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34 for raising water, nothing worthy the name of machinery. Without being bred to any mechanical profession, the peons make and repair nearly every implement or tool that is used upon the estate, and this, too, without the use of a forge or of iron, not even of bolts and nails. The explanation of such an apparently marvelous result is to be found in a single word, or rather material—rawhide—with which the peon feels himself qualified to meet almost any constructive emergency, from the framing of a house to the making of a loom, the mending of a gun, or the repair of a broken leg; and yet, even under these circumstances, the great Mexican estates, owing to their exemption from taxation and the cheapness of labor, are said to be profitable, and, in cases where a fair supply of water is obtainable, to even return large incomes to their absentee owners.

As agriculture can not be prosecuted on the plateau of Mexico without irrigation, the chief expense of each hacienda or cultivated district consists in providing and maintaining a water-supply, which is not infrequently obtained through a most extensive and costly system of canals, ponds, and dams, whereby the water that falls during the limited rainy period is stored up and distributed during the dry season; and what the great proprietor accomplishes through a great expenditure of

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Rh money the Indian communities effect at the present day, as they have from time immemorial, through associated, patient, and long-continued labor.

In no truly Mexican house of high or low degree, from the adobe hut of the peasant to the great stone edifice in the capital said to have been erected by the Emperor Iturbide, and now an hotel, are there any arrangements for warming or, in the American sense, for cooking; and in the entire city of Mexico, with an estimated population of from two hundred and twenty-five to three hundred thousand, chimneys, fireplaces, and stoves are so rare that it is commonly said that there are none. This latter statement is, however, not strictly correct; yet it approximates so closely to the truth, that but for provision for warm baths, there is probably no exception to it in any of the larger hotels of the city where foreigners most do congregate. All the cooking in Mexico is done over charcoal, or embers fanned to a glow; and fans made of rushes, for this special purpose, are a constant commodity of the market. The use of bellows is unknown, and the employment of the lungs and breath involves too much effort. Apart from the capital

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36 and some of the larger cities, Mexico is notably deficient in hotels or inns for the accommodation of travelers, and in a majority of the smaller towns there are no such places. And why should there be? The natives rarely go anywhere, and consequently do not expect anybody to come to them.

Large, costly, and often elegant stone edifices—public and private—are not wanting in the principal towns and cities of Mexico; but all, save those of very recent construction, have the characteristic Saracenic or Moorish architecture of Southern Spain—namely, a rectangular structure with rooms opening on to interior piazzas, and a more or less spacious court-yard, which is often fancifully paved and ornamented with fountains and shrubbery; while the exterior, with its gate-furnished arch-ways and narrow and iron-grated windows, suggests the idea of a desire for jealous seclusion on the part of the inmates, or fear of possible outside attack and disturbance. Wooden buildings are almost unknown in Mexico, and in all interiors wood is rarely used where stone, tiles, and iron are possible applications. Consequently, and, in view of the scarcity of water, most fortunately, there are few fires in Mexico: nothing akin to a fire department outside of the city of Mexico, and but little opportunity for insurance companies or the business of insurance agents. As a general rule,

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Rh the buildings of Mexico, exclusive of the huts, in which the masses of the people live, are not over one story in height, flat-roofed, and have neither cellars nor garrets; and in buildings of more than one story the upper floor is always preferred as a dwelling, and thus in the cities commands the highest rent. There do not, moreover, seem to be any aristocratic streets or quarters in the cities of Mexico; but rich and poor distribute themselves indiscriminately, and not unfrequently live under the same roof.

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 During his year of office he quieted a dispute concerning lands between Uncas, the Mohican chief, and the settlers at New London, and sanctioned the sequestration of the Dutch property at Hartford. He served as governor in 1655 and 1658, and as deputy governor in 1656, 1657, and 1659. He possessed to a very great degree the confidence of the colonists, and drafted many of their most important enactments. He died at Wethersfield, near Hartford, on 14 Jan. 1659-60. He was twice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth Hunt, to whom he was married in England in 1618, he had seven surviving children, four sons and three daughters. His first wife died about 1640, and in 1645 he was married to Elizabeth, daughter of John Deming of England, and widow of Nathaniel Foote of Wethersfield. By her he had no issue. She died on 28 July 1683. Welles's will is printed in Albert Welles's 'History of the Welles Family,' New York, 1876.

WELLESLEY, ARTHUR, first (1769–1852), field-marshal, was fourth son of, first earl of Mornington [q. v.], by Anne, eldest daughter of Arthur Hill, viscount Dungannon. He was born in 1769, less than four months before Napoleon. There is some doubt about the exact date and place of his birth. His mother gave 1 May as his birthday, and he himself so kept it, but the nurse affirmed that he was born on 6 March at Dangan Castle, co. Meath. The registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769, and the May number of 'Exshaw's Gentleman's Magazine' has: 'April 29. The Countess of Mornington of a son.' The 'Dublin Gazette' of 2-4 May dates the event 'a few days ago, in Merrion Street.' On the whole the evidence points to 29 April, and to 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin (Notes and Queries, 4th ser. x. 443, 7th ser. xi. 34;, Wellington: the Date and Place of his Birth). He signed himself 'Arthur Wesley ' till May 1798, when he adopted the form 'Wellesley.'

Wellesley received his earliest education at Brown's preparatory school at Chelsea. Thence he was sent to Eton, where he boarded at Mrs. Ragueneau's. As a boy he was unsociable and rather combative. He had no turn for scholarship, but, like Napoleon, he had the power of rapid and correct calculation. His father died in 1781, and in 1784 his mother, straitened for means, withdrew him from Eton, where he had only reached the remove, and took him with her to Brussels. There he was the pupil of Louis Goubert, a barrister, at whose house they lodged. According to a fellow-pupil he was extremely fond of music and played well on the fiddle, but showed no other sort of talent. His mother, a clever but hard woman, came to the conclusion that her 'ugly boy Arthur' was 'fit food for powder,' and in 1786 he was sent to Pignerol's military academy at Angers, which was principally a riding-school. He was 'rather of a weak constitution, not very attentive to his studies, and constantly occupied with a little terrier called Vic' (, Journal, iv. 302). He remained there about a year, made friends in the neighbourhood, and gained a facility in French which was of service to him afterwards.

On 7 March 1787 he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd (highland) regiment. His brother, Lord Mornington, obtained this commission for him, declining one in the artillery (Rutland MSS. iii. 377). The regiment was in India, but Wellesley did not join it. It must have been on joining a depot that, as he afterwards related, he had a man weighed with and without his arms, accoutrements, and kit, that he might know exactly what weight the men had to carry (, i. 337). On 25 Dec. he was made lieutenant in the 76th, from which he was transferred to the 41st on 23 Jan. 1788, and thence to the 12th light dragoons on 25 June. He obtained a company in the 58th foot on 30 June 1791, and was transferred to the 18th light dragoons on 31 Oct. 1792.

But he did little, if any, duty with these regiments, for from November 1787 to March 1793 he was aide-de-camp to the lord lieutenant of Ireland—first, the Marquis of Buckingham, and afterwards the Earl of Westmorland. Mornington, in thanking Buckingham for his appointment, said: ' He has every disposition which can render so young a boy deserving of your notice' (, Courts and Cabinets of George III, i. 334; cf. Fortescue MSS. i. 286-8, ii. 11). But life was expensive at the viceregal court; his private income was only 125l. a year (, iv. 164), and it is said he had to borrow money of the bootmaker with whom he lodged. In April 1790 he was returned to the Irish parliament as member for Trim, and he held that seat till the dissolution of 5 June 1795. According to Mornington, he restored the interest of his family in that borough 'by his excellent judgment, amiable manners, admirable temper, and firmness' (Suppl. Despatches, xiii. 37). On 10 Jan.


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 Wellesley 1793 he seconded the address in reply to a speech from the throne announcing preparations for war with France and recommending consideration of the catholic claims. He supported the government bill giving catholics the franchise, but opposed an amendment admitting them to parliament (Speeches, 10 Jan. and 25 Feb.;, England, vi. 561–6).

On 30 April 1793 he purchased a majority in the 33rd foot, Mornington lending him the money, and afterwards refusing to accept repayment. On 30 Sept. Wellesley became lieutenant-colonel of the regiment, and in June 1794 embarked with it at Cork for Ostend. In consequence of the French victory at Fleurus (26 June) the allied armies retired behind the Dyle, the British being on the right between Antwerp and Malines. The 33rd, sent round by sea to Antwerp, joined the army there about 10 July. The allies soon separated, the Austrians going eastward, and the Duke of York [see Frederick Augustus (DNB00)] retreating to the line of the Dutch fortresses. In September Pichegru advanced into Holland. On the 14th the post of Boxtel, near Bois-le-Duc, was taken by the French, and the reserve corps, to which the 33rd belonged, was sent to recover it next day, but found the enemy in too great strength. This was Wellesley's first engagement. Seeing that the troops in front of him were retiring in some confusion, he deployed his regiment, let the others pass through, and drove back their pursuers by a volley (, Annals, iv. 246).

Outnumbered by four to one, York retreated, but maintained himself behind the Waal till the end of the year. On 20 Dec. Wellesley wrote: 'We turn out once, sometimes twice, every night; the officers and men are harassed to death. I have not had my clothes off my back for a long time, and generally spend the greatest part of the night upon the bank of the river' (Suppl. Despatches, xiii. 2). Frost made the Waal passable at any point, and on 4 Jan. 1795 the 33rd was attacked at Meteren, and had to fall back on Geldermalsen, where, with the aid of two other regiments, it repulsed the French. The army retired to the Yssel, and thence across North Germany to the mouth of the Weser, where it embarked for England in April. During the retreat the command of a brigade in Dundas's corps fell to Wellesley by seniority, but the brigades were below the normal strength of regiments. The hardships of this winter campaign were extreme, the disorder and disorganisation were without example. Wellesley learnt 'what one ought not to do,' and made acquaintance with the new French tactics.

He came home in advance of the army, and on 13 March spoke in the Irish parliament. On 25 June he asked the new lord lieutenant, Lord Camden, to appoint him to the revenue or treasury board. He took this step owing to 'the necessities under which I labour from different circumstances.' He added that it was a departure from the line which he preferred, but he knew that it was useless to ask for a military office (, i. 23). The application proved fruitless. He joined his regiment at Warley in Essex, and embarked with it in October for the West Indies. Heavy gales dispersed the expedition of which it formed part, and it returned to England. It was four months at Poole, and was sent to India in April 1796. Wellesley, who became colonel in the army on 3 May, was unable to accompany it, but he overtook it at the Cape, and landed with it at Calcutta on 17 Feb. 1797. His colonel, Lord Cornwallis, introduced him to the governor-general as 'a sensible man and a good officer' (Cornwallis Corresp. ii. 307).

At this point his published correspondence begins, and the light on his character and actions, hitherto scanty, becomes abundant. He had already made it a rule to study by himself for some hours every day, and he gave up cards and the violin as waste of time (, p. 28;, i. 337). His earliest papers show his breadth of view and the influence he at once gained. He was given command of the Bengal portion of an expedition against Manilla, which reached Penang in September, but was then recalled on account of the attitude of Tippoo Sultan of Mysore. Wellesley had strongly urged his brother Mornington to come to India as governor-general. He did so, reaching Calcutta on 17 May 1798, and the younger brother became the unofficial adviser of the elder. The first question was how to act towards Tippoo, and here Wellesley discouraged Mornington's inclination to meet danger half way. He had paid a two months' visit to Madras in the beginning of the year, and was well acquainted with the situation there. He thought that war with Tippoo, though amply justified, was inexpedient, and that his dealings with the French should be ignored. This was the course adopted at that time.

In August the 33rd was transferred to the Madras establishment, and Wellesley was to have gone as envoy to Seringapatam, but Tippoo refused to receive the mission. In December he was given command of the troops assembled near Vellore, and General Harris, when he arrived in February 1799, praised him for the state of his division, and for his


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 SWEDISH SOCIETY OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY

CARL BOVALLIUS

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 of Lambley, Nottinghamshire, by Elizabeth, daughter of George Whitehead, esq., of Blyth Spital in that county. He was born at Papplewick, Nottinghamshire, on 5 Nov. 1782, and, after receiving a liberal education at Nottingham, he became in 1803 second master of the grammar school at Caistor, Lincolnshire. Six years afterwards he was appointed to the headmastership of King Edward's grammar school at Great Grimsby.

He was ordained deacon in 1813, and priest in 1814; and in July 1815 Bishop Tomline collated him to the living of Clee, when his name was placed on the boards of Trinity College, Cambridge, by Dr. Bayley, subdean of Lincoln and examining chaplain to the bishop, as a 'ten-year man.' In the same year he was admitted as surrogate, and a steward of the clerical fund. In 1831 Bishop Kaye gave him the rectory of Scopwick, Lincolnshire, which he held till his death. A Lambeth degree of D.D. was conferred upon him 25 July 1835 (Gent. Mag. 1867, i. 537). From 1834 to 1846 he was perpetual curate of St. Peter's collegiate church, Wolverhampton (Clergy Lists, 1841 and 1842;, Bibl. Stafford. p. 336). He was also domestic chaplain to Lord Kensington. He had been elected deputy past grand master of masons for Lincolnshire in 1832, and in 1840 he was appointed an honorary member of the grand lodge of Massachusetts, with the rank of deputy grand master.

In 1846 the lord chancellor conferred on him the rectory of South Hyckham, Lincolnshire, and he vacated the incumbency of Wolverhampton. In 1854 his voice began to fail, and, confiding the charge of his parishes to curates, he passed the remainder of his life in seclusion at Lincoln. There he died on 3 March 1867. He was buried on the 7th, with masonic rites, in the cemetery attached to the church of St. Swithin.

He married in 1805 Mary Ann, youngest daughter of Thomas Beverley, esq., by whom he left five children.

His topographical and theological works are: 1. 'A Vindication of the Fundamental Doctrines of Christianity against the Attacks of Deism and Infidelity, in a Series of Pastoral Addresses,' Great Grimsby [1820?], 8vo. 2. 'The Monumental Antiquities of Great Grimsby: an Essay towards ascertaining its Origin and Ancient Population,' Hull, 1825, 8vo. 3. 'The History and Antiquities of the Conventual Church of St. James, Great Grimsby,' Grimsby, 1829, 8vo. 4. 'The History and Antiquities of the Town and Minster of Beverley, in the County of York, with Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Abbeys of Watton and Meaux, the Convent of Haltemprise, the Villages, and the Hamlets comprised within the Liberties of Beverley,' Beverley, 1829, 8vo. 5. 'An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Collegiate Church of Wolverhampton, in the County of Stafford,' Wolverhampton [1836], 8vo. 6. 'History of the Trinity Guild at Sleaford, with an Account of its Miracle Plays, Religious Mysteries, and Shows, as practised in the Fifteenth Century.... To which is added an Appendix detailing the Traditions which still prevail, and a Description of the Lincoln Pageants exhibited during the Visit of King James to that City,' Lincoln, 1837, 8vo. 7. 'Jacob's Ladder: the Ascent to Heaven plainly pointed out, in eighteen practical Addresses,' London, 1845, 12mo. 8. 'An Account of the Religious Houses formerly situated on the eastern side of the River Witham,' London, 1846, 12mo. 9. 'The existing Remains of the Ancient Britons within a small District lying between Lincoln and Sleaford,' London, 1846, 8vo. 10. ' Ye Byrde of Gryme: an Apologue' [a history of Grimsby], Grimsby, 1866, 8vo.

His masonic works are: 11. 'The Antiquities of Free-Masonry, comprising Illustrations of the five grand Periods of Masonry, from the Creation of the World to the Dedication of Solomon's Temple,' London, 1823 and 1843, 8vo. 12. 'The Star in the East,' 1825; new edition, 1842. 13. 'Signs and Symbols illustrated and explained in a Course of Twelve Lectures on Freemasonry,' Grimsby, 1826, 8vo; reprinted London, 1837, and again 1857, 8vo. 14. 'The History of Initiation, comprising a detailed Account of the Rites, Ceremonies, &c., of all the Secret Institutions of the Ancient World.' London, 1829 and 1841, 8vo. 15. 'The theocratic Philosophy of Freemasonry,' London, 1840, 8vo, and 1856, 12mo. 16. 'History of Freemasonry,' 1841. 17. 'Brief History of the Witham Lodge, Lincoln,' London, 1841, 8vo. 18. 'Historical Landmarks and other Evidences of Freemasonry,' 2 vols. London, 1844-6, 8vo. 19. 'An Apology for the Freemasons,' London, 1846, 8vo. 20. 'The Insignia of the Royal Arch Degree illustrated and explained,' London, 1847, 8vo. 21. 'The Golden Remains of the Early Masonic Writers, illustrating the Institutes of the Order,' 5 vols. London, 1847-50, 8vo. 22. 'Some Account of the Schism which took place during the last Century among the Free and Accepted Masons in England, showing the presumed Origin of the Royal Arch Degree,' 1847. 23. 'A Mirror for the Johannite Masons,' 1848. 24. 'Institutes of Masonic Jurisprudence; being an Exemplification of the English Book of Constitutions,' London,


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and was committed to the Tower by order of the speaker on the 20th of that month (ib. xvii. 155). On 6 April he was brought up on a writ of habeas corpus before Lord Mansfield, who declined to interfere, as parliament was still sitting. A similar application was made on his behalf to the court of exchequer on 30 April, with the same want of success. The parliamentary session, however, closed on 8 May, when Oliver and Crosby were released from the Tower, and conducted in a triumphal procession to the Mansion House. Though formerly an active supporter of Wilkes, Oliver refused to serve as sheriff with him in 1771 (Gent. Mag. 1771, p. 189), and was elected to that office with Watkin Lewes on 1 July 1772. The friends of Wilkes were so enraged at the election of Townshend as lord mayor in this year that they appear to have accused Oliver ' of having taken the vote of the court before their party had arrived ' (, Life of William, Earl of Sherburne, 18751876, ii. 289). On 26 Jan. 1773 Oliver spoke in favour of Sawbridge's motion for leave to bring in a bill for shortening the duration of parliaments (Parl. Hist. xvii. 692-5), and on 1 Feb. 1775 he seconded a similar motion (ib. xviii. 216). On 27 Nov. 1775 his proposed address to the king respecting 'the original authors and advisers' of the measures against the American colonies was defeated by 163 votes to 10 (ib. xviii. 1005-7, 1021). His name appears for the last time in the 'Parliamentary History' on 10 May 1776, when he seconded Sawbridge's resolution that the American colonies should 'be continued upon the same footing of giving and granting their money^ as his Majesty's subjects in Ireland are, by their own representatives' (ib. xviii. 1353). Oliver resigned his gown at a court of aldermen held at Guildhall on 25 Nov. 1778, and shortly afterwards sailed to Antigua in order to look after his West Indian estates. He died on board the Sandwich packet, while returning to England, on 16 April 1784.

Oliver married, on 2 Feb. 1758, his cousin Mary, daughter of Richard Oliver of Low Leyton, Essex, by whom he had no issue. He was elected a general of the honourable artillery company in August 1773. The silver-gilt cup which was presented to him by the livery in March 1772 ' for joining with other magistrates in the release of a freeman, who was arrested by order of the House of Commons, and in a warrant for | imprisoning the messenger who had arrested the citizen and refused to give hail,' is preserved among the corporation plate at the Mansion House. His portrait, which was painted in the Tower by R. Pine in 1772, has been engraved.

 OLIVER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1766–1850), admiral, was born on 31 Oct. 1766. He entered the navy in May 1779, on board the Prince George, carrying the flag of Rear-admiral Robert Digby [q. v.], and in her, during the early months of 1780, was shipmate of Prince William, afterwards William IV. Remaining in the Prince George, Oliver went in her to North America in 1781, and later on to the West Indies, where he was present in the operations before St. Kitts in January 1782 [see ] and at the defeat of the French fleet off Dominica on 12 April [see ]. After further service in North America and in the Channel, he was in 1793 lieutenant of the Active in the North Sea; in 1794 in the Artois with Captain Edmund Nagle [q. v.], and after the capture of the Revolutionnaire on 21 Oct. he was promoted to be commander, taking seniority from the date of the action. In 1795 he commanded the Hazard sloop on the coast of Ireland, and on 30 April 1796 was posted to the Nonsuch, guardship in the Huinber, which he commanded till February 1798, when he was appointed to the Nemesis going out to Quebec with a large convoy. In March 1799 he joined the Mermaid, in which he went to the Mediterranean, and after an active and successful commission brought home Lord Hutchinson from Egypt in July 1802. On the renewal of the war he was appointed in March 1803 to the Melpomene, which during the next two years was actively employed on the coast of France. In September 1805 she was in dock at Portsmouth, and Oliver, calling on Lord Nelson, then on the point of sailing to resume the


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 thereupon prepared to send troops against them. Oliver, after vainly endeavouring to persuade the people to turn back, hastened to Boston and prevailed on Gage to refrain from military action. On his return the resignation of his seat on the council board was demanded. He urgently requested delay, inasmuch as he could not with propriety renounce that office while he held that of lieutenant-governor; but when a threatening multitude surrounded his house on the morning of 2 Sept. he yielded, and signed a solemn engagement 'as a man of honour and a Christian' that he would 'never hereafter, upon any terms whatsoever, accept a seat at the said board, on the present novel and oppressive plan of the government.' He left Cambridge immediately and never returned. At the evacuation of Boston he accompanied the British forces, and soon afterwards took passage from Halifax to England. He was proscribed in 1778, and his estate confiscated.

Oliver died at Bristol on 29 Nov. 1815 (Gent. Mag. 1815, pt. ii. p. 641). By his marriage in 1760 to Elizabeth, daughter of Colonel John Vassall, he had a family of daughters. He is represented as being of a gentle, retiring disposition. It has even been suggested that his name was inserted in the commission by mistake instead of the name of Chief-justice Peter Oliver (1718-1791).

 OLIVER, TOM (1789–1864), pugilist, born at Breadlow in Buckinghamshire in June 1789, left his native place as a boy, and entered the service of Mr. Baker, a gardener, at Millbank, London. A visit to a prize-fight in 1811 fired his ambition to enter the ring. His first essay was with Kimber, a stonemason, at Tothill Fields in the same year. In a fight of an hour and forty minutes he was hailed the conqueror. He at once became known as the Chelsea gardener, an appellation which adhered to him throughout his career. After several minor fights, he on 15 May 1813 encountered George Cooper at Moulsey Hurst, Surrey, and, after thirteen rounds of a severely contested engagement lasting seventeen minutes, was declared the victor. On Tuesday, 17 May 1814, he met Ned Painter at Shepperton Range, Middlesex, for a purse of 50l., given by the pugilistic club, to be contended for in a 24 foot ring. In the second round Oliver received a blow which all but disabled him; but, coming up to time and adopting Tom Cribb's system of milling on the retreat, he won the battle in the eighth round. He now became the landlord of the Duke's Head, 31 Peter Street, Westminster, a house which 'the fancy' of the Westminster district made their headquarters. On 4 Oct. 1816 he met Jack Carter, 'the Lancashire hero,' at Gretna Green, for one hundred guineas a side. The spectators numbered about thirty thousand, and the Marquis of Queensberry and Captain Barclay acted as the umpires. In the thirty-second round, at the end of forty-six minutes, he was taken out of the ring in a state of stupor, and completely deprived of sight.

On 10 July 1818 Oliver encountered Bill Neat of Bristol at Gerrard's Cross, but the authorities interfered, and the ring was removed to Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire, where Lord Yarmouth, Sir Henry Smith, and other celebrities were present. After one hour had elapsed, and twenty-eight rounds had been fought, Oliver was knocked senseless, and could not come up to time. However, on 28 May 1819 he completely defeated Hendrick the black. He next, on 21 July 1819, encountered Dan Donnelly, the champion of Ireland, at Crawley Hurst, Sussex, for one hundred guineas a side. Intense interest was manifested in this affair in both countries, and bets amounting to upwards of 100,000l. were made on the result. Oliver fought, with his accustomed bravery, but in the thirty-fourth round the victory fell to the Irishman. On 13 Jan. 1820 Oliver defeated Tom Shelton at Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire; but in a fight with his former opponent, Ned Painter, at North Walsham, Norfolk,on 17 July 1820, he lost the battle. He was then matched to fight Tom Spring on 20 Feb. 1821 at Hayes, Middlesex. Spring was too much for him; but he showed great forbearance in the fight, and allowed Oliver much latitude. In encounters with T. Hickman, the gas-lightman, on 12 June 1821, and with Bill Abbott on 6 Nov. 1821, Oliver's age told against him. He was now appointed to take charge of the ropes and stakes of the prize-ring, and he was a constant attendant at the ring-side as commissary. His last fight was with Ben Burn at Hampton, Middlesex, on 28 Jan. 1834, when he won the victory in twenty-five minutes. On 15 July 1846 he was sentenced at the Oxford assizes to three weeks' imprisonment for being present at a fight between Gill and Norley. During his latter years he was a fruiterer and greengrocer in Pimlico and Chelsea. He died in London in June 1864, leaving a son, Frederick Oliver, also a pugilist and a commissary of the ring, who died on 30 Jan. 1870. [Fistiana, by the editor of Bell's Life (1868), pp. 92-3; Boxiana, 1818-24, ii. 95 &c, iii. 262,


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 * Book 1 General Principles (Act Promulgating the Revised Provisions of Book 1 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2535 (1992))
 * Book 2 Obligations (Decree Promulgating the Revised Provisions of Books 1 and 2 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2468 (1925))
 * Book 3 Specific Contracts (Decree Promulgating the Revised Provisions of Book 3 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2471 (1928))
 * Book 4 Property (Decree Promulgating Book 4 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2473 (1930))
 * Book 5 Family (Act Promulgating the Revised Provisions of Book 5 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2519 (1976))
 * Book 6 Succession (Act Promulgating Book 6 of the Civil and Commercial Code, BE 2477 (1934))

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 and caves? as well as clean mouthed? Perhaps they are hermits to be clean and fresh, while the others are to be dirty.

I never saw the parson at or near the village, though he had a bike, and was a well knit, active man, quite young—an athlete, in fact, and a keen sportsman. He had a tombstone in the churchyard, sacred to the memory of his third wife—or was it his fourth?—and they said that "parson was keep'n company again." He wore tourist jacket, cap, knickerbockers, and a bike—the last mostly between his legs—whenever I saw him. He seemed an improvement on "The Private Secretary." But I can't think exactly in which way. He might have been more useful out here in an English eleven.

The Shepperton doctor was Scottish—and a friend of mine. So I won't write about him.

There was that something of the "sullen, silent" atmosphere—without the "half-devil and half-child" business about the village which had struck me forcibly while school teaching a pah of low-class Maories at the other side of the world a year or two before. Men and women worked in the fields for, the men from fifteen shillings to a pound a week, and the women seven to eleven shillings. I used to hear them calling each other in the dark, on bitter cold mornings. Those who had children, and no old granny capable of looking after them, used to club together and pay one of their number to look after the children while they were in the fields. Some had to pay to have old granny looked after, too. The children who


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 were old enough to do so worked in the fields. The woman with the hoe was there, plenty of her—not twenty miles from London—bag aprons and the hoes. There was an old solitary couple I noticed often in the big cabbage field. They lived in one hole in the end of an old hovel, but were clean on Sundays. I've often seen them plod home, bent, in the rain, with sacks tied on and their hoes on their shoulders bags heavy with wet, and hobnailed boots—they both wore them—heavy with clay. End of a "good" week they'd come into the beerhouse for their pints, or half-pints. Their philosophy was—grim—practical they talked—or drivelled, or doted, or cackled, about "them as 'as it," sometimes: not resentfully, discontentedly, enviously, or covetously, but from habit, as other old couples had done before them for generations. She treated him as a rather useless overgrown child with whom she "had no patience," and he defended himself, or rather took it all with grumbling humour or sarcasm—as other old couples have done for generations. It seemed as though they had been only children of old couples right back to the beginning of 'em, and it had ended, or was ending, without a child. In bad weeks they sometimes "wished as they 'ad it"—but you couldn't conceive them as being in earnest about it. If they had "it" suddenly and survived the shock, there would probably be no old couple on earth—or young couple either—who would know less what to do with it. The fear of "they lawyers," and "they banks," and "they thieves" would probably drive them to bury it, and sleep on it,


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 and fight about it, and shift it to a new place every night, and sleep on it there, and end by not sleeping at all, because of watching each other all night. And it might end by one poisoning—or hoeing—the other. Or they'd turn misers and die in dirt and starvation.

There were no village beauties, nor dancing on the village green in that village. (I wonder if there ever had been in England.) Because there was no green, and an utter absence of girls. They had to go to service before they were old enough. Or to a factory. Girls prefer the factory in England, both in this and "better-class" villages. Because, after factory hours, long as they be, the girl's time is her own. And because English middle class mistresses are seldom human beings where" maids "are concerned, and "keeping up appearances" is a fetish, a religion—very life to them.

The farm hands on Saturday nights sometimes went home three or four arm-in-arm, singing "Comrades—comrades—since the days where we were boys—sharin'—each other's—sorrers—sharin'—each other's joys." Never anything else. They shared their joys on a bank outside the Winders one night, and I complained on the grounds of the sleeping children. I never heard them share each other's joys after that, and have always been remorseful and sorry about it.

The men—as I mentioned before—got from fifteen shillings to twenty shillings per week, and the women from seven shillings to eleven shillings in the season. They paid three shillings for their hutches—deducted from their wages—twopence a pint for their ale, and


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 anything from threepence to one shilling per week on the suites that were never used. Besides club fees for births, illness and burials (which seemed the only things that ever happened there). I don't pretend to know how they did it, but they grew their own vegetables, and got seed potatoes, etc., free, I think. Some worked at the brickfields and other places when not wanted on the farm. They were slaves, and treated as slaves, and seemed invulnerable in their position as willing slaves. I'd often fill the pewter, and be just getting comfortable with them and getting copy when one would spoil it with, "We 'ope we ain't intrudin', sir? We 'ope we ain't makin' too free, sir?" They'd carry a "gent" home beastly drunk and call him "sir" all the time. "Excuse us, sir, but you're bein' sick, sir! Hadn't we better stand yer up agen the wall, sir? Till yer right, sir? Once I said, "For Heaven's sake don't call me sir," which only embarrassed and struck them dumb! It was no use trying to treat them as equals. " He's a gent, and Gol darn it! Why don't he let us treat him like a gent?" And the servants, or "maids," well, if I treated one as I'd treat an Australian girl, she'd reckon I was "no class," and she'd lose cast by being in my service. It's easier to get up amongst the upper class in England. But don't be proud. It's coming in Australia every day.

One Brennan, who lives in the nearest hutch to the Winders, was sort of upper hand on the farm. Sort of super, whose position was not recognized in any way by the farmer, but who was made to feel his responsibility all the same, and who, therefore,


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 seemed sullenly apart from his fellows. He was the trusted man to go to London with the wagon or wagons of fruit and produce in season. Started at four in the morning, got back at any time at night—or next morning in the fog—was probably allowed eighteenpence for travelling expenses, and was secretly known by the whole village to get twenty-two shillings a week, instead of a pound, which was secretly held by his wife and the whole village to be a secret between him and her and the boss. She set out the bread and cheese on the table and the black bottle of ale, late in foggy "Lunnon night," and went out to the front with something over her head, now and then, to look for her chap.

She had a holiday once every two years to a married sister's at Margate, but told me she was going to have on' this ye'. " We ain't going to do this work all me life for nothin'. My chap give it to me this year."

She used to sit outside in the sun and sew calico—well, combinations—with an offhandedness that set even me at my ease, and I was a shy man.

One day I heard him ask her to wash his trousers, and he added "only wash the linin'." Which gave me a poor opinion of his intelligence. But I've thought since that the linin' was probably put in so that it could be undone and drawn out at the bottom of the pants. (I've a vague impression of seeing some so.) For on Sunday morning he sat at the back and read Reynold's Newspaper. He lent it to his wife's father afterwards, who lived with granny next


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 door in the other half of the dog-kennel; but I don't know who he lent it to.

This is no democratic touch, because I'm supposed to be a democrat in a democratic country. It is no literary trick. This was five years ago, and a sign on the face of it of the great change that was coming and is coming to English politics. That the white world never dreamed would come to England. Was it only one sign of the silent, sullen seeming undercurrent of thought, that was going on in that and hundreds of other English villages.

And to such a village had come, some three or four years ago, little Billy with his smile.

And while Billy is getting used to conditions which are strangely new to him after exile to London and a nightmare "abroad," and while men and women are getting used to Billy, who has never changed, I'll tell you of something else.

I have neither stage-room nor time to describe the villages, fairs and gipsies connected with them, though I've seen fairs, from one at Little Hilliford (where Sykes and Oliver Twist passed that morning) to Islington Fair, which is a surprisingly small and cramped affair for its name and fame as indeed are most other famous things in London, from St. Paul's, which seems a dirty old toy at first Australian sight, to the Angel at Islington, or The Cheshire Cheese, in Wine Court Ally, Strand, where, in the little cramped, sawdusted dining-room The Immortal British Bore sat in a corner (where a marble plate on the wall now records the fact) before he got up and


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 made that most original and world-famous proposal of his.

The memories of old Paddy's Market and Paddy's Market Square of twenty years ago will give old Sydneyites a very good idea of the real thing.

Some gipsy caravans are models in woodwork, with polished brasswork inside, and fitted like a ship's cabin. But most of the travelling ones are rough and dirty enough. I shall always remember the gipsies as hurrying on, camping at a fire left by a caravan ahead, probably, for a few minutes it seemed, and hurrying on. Caravan hurrying on after caravan, and gipsies on foot hurrying on after gipsies on foot, talking their own "outlandish," and calling to each other. Running in and out of line to the beerhouse (generally in a pocket of the hedges out of sight of the road till you see it), and hurrying out and on again. But they camped, sometimes by Charlton, where, as in most other places, they were outcast and unappreciated, and were hurried on as soon as possible. Between Charlton and its Four Lanes was a triangular piece of ground, hedged in and known as the "Three Corner Medder," or "Three Corner Loosen," or something, and this the Gipsies sometimes hired from Leonard as a camp for themselves and horses. It was a perfect triangle, and the side lanes, both went to church and the post office, or rather to a stile and a path that ran across a sort of waste or common to the church or the post office, which latter seemed a pretty vine-covered, flower-fronted English village-drama cottage and nothing else.


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Template talk:HAR

Expanding beyond specific sources
I see that this is an experimental template—do you plan to write a version that is not specifically coded for Horses and Roads? One problem I see is that this template has a constant number for the offset between the djvu page and the actual page number. Not all sources have a constant offset—some sources (such as September's POTM, Picturesque New Zealand) do not number every page, so the offset grows. Overall, this is an interesting feature! Cheers, stephen (talk) 06:44, 8 October 2010 (UTC)

title: Template talk:HAR


text: Category:History of Australia

title: Category:History of Australia


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Rh being made for landing the stores and horses with apparent interest, but when the time came for him to disembark he refused to point out the spot where he had previously landed. Inspector Panter attempted to reason with him, but to no purpose, the man maintaining a stubborn silence, and neither promises nor threats could make him change his demeanour. The convict was reduced from the status of a passenger, and installed in the position of cook. As a suitable landing could not be discovered near where the schooner was anchored, it was decided to go on to Camden Harbour. The voyage thence was marked by an exciting incident, the schooner getting into a "willy willy" near the "Treacherous Reef." Fortunately for all concerned, Captain Owston saw the danger in time, and managed to bring the schooner up in good holding ground, thus saving the vessel and the lives of passengers and crew. As the convict persisted in his refusal to go ashore, Inspector Panter determined to land, and discover the auriferous country without the assistance of a guide. The horses were disembarked, and the party set off in high spirits, sanguine of returning in a few days with untold wealth. They went to a place named Glenell, about twenty miles from the coast, and made a careful search for gold-bearing country, but without success. Inspector Panter then suggested that they should endeavour to discover some good pastoral country, and a start was made in the schooner for Carnot Bay. On arrival there, however, the beach was found to be crowded by natives, whose hostile demonstrations discouraged any attempt to land. As the navigation of the Bay was intricate, Captain Owston decided to wait until the following morning before attempting to work his vessel out to sea, so the night was passed quietly at anchor. The natives remained on the beach all night, their whereabouts being marked by the hundreds of fires that pierced the gloom until morning, and at daybreak the schooner was got under way, a course being shaped for Cape Vailaret. A boat was sent ashore to see if any natives were in the vicinity, and finding the coast clear, Inspector Panter and party landed to examine the nature of the country. The horses swam ashore.

The convict was left on the schooner, and for a couple of days performed the duties assigned to him without demur. This apparent contentment, however, was evidently only to lull suspicion, for one night the startling discovery was made that the convict and the two boats belonging to the schooner were missing, thus preventing any communication with the shore. Captain Owston at once came to the conclusion that the man had made his escape in the smaller boat of the two, with the intention of reaching Java, and cut the other adrift to prevent pursuit in case his absence was discovered before he got away from the ship. He determined to make an attempt to overtake the fugitive, and sailed at once, and the following evening had the satisfaction of picking up the big boat drifting out to sea. He then returned to the anchorage, and on landing found the other boat, but no trace of the convict, who was, however, caught several days later.

On the return Of Inspector Panter and party, after a successful trip of four days, the schooner started on her return journey to Fremantle, with the convict in irons. The arrival of the schooner in Fremantle with the news of the fruitless result of the exploration was a great disappointment to the many people who were anxiously waiting her return, and the convict, for his perfidiousness, was sentenced to three years' additional imprisonment.

The good work done by Captain Owston in navigating almost unknown waters was appreciated by the authorities, and his opinion was so esteemed that he was consulted as to the quality of the land at Camden Harbour. It was due to his report, as to the unhealthy nature of the country, that any thought the authorities had of attempting to open up the port at that time was abandoned.

The Captain again went into the Java trade, giving the command of the vessel to his mate, who made three successful voyages to Roebuck Bay and Cossack with the ship. The little schooner which had navigated the treacherous coast successfully so long then met her "Waterloo," being wrecked on what is now known as "The Perseverance Rock," named after the vessel. Captain Owston's next venture was the Eliza Blanche, the command of which he took himself, and from 1868 to 1871 this well-known trader successfully ran with several cargoes to ports in Java, China, Mauritius, and Melbourne. He also owned the Macquarie, Bonnie Lassie, Ribston, Singalee, Mary Smith, a fleet of vessels engaged in the same trade.

Captain Owston started business as a general merchant in partnership with the Messrs. Pearse.

His ability as a seaman was so well recognised that he was appointed Lloyd's surveyor over forty years ago, which position he held until a few years ago. As a nautical assessor, he was not to be surpassed, and during the twenty-five years he filled the position his decisions gave satisfaction to all concerned.

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text:
Translation:Ōðer Bōc Petrus

1 Hēafodƿeard
1. Simon Petrus, þegn and ǣrendraca Iesus Crīstes, þǣm þā habbaþ gefangen gelīcne ƿeorþne gelēafan mid ūs on þǣre rihtƿīsnesse ūres Godes and Hǣlendes Iesus Crīstes:

2. Ǣr ēoƿ and friþ sīen manigfealded on þǣre geƿitnesse Godes and Iesus ūres Dryhtnes,

3. sƿā His godcund miht hafaþ gifen ūs eall þing þā gelimpaþ līfe and ƿilsumnesse, þurh þǣre geƿitnesse his se þe hēt ūs þurh his āgnan þrym and his ƿeorþ;

4. þurh þæt þe hē hafaþ gifen ūs his ƿeorþlīcan sƿīðe grēatan hāt; sƿā þæt þurh þās mægen gē ƿeorðan dǣlnimendas þæs godcundan geċyndes. hæbbende ūtgān fram þǣm gunde þæt is on þǣre ƿorulde þurh gālscipe.

5. Gēa, and for ilcan intingan giefende ealle geornnesse, gief ēac on gelēafan ƿeorþ, and on ƿeorðe geƿitnesse;

6. and on geƿitnesse geƿealdenmōd; and on geƿealdenmōde geþolemōd; and on geþolemōd geƿilsumnesse;

7. and on geƿilsumnesse brōðorlufe; and on brōðorlufe lufe.

8. For þȳ gif þās þing sīen ēoƿer and manigfealden, þonne hīe fornȳdaþ ēoƿic tō ƿesenne unīdele ne unƿǣstmbǣre on þǣre geƿitnesse ūres Dryhtnes Iesus Crīstes.

9. For þȳ hē se þe nafaþ þās þing is blind, sēonde synderlīce þæt is nēah, hæbbennde forgoten þā clǣnsunge fram his ealdum synnum.

10. Þæs brōðru, ƿesaþ geornran tō macienne þīn hāt and þīne cēosunge geƿisslīc. For þȳ gif gē dōn þās, gē nā ætspeornen.

11. For þȳ þus ēoƿ rīclīce bēoþ gifen þone ingang in þæt ēcelīce Cynerīce ūres Dryhtnes and Hǣlendes Iesus Crīstes.

12. Þæs nille ic forgietan tō gemanienne ēoƿ þisra þinga, þēah þe ge cnāƿaþ hīe sind gesete on þǣm gengan sōðe.

13. Ic þence hit ƿesan riht, sƿā lang sƿā ic in þissum stealle sitte, tō aƿeccenne ēoƿic ūpp þȳ ic ēoƿ gemanie;

14. cnāƿende þæt sēo framaƿeorpung mīnes stealles cymþ hraðe, sƿā sƿā ūre Dryhten Iesus Crīst hafaþ gebirhted mē.

15. Gēa, ic sceal gesēcan þæt gē ā gemunen þās efne æfter mīnre āfōre.

16. For ƿē ne folgodon cræftige acræfted lēasspell, þǣr ƿē gycȳðdon þā mihte þæs tōcymes ūres Dryhtnes Iesus Crīstes, ac ƿē ƿǣron geƿitan his cyneþrymes.

17. For þe Hē andfangen fram Gode þǣm Fæder āre and þrym, þǣr sēo stefn cōm tō Him fram þǣm Cyneþrymfæstan Þryme, "Þes is Mīn lēofa Sunu on þǣm Ic līcie."

18. Ƿē hīerdon þās stefne cuman fram Heofonum þǣr ƿē ƿǣron mid Hum on þǣm hālgan bēorge.

19. Ƿē hæfdon þæt fæstre ƿord fōrecƿides; and gē dōþ ƿel þæt gē hīersumien him, sƿā lēohtfæte scīnende on doercre stōƿe, oþ se dæg dagaþ, and se morgensteorra arīseþ ēoƿrum heortum:

20. cnāƿende þis ǣrost, þæt nǣnig fōrecƿide þæs Geƿrites is tō ānlēpigre āreccunge.

21. For þū nān fōrecƿide ǣfre cƿōm æfter þone ƿillan menn; ac hālgan menn Godes sprǣcon, ƿesende geƿeged fram þǣm Hālgan Gāste.

2 Hēafodƿeard
1. Ac lēase ƿīregan ēac arison ongemang þāra lēoda, sƿā sƿā lēase tǣcendas ēac bēoþ ongemang ēoƿer, þā bringaþ dēogollīce ƿælgrimme dƿeolan, ætsæcende efne þone Mægester þe bohte hīe, bringende him sƿifte ætlǣtnesse.

2. Manīge sculon folgian heora bealosīðas, and þæs se ƿeg þæs sōðes sceal ƿesan bismerod.

3. And on gītsunge hīe sculon cīepan ēoƿic mid gēapum ƿordum: þāra gesetness hēræfter gēaro ne abīdeþ, and heora cƿealm ne slǣpeþ.

4. For þǣm gif God ne sparode engelas þǣr hīe gyltodon, ac aƿearp hīe ofdūne tō Tartarus, and gesetede hīe on dīcas þystre, tō ƿesenne gehealden oþ dōm;

5. and ne sparode þā ealdan ƿorulde, ac hēold Noe mid seofonum ōðrum, boda rihtƿīsnesse, þǣr Hē brōhte drencflōd on þā ƿorulde þāra gālfullena;

6. and ƿendenda þā byrig Sodoman and Gomorran on æscum, dēmende hīe on heora cƿealm, settende hīe tō bȳsne tō þǣm þā ƿoldon lifigan mānfullīce;

7. and sparode rihtƿīsne Loth delivered righteous Lot, þe sƿīðe sƿanc ymb þæt gālsume līf þāra yfelena

8. (for þǣm se rihtƿīsa mann dƿeligende ongemang heora, ƿæs þrōƿod on his rihtƿīsan sāƿle fram dæge oþ dæg for þȳ hē seah and hīered unlaga):

9. se Dryhten cnāƿeþ hū mann sparaþ þā ƿilsuman of costnunge tō healdenne þā unrihtƿīsnesse under þǣm ƿīte þæs dæges dōmes;

10. ac hēafodlīce þā þā þe gangaþ æfter þǣm flǣsce on þǣre gālsumnesse fȳlðe, and hataþ geƿeald. Bræsene, ānƿille, hīe ne drǣdaþ tō sprecenne yfel ƿord be ƿealdendum;

11. ac engelas, þēah hīe sīen māran on mihte ond cræfte, ne bringaþ beceoriendne dōm ƿiþ hīe fōre þǣm Dryhtne.

12. Ac þās, tō uncnāƿendum ƿihtum, geboren tō gecyndelīcum dēorum tō ƿesenne genumen and forloren, sprecende yfel ƿord ymb þing þāra þe hīe ne cnāƿaþ, sculon þǣr hīe forlēosaþ forloren ƿeorðan,

13. andfōnde þā lēana unrihtƿīsnesse; menn þā þencaþ dæges gamen lustfulness ƿesan, glemmas and onsundnessa, plegende on hoera lēasunge þā hƿīle þe gæmeniende ēoƿ;

14. hæbbende ēagan full ēacad on forlægere, and þā ne cunnon endian heora synne; inbringende unfæste gāstas; bæbbende heortan cræftig on græde; cildru ƿærnesse;

15. ætsæcende þone rihtan ƿeg, hīe dƿelodon, hæbbende folgod þone ƿeg Balaames þæs Suna Bosores, þe lufode þā lēana unrihtƿīsnesse;

16. ac hē ƿæs cīded for his āgnan unhīersumnesse. Dum eosol spræc mid menn stefne and forestæp þā ƿēdunge þæs bȳdles.

17. Þās sind ƿellan lēas ƿæteres, ƿolcnas fram storme gedrifen; tō þǣm þe sēo sƿeartness þystre hafaþ geƿorden gehealden ā.

18. For þȳ hīe cƿeðende grēat asƿellendu ƿord ǣmmettignesse inbringaþ on þǣm gālscipe þæs flǣsces, þurh unālīfednesse, þā þā sind sōþlīce aflēonde fram him þā ƿuniaþ on ƿōge;

19. abēodende frēodōm hīe, þā hƿīle hīe selfe sind þēoƿas gundes; for þȳ mann is gebrōht on clammum be hƿǣm oferƿinnþ hine.

20. For gif, æfter hīe habbaþ aflogen fram þǣre fȳlðe þǣre ƿorulde þurh þā geƿitnesse þæs Dryhtnes and Hǣlendes Iesus Crīstes, hīe sind eft gebunden on hire and oferƿunnen fram hire, sēo æfterre byrdness is ƿyrse þonne sēo ǣrre.

21. For þȳ þe hit sīe betere him þæt hīe ne nā cnēoƿen þone ƿeg rihtƿīsnesse, þonne þæt hīe æfter cnāƿende hine hīe aƿenden fram þǣm hālgan bode þe ƿæs asend him.

22. Ac hit hafaþ gelumpen hīe æfter þǣm sōðan bīcƿide, "Se hund eft ƿendeþ tō sīnum spiƿe," and "sēo sū þe ƿæs ƿæsced eft ƿendeþ tō hire plegende on fenne."

3 Hēafodƿeard
1. Nū, lēofas, is þis þæt ōðer ǣrend þe ic hæbbe ēoƿ geƿriten; ond on heora bǣm ic astyrie ēoƿere mōdas þurh þā myndgunge ēoƿer;

2. þæt gē sculen gemunan þā ƿord þā ƿǣron gesprocen ǣr be þǣm hālgum bȳdlum, and þā bodu ūru þāra ǣrendracena þæs Dryhtnes and Hǣlendes:

3. cnāƿende þis ǣrost, þæt on þǣm æftermestum dagum sculon bysmeriendas cuman, gangende æfter heora āgnum gālscipum,

4 and secgende, "Hƿǣr is þæt hāt his tōcymes? For þȳ, siþþan þǣm dæge þā þā þā fæderas ƿurdon slǣpende, eall þing gelǣstaþ sƿā hīe ƿǣron siþþan þǣm onginne gesceaftes."

5 For hīe georne forgietaþ þis, þæt þǣr ƿǣron heofonas siþþan gēarodagum, and on eorðan gescieped of ƿætere ond ongemang þæs ƿæteres, þurh þæt ƿord Godes;

6 þurh þone þe sēo ƿoruld ƿæs, ƿesende flēdu mid ƿætere, cƿæl.

7 Ac þā heofonas þe nū sind, and sēo eorðe, þurh ilce ƿord hafaþ geƿorden gehordod oþ fȳr, ƿesende healden oþ þone dæg dōmes and cƿealmes mānfullra manna.

8 Ac ne forgietaþ þis ān þing, lēofas, þæt ān dæg is þǣm Dryhtne sƿā þūsend geara, ond þūsend gēara is sƿā ān dæg.

9 Se Dryhten nis slāƿ ymb his hāt, sƿā sume tellaþ slǣƿþe; ac is ūs geþyldig, neillende þæt nān nō cƿelle, ac þæt ealle cumen tō behrēoƿsienne.

10 Ac se dæg þæs Dryhtnes sceal cuman sƿā sƿā þēof on nihte; ond on þǣm þā heofonas sculon acƿelan on grēatum sƿēge, and þā gesceaft bēoþ molten on þearlum hāte, and sēo eorðe and þā ƿeorc þā sind on hire bēoþ forbærned.

11 Þæs for þȳ þe eall þās þing bēoþ forcƿeled þus, hƿelc gecynd lēoda scodldon gē ƿesan on hālgum līfe and ƿilsumnesse,

12 sēcende and georne giernende þone cumendan dæg Godes, þe nȳdeþ þā bernendan heofonas tō meltenne, and þā gesceaft sculon meltan mid þǣm þearlan hāte?

13 Ac, æfter his hāte, ƿē sēcaþ nīƿe heofonas and nīƿe eorðan, on þǣm þe rihtƿīsness abītt.

14 Þæs, lēofas, for þȳ gē sēcaþ þās, ƿesaþ georne tō ƿesnne gefunden on friðe, lēas ƿammes ond gyltlēas on His sihþe.

15 Be þǣm þolemōde ūres Dryhtnes tō hǣlo; sƿā sƿā ūre lēofa brōðor Paulus ēac ƿrāþ ēoƿ, æfter þǣm ƿīsdōm þe ƿæs him gifen;

16 sƿā ēac on eallum his ǣrendgeƿritum, sprecende on him þisra. On him, þǣr sind sumu þing þā sind earfoþ tō understondenne, þā þā dƿǣsan and ungeþingedan gebīgaþ, sƿā hīe dōþ on ōðrum Geƿritum, tō heora āgnan cƿealme.

17 Þæs gē lēofas, cnāƿende þās ǣr, ƿariaþ, þȳ læs þe gānde mid þǣm ƿōge þāra yfelena, ge feallen on ēoƿere staðolfæstnesse.

18 Ac ƿeaxaþ on þǣre āre and andgiete ūres Dryhtnes ond Hǣlendes Iesus Crīstes. Him sīe se þrym ge nū ge ā. Sōþlīce.

title: Translation:Ōðer Bōc Petrus


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Varnish

VARNISH. A solution of gums or resins which is applied to the surface of objects to afford a glaze and protect the article so coated. Its use is largely decorative and applied to enhance the appearance of woodwork (furniture and house fittings) as it brings out the beauties of the grain and color of woods more distinctly and permanently and at less cost than the process of polishing, being applied with a brush similarly to painting. Varnish is also used, as an upper or outside coating of paint to enhance and make more permanent the pigments. The ancient Egyptians were acquainted with the art of varnishing, but its origin appears to have arisen in the East. In India, China and Japan the practice of lacquer work, a species of varnish application, was known at a very early date. It has been claimed that Japan was acquainted with the art of lacquering 500 or 600 B.C., but the majority of authorities place its first usage there to the 3d century of our era, as an art acquired from their neighbors the Coreans. The natives of China and India probably knew the art much earlier than the Japanese. Varnish and lacquer work are, however, generally treated in the arts as separate and distinct. True varnish does not appear to have been known in Europe till the 17th century.

A practical varnish will cover the following requirements: It must be a homogeneous fluid or solution; must be fixed or permanent in effect as to tone of color, transparency (or opaqueness), and must, on application in thin layers by brush or otherwise, dry within a short period by evaporation of its volatile solvents (alcohol, ether, benzene, spirits of turpentine, etc.), leaving a film of smooth, lustrous (sometimes purposely dull), elastic oil and resin, impervious to its surrounding atmospheric conditions. It must when dry be free from cracks or flaws. In general varnishes may be divided into natural, oil, spirit and water varnishes. Natural varnishes so called are the group of lacquers as used in India, China and Japan and are produced in liquid form by nature as the saps or juices of trees (Rhus vernicifera). They are generally treated under the title lacquers (to which refer) and will not be considered here. Oil varnishes: These are a product manufactured from linseed oil, gum resins, driers, and a solvent such as turpentine or

white spirit. The gums are largely fossil resins. Oil varnishes in commerce are frequently divided into the two general classes: carriage varnishes and cabinet varnishes; both are of very similar character as to composition and manufacture, but the best and most durable for open air use are selected as carriage varnishes, the remainder being termed and used as cabinet varnishes. Spirit varnishes consist of a kind made from various resins dissolved in a volatile spirit — methylated spirit (grain alcohol denaturized), turpentine, etc. They are generally made without oil, but some have a small admixture of oil. Water varnishes find but small application in the industrial arts. There are lac water varnish, glazing varnish, glue varnish and crystal water varnish. The first makes a good paper varnish and is used on harness, as is also the glue varnish.

Materials used in the manufacture of varnishes may be placed under the following groups: drying oils, resins, gums, solvents and coloring matter. Good drying oils are made from old linseed oil of the best quality (best Baltic preferred). It should be aged at least a year before use by being stored in containers exclude any attack of the air. While the difference between raw and old stored oils is great, the cause is not known to science, nor have the chemists discovered the reactions caused in ageing. The selection of resins in the ingredients employed is more important than any other, for the lustre and permanence of the products depends absolutely on the qualities of the resins used. Gums as known in commerce are the exudations from trees and consist of what are termed water soluble and spirit soluble. The water soluble gums are of course not correctly used in varnishes as it is required that varnishes shall not be affected by water. For varnishes the resins available for the commercial markets are: amber, kauri, copal, dammar, shellac, mastic, sandarac, benzoin, elemi, animi, pine resin (rosin), asphaltum. Most resins come to the market either in the form of knotty masses, drops, cylindrical pieces or blocks. lit the factory the gums are divided into classes as follows: oil varnish gums, as amber, animal, copals, sandarac, rosin and kauri. Ethereal varnish resins are: all oil resins after they have been fused; dammars, mastic, sandarac, rosin, Manila copal. Spirit varnish gums are: lac, Manila copal, sandarac, mastic, rosin, melted resins. The points or characteristics to be considered are hardness, fusibility, solubility, appearance, color. The resins mentioned under oil varnish are insoluble in oils, ether and other solvents, until liquified by fusion; rosins, some soft copals and sandarac are exceptions being soluble in alcohol. The gums grouped under ethereal varnish are more or less soluble in benzol, coal-tar naphtha, turpentine, ether, acetone, etc. The enumerated spirit varnish gums are soluble in alcohol and methylated spirit. Natural coloring matters used in varnishes are: turmeric, gamboge, dragon's blood, gum accroides, aloes, etc. Some artificial or coal-tar colors also enter into the manufacture of varnishes.

Manufacture, Oil Varnishes. — The plant for this class is very simple as is the process, but carrying out of the process requires very great care and experience to produce a commercially successful line. The stages of the process are: (1) melting or running the resin and gums; (2) boiling the oil; (3) mixing the melted gum and boiling oil; (4) boiling the varnish; (5) thinning the boiled varnish; (6) clearing. The gum running is a very delicate operation and the finished varnish depends entirely upon the successful outcome of this process. It is done in a large cylindrical copper vessel, with flat or domed bottom known as the “gum pot.” These pots have flanges near the bottoms which support them in the holes on top of a furnace. In modern varnish works the furnace top is flush with the floor of the gum running shed. These pots have wheels appended to ease movement from the gum running shed to the mixing shed. The pots have hood-covers which connect with flues by stove pipes to allow vent for the noxious vapors. During this running process oil is being boiled in a boiling pot, the oil heated to 500° F. for from one to two hours. The gum is run by heat till it has a steady boil without frothing (which occurs at the start and is the chief source of danger — that of running over). The boiling oil is then added in the correct proportion and thoroughly mixed. The mixture is then poured into a “set pot.” The mixed oil and gum are now boiled together to get it thoroughly homogeneous. The set pot is an iron vessel formed like a washing boiler and with a capacity of some 600 gallons. It is set in a specially constructed furnace to hold it. With several runs in it the mixture is boiled at a temperature of from 450° to 500° F. for a time varying from half an hour to four or even five hours, according to the kind of varnish. It has now become a viscous mass and should be clear and transparent. While in the former process the danger was from boiling over, the danger in this process is that of catching fire. For extinguishing such should the material become enflamed, a shallow pan-shaped cover filled with sand is suspended above the set pot ready to let down and smother the fire. The next process is that of thinning. This is done by removing the set pot of boiled fluid outdoors away from any furnaces or flames where it is mixed with the turps till acquiring the necessary consistency. The next process is the necessary clearing and aging, as freshly made varnish works badly. This process is performed by placing the material in large iron tanks or cisterns and, after hermetically sealing, storing for six months to two years. In this period the insoluble matter slowly precipitates and leaves a clear fluid.

Spirit Varnishes. — These can be made with the same plant as the oil varnishes. The French process is very similar to the procedure given for oil varnishes, the main difference being that these varnishes contain little oil. They are made by running the gums, mixing with oil previously brought to a boil and the mixture boiled till stringy (viscous); after which the mass is cooled and mixed with spirits. In the “common” process the resins are mixed with the solvent and kept in a warm place or heated slightly till the gums are dissolved; therefore, permitting only spirit soluble gnms to be used.

Water Varnishes. — These are produced as follows: Lac water vamish contains the proportions of six ounces shellac to one and one-half ounces borax boiled together to each pint of water. Glazing varnish is made with a mixture of egg-white and water preserved by the addition of a little carbolic add or thymol. Dissolved albumen can take the place of white of eggs. Glue varnish is a solution of the proportions of one pound pale glue to every two gallons of water. The quality and color are dependent, of course, on the land of glue used — white, brown, etc. It is not water proof and has the defect of being sticky, but is less permeable to water if a little bichromate of potash be added to the ready-made varnish, not during the process of manufacture. Crystal water varnish is produced by dissolving, in the following proportions, one pound of good white gum arabic to one pound of glucose to each three pints of water.

In commerce the different varnishes are known as finishing body varnish for coaches, hard drying or flatting varnish, elastic carriage varnish, elastic hard carriage varnish pale oak varnish, oak varnish, hard church oak varnish, pale copal varnish, japanners' gold size, black japan, black varnish for carriage iron work, Brunswick black, gold size, balloon varnish, black leather varnish, amber varnish, copal picture varnish, oil varnish, bookbinders' varnish, patent leather varnish, photographic varnish, etc.

Bibliography. — Heckel, G. B., ‘A Varnish Catechism for Varnish Men,’ (Philadelphia 1912); McIntosh, J. G., ‘The Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries’ (London 1911); Bottler, M., ‘German Varnish-Making’ (New York 1912); Hurst, G. H., ‘Painters' Colours, Oils and Varnishes’ (London 1906).


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Varnhagen von Ense, Rahel

VARNHAGEN VON ENSE, Rahel (Levin), German author; b. Berlin, 1771; d. 1883. She was well known in literary circles and exercised a notable influence over her husband's literary career. He published a memorial of her, ‘Rahel, ein buch des andenkens fur ihre freunde’ (3 vols., 1834; new ed., 1903), and ‘Galeric von Bildnissen aus Rahels Umgang’ (2 vols., 1836). After his death appeared ‘Briefwechsel Zwischen Rahel und David Veit’ (2 pts., 1861), and ‘Briefwechsel Zwischen Varnhagen von Ense und Rahel’ (6 vols., 1874-75). Consult Key, Ellen, ‘Rahel, eine biographische skizze’ (Berlin 1907).


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Author:George Johnston Allman

Works

 * Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid

Contributions to EB9

 * (in part)

Contributions to EB1911 (3 signed articles)

 * (in part)
 * (Pythagorean Geometry)
 * (in part)

title: Author:George Johnston Allman


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Varnhagen von Ense, Karl August

VARNHAGEN VON ENSE', värn'hä-gĕn fŏn ĕn'sĕ, Karl August, German soldier, diplomat and author: b. Düsseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785; d. Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He studied at Berlin, Halle, and Tübingen, assisted Chamisso in the latter's ‘Musenalmanach’ (1804), in 1809 entered the Austrian army, fought at Aspern and Wagram, and after the peace was made adjutant to Prince Bentheim. Then he entered the Russian service as captain, served in Tettenborn's corps, and wrote a ‘Geschichte der Kriegszüge Tettenborns’ (1814). He accompanied Prince Hardenburg to the Congress of Vienna (1814), and in 1815-19 was Prussian Minister-Resident at Carlsruhe. Subsequently he lived chiefly at Berlin. He was particularly successful in biographical portraiture, though at times relying overmuch on the anecdotal

method. Among his published works are ‘Goethe in den Zeugnissen der Mitlebenden’ (1823); ‘Biographische Denkmäler’ (1824-30); ‘Denkwürdigkeiten und Vermischte Schriften’ (1843-46; 2 additional vols., 1859); ‘Tagebücher’ (1861-72); ‘Ausgewählte Schriften’ (1871-77).


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Rh do). So the mosquito comes at night and the left hand drives him away.

Cock and hen were husband and wife, and the hen bore many children; when the hawk came for food the cock gave him no chance; but the cock died and the hen wept for him; then the hawk came and took the chickens one by one and the hen called out: “Kokokokokọọ” (one chicken); and she called for her husband: “kpukpukpukpukpukpure” (bring stick), and since then all cocks call: “kpukpukpukpukpukpukpure.”

In Ogiso’s town were two boys born of the same mother and they were great thieves and stole things from people’s pockets. They were brought before the king and he did not know what to do; so he called the town and made them plant corn and said he would kill whoever touched it; but no one was to tell the boys. But some one told them; and they agreed that one should carry the other and that one should pick the corn; then “if they try ita, we are all right. We can say: ‘If I took foot to walk, may ita catch me,’ or ‘If I took the corn, may ita catch me.’” So one night they went and A carried B. B filled the bag and gave it to A and filled his own bag too.

At daybreak there was an outcry, and the king called the town together, and people said: “Those boys have done it.” So they took ita to try, but the boys tried it and escaped.

(Ita is an ordeal in which the tongue is pierced with a fowl feather; if it cannot be withdrawn in three attempts, the patient is guilty.)

Ototanagmo and Ototanelimi (ruler of the world, ruler of heaven) met on the road and asked each other where they came from and what they were doing. Then they agreed

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Rh distant lay a barracks occupied by military for the protection of settlers in the district. To reach this they had to cross the river Canning. A fallen tree supplied a rustic bridge over the bed of the stream. The two men saw they would have to race for the barracks. John Thomas seized a spade, and his mate an axe, and they set off at the top of their speed. The natives followed close behind. It was a race for life. When the log across the stream was reached, it was found that Mr. Thomas, having soft, yielding slippers on his feet, had an advantage on the slippery way over his companion. He proceeded first, and gained the other side in safety but Mr. Gaze slipped when part of the way across and fell into the stream. It did not take him long to recover his feet and rush forward, but the natives were now within spearing distance, and he was speared in the back. This did not deter him, and he continued to rush forward after Mr. Thomas. The latter, seeing that there were numerous natives in the pursuit, considered that it was hopeless to return and help his fellow up the bank of the stream, for to his horror he observed him pierced with several spears. It was now necessary for Mr. Thomas to gain the barracks as quickly as possible, for the natives were already on the opposite bank of the stream, and spears persistently shrieked above and around him. He was beyond their range in a few seconds, and quickly gained the barracks. There he hoped to find the whole detachment, but only one able man was present, the others having gone to Perth in company with Captain Ellis, Government Resident. However, two guns and ammunition remained, and the two men, assisted by the lame comrade, made their way back to the bank of the river where Gaze was last seen. Mr. Thomas's new comrades were nervous men, and persisted in coo-ee-ing so that the natives might know that reinforcements were approaching and, perchance, run off. By-and-bye a faint cry was heard in return from Gaze, and going forward more hopefully they found him still alive, but in great agony. The unfortunate man was speared in five places—the spears being still in his body. One of these pierced his neck, another his cheek, a third his ribs, and the two others his back. Mr. Thomas with a saw severed the spears near to the skin. The natives had evidently made off when they saw one man maimed and no hope of securing the other. Then Thomas raised Gaze on his shoulders, much against the latter's will, owing to his intense suffering, and carried him to the barracks. Mr. Thomas proceeded to the home of Mr. Phillips, father of Mr. George Phillips, who sent a servant for a doctor, who arrived at seven next morning. He duly extracted the five spear heads, but was compelled to cut no fewer than fourteen blood vessels during the operations. Naturally the patient soon died, mortification setting in.

Such scenes as these were not infrequent in those early days, and it is an open question to the humane man and the lover of justice who was least to blame the ignorant natives, who saw their lands being usurped, or the energetic white men, laudably striving to develop the resources which the Creator placed on this earth to supply life with what it requires. Mr. Thomas relinquished farming when he found that the natives had rifled his hut of guns and ammunition and destroyed the seed wheat and everything they could lay their hands on. For some time he gained a precarious livelihood, in which fishing was the principal occupation. In deep-sea fishing, much danger crept into the work. A rude catamaran was principally used. This strange contrivance was composed of deals laid side by side like a raft, upon which a tub was placed in the centre. The fisher sat in the tub, floated out with the tide, and "chanced" the wind to bring him back again. Without the fish, the colony would often have been in serious straits for want of food. The ordinary' necessaries of life brought enormous prices, and Mr. Thomas remembers that in the early thirties soap cost as much as £1 1s.a lb.; sugar, never less than 1s. a lb.; tea, 7s. a lb.; mutton and beef, 2s. 6d. and 3s. a lb.; kangaroo steak, 1s. 6d. a lb., and Mr. Thomas's father often refused £10 for a bag of flour. Kangaroo was then recognised as quite a general dish, but it required the aid of good dog to catch the marsupial. Dogs were unwonted luxuries, and sometimes as much as £35 was paid for one animal. Thus it can be well understood that for the next few years living was rather precarious for Mr. Thomas. Eventually he took to lightering, by means of boats, vessels coming into port, and, saving a little money, in 1839 he had a cutter of twenty-two tons built. He commanded this, and used it first for carrying freight from Fremantle to Bunbury and Vasse, and butter and other dairy produce from those parts to Fremantle. In this way he did fairly well. Then the time arrived when an opportunity showed itself to open up trade relations with Singapore. Captain Thomas was anxious to use his cutter in this service. He went to that port and brought back teas, sugars, &c. Ever since that period—about 1845—a regular trade has been carried on with Singapore. Captain Thomas lengthened and improved his vessel, which was soon afterwards wrecked on the Abrolhos Islands. A few years ago part of this pioneer vessel was still to be seen in Champion Bay. In 1846 Captain Thomas enterprisingly built a schooner—the Empress—of 125 tons, with which for many years he roved the seas in many parts. He traded to Adelaide and Hobart at first, and subsequently voyaged to Mauritius, and from there to Algoa Bay and the Cape. He procured what trade he could and brought it to the colony. Then he took sandalwood to Singapore, where it was so largely used as incense, and returned with East India goods. Selling the Empress in 1858, he purchased the barque Rory O'More, of 296 tons. While making a voyage from Singapore in this he was caught in a terrible cyclone off Christmas Island. All the masts were carried away, and it was only after running the greatest danger and making yards out of stunning sail booms and using such makeshifts that he was able to reach Fremantle. While he was away on this voyage his wife purchased a farm, and, his late experience having satiated him with seafaring life, he had his barque refitted and placed her in charge of a new captain. Captain Thomas went to his farm, which was situated at Pinjarra, and bid a permanent adieu to the sea. The new captain, however, soon ran him heavily into debt, so heavily that he was compelled to sell the barque, and all he received from the sale was the sum of £400. The new captain took care to hide his diminished head in the distance.

For a number of years Captain Thomas worked his farm, and good seasons greeting him his career thenceforth was prosperous. He possesses, 3,500 acres at Pinjarra, and worked them until 1876, when he retired. His life now became less exciting, for in the peaceful efforts of tilling the soil and harvesting its fruits he was shut out from the busy crowd and the common dangers attending a roaming life. Captain Thomas's was a retirement well earned and much deserved. He has been of use to Fremantle in a public way, and of the early Town Trust Councils was an active and honoured member. For five terms he occupied the position of chairman. In 1851 he joined the

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214 to meet in seven days and tell stories. So B told his story to the ground and covered it with a calabash, and A did the same. When they came back, they found two kola trees bearing fruit; so they gathered their bags full and broke one and roasted it, but it would not cook; so they got a pot and boiled it, but it was not done after being on the fire all day. So Osa came and cut the kola with a knife, and told the kola that all men should eat him raw and should take no harm. Then he gave one piece to each and put the rest at the foot of the tree. Since that day men have eaten kola raw.

Once there was a boy whose father and mother were dead; and he had a farm. He went to weed it and weeded a little and left it, and his father and mother came and went on with the weeding; the boy saw their hoe, and was astonished. When the corn was ripe he took a little of it and his parents took the remainder; so he set a trap and caught them. Then Osa said that was not good. Since then dead people have not come back.

One day the tortoise went to his garden and met the leopard; and the tortoise said he wanted to play; so the leopard told him to get a rope and then the tortoise tied him to a tree so that he could not get loose.

The tortoise went home and told his wife not to go to the garden; but the wife went to get wood and saw the leopard and shouted. And the leopard asked her to release him; but she said, “You will kill me,” but he said he would not. So she released him and then he tried to kill her, and she said it was not right. So the leopard fears the tortoise now and runs away; and the tortoise beat his wife and said

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Page:Syria, the land of Lebanon (1914).djvu/208

SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON cannot believe, so deep and strange that, to those who have seen, it seems almost unearthly. One must gaze and gaze in a vain attempt to fathom its unsearchable depths, until the purple darkens into black, and the watcher stands silent, as if the setting sun had for a moment swung open the door that leads into the eternal.

"Where are the cedars?" I asked a member of our party who had visited them before.

"Over there, directly in front of you!"

"But the mountain seems to be one bare, empty mass of rock!"

"Look closer—yonder—where I am pointing!"

Yes, there they are, apparently hung against the face of the rock in such a precarious situation that a loosened cone would drop clear of the little ledge and fall all the way to the bottom of the valley. You see just a tiny patch of dark green against the mountainside—as big as the palm of your hand—no, as large as a finger nail—like a speck on the lens of a field-glass. Such is the first view of the group of ancient trees which are still known as the "Cedars of the Lord."

While we were engrossed with the mountain scenery, the baggage-train at last appeared. Then came that most satisfyingly luxurious experience, a camp dinner after a long, wearisome day in the saddle. We supplemented our canned food by purchases made at the near-by village of Diman, where we procured [ 164 ]


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THE CEDARS OF THE LORD delicious grapes, tomatoes, fresh milk, and new-laid eggs at six cents a dozen.

After dinner a young Maronite priest came up from the convent to visit us. Father Abdullah proved to be the private secretary of the patriarch, who has a summer residence at Diman. It was an unanticipated experience for us to meet, high up in this wild mountain region, a Syrian priest who, after graduating from the Maronite College at Beirut, had spent seven years in advanced Latin studies at Paris and had then read archæology at the British Museum. Father Abdullah's English, however, was a broken reed; so most of our conversation was carried on in French, with an occasional lapse into Arabic. He said that his long residence at Paris had naturally brought him into closest sympathy with the French, but that nevertheless he considered the English superior in practicality and energy. He had recently made an independent archæological study of the surrounding district, and entertained us by telling some of his own theories concerning the very early history of Lebanon. Later in the evening, as a further evidence of his friendship, he sent us a great basket of fresh figs.

While we were enjoying this delicious gift, the fog rolled up again from the west and filled the gorge until we looked across the billowing surface of a milk-white sea, above which only a few of the loftiest peaks appeared as lonely islands. Such was the  [ 165 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON purity of the air at this altitude that even at night the sky was still a deep blue and the full moon touched the rocks with delicate tints of orange and rose, while, to complete the soft beauty of the scene, a double lunar rainbow swung its cold silvery arcs above the summit of the Cedar Mountain.

Then the wind freshened, the rising fog-waves overflowed from the valleys and the penetrating chill of our cloud-bound mountainside drove us to the shelter of our tents.

When we reached the cedar grove the next noon, we found that our first impressions had been wrong concerning everything except the supreme beauty of the mountain setting. Far from being situated upon a narrow shelf on a perilously steep slope, the trees are securely enthroned amid surroundings of massive grandeur. The watershed of Lebanon here curves around so that it encloses a tremendous natural amphitheater about twelve miles long and over six thousand feet in depth, with its inner, concave side facing the Mediterranean. High up on this crescent-shaped slope, the Kadisha or "Holy" River issues from a deep cave and falls to the bottom of the valley in a succession of beautiful cascades. Around the amphitheater run a succession of curving ledges, like titanic balconies, which near the bottom are small and fertile, but which become longer and broader and more barren toward the wind-swept summits. The highest of these, which lies nearly seven thousand feet [ 166 ]


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THE CEDARS OF THE LORD above the sea, is eight miles long and at its widest three miles across. Though it is really broken by hundreds of hills, these are dwarfed into insignificance by the great peaks which rise behind them, and in a distant view the surface of the plateau seems perfectly level.

Here, amid surroundings of rare beauty and yet of solemn loneliness, is set the royal throne of the king of trees. Just back of the cedars the mountains rise to an elevation of over 11,000 feet. Around them is vast emptiness and silence. No other trees grow on this chill, wind-swept height. No under-brush springs up among their rugged trunks. The last cultivated fields stop just below, and the nearest village is out of sight and sound, far down the mountainside. A few goatherds lead their flocks to a near-by spring that is fed from the snow-pockets of the Cedar Mountain; but at night the wolves can be heard howling hungrily, and by the end of the year the snow drifts deep around the old trees and the passes are closed for the winter.

Yet downward from the cedars is a prospect of warm, fertile beauty. You look deep into the dark green valley of the Kadisha, and then across the lower mountains to where, thirty miles away, the "great sea in front of Lebanon" rises high up into the sky; and during one memorable week in the summer you can see, a hundred and fifty miles across the [ 167 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON Mediterranean, the jagged mountain peaks of the island of Cyprus outlined sharp against the red disk of the setting sun.

When the Old Testament writers wished to describe that which was consummately beautiful, rich, strong, proud and enduring, they drew their similes from Hermon and Lebanon, and the climax of the "glory of Lebanon" they found in the "cedars of God." Would they express the full perfection of that which was choice, excellent, goodly, high and lifted up, they pictured "a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a forest-like shade. … Its stature was exalted above all of the trees of the field; and its boughs were multiplied, and its branches became long. … All the birds of the heavens made their nests in its boughs; and under its branches did all the beasts of the field bring forth their young. … Thus was it fair in its greatness, in the length of its branches … nor was any tree in the garden of God like unto it for beauty."

The cedar of Lebanon must not be confounded with the various smaller trees which in America are known as "cedars." It is own brother to the great deodar or god-tree of the Himalayas and the forest giants on the high slopes of the Atlas, Taurus and Amanus ranges. In the days when Hiram of Tyre provided [ 168 ]


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Varnhagen, Francisco Adolphe de

VARNHAGEN, värn-ä'gĕn, Francisco Adolphe de, Brazilian historian: b. São João de Ypanema, Brazil, 17 Feb. 1816; d. Vienna, Austria, 29 June 1878. He was taken to Portugal when very young, educated in the royal military college and in 1833-34 served in the constitutional army against Dom Miguel. He afterward engaged in historical researches, returned to Brazil in 1841 and during the remainder of his life was largely occupied on various diplomatic missions in South America and in Europe. As a historian he ranks easily at the head of Brazilian men of letters, his work displaying profound research and presented with clearness and force. He edited and published various historical documents, contributed numerous papers to the ‘Revista do Instituto do Brazil’ and wrote ‘Noticias do Brazil’ (1852); ‘Historia geral do Brazil’ (1854-57); ‘Das wahre Guanahani des Columbus’ (1869); ‘L'origine Touranienne des Américains Tupis-Caribes, et des anciens Egyptiens’ (1876), etc.


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THE CEDARS OF THE LORD timber for Solomon's Temple, large cedar woods spread over Lebanon, and apparently grew also on the sides of Anti-Lebanon and Hermon; but generation after generation these trees became fewer in number. Even in the sixth century, Justinian found it difficult to secure sufficiently large beams for the Church of the Virgin (now the Mosque el-Aksa) in Jerusalem. Many efforts were made to preserve the trees, which had long been considered of a peculiar sanctity. High up on the rocky sides of Lebanon, Hadrian carved his imperial command that the groves should be left untouched. Modern Maronite patriarchs have excommunicated those who cut down the "trees of God." But the roving goats who nibble the tender young saplings have regarded neither emperor nor patriarch. Now there is little timber of any kind in Syria, and the profiles of the mountains cut sharp against the sky. Of the cedars there remain only seven groups, the finest of which is the one we are visiting, above the village of Besherreh.

A former governor of Lebanon, Rustum Pasha, protected this grove against roving animals by a well-built stone wall, and in recent years the number of young trees has consequently slightly increased. But the really old cedars grow fewer century by century; indeed, young and old together, their number is pathetically few. Twelve of the very largest are usually counted as the patriarchs of the grove. The mountaineers say that these had their origin when [ 169 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON Christ and the eleven faithful Disciples once visited Lebanon, and each stuck his staff into the earth, where it took root and became an undying cedar. In all there are about four hundred trees. A local tradition says that they can never be counted twice alike; and, in fact, I have yet to find two travelers who agree as to the number. We need not, however, seek a miraculous explanation of this peculiar lack of unanimity. It is doubtless due to the fact that several trunks will grow so close together that no one can say whether they should be considered as a single tree, or as two or more. When no fewer than seven trunks almost touch at the bottom, it is quite impossible to tell whether they sprang originally from one seed or from many.

Yet though the cedars are few in number, these few are kingly trees. Their height is never more than a hundred feet; but some have trunks over forty feet around, and mighty, wide-spreading limbs which cover a circle two or three hundred feet in circumference. Those which have been unhindered in their growth are tall and symmetrical; others are gnarled and knotted, with room for the Swiss Family Robinson to keep house in their great forks. Some years ago a monk lived in a hollow of one of the trunks. When you climb a little way into a cedar and look out over the whorl of horizontal branches, the upper surface seems as smooth and soft as a rug, upon which have apparently fallen the uplifted cones. Indeed, [ 170 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON the summit. The "Back of the Stick," as the natives call this highest ridge of Lebanon, affords a view over the top of all Syria. Northward stretches the long succession of rounded summits, down to the left of which can be seen the white houses of the seaport of Tripoli. To the south are other lofty peaks, though all are lower than ours. Jebel Sunnin, which seems so mighty when viewed from the harbor of Beirut, now lies far below us. Mount Hermon rises still majestic seventy miles away, yet even the topmost peak of great Hermon is not so high as the spot on which we stand. To the east, across the long, broad valley of the Bika', rises the parallel range of Anti-Lebanon. Westward the magnificent amphitheater which we have come to think of as peculiarly our own opens out to where the Mediterranean, like a sheet of beaten gold, seems to slope far up to the azure sky.

Yet, after a while, we turned from this wonderful panorama to indulge in childish play. With a crowbar brought for the purpose, we dislodged large rocks from the summit and sent them spinning down the eastern side of the mountain. Some of them must have weighed several tons, and they tumbled down the slope with tremendous momentum. The first thousand feet they almost took at a bound; then, reaching a more gentle decline, they would spin along on their edges. Now they would strike some inequality and, leaping a hundred yards, land amid a [ 178 ]


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Vasey, George

VASEY, vā'sĭ, George, American botanist: b. near Scarborough, Yorkshire, England, 28 Feb. 1822; d. Washington, D. C., 4 March 1893. He was brought to this country in infancy by his parents, studied medicine at the Berkshire Medical Institute, Pittsfield, Mass, and practised his profession in Elgin and Ringwood, Ill., 1848-66. He was the botanist of the Powell Colorado Exposition in 1868 and of the Department of Agriculture at Washingtom from 1873 till his death. He gave his attention in his latest years almost entirely to the study of grasses, to which his publications chiefly relate. Among them are ‘A Catalogue of the Forest Trees of the

United States’ (1876); ‘Agricultural Grasses of the United States’ (1884); ‘Grasses of the Southwest’ (1890-91); ‘Grasses of the Pacific Slope’ (1892-93).


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THE CEDARS OF THE LORD cloud of scattering stones; now they would burst in mid-air from centrifugal force, with a noise like a cannon shot; now some very large stone, surviving the perils of the descent, would arrive at the base of our peak and, on the apparently level plateau below, would very slowly roll and roll and roll as if it possessed some motive power of its own. Several days later we met a wandering shepherd who told us that, while dozing beneath the shade of a cliff far down the mountainside, he had been suddenly awakened by a terrific cannonading and had sat there for hours in trembling wonderment at the demoniac forces which were tumbling Mount Lebanon down over his head.

One evening we strolled out to the edge of our plateau and saw the whole countryside a-twinkle with lights. It was the anniversary of the Finding of the True Cross. When St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, discovered the precious relic sixteen hundred years ago, beacons prepared in anticipation of the success of the search were lighted and the glad news was thus flashed from Jerusalem to the emperor at Constantinople. In commemoration of that joyous event, annual signal fires still burn along the land of Lebanon. Far down in black gorges we saw the lights flash out. North and south of us, unseen villages on the hillsides kindled their beacons. Higher up, in wild pine forests, the lonely charcoal-burners made their camp-fires blaze brighter; and [ 179 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON even on the bare, bleak summits there shone here and there tiny gleams of light. Amid the solemn quiet of our mountain solitude, we watched the beacons flash out around us and below us and above, until all Lebanon seemed starred with the bright memorials of the Cross which this old, old land, through long centuries of oppression and ignorance and bigotry, has never quite forgot.

We spent a month in the cedar grove, and never had a dull day. At dawn we could look out of the tent to where the green branches framed a charming bit of blue, distant sea. After breakfast the studious man would climb up into his favorite fork and ensconce himself there with pen and ink and paper and books and cushions. The adventurous man would scramble up to the topmost bough of some lofty tree and stretch out on its soft twigs for a sun-bath. The lazy man would curl up against a comfortable root, to smoke and dream away the morning hours. Sketching and photographing and mountain climbs were interspersed with unsuccessful hunting expeditions and aimless conversations with Maronite priests who had come up to visit their little rustic chapel in the grove. After supper came the camp-fire, with its cozy sparkle and its friendly confidences and the black background of the forest all around. Then, by eight o'clock at the latest, we snuggled into our blankets and, in the crisp, balsam-scented air, slept the clock around. Sometimes the full moon shone so brightly [ 180 ]


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SYRIA, THE LAND OF LEBANON in the fields below that are brighter and the orchards that are heavier with fruit; and from the depths of the moon-painted forest there comes the ring of ten thousand axes that are hewing down the choicest trunks for the Temple of the Lord.

Then the vision fades, and with a sense of personal loss and a regret that is almost anger, you look out again from under the dark branches of the little grove to the bleak, bare mountainside, and the wind in the topmost boughs seems to sing the lament of Zechariah—

Yet still some glorious ones of the strong forest rise proudly on their throne in Lebanon. This tree, so beautiful that it is pictured on the seal of the college at Beirut, has been called the Symmetrical Cedar. These many trunks, apparently springing from a single root, we know as the Seven Sisters. Those two that stand side by side without the wall at a little distance from the main group, are the Sentinels. On a hillside are St. John and St. James, immense, fatherly trees with trunks forty-five feet in circumference and gigantic forks in which a dozen people [ 182 ]


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THE CEDARS OF THE LORD that the whole mountain would take on a soft silver glow, against which colors could be distinguished almost as well as by day. Now and then there would be a cold, foggy morning; but the trees kept out the mists and, although a solid wall of white surrounded us, within the grove it was clear and dry and homelike.

The shelter, the support, the background, the inspiration of all the camp life, were the great, solemn trees. After a while you come to love them, or rather to reverence them. They are so large, so old; they have such marked individuality. The cedars are regal rather than beautiful. Rough and knotted and few in number, at first sight they are a little disappointing; but, like the mountains around them, they become more impressive day by day. These thousand-year-old trees seem to stand aloof from the hurry and bustle of the twentieth century, as though they were absorbed in thoughts of earlier, and perhaps wiser, days. After you have lived for a time beneath their shade, their solemn magnificence begins to quiet your spirit; and when the glorious moonlight floods the mountain and casts black shadows down the deep gorges that drop away to the distant sea, it is easy to behold in the witching light the picture that these ancient trees saw in the long ago. Dark groves of cedars nestle once more In the valleys and sweep over the mountain-tops in great waves of green; a stronger peasantry speaks a different tongue [ 181 ]