

(i) The x-axis parallel to V0. If (λ, μ, ν) are the direction cosines of a star in its true position, S observes this star in the direction (by § 7)

$\lambda_{0}=\frac{\lambda+\sin\beta_{0}}{1+\lambda\sin\beta_{0}},\ \mu_{0}=\frac{\mu\ \cos\beta_{0}}{1+\lambda\sin\beta_{0}},\ \nu_{0}=\frac{\nu\ \cos\beta_{0}}{1+\lambda\sin\beta_{0}}.$|undefined

(ii) We turn the x-axis through the angle a to bring it into the direction of V1. The direction cosines of the star in its true position become

$\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha,\ \mu\ \cos\alpha-\lambda\ \sin\alpha,\ \nu,$

and E will observe it in the direction

$\begin{array}{lr} \lambda_{1}= & \left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha+\sin\beta_{1}\right)/\left\{ 1+\left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha\right)\sin\beta_{1}\right\} \\ \\\mu_{1}= & (\mu\ \cos\alpha-\lambda\ \sin\alpha)\cos\beta_{1}/\left\{ 1+\left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha\right)\sin\beta_{1}\right\} \\ \\\nu_{1}= & \nu\ \cos\beta_{1}/\left\{ 1+\left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha\right)\sin\beta_{1}\right\} \end{array}$

(iii) We turn the x-axis through the further angle θ to bring it into the direction of V10. The direction cosines of the star in its apparent position become

$\lambda_{1}\cos\theta+\mu_{1}\sin\theta,\ \mu_{1}\cos\theta-\lambda_{1}\sin\theta,\ \nu_{1},$

and when E has corrected this position for his observed relative velocity V10 he will infer that the star lies in the direction

$\begin{array}{lr} \lambda_{10}= & \left(\lambda_{1}\ \cos\theta+\mu_{1}\ \sin\theta-\sin\beta_{10}\right)/\left\{ 1-\left(\lambda_{1}\ \cos\theta+\mu_{1}\ \sin\theta\right)\sin\beta_{10}\right\} \\ \\\mu_{10}= & (\mu_{1}\ \cos\theta-\lambda_{1}\ \sin\theta)\cos\beta_{10}/\left\{ 1-\left(\lambda_{1}\ \cos\theta+\mu_{1}\ \sin\theta\right)\sin\beta_{10}\right\} \\ \\\nu_{10}= & \nu_{1}\ \cos\beta_{10}/\left\{ 1-\left(\lambda_{1}\ \cos\theta+\mu_{1}\ \sin\theta\right)\sin\beta_{10}\right\}. \end{array}$

These have to be compared with $$\lambda_{0},\ \mu_{0},\ \nu_{0}$$, remembering that the axes have been turned through an angle α + θ.

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/12


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/13

264 13. The process of eliminating $$\lambda_{1},\ \mu_{1},\ \nu_{1}$$ and θ is perfectly simple and straightforward, if rather complicated. We find

$1-\left(\lambda_{1}\cos\theta+\mu_{1}\sin\theta\right)\sin\beta_{10}=\frac{\left(1+\lambda\ \sin\beta_{0}\right)\cos^{2}\beta_{1}}{\left\{ 1+\left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha\right)\sin\beta_{1}\right\} \left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)}$|undefined

whence

$\nu_{10}=\nu\ \cos\beta_{0}/\left(1+\lambda\sin\beta_{0}\right).$

Also

$\begin{array}{r} \sin\beta_{10}\left(\mu_{1}\cos\theta-\lambda_{1}\sin\theta\right)\left\{ 1+\left(\lambda\ \cos\alpha+\mu\ \sin\alpha\right)\sin\beta_{1}\right\} \left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)\\ \\=\cos\beta_{1}\left\{ \mu\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}-\sin\beta_{0}\right)-\left(\lambda+\sin\beta_{0}\right)\sin\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}\right\} \end{array}$

whence

$\mu_{10}\sin\beta_{10}=\frac{\cos\beta_{0}\left\{ \mu\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}-\sin\beta_{0}\right)-\left(\lambda+\sin\beta_{0}\right)\sin\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}\right\} }{\left(1+\lambda\ \sin\beta_{0}\right)\left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)}.$

Similarly a little reduction gives

$\lambda_{10}\sin\beta_{10}=\frac{\left(\lambda+\sin\beta_{0}\right)\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}-\sin\beta_{0}\right)+\mu\ \sin\alpha\cos^{2}\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}}{\left(1+\lambda\ \sin\beta_{0}\right)\left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)}.$|undefined

We come now to the interpretation of these expressions. The components of V1 along and perpendicular to V0 are V1 cos α, V1 sin α. Hence the apparent components of the relative velocity of E as observed by S are

$\frac{V_{1}\cos\alpha-U\ \sin\beta_{0}}{1-V_{1}\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}/U},\ \frac{V_{1}\sin\alpha\cos\beta_{0}}{1-V_{1}\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}/U},$|undefined

or

$\frac{U\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}-\sin\beta_{0}\right)}{1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}},\ \frac{U\ \sin\alpha\cos\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}}{1-\cos\alpha\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}}.$|undefined

Hence if χ be the angle between V0 and the resultant $$V_{01}=U\ \sin\beta_{01}$$, we have

$\sin\beta_{01}\cos\chi=\left(\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{1}-\sin\beta_{0}\right)/\left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)$

$\sin\beta_{01}\sin\chi=\sin\alpha\ \cos\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}/\left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right)$

and we deduce

$\cos\beta_{01}=\cos\beta_{0}\cos\beta_{1}/\left(1-\cos\alpha\ \sin\beta_{0}\ \sin\beta_{1}\right).$

We see that $$\beta_{01}=\beta_{10}$$, and when we introduce $$\lambda_{0},\ \mu_{0},\ \nu_{0}$$ and χ into the last expressions for $$\lambda_{10},\ \mu_{10},\ \nu_{10}$$ we obtain simply

$\lambda_{10}=\lambda_{0}\cos\chi+\mu_{0}\sin\chi,\ \mu_{10}=\mu_{0}\cos\chi-\lambda_{0}\sin\chi,\ \nu_{10}=\nu_{0}.$

The interpretation is that the sky as seen by the observer E and referred to the direction in which he observes himself to be moving relative to S, is identical with the sky as seen by the observer S, and referred to the direction in which he observes E to be moving relative to himself. Thus the observations of E,

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/13


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/14

Jan. 1910. corrected for his observed relative velocity, give the same configuration as the observations of S uncorrected, and the latter is a permanent standard so long as his velocity is uniform. But for E the whole universe is rotated in space through an angle θ + α - χ. This rotation is precisely that which is required to enable the two observers to identify the same star as occupying the position which each observer imagines to represent the apex of the motion of E relative to S, and thus it could not be detected even though the two observers were in communication. The difficulty discussed in § 11 arises from the fact that the observed velocity of E relative to S and the observed velocity of S relative to E are not in the same straight line. We find that

$\tan(\chi-\theta)=\frac{\sin\alpha\left(\cos\beta_{0}+\cos\beta_{1}\right)}{\cos\alpha\left(1+\cos\beta_{0}\cos\beta_{1}\right)-\sin\beta_{0}\sin\beta_{1}},$|undefined

which can be reduced to the form

$\tan\frac{1}{2}(\chi-\theta)=\frac{\cos\frac{1}{2}\left(\beta_{1}-\beta_{0}\right)}{\cos\frac{1}{2}\left(\beta_{1}+\beta_{0}\right)}\tan\frac{1}{2}\alpha$

Thus χ - θ is not equal to α, as it would be in ordinary kinematics.

14. We have thus given a perfectly precise meaning to the application of the principle of relativity to stellar aberration. In doing so we have excluded everything which does not belong to the purely optical aspect of the problem. But stellar aberration is not a purely optical problem. For in practice we do not actually observe the apparent motion of the Sun and use the result to correct our observed positions of the stars. The motion which we do use is derived by calculation from the theory of gravitation. Hence, if we are to be consistent, we must regard Keplerian motion as an appearance, not as a reality. And here we come in contact with the general problem of the dynamics of the electron, which in the historical sense is responsible for the introduction of the principle of relativity. In this wider problem there is a profound modification of the notion of mass, in addition to the transformation which we have admitted in the time and the spatial coordinates. The result of the work of Lorentz and others is to show that these transformations suffice to explain the complete compensation of effects arising from the motion of any system through space over the whole field of electrodynamics as well as of optics. The same will be true of gravitation if gravity can be expressed in terms of electrodynamic entities. If, on the other hand, the nature of gravity were essentially not electrodynamic, it would be possible for some deviation from the accepted laws of dynamics, owing to a motion of translation through space, to be revealed by direct astronomical observations. The possibility of such deviations and of the compensations, partial or complete, which may accompany them, places some astronomical problems in a new position. Thus Poincaré has recently reconsidered the

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/14


text:
Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/15

266 problem of Laplace concerning the finite propagation of gravitation, and has concluded, contrary to Laplace’s negative result, that the propagation of gravitation with the velocity of light can be brought into consistency with the facts of observation owing to the partial compensations which are now introduced into the theory. Such questions are in the highest degree subtle and intricate as well as interesting. What it is desired to point out is that the developments of modern physical theory concern the astronomer no less than the physicist.

title: Page:PlummerAberration.djvu/15


text: Index:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu

title: Index:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu


text:
Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/1

 Recent Researches on Space, Time, and Force.

Celestial mechanics, which has hitherto been based on the Newtonian laws of motion, is profoundly affected by the discoveries which have been made in recent years regarding measurements of space, time, and force.

One of the oldest and most perplexing questions regarding space is whether any definite meaning can be attached to the terms "absolute rest" and "absolute velocity." Newton in the laws of motion speaks of "rest" and "motion" relative to some presupposed frame of reference, but this frame of reference need not itself be absolutely at rest, for Newton’s laws are valid if the frame of reference is any one of an infinite number of frames which have uniform velocities of translation relative to each other. It is therefore hopeless to look to purely dynamical considerations for guidance in the recognition of absolute rest.

Throughout the nineteenth century it was thought that absolute motion in space, or at any rate absolute motion relative to the general body of stars, could be determined by the astronomical study of proper motions; and the Sun was supposed to have "an absolute velocity of about fifteen miles a second towards a point in the constellation Hercules." It is needless to relate here how this result has been overthrown by the labours of Kapteyn. But even when the failure of dynamics and astronomy to reveal absolute motion was admitted, it was still hoped that the solution might be found by aid of the theories of light and electricity. For suppose a luminous or electro-magnetic disturbance to be set up at a definite

title: Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/1


text:
Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/2

 instant of time at some definite point of space, the disturbance will travel outwards from this point as a wave-front, which, if the space is unoccupied by matter, will be a sphere of gradually increasing size. During this process the centre of the sphere preserves its position unchanged relative to the æther; and thus it would seem as if a definite meaning could be attached to the term "absolute rest." Hopes might even be entertained of the measurement of absolute velocities relative to the æther by experimental methods.

The example which has just been given belongs to the theory of light. It is not difficult to imagine also electrical systems which might be expected to give information regarding absolute motion. For instance, two electric charges repel each other according to the law of electrostatics, but if the charges are in motion with equal and parallel velocities at right angles to the line joining them, the moving charges will be equivalent to elements of parallel currents, and the electrostatic repulsion will consequently be weakened by an electro-dynamic attraction superposed on it. Absolute rest could thus be characterised as that state in which the force between the charges has its maximum value.

Numerous optical and electrical experiments based on principles similar to these have been made at different times with the object of determining the absolute velocity of the Earth. But the expected effect has always failed to show itself; and at last physicists have been driven to the conclusion that a previously unrecognised compensatory influence must exist, which removes all effects of motion through the æther from the quantities which are measurable in the experiments.

The nature of this compensatory influence was first discovered by Fitzgerald. It is, that the dimensions of material bodies are slightly altered when they are in motion relative to the æther, the linear dimensions of a body in the direction of its motion being contracted in the ratio $$\left(1-w^{2}/c^{2}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$$ : 1, where w denotes the velocity of the body and c the velocity of light. For a body moving with the speed of the Earth the ratio w/c is only 1/10,000, so the contraction is only one two-hundred—millionth.

The full significance of Fitzgerald’s hypothesis was only gradually unfolded. The first development was the discovery that if a purely electrical system is in equilibrium when at rest, the members of the same system will be in equilibrium when they have a common translatory motion, provided the system experiences an alteration of dimensions precisely the same as that which Fitzgerald attributed to material bodies. The obvious deduction from this is, that the forces of cohesion which determine the size of material bodies are really electrical in their origin: if this be accepted, the Fitzgerald contraction follows as a necessary consequence.

title: Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/2


text:
Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/3

 It will be seen that under these circumstances we cannot hope to measure experimentally either the Fitzgerald contraction itself or any other effect of motion through the æther so long as we ourselves move with the moving system, for all these effects of motion form part of a general sympathetic change which takes place in everything with which we can operate, so that no alteration in the mutual relations of the members of the system is recognisable from within. The change, such as it is, is best described as a variation of the standards of length, time, and force.

It is this last-mentioned aspect of the matter which has chiefly occupied attention of late. On what principles are measurements of length, time, and force ultimately based?

It may be remarked that the measurement of space cannot be effected without introducing the idea of time, for of the events with which we deal in natural philosophy each is perceived to happen at some definite location at some definite instant of time, and we have no obvious means of preserving the identity of this location from one moment to another. Experience deals directly, not with a three-dimensional world of space, but with a four-dimensional world of time and space combined, and the choice of a system of measurement really means the choice of a particular projection of this four-dimensional world into a three-dimensional world of space and a one-dimensional world of time. In practice we perform this act of choice in such a way as to simplify the description of natural phenomena as much as possible; thus we lay down the condition that the increment of the time-variable in the interval between any two consecutive beats of a pendulum carried along with the observer shall be the same as its increment in the interval between any other two consecutive beats; by measuring time in this way we are enabled to formulate the laws of dynamics in simple terms.

We have already seen reason to suppose that the fundamental branch of physical science is the theory of the æther, and we are consequently led to measure space, time, and force in such a way as to give the simplest possible form to the laws of æthereal disturbance. Accordingly two philosophers, situated respectively on two stars which are in motion relative to each other, will not choose the same standards of length and time; each of them will in fact choose his standards so as to satisfy the condition that the velocity of propagation of æthereal disturbance, relative to a framework which moves with his own star, is to be reckoned equal in all directions.

The projection of the four-dimensional world of space and time into the three-dimensional world of space and the one-dimensional world of time is therefore really arbitrary, it may be done in an infinite number of ways, no one of which has any absolute primacy over the others; and each observer chooses the way which best suits the circumstances of his own motion. If we wish to describe natural phenomena in a way independent of the bias of the particular observer, we must have recourse to the language of four-dimensional

title: Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/3


text:
Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/4

 analysis. We begin with a "substantial point," which represents the location of a definite particle, together with the instant at which the particle occupied this location, so that four scalar quantities are required to specify a substantial point. We then proceed to define various four-dimensional vectors, the "absolute velocity," "absolute acceleration," and "absolute force," and formulate the law of motion in the form

This law may be expressed analytically in terms of the ordinary coordinates (x, y, z) of the particle m, in the form

$$m\frac{d^{2}x}{dt^{2}}\left(1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)^{-\frac{1}{2}}=X$$, and two similar equations,

where v denotes the velocity of the particle and (X, Y, Z) the force acting on it, in the ordinary sense of the term. These equations differ from those given by Newton’s laws owing to the presence of the factor $$\left(1-v^{2}/c^{2}\right)^{-\frac{1}{2}}$$, and it thus appears that Newton’s laws must henceforth be regarded as only approximately true. E. T. W.

title: Page:WhittakerSpaceTime.djvu/4


text:
Page:Feilberg.djvu/38

Rh ,—Permit me a little space in your columns to give an unqualified denial to the broad and sweeping assertion of your anonymous correspondent, "Outis," as to the character of the officers of the Native Police. As one who has served in the force, I claim the right to know more about the officers' duties and proceedings and the estimation in which they are held by the squatters and their families than "Outis" can possibly pretend to. I say, sir, that "Outis'" statement that "gentlemen" have refused to allow officers of the Native Police to enter their doors or share the generous hospitality accorded to every deserving wayfarer simply because they followed the occupation they did, is a pure invention of the writer. I have seldom met with greater kindness than I have from these same "gentlemen" in the bush.

May I ask, Mr. Editor, how has "Outis" become so minutely acquainted with those dreadful habits (as he states) of the officers when, by his own showing, a "white" man never accompanies the dispersing parties to witness and recount the horrible scenes he so lavishly describes? If "Outis" cannot write in more moderate language about what he feels to be a grievance, the sooner he hands over the pen to another the better. At present he simply insults a number of highly respectable "gentlemen" whose hands he knows full well are so tied as to be unable to reply to his venomous attacks.—Yours, &c., —Queenslander, June 12, 1880.

,—My attention has been called to a letter in the Courier of Saturday last, in which an ex-black police officer, writing under the name of "Veritas," questions my veracity. He would have better merited the nom de plume which he has chosen had he been careful to quote correctly. In my letter to which he refers he quotes "Outis'" statement that "gentlemen have refused to allow officers of the Native Police to enter their doors or share the generous hospitality accorded to every deserving wayfarer simply because they followed the occupation they did." If "Veritas" will substitute the word "gentlewomen" for "gentlemen" his quotation is perfectly correct. I used the word "gentlewoman" designedly, as I thought that the hackneyed term of "lady" was not enough to convey the feeling of profound admiration I entertain for the honest womanly feeling that prompted their action. That "Veritas," who, from his own statement, has served in the black police force, should give my assertion an unqualified denial is not to be wondered at; but, sir, I assure you that my former statement is correct, and that I can name two gentlewomen in one district of the colony, well known for their kindness and hospitality, who declined to entertain officers of the black police.

"Veritas" wishes to know how I "became so minutely acquainted with those dreadful habits of the officers, when, by my own showing, a white man never accompanies the dispersing parties to witness and recount the horrible scenes." I have great pleasure in complying with the wish that "Veritas" has so distinctly expressed. In the first place I have been told of what had happened to their relations by the blacks themselves; and in the second place, I have known the black police to be "out" in a district where there was not one white man to every two or three hundred square miles. I have seen their tracks, and on their tracks I have seen the dead bodies of their victims. This may not be sufficient evidence to go into a court of law with, but no sane man could doubt who committed the murders in the case I have mentioned. Here is the picture: A lonely region, far remote from any bush highway—country unoccupied, and rarely or never traversed, save by a stockman in search of missing cattle; one well-defined trail leading down the creek, known to be the track of a sub-inspector and his troopers; signs as of horses galloping; crowds of hawks and crows circling in the air, and nearer still the sickening stench; then the dark object on the ground among the long grass, and the last lingering crow dashes up from his dainty meal on the gashed and sightless eyeballs.

Gazing on a picture such as I have described, will anyone blame me, sir, that, looking up at the warm blue sky overhead and the mirage half enveloping the red hills in the far distance, and looking at my black boy as he gazed with rolling eyes and distended nostrils at what not long before had been his kinsman, I solemnly vowed to do what I could to revolutionise our system of black police?

Sir, I do not wish to attack individuals, but the only feasible method of criminating the system at present in vogue is by giving instances to "point the moral;" or, rather, as texts upon which to preach a new doctrine of salvation for the aborigines.

In the name of our common humanity, sir, I implore you not to desist from the good work that you have so well begun. Let instance after instance of inhumanity

title: Page:Feilberg.djvu/38


text: Index:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 2.djvu


text:
Page:American Journal of Sociology Volume 1.djvu/118

 106 only in unity. No fraction of knowledge is as important as the next larger synthesis of that knowledge with other knowledge. No constituent of knowledge kept separate and isolated from other knowledge can be as valuable to the race as it becomes when combined with related knowledge. The contrary is admittedly often the case in a sense with individuals. For the largest social purposes there must go side by side in constructive scholarship the process of abstraction and the process of correlation. To make the most of knowledge it is necessary to perform two processes, either deliberately or unconsciously,—first, the process of studying the particular subject as though it were the one object of interest upon which the energies of the human mind ought to concentrate; second, the process of locating that subject in its proper relations with the whole body of knowledge of which it is a fragment. Minute study of abstracted specialities is no more important than the subsequent or possibly prior inquiry. How does the specialty fit into the whole complex of knowledge that fills the territory of human interests?

A scholar whose department is logically somewhat distant from sociology, recently made this very sagacious remark: "A couple of centuries ago men's thoughts were fairly expressed by Pope's aphorism 'The proper study of mankind is man.' Meanwhile our perspective has so shifted that our generation says 'The proper study of man is mankind.'" The point of view of modern sociology could hardly have been more ingeniously indicated. Man the individual, man the genus homo is not the last term in the equation of visible life. Mankind, the permutation of men, the associations of men, in which there is reciprocal modification of the association by its components, and of the components by the association—men in social reciprocity, this is the last and highest stage of experience which our observation discovers, and this consummate reality of associated human life, in which the career of individuals is made or marred, forms the setting, to interpret and to be interpreted by all the included particulars which special knowledge accumulates.

The all-inclusive fact of association in groups or societies of various grades, from the family up to the race, presents the most complex forms of the human life problem. What are the essentials and what are the accidents of the associated or societary condition? What


text:
Page:American Journal of Sociology Volume 1.djvu/119

 Rh limitations does it fix to human accomplishments? What aids does it furnish to human endeavors? What taslcs does it impose, what aims does it suggest and what means and methods does it stipulate for the combination of human effort ? These are not questions invented in the seclusion of scholars' libraries. They are propounded by the world's busiest laborers and by its idlest shirkers alike. They are questions that propound themselves so soon as the objective fact of society presents itself to men's perceptions.

Every science throws its particular light upon some phase of the comprehensive societary problem. The physical sciences, first and foremost, analyze the external material conditions to which societies as well as individuals must accommodate themselves. The biological sciences deal at last with the vital factors which determine the individual type, and thus indirectly much of the social structure. The psychical sciences, both historical and contemporary, control another order of phenomena proceeding primarily from individuals, but combined at last into phenomena that have societary importance. Lastly, the social sciences divide up the phenomena of associated activity and interpret societary institutions and processes, domestic, economic, artistic, educational, ethical, religious, juridical and political. Each and all of these departments of knowledge puts under the microscope a certain section of reality abstracted from the vast sum of reality in which the movements of human society preserve their orbit, and then each tries more or less directly to correlate these details with the whole. The emergence of a new attempt to deal with the phenomena of society, and the application of a new name, Sociology, to this attempt, means, in the simplest words, that the growing dissatisfaction of scholars in all the branches of social science about the impotent isolation of the divisions of social science from each other has at last found effective expression in the differentiation of class of men calling themselves sociologists, who are offering themselves as the missing links to bind these disjecta membra together. It is sufficient for the present purpose to point out that sociology undertakes the work of organizing, and focalizing upon the tasks of living men, the distinct divisions of knowledge which may be and have been cultivated too independently and consequently too unproductively.


text:
Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/9

of Rye; Rh

title: Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/9


text:
Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/8

A Pocketfull Rh

title: Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/8


text: Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/10

title: Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/10


text:
Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/11

Four-and-Twenty Blackbirds Rh

title: Page:Sing A Song for Sixpence.djvu/11


text:
Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/38

16 More fitting worship the far drift of clouds

O'er azure floating with a swan-like motion,

The Siren-lays faint heard amid the shrouds,

The voiceless swell of the unfathomed ocean,

The silver Dian pours on the calm stream

Where pale the lotus-blossoms lie adream,—

Yet, mother of all high imaginings,

In whom is neither barrenness nor dearth,

Wise guardian of the sacred springs

Whose fresh primordial waters heal the earth,—

O soul of muted fire,

Of whom is born the passionate desire

That gives to beauty birth,—

All music that hath been, howe'er divine,

All possibilities of sound are thine!

The syrinx-reed, the flute Apollo owns,

Symphonic chords, and lyric overtones,

First draw their inspiration at thy shrine.

There come heart-broken mortal things;

There once again they find their wings;

There garner dreams benign,—

O nurse of genius! unto whom belong

Beethoven's harmonies and Homer's deathless song!


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Ode to Silence


text:
Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 2.djvu/1028

1899 The several Assemblies of New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, having referred to the Congress a Resolution of the House of Commons of Great Britain, which Resolution is in these words:

"Lunæ, 20o Die Feb. 1775.

"The House in a Committee on the American Papers. Motion made, and question proposed:

"That it is the opinion of this Committee, that when the General Council and Assembly, or General Court of any of his Majesty's Provinces or Colonies in America, shall propose to make provision according to the condition, circumstance, or situation of such Province or Colony, for contributing their proportion to the common defence, (such proportion to be raised under the authority of the General Court, or General Assembly of such Province or Colony, and disposable by Parliament,) and shall engage to make provision also for the support of the civil Government, and the administration of justice in such Province or Colony, it will be proper, if such proposal shall be approved by His Majesty and the two Houses of Parliament, and for so long as such provision shall be made accordingly, to forbear in respect of such Province or Colony, to levy any duty, tax, or assessment, or to impose any farther duty, tax, or assessment, except only such duties as it may be expedient to continue to levy or to impose for the regulation of Commerce; the nett produce of the duties last mentioned, to be carried to the account of such Province or Colony respectively."

The Congress took the said Resolution into consideration, and are thereupon of opinion:

That the Colonies of America are entitled to the sole and exclusive privilege of giving and granting their own money; that this involves a right of deliberating whether they will make any gift, for what purposes it shall be made, and what shall be its amount; and that it is a high breach of this privilege for any body of men, extraneous to their constitutions, to prescribe the purposes for which money shall be levied on them, to take to themselves the authority of judging of their conditions, circumstances, and situations, and of determining the amount of the contribution to be levied.

That as the Colonies possess a right of appropriating their gifts, so are they entitled at all times to inquire into their application, to see that they be not wasted among the venal and corrupt for the purpose of undermining the civil rights of the givers, nor yet be diverted to the support of standing armies, inconsistent with their freedom and subversive of their quiet. To propose, therefore, as this Resolution does, that the monies given by the Colonies shall be subject to the disposal of Parliament alone, is to propose that they shall relinquish this right of inquiry, and put it in the power of others to render their gifts ruinous, in proportion as they are liberal.

That this privilege of giving or of withholding our monies, is an important barrier against the undue exertion of prerogative, which, if left altogether without control, may be exercised to our great oppression; and all history shows how efficacious is its intercessions for redress of grievances and re-establishment of rights, and how improvident it would be to part with so powerful a mediator.

We are of opinion that the proposition contained in this Resolution is unreasonable and insidious: unreasonable, because, if we declare we accede to it, we declare, without reservation, we will purchase the favour of Parliament, not knowing at the same time at what price they will please to estimate their favour. It is insidious, because, individual Colonies, having bid and bidden again, till they find the avidity of the seller too great for all their powers to satisfy; are then to return into opposition, divided from their sister Colonies whom the Minister will have previously detached by a grant of easier terms, or by an artful procrastination of a definitive answer.

That the suspension of the exercise of their pretended power of taxation, being expressly made commensurate with the continuance of our gifts, these must be perpetual to make that so. Whereas, no experience has shown that a gift of perpetual revenue secures a perpetual return of duty or of kind disposition. On the contrary, the Parliament itself, wisely attentive to this observation, are in the established practice of granting their supplies from year to year only.

Desirous and determined as we are, to consider in the most dispassionate view every seeming advance towards a reconciliation made by the British Parliament, let our brethren of Britain reflect what would have been the sacrifice to men of free spirits, had even fair terms been proffered, as these insidious proposals were, with circumstances of insult and defiance. A proposition to give our money, accompanied with large fleets and armies, seems addressed to our fears rather than to our freedom. With what patience would Britons have received articles of treaty from any power on earth when borne on the point of the bayonet by military plenipotentiaries?

We think the attempt unnecessary to raise upon us by force or by threats our proportional contributions to the common defence, when all know, and themselves


text:
Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/41

Rh Not music when it wings

From the far azure where the skylark sings

Is wonderful as love!—

Not music when it wells

From the enchanted fairy-haunted dells

Where, shrined mid thorn and vine—

An ecstasy apart,

Drawn from the life-blood of a breaking heart—

The nightingale pours forth forever

The rapture and the pain that naught can sever,

Of love which mortal is, yet knows itself divine!


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/How Wonderful is Love


text:
Page:Poems, Volume 1, Coates, 1916.djvu/43

Rh In worship, name him—Love;

Yet longing the pure strain to capture,

When at the very height of rapture,

A sadness oft approve,

And fancy, strangely, that he wrings

The music from their own heart-strings!


text:
Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 2.djvu/1029

1901, we have fully contributed whenever called upon to do so in the character of freemen.

We are of opinion it is not just that the Colonies should be required to oblige themselves to other contributions, while Great Britain possesses a monopoly of their trade. This of itself lays them under heavy contribution. To demand, therefore, additional aids in the form of a tax, is to demand the double of their equal proportion; if we are to contribute equally with the other parts of the Empire, let us equally with them enjoy free commerce with the whole world. But while the restrictions on our trade shut to us the resources of wealth, is it just we should bear all other burdens equally with those to whom every resource is open?

We conceive that the British Parliament has no right to intermeddle with our provisions for the support of civil Government or administration of justice. The provisions we have made are such as please ourselves, and are agreeable to our own circumstances; they answer the substantial purposes of Government and of justice, and other purposes than these should not be answered. We do not mean that our people shall be burdened with oppressive taxes, to provide sinecures for the idle or the wicked under colour of providing for a civil list. While Parliament pursue their plan of civil Government within their own jurisdiction, we also hope to pursue ours without molestation.

We are of opinion the proposition is altogether unsatisfactory, because it imports only a suspension of the mode, not a renunciation of the pretended right to tax us. Because, too, it does not propose to repeal the several acts of Parliament passed for the purposes of restraining the Trade, and altering the form of Government of one of our Colonies; extending the boundaries and changing the Government of Quebeck; enlarging the jurisdiction of the Courts of Admiralty and Vice-Admiralty; taking from us the right of trial by a jury of the vicinage, in cases affecting both life and property; transporting us into other countries to be tried for criminal offences; exempting, by mock trial, the murderers of Colonists from punishment; and quartering soldiers on us in times of profound peace. Nor do they renounce the power of suspending our own Legislatures, and for legislating for us themselves in all cases whatsoever. On the contrary, to show they mean no discontinuance of injury, they pass acts at the very time of holding out this proposition, for restraining the Commerce and Fisheries of the Provinces of New-England, and for interdicting the trade of other Colonies with all foreign Nations and with each other. This proves, unequivocally, they mean not to relinquish the exercise of indiscriminate legislation over us.

Upon the whole, this proposition seems to have been held up to the world, to deceive it into a belief that there was nothing in dispute between us but the mode of levying taxes; and that the Parliament having now been so good as to give up this, the Colonies are unreasonable if not perfectly satisfied: Whereas, in truth, our adversaries still claim a right of demanding ad libitum, and of taxing us themselves to the full amount of their demand if we do comply with it. This leaves us without any thing we can call property. But what is of more importance, and what in this proposal they keep out of sight as if no such point was now in contest between us, they claim a right to alter our Charters and establish laws, and leave us without any security for our lives and liberties. The proposition seems also to have been calculated more particularly to lull into fatal security our well-affected fellow-subjects on the other side the water, till time should be given for the operation of those arms which a British minister pronounced would instantaneously reduce the "cowardly" sons of America to unreserved submission. But when the world reflects how inadequate to justice are these vaunted terms; when it attends to the rapid and bold succession of injuries, which, during the course of eleven years, have been aimed at these Colonies; when it reviews the pacifick and respectful expostulations, which, during that whole time, were the sole arms we opposed to them; when it observes that our complaints were either not heard at all, or were answered with new and accumulated injuries; when it recollects that the Minister himself, on an early occasion, declared, "that he would never treat with America, till he had brought her to his feet;" and that an avowed partisan of Ministry has more lately denounced against us the dreadful sentence, "delenda est Carthago;" that this was done in presence of a British Senate, and being unreproved by them, must be taken to be their own sentiment, (especially as the purpose has already in part been carried into execution,) by their treatment of Boston and burning of Charlestown; when it considers the great armaments with which they have invaded us, and the circumstances of cruelty with which these have commenced and prosecuted hostilities; when these things, we say, are laid together and attentively considered, can the world be deceived into an opinion that we are unreasonable, or can it hesitate to believe with us that nothing but our own exertions may defeat the Ministerial sentence of death or abject submission.


text: Index:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu

title: Index:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu


text: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Israfel

title: Poems (Coates 1916)/Volume I/Israfel


text: Report on Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution


text:
Author:Wilbur Fisk Crafts

Books

 * Through the Eye to the Heart (New York, 1873: revised ed., 1878);
 * Childhood, the Text-Book of the Age for Parents, Pastors, and Teachers (Boston, 1875)
 * The Ideal Sunday-School (Boston, 1876)
 * Rescue of Child-Soul (1880)
 * Successful Men of Today (1883)
 * The Sabbath for Man (1885)
 * Pocket Lesson Notes (1886)

Miscellaneous

 * "The Limits of 'Christian Sociology'", letter to the editor in The Journal of American Sociology Vol. 1, No. 4 (Jan., 1896), pp. 509-511

Works about Crafts

 * "Dr. Wilbur F. Crafts Crusader, Dies at 73" obituary in The New York Times, (December 28, 1922)

title: Author:Wilbur Fisk Crafts


text:
Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/1

  IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL COURT OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

Case No. CCT/3/94

In the matter of:

THE STATE

versus

T MAKWANYANE AND M MCHUNU

JUDGMENT

CHASKALSON P The two accused in this matter were convicted in the Witwatersrand Local Division of the Supreme Court on four counts of murder, one count of attempted murder and one count of robbery with aggravating circumstances. They were sentenced to death on each of the counts of murder and to long terms of imprisonment on the other counts. They appealed to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court against the convictions and sentences. The Appellate Division dismissed the appeals against the convictions and came to the conclusion that the circumstances of the murders were such that the accused should receive the heaviest sentence permissible according to law.

Section 277(1)(a) of the Criminal Procedure Act No. 51 of 1977 prescribes that the death penalty is a competent sentence for murder. Counsel for the accused was invited by the Appellate Division to consider whether this provision was consistent with the Republic of South Africa Constitution, 1993, which had come into force subsequent to the conviction and sentence by the trial court. He argued that it was not, contending that it was in conflict with the provisions of sections 9 and 11(2) of the Constitution.

The Appellate Division dismissed the appeals against the sentences on the counts of attempted murder and robbery, but postponed the further hearing of the appeals against the death sentence until the constitutional issues are decided by this Court. See : S v

title: Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/1


text:
Page:Englishmen in the French Revolution.djvu/177

Rh and soon succumbed to grief. Another inmate, arrested not as an Englishwoman but as the widow of an aristocrat, was the Marquise de Châtellux. Mary Bridget Josephine Charlotte Plunket was lady-in-waiting to the Duchess of Orleans, the wife of Egalité. Her father, Thomas Plunket, a kinsman of Lord Dunsany, was an Austrian field-marshal, had distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, and had died governor of Antwerp in 1770. Mary, born at Louvain in 1759, was educated at the Austin convent, her future prison. A husband was found for her by a singular stratagem. The Marquis de Châtellux, a member of the Academy, and the first adult Frenchman who underwent inoculation, had published an account of his travels in America. It was contrived that he should be sent to Spa, and should steal unawares on Miss Plunket while absorbed in his book. He fell in love with her on the spot, and marriage speedily followed; the bridegroom was fifty-three, the bride twenty-three. Washington sent him a bantering letter of congratulation—"Married, my dear Marquis? You, too, caught! I have a great mind to laugh." Captain Swinburne, who saw the happy pair in 1787—by a slip of the pen he says Carondelet instead of Châtellux—writes: "He is the most passionate lover ever seen, and cannot bear to be absent from her for a moment, and even sits by her at table." Madame de Genlis was jealous


text: Category:Case law of South Africa

title: Category:Case law of South Africa


text:
S v Makwanyane and Another

 * /Chaskalson P/
 * /Ackermann J/
 * /Didcott J/
 * /Kentridge AJ/
 * /Kriegler J/
 * /Langa J/
 * /Madala J/
 * /Mahomed J/
 * /Mokgoro J/
 * /O'Regan J/
 * /Sachs J/

title: S v Makwanyane and Another


text:
Template:Numbered para

[]

title: Template:Numbered para


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dial and Dialling


text:
Page:Weird Tales volume 36 number 01.djvu/101

Rh {|

72-PAGE ILLUSTRATED CATALOG

Write today for a big FREE illustrated catalog explaining this amazing service. Used correspondence courses and educational books on every subject. 100% satisfaction guaranteed. We buy for cash—we offer unbelievable bargains. Send your name on penny postcard at once! No obligation.

Nelson Co.,300 ShermanDept H-226.Chicago
 * | THE TRUTH ABOUT
 * | THE TRUTH ABOUT

Caused By Gastric Hyperacidity
 * | Booklet on simple home treatment. Hundreds report they were saved from expensive operations. Learn all about this amazing inexpensive home treatment. feel relived from the start. No rigid or liquid diet. This valuable booklet setn FREE with information as to guaranteed trial offer. TWIN CITY VON CO., Dept. 203, 2938 Pillsbury Ave., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
 * | Booklet on simple home treatment. Hundreds report they were saved from expensive operations. Learn all about this amazing inexpensive home treatment. feel relived from the start. No rigid or liquid diet. This valuable booklet setn FREE with information as to guaranteed trial offer. TWIN CITY VON CO., Dept. 203, 2938 Pillsbury Ave., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Twelve ways Professionals win with fair dice. No switching. No practice. One hundred keys and codes on twenty-four different backs. 50 cents. BEAT THE CHEAT, 23 pages of exposes. $1.00. The great OPEN BOOK, written in words of fire. 155 pages of exposes, $3.50. Free catalog included.

 * WeirdTalesv36n1pg129 Midwest Radio Corporation.png
 * }
 * }

Anthony V. Anser, 7 Granite Ave, Staten Island, N. Y.

Charles McDowell, Jr., 143 South Washington Ave., Pulaski, Va.

Karl D. Rist, 4 Forest St., Baldwinsville, Mass.

Virginia Allen, Box 149, pelzer, South Carolina.

R. E. Stark, 385 Golf St., Sarasota, Fla.

Wm. M. Nelson, 1316 Summit St., Kansas City, Mo.

A. Rand, 526 S. El Paso St., El Paso, Texas

Robert W. Pickworth, 18 Akron St., Rochester, N.Y.

Eleanot Teklinski, 93 Oak St., Natrona, Pa.

Walter G. Curtis, 68 George St., Roxbury, Mass.

Allan Gifford Keniston, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine.

Marion Alessandro, 301 Channel St, Stockton, Calif.

Prynce Wheeler, 203{HALF} 1st Avenue South, Great Falls, Montana

E. Britten Chambless, Route 1, Box 9K, Texarkana, Texas

Mrs. Lois Sandbeck, Box 652, Seward, Alaska

Gordon E. Wykes, U. S. Naval Home, 24th St. and Grays Ferry Rd., Phila., Pa.

Avis K. White, Center Ossipee, R. F. D. No. 2, N. H.

Peter Slusarki, 358 Fourth Ave., Stevens Point. Wisconsin

Alojo, 1426 West 38th St., Los Angeles, Calif.

Annette Lunsford, 812 Fourth St., Oakmont, Pa.

Ola Cyrus, P. O. Box 67, Marion, Indiana

Roger D. Burnham, 19 South St. Agawam, Mass.

Laurie M. Bonnoitt, Box 713, Summerville, S. C.

John Woodward, 35 Catherine St., St. Albans, Vt.

Dolly Fronk, 1215 Eckert Rd., Monacam Pa.

George S. Krasnov, 15 Latham Park, Montgomery Co. Penna.

Herbert H. Hillier, Box 100, Cooperstown, Pa.

Kate Glaser, 452 Williams Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Tessie Glaser, 452 Williams Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Marie Yohn, 204, Third St., Savanna, Ill.

Anthony Saumsevage, Jr., 59 N. Railroad Avenue, Frackville, Pa.

Katherine Baum, 1243 Juniata St., N. S. Pittsburgh, Penna.

Marx F. Kuntz, 643 Wales Ave., Bronx, N. Y. C.

Elmer Brown 1126 South 10th Ave., Arcadia, Calif.

Emery Bucher, Veterans Home, Napa, Co., Calif.

Robert J. Delaney, 86 Washington St., Newburgh, New York

Melvin Lawrence, 537 Unruh St., Phila., Pa.

Henry Kramp, 1028 Prague St., San Francisco, Cal.

Peggy Johannsen, 21 South 16th St., New Hyde Park, L. I., N. Y.

Annetta Richardson, 545 Adams St., Gary, Ind.

Ralph C. Eisleben, 382 Madison St., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Harry R. Stout, Jr., Headquarters 2nd Cav. Division, Camp Funston, Fort Riley, Kansas.

Lilith Lorraine, Route 8, Box 83-F, San Antonio, Texas.

John Jefferies, 715 So. Hope St., Los Angeles, Calif.

W. O. Williamson, National Military Home, W. Los Angeles, Calif. Box 246

Mark Cathal, 1930 E. 79th St., Cleveland, Ohio.

Edward S. May, 3019 Budloong Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.

Al Scott, 3838 LaSalle Ave. South, Los Angeles Calif.

I. Fisher, 744 Park Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Getty E. Cash, Gaffney, S. C.

mae De Laney, R. R., Johannesburg, Mich.

Immanuel H. Boes, Route 1, Box 494, Napa Road, Vallejo, Calif.

Sgt. Charles E. MacDonald, O.D. ^ R.D., Co. E, Ft. Moultire, S. C.

Myron H. Levenson, 5637 Hobart St., Pittsburgh, Pa.

Alexander MacDowell, 256 53rd St., Brooklyn, N. Y.

Bob Middleton, 1220 W. 37th St., Los Angeles, Calif.

Mrs. Herlon Hughes, 1407 Arlington Ave., Lawton, Okla.

J. Shapiro, 270 center St., Ne York, N. Y.

Robert Spencer, 1005 Ashman St. Midland, Mich.

''We're sorry that lack of space prevents the inclusion of the names of all New Members. The rest will appear next time.''


text:
Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/2

 Makwanyane en 'n Ander 1994 (3) SA 868 (A). Two issues were raised: the constitutionality of section 277(1)(a) of the Criminal Procedure Act, and the implications of section 241(8) of the Constitution. Although there was no formal reference of these issues to this Court in terms of section 102(6) of the Constitution, that was implicit in the judgment of the Appellate Division, and was treated as such by the parties.

The trial was concluded before the 1993 Constitution came into force, and so the question of the constitutionality of the death sentence did not arise at the trial. Because evidence which might possibly be relevant to that issue would not have been led, we asked counsel appearing before this Court to consider whether evidence, other than undisputed information placed before us in argument, would be relevant to the determination of the question referred to us by the Appellate Division. Apart from the issue of public opinion, with which I will deal later in this judgment, counsel were not able to point to specific material that had not already been placed before us which might be relevant to the decision on the constitutional issues raised in this case. I am satisfied that no good purpose would be served by referring the case back to the trial court for the hearing of further evidence and that we should deal with the matter on the basis of the information and arguments that have been presented to us.

It would no doubt have been better if the framers of the Constitution had stated specifically, either that the death sentence is not a competent penalty, or that it is permissible in circumstances sanctioned by law. This, however, was not done and it has been left to this Court to decide whether the penalty is consistent with the provisions of the Constitution. That is the extent and limit of the Court's power in this case.

No executions have taken place in South Africa since 1989. There are apparently over 300 persons, and possibly as many as 400 if persons sentenced in the former Transkei, Bophuthatswana and Venda are taken into account, who have been sentenced to death by the Courts and who are on death row waiting for this issue to be resolved. Some of these convictions date back to 1988, and approximately half of the persons on death row were sentenced more than two years ago. This is an intolerable situation and it is essential that it be resolved one way or another without further delay.

title: Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/2


text: Template:Block center/sandbox

title: Template:Block center/sandbox


text:
Page:American Archives, Series 4, Volume 1.djvu/93

61

That your Majesty's Petitioners are natives of your Dominions in America, and bear most true and cordial allegiance to your Majesty's Royal person and family.

That allegiance and protection being reciprocal, your Petitioners look up to your Majesty for protection under the common law of the land, which is their birth-right.

That, according to law, no man can be condemned to punishment without being called upon to answer, nor without an opportunity of hearing the evidence against him, and defending his innocence. That in violation of this law, and of every principle of natural justice, a Bill is now offered for the Royal assent, calculated to inflict pains and penalties, with unexampled severity, upon your Majesty's loyal town of Boston, in the Province of Massachusetts Bay; the said town being unapprized of the proceedings, and not heard in its defence; that such Bill, if it receive your Majesty's assent, will immediately take away from the inhabitants of the town of Boston the use of property to the amount of several hundred thousand pounds, vested in quays, wharfs, store-houses, &c.; will restrain many thousands of your Majesty's subjects from procuring subsistence for themselves and their families, by their ordinary occupations; may endanger the community, by violent commotions from so many men rendered desperate, by being deprived of their daily bread; and, what cannot but do the last violence to the Royal justice, will punish the innocent for the guilty.

Your Majesty's Petitioners most humbly represent, that this Bill is the more unjust, as the trespass it is meant to punish, has not been prosecuted in the Courts of common law in America, where only according to law and the constitution, it is cognizable. That the interposition of this Bill is as totally unnecessary as the mode of it is unjust; because, your Majesty's Courts in America, are open to the redress of any injury sustained there; and justice is so little liable to perversion, that under every impression of popular prejudice, Captain Preston and others had, in this your Majesty's Province of the Massachusettt Bay, a fair trial, and a favourable verdict.

Your Majesty's Petitioners do therefore humbly pray, that your Majesty will be most graciously pleased to suspend your Royal assent to a Bill, calculated to condemn and punish their countrymen unheard, and form a precedent, which will take away every security and protection, under the law, from all your Majesty's subjects in America.

And your Petitioners, as in duty bound, will ever pray.

Whereas dangerous commotions and insurrections have been fomented and raised in the town of Boston, in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, in New England, by divers ill-affected persons, to the subversion of his Majesty's Government, and to the utter destruction of the public peace, and good order of the said town; in which commotions and insurrections certain valuable cargoes of teas, being the property of the East India Company, and on board certain vessels lying within the bay or harbour of Boston, were seized and destroyed: and whereas in the present condition of the said town and harbour, the commerce of his Majesty's subjects cannot be safely carried on there, nor the Customs payable to his Majesty duly collected; and it is therefore expedient that the officers of his Majesty's Customs should be forthwith removed from the said town; may it please you Majesty that it may be enacted, and be it enacted by the King's most excellent Majesty, by and with the advise and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, that from and after the first day of June, 1774, it shall not be lawful for any person or persons whatsoever, to lade or put, or cause or procure to be laden or put, off or from any quay, wharf, or other place, within the said town of Boston, or in or upon any part of the shore of the bay, commonly called the Harbour of Boston, between a certain headland or point, called Nahant Point, on the eastern side of the entrance into the said bay, and a certain headland or point called Alderton Point, on the western side of the entrance into the said bay, or in or upon any island, creek, landing place, bank, or other place, within the said bay, or headlands, into any ship, vessel, lighter, boat, or bottom, any goods, wares, or merchandise, whatsoever, to be transported or carried into any other country, province, or place, whatsoever, or into any other part of the said Province of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England; or to take up, discharge, or lay on land, or cause or procure to be taken up, discharged, or laid on land, within the said town, or in or upon any of the places aforesaid, out of any boat, lighter, ship, vessel, or bottom, any goods, wares, or merchandise, whatsoever, to be brought from any other country, province, or place, or any other part of the said Province of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England, upon the pain of forfeiture of the said goods, wares, and merchandise, and of the said boat, lighter, ship, vessel, or other bottom, into which the same shall be put, or out of which the same shall be taken, and of the guns, ammunition, tackle, furniture, and stores, in or belonging to the same; and if any such goods, wares, or merchandise, shall within the said town, or in any the places aforesaid, be laden or taken in from the shore into any barge, hoy, lighter, wherry, or boat, to be carried on board any ship or vessel outward bound to any other country or province, or other part of said Province of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England, or be laden or taken into such barge, hoy, lighter, wherry, or out of any ship or vessel coming and arriving from any other country or province, or other part of the said Province of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England, such barge, hoy, lighter, wherry, or boat, shall be forfeited and lost.

And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That if any wharfinger, or keeper of any wharf, crane, or quay, or their servants, or any of them, shall take up or land, or knowingly suffer to be taken up or landed, or shall ship off, or suffer to be waterborne, at or from any of the aforesaid wharfs, cranes, or quays, any such goods, wares, or merchandise; in every such case, all and every such wharfinger, and keeper of such wharf, crane, or quay, and every person whatsoever who shall be assisting, or otherwise concerned in the shipping or in the loading or putting on board any boat or other vessel, for that purpose, or in the unshipping such goods, wares, and merchandise, or to whose hands the same shall knowingly come after the loading, shipping or unshipping thereof, shall forfeit and lose treble the value thereof, to be computed at the highest price which such sort of goods, wares, and merchandise, shall bear at the place where such offence shall be committed, at the time when the same shall be so committed, together with the vessel and boats, and all the horses, cattle and carriages, whatsoever made use of in the shipping, unshipping, landing, removing, carriage, or conveyance of any of the aforesaid goods, wares, and merchandise.

And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That if any ship or vessel shall be moored or lie at anchor, or be seen hovering within the said bay, described and bounded as aforesaid, or within one league from the said bay so described, or the said headlands, or any of the islands lying between or within the same, it shall and may be lawful for any Admiral, Chief Commander, or commissioned


text: Template:Block center/testcases

title: Template:Block center/testcases


text:
The New York Times/1922/12/28/Dr. Wilbur F. Crafts Crusader, Dies at 73

Prohibition Leader Who Was Famous for His Attacks on Popular Amusements.

LECTURED OVER THE WORLD

Prolific Writer on Religious Topics Was Long a Picturesque Figure In Congressional Lobbies.

WASHINGTON, Dec. 27.—Dr. Wilbur F. Crafts, for 28 years superintendent of the International Reform Bureau which he founded, and widely known because of his activities on behalf of prohibition and similar movements, died at a hospital here today of pneumonia. He was 73 years old.

Dr. Crafts, charged by opponents of legislation he sponsored with being a "reform fanatic," was for years a picturesque figure in congressional lobbies and committee rooms. By those in sympathy with his policies he was credited with having an influential part in enactment of prohibition, of laws to restrict the use of narcotics and of legislation of similar nature.

Outspoken in his opposition to Sunday amusements, Dr. Crafts sought to have them banned by legislation. He also endeavored to prevent the holding of the Dempsey-Carpentier bout in New Jersey in the Summer of 1921. He was a prolific writer on moral questions.

After funeral services here tomorrow the body will be sent to Westerly, R. I., for burial.

Dr. Crafts was born at Fryeburg, Me., a son of a Methodist preacher of puritan ancestry. He was graduated from Wesleyan in 1869 and from the Divinity School of Boston University in 1871. The first eight years of his long ministerial career he spent in his father's church, changing to Congregationalism in 1880, and in 1883 entering the Presbyterian ministry where he remained thereafter. In 1874 he married Sara J. Timanus, a prolific and forceful writer and worker in religious causes, his partner in many of his numerous activities, particularly those relating to Sunday schools.

Among reform leaders, few can have equaled Dr. Crafts in the amount of work done. His pen and his voice were allowed little rest during the last fifty years. He averaged six lectures a week, delivered in twenty-nine different countries, and had written a book a year, most, but not all, on religious topics. Here, for instance, is a curious title that crops up in a long list of others that do not surprise: "Rhetoric Made Racy." In addition to constantly contributing papers to religious magazines, he had since 1896 been chief editor of the Twentieth Century Quarterly.

To the general public Dr. Crafts was of course, best known for his attacks on popular amusements. Screen vampires, close dancing, "joy rides," which he said "often proved a ride of lifelong shame and woe"; Sunday baseball, cigarettes were a few of the objects of his tireless reforming zeal.


text:
Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/3

 The Relevant Provisions of the Constitution

The Constitution "… provides a historic bridge between the past of a deeply divided society characterised by strife, conflict, untold suffering and injustice, and a future founded on the recognition of human rights, democracy and peaceful co-existence and development opportunities for all South Africans, irrespective of colour, race, class, belief or sex."

It is a transitional constitution but one which itself establishes a new order in South Africa; an order in which human rights and democracy are entrenched and in which the Constitution:

"… shall be the supreme law of the Republic and any law or act inconsistent with its provisions shall, unless otherwise provided expressly or by necessary implication in this Constitution, be of no force and effect to the extent of the inconsistency."

Chapter Three of the Constitution sets out the fundamental rights to which every person is entitled under the Constitution and also contains provisions dealing with the way in which the Chapter is to be interpreted by the Courts. It does not deal specifically with the death penalty, but in section 11(2), it prohibits "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment." There is no definition of what is to be regarded as "cruel, inhuman or degrading" and we therefore have to give meaning to these words ourselves.

In S v Zuma and Two Others, this Court dealt with the approach to be adopted in the interpretation of the fundamental rights enshrined in Chapter Three of the Constitution. It gave its approval to an approach which, whilst paying due regard to the language that has been used, is "generous" and "purposive" and gives expression to the underlying values of the Constitution. Kentridge AJ, who delivered the judgment of the Court, referred with approval to the following passage in the Canadian case of R v Big M Drug Mart Ltd:

"The meaning of a right or freedom guaranteed by the Charter was to be ascertained by an analysis of the purpose of such a guarantee; it was to be understood, in other words, in the light of the interests it was meant to protect."

title: Page:S v Makwanyane and Another.djvu/3


text: Talk:The New York Times/1922/12/28/Dr. Wilbur F. Crafts Crusader, Dies at 73