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 picked out six of the significant triplets in the spectrum of oxygen. The ‘citron-ray’ of the aurora was repeatedly measured by him in 1871–2 (Comptes Rendus, lxxiv. 597), and he observed the spectrum of the zodiacal light at Palermo in April 1872 (Monthly Notices, xxxii. 277). From the indications of thermometers buried on the Calton Hill (1837–1870) he inferred the subjection of the earth's temperature to a cycle identical with that of sunspots (Proc. Roy. Society, xviii. 311). A digest by him of meteorological data collected at fifty-five stations in Scotland appeared in vol. xiii. of the ‘Edinburgh Astronomical Observations’ (1871).

Smyth obtained in 1870 funds for a new equatorial, but the promised allowances for the cost of its working were not forthcoming. A committee appointed by the home secretary (the Right Hon. Richard Assheton Cross, now Viscount Cross) in 1876 to inquire into the affairs of the observatory recommended ameliorations never carried into effect; and at last, in 1888, Smyth resigned in disgust the post he had held for forty-three years, and withdrew to Clova, near Ripon in Yorkshire. There he executed a large solar spectrographic chart, with a Rowland grating, and studied cloud-forms by photography. He died on 21 Feb. 1900, and was buried in Sharow churchyard, Ripon. On 24 Dec. 1855 he married Jessie Duncan (d. 24 March 1896). She was the constant companion of his travels. They had no children. He bequeathed his residuary estate to the Royal Society of Edinburgh for defraying the expenses of printing his spectroscopic manuscripts, and of sending out occasional expeditions for spectroscopic research at high mountain stations. His membership of the Royal Astronomical Society dated from 1846. He was an honorary LL.D. of the university of Edinburgh, and a corresponding member of the academies of Munich and Palermo.

Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote: 1. ‘Life and Work at the Great Pyramid,’ 8 vols. London, 1867. 2. ‘On the Antiquity of Man,’ Edinburgh, 1868 (awarded the Keith prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh). 3. ‘Madeira Spectroscopic,’ Edinburgh, 1882. One hundred entries under his name occur in the Royal Society's ‘Catalogue of Scientific Papers.’

 SNOWDON, JOHN (1558–1626), priest and political adventurer. [See ]

 SPEARS, ROBERT (1825–1899), unitarian preacher and journalist, fifth son by the second wife of John Spears, foreman of ironworks, was born at Lemington, parish of Newburn, Northumberland, on 25 Sept. 1825. His father was a Calvinistic presbyterian, but the family attended the parish church. Brought up as an engineering smith, his love of reading led him to leave this calling and set up a school in his native village. He joined the new connexion methodists; a debate (1845) at Newcastle-on-Tyne between Joseph Barker [q. v.] and William Cooke, D.D., gave him the conviction that doctrine must be expressed in ‘the language of scripture.’ In 1846 he was master of the new connexion school at Scotswood-on-Tyne, and was taken on trial as a local preacher. A lecture at Blaydon, Northumberland, in 1848, by George Harris (1794–1859) [q. v.], was followed by an intimacy with Harris, to whom Spears owed his introduction to the Unitarian body in 1849. Leaving the methodists, he became Unitarian minister (without salary) at Sunderland (1852–8), where he conducted a very successful school, and originated (1856) a monthly religious magazine, the ‘Christian Freeman’ (still continued). He removed to a pastorate at Stockton-on-Tees (1858–61), where he originated (30 Dec. 1859) the ‘Stockton Gazette’ (now the ‘North-Eastern Gazette’).

In 1861 Spears attracted the attention of Robert Brook Aspland [q. v.], was invited to London by Sir James Clarke Lawrence, bart. (d. 1898), and became (1862) minister of Stamford Street chapel, Blackfriars. In 1867 he was elected co-secretary of the British and Foreign Unitarian Association with Aspland, on whose death (1869) he became general secretary, ‘put new life into every department,’ and nearly quadrupled its income. In 1874 he left Stamford Street to take charge of a new congregation at College Chapel, Stepney Green. His theological conservatism was the cause of his resigning (1876) the denominational secretaryship. He at once established (20 May 1876) a weekly paper, the ‘Christian Life,’ as an organ of biblical and missionary unitarianism; in 1889 he bought up the ‘Unitarian Herald,’ a Manchester organ (which he had been invited to manage at its establishment in 1861), and amalgamated it with his paper. In 1886, aided by Matilda Sharpe, younger daughter of Samuel Sharpe [q. v.], he established a denominational school for girls at Channing House,


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Zoonomia/II.IV.I.II

ORDO I.

Increased Associate Motions.

GENUS II.

Catenated with Sensitive Motions.

The primary links of the associated actions of this genus are either produced or attended by painful or pleasurable sensation. The secondary links of the first ten species are attended with increased motions without inflammation, those of the remainder are attended with inflammation. All inflammations, which do not arise in the part which was previously torpid, belong to this genus; as the gout, rheumatism, erysipelas. It is probable many other inflammations may, by future observation, require to be transplanted into this class.

The circles of sensitive associate motions consist chiefly of the excretory ducts of the capillaries and of the mouths of the absorbent vessels, which constitute the membranes; and which have been induced into action at the same time; or they consist of the terminations of canals; or of parts which are endued with greater sensibility than those which form the first link of the association. An instance of the first of those is the sympathy between the membranes of the alveolar processes of the jaws, and the membranes above or beneath the muscles about the temples in hemicrania. An instance of the second is in the sympathy between the excretory duct of the lacrymal gland, and the nasal duct of the lacrymal sack. And an instance of the third is the sympathy between the membranes of the liver, and the skin of the face in the gutta rosea of inebriates.

SPECIES.

1. Lacrymarum fluxus sympatheticus. A flow of tears from grief or joy. When the termination of the duct of the lacrymal sac in the nostrils becomes affected either by painful or pleasurable sensations, in consequence of external stimulus, or by its association with agreeable or disagreeable ideas, the motions of the lacrymal gland are at the same time exerted with greater energy, and a profusion of tears succeeds by sensitive association, as explained in Sect. XVI. 8. 2.

In this case there exists a chain of associated actions, the secretion of the lacrymal gland is increased by whatever stimulates the surface of the eye, at the same time the increased abundance of tears stimulates the puncta lacrymalia into greater action; and the fluid thus absorbed stimulates the lacrymal sac, and its nasal duct in the nose into greater action. In a contrary direction of this chain of association the present increase of action is induced. First, the nasal duct of the lacrymal sac is excited into increased action by some pleasurable or painful idea, as described in Sect. XVI. 8. 2.  2d. The puncta lacrymalia or other extremity of the lacrymal sac sympathizes with it (as the two ends of all other canals sympathize with each other). 3d. With these increased motions of the puncta lacrymalia those of the excretory duct of the lacrymal gland are associated from their having so perpetually acted together. And, lastly, with the increased actions of the excretory duct of this gland are associated those of the other end of it by their frequently acting together; in the same manner as the extremities of other canals are associated; and thus a greater flow of tears is poured into the eye.

When a flow of tears is produced in grief, it is believed to relieve the violence of it, which is worthy a further inquiry. Painful sensations, when great, excite the faculty of volition; and the person continues voluntarily to call up or perform those ideas, which occasion the painful sensation; that is, the afflicted person becomes so far insane or melancholy; but tears are produced by the sensorial faculty of association, and shew that the pain is so far relieved as not to excite the excessive power of volition, or insanity, and are therefore a sign of the abatement of the painful state of grief, rather than a cause of that abatement. See Class III. 1. 2. 10.

2. Sternutatio a lumine. Some persons sneeze from looking up at the light sky in a morning after coming out of a dark bedroom. The olfactory nerves are brought into too great action by their sympathy with the optic nerves, or by their respective sympathies with some intervening parts, as probably with the two extremities of the lacrymal sac; that is, with the puncta lacrymalia and the nasal duct. See Class II. 1. 1. 3.

3. Dolor dentium Stridore. Tooth-edge from grating sounds, and from the touch of certain substances, and even from imagination alone, is described and explained in Sect. XVI. 10. The increased actions of the alveolar vessels or membranes are associated with the ideas, or sensual motions of the auditory nerves in the first case; and of those of the sense of touch, in the second case; and by imagination, or ideas exerted of painful sensation alone, in the last.

4. Risus sardonicus. A disagreeable smile attends inflammations of the diaphragm arising from the associations of the reiterated exertions of that muscle with those of the lips and cheeks in laughing. See Diaphragmitis, Class II. 1. 2. 6.

5. Salivæ fluxus cibo viso. The flow of saliva into the mouths of hungry animals at the sight or smell of food is seen in dogs standing round a dinner-table. The increased actions of the salivary glands have been usually produced by the stimulus of agreeable food on their excretory ducts during the mastication of it; and with this increased action of their excretory ducts the other terminations of those glands in the capillary arteries have been excited into increased action by the mutual association of the ends of canals; and at the same time the pleasurable ideas, or sensual motions, of the sense of smell and of sight have accompanied this increased secretion of saliva. Hence this chain of motions becomes associated with those visual or olfactory ideas, or with the pleasure, which produces or attends them.

6. Tensio mamularum viso puerulo. The nipples of lactescent women are liable to become turgid at the sight of their young offspring. The nipple has generally been rendered turgid by the titillation of the lips or gums of the child in giving suck; the visible idea of the child has thus frequently accompanied this pleasurable sensation of parting with the milk, and turgescence of the tubes, which constitute the nipple. Hence the visual idea of the child, and the pleasure which attends it, become associated with those increased arterial actions, which swell the cells of the mamula, and extend its tubes; which is very similar to the tensio phalli visâ muliere nudâ etiam in insomnio.

7. Tensio penis in hydrophobia. An erection of the penis occurs in the hydrophobia, and is a troublesome symptom, as observed by Cœlius Aurelianus, Fothergill, and Vaughn, and would seem to be produced by an unexplained sympathy between the sensations about the fauces and the penis. In men the hair grows about both these parts, the voice changes, and the neck thickens at puberty. In the mumps, when the swellings about the throat subsides, the testicles are liable to swell. Venereal infection received by the penis is very liable to affect the throat with ulcers. Violent coughs, with soreness or rawness about the fauces are often attended with erection of the penis; which is also said to happen to male animals, that are hanged; which last circumstance has generally been ascribed to the obstruction of the circulation of the blood, but is more probably occasioned by the stimulus of the cord in compressing the throat; since if it was owing to impeded circulation it ought equally to occur in drowning animals.

In men the throat becomes so thickened at the time of puberty, that a measure of this is used to ascertain the payment of a poll-tax on males in some of the islands of the Mediterranean, which commences at puberty; a string is wrapped twice round the thinnest part of the neck, the ends of it are then put into each corner of the mouth; and if, when thus held in the teeth, it passes readily over the head, the subject is taxable.

It is difficult to point out by what circumstance the sensitive motions of the penis and of the throat and nose become associated; I can only observe, that these parts are subjected to greater pleasurable sensations than any other parts of the body; one being designed to preserve ourselves by the pleasure attending the smell and deglutition of food, and the other to ensure the propagation of our species; and may thus gain an association of their sensitive motion by their being eminently sensible to pleasure. See Class I. 3. 1. 11. and III. 1. 1. 15. and Sect. XVI. 5.

In the female sex this association between the face, throat, nose, and pubis does not exist; whence no hair grows on their chins at the time of puberty, nor does their voices change, or their necks thicken. This happens probably from there being in them a more exquisite sensitive sympathy between the pubis and the breasts. Hence their breasts swell at the time of puberty, and secrete milk at the time of parturition. And in the parotitis, or mumps, the breasts of women swell, when the tumor of the parotitis subsides. See Class I. 1. 2. 15. Whence it would appear, that their breasts possess an intermediate sympathy between the pubis and the throat; as they are the seat of a passion, which men do not possess, that of suckling children.

8. Tenesmus calculosus. The sphincter of the rectum becomes painful or inflamed from the association of its sensitive motions with those of the sphincter of the bladder, when the latter is stimulated into violent pain or inflammation by a stone.

9. Polypus narium ex ascaridibus? The stimulation of ascarides in the rectum produces by sensitive sympathy an itching of the nose, as explained in IV. 2. 2. 6; and in three children I have seen a polypus in the nose, who were all affected with ascarides; to the perpetual stimulation of which, and the consequent sensitive association, I was led to ascribe the inflammation and thickening of the membrane of the nostrils.

10. Crampus surarum in cholera. A cramp of the muscles of the legs occurs in violent diarrhœa, or cholera, and from the use of too much acid diet in gouty habits. This seems to sympathize with uneasy sensation in the bowels. See Class III. 1. 1. 14. This association is not easily accounted for, but is analogous in some degree to the paralysis of the muscles of the arms in colica saturnina. It would seem, that the muscles of the legs in walking get a sympathy with the lower parts of the intestines, and those of the arms in variety of employment obtain a sympathy with the higher parts of them. See Cholera and Ileus.

11. Zona ignea nephritica. Nephritic shingles. The external skin about the loins and sides of the belly I suppose to have greater mobility in respect to sensitive association, than the external membrane of the kidney; and that their motions are by some unknown means thus associated. When the torpor or beginning inflammation of this membrane ceases, the external skin becomes inflamed, in its stead, and a kind of herpes, called the shingles, covers the loins and sides of the belly. See Class II. 1. 5. 9.

12. Eruptio variolarum. After the inflammation of the inoculated arm has spread for a quarter of a lunation, it affects the stomach by reverse sympathy; that is, the actions of the stomach are associated with those of the skin; and as much sensorial power is now exerted on the inflamed skin, the other part of this sensitive association is deprived of its natural share, and becomes torpid, or inverts its motions. After this torpor of the stomach has continued a time, and much sensorial power is thus accumulated; other parts of the skin, which are also associated with it, as that of the face first, are thrown into partial inflammation; that is, the eruptions of the small-pox appear on the face.

For that the variolous matter affects the stomach previous to its eruption on the skin appears from the sickness at the commencement of the fever; and because, when the morbid motions affect the skin, those of the stomach cease; as in the gout and erysipelas, mentioned below. The consent between the stomach and the skin appears in variety of other diseases; and as they both consist of surfaces, which absorb and secrete a quantity of moisture, their motions must frequently be produced together or in succession; which is the foundation of all the sympathies of animal motions, whether of the irritative, sensitive, or voluntary kinds.

Now as the skin, which covers the face, is exposed to greater variations of heat and cold than any other part of the body; it probably possesses more mobility to sensitive associations, not only than the stomach, but than any other part of the skin; and is thence affected at the eruption of the small-pox with violent action and consequent inflammation, by the association of its motions with those of the stomach, a day before the other parts of the skin; and becomes fuller of pustules, than any other part of the body. See Class II. 1. 3. 9.

It might be supposed, that the successive swelling of the hands, when the face subsides, at the height of the small-pox, and of the feet, when the hands subside, were governed by some unknown associations of those parts of the system; but these successions of tumor and subsidence more evidently depend on the times of the eruption of the pustules on those parts, as they appear a day sooner on the face than on the hands, and a day sooner on the hands than on the feet, owing to the greater comparative mobility of those parts of the skin.

13. Gutta rosea stomatica. Stomatic red face. On drinking cold water, or cold milk, when heated with exercise, or on eating cold vegetables, as raw turnips, many people in harvest-time have been afflicted with what has been called a surfeit. The stomach becomes painful, with indigestion and flatulency, and after a few days an eruption of the face appears, and continues with some relief, but not with entire relief; as both the pimpled face and indigestion are liable to continue even to old age.

M. M. Venesection. A cathartic with calomel. Then half a grain of opium twice a day for many weeks. If saturated solution of arsenic three or five drops twice or thrice a day for a week?

14. Gutta rosea hepatica. The rosy drop of the face of some drinking people is produced like the gout described below, in consequence of an inflamed liver. In these constitutions the skin of the face being exposed to greater variation of heat and cold than the membranes of the liver, possesses more mobility than those hepatic membranes; and hence by whatever means these membranes are induced to sympathize, when this sensitive association occurs, the cutaneous vessels of the face run into greater degrees of those motions, which constitute inflammation, than previously existed in the membranes of the liver; and then those motions of the liver cease. See Class II. 1. 4. 6.

An inflammation of the liver so frequently attends the great potation of vinous spirit, there is reason to suspect, that this viscus itself becomes inflamed by sensitive association with the stomach; or that, when one termination of the bile-duct, which enters the duodenum is stimulated violently, the other end may become inflamed by sensitive association.

15. Podagra. The gout, except when it affects the liver or stomach, seems always to be a secondary disease, and, like the rheumatism and erysipelas mentioned below, begins with the torpor of some distant part of the system.

The most frequent primary seat of the gout I suppose to be the liver, which is probably affected with torpor not only previous to the annual paroxysms of the gout, but to every change of its situation from one limb to another. The reasons, which induce me to suspect the liver to be first affected, are not only because the jaundice sometimes attends the commencement of gout, as described in Sect. XXIV. 2. 8. but a pain also over the pit of the stomach, which I suppose to be of the termination of the bile-duct in the duodenum, and which is erroneously supposed to be the gout of the stomach, with indigestion and flatulency, generally attends the commencement of the inflammation of each limb. See Arthritis ventriculi, Class I. 2. 4. 6. In the two cases, which I saw, of the gout in the limbs being preceded by jaundice, there was a cold shivering fit attended the inflammation of the foot, and a pain at the pit of the stomach; which ceased along with the jaundice, as soon as the foot became inflamed. This led me to suspect, that there was a torpor of the liver, and perhaps of the foot also, but nevertheless the liver might also in this case be previously inflamed, as observed in Sect. XXIV. 2. 8.

Now as the membranes of the joints of the feet suffer greater variations of heat and cold than the membranes of the liver, and are more habituated to extension and contraction than other parts of the skin in their vicinity; I suppose them to be more mobile, that is, more liable to run into extremes of exertion or quiescence; and are thence more susceptible of inflammation, than such parts as are less exposed to great variations of heat and cold, or of extension and contraction.

When a stone presses into the sphincter of the bladder, the glans penis is affected with greater pain by sympathy, owing to its greater sensibility, than the sphincter of the bladder; and when this pain commences, that of the sphincter ceases, when the stone is not too large, or pushed too far into the urethra. Thus when the membrane, which covers the ball of the great toe, sympathizes with some membranous part of a torpid or inflamed liver; this membrane of the toe falls into that kind of action, whether of torpor or inflammation, with greater energy, than those actions excited in the diseased liver; and when this new torpor or inflammation commences, that with which it sympathises ceases; which I believe to be a general law of associated inflammations.

The paroxysms of the gout would seem to be catenated with solar influence, both in respect to their larger annual periods, and to their diurnal periods—See Sect. XXXVI. 3. 6.—as the former occur about the same season of the year, and the latter commence about an hour before sun-rise; nevertheless the annual periods may depend on the succession of great vicissitudes of cold and heat, and the diurnal ones on our increased sensibility to internal sensations during sleep, as in the fits of asthma, and of some epilepsies. See Sect. XVIII. 15.

In respect to the pre-remote cause or disposition to the gout, there can be no doubt of its individually arising from the potation of fermented or spirituous liquors in this country; whether opium produces the same effect in the countries, where it is in daily use, I have never been well informed. See Sect. XXI. 10, where this subject is treated of; to which I have to add, that I have seen some, and heard of others, who have moderated their paroxysms of gout, by diminishing the quantity of fermented liquors, which they had been accustomed to; and others who, by a total abstinence from fermented liquors, have entirely freed themselves from this excruciating malady; which otherwise grows with our years, and curtails or renders miserable the latter half, or third, of the lives of those, who are subject to it. The remote cause is whatever induces temporary torpor or weakness of the system; and the proximate cause is the inirritability, or defective irritation, of some part of the system; whence torpor and consequent inflammation. The great Sydenham saw the beneficial effects of the abstinence from fermented liquors in preventing the gout, and adds, "if an empiric could give small-beer only to gouty patients as a nostrum, and persuade them not to drink any other spirituous fluids, that he might rescue thousands from this disease, and acquire a fortune for his ingenuity." Yet it is to be lamented, that this accurate observer of diseases had not resolution to practise his own prescription, and thus to have set an example to the world of the truth of his doctrine; but, on the contrary, recommends Madeira, the strongest wine in common use, to be taken in the fits of the gout, to the detriment of thousands; and is said himself to have perished a martyr to the disease, which he knew how to subdue!

As example has more forcible effect: than simple assertion, I shall now concisely relate my own case, and that of one of my most respected friends. E. D. was about forty years of age, when he was first seized with a fit of the gout. The ball of his right great toe was very painful, and much swelled and inflamed, which continued five or six days in spite of venesection, a brisk cathartic with ten grains of calomel, and the application of cold air and cold water to his foot. He then ceased to drink ale or wine alone; confining himself to small beer, or wine diluted with about thrice its quantity of water. In about a year he suffered two other fits of the gout, in less violent degree. He then totally abstained from all fermented liquors, not even tasting small-beer, or a drop of any kind of wine; but eat plentifully of flesh-meat, and all kinds of vegetables, and fruit, using for his drink at meals chiefly water alone, or lemonade, or cream and water; with tea and coffee between them as usual.

By this abstinence from fermented liquors he kept quite free from the gout for fifteen or sixteen years; and then began to take small-beer mixed with water occasionally, or wine and water, or perry and water, or cyder and water; by which indulgence after a few months he had again a paroxysm of gout, which continued about three days in the ball of his toe; which occasioned him to return to his habit of drinking water, and has now for above twenty years kept in perpetual health, except accidental colds from the changes of the seasons. Before he abstained from fermented or spirituous liquors, he was frequently subject to the piles, and to the gravel, neither of which he has since experienced.

In the following case the gout was established by longer habit and greater violence, and therefore required more cautious treatment. The Rev. R. W. was seized with the gout about the age of thirty-two, which increased so rapidly that at the age of forty-one he was confined to his room seven months in that year; he had some degree of lameness during the intervals, with chalky swellings of his heels and elbows. As the disease had continued so long and so violently, and the powers of his digestion were somewhat weakened, he was advised not entirely to leave off all fermented liquors; and as small-beer is of such various strength, he was advised to drink exactly two wine glasses, about four ounces, of wine mixed with three or four times its quantity of water, with or without lemon and sugar, for his daily potation at dinner, and no other fermented liquor of any kind; and was advised to eat flesh-meat with any kind of boiled vegetables, and fruit, with or without spice. He has now scrupulously continued this regimen for above five years, and has had an annual moderate gouty paroxysm of a few weeks, instead of the confinement of so many months, with great health and good spirits during the intervals.

The following is a more particular account of the history of this case; being part of a letter which Mr. Wilmot wrote on that subject at my entreaty.

 * "I entered into the army with an excellent constitution at the age of fifteen. The corps I served in was distinguished by its regularity, that is, the regular allowance of the mess was only one pint of wine per man each day; unless we had company to dine with us; then, as was the general custom of the time, the bottle circulated without limit. This mode of living, though by no means considered as excess for men, was certainly too great for a youth of my age. This style of living I continued, when with the regiment, till the latter end of the year 1769, when I had the misfortune to sleep in a damp bed at Sheffield on a journey to York, but arrived there before I felt the ill effects of it. I was then seized with a violent inflammatory rheumatism with great inflammation of my eyes, and was attended by Dr. Dealtry; so violent was the disorder, that I was bled for it eight times in less than a fortnight; and was three months, before I could consider my health perfectly re-established. Dr. Dealtry told me, that I should be subject to similar attacks for many years; and that he had no doubt, from the tendency he found in my habit to inflammation, that, when I was farther advanced in life, I should change that complaint for the gout. He predicted truly; for the three succeeding winters I had the same complaint, but not so violently; the fourth winter I escaped, and imputed my escape to the continuance of cold bathing during the whole of that winter; after that I never escaped it, till I had a regular and severe fit of the gout: after the first attack of rheumatic fever I was more abstemious in my manner of living, though when in company I never subjected myself to any great restraint. In the year 1774 I had quitted the army, and being in a more retired situation, was seldom led into any excess; in 1776 and 1777 I was in the habit of drinking a good deal of wine very frequently, though not constantly. After that period till the year 1781, I drank a larger quantity of wine regularly, but very seldom to any degree of intoxication. I lived much at that time in the society of some gentlemen, who usually drank nearly a bottle of wine daily after dinner. I must here however observe, that at no part of my life was I accustomed to drink wine in an evening, and very seldom drank any thing more than a single half-pint glass of some sort of spirits diluted with much water. Till the year 1781 I had always been accustomed to use very violent and continued exercise on horseback; in the winter months I pursued all field diversions, and in the summer months I rode frequent and long journeys; and with this exercise was liable to perspire to great excess; besides which I was subject to very profuse night-sweats, and had frequently boils break out all over me, especially in the spring and autumn; for which I took no medicine, except a little flour of sulphur with cream of tartar in honey.

 * "You will observe I bring every thing down to the date of 1781. In the month of October in that year, when I was just entered into the thirty-second year of my age, I had the first attack of gout; that fit was very severe, and of many weeks continuance. I now determined upon a more abstemious method of living, in respect to wine; and indeed the society, in which I had before been accustomed to live, being considerably changed, I had less frequent temptations to excess. From this time I enjoyed the most perfect good state of health till August 1784, when I had my second attack of gout. I never perfectly recovered from this attack through the succeeding winter, and in March 1785 was advised to try the Bath waters, and drank them under the direction of one of the faculty of that place. I was there soon seized with a fever, and a slight attack of gout in one knee. I should observe, that when I set out from home, I was in a weak and low state, and unequal to much fatigue; as appeared by my having a fainting fit one day on the road, after having travelled only about fifty miles; in the course of the summer I had two or three more slight attacks of gout of less consequence, till the month of October; when I was afflicted with it all over me in such a manner, as to be without the possibility of the least degree of removal for some days; and was about two months without being able to get into the air. This was the severest attack I had then experienced; though I have since had several equally severe. In the course of this summer I had a fall with my horse; and soon after it, having discovered an enlargement on one elbow, I concluded I had hurt it at that time; but in the course of this last attack having a similar enlargement on the other elbow, I found my mistake, and that they were collections of gouty matter; these increased to the size of pullet's eggs, and continue in that state. I had soon after similar enlargements on my heels; the right heel being severely bruised, I was under the necessity of having it lanced, and a large quantity of chalky matter was discharged from it; and have since that time frequently had chalky matter taken from it, and sometimes small bits of apparently perfect chalk. My right hand soon was afflicted in the same way, and I have scarcely a joint on those fingers now in a natural state. My left hand has escaped tolerably well. After this last attack (viz. October 1785), I had two or three slight attacks before the month of June 1787, when I had a very severe intermittent fever; from that time I continued very well till the latter end of the year, when I began to feel the gout about me very much, but was not confined by it. I was in this state advised to try what is called the American Recipe (gum guaiacum and nitre dissolved in spirits); it had apparently been of essential service to a friend of mine, who from the inability to walk a mile for some years, was believed to be restored by the use of this medicine to a good state of health, so as to walk ten miles a day. In addition to this medicine I drank, as my common beverage with my meals, spruce beer. I had so high an opinion of this medicine in the gout, and of spruce beer as an antiscorbutic, that I contemplated with much satisfaction, and with very little doubt, the perfect restoration of my health and strength; but I was miserably deceived; for in September 1788 I was seized with the gout in a degree that none but arthritics, and indeed but few of those, can easily conceive. From this time till August 1789 I scarcely ever passed a comfortable day; seven months of this time I had been confined, my health seemed much impaired, my strength was diminished, and my appetite almost gone. In this state my friends pressed me to consult you. I was unwilling for some time to do it, as I had lost all hope of relief; however, when I had determined to apply to you, I likewise determined to give up every prejudice of my own respecting my case, and to adhere most strictly to your advice. On the 20th of August 1789 I consulted you, on the 25th I entered upon the regimen, which you prescribed, and which was as follows.

 * "Drink no malt liquor on any account. Let your beverage at dinner consist of two glasses of wine diluted with three half-pints of water. On no account drink any more wine or spirituous liquors in the course of the day; but, if you want more liquid, take cream and water, or milk and water, or lemonade, with tea, coffee, chocolate. Use the warm bath twice a week for half an hour before going to bed, at the degree of heat which is most grateful to your sensations. Eat meat constantly at dinner, and with it any kind of tender vegetables you please. Keep the body open by two evacuations daily, if possible without medicine, if not take the size of a nutmeg of lenitive electuary occasionally, or five grains of rhubarb every night. Use no violent exercise, which may subject yourself to sudden changes from heat to cold; but as much moderate exercise as may be, without being much fatigued or starved with cold. Take some supper every night; a small quantity of animal food is preferred; but if your palate refuses this, take vegetable food, as fruit pie, or milk; something should be eaten, as it might be injurious to you to fast too long." To the whole of this I adhered most scrupulously, and soon found my appetite improve, and with it my strength and spirits. I had in December a fevere attack, and two or three slight ones in the course of twelve months; but the improvement in the general state of my health induced me to persevere. On the 18th of August 1790 I had another severe attack, but it went off easier than before, and I soon recovered sufficiently to go to Buxton, which you advised me to, and from which I reaped great benefit; nevertheless on the 29th of December I had a slight attack in comparison of some that I had before experienced, and from that time I was free from gout, and enjoyed my health perfectly well till the fourth week in October 1791; from that till the third week in October 1792; from that till the third week in October 1793; and from that till June 1794. From what happened for the last three years I dreaded the month of October; but I escaped then, and have enjoyed my health most perfectly ever since till within the last week, that I have had a slight attack in one knee, which is nearly gone, without any symptom to lead me to suppose that it will go further.

 * "I adhered to your advice most scrupulously for the first year; and in regard to the not drinking malt liquor, and taking only the two glasses of wine with water, I have never deviated but two days; and then the first day I only drank one glass of ale and one glass of Champaigne; on the second only one glass of Champaigne. With regard to the warm bath, I only use it now when I have gouty symptoms upon me, and in such situations I find it of infinite service; and in other respects I continue to live according to your direction.

 * "Many persons have laughed at the idea of my perseverance in a system, which has not been able to cure the gout after five years trial; but such persons are either ignorant of what I before suffered, or totally unacquainted with the nature of the disorder. Under the blessing of Providence, by an adherence to your advice, I am reaping all the benefit you flattered me I might expect from it, viz. my attacks less frequent, my sufferings less acute, and an improvement in the general state of my health.

 * "I have been particular in this account of myself at your request, and am, Sir, &c.

 * , near ,
 * February 10th, 1795.

There are situations nevertheless in which a paroxysm of gout has been believed to be desirable, as relieving the patient from other disagreeable diseases, or debilities, or sensations. Thus when the liver is torpid, a perpetual uneasiness and depression of spirits occur; which a fit of gout is supposed to cure by a metastasis of the disease. Others have acquired epileptic fits, probably from the disagreeable sensation of a chronically inflamed liver; which they suppose the pain and inflammation of gout would relieve. When gouty patients become much debilitated by the progress of the disease, they are liable to dropsy of the chest, which they suppose a fit of the gout would relieve. But in all these cases the attempt to procure a paroxysm of gout by wine, or aromatics, or volatiles, or blisters, or mineral waters, seldom succeeds; and the patients are obliged to apply to other methods of relief adapted to their particular cases. In the two former situations small repeated doses of calomel, or mercurial unction on the region of the liver may succeed, by giving new activity to the vessels of the liver, either to secrete or to absorb their adapted fluids, and thus to remove the cause of the gout, rather than to promote a fit of it. In the last case the tincture of digitalis, and afterwards the class of sorbentia, must be applied to.

M. M. In young strong patients the gout should be cured by venesection and cathartics and diluents, with poultices externally. But it has a natural crisis by producing calcareous matter on the inflamed membrane, and therefore in old enfeebled people it is safest to wait for this crisis, attending to the natural evacuations and the degree of fever; and in young ones, where it is not attended with much fever, it is customary and popular not to bleed, but only to keep the body open with aloes, to use gentle sudorifics, as neutral salts, and to give the bark at the decline of the fit; which is particularly useful where the patient is much debilitated. See Arthritis ventriculi, Class I. 2. 4. 6. and Sect. XXV. 17.

When there is not much fever, and the patient is debilitated with age, or the continuance of the disease, a moderate opiate, as twenty drops of tincture of opium, or one grain of solid opium, may be taken every night with advantage. Externally a paste made with double the quantity of yeast is a good poultice; and booterkins made with oiled silk, as they confine the perspirable matter, keep the part moist and supple, and thence relieve the pain like poultices.

The only safe way of moderating the disease is by an uniform and equal diminution, or a total abstinence from fermented liquors, with the cautions directed in Sect. XII. 7. 8. The continued use of strong bitters, as of Portland's powder, or bark, has been frequently injurious, as spoken of in the Materia Medica, Art. IV. 2. 11.

One of my acquaintance, who was much afflicted with the gout, abstained for about half a year from beer and wine; and not having resolution to persist, returned to his former habits of potation in less quantity; and observed that he was then for one winter stronger and freer from the gout than usual. This however did not long continue, as the disease afterwards returned with its usual or increased violence. This I think is a circumstance not unlikely to occur, as opium has a greater effect after its use has been a while intermitted; and the debility or torpor, which is the cause of gout, is thus for a few months prevented by the greater irritability of the system, acquired during the lessened use of fermented liquor.

For the same reason an ounce of spirituous tincture of guaiacum, or of bark, is said to have for some time prevented returns of the gout; which has afterwards, like all other great stimuli when long continued, been succeeded by greater debility, and destroyed the patient. This seems to have been exemplified in the case of the ingenious Dr. Bown, see Preface to his Elementa Medicinæ; he found temporary relief from the stimulus of wine, regardless of its future effects.

16. Rheumatismus. Acute rheumatism. There is reason to suspect, that rheumatic inflammations, like the gouty ones, are not a primary disease; but that they are the consequence of a translation of morbid action from one part of the system to another. This idea is countenanced by the frequent change of place of rheumatic-like gouty inflammations, and from their attacking two similar parts at the same time, as both ankles and both wrists, and these attacks being in succession to each other. Whereas it is not probable that both feet or both hands should at the same time be equally exposed to any external cause of the disease, as to cold or moisture; and less so that these should occur in succession. Lastly, from the inflammatory diathesis in this disease being more difficult to subdue, and more dangerous in event, than other common inflammations, especially to pregnant women, and in weak constitutions.

From this idea of the rheumatism being not a primary disease, like the gout, but a transferred morbid action owing to the previous torpor of some other part of the system, we perceive why it attacks weak people with greater pertinacity than strong ones; resisting or recurring again and again after frequent evacuations, in a manner very different from primary inflammations; because the cause is not removed, which is at a distance from the seat of the inflammation.

This also accounts for rheumatic inflammations so very rarely terminating in suppuration, because like the gout the original cause is not in the inflamed part, and therefore does not continue to act after the inflammation commences. Instead of suppuration in this disease, as well as in the gout, a quantity of mucus or coagulable lymph is formed on the inflamed membrane; which in the gout changes into chalkstones, and in the rheumatism is either reabsorbed, or lies on the membrane, producing pains on motion long after the termination of the inflammation, which pains are called chronic rheumatism. The membranes, which have thus been once or repeatedly inflamed, become less mobile, or less liable to be affected by sympathy, as appears by the gout affecting new parts, when the joints of the foot have been frequently inflamed by it; hence as the cause of the inflammation does not exist in the inflamed part, and as this part becomes less liable to future attacks, it seldom suppurates.

Secondly, when rheumatism affects the muscles of the chest, it produces symptoms similar to pleurisy, but are distinguished from that by the patient having previously suffered rheumatic affections in other parts, and by the pertinacity or continuance of the inflammatory state of the patient, this should be termed pleurodyne rheumatica.

Thirdly, when rheumatic inflammation affects the bowels, it produces a disease very different from enteritis, or common inflammation of the bowels, and should be termed enteralgia rheumatica. The pain is less than in enteritis, and the disease of longer continuance, with harder pulse, and the blood equally sizy. It is attended with frequent dejections, with much mucus, and previous griping pains, but without vomiting; and differs perhaps from dysentery from its not being attended with bloody stools, and not being infectious.

Fourthly, there is another kind of rheumatism attended with debility, which suppurates, and should be termed rheumatismus suppurans. It is generally believed to be the gout, till suppuration takes place on the swelled joint; and, as the patient sinks, there are sloughs formed over the whole mouth; and he seems to be destroyed by inflammation or gangrene of the mucous membranes. I have twice seen this disease in patients about sixty. Some other diseases are erroneously called rheumatic, as hemicrania, and odontalgia. See Sect. XXVI. 3.

M.M. In the three former kinds venesection repeatedly. Cathartics. Antimonials. Diluents. Neutral salts. Oil. Warm bath. Afterwards the bark. Opium with or without ipecacuanha; but not till the patient is considerably weakened. Sweats forced early in the disease do injury. Opium given early in the disease prolongs it. In the last kind, gentle stimulants, as wine and water, mucilage, sorbentia.

The following is a case of suppurative rheumatism. Mr. F——, about sixty, was supposed to have the gout in his hand, which however suppurated, and it was then called the suppurative rheumatism. He had lived rather intemperately in respect to wine, and was now afflicted with a tendency to inflammation of the mucous membranes. As he lay on the bed half resupine, propped up with pillows, and also slept in that posture, his lower jaw dropped by its own weight, when the voluntary power of the muscles was suspended. The mucus of his mouth and throat became quite dry, and at length was succeeded with sloughs; this was a most distressing circumstance to him, and was in vain endeavoured to be relieved by supporting his jaw by slender steel springs fixed to his night-cap, and by springs of elastic gum. The sloughs spread and seemed to accelerate his death. See Class I. 1. 3. 2.

17. Erysipelas. The erysipelas differs from the zona ignea, and other species of herpes, in its being attended with fever, which is sometimes of the sensitive irritated or inflammatory kind, with strong and full pulse; and at other times with weak pulse and great inirritability, as when it precedes or attends mortifications. See Class II. 1. 3. 2.

Like the zona ignea above described, it seems to be a secondary disease, having for its primary part the torpor or inflammation of some internal or distant membrane, as appears from its so frequently attending wounds; sometimes spreading from issues over the whole limb, or back, by sympathy with a tendon or membrane, which is stimulated by the pease in them. In its more violent degree I suppose that it sympathizes with some extensive internal membranes, as of the liver, stomach, or brain. Another reason, which countenances this idea, is, that the inflammation gradually changes its situation, one part healing as another inflames; as happens in respect to more distant parts in gout and rheumatism; and which seems to shew, that the cause of the disease is not in the same place with the inflammation. And thirdly, because the erysipelas of the face and head is liable to affect the membranes of the brain; which were probably in these cases the original or primary seat of the disease; and lastly, because the fits of erysipelas, like those of the gout, are liable to return at certain annual or monthly periods, as further treated of in Class II. 1. 3. 2.

Many cases of erysipelas from wounds or bruises are related in Default's Surgical Journal, Vol. II. in which poultices are said to do great injury, as well as oily or fatty applications. Saturnine solutions were sometimes used with advantage. A grain of emetic tartar given to clear the stomach and bowels, is said to be of great service.

18. Testium tumor in gonorrhœa. Mr. Hunter in his Treatise on the Venereal Disease observes, that the tumor of the testes in gonorrhœa arises from their sympathy with the inflammation of the urethra; and that they are not similar to the actions arising from the application of venereal matter, whether by absorption or otherwise; as they seldom or never suppurate; and when suppuration happens, the matter produced is not venereal. Treatise on Venereal Disease, p. 53.

19. Testium tumor in parotidite. The sympathy between some parts about the throat and the genitals has been treated of in Class IV. 1. 2. 7. The swelling of the testes, when that of the parotis subsides, seems to arise from the association of successive action; as the tension of the penis in hydrophobia appears to arise from the previous synchronous associations of the sensitive motions of these parts; but the manner of the production of both these associations is yet very obscure. In women a swelling of the breasts often succeeds the decline of the mumps by another wonderful sympathy. See Class IV. 1. 2. 7. and I. 1. 2. 15. In many persons a delirium succeeds the swelling of the parotis, or the subsequent ones of the testes or breasts; which is sometimes fatal, and seems to arise from a sympathy of successive action, and not of synchronous action, of the membranes of the brain with those of the parotide glands. Sometimes a stupor comes on instead of this delirium, which is relieved by fomenting the shaved head for an hour or two. See Class II. 1. 3. 4.

title: Zoonomia/II.IV.I.II


text:
Schnell v. Chris-Craft Industries, Inc.

H. Albert Young and Edward B. Maxwell, 2nd, of Young, Conaway, Stargatt & Taylor, Wilmington, and Carl F. Goodman, New York, New York, and Jay L. Westbrook, of Surrey, Karasik & Greene, Washington, District of Columbia, for plaintiffs below, appellants.

David F. Anderson and Charles S. Crompton, Jr., of Potter, Anderson & Corroon, Wilmington, and Arthur L. Liman and Daniel P. Levitt, of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, New York, New York, and Washington, District of Columbia, for defendant below, appellee.

Wolcott, Chief Justice, and Carey and Herrmann, Associate Justices. Wolcott, Chief Justice (dissenting).

title: Schnell v. Chris-Craft Industries, Inc.


text:
Zoonomia/II.IV.I.III

ORDO I.

Increased Associate Motions.

GENUS III.

Catenated with Voluntary Motions

SPECIES.

1. Deglutitio invita. When any one is told not to swallow his saliva, and that especially if his throat be a little sore, he finds a necessity of immediately swallowing it; and this the more certainly, the more he voluntarily endeavours not to do so.

In this case the voluntary power exerted by our attention to the pharinx renders it more sensible to irritation, and therefore occasions it to be more frequently induced to swallow the saliva. Here the irritation induces a volition to swallow it, which is more powerful than the desire not to swallow it. See XXIV. 1. 7. So in reverie, when the voluntary power was exerted on any of the senses, as of sight or taste, the objects of those senses became perceived; but not otherwise. Sect. XIX. 6. This is a troublesome symptom in some sore throats.

M. M. Mucilage, as sugar and gum arabic. Warm water held in the mouth frequently, as a fomentation to the inflamed throat.

2. Nictitatio invita. Involuntary winking with the eye-lids, and twitchings of the face, are originally induced by an endeavour to relieve some disagreeable sensations about inflamed eyes, as the dazzling of light; and afterwards these motions become catenated with other motions or sensations, so as not to be governed by the will. Here the irritation first produces a volition to wink, which by habit becomes stronger than the anti-volition not to wink.

This subject is rendered difficult from the common acceptation of the word, volition, including previous deliberation, as well as the voluntary exertion, which succeeds it. In the volitions here spoken of there is no time for deliberation or choice of objects, but the voluntary act immediately succeeds the sensation which excites it.

M. M. Cover the affected parts with a sticking plaster or a blister. Pass a fine needle and thread through a part of the skin over the muscle, which moves, and attach the other end of the thread by a sticking plaster to a distant part. An issue behind the ear. To practise daily by a looking-glass to stop the motions with the hand. See the cure of a case of the leaping of a muscle of the arm, Sect. XVII. 1. 8. See Convulsio debilis, Class III. 1. 1. 5.

3. Risus invitus. Involuntary laughter. When the pleasure arising from new combinations of words and ideas, as in puns; or of other circumstances, which are so trivial, as to induce no voluntary exertion to compare or consider their present importance or their future consequence; the pleasure is liable to rise into pain; that is, the ideas or sensual motions become exerted too violently for want of some antithetistic ideas; in the same manner as those muscles, which have weak antagonists, as those of the calf of the leg, are liable to fall into cramp or painful contraction. In this situation a scream is begun to relieve this pain of ideas too violently exerted, which is stopped again soon, as explained in Sect. XXXIV. 1. 4. and Class III. 1. 1. 4. and IV. 2. 3. 3.

The pain, into which this pleasure rises, which would excite the scream of laughter, has been felt forcibly by every one; when they have been under such circumstances, as have induced them to restrain it by a counter-volition; till at length the increased associate motions produce so much pain as to overcome the counter-volition, and the patient bursts out into indecent laughter, contrary to his will in the common acceptation of that word.

4. Lusus digitorum invitus. An awkward playing with the fingers in speaking in public. These habits are began through bashfulness, and seem rather at first designed to engage the attention in part, and thus prevent the disagreeable ideas of mauvaise hont; as timorous boys whistle, when they are obliged to walk in the dark; and as it is sometimes necessary to employ raw soldiers in perpetual manœuvres, as they advance to the first charge.

5. Unguium morsiuncula invita. Biting the nails is a depraved habit arising from similar causes as those of the last article.

M. M. Dip the fingers in solution of aloes.

6. Vigilia invita. Watchfulness, where the person wishes, and endeavours to fall asleep, properly belongs to this place, as the wish or volition to sleep prevents the desired effect; because sleep consists in an abolition of volition. See Class III. 1. 2. 3.

title: Zoonomia/II.IV.I.III


text:
Schnell v. Chris-Craft Industries, Inc./Opinion of the Court

[p438] This is an appeal from the denial by the Court of Chancery of the petition of dissident stockholders for injunctive relief to prevent management from advancing the date of the annual stockholders' meeting from January 11, 1972, as previously set by the by-laws, to December 8, 1971.

The opinion below is reported at 285 A.2d 430. This opinion is confined to the frame of reference of the opinion below for the sake of brevity and because of the strictures of time imposed by the circumstances of the case.

It will be seen that the Chancery Court considered all of the reasons stated by management as business reasons for changing the date of the meeting; but that those reasons were rejected by the Court below in making the following findings:

"'I am satisfied, however, in a situation in which present management has disingenuously resisted the production of a list of its stockholders to plaintiffs or their confederates and has otherwise turned a deaf ear to plaintiffs' demands about a change in management designed to lift defendant from its present business [p439] doldrums, management has seized on a relatively new section of the Delaware Corporation Law for the purpose of cutting down on the amount of time which would otherwise have been available to plaintiffs and others for the waging of a proxy battle. Management thus enlarged the scope of its scheduled October 18 directors' meeting to include the by-law amendment in controversy after the stockholders committee had filed with the S.E.C. its intention to wage a proxy fight on October 16."

"'Thus plaintiffs reasonably contend that because of the tactics employed by management (which involve the hiring of two established proxy solicitors as well as a refusal to produce a list of its stockholders, coupled with its use of an amendment to the Delaware Corporation Law to limit the time for contest), they are given little chance, because of the exigencies of time, including that required to clear material at the S.E.C., to wage a successful proxy fight between now and December 8. * * *.'"

In our view, those conclusions amount to a finding that management has attempted to utilize the corporate machinery and the Delaware Law for the purpose of perpetuating itself in office; and, to that end, for the purpose of obstructing the legitimate efforts of dissident stockholders in the exercise of their rights to undertake a proxy contest against management. These are inequitable purposes, contrary to established principles of corporate democracy. The advancement by directors of the by-law date of a stockholders' meeting, for such purposes, may not be permitted to stand. Compare Condec Corporation v. Lunkenheimer Company, Del.Ch., 230 A.2d 769 (1967).

When the by-laws of a corporation designate the date of the annual meeting of stockholders, it is to be expected that those who intend to contest the reelection of incumbent management will gear their campaign to the by-law date. It is not to be expected that management will attempt to advance that date in order to obtain an inequitable advantage in the contest.

Management contends that it has complied strictly with the provisions of the new Delaware Corporation Law in changing the by-law date. The answer to that contention, of course, is that inequitable action does not become permissible simply because it is legally possible.

Management relies upon American Hardware Corp. v. Savage Arms Corp., 37 Del.Ch. 10, 135 A.2d 725, aff'd 37 Del.Ch. 59, 136 A.2d 690 (1957). That case is inapposite for two reasons: it involved an effort by stockholders, engaged in a proxy contest, to have the stockholders' meeting adjourned and the period for the proxy contest enlarged; and there was no finding there of inequitable action on the part of management. We agree with the rule of American Hardware that, in the absence of fraud or inequitable conduct, the date for a stockholders' meeting and notice thereof, duly established under the by-laws, will not be enlarged by judicial interference at the request of dissident stockholders solely because of the circumstance of a proxy contest. That, of course, is not the case before us.

We are unable to agree with the conclusion of the Chancery Court that the stockholders' application for injunctive relief here was tardy and came too late. The stockholders learned of the action of management unofficially on Wednesday, October 27, 1971; they filed this action on Monday, November 1, 1971. Until management changed the date of the meeting, the stockholders had no need of judicial assistance in that connection. There is no indication of any prior warning of management's intent to take such action; indeed, it appears that an attempt was made by management to conceal its action as long as possible. Moreover, stockholders may not be charged with the duty of anticipating inequitable action by management, and of seeking anticipatory injunctive relief to foreclose such action, simply because the [p440]  new Delaware Corporation Law makes such inequitable action legally possible.

Accordingly, the judgment below must be reversed and the cause remanded, with instructions to nullify the December 8 date as a meeting date for stockholders; to reinstate January 11, 1972 as the sole date of the next annual meeting of the stockholders of the corporation; and to take such other proceedings and action as may be consistent herewith regarding the stock record closing date and any other related matters.


text:
Schnell v. Chris-Craft Industries, Inc./Dissent Wolcott

WOLCOTT, Chief Justice (dissenting):

I do not agree with the majority of the Court in its disposition of this appeal. The plaintiff stockholders concerned in this litigation have, for a considerable period of time, sought to obtain control of the defendant corporation. These attempts took various forms.

In view of the length of time leading up to the immediate events which caused the filing of this action, I agree with the Vice Chancellor that the application for injunctive relief came too late.

I would affirm the judgment below on the basis of the Vice Chancellor's opinion.


text:
Category:1971 court decisions

zh:Category:1971年判例法

title: Category:1971 court decisions


text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Davidson, Robert


text:
Zoonomia/II.IV.I.IV

ORDO I.

Increased Associate Motions.

GENUS IV.

Catenated with External Influences.

SPECIES.

1. Vita ovi. Life of an egg. The eggs of fowls were shewn by Mr. J. Hunter to resist the freezing process in their living state more powerfully, than when they were killed by having the yolk and white shook together. Philos. Trans. It may be asked, does the heat during the incubation of eggs act as a stimulus exciting the living principle into activity? Or does it act simply as a causa sine quâ non, as an influence, which penetrating the mass, removes the particles of it to a greater distance from each other, so as to allow their movement over each other, in the same manner as heat is conceived to produce the fluidity of water; not by stimulus, but by its penetrating influence? Or may elementary heat in its uncombined state be supposed to act only as an influence necessary to life in its natural quantity; whence torpor and death follows the eduction of it from the body; but in its increased state above what is natural, or usual, that it acts as a stimulus; which we have a sense to perceive; and which excites many parts of the system into unnatural action? See Class IV. 1. 1. C.

2. Vita hiemi-dormientium. The torpor of insects, and birds, and quadrupeds, during the cold season, has been called sleep; but I suppose it must differ very much from that state of animal life, since not only all voluntary power is suspended, but sensation and vascular motion has ceased, and can only be restored by the influence of heat. There have been related instances of snails, which have recovered life and motion on being put into water after having experienced many years of torpidity, or apparent death, in the cabinets of the curious. Here the water as well as the heat are required not only as a stimulus, but as a causa sine quâ non of fluidity and motion, and consequent life.

3. Pullulatio arborum. The annual revivescence of the buds of trees seems not only to be owing to the influence of the returning warmth of the spring, but also to be catenated with solar gravitation; because seeds and roots and buds, which are analogous to the eggs of animals, put forth their shoots by a less quantity of heat in spring, than they had undergone in the latter part of autumn, which may however be ascribed to their previous torpid state, and consequent accumulation of sensorial power, or irritability; as explained in Botanic Garden, Part II. Cant. I. l. 322. note. Other circumstances, which countenance the idea, that vegetation is affected by solar gravitation, as well as by heat, may be observed in the ripening of the seeds of plants both in those countries where the summers are short, and in those where they are long. And by some flowers closing their bells at noon, or soon after; and hence seem to sleep rather at solar diurnal periods, than from the influence of cold, or the deficiency of light.

4. Orgasmatis venerei periodus. The venereal orgasm of birds and quadrupeds commences or returns about the vernal or autumnal equinoxes, and thence seems in respect to their great periods to be governed by solar influence. But if this orgasm be disappointed of its object, it is said to recur at about monthly periods, as observed in mares and bitches in this respect resembling the female catamenia. See Sect. XXXVI. 2. 3. and Sect. XVI. 13.

5. Brachii concussio electrica. The movement of the arm, even of a paralytic patient, when an electric shock is passed through it, is owing to the stimulus of the excess of electricity. When a piece of zinc and silver, each about the size of a crown-piece, are placed one under the upper lip, and the other on the tongue, so as the outer edges may be brought into contact, there is an appearance of light in the eyes, as often as the outer edges of these metals are brought into contact or separated; which is another instance of the stimulus of the passage of electric shocks through the fibres of the organs of sense, as well as through the muscular fibres. See Sect. XII. 1. 1. and first addit. note to Vol. I. of this work. But in its natural state electricity seems only to act as an influence on animal and vegetable bodies; of the salutary or injurious effects of which we have yet no precise knowledge.

Yet if regular journals were kept of the variations of atmospheric electricity, it is probable some discoveries of its influence on our system might in time be discovered. For this purpose a machine on the principle of Mr. Bennet's electric doubler might be applied to the pendulum of a clock, so as to manifest, and even to record the daily or hourly variations of aerial electricity. Which has already been executed, and applied to the pendulum of a Dutch wooden clock, by Mr. Bennet, curate of Wirksworth in Derbyshire.

Besides the variations of the degree or kind of atmospheric electricity, some animals, and some men, seem to possess a greater power of accumulating this fluid in themselves than others. Of which a famous history of a Russian prince was lately published; who, during the clear and severe frosts of that country, could not move himself in bed without luminous corruscations. Such may have been the case of those people, who have been related to have taken fire spontaneously, and to have been reduced to ashes. The electric concussion from the gymnotus electricus, and torpedo, are other instances of the power of the animal system to accumulate electricity, as in these it is used as a weapon of defence, or for the purpose of taking their prey.

Some have believed that the accumulation or passage of the magnetic fluid might affect the animal system, and have asserted that the application of a large magnet to an aching tooth has quickly effected a cure. If this experiment is again tried in odontalgia, or hemicrania, the painful membrane of the tooth or head should be included between the south and north poles of a horse-shoe magnet, or between the contrary poles of two different magnets, that the magnetism may be accumulated on the torpid part.

6. Oxygenatio sanguinis. The variation of the quantity of oxygen gas existing in the atmosphere must affect all breathing animals; in its excess this too must be esteemed a stimulus; but in its natural quantity would seem to act as an influence, or cause, without which, animal life cannot exist even a minute. It is hoped that Dr. Beddoes's plan for a pneumatic infirmary, for the purpose of putting this and various other airs to the test of experiment, will meet with public encouragement, and render consumption, asthma, cancer, and many diseases conquerable, which at present prey with unremitted devastation on all orders and ages of mankind.

7. Humectatio corporis. Water, and probably the vapour of water dissolved or diffused in the atmosphere, unites by mechanical attraction with the unorganized cuticle, and softens and enlarges it; as may be seen in the loose and wrinkled skin of the hands of washerwomen; the same probably occurs to the mucous membrane of the lungs in moist weather; and by thickening it increases the difficulty of respiration of some people, who are said to be asthmatical. So far water may be said to act as an influx or influence, but when it is taken up by the mouths of the absorbent system, it must excite those mouths into action, and then acts as a stimulus.

There appears from hence to be four methods by which animal bodies are penetrated by external things. 1. By their stimulus, which induces the absorbent vessels to imbibe them. 2. By mechanical attraction, as when water softens the cuticle. 3. By chemical attraction, as when oxygen passes through the membranes of the air-vessels of the lungs, and combines with the blood. And lastly, by influx without mechanical attraction, chemical combination, or animal absorption, as the universal fluids of heat, gravitation, electricity, magnetism, and perhaps of other ethereal fluids yet unknown.

title: Zoonomia/II.IV.I.IV


text: Talk:Schnell v. Chris-Craft Industries, Inc.


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 VII.

PRISONERS. Anglophobia—Ex-royal mistresses—Luttrell—Pitt's kinsmen— Pamphleteers—Kilmaine—Nunneries and Colleges. the beginning of the Revolution the English were regarded as freemen to be imitated, at the end as slaves to be liberated or as enemies to be subjugated. The stage eagerly adopted the latter view. In October 1793 a play by Sylvain Maréchal, Le Dernier Jugement des Rois, represented all the monarchs of Europe on a volcanic island, George III. being dragged in chains by an English sans-culotte. Charged with ruining his people and fomenting civil war in France, he pleads madness in excuse. This piece was ordered to be performed at all the Paris theatres on the anniversary of Louis XVI.'s execution. A little later, Lebrun Tossa brought out his Folie de George. In this play the recapture of Toulon has brought on a relapse of insanity, and the King, in dressing gown, bestrides the stage, whip in hand, imagining that he is hunting. Pitt is anxious to prevent his opening Parliament in this condition,


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142 but the Prince of Wales threatens to reveal everything to the public. The fit passes over, and George in royal robes goes to open Parliament, but the Prince, by his side, endeavours, by whispering to him of a plot, to cause a relapse. He succeeds but too well, and in his delirium George apostrophises the Whig leaders, flings his robes on the table, and in boxing attitude challenges Sheridan. Pitt with great difficulty leads him away. The debate then begins, and the Opposition are demanding a regency when a French landing is announced. Grey proposes to go and welcome the French; a republic is proclaimed, the heads of the Prince of Wales and Pitt are cut off and paraded through the streets. George, shut up in a carriage, is drawn to Bedlam by Burke, Grenville, and Chesterfield. Fox and Sheridan in red caps insult him, and the curtain falls on Fox's exclamation that if the King recovered his reason he would be the first to demand his death. Desnoireterres finds something Shakesperean in this sorry burlesque, the author of which afterwards fawned on Napoleon. The proceedings of the Convention were almost as grotesque. On the 1st February 1793 it issued an address to the English people, Paine being one of the framers, though a small minority objected to it as useless, as all England was for war. In the following


text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Davidson, Thomas