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 was called to the bar by the society of Lincoln's Inn. He first attached himself to the northern circuit, and afterwards practised at the Cheshire and Manchester assizes. Later he obtained a large practice on the North Wales circuit. In 1833 he was elected recorder of Macclesfield. In March 1850 he was appointed a queen's counsel, and in the same year became a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He survived these preferments only a few weeks, dying without issue on 8 May at Burntwood Lodge, Wandsworth Common, the house of his elder brother, Richard Lateward Townsend, vicar of All Saints', Wandsworth, Surrey. He was buried in the vaults of Lincoln's Inn. In 1834 he married Frances, second daughter of Richard Wood of Macclesfield, who survived him.

As an author Townsend was unequal. His works embody great historical and legal knowledge, but their value is impaired by a want of proportion. While the ordinary reader is fatigued by detail, the student often finds necessary information lacking. He was the author of: 1. ‘The Pæan of Orford, a poem,’ London, 1826, 8vo. 2. ‘The History and Memoirs of the House of Commons,’ London, 1843–4. 3. ‘The Lives of Twelve Eminent Judges of the Last and of the Present Century,’ London, 1846, 8vo. 4. ‘Modern State Trials revised and illustrated,’ London, 1850, 8vo. He also contributed poems to Fisher's ‘Imperial Magazine’ as early as 1820.

[Gent. Mag. 1850, ii. 218; Blackwood's Mag. 1850, ii. 373; Allibone's Dict. of Engl. Lit.; Chester Courant, 15 May 1850.]  TOWNSHEND. [See also .]

TOWNSHEND, CHARLES, second (1674–1738), statesman, eldest son of Horatio, first viscount Townshend [q. v.], of Rainham, Norfolk, by his second wife, Mary, daughter of Sir Joseph Ashe, bart., of Twickenham, born in 1674. Both Charles II and the Duke of York were his godfathers, and he was bred in the strictest tory principles. He succeeded to the peerage in December 1687. With Sir Robert Walpole, his junior by two years, he was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge.

Though he took no degree, he left the university with a reputation for learning, which he improved by a foreign tour with Dr. William Sherard [q. v.] (, Lit. Anecd. iii. 652 n.) He took his seat in the House of Lords on 3 Dec. 1697 (Lords' Journals, xvi. 174). He early seceded to the whigs, and on the impeachment of the ministers implicated in the negotiation of the partition treaty he signed the protest deprecating their premature censure by the king, which was entered on the journal of the House of Lords on 16 April 1701 [see ].

In the early years of the reign of Queen Anne Townshend was one of the junto who maintained the cause of religious liberty in the struggle against the occasional conformity bill, the rights of the electorate in the conflict between the two Houses of Parliament on the Aylesbury election case, defeated (1706) the factious proposal of the Jacobites to invite the Princess Sophia to England, and carried the Regency Act. He took an active part in arranging the terms of alliance between the junto and Godolphin in 1705, was one of the negotiators of the treaty of union with Scotland in 1706, and was sworn of the privy council on 20 Nov. 1707. He was a member of the committee chosen on 9 Feb. 1707–8 to investigate the charges against William Gregg (, State Trials, xiv. 1374). On 18 Aug. following he was sworn of the privy council on its reconstitution under the Act of Union, and on 14 Nov. the same year he was appointed captain of the yeomen of the guard. Accredited ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the States-General on 2 May 1709, he arrived at The Hague with Marlborough on 18 May (N.S.) (London Gazette; Tatler, No. 18). He was one of the signatories of the preliminaries to the abortive treaty with France, on the negotiation of which the greater part of the summer was spent. On the rejection of its mercilessly hard terms by Louis XIV, Townshend concluded with the States-General (29 Oct. N.S.) a separate treaty by which the Hanoverian succession was guaranteed (Egerton MS. 892). Marlborough, however, declined to sign it, because its terms, aggrandising Holland at the expense of Austria, were calculated to sow division among the allies, and it was only after considerable delay that it was ratified.

Leaving the conferences at Gertruydenberg to the management of the Dutch and French plenipotentiaries, Townshend occupied himself during the spring and summer of 1710 in the negotiation of the conventions of 31 March (N.S.) and 4 Aug. (N.S.), by which, to avert the peril occasioned by the retreat of the Swedish army under Crassau from Poland into Pomerania, the allies guaranteed the peace not only of the empire but of Poland and the duchies of Schleswig and Jutland (Egerton MSS. 893–894). On the change of administration he was recalled (27 Feb. 1710–11) (Hist. MSS. Comm. 11th Rep. App. iv. 79), and dismissed


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284 Ever and anon a tardy pomegranate in full blossom spreads out its oriflamme of tulip-shaped dazzling red flowers, From the rising ground opposite frowns mediaeval Taggia, like a discontented guest at a splendid banquet. A little farther off westward, the eye takes in the campanile of the Dominican church, emerging from a group of cypresses, and farther still, on the extreme verge of the western cliff, the sanctuary of Our Lady of the Guardia shows its white silhouette against the dark blue sky."

The name of the river Taggia is synonymous with Tay, Taw, Tavy; as the Roya is akin to the Irish Rye, the Spanish Riga. The Neva that mingles its waters with the Arrosetta, has a cognate Neva in Russia, a Nahe in Germany, a Never in Wales, and a diminutive Nivelle in France, The brawling Loup does not take its name from a wolf. It is misspelled through a false etymology. It should be Lou, like the river that enters the Dordogne, and the Devon Lew, the Lee, and Lech by Ulm. Whence come the many similar river names of Europe? They are doubtless the most ancient designations we have, those that have least changed; they were given by the earliest inhabitants of Europe, and have adhered to these ever-flowing streams, modified here and there, but always showing how ancient and primeval they are. Adam named the beasts, but who—what race—named the rivers? It must have been a race that occupied almost the whole of Europe. Was it those mighty men of old, who lie smothered in red ochre in Barma Grande by Mentone, or was it the mysterious people who reared the rude stone monuments, and who have left scanty traces of their lost language embedded in Welsh and Irish? Taggia itself surely deserves a visit from every one who has read and loved Dr. Antonio; for there lived

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Rh the gifted author Giovanni Ruffini from 1875 to 1881, the year in which he died. The remains of his house are shown. The church also deserves a visit, on account of the paintings on wood by Brea and other artists of the fifteenth century. One painting on a gold ground by Brea, or a disciple, in the chapel of the tombs of the Curio family, is specially noticeable for its beauty. On the Piazza Umberto I. stands a monument erected in 1896 to the memory of the three Ruffini brothers, who strove for the unification of Italy.

The story of the Bresca family of San Remo acquiring the privilege of furnishing palms to Rome, granted by Sixtus V. in 1586, is well known, but must not be left unnoticed here. An obelisk was being elevated in the piazza before S. Peter's. This obelisk had been brought to Rome from Heliopolis by Caligula, in a ship which Pliny describes as being "nearly as long as the left side of the port of Ostia." Sixtus V. was resolved on Christianising or demolishing the relics of pagan Rome. The obelisk, if set up before S. Peter's, might serve to support a cross. It was removed from its place in the Circus of Nero by 800 men and 150 horses, under the supervision of Domenico Fontana, who was threatened with death if he failed. When it was about to be reared, Sixtus threatened death to man, woman, or child who should speak whilst the huge mass was being elevated by means of forty-six cranes. The great stone was slowly rising to its base, when suddenly it ceased to move, and it was evident that the ropes were yielding. An awful moment of suspense ensued, when the dead silence was broken by a shout: "Acqua alle funi!" (Throw water on the ropes!) The workmen at once cast bucketfuls of the

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8

But look! where Creon in his new-made power,

Moved by the fortune of the recent hour,

Comes with fresh counsel. What intelligence

Intends he for our private conference,

That he hath sent his herald to us all,

Gathering the elders with a general call?

. My friends, the noble vessel of our State,

After sore shaking her, the Gods have sped

On a smooth course once more. I have called you hither,

By special messengers selecting you

From all the city, first, because I knew you

Aye loyal to the throne of Laïus;

Then, both while Oedipus gave prosperous days,

And since his fall, I still beheld you firm

In sound allegiance to the royal issue.

Now since the pair have perished in an hour,

Twinned in misfortune, by a mutual stroke

Staining our land with fratricidal blood,

All rule and potency of sovereign sway,

In virtue of next kin to the deceased,

Devolves on me. But hard it is to learn

The mind of any mortal or the heart,

Till he be tried in chief authority.

Power shows the man. For he who when supreme

Withholds his hand or voice from the best cause,

Being thwarted by some fear, that man to me

Appears, and ever hath appeared, most vile.

He too hath no high place in mine esteem,

Who sets his friend before his fatherland.

Let Zeus whose eye sees all eternally

Be here my witness. I will ne’er keep silence

When danger lours upon my citizens

Who looked for safety, nor make him my friend

Who doth not love my country. For I know

Our country carries us, and whilst her helm

Is held aright we gain good friends and true.


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286 liquid over the cordage, that at once began to shrink, and raised the monstrous mass, and settled it upon its base. The man who saved the obelisk was Bresca, a sea captain of a fishing smack at San Remo. Sixtus V. inquired after him, and promised him, what cost himself nothing, as a reward, that ever thenceforth his family and his native village should have the privilege of furnishing the palms for S. Peter's on Palm Sunday. In order to bleach the leaves for this purpose they are tied up in a way very similar to that employed by market gardeners to obtain white centres to lettuces. It cannot be said that the leaves are made more beautiful by the process; on the contrary, they lose what little beauty they had. The branches are bound up so as to form a vertical roll, in the centre of which are the young leaves, that have to struggle up, shut off from light and air, with the result that sickly, ugly strips are produced, which are sent throughout the Catholic world for use on the Sunday before Easter. Ten thousand times preferable are our pretty "palms," the catkin-bearing willow twigs. The date palm is not indigenous. It was probably introduced by the Crusaders. In an illustration to a MS. of the Geography of Strabo, presented by Guarini to King Rene, the king is shown seated with a full-grown palm tree in the background. Indeed, in the tympanum of the north doorway of S. Syro, at San Remo, is a representation of a male and a female palm tree with an Agnus Dei between them.

The date palm is multiplied by seed and by suckers. This last mode of propagation is the most advantageous, as all the plants so produced are females and fruit

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Rh bearers; and they will bear at the age of five or six years, whereas those raised from seed produce dates only after they have attained an age of fifteen or twenty years. But it is in a few nooks only of the Riviera that the date palm ripens its fruit, and that but occasionally, for the winter comes on before it has reached maturity, and it fails to acquire the flavour and sweetness which is attained in Africa. It cannot be said that the huge bunches of dates in their husks hanging on the trees, of a sickly yellow, are beautiful.

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Rh contains fine tapestries, family portraits, and rich furniture. The arms of the town are curious: argent, a tower out of which rises a king crowned and wearing garments red and green. A favourite excursion from Alassio is to the Arco Romano, a Roman arch, through which a lovely peep of the sea is obtained. To the east appears the curious isle of Gallinaria, shaped like a snail, with the ruins of a Benedictine monastery on it. In 358, in the midst of the war against the Allemanni, when the Emperor Julian was at Worms, Martin, who was in the army, and a tribune, asked to be released from military duty. Julian was indignant. A battle was imminent, and he scornfully refused the petition, and charged Martin with cowardice. The young tribune replied, "Put me in the forefront of the army, without weapons or armour, and prove if I be what you say." However, the Allemanni asked for peace, it was granted, thereupon Martin obtained his dismissal. He then went to Poitiers and placed himself under the teaching of S. Hilary. Then he departed to visit his parents in Pannonia. As he crossed the Alps he was attacked by robbers and plundered of all he had. On reaching his native city of Sabaria, Martin succeeded in converting his mother to Christ, but his father persisted in his paganism. Then he returned to Italy, and after tarrying awhile at Milan, where he was vexed by the Arians, he took refuge on this islet of Gallinaria. There he lived on roots, and nearly poisoned himself by accidentally eating the hellebore, attracted by its dark green leaves and pale flowers. Providentially the spasms caused by the poison came on so rapidly as

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 from the place of captain of the yeomen of the guard (13 June 1711). On 14 Feb. 1711–12 he was charged in the House of Commons with having exceeded his instructions in the negotiation of the barrier treaty. With characteristic frankness he admitted the substantial justice of the accusation (see the instructions in Hist. MSS. Comm. 8th Rep. App. i. 36), and, the treaty being condemned as prejudicial to British commerce, he was voted an enemy to his country. At Utrecht (1713) the treaty was revised in a sense much less advantageous to Holland [see, (1672–1739)]. In opposition Townshend did not scruple to countenance the movement for the repeal of the union with Scotland elicited by the introduction of the malt tax into that country (24 May 1713). He also sought to harass the government by raising a debate (8 April 1714) on the practice of pensioning the highland clans, which, though designed only to keep them quiet, it was then convenient to represent as a covert fostering of Jacobitism. He signed the protests against the restraining order under which Ormonde had suspended operations in Flanders, opposed the schism bill, and, in concert with the other leading whig lords, lent his aid in committee to the remodelling of Bolingbroke's bill declaring enlisting and recruiting for the pretender to be high treason (28 May, 4 and 24 June 1714). Through John Robethon [q. v.], whose acquaintance he had made at The Hague, he was in touch with Hanoverian politics, and was thus able to act as intermediary between the electoral court and the whig junto. He was one of the regents nominated by the elector, and took an important though not a prominent part in concerting the arrangements preliminary to his accession. On that event he was appointed secretary of state for the northern department (17 Sept. 1714), and sworn of the privy council (1 Oct.) (Addit. MS. 22207, f. 325). At the coronation he was offered but declined an earldom. The support of the Hanoverians Bernstorff and Bothmer gave him the start of Halifax and Marlborough in the race for power; and in Sir Robert Walpole, for whom he procured the place of paymaster-general, he had a staunch ally in the House of Commons. Though, with a wisdom which the event justified, he advised the abandonment of the charge of high treason for that of misdemeanour in the case of Oxford, he concurred in the main in the proceedings against the negotiators of the peace of Utrecht, and was responsible for the attachment (11 Jan. 1714–15) of Strafford's papers, a violation of ambassadorial privilege which he justified on 1 Sept. by the plea of necessity. On the outbreak of the Jacobite rebellion his vigilance suggested the arrest (21 Sept.) of Sir William Wyndham [q. v.] To his firmness was due the subsequent dismissal of the Duke of Somerset [see, sixth ]. His energy was unflagging (Hist. MSS. Comm. 11th Rep. App. iv. 155–87); and the ruthless proscription which followed the suppression of the insurrection was prompted by the same relentless spirit which he had previously manifested (1 June) in the decisive rejection of a petition for the discharge of the unfortunate persons, whom he described as ‘execrable wretches,’ still detained in prison on suspicion of complicity in the plot of 1696 for the assassination of William III [see ].

Of the Septennial Act he heartily approved, both as ‘the greatest support possible to the liberty of the country,’ and as a means of enabling the government ‘to speak in a more peremptory manner to France’ (, Walpole, i. 76–7, ii. 62).

In the duchies of Bremen and Verden, part of the dismembered Swedish empire purchased from Denmark by George I in his electoral capacity in 1715, Townshend hoped to find an accession of strength not only to Hanover, but to Holland and even England. The subsequent intervention of England in the naval war between Denmark and Sweden he therefore deplored and restricted, and was reconciled to it only by the discovery of the Jacobite intrigues of the Swedish ambassador, Gyllenborg (October 1716) [see, (1660?–1749)]. Recognising the establishment of Austrian ascendency in the catholic Netherlands as a political necessity, he co-operated with Stanhope in the difficult negotiations which resulted in the definitive barrier treaty (1715) [see, first ]. So wedded indeed was he at this time to the traditional whig foreign policy as to ignore the fact that the possibility of a schism between the two branches of the house of Bourbon in Louis XV's minority, rendered politic an understanding with the regent Orleans. Hence, while he pressed forward the negotiations for the defensive alliance with the emperor, he was somewhat slow to approve, though eventually he did approve, the pending negotiations with the regent, the supervision of which fell to Stanhope (, Walpole, ii. 50). The States-General, whose junction with England and Austria was a natural sequel of the barrier treaty, were willing to accede to both


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290 to check him from eating enough to kill him; but he suffered great pain, and lay at death's door. A cave is shown in the island which S. Martin is traditionally held to have inhabited. After some sojourn on Gallinaria, Martin left it and went back to Poitiers. To visit the curious old mountain village of Andora, one must leave the train at Laigueglia, before it rushes into the tunnel pierced through the spur of rock on which Andora stands. The church dedicated to SS. Philip and James is in Lombardic Gothic of the fourteenth century, and is one of the most interesting monuments of the style in Liguria. Above the high altar is a crucifix of carved wood, the figure of natural size, believed to be still earlier than the church, which dates from 1341. Adjoining the church is a tower with swallow-tail battlements, that belonged to the old castle, but has now been united to the church. There are also at Andora the ruins of a feudal castle, the Parasio, the residence of the Podesta till 1797. There are also remains of a Roman aqueduct and a Roman bridge over the river, still in good condition.

Oneglia was the birthplace of Andrew Doria, the great admiral. It is an ugly town; the prison is in the shape of a cross, with a huge lantern at the junction of the arms lighted through cockney Gothic windows. The Dorias, Fieschi, Grimaldi, and Spinolas were the four principal families of Genoa. Simone Doria, who lived in 1270, was a Troubadour, and he once had a dispute with Lanfranc Cigala as to which was preferable, to deserve the favour of a lady or to possess it. Doria maintained the latter proposition. "I did once suppose," said Lanfranc, "that merit carried a lady's

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Rh favour, I now know that impudence gains it. Doria has taught me that." Andrew Doria was born at Oneglia in 1468. He was son of Andrew Coeva, of the, Dorias, that were Princes of Oneglia, but as this Andrew represented a junior branch, he came into but a small slice of the inheritance, and, dying early, his widow, mother of the great Andrew, thought it well to get as the protector of her boy Dominico Doria, belonging to the elder branch, and this she obtained by ceding to him the rights in Oneglia that had belonged to her husband. Dominico was then captain of the guards to Pope Innocent VIII., and he put the young Andrew in his company. Andrew forged ahead, and became a naval captain of great importance. He had no scruples, and he passed from side to side, as best conduced to his interests. At one time he fought for Francis I., and then he went over to the service of Charles V. When these rivals met at Aigues Mortes, Francis I. mounted the galley of the great admiral, and noticed a bronze cannon with on it the Arms of France. He looked hard at Doria, who said, "This gun is of excellent metal." "I cast better cannons now," remarked the King, meaning that he offered better pay than formerly. "The Emperor's metal is good enough for me," retorted Doria. Francis turned to the Emperor and said, "You made a good catch when you netted Doria. Mind you keep him." Against the judgment of Doria Charles V. undertook his disastrous expedition against Algiers in 1541. In 1539 Doria, with the Imperial fleet, that of Venice, and that of the Pope, lighted on the very inferior Turkish fleet under Kheyr-ed-din Barbarossa, off

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schimmel, Hendrik Jan

SCHIMMEL, HENDRIK JAN (1825–1906), Dutch poet and novelist (see 24.326), spent his last years in work on spiritualistic research. He died at Bussum in 1906.


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292. The Christian strength was really overwhelming. Eighty Venetians, thirty-six Papal and thirty Spanish galleys, together with fifty sailing galleons, made up the formidable total of nearly two hundred ships of war, and they carried scarcely less than 60,000 men and 2,500 guns. Doria was in chief command, Capello and Grimano led the Venetian and Roman contingents. On September 25th the allied fleets appeared off the Gulf. Barbarossa had 122 ships of war. On the morning of the 27th the corsairs were amazed to see Doria sail away. Germano and Capello went on board the flagship and urged Doria to engage the enemy; they even implored him to depart himself, and allow them to fight the battle with their own ships, but in vain.

"The result was practically a victory, and a signal victory, for the Turks. Two hundred splendid vessels of three great Christian States had fled before an inferior force of Ottomans; and it is no wonder that Sultan Suleyman, when he learnt the news at Yamboli, illuminated the town, and added 100,000 piasters a year to the revenues of Barbarossa."

"It was," says Brantome, "a common opinion at the time that there existed a secret engagement between Barbarossa and Doria to avoid fighting each other on decisive occasions, so as to prolong the war, which gave both of them employment, and furnished them with means of acquiring wealth."

What seems to confirm this was the setting at liberty by Doria of the renegade corsair Dragut, who had been made prisoner, and who was a favourite of Barbarossa, and a scourge to the Christians. In 1547 a conspiracy of the Fieschi almost cost Andrew Doria his life. His nephew was murdered by them, but at the same time Giovanni Luigi Fieschi was

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Author:Julius Lewkowitsch

{{author | firstname   = Julius | lastname    = Lewkowitsch | last_initial = Le | description = M.A., Ph.D. Examiner to the City and Guilds of London Institute. Vice-President of Chemical Society. Member of Council of Chemical Society; Institute of Chemistry; and Society of Public Analysts. Author of Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes; &c. {{EB1911 contributor|{{sc|J. Lh}}}}}{{populate}} }}

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Rh drowned. Grief and resentment provoked Andrew Doria to commit acts of atrocious cruelty. Scarcely was this conspiracy crushed, before Giulio Cibo, brother-in-law of Giovanni Luigi Fieschi, formed another out of the remnant of the faction. This was discovered; Cibo had his head struck off, and all the rest of the Fieschi and those who held by them were banished. The brother of Giovanni Luigi fell into Doria's hands, and was by his orders sewn up in a sack and thrown into the sea.

Andrew had been much worried by a pilot asking him for this and for that. Doria said, "If you speak again to me more than three words, I will have you hung." "Pay or discharge," said the pilot. Doria laughed, gave him his pay, and retained his services. Andrew Doria met with a great reverse at the hands of that same Dragut whom he had released to please Barbarossa. In 1552 Dragut came on him when he was least awares, and put him to flight. Dragut pursued him, sank two of his vessels, captured seven of his fleet with seven hundred German soldiers, and their captain, Nicolas Madrucci.

Andrew died in his splendid palace near Genoa in 1560, at the age of 93, without leaving issue by his wife who was niece of Pope Innocent VIII. Albenga, easily reached from Alassio, either by road or rail, is a most interesting but unhealthy town. It lies low where three rivers, uniting, empty into the sea, and the plain is made up of deposits brought down by them. Anciently the sea reached to its walls, and only withdrew in the tenth century. Albenga was the capital of the Ligurian Ingauni, and a great naval station. Thence sailed a fleet of thirty-two ships which

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294 fought the Romans in B.C. 20. It helped Hannibal with ships and men, and when Magone, brother of Hannibal, was wounded, he retired to Albenga to be cured. Afterwards it became, but reluctantly, allied to Rome. In the times of Probus, A.D. 276-282, a native of Albenga, named Proculus, a man of extraordinary strength, set up to be emperor, but was speedily killed. Constantine, a grandee of the Court of Honorius, A.D. 395-423, fortified the town, and he it was who built the Ponte Longo, a Roman bridge now sunk to the spring of the arches, and deserted by the river, which has completely altered its course.

Albenga has a most interesting cathedral of the twelfth century that has been mutilated and altered internally into a rococo temple. The west front was partly removed in renaissance times and rebuilt, clumsily; but externally, the east end with its apses tells of the true antiquity of the church. Hard by is what is still more venerable: a baptistery, half buried in the soil, of the fifth (?) century. It is descended into by fourteen steps, so greatly has the soil risen since it was built. The building is octagonal, and had its windows filled with pierced slabs of stone; of these fillings in only two remain, one very rich, with carved interlaced work as well as with perforations. Within is a large font for immersion, as at Ventimiglia, and the vault is sustained by eight granite columns, probably taken from a Pagan temple. The altar is ancient, enriched with mosaic work representing the Agnus Dei surrounded by twelve doves. At the east end of the cathedral is the Piazza dei Leoni, where are three rude stone lions, remains of a monument raised in 1288, but taken from an earlier Roman structure.

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Rh That which strikes the visitor especially, coming from France, are the towers of the nobles. "Its thirteen mediæval towers," says Hare, "remind the Italian traveller of S. Gimignano, rising out of the plain like a number of tall ninepins set close together." I do not think there are thirteen; certainly not that number of lofty towers; but the earthquake of 1887 damaged, or threw down, several. The finest are the Torre Balestrino, the cathedral tower, and the Torre del Comune. Five of the old gates remain. The church of S. Maria in Fontibus, in Genoese Gothic, striped black and white marble, takes its name from a spring that rises under the altar, and was supposed to possess miraculous powers for the healing of lepers. A beautiful drive from Albenga up the valley leads to Garlenda, where are paintings by Domenichino, a S. Maurus, a Martyrdom of S. Erasmus, by Poussin; and a Nativity of Our Lady by Guercino. At the time of the French Revolution, when the troops were pouring over the frontier into Italy, the parishioners of Garlenda, fearful of being robbed of these artistic treasures, removed and hid them. The road to Garlenda passes through orchards of peaches and fields of narcissus.

"The valley is radiantly beautiful in spring. Overhead are tall peach trees with their luxuriance of pink blossom. Beneath these the vines cling in Bacchanalian festoons, leaping from tree to tree, and below all large melons, young corn, and bright green flax, waving here and there into sheets of blue flower, form the carpet of Nature. Sometimes gaily-painted towers and ancient palazzi with carved armorial gateways and arched porticoes, break in upon the solitude of the valley."—.

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SCHLESWIG. — The older “Schleswig-Holstein Question” (see 24.335) had an important sequel as the result of the World War, in the severing from Germany of part of Northern Schleswig.

The Peace of Vienna of 1864 had set up a joint administration of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria and Prussia. In the Peace of Prague (1866) Austria surrendered to Prussia her claims to both duchies. As regards the administration of Northern Schleswig (Nord Schleswig), an eventual cession to Denmark was reserved if the population should decide in this sense by a free vote. In 1878, however, Austria gave up this reservation, and Denmark in the Treaty of 1907 with Germany recognized that by the agreement between Austria and Prussia the frontier between Prussia and Denmark had finally been determined. The Danish population of Northern Schleswig had, it is true, never acquiesced in this settlement. Propaganda for union with Denmark never ceased, although it had greatly diminished in the years which preceded the World War. At the first elections for the Reichstag the Danes of Northern Schleswig won two seats, but after about 20 years they retained only one of them.

During the World War the movement in Northern Schleswig for separation from Prussia seemed to be in abeyance. It was only the Armistice of 1918, which gave prominence to certain points in President Wilson's programme, that once more inspired among the Danish population a vigorous demand for a plebiscite to decide the nationality of the North-Schleswigers. The Danish Government had at first adopted an attitude of reserve. But from the spring of 1919 onwards a propaganda was conducted in Copenhagen for “South Jutland,” the chief leader in the movement being Hansen-Nörremölle, who till then had

been the representative of the Danish population in the German Reichstag. The German Government declared its readiness to apply President Wilson's programme for the “self-determination” of nationalities to the Danish portions of Northern Schleswig. The Treaty of Versailles provided for a plebiscite in that region. The original intention was to take the plebiscite throughout the whole of the Duchy of Schleswig, which for this purpose was to be divided into three zones. Finally, the idea of taking a plebiscite in the most southerly zone was abandoned, as the population of that district was purely German.

Article 109 of the Treaty established two zones for the plebiscite. The northern, or first, zone was bounded on the S. by a line passing through the islands of Röm and Sylt, keeping S. of Tondern, and then running to the N. of Flensburg, through the middle of the Flensburger Fjord, and leaving the island of Alsen to the N. of the line. The second zone included the islands of Sylt and Föhr and ran on, after bulging somewhat to the S. to the Flensburger Fjord on the east. Within this second zone lay Flensburg. The whole of the plebiscitary area had to be evacuated by the German troops and civil authorities within 10 days after the Treaty of Peace came into force. Powers of administration were transferred to an Inter-Allied Commission. In the first zone the plebiscite was to take place, at latest, three weeks after the German evacuation; in the second zone, at latest, five weeks after the plebiscite in the first zone. The decision regarding the assignment of territory to Denmark or to Germany on result of the plebiscite was to be taken on the proposal of the Inter-Allied Commission with due consideration for the special economic and geographical conditions of the region. The Danish Government appointed the former Reichstag deputy Hansen to the post of Danish minister for Schleswig, with the task of maintaining Danish interests in the plebiscitary area. All persons, without distinction of sex, who had completed their twentieth year and either had been born in the plebiscitary area or had lived there before Jan. 1 1900, were entitled to vote. On the German side, a German committee for Schleswig was formed, and was entrusted with German propaganda and preparations for the plebiscite.

On Jan. 15 1920 the Inter-Allied Commission, which had previously assembled at Copenhagen, took over the administration of the plebiscitary area. The German officials had to leave this territory, and their place was taken by native Landräte and administrative officials appointed by the Commission. The German troops evacuated the region by Jan. 20. A battalion of British troops was stationed at Flensburg, a French battalion at Hadersleben and another at Sonderburg. The Inter-Allied Commission was composed of Marling (Great Britain), Claudel (France), Heyste (Norway), and von Sydow (Sweden). It promptly issued regulations for the plebiscite, dealing with the voting qualification and the registration of votes. A control over persons entering the plebiscitary area was also established. A vigorous propaganda was initiated both on the Danish and on the German side and led to a number of incidents especially at Flensburg. The plebiscite in the first zone took place on Feb. 10. On the whole it passed off quietly. It resulted in a great Danish majority; 75,151 votes were cast for Denmark and 25,231 for Germany. The larger towns, Tondern, Hoyer, etc., had in all cases a German majority, while the rural population, with the exception of a few German enclaves, voted almost in its entirety Danish. The campaign was much keener in the second zone, where the polling day had been fixed for March 14. There were sharp conflicts, particularly at Flensburg, where the burgomaster, Todsen, was expelled by the Inter-Allied Commission. When a prohibition against the display of flags on the day of the plebiscite was issued on March 6, the German assessors of the Inter-Allied Commission resigned their posts. Repeated collisions with the French troops of occupation took place at Flensburg, and were not unattended by bloodshed. The plebiscite resulted in a great German success; about 51,000 votes were recorded for Germany and only 13,000 for Denmark. There were only two communes which had a Danish majority.

The determination of the frontier took a long time. Germany advocated the so-called Tiedje line, while on the Danish side propaganda was made for the so-called Clausen line. The Council of Ambassadors of the Allies gave its decision at the beginning of June. On June 15 the president of the Paris Peace Conference handed the German delegation a note in which the German-Danish frontier was fixed as follows. It begins at the entrance to the Flensburger Fjord, passes through the middle of that fjord, reaches the mainland immediately to the N. of Flensburg, leaves Flensburg to the S. and then follows a line which reaches the North Sea at Sieltoft. The island of Sylt falls to Germany, the island of Röm to Denmark. On the whole this meant the adoption of the Clausen line. The territory assigned to Denmark was at once handed over to her on June 15, while the territory that remained German was forthwith placed once more under German administration. German troops reentered Flensburg on June 16 after the members of the Inter-Allied Commission had left the town.

The detailed settlement of the territory to be ceded to Denmark was effected by a treaty concluded between Germany and Denmark and signed in the middle of July. At the beginning of July Denmark gradually took over the administration of the ceded districts, the administration of justice being the last department to become Danish. It is worth noting that the day of the plebiscite in the second zone coincided with the Kapp Putsch in Berlin. (C. K.*)

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Rh Francis de la Rovere was born in 1414, and entered the Franciscan order, became provincial of Liguria, and finally general of the order. He was elevated to be Cardinal by the advice of Bessarion, who had conceived a high notion of his learning and abilities. He became Pope in 1471 and occupied the papal chair till 1484, and was perhaps the second wickedest pontiff seated on that throne, coming only a short way after Alexander VI.

"He began his career with a lie," says Mr. Addington Symonds, "for though he succeeded to the avaricious Paul, who had spent his time in amassing money which he did not use, he declared that he had only found 5,000 florins in the Papal treasury. This assertion was proved false by the prodigality with which he lavished wealth immediately upon his nephews. It is difficult even to hint at the horrible suspicions which were cast upon the birth of two of the Pope's nephews. Yet the private life of Sixtus rendered the most monstrous stories plausible. We may, however, dwell on the principal features of his nepotism; for Sixtus was the first pontiff who deliberately organised a system for pillaging the Church in order to exalt his own family to principalities. The names of the Pope's nephews were Leonardo, Giuliano, and Giovanni della Rovere, the three sons of his brother Raffiello; Pietro and Girolamo Riario, the two sons of his sister Jolanda; and Girolamo, the son of another sister, married to Giovanno Basso. With the notable exception of Giuliano della Rovere, these young men had no claim to distinction beyond good looks and a certain martial spirit which ill suited with the ecclesiastical dignities thrust upon some of them. Leonardo was made Prefect of Rome and married to a natural daughter of King Ferdinand of Naples. Giuliano received a cardinal's hat, and after a tempestuous warfare with the intervening Popes, ascended the holy chair as Julius II. Girolamo Basso was created Cardinal of San Cristogono."

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Bridport, Dorsetshire, where he died on 9 May 1843. He was buried in the graveyard of the Unitarian Chapel, Bridport; a memorial sermon by Martineau speaks of their connection as unmarred 'by any ungentle word or thought.' His portrait (in the possession of the present writer) has been more than once engraved. In 1810 he married Anne (d. at Kenilworth, 10 Nov. 1855, aged 76), daughter of John Hancock of Nottingham, and had four sons and four daughters. His son Francis Henry (d. 6 Dec. 1889, aged 67) was the author of 'Pictures of the Past,' 1879, in which are some reminiscences of Branwell Brontë. His eldest daughter, Maria Anne (d. 17 Aug. 1871, aged 61), married Swinton Boult [q. v.]

Besides some sermons, he published: 1. ‘Outline of Lectures on the Evidences of the Christian Religion,’ Manchester, 1812, 12mo. 2. ‘Evangelical Christianity,’ &c., 1814, 8vo, 2 vols. 3. ‘A Statement,’ &c., Manchester, 1823, 8vo (anon.; reply to strictures in the ‘Blackburn Mail’). 4. ‘The Reciprocal Duties of Ministers and Congregations,’ &c., Liverpool, 1824, 8vo. Martineau describes his polemical writings as 'clear, mild, judicious;' he resisted many temptations to engage in personal controversy.

[Monthly Repository, 1812, pp. 198, 264, 498, 1813, p. 478; Belsham's Memoirs of Lindsey, 1812, p. 274; Manchester Socinian Controversy (Hadfield), 1825; Christian Reformer, 1843; Thom's Liverpool Churches and Chapels, 1854, p. 63; Bunting's Life of Jabez Bunting, 1859, i. 44; Carpenter's Presbyterianism in Nottingham [1860], p. 178; Roll of Students,Manchester New College, 1868; Inquirer, 1869, p. 276; Halley's Lancashire Nonconformity, 1869, ii. 435; Browne's Hist. Congr. Norf. and Suff. 1877, p. 421; Wade's Rise of Nonconformity in Manchester, 1880, p. 49; Baker's Memorials of a Diss. Chapel [Cross Street, Manchester], 1884, pp. 50, 147; extract from baptismal register of Great Meeting, Hinckley, at Somerset House; tombstones at Bridport and Kenilworth; private information.]  GRUNDY, JOHN CLOWES (1806–1867), printseller and art patron, born at Bolton, Lancashire, on 3 Aug. 1806, was eldest son of John Grundy, cotton-spinner in that town, and Elizabeth Leeming, his wife. He was first apprenticed in a Manchester warehouse. Having a great taste for art he transferred himself to a printseller named Zanetti, after whose death he became partner in a similar business, at first with a Mr. Fox, and in 1835 with Charles Goadsby. In 1838 he carried on the business on his own account. Grundy was regarded as one of the best judges of engravings in the country. As a patron of art, he was the staunch friend of local artists, like Henry Liverseege and William Bradley, and one of the first to appreciate the genius of David Cox, Samuel Prout, and others. In conjunction with his brother, Robert Hindmarsh Grundy of Liverpool, he had a share in founding the Printsellers' Association in London. Through his co-operation with Sir F. Moon, the large volumes of David Roberts's 'Sketches in the Holy Land, Egypt, &c.,' were published. Grundy died on 19 May 1867, while on a visit in London, and his extensive collections were then dispersed. Two of his sons have since carried on the business.

(1808-1841), engraver, younger brother of the above, born at Bolton on 6 Jan. 1808, was first apprenticed to a mercantile engraver at Manchester, but, having higher aspirations in his profession, came to London, where he found employment on the annuals then in vogue, engraving the pictures of Clarkson Stanfield, Liverseege, and others. He was employed for some time by G.T. Doo and E. Goodall, the engravers, and also engraved many portraits. The best of his own engravings was 'The Lancashire Witch,' after W. Bradley, executed in a curious but effective mixed style of engraving. He died prematurely in Brecknock Terrace, Camden Town, on 10 March 1841, leaving a wife and one child.

[Gent. Mag. 1867, ii. 116; Manchester Guardian, 24 May 1867; Art Union, 1841; Redgrave's Dict. of Artists; information from A. Nicholson, esq.]  GRUNEISEN, CHARLES LEWIS (1806–1879), journalist and musical critic, was born in Bloomsbury, London, 2 Nov. 1806. His father, Charles Gruneisen, a native of Stuttgart, was naturalised as an English subject by act of parliament 23 Dec. 1796. The son was educated by a private tutor and at Pentonville academy, his studies being completed in Holland. He commenced the pursuit of literature at an early period of his career, and in 1832, at the age of twenty-six, was appointed sub-editor of the conservative 'Guardian;' became editor of the 'British Traveller and Commercial and Law Gazette,' a London evening paper, in 1833, and in the same year managed the foreign department of the 'Morning Post,' and was also sub-editor of that paper. In March 1837 he was sent as special correspondent of the 'Morning Post' to the Carlist army in Spain, where he was attached to the headquarters of Don Carlos. Passing with the army through various smaller actions he was present at the victory of Villar de los Navarros, 24 Aug. 1837, and received the cross of a special order


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Rh raised Aleram, Count of Monferrat, to the dignity of margrave. Boniface, descended from a junior son, became Margrave of Saluzzo. He died in 1130, and his second son Enrico became Margrave of Savona. These margravates were much like sea-anemones; when divided up, each several parcel became an entire margravate complete in itself. In 1215 Savona was gripped by rapacious Genoa, and the last margravate died in 1233. A pretty drive of an hour takes one up the valley to Santuario, a pilgrimage church with hospice, founded in 1536. The church, which is rich in marbles, contains a miraculous image of the Virgin, tricked out with velvet and jewels. She wears a diamond collar given by King Charles Albert, and a jewelled crown presented by Pope Pius VII. The chapter of S. Peter's claims the right to decide what miraculous images are to be honoured with crowns, but the crowns themselves are conferred by the popes. In 1632 a certain Count Alessandro Sforza, a fanatic from Piacenza, by his will left rents of a large estate to furnish gold and jewels for this purpose; as time went on, the property grew in value, and the crowns at the same time became more splendid. The honour is usually reserved for the Virgin, but occasionally the Bambino is remembered as well. Figures of Christ are, however, never deemed worthy of being crowned, except He be represented as a babe.

The story of this image is not particularly novel and interesting. It was found by a peasant where now stands a little circular chapel on the hill above the present sanctuary. He saw the Virgin in a vision, who bade him go to Savona and bid the people erect a church to enshrine her. He did as bidden, but the good folk in Savona would not believe him, thought him

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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlich, Sir William

SCHLICH, SIR WILLIAM (1840-      ), British forestry expert, was born at Darmstadt Feb. 28 1840, and educated there and at the university of Giessen. In 1866 he entered the Indian Forests Department, became conservator of Forests in 1871, and ten years later inspector-general of Forests to the Government of India. He was one of the pioneers of the study of forestry in England, organizing the first school at Cooper's Hill, which was afterwards transferred to Oxford in 1905. He was appointed professor of Forestry at Oxford the same year. Among his books on the subject are A Manual of Forestry (1889-95; 3 vols.), and Forestry in the United Kingdom (1904). In 1901 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1909 he was created K.C.I.E.


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310 Milan, Grossulano told him that he must either pass through the flames or quit Milan, Liprand chose the first alternative, but arranged the matter so that there were two fires made at a convenient distance apart, and he marched between them unhurt. Two years later Liprand was summoned to Rome and sharply reprimanded; nevertheless, Milan continued to be torn by factions, Liprand and his followers refusing to receive the ministrations of Grossulano and his clergy.

At last the Archbishop departed for Jerusalem. During his absence Liprand became more abusive and uproarious, and managed to gather together a sufficient party to elect in the room of Grossulano an ignorant, uneducated man called Giordano, to be archbishop; and the three suffragans of Asti, Genoa, and Turin consecrated him. The bishop of Turin hurried to Rome to obtain the pall for Giordano. Paschal was in the midst of his strife with Henry V., and it was essential that he should have the support of the Archbishop of Milan. He could not be certain of Grossulano, whether he were anti-imperial or not; besides, he was absent. Giordano he hoped to use as a tool. Accordingly he sent the pall to him, but stipulated that he was not to be arrayed in it till he had sworn absolute submission to the Pope, and to refuse investiture from the Emperor.

For six months Giordano steadfastly refused to receive the pall on these terms, but his scruples vanished on the return of Grossulano, and he submitted unreservedly to the Pope, who summoned a council in the Lateran Palace, 1116, when a mock hearing of the case took place; Grossulano was dismissed to Savona, and Giordano was confirmed in his usurpation. Savona was a margravate held by a junior branch of the great house of Monferrat The Emperor Otto I,

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instituted by the king for those who were engaged in the battle. His position enabled him to be the means of saving the lives of many prisoners who would have been massacred by the Carlist generals, contrary to the orders of Don Carlos. He remained with the army when it advanced to Madrid in September 1837, and in the retreat from that city suffered great hardships, and several times ran risks of being killed. After the battle of Retuerta, 5 Oct. 1837, finding that his services were no longer of any use in Spain, he prepared to leave the country, but was almost immediately, 19 Oct., taken prisoner by some Christino soldiers. He was on the point of being shot as a Carlist and a spy, and it was only by the intervention of Lord Palmerston that his release was at last effected, and he returned to England in January 1838. Previously to his departure from Spain Don Carlos had conferred on him the cross of the order of Charles III. From 1839 to 1844 he was the Paris correspondent of the 'Morning Post;' editor of the 'Great Gun,' a weekly illustrated paper, from 16 Nov. 1844 to 28 June 1845, and special correspondent of the 'Morning Herald' during the tour of the queen and Prince Albert in Germany in 1845. While in Paris he organised an express system to convey correspondence to the London journals, and during the five winter months he carried out a complete communication with London from Paris by despatches conveyed by pigeons.

On his return to England he acted as musical critic to the 'Britannia,' the 'Illustrated London News,' and the 'Morning Chronicle,' up to 1853. On 21 Aug. 1846 an Italian opera company was established at Covent Garden, with Costa as conductor, and a company which included Grisi, Mario, and many other celebrities. The idea and organisation of this enterprise was mainly due to Gruneisen, and to it he gave disinterested support by his advice and his pen during a long period. In 1869 he publicly expressed dissatisfaction with the management of Frederick Gye (Standard, 25 Feb. 1869). Gye, in disgust, entered into partnership with Mr. J. H. Mapleson in 1869, and from this period, as Gruneisen had foretold, the decline of the opera in England commenced. In the meantime he had become intimate with Meyerbeer, who entrusted him with the sole charge of the score of 'Le Prophète,' which was brought out with great success at Covent Garden 24 July 1849. He was one of the chief founders and a director of the Conservative Land Society 7 Sept. 1852, and acted as secretary of it from 1853 to December 1872 (, St. Clement Danes, 1868, pp. 184–185). He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, a member of the Society of Arts, of the Royal Literary Fund, and one of the trustees of the Newspaper Press Fund. He was, however, perhaps better known as a musical critic than in any other capacity. He entered with the keenest interest into the study of all new musical works, and pronounced very decided opinions as to some of the productions of the modern school. He was one of the first to draw attention to the merits and demerits of Wagner, while his knowledge of Spanish music, acquired during his residences in Spain, was remarkable. His sincerity, earnestness, and high principle gave much weight to his opinions on musical art. He succeeded H. F. Chorley [q. v.] in 1868 as musical critic of the 'Athenæum,' a post which he held till his death. He died at his residence, 16 Surrey Street, Strand, London, 1 Nov. 1879, and was buried at Highgate 7 Nov.

He was the author of ‘The Opera and the Press,’ 1869; of ‘Sketches of Spain and the Spaniards during the Carlist Civil War,’ 1874; and of a little book entitled ‘Memoir of Meyerbeer,’ and contributed notes to W. A. Lampadius's ‘Life of Mendelssohn,’ 1876.  GRYG, GRUFFYDD (fl. 1330–1370), Welsh poet, was a contemporary of David ab Gwilym [see ]. According to Williams (Eminent Welshmen) he resided at Penmynydd in Anglesea. Angharad Llwyd, in his 'History of the Island of Mona,' says he resided at Aberffraw in Anglesea. Gweirydd ab Rhys, in his recently published prize essay on Welsh literature, thinks that the last opinion is confirmed by the words:

Gruffydd Gryg is chiefly noted for his poetical contention with David ab Gwilym. His skill in the construction of his verse, his nervous power of expression, and his fertility of thought made him a worthy rival. There are four contributions on each side given in the published works of David ab Gwilym. Gruffydd began the quarrel by an ironical poem upon David's 'Morfudd.' David retorted, accusing Gruffydd of plagiarism. Finally David challenged Gruffydd to a duel with the sword, and Gruffydd accepted the challenge. Whereupon the monks of Gwynlliw Priory, near Monmouth, sent a messenger to Anglesea to tell Gruffydd that David was dead, and another messenger to tell David that Gruffydd was dead. Both funerals were announced to take place at


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Townshend treaties at the same time, but not to either severally. The alliance with the emperor was signed without their accession at Westminster on 25 May 1716. The treaty with the regent—a reciprocal dynastic guarantee with engagements for the permanent exclusion of the pretender from France and the partial demolition of Mardyck harbour—was signed at The Hague, also without the accession of the States-General, on 28 Nov. (N.S.) It was not until 4 Jan. 1717 (N.S.) that the treaty, then re-signed at The Hague, received the accession of the States-General. The delay in signing the separate treaty with France was caused partly by the insistence of George I on the immediate banishment of the pretender beyond the Alps, partly by the cautious deliberation of the French plenipotentiary Dubois, partly by the scruples of his English confrère, [q. v.], who promised the Dutch not to sign without them, and left the completion of the business to Cadogan [see, first ] (, Le Régent, l'Abbé Dubois et les Anglais, i. 219–387). Townshend had not shared Walpole's scruples. He had furnished him with ample powers for signing either a joint or a separate treaty; he had enjoined him to sign the separate treaty; he had refused him the leave of absence which he sought as a means of evading the responsibility. Nevertheless, by his close connection with Walpole, Townshend was exposed to the suspicion of secretly inspiring his conduct, and of this Sunderland [see, third ] made abundant and unscrupulous use in order to damage his credit with the king, who attached immense importance to the French alliance, and was proportionately vexed by the delay in its completion. This charge Townshend rebutted only to find himself the object of graver imputations. He had committed the tactical error of remaining in England when the king, with Stanhope, went to Hanover (7 July 1716), and courting the Prince of Wales, whose confidence he speedily gained. With the prince he opposed the wild project entertained by Bernstorff and the king (but rejected as impracticable by Stanhope who was at Hanover) of kidnapping the czar by way of security for the evacuation by Russian troops of Mecklenburg or Holstein where they took up winter quarters during the war with Denmark. He had failed—apparently had as yet not even attempted—to conciliate the Maypole, who thought her Irish title, Duchess of Munster, below her dignity [See ], and was accordingly ripe for any intrigue which might turn out the principal minister. His strict integrity had arrayed against him the smaller fry of greedy Hanoverian courtiers with whom Cadogan and Sunderland made common cause (, Walpole, ii. 58–64, 75–8, 84–92, 103–13). Hence the charge of obstructing the completion of the French alliance was soon followed by an insinuation of complicity in the supposed intrigues of Argyll to place the prince upon the throne. For this there was no more colour than an incautious suggestion in one of Townshend's letters that, in the event of the king wintering abroad, it would be politic to amplify the discretionary powers of the regent; but the king believed, or affected to believe, in his guilt, and on 15 Dec. 1716 deprived him of the seals. To allay the consternation caused by his dismissal and to prevent his going into opposition, he was offered the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, a post which did not then involve residence in that country, and was at length persuaded to accept it as a step to higher office (13 Feb. 1716–17). The compromise failed. He proved but a languid supporter of the government, which in consequence carried the vote on account of the measures proposed against Sweden only by the narrow majority of four. Townshend was thereupon dismissed (9 April), and his dismissal was the signal for the resignation of Walpole and the reconstruction of the cabinet under Stanhope (ib. ii. 150–70).

Townshend signed the somewhat factious protests against the Mutiny Act of 1718, in which exception was taken to the delegation of the power of capital punishment to courts-martial and the exemption of the military from the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate (20 Feb.). On the whole, however, he abstained from overt political action during Stanhope's administration, but attached himself to the Prince of Wales, whose reconciliation with the king in April 1720 he, in concert with Walpole, materially contributed to effect. He was then permitted to kiss the king's hand, and on 11 June following was appointed president of the council. He was also then, and thenceforth throughout the reign, on the eve of the king's departure for Hanover, named one of the lords justices or council of regency. On Stanhope's death he was reappointed secretary of state for the northern department (10 Feb. 1720–1).

Townshend's integrity was unstained by the South Sea disclosures. His discernment in commercial matters is evinced by his opposition to the bill for prohibiting shipbuilding for the foreign market (11 Jan.


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Rh of Milan, died at Constantinople on his return from a crusade early in October, noo. During his absence Grossulano had been constituted by him administrator of the archdiocese, of which Savona was a suffragan. When Grossulano heard of the death of Anselm, he proceeded to an election of a successor, and was himself chosen by the majority of the clergy and people. He at once mounted the archiepiscopal throne. Milan had not long before passed through the furious and savage troubles of Ariald and Herlembald over the marriage of the clergy. There still remained in Milan the turbulent Liprand, dissatisfied that peace had settled down on the place. Possibly Grossulano was not sufficiently rigorous against married clergy, perhaps he had in some unknown way offended Liprand's vanity, for the latter at once ranged himself in opposition and sent to the Pope to entreat him to withhold the pall from the newly elected bishop. But Paschal would not listen to his remonstrances, and, acting on the advice of S. Bernard, abbot of Valumbrosa, he confirmed the election and sent the pall. Angry at this, Liprand did his utmost to rouse the people against their archbishop, and became such a nuisance that Grossulano summoned a provincial council, and, addressing the people, said: "If any one has aught against me, let him proclaim it openly, otherwise he shall not be heard."

Thereupon Liprand gathered a crowd of the disaffected in his church of S. Paul, and in it denounced the archbishop as simonacal, and he appealed to the judgment of God against him. He would have a fire lighted and pass through it to establish his assertion. But the bishops assembled in council forbade the ordeal. However, as he continued to be a source of evil in

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SCHMOLLER, GUSTAV (1838-1917), German political economist (see 24.344), died in 1917.


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 1721–2). His patience and acumen were conspicuous in the investigation of the plots of Christopher Layer [q. v.] and Bishop Atterbury. His humanity prompted such lenity as was shown to the bishop in the Tower. To his generous exertions Bolingbroke was principally beholden for his pardon and partial restitution (ib. ii. 312, 317) [see ]. Traces of his original toryism clung to him throughout life. During the agitation against Wood's patent for halfpence he wrote to the Duke of Grafton, then lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a letter so strongly worded in support of the prerogative that Walpole in his cooler judgment destroyed it (, English in Ireland, i. 525). In the blind frenzy which followed the detection of Atterbury's conspiracy he broke decisively with the whig tradition. He not only sanctioned the suspension for more than a year of the Habeas Corpus Act (12 Oct. 1722; ''Addit. MS''. 15867, f. 167), but argued for a standing army in a tone which savoured rather of the Stuart than of the Hanoverian régime (16 March 1723–4). The support which in the same session he gave to the equally cruel and impolitic proscription of catholics by a special tax was only too easily reconcilable with whig principles and practice.

By dint of always attending the king on the continent, and paying assiduous court to the Duchess of Kendal and the Countess of Walsingham, Townshend succeeded in thwarting the designs of his astute and brilliant rival Carteret [see ]. In the summer of 1723 Carteret, at the suggestion of Baron Sparre, Swedish minister at Hanover, proposed an immediate supply of 10,000l. and the reinforcement of the Danish fleet by a small British squadron for the purpose of defeating the supposed design of Peter the Great to seat the Duke of Holstein upon the throne of Sweden. Struck by the glaring inadequacy of means to end, Townshend suspected that the ships were only asked for as a blind, and the money was really required for the purpose of corrupting the diet. He therefore opposed both the pecuniary grant and the intervention by sea, and, though he had to contend with Bernstorff as well as Carteret, his arguments prevailed with the king. At the same time he favoured a substantial aid to Sweden, and persuaded Walpole to consent to a supply of 150,000l. for that purpose. The supposed Russian designs, however, proved to be entirely imaginary. In the autumn of the same year Townshend attended the king on his visit to Berlin, where (12 Oct. N.S.) he contributed to give definite shape to the ill-fated double marriage project (Stowe MS. 251, ff. 5–24; State Papers, For., Germany, 220, Record Office;, Frederick the Great, ii. 91). As Townshend found his mainstay in the Duchess of Kendal, so Carteret relied on the good offices of Lady Darlington (Sophie Charlotte, born countess of Platen-Hallermund, widow of Johann Adolf, baron Kielmansegg, master of the horse to George I). The rivalry of the mistresses gave occasion for the decisive struggle between the secretaries. Lady Darlington's niece, Amelia, daughter of Countess Platen, was to be married to Count St.-Florentin, son of the Marquis de la Vrillière; and Lady Darlington would not consent to the match without a dukedom for the marquis. Carteret accordingly instructed Sir Luke Schaub [q. v.] to make representations on the subject at Paris. The Duchess of Kendal and Townshend were equally interested in frustrating the negotiations, the one to spite Lady Darlington, the other to discredit Carteret. They therefore obtained the king's consent to the employment of Horatio Walpole at Paris, ostensibly to receive the accession of Portugal to the quadruple alliance, but really to watch and thwart Schaub. The result was Schaub's discredit and recall and the dismissal of Carteret. Townshend was rewarded with the Garter (9 April; installed 28 July 1724) (, Walpole, ii. 253–96). Newcastle, who had succeeded Carteret (2 April), at first worked in harmony with Townshend. On the other hand, Townshend gradually became involved in differences with Walpole. He was not satisfied with the quadruple alliance (2 Aug. 1718, N.S.). He thought the exchange of Sardinia (ceded to Savoy) for Sicily, with the suzerainty of the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Piacenza, unduly advantageous to the house of Habsburg. His dissatisfaction was increased by the chicane of the court of Vienna. To redress the balance of power came therefore to be the capital object of his policy; and commercial interests also contributed to incline him in favour of a Spanish alliance (ib. ii. 504). To secure this end he was even willing to surrender Gibraltar, and the personal assurance on that head given by George I to Philip V (1 June 1721) was approved if not prompted by him. So also were the secret articles of the defensive alliance of Madrid (13 June 1721, N.S.), by which England and France engaged to secure, if possible, that the article of the quadruple alliance which provided for the occupation, until the accession of Don Carlos, of the towns of Livorno, Porto Ferraio,


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308 Emperor, and I must obey his orders. On the part, therefore, of his Majesty, I have to intimate to your Holiness that you must renounce all temporal sovereignty over Rome and the Roman States." The Pope replied calmly: "I believed that I had complied with the Emperor's orders, when I took the oath of fealty and obedience to him. We cannot cede or renounce what is not our own. The temporal power belongs to the Roman Church, and we are only the administrators. Must we go alone?" "No; your Holiness can take Cardinal Pacca with you." A quarter of an hour afterwards the Pope, wearing his red hat and mantle, left the Quirinale, and, along with Cardinal Pacca, entered a carriage. General Radet and an officer took seats opposite, and the blinds were drawn down on the side on which sat the Pope.

When the carriage was on its way Pius suddenly exclaimed: "I have forgotten to bring my money; all I have in my pocket is twenty bajocchi."

"And I," said the Cardinal, "have only five."

"Then," said the Pope, "this may be regarded as a truly apostolic journey, with one franc seventy-five centimes between us." The Pope was conveyed somewhat hastily to Savona, where he was well received, but kept under surveillance for nearly six years. Savona was made the capital of the department of Montenotte by Napoleon. The see was founded in 680. From 1499 to 1528 it was entirely in the hands of the Delia Rovere and Riario families for five successions. In 1098 it was the see of the bishop Peter Grossulano, whose story is strange enough. Anselm, Archbishop

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Ystrad Fflur in Cardiganshire on the same day. Each came there with an elegy on his rival. They were equally rejoiced to discover the hoax practised on them, and formed a lasting friendship. It is probable that Gruffydd's elegy on this occasion gave rise to the erroneous impression that David was buried at Ystrad Fflur. Wilkins's statement that 'twenty-seven poems were written between them' appears to be groundless. There is one ode bearing Gruffydd Gryg's name in the 'Myvyrian Archæology,' p. 346 (ed. 1870), and three more on p. 365, if he is, as some have thought, identical with the Mab Cryg. According to Dr. W.O. Pughe, there are fifteen odes of his among the Myfyr MSS.

[Williams's Eminent Welshmen; Wilkins's Literature of Wales; Myvyrian Archæology; Barddoniaeth Dafydd ab Gwilym ; Hanes Llenyddiaeth Gymreig, gan Gweirydd ab Rhys.]  GRYMESTON, ELIZABETH (d. 1603). [See ]   GUADER or WADER, RALPH, (fl. 1070), was son of Ralph the Staller (d. 1066). This Ralph is frequently referred to in Domesday Book as having held various estates, and is twice mentioned as 'Radulfus comes vetus' (ii. 128b, 129), and on one other occasion as 'Radulfus Stalra' and father of Ralph Guader (ib. 409b). It is evident, therefore, that Ralph the Staller was himself an earl, probably in East Anglia, perhaps as a subordinate of [q. v.] He signs a number of charters, which are printed in the 'Codex Diplomaticus,' as 'minister' (Codex Dipl. iv. 121, 151), as 'regis dapifer' (ib. iv. 143), as 'regis aulicus' (ib. iv. 159), and as 'steallere' (ib. ii. 347); these charters are dated between 1055 and 1062. He was alive at the time of King Edward's death (Domesday, ii. 409b) but apparently died soon after, during the reign of Harold. The name of Ralph is rather strange for an Englishman; perhaps, as Mr. Freeman suggests, he was a son of some French follower of Queen Emma, but he was almost undoubtedly of English birth, for his brother was called Godwine (ib. 131), a name which would hardly belong to any but an Englishman. William of Malmesbury, however, says that he was a Breton; but this is due probably to the fact that his wife was a native of Brittany, and heiress of the castles of Wader and Montfort in that country.

After his father's death Guader seems to have been outlawed by Harold, perhaps for some act of treason, and to have retired to his mother's estate in Brittany. At any rate he appears at the battle of Hastings in the train of Count Alan, and at the head of a band of Bretons (Roman de Rou, 13625), being the only English traitor in William's host. Guader was made Earl of Norfolk, or East Anglia, by the Conqueror, probably previous to 1069, in which year he defeated, with great loss, a band of Danes who were threatening Norwich ( 513 C). In 1075 he married, against the king's wish, Emma, daughter of William Fitzosbern [q. v.], and sister of Roger, earl of Hereford [see ]. The wedding feast was held at Exning in Cambridgeshire: A great number of bishops, abbots, and others were assembled, and among them Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon. 'They took rede how they might drive their lord the king out of his kingdom' (Engl. Chron. Worc.), and Earls Ralph and Roger proposed to Waltheof that they should divide England between them, one of them to be king and the other two earls ( 534 C). Waltheof, however, at once gave information to Lanfranc and William. The other two earls went to their own lands, and Ralph gathered his Bretons and 'sent eke to Denmark for ships' (Engl. Chron.) But Wulfstan, bishop of Worcester, prevented Roger from crossing the Severn, while Odo of Bayeux and Geoffrey of Coutances marched against Ralph with a combined force of English and Normans. Ralph fled in alarm to Norwich, and, after leaving his wife and a garrison in the castle there, went over sea to Denmark , perhaps to hasten the coming of the fleet ; Henry of Huntingdon (p. 206) expressly says that he returned soon after with Cnut, the son of King Swegen, and Earl Hakon in a fleet of two hundred ships; the 'English Chronicle' does not, however, mention Ralph in connection with this fleet, nor say whither he fled after leaving Norwich; Florence of Worcester says that he went to Brittany; Ordericus that he went to Brittany after the failure of the Danish attempt; the latter account is probably correct. Guader was shortly joined by his wife, who, after holding Norwich Castle for three months, had been compelled to come to terms, and to leave the country. At the midwinter gemot held at Westminster in 1075-6 Guader was banished, and all his wide estates in East Anglia forfeited. The 'Gesta Herewardi' (ap., Lestorie des Engles, i. 390) confuse Guader's rising with the defence of Ely, and say that he plundered all the country from Norwich to Sudbury.

Ralph subsequently lived at his castles of


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Rh the Italian and Roman nobles and people of the middle-class assembled to see what would take place. The clock at the Quirinale was striking three-quarters after two when Miollis made a sign to commence operations. The gates remained fast shut. The French soldiers tried to scale the garden walls, but failed; and men were sent in hot haste to borrow ladders for the purpose. These were obtained; but the first who surmounted the wall, lost his footing in attempting to descend on the farther side, and broke his leg. Another judgment! and again levelled at very poor game. He was a mulatto. General Radet, with a small following, made good his entrance into the palace through a window, and reached the grand staircase, which was crowded with papal servants, who offered but a feeble and half-hearted resistance, and were at once overpowered. In the meantime the other party had effected an entrance over the garden wall. Radet lost no time in gaining the Pope's apartments. One or two doors had to be broken open, and then he reached the ante-chamber, where were drawn up the Papal Swiss guards. They at once laid down their arms, without a show of fight. When a couple more doors had been forced Radet reached the Pope's audience chamber. Pius had rigged himself up so as to produce an impression. He wore a white silk cassock, a mozetta on his head of crimson silk, and a gold stole. He was seated at a table with Cardinals Pacca and Despuig. But Radet was not overawed, as were the Gauls by the sight of the white-bearded senators. Advancing, he said, with courtesy,— "I have a most painful and trying commission to execute, but I have sworn fidelity and obedience to the

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 Parma, and Piacenza by Swiss troops should remain, as it then was, a dead letter, and also to offer no opposition to the occupation of the towns by Spanish troops, and make common cause with Spain at the approaching congress of Cambray (State Papers, For., Spain, 167, Record Office). His jealousy of Austria was increased by the establishment by imperial letters patent (19 Dec. 1722, N.S.) of the Ostend East India Company, in which he saw not only a breach of the treaty of Münster, but a serious menace to English and Dutch commercial interests (Addit. MS. 15867, ff. 145, 156, 190, 206). As it became apparent that the congress of Cambray would accomplish nothing, he laboured to form an anti-Austrian confederation of the northern powers. Russia rejected his overtures, but Prussia was conciliated by a pledge of the recognition of her doubtful claims on the duchies of Jülich and Berg, and a defensive alliance between that power, England, and France was already in draft in December 1724 (ib. 32738 ff. 203 et seq., 32741 ff. 337, 405). The negotiation languished, however, until fresh life was infused into it by the new turn given to affairs by the treaties of Vienna (30 April–1 May 1725, N.S.). Of these, two were published and one was kept secret. By the published treaties Spain, in return for the concession of investiture to Don Carlos, guaranteed the pragmatic sanction, and placed the empire on the same footing with England in matters commercial. The secret treaty contained nothing offensive to England, unless an engagement by the emperor to use his good offices—and, if necessary, mediation—to secure the retrocession of Gibraltar and Minorca might be so deemed; but rumours were current of an Austro-Spanish coalition against England of a most formidable character. Ripperda undoubtedly dreamed not only of the recovery of Gibraltar and Minorca by force of arms, but also of the establishment, by means of the Ostend company, of Austro-Spanish preponderance in the East Indies (Hist. MSS. Comm. 11th Rep. App. iv. 196–7). The Duke of Wharton undertook to push the cause of the pretender at Vienna; but there is no evidence that an invasion of England in his interest was seriously contemplated either there or at Madrid (State Papers, For., Germany, 231, Record Office, S. Saphorin to Townshend, 19, 26, 30 May 1725, N.S.; Addit. MS. 32744, ff. 17–23, 41). These rumours facilitated the completion of the negotiation for the northern confederacy, which took definitive shape in the defensive alliance between England and France and Prussia, concluded at Hanover on 3 Sept. 1725, N.S., and several subsidiary treaties by which the accession of Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and Hesse-Cassel was by degrees secured. The treaty of Hanover was extremely distasteful to George I by reason of the breach of fealty to the emperor and consequent risk to Hanover which it involved, and to Walpole hardly less so for financial reasons (, Walpole, ii. 471 et seq.). Ripperda's reply to it was the negotiation of an Austro-Spanish matrimonial compact and defensive and offensive alliance (signed at Vienna, 5 Nov. 1725, N.S.). In character it was exceedingly hostile to France and to England. The treaty was kept secret (see the text printed for the first time in, Une Cour et un Aventurier au XVIIIe Siècle, App. i., and cf. , Elisabeth Farnese, p. 186), but a summary of its contents, with three spurious separate articles, providing for the succession of Don Philip to the throne of France in the event of the death of Louis XIV without issue, for the extirpation of the protestant religion, and for the restoration of the pretender, was transmitted to Townshend from Madrid with rumours of a design on Gibraltar, in time to determine the bellicose tone of the king's speech on 20 Jan. 1726–7 (, Walpole, ii. 606; State Papers, For., Germany, 232, 234, Record Office). Meanwhile the accession of the czarina to the earlier treaty of Vienna (6 Aug. 1726, N.S.) had been followed by that of the faithless king of Prussia, who had been detached from the Hanoverian league by a pledge of the imperial good offices for the perfecting of his still doubtful title to Jülich and Berg. Neither power, however, could be relied on for any offensive purpose; and when the Spaniards laid siege to Gibraltar the emperor, so far from cooperating, protested his pacific intentions through his chancellor, Count Sinzendorf (20 Feb.), his ambassador at London, Count Palm (2 March), who was forthwith dismissed, and once more in a manifesto to the diet (17 March, N.S.) (Addit. MS. 15867, ff. 231–5). He ended by capitulating (not without the secret concurrence of Spain) to the Hanoverian league (Preliminaries of Paris, 31 May 1727, N.S.). The terms were peace for seven years, and meanwhile a total suspension of the business of the Ostend company, the abandonment of the treaties of Vienna of 30 April–1 May 1725 (N.S.) so far as repugnant to the prior treaty rights of England and France; the submission of all matters at issue between the powers to the adjudication of a congress to be convened within four months of the signature of the preliminaries. A dispute about the


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"De Gustibus—"

I.

Your ghost will walk, you lover of trees, (If our loves remain) In an English lane, By a cornfield-side a-flutter with poppies. Hark, those two in the hazel coppice— A boy and a girl, if the good fates please, Making love, say,— The happier they! Draw yourself up from the light of the moon, And let them pass, as they will too soon, With the bean-flowers' boon, And the blackbird's tune, And May, and June!

II.

What I love best in all the world Is a castle, precipice-encurled, In a gash of the wind-grieved Apennine Or look for me, old fellow of mine, (If I get my head from out the mouth O' the grave, and loose my spirit's bands, And come again to the land of lands)— In a sea-side house to the farther South, Where the baked cicala dies of drouth, And one sharp tree—'tis a cypress—stands, By the many hundred years red-rusted, Rough iron-spiked, ripe fruit-o'ercrusted, My sentinel to guard the sands To the water's edge. For, what expands Before the house, but the great opaque Blue breadth of sea without a break? While, in the house, for ever crumbles Some fragment of the frescoed walls, From blisters where a scorpion sprawls. A girl bare-footed brings, and tumbles Down on the pavement, green-flesh melons, And says there's news to-day—the king Was shot at, touched in the liver-wing, Goes with his Bourbon arm in a sling: —She hopes they have not caught the felons. Italy, my Italy! Queen Mary's saying serves for me— (When fortune's malice       Lost her—Calais)— Open my heart and you will see Graved inside of it, "Italy." Such lovers old are I and she: So it always was, so shall ever be!

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306 guests sat down to cards, and all went merrily until one o'clock struck, when the Princess fell back in her chair, and though she tried to speak, no intelligible sound issued from her lips. Helpless and speechless, she was conveyed to her own house, where she died three days later. Then, as may be imagined, tongues wagged. It was confidently asserted that the Princess had been struck down by Providence. Her sudden death was represented as a just punishment for her sin in espousing the cause of the Pope's enemies ; and fanatics held her up as an awful example and a warning. It was useless to hint that Providence had struck at very poor game—an already half-paralysed old woman—instead of smiting the real offenders. The Princess was in indifferent health at the time, had lost the use of her right arm through one stroke, and the recurrence was what might have been anticipated. No one would hear a word. She had reaped what others had sown.

Count Miollis now resolved on removing the Pope from the city. Although his excommunications and interdicts might safely be laughed at, yet his presence in Rome was a hindrance to general reform of abuses, and his person was a centre for every sort of cabal. The Pope was in the Quirinale, which was close barred. In the evening of June 5th the palace was surrounded by French soldiers, and pickets of cavalry patrolled the adjacent streets. Miollis authorised General Radet to use force if necessary, to enter the Quirinale and get possession of the Pope. Count Miollis stationed himself in a summer-house in the Colonna gardens, whence he could issue directions. Large numbers of

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 British South Sea ship Prince Frederick, seized by the Spaniards and claimed as lawful prize, served as a pretext to delay the ratification of the preliminaries at Madrid; and the siege of Gibraltar was still unraised at the accession of George II (12 June 1727).

To the new king Townshend was but ‘a choleric blockhead,’ but to Walpole he was still indispensable, and he was accordingly continued in office. Misled by a spurious version of the Austro-Spanish secret treaty of 5 Nov. 1725 (N.S.), in which the emperor was represented as pledged to aid a Spanish attack on Gibraltar by an invasion of Hanover (see this curious forgery and the relevant correspondence in Addit. MS. 32752 ff. 38 et seq., and cf. ), Townshend negotiated at Westminster (25 Nov. 1727) a subsidiary treaty with the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, for the common defence of the duchy and the electorate against a danger which was wholly imaginary. The emperor did not so much as offer his mediation between the belligerents; and Spain, finding Gibraltar impregnable, accepted the preliminaries of Paris with some slight modifications by the convention of the Pardo (6 March 1727–8, N.S.). She entered the congress of Soissons (14 June 1728, N.S.) bent on extorting from the emperor the promised archduchess for Don Carlos, and, as security for his succession to the Italian duchies, the immediate occupation of the cautionary towns by Spanish troops. Townshend was willing that Don Carlos should have his bride, provided security were taken against the union of the imperial and Spanish crowns. In regard to the duchies he was prepared to support the Spanish claim, which England and France were already pledged not to oppose, as a means of embarrassing the emperor. He accordingly ranged the Hanoverian League on the side of Spain, and, in concert with Fleury, attempted to detach the four Rhenish electors—Mainz, Köln, Baiern, and Pfalz—from the imperial cause. The result of his policy was that by June 1729 the emperor, who was equally averse from the Spanish match and the Spanish occupation of the duchies, had become completely estranged from Spain, and England had the option of an alliance with either power. The majority of the cabinet inclined to an imperial alliance; and it was only after a sharp contest that Townshend's Spanish policy gained the day (, Walpole, ii. 641 et seq.). The proceedings at Soissons had long fallen into abeyance, and Paris now became the centre of a negotiation which terminated in the treaty of Seville (9 Nov. 1729, N.S.), concerted at Versailles by Horatio Walpole [q. v.] and Fleury on the basis of a draft by William Stanhope (afterwards Lord Harrington) [q. v.] (Addit. MSS. 32755 ff. 247–301, 32756 f. 228, 32757 f. 28, 32758 f. 102, 32761 ff. 208 et seq.). By this curious piece of statecraft, in return for a mere confirmation of treaties prior to those of Vienna of 1725, and a guarantee of their possessions (a tacit waiver of the Spanish claim to Gibraltar), Spain obtained from England and France a guarantee of the succession of Don Carlos to the Italian duchies, with the mesne right of garrisoning the cautionary towns with her own troops. The accession of Holland to the treaty was secured (21 Nov., N.S.) by a pledge of renewed efforts on the part of England and France to procure the abolition of the Ostend company, and a satisfactory settlement of the affairs of East Friesland. The treaty served to flatter Spanish and humble imperial pride, to bring France and Spain into closer accord and so to prepare the way for the family compact of 1733, besides jeopardising the peace not only of Italy but of Europe, while the so-called concessions to England were merely a restitutio in integrum. Even the retrocession of Gibraltar was prevented only by the loudly expressed will of the English people. No provision was made against the dreaded contingency of the union of the Spanish and imperial crowns by means of a matrimonial alliance. In England the treaty was justly denounced by tories and malcontent whigs as a flagrant infringement of the quadruple alliance, and twenty-four peers recorded their protest against it in the journal of their house (27 Jan. 1729–30). Townshend's zeal for its enforcement when the emperor mustered his forces in Italy to oppose the landing of the Spanish troops knew no bounds, and had for its ulterior object the partition of the Austrian dominions. Spain, recoiling from a single-handed contest with the emperor, called on her allies for aid, and discovered that they were by no means at one. The English cabinet was determined to enforce the treaty, but was not prepared to precipitate a war. Fleury was minded to keep out of the imbroglio altogether. The emperor's solicitude for the pragmatic sanction afforded prospect of a compromise, and on that basis negotiations began. The emperor was willing to let the Spaniard into his fiefs in return for a joint guarantee of the pragmatic sanction by the allies. Fleury and Townshend were both indisposed to enter upon the question of the guarantee at all, and certainly not until the Spaniard had been let into possession and the grievances of the allies redressed (Addit. MS. 32764,


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Author:Percy Alfred Scholes

Works

 * Broadcasting Symphonies, The Radio Times, 19 October 1923, p 105

title: Author:Percy Alfred Scholes


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 ff. 242, 309, 434). They therefore did their utmost to push forward the negotiation with the four electors. This had hitherto made but little way; and Townshend had been equally baffled in the persistent efforts which during the spring and summer of 1729 he had made through Lord Chesterfield to animate the Dutch (, Life of Locke, ii. notes, pp. 67 et seq.;, Walpole, ii. 524 et seq., 659 et seq.). Meanwhile the king of Prussia's relations with George II, strained by his practice of recruiting on Hanoverian soil and disputes arising out of his recent intrusion, as it was generally deemed, into the conservatorship of Mecklenburg (May 1728) under imperial letters patent, had been brought to the verge of rupture by a frontier fracas at Clamei (near Magdeburg) on 28 June 1729. Townshend had succeeded in averting war—the dispute was referred to arbitration (September;, Frederick the Great, ii. 266 et seq.)—but in the following spring his Prussian majesty declared unequivocally for the emperor. Townshend then became urgent for immediate mobilisation for a campaign in the empire, as well as in Italy, upon a large and well-concerted plan. Fleury, however, remained obstinately pacific, and Walpole, whose lead Newcastle followed, was determined that the resources of diplomacy should be exhausted before the adoption of a bellicose attitude. Townshend, already offended with Newcastle on other grounds (, Walpole, ii. 623), now exerted all his influence with the king to procure his dismissal, designing, if possible, to replace him by Lord Chesterfield, who shared his views, or Sir Paul Methuen, whom he hoped to find pliant. This scheme, however, was frustrated by Walpole and the queen, and the defeat was followed by Townshend's resignation (15 May 1730) (ib. pp. 693 et seq.) Retiring to his Norfolk estate, Townshend devoted himself to the improvement of agriculture (, General View of the Agriculture of the County of Norfolk, 1794, p. 17). At Rainham he carried on that series of agricultural experiments and improvements which gained him the nickname of ‘Turnip’ Townshend. He had long been interested in agriculture; in 1728 we find him, according to the journal of a contemporary agricultural peer, Lord Cathcart, listening with much attention to an account of the Scottish ‘improvers.’ Pope refers to Townshend's turnips (Imitations of Horace, bk. ii. ep. ii. 273), and in a footnote he informs us that ‘that kind of rural improvement which arises from turnips’ was ‘the favourite subject of Townshend's conversation.’ Of all Townshend's improvements, this introduction of turnip culture on a large scale (turnips had long been known in England as a garden vegetable) is most important, as without it the subsequent developments in the breeding of stock by Bakewell of Dishley, Curwen of Workington, and others would have been impossible. Yet the introduction of turnips, though the most important, was apparently not the only innovation of Townshend's. He is said to have introduced the practice of marling, to have advocated enclosures, and to have demonstrated the value of clover as well as of turnips as one of the pivots of agricultural progress.

Townshend died at Rainham on 21 June 1738 (Hist. Reg. Chron. Diary, 1738, p. 24). He was custos rotulorum and lord-lieutenant of Norfolk 1701–13 and 1714–30, and a governor of the Charterhouse (appointed 31 Oct. 1723).

Townshend was a handsome burly man, of brusque manners and hot temper, but a loyal friend, and with his friends a genial companion. In parliament he always spoke to the point, but without eloquence (, Letters, ed. Mahon, i. 368), and his haughty disposition rendered him inapt in the delicate art of managing men. An attempt which he made towards the close of his career to establish a party of his own entirely failed, and his differences with Walpole were aggravated by frequent ebullitions of ill-humour. A tradition of a fracas between the two statesmen arising out of a dispute on some point of policy is vague and ill authenticated, but may have some basis of fact (, Walpole, i. 335). Well versed in European politics, not without address as a diplomatist, a competent French scholar, and master of a style admirably adapted by its precision and perspicuity for correspondence on affairs of state, he was unfitted for their consummate conduct by a singular union of discordant qualities. With only moderate abilities, he had boundless confidence in his own capacity to play a principal part in the continental drama, and revelled in complicated combinations and what he supposed to be adroit strokes of policy. He was slow in making up his mind, but, once it was made up, he gave ready credence to whatever agreed with it, brooked neither contradiction nor demur, and was as precipitate in action as he had been cunctative in deliberation. These characteristics are apparent in the audacity which outran his instructions in the negotiation of the barrier treaty, in the credulity which accepted almost without inquiry the spurious secret treaty of Vienna, in the levity


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Rh A shrewd, dissolute, wicked man, he was superior to Sixtus in ability. He had his mistresses, his luxury, his simony, and his cruelty, as Macchiavelli wrote of him. Savona has no cause to glory in those whom she sent to occupy the chair of S. Peter. But the place is associated with another Pope, and that one of a different stamp altogether, the unfortunate Pius VII., relegated there in 1809, and obliged to remain there till 1814. Pius was a good, quiet man, without force of character. When Napoleon let him understand that the States of the Church were to be taken from him, Pius was in dire distress and perplexity. Acting on the advice of his confidential attendant, Cardinal Pacca, he launched an excommunication at Bonaparte, Miollis, governor of Rome, all the French, and all such Romans as participated in the annexation of the States to the kingdom. The document was nailed up to the doors of several of the Churches of Rome,— till an event occurred which startled the good people of the Eternal City.

There was a grand reception at the Chigi Palace, to which persons of all shades of politics were invited. A large company had already assembled, when the major-domo announced, "The Princess Borghese!" Now Prince Borghese had been an active partisan of Bonaparte and of the New Order. It was felt that the Prince and the Princess were both involved in the sentence of excommunication, and in former days no one would have dared to receive into his house those who had fallen under the ban of the Church. Presently the

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304 tiara. Julius II. pushed on the fortunes of his family, which had been already aggrandised by Sixtus IV. This done, he could devote himself, undisturbed by the importunities of his kindred, to the gratification of that innate love for war and broil which was the ruling passion of his life. He was the fighting Pope, stern, resolute, indomitable. The whippings he had received from his father had steeled his spirit instead of breaking it. His portrait by Raphael admirably expresses the character of this second Delia Rovere Pope. The hard, cold eye, the set frown, the determined mouth, about which a smile never quivered, and the flowing white beard, are eminently characteristic of the man. There is not in the face a trace of the ecclesiastic, not an indication of his having led a spiritual life. But for the habit, he might have been a doge or a military leader. Ranke thus describes him:—

"Old as Julius was, worn by the vicissitudes of good and evil fortune experienced through a long life, by the fatigues of war and exile, and, above all, by the consequences of intemperance and profligacy, he yet did not know what fear or irresolution meant. In the extremity of age, he still retained that great characteristic of manhood, an indomitable spirit. He felt little respect for princes, and believed himself capable of mastering them all. He took the field in person, and having stormed Mirandola, he pressed into the city across the frozen ditches and through the breach; the most disastrous reverses could not shake his purpose, but seemed rather to waken new resources in him. He was accordingly successful; not only were his own baronies rescued from the Venetians, but in the fierce contest that ensued he finally made himself master of Parma, Placentia, and even Reggio, thus laying the foundation of a power such as no Pope ever possessed before him."

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