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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gutenberg, Johannes

GUTENBERG, goo'tĕn-bĕrg, Johannes or Henne, German inventor of printing with movable types: b. Mainz, about 1400; d. there, 23 Feb. 1468. Little or nothing is known of his early life. In 1434 he was living in Strassburg and in 1436 entered into a contract with one Andreas Dryzehn or Dritzehn and others, binding himself to teach them all his secret and wonderful arts, and to employ them for their common advantage. The death of Dryzehn, which happened about the end of 1438, broke off the undertaking of the company. About 1448 he returned to Mainz and soon formed a copartnership with Johann Fust or Faust, a rich goldsmith who furnished money to establish a press, in which the Latin Bible was first printed. This, the Mazarin Bible, begun about 1450 and finished about 1455, is the first book known to have been printed with movable types. After some years this connection was dissolved. Fust had made large advances, which Gutenberg was now called upon to repay; and as he either could not or would not do it, the subject was carried before the tribunals. The result was that Fust retained the press, which he improved, and continued to use in company with Peter Schöffer of Gernsheim. By the patronage of a counsellor of Mainz, Conrad Hummer, Gutenberg was again enabled to establish a press the following year, from which there issued the fine ‘Catholicon’ of 1460, and also the ‘Letters of Indulgence’ of 1454 and 1455. Gutenberg's name does not appear in any production of his press, nor do his friends and patrons mention him in connection with the invention of printing. Consult Van der Linde, ‘Gutenberg’ (1878), and ‘Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst’ (1886); Hessel, ‘Gutenberg: Was He the Inventor of Printing?’ (1882); ‘Haarlem the Birthplace of Printing not Mentz’ (1887); Gordon Duff, ‘Early Printed Books’ (1893).


text: A Book of the Cevennes/Frontpiece

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title: A Book of the Cevennes/Frontpiece


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 On Tuesday, 11 April 1447, Cardinal Beaufort died at Winchester. Henry, it is evident, received private news of the event on the same day, and immediately wrote to the monks recommending Waynflete for election to the bishopric (ib. p. 299). On Wednesday, 12 April, the official letter announcing the vacancy and praying license to proceed to election was despatched to the king. Letters patent were issued, dated Canterbury, 11 April, granting Waynflete custody of the temporalities of the see (Pat. Roll. 25 Henry VI, pt. 2, m. 30). On 14 April he made his first presentation. The congé d'élire under the privy seal is dated 15 April at Canterbury (, Fœdera, xi. 153). On Monday, 17 April, the prior and chapter made a formal return of the election. The papal bull nominating Waynflete bishop bears the early date of 10 May. On 3 June Waynflete took the oath of fealty to the king in person (, Fasti, iii. 15). On 4 June the temporalities were formally restored (Fœdera, xi. 172). On 16 June Waynflete made profession of canonical obedience at Lambeth. He was consecrated at Eton on 13 July; on 18 July he received the spiritualities. He held his first general ordination on Sunday, 23 Dec. following, at Eton, by special license of the bishop of Lincoln. On 19 Jan. 1448 he was enthroned at Winchester in presence of the king. Henry's choice was clearly a personal preference. As John Capgrave, the contemporary chronicler, dryly remarks, Waynflete ‘carus, ut putatur, domino regi habetur, non tam propter scientiam salutarem quam vitam cœlibem.’ Henry himself, in assigning to Waynflete a paramount place among the executors of his will (12 March 1448), expresses his attachment to him (, p. 318).

Little more than a year after his advancement Waynflete obtained letters patent, dated 6 May 1448, for the foundation of a hall dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen in the university of Oxford. Its charter was dated 20 Aug. 1448 (, Ant. pp. 307–8;, p. 330). Its object was the study of theology and philosophy.

The rebellion of Jack Cade [see ] at Whitsuntide 1450 first brought Waynflete into contact with the turbulent politics of the period. On the morning of Monday, 6 July, Cade having retreated into Southwark, an armistice was proclaimed. Waynflete, who ‘for some safeguard laie then at Haliwell’ (, Chron. iii. 226), the priory in Shoreditch (, Hist. of London, ed. 1772, ii. 1368), and not at his Southwark palace, received a summons to attend a council in the Tower. Thence Waynflete, with other lords ( Chron. p. 768), proceeded to treat with Cade in the church of St. Margaret, Southwark, within his own diocese. He received Cade's list of grievances, and promised both a general pardon under the great seal and a special one to Cade himself. The insurgents then dispersed from Southwark. But on 1 Aug. 1450 a special commission was issued into Kent to try those who, after the proclamation of pardon, had remained in arms at Deptford and Rochester. The commission included Waynflete's name (Pat. Rolls, 28 Henry VI, pt. ii. m. 17). Many executions followed.

Behind Cade's rebellion lay the sympathies of the Yorkists, and there are signs that Waynflete's intervention ultimately involved him in formidable odium. In September 1450 disturbances broke out at Winchester, the citizens refusing their customary dues at St. Giles' fair (Hist. MSS. Comm. App. to 6th Rep. p. 603). It is possible that the despatch of a quarter of one of Cade's adherents for exhibition in that city had provoked irritation (Proceedings of the Privy Council, vi. 108). The citizens of Winchester submitted, and were pardoned. But a more serious attack threatened. On 7 May 1451 Waynflete executed a remarkable document, appealing for protection to the pope and the archbishop of Canterbury. The recitals show that some attempt was on foot to deprive him of his see by a process in the spiritual courts (Registr. Waynflete, i. 2, f. 11;, pp. 66–7).

At this time Henry VI was relying much on Waynflete's counsels. They were together at Canterbury in August 1451. In September the bishop issued from St. Albans a commission for the visitation of his diocese, alleging ‘arduous and unexpected business concerning the king and the realm’ (, p. 69). Upon the approach to London of Richard, duke of York, with an army in March 1452, Henry despatched Waynflete to make terms.

In July 1453 Henry VI became totally paralysed. His son Edward, prince of Wales, was born on 13 Oct., and baptised by Waynflete on the following day (Engl. Chron., p. 193). On 23 March 1454 Waynflete, with a committee of lords, endeavoured to procure from the king an authorisation for the conduct of the government by Richard, duke of York, to whose inevitable ascendancy he seems to have resigned himself. He reported to the House of Lords that the imbecility of the king rendered the errand fruitless. During this interregnum he was constant in his attendances at the council,


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Guthe, Karl Eugen

GUTHE, goo'tĕ, Karl Eugen, American scientist: b. Hanover, Germany, 5 March 1866; d. 10 Sept. 1915. After studying at Strassburg, Berlin and Marburg, he emigrated to the United States in 1892. He instructed in physics at the University of Michigan and then removed to Iowa State College. In 1909 he became professor of physics at Michigan and dean of the graduate department in 1912. His publications include ‘Manual of Physical Measurements’ (1902); ‘Laboratory Exercises with Primary and Storage Cells’ (1903); ‘Textbook of Physics’ (1908); ‘College Physics’ (1911, with J. O. Reed), and ‘Definitions in Physics’ (1913).


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 perhaps to watch over the Lancastrian interests. On Christmas Day 1454 Henry recovered, and received Waynflete in audience on 7 Jan. 1455 (Paston Letters, i. 315). But the defeat of Henry VI at St. Albans on 22 May following restored the Yorkists to power. Waynflete now seems to have supported the moderate Lancastrians, who desired to retain the Duke of York in the king's service (, Proceedings, vi. 262). He still enjoyed the confidence of Henry, who on 12 July 1455 nominated him a life visitor of Eton and King's Colleges. On 11 Oct. 1456, in the priory of Coventry, Waynflete was appointed chancellor by the king (Fœdera, xi. 383). There is no foundation for Lord Campbell's story that he was nominated because his predecessor, Thomas Bourchier [q. v.], ‘refused to enter into the plots for the destruction of the Yorkists.’ As a matter of fact, the Duke of York, at this very time ‘in right good conceyt with the king’ (James Gresham to John Paston, 16 Oct. 1456), was present with his friends at the ceremony. Waynflete's salary as chancellor was 200l. a year, probably exclusive of fees.

Waynflete's next important public function was as assessor at the trial of Bishop Reginald Pecock [q. v.] for heresy, in November 1457. Whatever political animus may have been latent in this prosecution, Waynflete's denunciation of Pecock's doctrines in the reformed statutes of King's College, Cambridge, issued three years before, is evidence that his participation in the sentence against Pecock was on theological grounds.

On 18 July 1457 Waynflete obtained a license to found a college to the north-east of the original site of Magdalen Hall. The charter of foundation is dated 12 June 1458. On 14 June the society of Magdalen Hall ‘surrendered up their house with its appurtenances to the college,’ the building of which was forthwith begun.

In September 1458 civil war broke out afresh. The Lancastrians routed the Yorkist forces at Ludlow, and a contemporary letter describes Waynflete as incensed against the insurgent leaders (Paston Letters, i. 497). On 20 Nov. 1459 a packed parliament of Lancastrians was summoned to Coventry. Waynflete, as chancellor, opened it with an address upon the text ‘gracia vobis et pax multiplicetur’ (Rot. Parl. v. 345). It is evident that he now took an active part against the Yorkists. A bill of attainder against the Duke of York and his friends was passed. An oath of allegiance and confirmation of the succession to Edward, prince of Wales, was tendered singly to the lords by the chancellor (ib. p. 351), who had on 8 Jan. 1457 been appointed one of the prince's tutors (Fœdera, xi. 385).

On 3 Nov. 1459 Sir John Fastolf [q. v.] nominated Waynflete executor of his will, a trust which involved him in prolonged controversies (see Paston Letters). Fastolf had directed the foundation of a college at Caistor, which in 1474 Waynflete, with a dispensation from Sixtus IV, diverted to his own college of Magdalen (ib. ii. 402, iii. 119).

In common with the chief officers of the household Waynflete resigned office in Henry VI's tent on 7 July 1460, immediately prior to the defeat of Northampton. Like them, he took out a general pardon (Fœdera, xi. 458). Upon the accession of Edward IV, according to Leland, Waynflete ‘fled for fear of King Edward into secret corners, but at the last he was restorid to his goodes and the king's favor.’ He certainly is lost to sight for a year. That the Yorkists after Northampton again contemplated his punishment, and probably his deprivation, may be inferred from a remarkable letter on his behalf, dated 8 Nov. 1460, and written by Henry VI, then virtually a prisoner in London, to Pius II (, p. 347).

In August 1461, when Edward IV went on progress to Hampshire, the tenants of Est Men or East Meon and elsewhere, ‘in grete multitude and nombre,’ petitioned the king for relief from certain services, customs, and dues which the bishop and his agents were attempting to exact. According to the author of the ‘Brief Latin Chronicle’ (Camden Soc. 1880), the tenants had seized Waynflete, which suggests that they were preventing an anticipated escape by sea, East Meon being near the coast. Edward, however, not only rescued him from violence, but arrested the ringleaders, whose case was tried in the House of Lords on 14 Dec. 1461, when judgment was given for the bishop (Rot. Parl. v. 475).

Henceforth Waynflete appears to have acquiesced in the new order of things (Rot. Parl. v. 461, 496, 571). On 16 Nov. 1466 he received a pardon for all escapes of prisoners and fines due to the king (, p. 353). On 1 Feb. 1469 he received a full pardon (Fœdera, xi. 639), in which he was accepted as the king's ‘true and faithful subject.’ But on Edward's flight from London upon 29 Sept. 1470, Waynflete himself released Henry VI from the Tower (, Chron. p. 11). The return of Edward IV, and his victories of Barnet


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 and Tewkesbury, followed by the deaths of Henry VI and Edward, prince of Wales, left the Lancastrian cause hopeless. Waynflete was obliged to purchase another full pardon on 30 May 1471 (Fœdera, xi. 711), this time by a ‘loan’ of 1,333l. (, ii. 390). On 3 July 1471, with other peers, he took an oath of fealty to Edward IV's eldest son [Edward V] (Fœdera, xi. 714), and was henceforth constantly at court. Meanwhile he was completing his college, as well as that of Eton. He finished off the Eton college buildings, for the greater part at his own expense (, pp. 137, 153, 154). On 20 Sept. 1481 Waynflete visited Magdalen, and on the 22nd entertained Edward IV there. He took part in the funeral ceremonies of Edward IV on 19 April 1483 at Windsor (, Letters and Papers, i. 7). On 24 July 1483 he entertained Richard III at Magdalen (ib. p. 161). In 1484 he began the construction of a free school at his native place, endowing it with land which he had acquired in 1475. This school still flourishes under the title of Magdalen College School, Wainfleet.

The countenance of a prelate so respected as Waynflete cannot fail to have strengthened the position of Richard III. On 5 July 1485 the king borrowed of him 100l., doubtless a forced loan, to be spent in meeting the expected invasion of Henry VII.

In December 1485 Waynflete retired from his palace at Southwark to his manor of South Waltham, Hampshire. There on 26 April 1486 he executed his will. He had already completed his magnificent tomb and chantry in Winchester Cathedral, where he directed that he should be buried. He left bequests in money to the members of the various religious houses in Winchester and of the colleges of St. Mary Winton and New and Magdalen, Oxford. Almost all his estates in land he devised in trust for Magdalen College. On 2 Aug. 1486 he made further provision for Cardinal Beaufort's Hospital of St. Cross (, p. 225). He died, apparently of a complaint of the heart, on Friday, 11 Aug. 1486 (, Materials, ii. 67), having retained his senses to the last.

Waynflete was of the school of episcopal statesmen of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of whom Beaufort and Wolsey are the leading types. Like Wolsey, he was a favourer of learning, and is even said, though the statement is doubtful, to have provided for the study of Greek at Magdalen (, pp. 267–8). He set Wolsey an example in the suppression of religious houses for his college. As chancellor he left the reputation of an upright and prudent administrator of justice (, p. 74), ‘warilie wielding the weight of that office’ (, Chron. iii. 212). A eulogy of him by [q. v.], written in London in 1485, is printed by Chandler (p. 376) from Wharton's ‘Anglia Sacra’ (i. 326). The panegyrist speaks of his venerable white hair (‘veneranda canities’). This is the only contribution to a personal description which has come down to us. The picture which prefaces Chandler's ‘Life’ is taken either from a mask of the bishop's effigy in Winchester Cathedral or from the oil-painting at Magdalen College. If, as is probable, this is a portrait, Waynflete had large eyes and a refined countenance. Another representation of him appears as a support to the cushion under the head of the effigy of his father upon the tomb erected by the bishop in Wainfleet church, now removed to Magdalen College chapel. An effigy of Waynflete has also been placed on the outer western wall of Eton College Chapel.

The bishop's younger brother, John Waynflete, became dean of Chichester, and died in 1481 (, p. 240). Chandler adduces good reason for the conclusion that the statement first traceable to Guillim (Display of Heraldry, p. 408; cf., Chron. iii. 212; , De Præsulibus, p. 233), that there was a third brother, Richard Patten of Baslowe, Derbyshire, is a fiction. The arms originally born by Waynflete were ‘a field fusilly, ermine, and sable.’ After he became provost of Eton he inserted ‘on a chief of the second three lilies slipped argent,’ borrowed from the shield of Eton College. These arms have ever since been borne by Magdalen College. He added as his motto the verse of the Magnificat, ‘Fecit mihi magna qui potens est,’ still remaining incised over the door of the chapel of his college.

[Will. Worc. Annales, ed. Stevenson (Rolls Ser. 1858), vol. ii. pt. ii; Supplementary Letters and Papers of Henry VI, ib.; Croyland Continuator in Gale's Scriptores, i. 451–593; Leland's Itinerary, ed. Hearne (1744); Gascoigne's Liber Veritatum, Loci e Libro Veritatum, or passages selected from Gascoigne's Theological Dict. ed. Rogers (1881); Correspondence of Bishop Bekynton (Rolls Ser. 56), ed. Williams (1872), 2 vols.; Capgrave's Liber de Illustribus Henricis, ed. Hingeston (Rolls Ser. 1858); Pecock's Repressor of overmuch Blaming of the Clergy, ed. Babington, 2 vols. (Rolls Ser. 1860); Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, 3 vols. (1872–5); Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles, ed. Gairdner (Camd. Soc. 1880); Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta (1826), vol. i. and Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council (1834); Gregory's Chronicle (Camd. Soc.


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 Free Society of Artists. Soon after, he proposed to publish a continuation of Campbell's 'Vitruvius Britannicus,' and associating himself with Mr. Woolfe, of the Board of Works, he undertook the greater part of the labour, engraving many of the plates himself. He contributed to the Spring Gardens Exhibitions in 1765 and the succeeding years. On the foundation of the Royal Academy he entered as a student, and was a successful competitor for the first gold medal awarded in architecture (1769), and from 1774 to 1780 was a contributor to the Academy Exhibitions. He sent in designs in 1769 for the Dublin Royal Exchange, and gained the second premium; and in 1776 the first premium for a lunatic asylum in London, but to his great disappointment he was not employed in its erection. He continued to labour in his profession in London up to 1781, when he went to Dublin on an invitation to erect the new Custom House and docks, relinquishing an offer of Court employment in Russia; and under many difficulties and vexatious interruptions, he at once commenced his extensive undertaking, which occupied him during 10 years. At the same time he was engaged upon a new gaol and court-house at Waterford, and upon the erection of the east portico and ornamental circular screen to the Parliament House. In 1788 he commenced the Dublin law courts, still harassed by an opposition, which was carried into the Irish Parliament. Continuing to reside in Dublin, he commenced his last great work in that city, laying the first stone of the King's Inns, 1795.

In 1797 he came to London, warned by the treasonable dangers which were then impending, and did not return till 1799 to complete his Inns of Court. He did not find less difficulties than before, and about 1806, Lord Chancellor Redesdale expressing dissatisfaction at the progress of these works, he wrote a justificatory letter of explanation, and resigning his employments he retired, in 1808, after an arduous career of nearly 60 years, to Lucan, near Dublin, where he had purchased some property, and passed the remainder of his days. He was a martyr to gout, and died December 24, 1823. He was buried in Drumcondra Churchyard, it is said, in the same grave with his friend Grose, the antiquary. His great public buildings and the street improvements which he carried out in Dublin with great skill and ability, will always perpetuate his name in that city. He etched several plates, after landscapes by Wilson, R.A., and wrote an 'Essay on the Progress of Architecture in Ireland' and 'Hints for erecting Testimonials.' His 'Life,' by his son, was edited by T. J. Mulvany, R.H.A., 1846. GANDY,, portrait painter. Bora at Exeter in 1619. He received some instruction from Vandyck, made many copies from his works, and imitated his manner. His portraits possessed much merit. He was retained in the service of the Duke of Ormond, whom he accompanied to Ireland, where many of his portraits are much prized. Sir Joshua Reynolds owned that, at the commencement of his career, Gandy's works made a great impression on him. He died in Ireland in 1689. His chief works will be found in that country; a few in the West of England.  GANDY, William, portrait painter. Son of the foregoing. Said to have been instructed by 'Magdalen Smith,' He settled in Exeter about 1700, and travelled in Devonshire and Cornwall, painting portraits. Some good portraits by him exist in these counties, but there are many more which are very loosely finished. He rarely indeed finished more than the head and the hands. His best works possessed great force and power, and have been deemed like Reynolds's. He was of a proud, intractable disposition, careless of his reputation, in his latter days only painting when pressed by necessity. He was at Plymouth in 1714. He affected to be too deep in the confidence of the Duke of Ormond, who was implicated in the rebellion of 1715, to render it safe to venture up to London. He is supposed to have died at Exeter, but the date is unknown.  GANDY, M., A.R.A., architect. Born in 1771. Was a student of the Royal Academy and a pupil of James Wyatt. He gained the Academy gold medal in 1790 for his design for a triumphal arch. He went to Rome in 1794, and the following year received the Pope's medal in the first class for architecture. He was a frequent exhibitor at the Academy, and was much employed by Sir John Soane; a man of great imagination and genius, and an excellent draftsman, he was elected an associate of the Academy in 1803. He made the drawings for Britton's architectural publications, and some others, and built the Assembly Rooms at Liverpool and some mansions. He published 'Designs for Cottages, Fanns, and other rural Buildings,' 1805; 'The Rural Architect,' 1806; and was connected with Sir William Gell in his 'Pompeiana,' published 1817. He was brother to Gandy Deering. Odd and impracticable in disposition, his life was one of disappointment and poverty, and is said to have ended in insanity. He died in December 1843. GANDY, Michael, architect. Was born in 1778, and was the younger brother, and for some time the pupil, of Joseph M. Gandy. Afterwards he was employed in James Wyatt's office, which he' left to enter 166
 * 1) Gandy, Michael##


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 48  woman who toasts the cakes, which is done on a girdle suspended over the fire, is called the queen or bride, and the rest are called her maidens. These are distinguished from one another by names given them for the occasion. She who sits next the fire towards the east is called the Todler; her companion on the left hand is called the Hodler, and the rest have arbitrary names given them by the bride—as Mrs. Baker, best and worst maids, etc. The operation is begun by the Todler, who takes a ball of the dough, forms it into a small cake, and then casts it on the bake-board of the Hodler, who beats it out a little thinner. This being done, she in her turn throws it on the board of her neighbour, and thus it goes round from east to west in the direction of the course of the sun, until it comes to the toaster, by which time it is as thin and smooth as a sheet of paper. The first cake that is cast on the girdle is usually named as a gift to some well-known cuckold, from a superstitious opinion that thereby the rest will be preserved from mischance. Sometimes the cake is so thin as to be carried by the current of air up into the chimney. As the baking is wholly performed by the hand a great deal of noise is the consequence. The beats, however, are not irregular, nor destitute of an agreeable harmony, especially when they are accompanied with vocal music, which is frequently the case. Great dexterity is necessary, not only to beat out the cakes with no other instrument than the hand, so that no part of them shall be thicker than another, but especially to cast them from one board on another without ruffling or breaking them. The toasting requires considerable skill, for which reason the most experienced person in the company is chosen for that part of the work. One cake is sent round in quick succession to another, so that none of the company is suffered to be idle. The whole is a scene of activity, mirth, and diversion, and might afford an excellent subject for a picture. As there is no account, even by tradition itself, concerning the origin of this custom, it must be very ancient. The bread thus baked was, doubtless, never intended for common use. It is not easy to conceive why mankind, especially in a rude age, would strictly observe so many ceremonies, and be at so great pains in making a cake which, when folded together, makes but a scanty mouthful. Besides, it is always given away in presents to strangers who frequent the Fair. The custom seems to have been


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 Rh a personal matter of my own, but a matter that the Society has now put its hand to.

Of course there are difficulties; but in a subject of this kind who can imagine that there would not be—indeed, who would wish there should not be—for if all were clear sailing where would be the merit of our own research and work? But I am yet to understand that our difficulties are any greater than our fellow-workers' in other studies. Anthropology has chosen to look askance—I will not say jealously—at us, and the Society organised for its advancement has during the last year, as you have heard from the Annual Report, neglected an opportunity which may never occur again for distinctly advancing the cause of scientific research by amalgamating its forces with our own in the grand cause of the science of man. Well, I do not think anthropologists are at all aware of cases where important stages in their published researches are laid open to serious comment because of the neglect shown to the minuter results of folk-lore research, and it may be well to point out an example or two of this.

Let me first, then, draw attention to one of the fundamental stages of social evolution—the tribal organisation. The tribe has a relationship, first, to a body of people living in close contiguity, and sometimes in actual economical and religious contact with it; and, secondly, to the social organisation of the village community. Both these relationships are vital to the proper determination of the evolution of the tribe itself, and yet nowhere have anthropologists fully discussed them, but, on the contrary, have assumed certain ill-ascertained conditions and have then argued therefrom.

What relationship does the tribe really bear to the non-tribal people which so frequently surround it?

"When one passes", says Sir Alfred Lyall, "from those parts of India which have long been under great centralising governments down into the midland countries which have never been fairly conquered by Moghals,


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Gutzkow, Karl

GUTZKOW, gūts'kō, Karl, German dramatist and novelist: b. Berlin, 17 March 1811: d. Sachsenhausen, near Frankfort, 16 Dec. 1878. He is best known in German literature by reason of his connection with the group of writers known as “Jung-Deutschland.” He was born of an extremely poor family, not proletarian, but of the lowest and most menial branch of state employees. His father had become pietistic and puritanical in his outlook and demands, and Gutzkow's later agnosticism is probably a reaction against the excessive religiosity of his early surroundings. In 1829 he matriculated at the University of Berlin, under the faculty of philosophy. News of the 1830 July Revolution at Paris moved him deeply. The general atmosphere of radicalism pervading Europe at that time, and perhaps more specifically, a reading of the ‘Life of Jesus,’ by D. F. Strauss (q.v.), influenced Gutzkow in the composition of his first novel, 'Wally die Zweiflerin' (1835), which exalts the agnosticism and emancipated views of the heroine, Wally. There are incorporated in this book many ideas that Gutzkow had recently absorbed from French writers, notably Saint-Simon (q.v.), particularly the latter's theory of the emancipation of the flesh. For a decade (1839-49), Gutzkow turned his attention to the German drama, which had declined rather sadly, in the hands of commercial exploiters and romantic book-drama traditions, to a very subordinate position; while only one of his dramatic works a permanent value (the tragedy ‘Uriel Acosta’). Gutzkow really made the German drama once more a dignified and living institution, dealing with subjects of interest to the people and treating them with dramaturgic skill. 'Uriel Acosta' (1846) is still one of the most popular German plays. Gutzkow had treated the same theme in a short story, ‘Der Sadducäer von Amsterdam’ (1833). The hero, a young Portuguese Jew living in Holland, is excommunicated by the synagogue for having written a book of heresy. His love of the truth prevents him, in spite of his strong affection for his friends and brethren, from recanting, and he commits suicide. Unlike ‘Uriel Acosta,’ the other good plays of Gutzkow are all in prose.

In turning his attention to the novel, Gutzkow was actuated by the desire to produce works that were modern not only in theme but also in treatment, and characterized by an acceptance of the latest achievements in philosophy and social psychology. He sets up the following three principles as a guide for the novelist: (1) No longer is the novel to give a merely consecutive presentation of the events in the life of an individual hero; there is to be a simultaneous development of numerous persons, groups and classes, so that the total impression will be that of an organic society, and not merely an exaggerated notion of the importance of certain individuals; (2) “Heroes” in the old sense of the word are to be discarded; simple and sublime motives do not

move tbemi they must have complexity and doubt and uncertain interrelations with other persons; (3) the writer must subordinate all the persons and events of his work to a dominant idea that must govern the whole (“ideal unity”), and must correlate all the persons and motives with this idea, thus producing a unified and coherent story (“real unity”). In the pursuit of these principles, Gutzkow turned out two enormous novels, ‘Die Ritter vom Geiste’ (1850-51, abridged ed., 1869), and ‘Der Zauberer vom Rom’ (1858-61, abridged ed., 1872). The former is a study of a revolutionary movement, a sort of ideal organization, which is to assist its members, with the aid of a free press and of a guarantee of work, in the rebirth of Germany after the revolution. The latter is an attack on the growing power of the Catholic Church. Both are confusing in the immensity of their details, and uninviting to the reader, as novels in nine volumes are not to the taste of the present day.

Gutzkow was essentially a journalist, a disseminator of the opinions of others, and the lot of the journalist, with its distracting lack of concentration and unity of purpose, was his to a fatal degree. He fell into a condition of persecutory mania (1861-78), in the course of which he made fruitless attempts to settle down in various parts of Germany, finally committing suicide at Sachsenhausen. His other works are the dramas, ‘Richard Savage’ (1839); ‘Wullenweber’ (1848); ‘Zopf und Schwert’ (1844); ‘Das Urbild des Tartuffe’ (1844); ‘Der Königsleutnant’ (1849); the critical writings ‘Briefe eines Narren an eine Narrin’ (1832); ‘Zur Philosophie der Geschichte’ (1835); ‘Ueber Goethe im Wendepunkte zweier Jahrhunderte’ (1855); ‘Die Zeitgenossen, ihre Schicksale, ihre Tendenzen, ihre grossen Charaktere’ (1836-37).


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150 swore freely and copiously, but drove into the next village, S. Marcel, where he halted in front of a public-house, and no words of mine could induce him to proceed till he knew what had become of the trailer. After a while up came the cart and the boat. One of the men had a cousin at S. Just, and he had cajoled him into lending his horse to draw the cart so as to catch us up. Our coachman, with a volley of expletives not worth recording, bade them hitch on again. And he drove forward. I, sitting back in the carriage, heard a dialogue proceed behind.

"But, Jean, my cousin lent me his horse."

"That is certain."

"But I cannot let him return to S. Just without refreshment. I must assuredly give him a glass of something to warm him."

"That is reasonable."

"Then let us unhitch."

So again the trailer was unfastened, and the cart, boat, and men in the boat fell away into the darkness behind.

After a while the coachman rose from his seat, and looking back saw that the trailer was no longer in its place. He exploded east, he exploded west, also to north and south; and would have halted again, but that I interfered and insisted that he should proceed. After some demur he did so. We reached Vallon at midnight. The night was pitch dark and cold; the month was March. When we would have reached the town had we been encumbered with the trailer, goodness only knows. We left Vallon next day at 11 a.m., and the two boatmen had not arrived by that time, nor do I know when they did arrive, and what is more, I do not care.


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 52 Marathas, or Englishmen, the transition is probably very much the same as the change would have been from a well-ordered province of Imperial Rome into lands still under the occupation and dominion of powerful barbarian tribes." Noting that we have here a very near description of the condition of what we might call "outer Britain" in its relation to Rome, it will be well to pursue Sir Alfred Lyall's observations on this state of things. "The tribal period", he says, "has here survived, and has preserved some of its very earliest social characteristics .... for a parallel in the history of Western Europe [the observer] must go back as far as the Merovingian period, when chiefs of barbaric tribes or lands were converting themselves into kings or counts, or perhaps he should carry his retrospect much further, and conceive himself to be looking at some country of Asia Minor, lying within the influence of Rome at its zenith, but just outside its jurisdiction. He gradually discerns the population of Central India to be distributed into various and manifold denominations of tribes, clans, septs, castes and out-castes, religious orders, and devotional brotherhoods. And the peculiarity is that these distinctions are still maintained as the first and most important facts which unite and isolate the people. We have here a good opportunity of investigating what is obviously the survival of a very rudimentary stage of society, which has existed more or less throughout the world, and which may possibly be turned to account for illustrations of the obscurest and most remote parts of the history of nations." Taking, as an example, the petty Rajput chiefs who live down in the Far Western States, Sir Alfred Lyall proceeds to point out his descent from an eponymous ancestor, as if he were a Dorian Herakleid, and then adds to his native picture from tribal India the following significant parallel: "Here, in the head of the main stock of a pure-blooded clan, we have the primaeval aristocratic family, representing, perhaps, the earliest ancestors of long-haired Merovingian kings;


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Rh This I relate as a caution to future visitors to the cañon of the Ardèche. If they intend to return by carriage to Vallon, let them remember that they will have to drag back with them the boat en queue.

At S. Marcel is a notable cavern that may be visited from the village or from the river, near the bank of which is a lodge for the man who undertakes to act as guide through its halls and galleries, and illumine them with Bengal lights. The grotto was discovered in 1838 by a man in pursuit of a rabbit. The cavern extends for several kilometres underground, and is rich in stalactites and stalagmites. The main gallery was the channel of an ancient river formed by the drainage of the fissured causse of Bidon and S. Remèze. This corridor, which is without incrustations, leads to le Balcon, a vertical wall thirty feet high, over which the ancient river fell in cascade. This is surmounted by an iron ladder. The second portion of the cavern consists of another long gallery conducting to the Forêt-Noire, a stone cascade of sixty feet, up which one mounts by a second iron ladder, to attain to the third portion of the cave, the Cathedral, where is the finest group of stalagmites in the whole grotto. Two more ladders lead to the Catacombs, a chaos of blocks fallen from the roof, and remarkable for its "bassins de dentelles," or "gours"—that is to say, a series of basins as holy-water stoups, formed by incrustations. I will let M. Martel describe them:—

"Here begins one of the most curious and admirable stalagmitic formations to be found in these caverns. Imagine if you can a series of irregular basins set in the wall and superposed in retreat one above the other, forming steps—they are of various widths and depths, from a few décimètres


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152 to several metrès—their walls so transparent that they allow the light of the candles put in them to shine through. Their lips are capriciously twisted like writhing serpents, and they are lined with minute needles and tiny prisms of carbonate of lime, as delicate in their details as the antennae of polypi, all either white, yellow, or rose colour, forming all together a vast pyramid of water-basins in onyx set with diamonds."

Further ladders and galleries are traversed, and more splendid masses of stalactite and stalagmite are seen.

Formerly there were collections of these in the outer galleries, but they were wantonly destroyed by the peasants and by visitors.

This cavern was anciently occupied by man not only in the prehistoric age, but later, for Gaulish black pottery has been found in it. I may add that on the Causse Grand Champ and on the Champ Vermeil are dolmens.

An aven of a really appalling character is that of Vigne Close, near the hamlet of Fontlongue. It was explored by M. Martel in 1892, and descends 575 feet into the bowels of the causse, or grasse, as the limestone plateau is here called.

A well had to be descended 165 feet deep. Then came a redan, a slope, and this had to be gone down and a second ladder of ropes attached. The second well was 135 feet. Then a second inclined plain or redan, and a third well 60 feet; after that a succession of slides and drops in stages for another 60 feet. Then a well of 150 feet. It demands no little daring to descend into such an abyss entirely shut off from the light of day, and where a few falling stones caused by the vibration of the ladder might prove fatal.


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146 cottages and gleaming limestone rocks, they as well as the fruit trees are reflected with intensity in the glassy surface.

The Rock of the Five Windows seems to block the way. Below Chames the river bends around a peninsula which is called the Pas du Mousse, so called in satire, for no moss grows there or can grow; it is all rubble brought down and deposited there by the river. A rock shooting up some eighty or ninety feet to a sharp point and pierced at bottom is called the Needle, and the cave is its eye. A little further down is the Grotto of Oustalas in the face of a cliff above a narrow meadow, with trees and a farmhouse and sheds. In order to reach the entry, that is like a giant's mouth yawning, steps have been cut in the rock; so also within to reach portions of the cave that have been employed as chambers. There are remains of a wall that formerly closed the mouth, and this cave was undoubtedly inhabited at some time, but when cannot be said. One can see the notches in the wall for beams of a roof, and recesses employed as cupboards.

As we continue our descent, the heights of the sheer walls full of holes are as slices of Gruyère cheese, streaked here black, there flaming red, then of a ghastly white, now forming into needles, then with their crests riddled as though the walls of a ruined castle pierced with windows. Evergreen oaks, the spiky-leafed kermes, bursts of flame from yellow broom, flashes of pink when the Judas tree is in bloom; not a house, not a field—all silent, the only sound the roar of the water over a rapid. The canoe dances, bounds, shoots; by a skilful turn of the oar avoids a fang of rock, escapes a huge boulder, darts into still water, where the boatman bails


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 Rh originally derived from paganism, and to contain not a few of the sacred rites peculiar to that impure religion—as the leavened dough, and the mixing it with sugar and spices, the consecrated ground, etc., etc. But the particular deity for whose honour these cakes were at first made is not, perhaps, easy to determine."

Apart from the very significant details of this Scottish practice, which I cannot now discuss, here is a parallel in custom which we all recognise as among those things worth studying. But is it more worth studying than its converse? Is it more remarkable that the barbarous unculture of the Kourds should have produced the self-same practice as the peasant unculture of the British, than that the peasant unculture should have produced two entirely different customs or beliefs about the same central subject? And yet this is what has happened. Take, for example, the cult of the dead. Among the superstitions of our own country there are two distinct groups, one pointing to a reverence and love of the dead, the other to a detestation and fear of the dead. Both are survivals, but the question is, Are they survivals of the same original?

In both these classes of comparative folk-lore—that which takes us to close parallels in widely separated areas, and that which takes us to divergencies in the same or closely contiguous' areas—we fully recognise that we are in the presence of uncivilisation. In the Western world, at all events, this carries with it one other conclusion, namely, that the uncivilisation belongs not to the products of our own age, but to those of an age which we must be content to call prehistoric—prehistoric, that is, because nothing in history accounts for one tithe of the customs and beliefs of the people. And the question remains to be solved. What is the age thus indicated as prehistoric? Who are the people or peoples whom we can satisfactorily say were prehistoric, but to whom at present we dare not give a name? If we call them Aryans, we are told there were no such people, that Aryan is a language-term only, and


text: Author:Jacob Wittmer Hartmann

title: Author:Jacob Wittmer Hartmann


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Rh out that which has poured over the gunwale, for it is over your ankles. Then, again, the growl of another rapid, more swinging down between rocks in races of water green as grass, then gliding over shallow portions where we can see the stones and gravel at the bottom and the fish darting; then over a depression, the water bottle-green, too deep for the sunlight to penetrate, close under an overhanging cliff.

A long green tongue of land shoots out with ruins on the summit, La Madeleine, a leper-hospital, where these unfortunates were nursed and kept in seclusion under the Templars. Again, huge fawn-coloured precipices, caves out of which the drip of water has hung stalactitic deposits like dropping veils, one in which it has built up a huge finger; and then, right before one, a Gothic cathedral with spires—Le Tour des Aiguilles. We are carried round, and the forms have completely changed.

Then after five hours or more the walls begin to sink, a stream breaks in through a doorway on the left, and we issue through a portal. The river runs more smoothly, and on the summit of the rock, creeping down its side, studded with ruins, is the imposing dead town of Aiguèze, long a subject of dispute between the counts of Toulouse and the bishops of Viviers. There were houses near the river bank, but all are now in ruins, destroyed by the great floods of 1890 and 1895. On the left bank is the little village of S. Martin, where we disembark, and think we have seen a succession of marvels the like of which are not to be seen elsewhere save—with a difference—on the Tarn. But just here, to spoil the last tableau, a company has erected huge and hideous factories for silk-weaving on the top of the


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148 rock opposite S. Martin, to disfigure the last spur of crag on the Ardéche. Failure has attended the attempt, and the factories are abandoned. Even if they fall into ruins, their ruins cannot possibly become picturesque.

Below is a light and graceful suspension bridge flung across the river to take the place of a stone bridge, swept away by the great flood of 1895, that rose halfway up the church of S. Martin and filled most of the houses.

And now, to conclude this chapter, I must give my personal experiences, which I am usually unwilling to obtrude, but which I give as they may be valuable to others who descend the cañon.

There are humours in travelling; some make you laugh out at once, others only after the experience is past. To this latter belong mine on the day I descended the Ardèche.

The beginning of the trouble was this. I had arranged that the hotel keeper at Vallon should furnish me and my wife and the boatmen with a sound lunch, to be taken on our way down, and when we arrived at the place where the boat was to attend to us we found that neither the garçon of the inn who guided us had brought the food, nor had the boatmen fetched it from the hotel. Time was precious, the distance was considerable, and we could not wait to send back for it. Any one who knows what a French café au lait means will understand how internally unprovided we were for many hours without food. We started, and for five hours were descending the rapids. When we reached S. Martin there was no carriage, but after an hour we obtained at five o'clock an excellent déjeuné, having eaten nothing since 8 a.m.; but we had hardly felt


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Herwegh, Georg

HERWEGH, her'vek Georg, German political and lyrical poet: b. Stuttgart, 31 May 1817; d. Lichtenthal bei Baden-Baden, 7 April 1875. He studied theology at Tübingen, became editor of A. Lewald's periodical Europa at

Stuttgart; became embroiled with a military officer at Stuttgart and was obliged to flee to Switzerland, and settled there at Emmishofen in the canton of Thurgau. He there edited jointly with Wirth a periodical called Die Volkshalle and published a volume of political lyrics, ‘Gedichte eines Lebendigen’ (‘Poems of a Living Man’); the title is in imitation of Prince Pückler's ‘Briefe eines Verstorbenen’ (‘Letters of One Deceased’) in 1841 (at Zürich; l0th ed., Stuttgart 1877). These poems showed considerable revolutionary spirit, yet on his journeys in Prussia (1842), he was favorably received, even by King Frederick William IV, who is said to have remarked “I respect opponents who have principles” and summoned him to an audience. From the city of Königsberg he addressed a strongly provocatory letter to the king, resulting in his banishment from Prussia; Zürich also, to which he wished to return, would not receive him. But the king of Württemberg pardoned him for desertion from military service. In the canton of Basle, of which he now became a citizen, he married Emma Siegmund, daughter of a Jewish merchant at Berlin. At Paris, where he lived for a number of years, he wrote the poems in the second volume of ‘Gedichte eines Lebendigen’ (Zürich 1844) and translated Lamartine's works into German (Stuttgart, 12 vols., 1843-44). He engaged in active revolutionary propaganda at Paris, and in April 1848 invaded Baden at the head of a Franco-German Workers' Legion, accompanied by his wife and A. von Bornstedt. His force was defeated at Dossenbach 27 April by the Württemberg troops, and he fled to Switzerland, aided by his courageous wife. He produced little in the remaining years of his life, except translations of several Shakesperean plays. His works were issued in a complete edition in German with biography and introduction by Hermann Tardel (3 vols., Berlin 1909); ‘Neue Gedichte’ (posthumous poems, Zürich 1877); Lassalle's, ‘Briefe an Herwegh’ (Zürich 1896). Consult Walzel, O., ‘Vom Geistesleben des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts’ (Leipzig 1911).


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Rh hunger, so gorgeous had been the scenery through which we had passed. At 6 p.m. the carriage from Vallon arrived, and the horses had to be baited for two hours. At 7 p.m. we started. Now the high road to Vallon makes a long detour; it passes by S. Just and S. Marcel, and crawls slowly up to the causse. The horses were put in at 7 p.m., and we departed. As it happened, I had tipped the boatmen at S. Martin, thinking I had seen the last of them, and they were flush of money. They had thirty francs, plus the tips to both of them, and during three hours they had been imbibing absinthe, cognac, and wine.

We had not proceeded far before I heard voices behind the carriage in lively conversation, not to say in altercation, and standing up and looking back I saw that we were dragging behind the carriage a cart laden with the canoe and the two men in the boat.

I stopped the carriage and inquired the meaning of this, and the driver informed me that he had drawn the cart behind him from Vallon to S. Martin for the express purpose of bringing back the boat and the men, as it was not possible for the canoe to make its way up the rapid on the return journey. Twenty miles uphill with a trailer behind and dark night setting in was a serious prospect, especially after the horses had already done all the miles from Vallon to S. Martin. When we reached S. Just, but a few miles out of S. Martin, the bright light from a tavern and the voices of happy men within were too much for the two men in a boat behind; they unhitched the cart and dropped into the cabaret to recruit. As we drove on our coachman found that the horses went freer. He looked behind and saw that the cart and boat were not attached. He


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 50 indicates that one language has conquered other languages, and that the people who differentiated this all-powerful speech perhaps lived somewhere in Asia, but most probably in northern Europe, and, at all events, do not live now. If we say they were non-Aryans, then we are intruding into realms that belong to the people who measure skulls, and who believe that skulls when measured will tell us everything. If we say simply that they differ in the original race ancestry from the modern population, we are told that folk-lore cannot settle such important problems, but that it must confine itself to the eternal work of comparison, and never step aside to sum up results.

Now all this is very unsatisfactory, and it leads me to a very important subject, upon which I consider that our Society, as the prime mover in the most important step which has been taken for years with reference to the prehistoric races of this country, is much to be congratulated. It was at our instance that the Society of Antiquaries and the Anthropological Institute were invited to co-operate with us in bringing about an ethnological survey of Britain. It was at a meeting held in our rooms, under my presidency, that the good work was begun. It was a member of our Council, Mr. E. W. Brabrook, who brought the matter before the British Association, gained the adherence of that body, and afterwards acted, first as Secretary, and now as Chairman, of the Committee which has the conduct of the work. All this indicates the activity and the practical usefulness attained by our science under the guidance of the Society in the past few years, during which we have lifted the veil a little and seen, amidst much confusion of ideas, much unclassified material, many blank spaces in the accumulation, howsoever large they may be—seen that all this chaos has a bearing, and an important one, upon our own race history, if we will but tackle the investigation. If, therefore, I proceed to ask a few questions, and to put together a few thoughts on the relation of folk-lore to anthropology, I hope it will not be considered too much of


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 Rh or even the remote forefathers of Highland chiefs now become Scottish dukes, of ancient Armorican nobles in Brittany, and Spanish grandees with Gothic blood in their veins; the founders of that peculiar institution, the noblesse of blood, inheriting rank and formal privileges by a title as good as their sovereign's hereditary right to reign." But the parallel does not end here, as we shall presently see. This aristocracy is of too pure a kinship to be otherwise than at the top of the social system, and we can make out roughly from the other tribal phenomena of India "a graduated social scale starting from the simple aboriginal horde at the bottom and culminating with the pure Aryan clan at the top; nor would it be difficult to show that all these classes are really connected, and have something of a common origin."

I have been careful to dwell upon these conclusions of Sir Alfred Lyall because, more nearly than anything else, they represent what I think can be shown to be much the state of things which must have gone on in early Britain. Sir Alfred Lyall sees in India: (1) The aboriginal horde; (2) The broken clans receiving all the outcasts or useless spirits from the progressing tribes; (3) The pure clans, relieved of all who did not work-in with the theory of blood-kinship. In Britain, the conflicts of race have brought about results not yet clearly seen by the historian; but with this parallel before us, it may be possible to pick out of surviving archaic custom such items as will compose a very clearly-defined mosaic which might nearly represent the picture of British history. Again, in Southern India there exist some castes, the peculiar characteristics of which illustrate strongly the tendency of race-distinctions to create new forms of social phenomena. One of these castes occupies a small fort enclosed by a wall about 150 yards square and ten feet high, containing the houses of about thirty families, who have absolutely no contact with the families of the tribe outside the fort. They live in


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 54 seclusion and proud isolation, and have thereby generated a code of social law quite different from their surrounding neighbours. It is difficult, says Mr. Boyle, in describing these singular castes, to form any other theory of the foundation of such a colony than that the proud patriarch of an illustrious family, which from high position and influence had fallen on evil days and had been exiled from its ancestral home, must have established himself and his kinsmen in a new settlement and shut them in by these restrictions and these ramparts from contact with the outer world.

The distinction which the tribal organisation seems to give to different race-elements in a population living together in one country, is indicated by these facts very clearly.

I have, however, made these quotations and references for another purpose than that of suggesting the analogy between the facts of the Aryan tribal settlement in India and the Aryan tribal settlements in Britain. Institutions, as I have before pointed out, are so intimately connected with beliefs and ritual that the true interpretation of the latter very often depends upon the true understanding of the former. Indeed, it may be put somewhat stronger than this, if we accept the testimony of Lumholtz, a very careful inquirer, who lived among the Australian aborigines. He says the superstitious fear of witchcraft causes and maintains hatred between the tribes, and is the chief reason why the Australian blacks continue to live in small communities, and are unable to rise to a higher plane of social development.

If we note the results of tribal society in India, pointed out by Sir Alfred Lyall, we are struck by the fact that little, if any, attention has been drawn to the broken clans or outcasts in reference to the evolution of human society and religious beliefs. I myself have to some


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142 of a lady of the forger's ancestry in the fifteenth. Villemain, after showing that they are fictions antiques, concludes: "After one has recognised that the poems of Clotilde are a modern fabrication, betraying itself by the very perfection of the artifice employed, yet the fraud once established, the merit of the fraud remains incontestable."

A good road leads down the Ardèche to the Pont de l'Arc, one of the great natural curiosities of the south of France. The river in descending the ravine between walls of Jura limestone encountered a long spur that barred its way, and drove it to describe a great loop. But the limestone is full of holes, caves, and cracks, and the torrent rushing down and beating against the great escarpment, impatient to get through and resenting the detour, bored till at last it burst a way through, and having once penetrated proceeded to enlarge the portal, till the river even in its greatest floods can rush through. The measurements are 193 feet from side to side, 110 feet to the crown of the arch, and to the summit of the rock 215 feet. Formerly the people of the country used this natural bridge to pass from one side of the river to the other. In the sixteenth century a fortress was erected on it, the possession of which was sharply contested by Catholics and Protestants, and Louis XIII. had it destroyed. The passage can still be made by means of a very narrow path cut in a ledge of the rock, but only one person, and he with a steady head, can traverse it. Louis XIII. had this path broken down, but the gap has been bridged over by poles.

The descent of the cañon is made from Vallon to S. Martin, and takes from five to eight hours according to the amount of water in the river, and costs 30 francs.


text: A Book of the Cevennes/The Canon of the Ardèche


text: User talk:188.186.150.48

title: User talk:188.186.150.48


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Freiligrath, Ferdinand

FREILIGRATH, frī'lĭ K -rät, (1810-76). A German poet of almost bizarre originality, an admirable translator, and a sturdy liberal agitator, born at Detmold. His father was a teacher. Though apprenticed to a grocer at fifteen, Freiligrath continued his studies, and published verses in local journals before he was twenty. The years 1831 to 1836 he spent as banker's clerk in Amsterdam. Then, after publishing translations of Hugo's Odes, and Chants du crépuscule, and launching a literary journal, Rheinisches Odeon (1836-38), he became a bookkeeper at Barmen, but continued writing lyrics, of which a volume (1838) won immediate and wide favor. This contained the famous “Löwenritt,” “Prinz Eugen,” and “Der Blumen Rache,” probably his masterpieces. He afterwards gave himself wholly to literature, coöperating in several now unimportant works, and gaining a pension of 300 thalers from the Prussian King. Gradually his associates drew him into political strife. In 1844 he surrendered his pension, and in his Glaubensbekenntnis placed his poetic gifts at the service of the democratic agitation that was to culminate in the Revolution of 1848. Such poems as “Trotz alledem” (a translation of Burns's “A man's a man for a' that”), “Die Freiheit,” “Das Recht,” and “Hamlet,” made his absence from Germany expedient. He went to Belgium and Switzerland, published in 1846 Englische Gedichte aus neuerer Zeit, a volume of fine translations, and Ça ira a collection of political songs, and lived till 1848 in England. At the invitation of Longfellow, he meditated going to America, but on the short-lived triumph of liberalism returned to Germany as a democratic leader, was for a time imprisoned, published Zwischen den Garben (1849) and Neue politische und soziale Gedichte (1850), after which he went once more into exile in England (1851), where he remained till 1868, supporting himself by office work and admirable poetic translations, among which an anthology, the Rose, Thistle, and Shamrock (1854), and Longfellow's Hiawatha (1857), with Shakespeare's Cymbeline and Winter's Tale, are worthy of record for their felicity and faithfulness. These kept up his popularity in Germany, where in 1866 a subscription of 60,000 thalers was

raised for him, partly as a political manifesto. The general amnesty proclaimed in 1868 brought him back in time to celebrate the triumph of 1870 in the popular “Hurrah, Germania!” and “Die Trompete von Vionville.” Freiligrath's works are collected in 8 vols. (Stuttgart, 1870-71), and those up to 1858 in 6 vols. (New York, 1858-59). There is a volume of select translations into English, edited by his daughter, Mrs. Kroeker (Leipzig, 1871). For his biography consult: Kippenberg (Leipzig, 1868); Schmidt-Weissenfels (Stuttgart, 1876); Buchner, Ferdinand Freiligrath, Ein Dichterleben in Briefen (Lahr, 1881-82); Richter, Freiligrath als Uebersetzer (Berlin, 1899); and Rodenberg, Jugenderinnerungen (Berlin, 1901).


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E BOIS DE PAÏOLIVE is in repute among the inhabitants of the plain and its great cities as one of the wonders of the world, at least of that self-contained world of France, in which is everything, outside of which nothing. Païolive is Pagus Olivæ. Curious the wood is, but cannot compare with Mourèze or Montpellier le Vieux, which have characteristics in common with it. The characteristics are these. There is an extensive elevated platform of cretaceous limestone of very unequal consistency. The result of this inequality has been that the softer matter has been washed away, whether at the retreat of the Tertiary ocean, or whether by atmospheric degradation alone is uncertain, leaving the cores of greater resistance isolated, as turrets, obelisks, bridges. And these cores themselves containing soluble matter have been riddled in all directions by the rain that, resting on them for a moment, has been then absorbed, and has carried forth through every crevice what it was able to dissolve. But even the masses of hardest texture are so soft that


text:
User talk:173.184.63.110

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title: User talk:173.184.63.110


text:
United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 558

§ 558. Defenses of the estate

The estate shall have the benefit of any defense available to the debtor as against any entity other than the estate, including statutes of limitation, statutes of frauds, usury, and other personal defenses. A waiver of any such defense by the debtor after the commencement of the case does not bind the estate.


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154 the rain soaking into them and then running out at every perforation has furrowed the white face with its trickling tears.

The wood measures three miles in each direction, and a guide is needed through the labyrinth of galleries and masses of insulated rock, all buried in a wood of oaks, here and there cleared for mulberry plantations.

It lies beside the road from the station of S. Paul le Jeune to Les Vans, and reaches to the river Chassezac, that has cut its way through the plateau in a profound ravine. In fact, the same formation continues on the further side of the stream, but the shapes of the rocks assumed there are less eccentric. A guide lives in a cottage where a road to the right joins that coming from S. Paul, and he charges three francs for showing visitors the principal sights in the wood, five francs for a complete exploration.

The path, or track rather, changes direction at every moment, wriggling in and out among the rocks, over fallen masses, down descents where the brambles throw long streamers across one's path to arrest progress; the thorns claw and rend ladies' dresses. But the turf is purple with violets, and the fantastic shapes of the rocks draw one forward in defiance of thorn and prickle.

Some rocks resemble monstrous beasts. Near the road are the Lion and the Bear, engaged in a wrestle. There are castles with windows and doors, pointed arches, a very orgy of natural architecture in which every style is represented. We pass through narrow rifts into which the sun never penetrates, arrive by long galleries at culs-de-sac, and are forced to retrace our steps. Everywhere cavities, grottoes, piercing the rock that glares white in the sun and almost blinds the eye.


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Rh We arrive in a great cirque, in the midst of which are mulberries. In and out, everywhere grow oaks and broom; suddenly we come forth upon the gaping chasm through which rolls the Chassezac. A narrow and dangerous path down a rift enables one to descend to the river.

By scrambling among fallen blocks, after having passed under a little natural arch, a tunnel is reached in which a score of persons might shelter from the rain. Then a path emerging into the light leads along a terrace above the abyss, and by climbing and sliding and clinging to the bushes La Gleyzasse (the Church) is reached, a rift and cavern, once inhabited, as has been proved by the discovery under the soil of flint weapons and fragments of pottery.

This is the best known of the caverns of Païolive. But the mysterious wood grows above a whole subterranean world of vaults and passages. The entrances to these grottoes are known only to the guide; they are hidden among bushes, and often they are pot-holes, wells that open without warning, and down which an incautious visitor might fall. Stones thrown in strike the sides with a sound that becomes ever feebler till they reach the unexplored bottom.

M. de Malbos describes some of these:—

"I visited as well a grotto forming a gallery, on a very rapid slope. I would not speak of it but that, entering it without a candle, I found that my right foot did not touch the ground; so I retraced my steps to light a candle, and thus illumined I saw with horror that I had had half my body suspended over a precipice, sustaining myself only by my left foot on a slide of loose stones.

"On ascending the river of Chassezac, on top of the


text: Author:Benjamin Willis Wells

title: Author:Benjamin Willis Wells


text:
United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 559

§ 559. Contractual right to liquidate, terminate, or accelerate a repurchase agreement

The exercise of a contractual right of a repo participant or financial participant to cause the liquidation, termination, or acceleration of a repurchase agreement because of a condition of the kind specified in section 365 (e)(1) of this title shall not be stayed, avoided, or otherwise limited by operation of any provision of this title or by order of a court or administrative agency in any proceeding under this title, unless, where the debtor is a stockbroker or securities clearing agency, such order is authorized under the provisions of the Securities Investor Protection Act of 1970 or any statute administered by the Securities and Exchange Commission. In the event that a repo participant or financial participant liquidates one or more repurchase agreements with a debtor and under the terms of one or more such agreements has agreed to deliver assets subject to repurchase agreements to the debtor, any excess of the market prices received on liquidation of such assets (or if any such assets are not disposed of on the date of liquidation of such repurchase agreements, at the prices available at the time of liquidation of such repurchase agreements from a generally recognized source or the most recent closing bid quotation from such a source) over the sum of the stated repurchase prices and all expenses in connection with the liquidation of such repurchase agreements shall be deemed property of the estate, subject to the available rights of setoff. As used in this section, the term “contractual right” includes a right set forth in a rule or bylaw of a derivatives clearing organization (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act), a multilateral clearing organization (as defined in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991), a national securities exchange, a national securities association, a securities clearing agency, a contract market designated under the Commodity Exchange Act, a derivatives transaction execution facility registered under the Commodity Exchange Act, or a board of trade (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act) or in a resolution of the governing board thereof and a right, whether or not evidenced in writing, arising under common law, under law merchant or by reason of normal business practice.


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156 precipice one can reach the Grott of the Chouans. One descends, or rather jumps, down to it, where it opens on a precipice with a ledge before it. Down to this cave one has to climb with difficulty. It divides into several galleries, that are lighted by small cracks, visible at the height of one hundred feet above the Chassezac. It was in this grotto that seven Royalists, who had fled to it, were taken by means of fires of straw and sulphur lighted in the entrance. They were shot at a little distance from it. One only, Gavidel, managed to escape, having managed to breathe through the barrel of his gun, which he had unscrewed and thrust through one of the cracks I have mentioned."

Near the entrance to the wood is the group that goes by the name of the Lion and the Bear, already mentioned. There is a Lot's Wife, there is a nun, a sphynx, and so on. The Castle of the Trois Seigneurs does seem actually to have possessed a little fortress, built in and out among the spires of rock, for fragments of wall are worked into the fissures and surmount some of the points.

But perhaps the most remarkable spot is the Cros de la Perdrix, where the limestone is in a craggy jumble of all kinds of forms.

One enters this sort of fortified circus with precipitous sides by a noble rock, pierced by a natural arch, at the entry to a cleft, something like that of Gleyzasse—already described.

If we follow the edge of the ravine of the Chassezac we see the river gliding smoothly below through green pastures between sheer walls. On the promontory of Cornillon are the remains of an ancient village.

At the north-west of the wood is the hermitage of S. Eugène, at the fringe of the forest. It is as though


text:
United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 560

§ 560. Contractual right to liquidate, terminate, or accelerate a swap agreement

The exercise of any contractual right of any swap participant or financial participant to cause the liquidation, termination, or acceleration of one or more swap agreements because of a condition of the kind specified in section 365 (e)(1) of this title or to offset or net out any termination values or payment amounts arising under or in connection with the termination, liquidation, or acceleration of one or more swap agreements shall not be stayed, avoided, or otherwise limited by operation of any provision of this title or by order of a court or administrative agency in any proceeding under this title. As used in this section, the term “contractual right” includes a right set forth in a rule or bylaw of a derivatives clearing organization (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act), a multilateral clearing organization (as defined in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991), a national securities exchange, a national securities association, a securities clearing agency, a contract market designated under the Commodity Exchange Act, a derivatives transaction execution facility registered under the Commodity Exchange Act, or a board of trade (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act) or in a resolution of the governing board thereof and a right, whether or not evidenced in writing, arising under common law, under law merchant, or by reason of normal business practice.


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Rh suspended above the valley, standing on the limestone, which here lies in narrow, almost horizontal beds. Architecturally it is nothing. Only a poor, ruinous, abandoned structure; no hermit has occupied it for many years.

According to tradition, for many generations the wood was inhabited by a family, the head of which assumed the title of King of Païolive. Louis XIV. was informed of the existence of this sovereign in a corner of his province of Languedoc, and ordered that the man should be arrested and tried. Several detachments of troops were sent to surround the wood and to explore its depths. No one was to be seen in it; all was silent, till a crack of a firearm sounded, and a man fell. After a quarter of an hour, those who had ventured into the labyrinth struggled out, but with the loss of ten of their number, each of whom had received a ball in his heart. The troops retired, and as there was no question of rebellion against royal authority or of religion, Louis was content to let the matter rest; only he succeeded in entering into communication with the petty king by means of the hermit of S. Eugène, and requiring of him as recognition of suzerainty annually a pair of partridges—a tribute, however, that was never paid. The succession of kings of Païolive continued till the Revolution, when it was not safe on French soil for any man to bear a royal title, and the last king, rather than run the risk of losing his head on the scaffold, assumed the red cap and sank into a plain citoyen.

In 1792, the Royalist bands of the Count of Saillans took refuge in the wood of Paiolive, confident that it would not be possible for the Republican troops to dislodge them, and their head-quarters was in the Grotto of


text:
United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 561

§ 561. Contractual right to terminate, liquidate, accelerate, or offset under a master netting agreement and across contracts; proceedings under chapter 15

 * (a) Subject to subsection (b), the exercise of any contractual right, because of a condition of the kind specified in section 365 (e)(1), to cause the termination, liquidation, or acceleration of or to offset or net termination values, payment amounts, or other transfer obligations arising under or in connection with one or more (or the termination, liquidation, or acceleration of one or more)—
 * (1) securities contracts, as defined in section 741 (7);
 * (2) commodity contracts, as defined in section 761 (4);
 * (3) forward contracts;
 * (4) repurchase agreements;
 * (5) swap agreements; or
 * (6) master netting agreements,
 * shall not be stayed, avoided, or otherwise limited by operation of any provision of this title or by any order of a court or administrative agency in any proceeding under this title.

 * (b)
 * (1) A party may exercise a contractual right described in subsection (a) to terminate, liquidate, or accelerate only to the extent that such party could exercise such a right under section 555, 556, 559, or 560 for each individual contract covered by the master netting agreement in issue.
 * (2) If a debtor is a commodity broker subject to subchapter IV of chapter 7—
 * (A) a party may not net or offset an obligation to the debtor arising under, or in connection with, a commodity contract traded on or subject to the rules of a contract market designated under the Commodity Exchange Act or a derivatives transaction execution facility registered under the Commodity Exchange Act against any claim arising under, or in connection with, other instruments, contracts, or agreements listed in subsection (a) except to the extent that the party has positive net equity in the commodity accounts at the debtor, as calculated under such subchapter; and
 * (B) another commodity broker may not net or offset an obligation to the debtor arising under, or in connection with, a commodity contract entered into or held on behalf of a customer of the debtor and traded on or subject to the rules of a contract market designated under the Commodity Exchange Act or a derivatives transaction execution facility registered under the Commodity Exchange Act against any claim arising under, or in connection with, other instruments, contracts, or agreements listed in subsection (a).
 * (3) No provision of subparagraph (A) or (B) of paragraph (2) shall prohibit the offset of claims and obligations that arise under—
 * (A) a cross-margining agreement or similar arrangement that has been approved by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission or submitted to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission under paragraph (1) or (2) of section 5c(c) of the Commodity Exchange Act and has not been abrogated or rendered ineffective by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission; or
 * (B) any other netting agreement between a clearing organization (as defined in section 761) and another entity that has been approved by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.

 * (c) As used in this section, the term “contractual right” includes a right set forth in a rule or bylaw of a derivatives clearing organization (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act), a multilateral clearing organization (as defined in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991), a national securities exchange, a national securities association, a securities clearing agency, a contract market designated under the Commodity Exchange Act, a derivatives transaction execution facility registered under the Commodity Exchange Act, or a board of trade (as defined in the Commodity Exchange Act) or in a resolution of the governing board thereof, and a right, whether or not evidenced in writing, arising under common law, under law merchant, or by reason of normal business practice.

 * (d) Any provisions of this title relating to securities contracts, commodity contracts, forward contracts, repurchase agreements, swap agreements, or master netting agreements shall apply in a case under chapter 15, so that enforcement of contractual provisions of such contracts and agreements in accordance with their terms will not be stayed or otherwise limited by operation of any provision of this title or by order of a court in any case under this title, and to limit avoidance powers to the same extent as in a proceeding under chapter 7 or 11 of this title (such enforcement not to be limited based on the presence or absence of assets of the debtor in the United States).


text:
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title: User talk:95.170.219.211


text:
United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 5/Section 562

§ 562. Timing of damage measurement in connection with swap agreements, securities contracts, forward contracts, commodity contracts, repurchase agreements, and master netting agreements

 * (a) If the trustee rejects a swap agreement, securities contract (as defined in section 741), forward contract, commodity contract (as defined in section 761), repurchase agreement, or master netting agreement pursuant to section 365 (a), or if a forward contract merchant, stockbroker, financial institution, securities clearing agency, repo participant, financial participant, master netting agreement participant, or swap participant liquidates, terminates, or accelerates such contract or agreement, damages shall be measured as of the earlier of—
 * (1) the date of such rejection; or
 * (2) the date or dates of such liquidation, termination, or acceleration.

 * (b) If there are not any commercially reasonable determinants of value as of any date referred to in paragraph (1) or (2) of subsection (a), damages shall be measured as of the earliest subsequent date or dates on which there are commercially reasonable determinants of value.

 * (c) For the purposes of subsection (b), if damages are not measured as of the date or dates of rejection, liquidation, termination, or acceleration, and the forward contract merchant, stockbroker, financial institution, securities clearing agency, repo participant, financial participant, master netting agreement participant, or swap participant or the trustee objects to the timing of the measurement of damages—
 * (1) the trustee, in the case of an objection by a forward contract merchant, stockbroker, financial institution, securities clearing agency, repo participant, financial participant, master netting agreement participant, or swap participant; or
 * (2) the forward contract merchant, stockbroker, financial institution, securities clearing agency, repo participant, financial participant, master netting agreement participant, or swap participant, in the case of an objection by the trustee,
 * has the burden of proving that there were no commercially reasonable determinants of value as of such date or dates.


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 the attack upon the authority of the new House of Lords (, Parliamentary Diary, ii. 377, 429). In Richard Cromwell's parliament he once more represented Stamford, and made many speeches against the validity of the ‘petition’ and ‘advice,’ the existence of the other house, and the admission of the members for Scotland (ib. iii. 70, 76, 142, 346, iv. 66, 164, 240;, vii. 550; , ii. 50, 53). In December 1659, after the army had turned out the Long parliament, Weaver aided Ashley Cooper and others in securing the Tower for the parliament (, vii. 797). To this zeal he owed his election as a member of the council of state (Dec. 31, 1659), and his appointment as commissioner for the government of Ireland and the management of the navy (, ii. 209; Commons' Journals, vii. 799, 800, 815, 825). He attended none of the meetings of the council from disinclination to take the oath abjuring monarchy, which was required from councillors, and assisted in procuring the readmission of the secluded members (, Register, p. 61; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1659–60, p. xxv). In consequence, when those members were readmitted he was again elected to the council of state (23 Feb. 1660).

Stamford elected Weaver to the Convention parliament, but the return was disputed and his election annulled (Commons' Journals, viii. 18).

Weaver was buried at North Luffenham on 25 March 1685.

[Lincolnshire Notes and Queries, 1889, i. 62–63; Noble's Lives of the Regicides, 1798, ii. 318.]  WEAVER, JOHN (1673–1760), dancing master, son of John Weaver, was baptised at Holy Cross, Shrewsbury, on 21 July 1673. His father is believed to be identical with ‘one Mr. Weaver,’ a dancing master in the university of Oxford, who is named in a letter from Ralph Bathurst to Gascoigne, the Duke of Ormonde's secretary, 18 March 1675–6, as having been received by the chancellor of the university ‘at a time when there was room for him,’ but ‘is now like to be ruined with his family, being supplanted by Mr. Banister,’ another dancing master (, Life of Bathurst, p. 140). Weaver received his education at the free school, Shrewsbury. In early life he set up as a dancing master in Shrewsbury, and is said to have taught dancing there for three generations, till nearly the close of his life. He was living there on 19 March 1711–12, when he wrote a letter to the ‘Spectator’ (No. 334, see also No. 466), announcing his intention of bringing out a small treatise on dancing, which was ‘an art celebrated by the ancients,’ but totally neglected by the moderns, and now fallen to a low ebb. But his residence in Shrewsbury was never in his adult life continuous. From 1702 he was actively associated with theatrical enterprise in London.

Weaver, and not John Rich [q. v.], as is commonly stated, was the original introducer into England of entertainments which bore the name of pantomimes. But by ‘pantomimes’ Weaver did not mean harlequin entertainments, but rather ballets, or, as he terms it, ‘scenical dancing,’ a representation of some historical incident by graceful motions. In 1702 he produced a mime at Drury Lane styled ‘The Tavern Bilkers,’ which he stage-managed, and which he describes as ‘the first entertainment that appeared on the English Stage, where the Representation and Story was carried on by Dancing Action and Motion only.’ In 1707 Weaver composed a new dance in fifteen couplets, ‘The Union,’ which was performed at court on the queen's birthday, 6 Feb. Either owing to the fluctuations of theatrical government, or possibly because his mime was not successful, Weaver did not put a second on the stage until 1716; this was called ‘The Loves of Mars and Venus,’ and was ‘an attempt in imitation of the ancient Pantomimes, and the first that has appeared since the time of the Roman Emperors.’ Weaver's subsequent pantomimic entertainments were ‘Perseus and Andromeda,’ 1716; ‘Orpheus and Eurydice,’ 1717; ‘Harlequin turn'd Judge,’ 1717; and ‘Cupid and Bacchus,’ 1719, all performed at Drury Lane. These dates of Weaver's pieces are given on his own authority, from his ‘History of the Mimes and Pantomimes.’ Most of them were probably never printed. John Thurmond produced somewhat similar pieces for Drury Lane between 1719 and 1726. Rich's pantomimes were produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields from 1717 to 1726. Weaver's ‘Tavern Bilkers’ was revived at Lincoln's Inn Fields by the younger Rich on 13 April 1717, and again at the same house on 11 Dec. 1727, under the name of ‘The Cheats.’

Weaver himself sometimes acted in his representations. In 1728 he impersonated Clown, the Squire's Man, in ‘Perseus and Andromeda, or the Flying Lovers,’ an after-piece performed at Drury Lane Theatre.

Weaver sought to establish a school of pantomime, more like the modern ballet d'action, but the public did not appreciate his effort; they preferred grotesque dancing and acting. In 1730 he complains that


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158 Gleyzasse, three hundred feet above the river. The Directory of Ardèche, however, found means of securing the conspirators when they met at the Château of Jalès, and they were taken to Les Vans and there put to death, the Count among them. Jalès had belonged to the Templars, but these, sacrificed by Clement V. to the cupidity of Louis the Fair, were taken to Aigues Mortes and there burnt alive on false charges. To the Templars succeeded the Knights of Malta. The most celebrated commander among these, who resided at Jalès, was the Bailli of Suffren, whom the vassals complained of as devouring forty pounds of meat in a day. But the Bailli was a fire-eater as well, and his exploits in the Mediterranean, fighting the English, form the theme of a ballad introduced by Mistral into "Mirèio." The Bailli was killed in a duel by the Marquess of Mirepoix, in 1788. And, of course, these stout-hearted Provençeaux thrash the English like curs, just as our bluejackets always thrash the French—in ballads.

Between the wood and Berrias on the bare plateau are many dolmens.

On the lovely day in early spring upon which I visited the Bois de Païolive, the inventories were being taken in the churches of Banne and Berrias. As we drove to the wood the bell of Banne church


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 spectators are squandering their applause on interpolations by pseudo-players, merry-andrews, tumblers, and rope-dancers, and are but rarely touched with or encourage a natural player or just pantomime.

On 6 Feb. 1733 his ‘Judgment of Paris,’ described as ‘a new Pantomime Entertainment,’ appeared at Drury Lane. Mrs. Booth acted as Helen, and Miss Rafter as Thalia (, iii. 369). There was an earlier performance, possibly during the Christmas of 1732; it is referred to in a letter from Aaron Hill [q. v.], the dramatist, to Victor, the actor, 1 Jan. 1732–3 (, History of the Theatres of London and Dublin, ii. 177). It was performed by his pupils in the great room over the market-house at Shrewsbury about 1750 ( and, ii. 152).

Weaver died at Shrewsbury on 24 Sept. 1760, aged 90, and was buried in the south aisle of Old St. Chad's church in Shrewsbury on 28 Sept. (Addit. MS. 21236, fol. 65 b). He is described as being ‘a little dapper, cheerful man, much respected in the town, and by the first people in the neighbourhood’ ( and, ii. 152, n. 1).

He was twice married. By his first wife, Catherine, who was buried at St. Chad's, Shrewsbury, on 13 Sept. 1712, he had three children—John, baptised on 11 May 1709; Richard, baptised on 3 Nov. 1710; and Catherine, baptised on 13 Sept. 1712, all at St. Chad's Church (St. Chad's Register). His second wife, Susanna, who survived him, died on 5 Feb. 1773, aged 73, and was buried on 10 Feb. at St. Chad's, Shrewsbury. The monument was destroyed at the fall of Old St. Chad's Church in 1788; but the inscription is preserved in Addit. MS. 21236, fol. 65 b.

Besides the plays before mentioned, Weaver published: 1. ‘Orchesography; or the Art of Dancing, being an exact translation from the French of M. Feuillet,’ 1706, 4to. 2. ‘A small Treatise of Time and Cadence in Dancing,’ 1706. 3. ‘The Union: a Dance writ down in Characters,’ 1707 (?). 4. ‘An Essay towards an History of Dancing,’ 1712 (the work referred to in the Spectator, Nos. 334 and 466). 5. ‘Anatomical and Mechanical Lectures upon Dancing,’ 1721 (these were ‘read at the Academy in Chancery Lane’). 6. ‘The History of the Mimes and Pantomimes, &c. Also a List of the modern Entertainments that have been exhibited on the English Stage, either in imitation of the ancient Pantomimes, or after the manner of the modern Italians,’ London, 1728, 8vo.

[Owen and Blakeway's Hist. of Shrewsbury, ii. 151–2, 245; Baker's Biographia Dramatica, ed. Reed and Jones, i. 739; Colley Cibber's Apology; ‘The Genesis of English Pantomime,’ by W. J. Lawrence, in The Theatre for January 1895, xxv. 28–34; ‘Puzzle: Find the first Pantomime Clown,’ by W. J. Lawrence, in the Supplement to the Newcastle Weekly Chron. 29 Dec. 1894; ‘The Father of English Pantomime,’ in the Pall Mall Gazette, 27 Dec. 1897; Genest's Account of the English Stage; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. iii. 89, 138, 297; information from W. J. Lawrence, esq.]

WEAVER, ROBERT (1773–1852), congregational divine and antiquary, born at Trowbridge in Wiltshire on 23 Jan. 1773, was the son of Richard Weaver, clothier, by his wife Mary. He was intended to follow his father's trade, but, preferring to study for the congregational ministry, he entered Rotherham College early in 1794, residing with the president Edward Williams (1750–1813) [q. v.] On 15 Feb. 1802 he became pastor at Mansfield in Nottinghamshire, a charge which he retained till his death. When he went to Mansfield affairs were in confusion and the congregation had been broken up. He reconstituted it in 1805, and twice enlarged the place of worship, in 1812 and in 1829.

Weaver was an ardent student of the Greek Testament, in which he was accustomed to give instruction to resident pupils. He also took an interest in antiquities, and in 1840 published ‘Monumenta Antiqua, or the Stone Monuments of Antiquity yet remaining in the British Isles’ (London, 12mo), in which he ascribed the remains of pre-Roman times to Phœnician influence and supported his theory by the particulars of similar Canaanitish and Jewish monuments given in the Bible. Weaver died at Mansfield on 12 Oct. 1852, and was buried in the ground attached to the independent chapel.

Besides the work mentioned, he was the author of: 1. ‘The Scriptures Fulfilled,’ seven lectures, London, 1829, 8vo. 2. ‘Heaven: A Manual for the Heirs of Heaven,’ London, 1837, 12mo. 3. ‘Education based on Scriptural Principles, the True Source of Individual and Social Happiness,’ London, 1838, 8vo. 4. ‘The Pagan Altar and Jehovah's Temple,’ London, 1840, 12mo. 5. ‘The Reconciler: an Attempt to exhibit … the Harmony and Glory of the Divine Government,’ London, 1841, 8vo. 6. ‘A Complete View of Puseyism,’ London, 1843, 12mo. 7. ‘Dissent: its Character,’ London, 1844, 8vo. 8. ‘Rationalism,’ London, 1850, 12mo. 9. ‘Popery, calmly, closely, and comprehensively considered,’ London, 1851, 8vo.

[Congregational Year Book, 1853, pp. 233–5; Gent. Mag. 1853, i. 671.]


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Rh was pealing the alarm; as we left, that of Berrias was sounding, and we drove thither. The village was occupied by soldiers, and these surrounded the church, and held every avenue, whilst a body of gendarmes with axes smashed the barricaded west door. Out- side the village was an ambulance wagon, rendered necessary, as the people were offering a strenuous resistance. In the adjoining village of Beaulieu on the preceding day they had thrown quicklime in the faces of the assailants, and had blinded one soldier, who had to be conveyed to the hospital.

The hostility provoked by the Government by ordering the taking of the inventories of the contents of the churches is not very explicable, for there was no threat made of confiscation. The reasons given me were these. At the first Revolution every church had been pillaged and its treasures seized. Only in some cases had certain of these latter been saved before the sacred buildings were plundered, by being confided to the custody of reliable men in the parish, who restored them when the churches were reopened for divine worship. The people suppose that the taking of the inventories is a preliminary step to confiscation, and to protect the State against the secretion of any of the church treasures when that confiscation takes place. As, however, it is exceedingly unlikely that such a step will occur, the violent excitement over the taking of the inventories is not very reasonable. "We," say the people, "our fathers and grandsires, gave the furniture to the church; it belongs to the Commune, and not to the State."

The attitude assumed by the bishops and curés has been diverse. Here the taking of the inventory has