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 lists, statistics about the universities and counties of England, dates of fairs and the like, with the usual prognostications of weather, but little of astrology, and no ‘hieroglyphic figures,’ as Gough asserts (Brit. Topogr. 1780, ii. 140). Anthony Wood declares that ‘there were near thirty thousand of them printed, … and because of the novelty of the said almanac, and its title, they were all vended. But the printing of it being a great hindrance to the sale of other almanacs, the Society of Booksellers in London bought off the copy for the future.’ No corroboration has been found of this statement of the vast number printed, and it may be suspected of exaggeration; there were certainly many disputes between the Oxford and London booksellers at the time. For some unknown reason the almanac is very rare, and even Wood did not possess one; the only known copy in a public library is in the Bodleian. Besides this book, a letter from Wheeler to Robert Plot [q. v.] about a ‘domestic timepiece’ or ‘automaton’ is printed in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for July 1684 (p. 647), and he contributed a section ‘Of Curiosity’ to an English translation of Plutarch's ‘Moralia’ (London, 1684; Boston, U.S.A., 1874).

 WHEELER, THOMAS (1754–1847), botanist, was second son of Thomas Wheeler by his wife Susannah Rivington. Mrs. Cibber, the actress, was his father's first cousin. His grandfather, John Wheeler, surgeon to the Bridewell and Bethlehem hospitals, died in 1740 during his year of office as master of the Barber-Surgeons' Company. Thomas Wheeler was born on 24 June 1754 in Basinghall Street, London, where his father practised as a surgeon. He received his elementary education under David Garrow, the father of Sir William Garrow [q. v.], at Hadley, Middlesex, and was admitted a pupil at St. Paul's school on 25 Jan. 1765. Here he became an excellent classical scholar.

After leaving St. Paul's school he was apprenticed to Messrs. Walker of St. James's Street, apothecaries to the king and queen, and in 1767 he entered St. Thomas's Hospital as a student. At an early period he showed a great fondness for botany, a taste which was fostered by William Hudson, the botanical demonstrator at the Society of Apothecaries. On 18 March 1778 he was appointed, at a salary of 37l. 10s., demonstrator of plants and præfectus horti of the apothecaries' garden at Chelsea in succession to William Curtis [q. v.], author of the ‘Flora Londinensis.’ He was already a fellow of the Linnean Society. In 1784 he began a series of lectures on botany at the Apothecaries' Hall, but the scanty attendance deterred him from continuing it after 1786. For the rest of his life he contented himself with peripatetic teaching.

Wheeler was elected apothecary to Christ's Hospital in 1800, and six years later he was appointed to a similar post at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. This office he resigned in 1820, when he was succeeded by his son Charles; while in the same year his eldest son, Thomas Lowe Wheeler, succeeded him as botanical demonstrator at the Society of Apothecaries.

Wheeler was admitted an assistant of the Society of Apothecaries on 29 June 1815; he served as warden in 1820–2, and he was master in 1822–3. He was also appointed a member of the first court of examiners under the act of 1815. From 1790 to 1796 he lived at 54 Newgate Street, and practised there as an apothecary. In 1797 he moved into the house of the Medical Society in Bolt Court, where he continued to reside until he retired in his old age to the house of his eldest son, 61 Gracechurch Street, and afterwards to 3 College Hill, Cloak Lane, Queen Street, where he died on 10 Aug. 1847. He was buried in Norwood cemetery. He married at Pancras Old Church, in May 1788, Ann Blatch of Amesbury. By her he had six sons. She died on 25 Aug. 1800.

Wheeler, who was enthusiastically devoted to the doctrines of Linnæus, was an able botanist of the old school. As a teacher he was eminently successful, and the ‘herborisings’ of the Apothecaries' Society under his guidance became famous throughout England. As a medical practitioner he filled the difficult position of apothecary to St. Bartholomew's Hospital with the greatest credit. As a man he was distinguished by the childlike simplicity of his faith, his manners, and his habits. From the age of forty to the time of his death at ninety-four he abstained entirely from fermented liquors. He was one of the last practitioners who adhered to the dress fashionable in his youth. He wrote nothing, but when he had passed his eightieth year he acquired a sound knowledge of Hebrew.

An excellent portrait of Wheeler by Henry Briggs, R.A., hangs in the great parlour of the Apothecaries' Hall. Mrs. Wheeler of Woking owns a three-quarter-length in watercolours by George Richmond, executed


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The New International Encyclopædia/Sow-bug

SOW-BUG. A small carnivorous crustacean of the family Oniscidae, the species of which live under logs in the woods and in similar places. It is an isopod. See ; ; and compare.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 in 1822, and a remarkable wax vignette by Peter Rouw, ‘sculptor modeller of gems and cameos, 80 Norton Street, Portland Road, 1834.’

[Field and Semple's Memoirs of the Botanic Garden at Chelsea, London, 1878; Proc. Linn. Soc. 1848, i. 380; manuscript notebooks in the possession of Mrs. Wheeler; information and personal recollections by Henry Power, esq., the last apprentice of Thomas Rivington Wheeler.]  WHEELOCKE, WHEELOCK, WHELOCKE, WHELOCK, or WHELOC, ABRAHAM (1593–1653), linguist, was born in 1593 at Whitchurch, Shropshire, and spent his early years at Loppington in the same county. He graduated B.A. from Trinity College, Cambridge in 1614, M.A. in 1618, and B.D. from Clare College in 1625. In 1619 he contributed a Latin poem to a volume of elegies (‘Lachrymæ Cantabrigienses,’ p. 70), issued by the university of Cambridge on the death of Anne of Denmark, and in the same year obtained a fellowship at Clare Hall, which he retained till his marriage in 1632 to the widow Clemence Goad. He also contributed Latin verses to the ‘Epithalamium Caroli et Henriettæ Mariæ’ (1625, p. 76), ‘Genethliacum Illustrissimorum Principum, Caroli et Mariæ’ (1631, p. 66), and Greek verses to ‘Rex Redux’ (1633, p. 44), ‘Ducis Eboracensis Fasciæ’ (1633, p. 12), and ‘Irenodia Cantabrigiensis’ (1641), and has verses prefixed to Duport's Thrēnothriambos (1637). From 1622 to 1642 he was minister of St. Sepulchre's, Cambridge.

After election to his fellowship Wheelocke appears to have commenced the study of the oriental languages, then little known in England, and in connection with these studies he got into communication with Bedwell and Ussher, who occasionally gave him commissions to execute. Notwithstanding his appointments, he appears for many years of his life to have suffered from extreme poverty (see Letter 373 in Works, vol. xvi.), and to have applied unsuccessfully for a variety of posts. At last, towards the end of 1629, he obtained, after considerable canvassing, those of public librarian and amanuensis at the Cambridge University Library, with emoluments amounting to 10l. per annum. These posts he retained till his death. His administration of the library was marked by zeal and ability. ‘There are traces of his hand,’ says his eminent successor Bradshaw, ‘almost throughout the collection as it existed in his day, and the library seems to have been well used and well cared for during his term of office.’ Shortly after his appointment he appears to have urged (Sir) Thomas Adams (1586–1667) [q. v.] to induce some city company to endow a chair of Arabic at Cambridge. This Adams declared to be impossible; but he offered to provide a stipend of 40l. for such a purpose for two or three years, Wheelocke to be the first professor, and he afterwards made this endowment permanent. Wheelocke appears to have both taught and studied Arabic diligently, and in Adams's letters to him (preserved in the Cambridge University Library) there are frequent references to his ‘Arabic mill;’ but he published little or nothing bearing on the subject, owing, he says, to the want of Arabic types and compositors capable of setting them up. In a letter to Ussher dated 1640 he mentions that he had prepared a refutation of the Koran, but that the missionary to whom he had shown a specimen of the work had discouraged him from proceeding with it.

Wheelocke also devoted much attention to the Persian language, and commenced printing in 1652 an edition of the Persian version of the Gospels from several manuscripts, one of which belonged to Edward Pococke [q. v.]; but he did not live to publish this work, which was finished and issued in 1657. The distinguished Persian scholar Thomas Hyde (1636–1703) [q. v.] was his pupil. He also took part in drawing up the plan of Walton's ‘Polyglot,’ and wrote a letter to the vice-chancellor of Cambridge University, commending that work, of which he was to have corrected the Arabic and Persian texts, but death prevented his executing much of this scheme [see ]. As amanuensis of the public library he came to be employed by Sir Henry Spelman [q. v.] to copy Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, and in order to remunerate him for his services, as well as to found a school of Anglo-Saxon, Spelman (who had endeavoured without success to obtain promotion for him from the bishop of Ely) established in 1638 a chair for a ‘lecturer and reader of the Saxon language and the history of our ancient British churches,’ for which he provided a stipend, besides presenting Wheelocke to the living of Middleton in Norfolk. The motion for the establishment of the chair was brought before the university of Cambridge by Ussher. At Wheelocke's death, owing to political troubles, Spelman's heirs discontinued the endowment, and the readership lapsed.

Wheelocke's name is chiefly remembered in connection with the work he did as Anglo-Saxon reader. In 1643 he published the Anglo-Saxon translation of Bede ascribed to Alfred, with an edition and translation of


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 the ‘Chronologia Saxonica,’ based on two manuscripts, of which one belonging to Sir Thomas Cotton has since, with the exception of a few pages, been destroyed; the pages that remain and are now in the British Museum show that Wheelocke was an accurate editor. Anglo-Saxon scholars speak less warmly of his work as a translator. This work was dedicated to Sir Thomas Adams (Sir Henry Spelman being then deceased), and was reissued in 1644, with a reprint of Lambarde's ‘Archaionomia’ and other matter. Wheelocke professes to have derived his knowledge of Anglo-Saxon mainly from the letters and published writings of Spelman, who also suggested several tasks to Wheelocke, among them a complete dictionary of Anglo-Saxon, which Wheelocke commenced, but never finished. And indeed Wheelocke's high standard of accuracy, together with the variety of the subjects which he pursued, seems to have hindered him from production.

He suffered from ill health at many periods of his life, and also, as has been seen, from pecuniary anxiety. He died apparently in London in September 1653, leaving five children. His funeral sermon, preached at St. Botolph's, Aldersgate Street, on 25 Sept. by William Sclater [see under, (1575–1626)], was published in 1654.

 WHELER. [See also .]

WHELER, FRANCIS (1656?–1694), admiral, born about 1656, was the younger son of Sir Charles Wheler (d. 1683), second baronet, by Dorothy, daughter of Sir Francis Bindloss, and great-grandson of the sister of Sir Sackvill Trevor [q. v.] and Sir Thomas Trevor [q. v.] His elder brother, Sir William, third baronet, was born in 1654.

In April 1678 Francis was appointed second lieutenant of the Rupert by Vice-admiral Arthur Herbert (Earl of Torrington) [q. v.] in the Mediterranean; he was afterwards with Sir John Narbrough [q. v.] in the same ship, and again with Herbert in the Bristol, from which he was promoted on 11 Sept. 1680 to be captain of the Nonsuch, and in her, on 8 April 1681, he captured a powerful Algerine corsair [see, (1653–1702)]. In August 1681 he was moved into the Kingfisher, in which in October he captured another corsair, after an obstinate defence. In August 1683 he was appointed to the Tiger, which he seems to have commanded till 1688, when he was moved into the Centurion and afterwards into the Kent. At this time, too, he was knighted by King James. If other influences were wanting, his old friendship for Herbert probably led him to accept the Revolution without difficulty. In April 1689 he was appointed to the Rupert, in which he sailed to join Herbert, whom he met coming back from the indecisive action near Bantry Bay. On the way he had made prize of a large and rich French West Indiaman. In July he was sent by Torrington with a small squadron to keep a watch on Brest, off which he captured several vessels laden with military stores for Ireland, and one with despatches. In 1690 he commanded the 90-gun ship Albemarle in the battle of Beachy Head, and in 1692 in the battle of Barfleur.

In October 1692 he was made rear-admiral of the blue and appointed to command a squadron sent to the West Indies, with an order to wear the union flag at the main as soon as he was clear of the Soundings. He sailed from Portsmouth early in January 1692–3, and on 1 March arrived at Barbados, where, in consultation with the land officers, it was resolved to attack Martinique. But nothing had been prepared beforehand; even eight hundred men of the local militia, who were to be added to the regular troops, had not been raised, nor had Colonel Codrington, the captain-general of the Leeward Islands, been called on for his co-operation. It was thus 30 March before the expedition sailed from Barbados, and 1 April when they landed in Martinique, still without Codrington and his reinforcements. Including the eight hundred Barbados militia, the land force numbered 2,300 men, to which Wheler added fifteen hundred seamen under his personal command. On the 9th they were joined by Codrington; but even then the force proved quite inadequate for the purpose, and after several desultory attacks and the loss of about a thousand men by sickness, it was resolved to abandon the attempt. The troops were re-embarked and taken to Dominica to recruit their health. Codrington then proposed an attack on Guadeloupe, but to this Wheler could not consent, as his orders were to leave the West Indies by the end of May at latest. It is probable too that, with newly raised and sickly troops, he thought good success at Guadeloupe as unlikely as at Martinique. In the end of May he sailed for Boston, where he arrived on 12 June. He proposed to Sir William William


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The New International Encyclopædia/Sower, Christopher

SOWER, sour (or SAUR), (1693-1758). An early American printer and publisher, born at Laasphe, near Marburg, Germany. After receiving a university education, and studying medicine at Halle, he emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1724, and in 1731 settled at Germantown. There in 1738 he set up a printing press and began the publication of an almanac in German, which was continued by his descendants for sixty years. In 1739 he issued the first number of Der Hoch-Deutsch Pensylvanische Geschichte-Schreiber, a quarterly magazine, the first of the sort published in Pennsylvania. In 1743 he published a quarto edition of Luther's translation of the Bible in German, which was, with the exception of Eliot's Indian Bible, the first to be published in America. He continued his activity in publishing both English and German works, and in connection with that business established a type foundry, the first in America, a paper mill, and an ink factory. He is also generally credited with being the inventor of cast-iron stoves.


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110 for a bell tower. That of Grimaud is in better condition, but is a ruin. The place was taken from the Grimaldis in 1378 by Louis I. of Anjou and Provence, as the Grimaldi of that time had sided in the war of succession with Charles of Durazzo, and he gave it to Christopher Adorno. It passed from one to another, and was raised into a marquisate in 1627; but the castle was dismantled in virtue of a decree in 1655. The town is curious, built on a conical hill dominated by the castle. The streets are narrow. The church is rude, Early Romanesque, and very curious. Undoubtedly the sea originally ran up to Cogolin and Grimaud. Now all the basin out of which they rise is a flat alluvial plain intersected by dykes, and growing, near La Foux, splendid umbrella pines. S. Tropez, charming little town as it is, the best centre for excursions in the Chain of the Maures, is nevertheless not a place that can ever become a winter residence, as it looks to the north and is lashed by the terrible Mistral. But it has this advantage denied to the other towns on the coast, that, having the sun at the back, one looks from it upon the sea in all its intensity of colour without being dazzled. S. Tropez has been supposed to occupy the site of a Phœnician-Greek town, Heraclea Caccabaria, but this is improbable. This place was almost certainly in the sweet sun-bathed Bay of Cavalaire. There were, indeed, two ancient towns on the Gulf, Alcone and Athenopolis; and certainly Grimaud was a town in Roman times, for there are remains of the aqueduct that supplied it with water. The Gulf was called Sinus Sambracitanus, and, as already stated, at one time reached inland to the feet of

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Portal:Physics

General

 * Physics by Aristotle, translated by Wikisource
 * Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (1638) by Galileo Galilei, translated by Henry Crew and Alfonso De Salvio
 * Discourse Concerning the Natation of Bodies (1612) by Galileo Galilei, translated by Thomas Salusbury
 * The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1729) by Isaac Newton
 * The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1846) by Isaac Newton

 * Derivation of the laws of motion and equilibrium from a metaphysical principle (1746) by Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, translated by Wikisource
 * Additamentum II: Concerning the motion of particles in a non-resistant medium, determined by a method of maxima and minima by Leonhard Euler, translated by Wikisource from Translation:Methodus inveniendi
 * On the Conservation of Force (1862-3) by Hermann von Helmholtz, translated by Edmund Atkinson

 * The Primary Concepts of Modern Physical Science I as it appeared in the October 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Primary Concepts of Modern Physical Science II as it appeared in the November 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Primary Concepts of Modern Physical Science III as it appeared in the December 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Primary Concepts of Modern Physical Science IV as it appeared in the January 1874 Popular Science Monthly

 * Stallo's Concepts of Modern Physics as it appeared in the May 1882 Popular Science Monthly

Subject matter of Natural Philosophy informed by science of Physics

 * The Measure of Time (1898) by Henri Poincaré, translated by George Bruce Halsted

Philosophy of Physics (procedural)

 * Novum Organum (1620) passim by Francis Bacon
 * Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (1638) passim by Galileo Galilei, translated by Henry Crew and Alfonso De Salvio
 * The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1726) passim by Isaac Newton
 * Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics/Second Part (1783) by Immanuel Kant, translated by Paul Carus
 * Science and Hypothesis (1902) by Henri Poincaré, translated by William John Greenstreet
 * Eight Lectures on Theoretical Physics (1915) by Max Planck, translated by Albert P. Wills
 * Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy (1914) by Bertrand Russell
 * Relativity: The Special and General Theory (1916) by Albert Einstein
 * The Meaning of Relativity (1922) by Albert Einstein

Weights and measures

 * An Essay on Quantity by Thomas Reid, 1748.
 * Dyne as it appears in The New Student's Reference Work
 * The Metric System as it appears in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Dynamometer as it appears in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Lactometer as it appears in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Metronome as it appears in The New Student's Reference Work

Descriptive and experimental mechanics

 * The Ball-Paradox as it appeared in the April 1877 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Constancy of Motion as it appeared in the December 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Heat and Motion, and Political Economy as it appeared in the July 1877 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Origins of Statics by Pierre Duhem as it appeared in the October 1903 Revue des Questions Scientifiques translated by ResidentScholar.
 * On Governors (1868) by James Clerk Maxwell

Atomic physics

 * The Constitution of Matter as it appeared in the September 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Theory of Molecules as it appeared in the January 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Are the Elements Elementary? as it appeared in the February 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Molecular Magnitudes as it appeared in the October 1877 Popular Science Monthly
 * Molecular Dynamics as it appeared in the January 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Molecular Theory as it appeared in the August 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * What Is a Molecule? as it appeared in the September 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Speculations on the Nature of Matter as it appeared in the April 1883 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Relations of Physics of Electrons to Other Branches of Science (1904) by Paul Langevin
 * Matter (1911) by Joseph John Thomson
 * Matter (1911) by Joseph John Thomson

Relativity

 * Portal:Relativity

Quantum theory

 * On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light (1905) by Albert Einstein
 * Quantum noise at the nonlinear mapping of phase space (1997) by Dmitrii Kouznetsov and Daniel Rohrlich as it appeared in Оптика и Спектроскопия (Optics and Spectroscopy)

Gravitation

 * The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1729) by Isaac Newton
 * The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1846) by Isaac Newton
 * The Field Equations of Gravitation
 * Time, Space, and Gravitation

Kinetic Theories of Gravitation

 * The Le Sage Theory of Gravitation (1782/1898) by Georges-Louis Le Sage
 * Notice de la Vie et des Ecrits de George Louis Le Sage (English) (1807) by John Playfair
 * The Atomic Theory of Lucretius (1868) by Fleeming Jenkin
 * On the Ultramundane Corpuscles of Le Sage (1872) by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
 * The Mathematical and Philosophical State of the Physical Sciences (1874) by Joseph Lovering
 * Kinetic Theories of Gravitation (1876) by William Bower Taylor
 * On some Dynamical Conditions applicable to Le Sage's Theory of Gravitation (1877/1878) by Samuel Tolver Preston
 * Le Sage's Theory of Gravitation (1878) by James Croll
 * Mutual Action of Vortex Atoms and Ultramundane Corpuscles (1879) by George Forbes
 * A Suggestion in regard to Crystallization, on the Hypothesis that Molecules are not infinitely Hard (1880) by Samuel Tolver Preston
 * On Action at a Distance (Browne) (1881) by Walter Raleigh Browne
 * On Action at a Distance (Preston) (1881) by Samuel Tolver Preston
 * On the Importance of Experiments in relation to the Mechanical Theory of Gravitation (1881) by Samuel Tolver Preston
 * Physical Theories of Gravitation (1895) by Thomas Proctor Hall
 * Comparative Review of some Dynamical Theories of Gravitation (1895) by Samuel Tolver Preston
 * Considerations on Gravitation (1900) by Hendrik Lorentz
 * The Corpuscular Theories of Gravitation (1903) by J. W. Peck
 * The Theory of Lesage (1908) by Henri Poincaré
 * Matter (1911) by Joseph John Thomson
 * Earlier Theories of Gravity (1913) by Hereward Carrington
 * Matter (1911) by Joseph John Thomson
 * Earlier Theories of Gravity (1913) by Hereward Carrington

Sound and acoustics

 * On the Production of Sound by Light as it appeared in the October 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * Production of Sound by Radiant Energy II as it appeared in the June 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Production of Sound by Radiant Energy I as it appeared in the June 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Acoustics as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Echo as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work

Heat and thermodynamics

 * "Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat" by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron as it appeared in volume 1 of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs
 * Action of Dark Radiations by John Tyndall as it appeared in the June 1872 Popular Science Monthly
 * History of the Dynamical Theory of Heat I as it appeared in the December 1877 Popular Science Monthly
 * History of the Dynamical Theory of Heat II as it appeared in the January 1878 Popular Science Monthly
 * Possible Efficiency of Heat-Engines as it appeared in the October 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * Examination of Thermometers at the Yale Observatory as it appeared in the August 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Action of Radiant Heat on Gaseous Matter as it appeared in the May 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Specific Heat as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * The Scientific Papers of Josiah Willard Gibbs, Volume I (Thermodynamics) (1906) by Josiah Willard Gibbs.

Light and optics

 * Opticks (2nd Ed) (1704) by Isaac Newton
 * Opticks (4th Ed) (1730) by Isaac Newton
 * Accord between different laws of Nature that seemed incompatible (1744) by Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, translated by Wikisource
 * Visual Images in Darkness as it appeared in the October 1872 Popular Science Monthly
 * Modern Optics and Painting I as it appeared in the February 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Modern Optics and Painting II as it appeared in the March 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Images and Shadows as it appeared in the April 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Crooked Courses of Light as it appeared in the May 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Hints on the Stereoscope as it appeared in the July 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * On the Correctness of Photographs as it appeared in the April 1875 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Microscope and its Misinterpretations as it appeared in the June 1875 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Cause of the Light of Flames as it appeared in the October 1875 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Mechanical Action of Light as it appeared in the October 1875 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Nature of Fluorescence as it appeared in the February 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Mechanical Action of Light as it appeared in the July 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Constants of Color as it appeared in the October 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Simple Experiments in Optics as it appeared in the October 1877 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Contrast of Colors as it appeared in the November 1878 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Most Powerful Telescope in Existence as it appeared in the January 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors I as it appeared in the June 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * Goethe's Farbenlehre: Theory of Colors II as it appeared in the July 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * Optical Illusions of Motion as it appeared in the February 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Stereoscope: Its History I as it appeared in the May 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Stereoscope: Its Theory II as it appeared in the June 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * Lengthening the Visible Spectrum as it appeared in the May 1883 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Colors of Flowers as it appeared in the October 1883 Popular Science Monthly
 * Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light (1878) by Albert Abraham Michelson
 * Interference Phenomena in a new form of Refractometer (1882) by Albert Abraham Michelson
 * On Rainbows as it appeared in the March 1884 Popular Science Monthly
 * Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light (1886) by Albert Abraham Michelson and Edward W. Morley
 * On a method for making the wave length of sodium light the actual and practical standard of length (1888) by Albert Abraham Michelson and Edward W. Morley
 * Effect of Reflection from a Moving Mirror on the Velocity of Light (1913) by Albert Abraham Michelson
 * A proof of the constancy of the velocity of light (1913) by Willem de Sitter
 * On the constancy of the velocity of light (1913) by Willem de Sitter
 * Experimental Demonstration of the Constancy of Velocity of the Light reflected from a Moving Mirror (1918) by Quirino Majorana
 * Experimental Demonstration of the Constancy of Velocity of the Light emitted by a Moving Source (1919) by Quirino Majorana
 * Solar Microscope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectacles as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum Analysis as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Telescope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Solar Microscope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectacles as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum Analysis as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Telescope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Solar Microscope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectacles as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Spectrum Analysis as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Telescope as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work

Aether

 * Encyclopædia Britannica Ninth Edition/Ether (1875)
 * The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether (1881)
 * On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether (1887)
 * The Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere (1889)
 * Translation:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether (1892)
 * Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium III (1897)
 * The relative Motion of the Earth and the Ether (1897)
 * Aether and Matter (1900)
 * Does Motion through the Aether cause Double Refraction? (1902)
 * The Forces Acting on a Charged Condenser moving through Space (1903)
 * Relative Motion of Earth and Aether (1904)
 * Absence of Effects of Motion through the Aether (1904)
 * Letter to Lord Kelvin (1904)
 * The Ether and moving Matter (1904)
 * On Double Refraction in Matter moving through the Aether (1904)
 * Negative Results of Second and Third Order Tests of the Aether Drift (1905)
 * On the Theory of Experiments to detect Aberrations of the Second Degree (1905)
 * Report of an experiment to detect the Fitzgerald-Lorentz Effect (1905)
 * Final Report on Ether-drift Experiments (1907)
 * The Structure of the Æther (1907)
 * Translation:On the Proof of the Reality of the Luminiferous Aether (1913)
 * Ether and the Theory of Relativity (1920)

 * Translation:The Demonstration of the Luminiferous Aether
 * Ether as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work

Spectroscopy

 * Evolution and the Spectroscope as it appeared in the January 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * A Home-Made Spectroscope as it appeared in the October 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Teachings of Modern Spectroscopy as it appeared in the August 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Spectroscopy as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work

Radiation physics

 * On Radiant Matter I as it appeared in the November 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * On Radiant Matter II as it appeared in the December 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * On Radiation as it appeared in the August 1883 Popular Science Monthly

Electricity

 * Electricity and Life as it appeared in the March 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * Lessons in Electricity III as it appeared in the June 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Lessons in Electricity IV as it appeared in the July 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Electric Light as it appeared in the March 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Modern Development of Faraday's Conception of Electricity as it appeared in the June 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Electric Storage of Energy as it appeared in the August 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Rays of Positive Electricity and Their Application to Chemical Analyses (1913) by Joseph John Thomson
 * Ampère as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Commutator as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Dynamo-Electric Machine as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work

Electromagnetic theory

 * On Physical Lines of Force (1861) by James Clerk Maxwell
 * A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (1865) by James Clerk Maxwell
 * Magneto-Electric Illumination as it appeared in the September 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873) by James Clerk Maxwell
 * On the Electric and Magnetic Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies (1881) by Joseph John Thomson
 * Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving charge (1888) by Oliver Heaviside
 * On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric (1889) by Oliver Heaviside
 * Translation:Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies (1895) by Hendrik Lorentz
 * Notes on the Electro-magnetic Theory of Moving Charges (1896) by William Blair Morton
 * On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid (1897) by George Frederick Charles Searle
 * On a Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium, Part 3, Relations with material media (1897) by Joseph Larmor
 * Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems (1899) by Hendrik Lorentz
 * Aether and Matter (1900) by Joseph Larmor
 * Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light (1904) by Hendrik Lorentz

Electric discharge

 * "An Account of the Effects of Lightening at South Weald, in Essex" by William Heberden in Philosophical Transactions, volume 54 (1764)
 * "Observations upon the Effects of Lightning, with an Account of the Apparatus proposed to prevent its Mischiefs to Buildings, more particularly to Powder Magazines" by William Watson in Philosophical Transactions, volume 54 (1764)
 * An Account of the Effects of Lightning in St. Bride's Church, Fleet-street, on the 18th of June 1764 by Edward Delaval in Philosophical Transactions, volume 54 (1764).
 * A Letter from Thomas Lawrence, M. D. to William Heberden, M. D. and F. R. S. concerning the Effects of Lightning, in Essex-street, on the 18th of June, 1764 in Philosophical Transactions, volume 54 (1764)

Magnetism

 * On the Magnet (1900) by William Gilbert
 * On the Magnetizing Power of the More Refrangible Solar Rays by Mary Fairfax Somerville in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1826)

Radioactivity

 * The Radiometer as it appeared in the November 1878 Popular Science Monthly

Radioactive substances

 * Radio-active substances (1904) by Marie Skłodowska Curie, Thesis presented to the Faculte des Sciences de Paris, Reprinted from the Chemical News. Second edition.
 * The Discovery of Radium (1921) by Marie Skłodowska Curie

Geophysics and cosmic physics

 * Note relating to M. Foucault's new mechanical proof of the Rotation of the Earth, 1851
 * The Recent Progress of Solar Physics as it appeared in the November 1879 Popular Science Monthly
 * A New Theory of the Sun as it appeared in the June 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * Tropical Cyclone Report: 2009/Tropical Depression One-E

Biography

 * Amagat, Emile Hilaire as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Sketch of Heinrich Hertz as it appeared in the July 1894 Popular Science Monthly

Unsorted

 * The Dissipation of Energy as it appeared in the April 1878 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Radical Fallacy of Materialism as it appeared in the July 1878 Popular Science Monthly
 * Water as Fuel as it appeared in the March 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Availability of Energy as it appeared in the June 1880 Popular Science Monthly
 * How the Earth Is Weighed as it appeared in the October 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Great Fires and Rain-Storms as it appeared in the December 1872 Popular Science Monthly
 * Light and Life as it appeared in the January 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * Velocity of the Will as it appeared in the January 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * Studies of Vortex-Rings as it appeared in the December 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * A Glimpse Through the Corridors of Time as it appeared in the February 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * A Little Matter as it appeared in the February 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * What Is Transcendental Physics? as it appeared in the January 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * Sound and Radiant Heat as it appeared in the March 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Available Energy of Nature as it appeared in the November 1881 Popular Science Monthly
 * Speculative Science as it appeared in the June 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * On the Diffusion of Odors as it appeared in the May 1882 Popular Science Monthly
 * Machines Driven by Solar Rays as it appeared in the July 1883 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Aim of Thermo-Chemical Investigations as it appeared in the October 1883 Popular Science Monthly
 * Professor Dvorak's Sound-Mills as it appeared in the June 1884 Popular Science Monthly
 * Du Motay's Process of Ice-Making as it appeared in the October 1884 Popular Science Monthly
 * Sun-Kinks as it appeared in the September 1884 Popular Science Monthly
 * Wave-Action in Nature as it appeared in the May 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * Sympathetic Vibrations in Machinery as it appeared in the October 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * Correlation of Vital with Chemical and Physical Forces as it appeared in the December 1873 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Dissipation of Energy as it appeared in the February 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Quicker Than Lightning as it appeared in the January 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Physics of Ice as it appeared in the August 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Action of Sunlight on Glass as it appeared in the May 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * The Crooked Courses of Light as it appeared in the May 1874 Popular Science Monthly
 * Address Before the American Association II as it appeared in the January 1875 Popular Science Monthly
 * Crystalline and Molecular Forces as it appeared in the January 1875Popular Science Monthly
 * The Apotheosis of Steam as it appeared in the August 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Soap-Bubbles as it appeared in the September 1876 Popular Science Monthly
 * Dynamics as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Poles as it appeared in The New Student's Reference Work
 * Scientific Papers of Josiah Willard Gibbs, Volume 2

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  [q. v.], the governor of Massachusetts, to undertake an expedition against Quebec; but as no troops were ready, and it was impossible to get them ready in time, Phipps was obliged to refuse. Leaving Boston on 3 Aug., Wheler went to Newfoundland, but found that Placentia was too well fortified and strongly garrisoned to be attacked in a casual way. A council of war decided that nothing could be done, and the squadron sailed for England, which it reached in the middle of October, ‘in so reduced a state that there were scarcely men enough in health to navigate the ships into port.’

Notwithstanding popular clamour, the ill-success which had attended the expedition was so clearly due to causes beyond naval control that Wheler's conduct could not be called in question, and within a few days after his arrival he was appointed admiral and commander-in-chief of a squadron designed for the Mediterranean, his rank at the time being only rear-admiral of the red. Contrary winds and want of necessaries detained it for several weeks, and it did not sail till 27 Dec. With Wheler were Vice-admiral [q. v.], Rear-admiral [q. v.], a Dutch squadron under Vice-admiral Callenburgh, and a large convoy of merchant ships. The recollection of the disaster sustained by Sir George Rooke, with whom Hopsonn had been only a few months before, made Wheler especially cautious; and though several French ships were seen hovering round his charge between Cape St. Vincent and Cadiz, he was careful not to allow his squadron to get separated in pursuit. By 19 Jan. 1693–4 he brought his whole squadron and convoy safely into Cadiz harbour. Here Hopsonn parted from him, returning to England with the homeward-bound trade, and Wheler, having remained a month, sailed on 17 Feb. to pass through the Straits. On the 18th it came on to blow hard; the force of the wind increased to a hurricane; the ships, which were then off Malaga, were dispersed; several running back to the westward, in the darkness of the night mistook Gibraltar Bay for the Straits, ran into it, and were driven on shore. The Cambridge was thrown on shore and broken up a few miles to the eastward. The Sussex, Wheler's flagship, foundered at five o'clock on the morning of the 19th. Of 550 people on board, two Turks only escaped. Two days later Wheler's body, much mangled, was cast on shore. Charnock says that it was embalmed and sent to England; but this seems doubtful. Wheler married Arabella, daughter and ultimately coheiress of Sir Clifford Clinton, by Frances, daughter of Sir Heneage Finch, and had issue two boys and a girl. Of these the girl, Anna Sophia, and the elder boy, Charles, are named in his will (Somerset House: Box, 89), dated 30 Oct. 1692, and proved on 28 April 1694. Wotton (Baronetage, 1741, i. 144) says he left two sons only, William (d. 1738) and Francis, still living in 1741. It would appear that Charles and Anna Sophia died young, and that a third son, Francis, was born in 1693 or 1694. William's son Francis is described by Sir Samuel Romilly (Memoirs, i. 73–4); Jane, the daughter of this Francis, married Henry, second viscount Hood, and was the grandmother of the third Viscount Hood and mother of the second Lord Bridport. The trustees of Wheler's will were his old friend and messmate, Sir [q. v.], Christopher Packe, probably the son of Sir [q. v.], and his cousin, [q. v.], dean of Lichfield (cf., i. 144).

WHELER, GEORGE (1650–1723), traveller, the son of Charles Wheler of Charing, Kent, colonel in the life guards, by his wife Anne, daughter of John Hutchin of Egerton, Kent, was born in 1650 at Breda in Holland, where his parents, who were royalists, were in exile. He was educated at Wye school, Kent, and at Lincoln College, Oxford, matriculating on 31 Jan. 1667. He was created M.A. on 26 March 1683, and D.D. by diploma on 18 May 1702. In 1671 he became a student at the Middle Temple. In October 1673 he set out for a tour in France, Switzerland, and Italy, and was at first accompanied by [q. v.], his tutor at Lincoln College. While in Italy he received some instruction in antiquities from Vaillant, and at Venice, in June 1675, made the acquaintance of James Spon, physician of Lyons, with whom he travelled in Greece and the Levant in 1675 and 1676. Spon published a separate account of the journey in 1678 (Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce, &c., Lyons, 12mo). Wheler's account, ‘A Journey into Greece,’ was not published till 1682. These travels in Greece have, as Michaelis (Ancient Marbles, p. 56) remarks, the charm and value of a journey into an almost unexplored country. Among the places visited and described by Wheler are Zante, Delos, Constantinople, Prusa ad Olympum, Thyatira,


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Rh Grimaud. And at Cogolin a Greek funerary monument has been found. S. Tropez was completely ruined by the Saracens when they occupied the Maures. After they were driven out it was rebuilt, but was again destroyed in the War of Succession between the Duke of Anjou and Charles of Durazzo. It was rebuilt under King Réné and colonised by some Genoese families, who fortified it and undertook to defend it. In 1592 it gallantly resisted the Duke of Savoy, and forced him to retire. In 1652 S. Tropez was a prey to civil war between the Sabreurs and the Canifets, who had succeeded to the feud of the Carcists and Razats. The Sabreurs were those representing military force, the Canifets represented the échevins, and were nicknamed after the canif used by the latter to mend their pens. I shall have more to say about this when we come to Draguignan. The Sabreurs got possession of the castle, but the Due de Mercceur sent a regiment to assist the citizens, and the Sabreurs were dislodged. The town is divided into two parts—the old town and the new—and the former teems with picturesque features that attract the artist. The women of S. Tropez are noted for their good looks, due to the infusion of Italian blood. S. Tropez is the scene of a peculiar festival, La Bravade, taking place on the 16th, 17th, and 18th May every year, in commemoration of the defence of the town against the Duke of Savoy in 1637; combined with the patronal feast of S. Tropez on May 17th. Every Monday in Easter week a Captain of the Town is elected for the ensuing year, and he has the regulation of the festival. This is initiated on May Day, or the next Sunday and Thursday, by the "Promenade des Joies,"

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112 when members of a company carrying hoops adorned with many-coloured fluttering ribbons, promenade the town, led by drummers. On May 16th, at 3 p.m., the Captain, with his attendant officers, marches to the Mairie, where he is presented with pike and banner by the Mayor, to a discharge of firearms, which thenceforth go on banging day and night till the evening of the ensuing day. The guns are discharged at any passer-by, but only at the legs—and are, of course, charged with powder alone. The clergy, led by the cross, escorted by the beadles, arrive from the church and bless the guns and other weapons. Then the Bravadeurs follow to the church, where they receive the bust of S. Tropez, and the procession starts capering, dancing, swaying in and out of the streets, through the town, fifes screaming, drums rolling, guns exploding. The procession moves to the Port, where the Captain and all his company salute the sea. Whereupon any gunboats, torpedo boats, etc., that happen to be anchored in the harbour, return the salute by a general thunder of guns. But the 17th—the day of S. Tropez—is that of greatest festivity. It opens with a Mass of the Mousquetaires at 8 a.m., after which follows a general procession. In the afternoon the Bravade marches to the Mairie and the pikes and banner are surrendered. On May 18th, at 8 a.m., is a Mass at the chapel of S. Anne; around the chapel are ranged stalls of sellers of black nougat and a sort of cake known by the name of fougasette. Then ensues a déjeuner given by the Captain to his assistants and to the town authorities; and in the evening the festival concludes with a general farandol on the Lices.

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 of Abbot William Heyworth to the see of Lichfield in 1420, Whethamstede was elected abbot of St. Albans, and received the temporalities on 20 Oct. Being nominated by convocation to attend the council of Pavia, and appointed proctor for the English Benedictines, he set out for Italy in 1423, and, after being delayed by fever at Mainz, arrived at Pavia, where he defended the exempt abbeys against the attack of Richard Fleming, bishop of Lincoln. Having followed the council to Siena, he went thence to Rome, where he fell dangerously ill. On his recovery he obtained some privileges for his abbey from Martin V, again went to Siena, and soon returned thence to England, reaching St. Albans on 25 Feb. 1424.

A dispute between Whethamstede and the archbishop of Canterbury, Henry Chichele [q. v.], who in 1425 claimed to interfere in some matters pertaining to the abbot's jurisdiction, ended in John's favour. He held a synod at St. Albans in 1426, before which he cited some persons suspected of heresy, inflicted penance on one man, and caused an heretical book to be burnt. In 1427 he was flattered by a request from the archbishop and prelates that he would compose a letter to be sent to the pope on behalf of the clergy and laity. About that time he was engaged in three lawsuits in defence of the claims of his house, and made some new ordinances, instituting the office of master of the works, founding a common chest, and directing that, when needful, help should be given to poor scholars and the priors of the cells of the abbey. He was deputed to attend the council of Basle in 1431, but whether he did so does not appear. In 1433 he was involved in a troublesome quarrel with the bishop of Norwich, William Alnwick, on behalf of the prior of Bynham, Norfolk, one of the St. Albans cells. The dukes of Bedford and Gloucester interceded with the bishop in vain, and the case was finally heard before the king's judges and the barons of the exchequer, in the presence of the archbishops and bishops, in the hall of the Blackfriars, London. In support of his privileges the abbot produced a copy of his foundation charter, in which some words seem to have been interpolated exactly meeting the point in question. The result of the trial is not recorded, but the abbot considered that he had been successful in it, and in the protests that he made in convocation against the opposition to his claims on the part of some of the bishops. He was also successful in a suit arising out of an appeal from the court of the archdeacon of St. Albans to the papal court and the court of arches; the appellant in this case having been excommunicated by the cardinal auditor, the abbot obtained a writ against him, and kept him in his prison until he made submission in 1435. He had a long suit with the abbot of Westminster, which he suspended in 1437 on account of the dearth that was then prevailing.

Whethamstede entertained many great people at the abbey, as the young Henry VI and his mother in 1428; Queen Johanna, the widow of Henry IV, his tenant at Langley; the Duke and Duchess of Bedford, who came with a retinue of three hundred persons; the Earl and Countess of Warwick, and others. Among these Humphrey, duke of Gloucester [q. v.], was a frequent visitor, for the abbot shared the duke's love of learning, found his friendship useful to him, and helped him to form his famous library. Through Gloucester's influence he obtained grants from the crown of several estates already given to the convent by grants that had been annulled by the statute of mortmain. He spent much in presents to persons of rank and influence, and in the transcription of books, and paid John Lydgate [q. v.], a monk of Bury, 3l. 6s. 8d. for translating the life of St. Alban into English verse, the whole cost of the volume, which he offered on the high altar of his church, being 5l. He was also liberal to the scholars of Gloucester College. He caused the lady-chapel at St. Albans to be painted, built a new chapel near the shrine of St. Alban, and made other costly additions and restorations in the church, built new chambers in the infirmary, and further improved the buildings of the convent both at St. Albans and on its property elsewhere, and at Gloucester College built a new library, a small chapel, and a wall round the garden, which is believed still to exist at Worcester College. On 26 Nov. 1440 he resigned the abbacy. The reasons alleged for this step are that he was suffering from ill health; that, being of a nervous temperament, he found his work and anxieties too much for him; and that he was painfully bashful: his real reason probably being that he saw that the power of his friend and patron Gloucester was declining. A large provision was granted to him, and a house in the abbey was set apart for him and his household. A dispute arose between him and his successor, John Stoke, as to this provision, and was decided in his favour by Gloucester acting as arbitrator in 1442. He was assisted in this matter by his old opponent, Alnwick, then bishop of Lincoln, and they became friends. Owing to this dispute he resided, it is believed, chiefly at Wheathampstead, only visiting St. Albans occasionally. He is also said to have


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 been presented to the rectory of Little Cornard, Suffolk, in 1446 (ib.)

On the death of Stoke, Whethamstede was for the second time elected abbot, on 17 Jan. 1451, and accepted the election. The good order and prosperity of the abbey had declined under Stoke, and Whethamstede at once provided for an increase in the number of scholars, for better tuition, and for more frequent preaching. In 1452 he applied for and received letters patent, extending the king's general pardon to himself and the convent. The accounts of the general official, William Wallingford, afterwards abbot, who executed a number of the conventual offices, showed many debts, and it is asserted in the register compiled after Whethamstede's death that the abbot convicted him of gross fraud [see ]. The abbot caused the accounts to be regulated and the pecuniary position of the house to be set right, and was as active generally in the discharge of his duties as during his earlier tenure of office. After the first battle of St. Albans, on 22 May 1455, he obtained leave from the Duke of York to bury Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, and Thomas, lord Clifford. Henry VI spent Easter in 1459 at the abbey, and the abbot at his request provided that his obit should be kept. He did not in that year personally attend parliament, on account of bodily infirmity. On the defeat of the Yorkists at St. Albans on 17 Feb. 1461, the northern army, though it did not enter the abbey, did great damage to the conventual property, and the abbot was forced to retire to Wheathampstead for a short time, others of the convent also temporarily withdrawing. He represented the impoverished state of his house to Edward IV, and on 3 Nov. received a charter enlarging the abbot's temporal jurisdiction. He died at a great age on 20 Jan. 1465, and was buried in the still existing tomb that he had made for himself in the abbey church.

Whethamstede's chief works during his second abbacy were the building of the library and rebuilding of the bakehouse of the abbey. He was learned, energetic, liberal, of high character, and much esteemed. The allegation that he suddenly changed from a violent Lancastrian to a Yorkist (, Middle Ages, iii. 198) seems mistaken. He was probably always inclined to the Yorkist side, as might be expected from his former friendship with Gloucester. Though he was perhaps too much given to litigation, he lived at a time specially marked by litigiousness, and it was his duty to defend the rights of his house. During his first abbacy he wrote ‘Granarium de viris illustribus,’ in four volumes; ‘Palearium Poetarum;’ a Register to the seventh year of his abbacy, with various letters; a book, ‘Super Valerium in Augustinum de Anchona;’ another commentary, ‘Super Polycraticum et super Epistolas Petri Blesensis,’ and a small book with metres and tables. The ‘Cato Glossatus’ and the two books of his own composition which he presented to the Duke of Gloucester were doubtless the same as the ‘Cato Commentatus,’ and two volumes of the ‘Granarium’ which Gloucester presented to the university of Oxford. Damaged copies of three parts of the ‘Granarium,’ with illuminations, are in the British Museum, the first part, Cottonian MS. Nero, C vi.; the second, Cottonian MS. Tib. D. v.; and the fourth, Additional MS. 26764. Leland saw a book of Whethamstede's entitled ‘De situ Terræ Sanctæ,’ and there are also attributed to him books called ‘Propinarium,’ ‘Pabularium Poetarum,’ and ‘Proverbiarium,’ besides others mentioned by Bale and Pits. He was held in high repute as a letter-writer; some of his letters, which are verbose and flowery, are in the ‘Chronicles of St. Albans Abbey’ (see below), and others of little importance are in Cottonian MS. Claudius D i. His Latin verses, which he seems to have composed on all occasions, are mere doggerel.

WHETSTONE, GEORGE (1544?–1587?), author, was related to a wealthy family of Whetstone, which owned in the sixteenth century the manor of Walcot in the parish of Bernack, near Stamford in Lincolnshire (, Athenæ, ii. 437). He seems to have been a native of London and third son of Robert Whetstone, who owned


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114 The Argens, which has flowed from west to east, receiving the drainage of the Montagnes des Maures, receives also the Parturby and the Endre from the limestone, and then turns about and runs almost due south, but with an incline to the east. It forms a wide basin, once a long arm of sea, but now filled up with deposit, and with festering lagoons sprinkled over its surface; the two great mountain chains from east and west contract, and force the winds that come down from the north, and the snows of the Alps, to concentrate their malice on S. Raphael. If you love a draught, then sit before a roaring fire, with an open window behind you. If you desire a draught on a still larger scale, go to S. Raphael. Perhaps the speculators who invented this Station Hivernale thought that it was necessary to add something more, in order to attract patients to the place, and Valescure was established among pine woods. The aromatic scent of the terebinth, its sanatory properties, so highly estimated, so experimentally efficacious in pulmonary disorders, etc., etc. Valescure is just as certainly exposed to winds as is S. Raphael. As to pines and eucalyptus, they can be had elsewhere, in combination with shelter.

However, let me quote M. Leutheric, who has a good word to say for S. Raphael:—

"Few regions of Provence present conditions of landscape and climate (!!) more seductive. The little town of Saint Raphael is placed beyond the zone of infection from the marshes of Fréjus. It stretches gracefully along the shore at the foot of the savage chain "of the Estérel. On all sides pointed rocks of red porphyry pierce the sombre foliage of cork trees and pines. The coast is fringed by sandbanks,

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 a tenement called ‘The Three Gilded Anchors’ in Westcheap, and five messuages in Gutter Lane. His mother was Margaret, sister and coheiress of Francis Bernard of Suffolk. The father, Robert Whetstone, died in 1557, leaving five sons: Robert (aged 17), Bernard, George, Francis, and John (, Illustrations of Shakespeare, i. 222). The second son, Bernard, who, like his brothers Robert and Francis, was admitted student of Gray's Inn, was father of Sir Bernard Whetstone of Woodford, Essex (Visitation of Essex, 1634, pp. 520, 617;, Essex, i. 38).

The author, who was apparently born about 1544, claimed kinship with William Fleetwood, recorder of London (Promos and Cassandra, 1578, dedication). As a young man he tried his fortune at court. He seems to have haunted gambling houses and brothels, and dissipated his patrimony by reckless living. He subsequently devoted much energy to denunciations of the depravity of London, and declared that he was fraudulently deprived of his property. For three years or more he conducted a costly lawsuit against those whom he charged with robbing him of his possessions, but he gained little beyond the satisfaction of knowing that ‘foure notable couseners, the instrumentes of his greatest troubles … in the prime of their mischievous enterprises, with soudaine death and vexation, were straungelie visited’ (Rocke of Regarde, 1576, ad fin.; Touchstone for the Time, 1584, ad fin.)

When he was nearly overwhelmed by his anxieties, he left England for France. Afterwards he entered the army, apparently joining in 1572 an English regiment on active service in the Low Countries against Spain. He held an officer's commission. In Holland he seems to have made the acquaintance of George Gascoigne and Thomas Churchyard, who had passed at home through experiences resembling his own. He distinguished himself in the field and was awarded additional pay, but he returned to London in 1574 without prospects of promotion or means of support. He sought help from his kinsmen, but they proved niggardly. As a last resort he followed the example of his friends Gascoigne and Churchyard, and turned for a livelihood to literature. He read the romances of France and Italy and summarised them in English verse and prose, and he endeavoured to attract the attention of men and women of influence at court by addressing to them poetic panegyrics. He first appeared in print as author of lines ‘in praise of Gascoigne and his posies,’ which were prefixed to Gascoigne's ‘Flowers,’ 1575. In 1576 he collected his varied literary efforts into a volume which he entitled the ‘Rocke of Regard, divided into foure parts. The first, the Castle of Delight. … The second, the Garden of Unthriftinesse. … The thirde, the Arbour of Vertue. The fourth, the Ortchard of Repentance: wherein are discoursed the miseries that followe dicing, the mischiefes of quarrelling, the fall of prodigalitie …’ (London, for R. Waley, 1576, 4to). The first part is dedicated to ‘all the young gentlemen of England’ from the author's lodging in Holborn under date 15 Oct. 1576. The third part was dedicated to Jane Sibilla, daughter of Lord Grey de Wilton, and the last part to Sir Thomas Cecil. The separate pieces number sixty-eight in all; most of them are tales in verse or prose drawn from the Italian, but there are numerous occasional poems addressed to friends, and the last section narrates under fictitious names Whetstone's sufferings at the hands of his enemies (cf., Censura Literaria, 1807, v. 1–13). An imperfect copy of the rare volume is in the British Museum. A reprint was issued by J. P. Collier in 1870.

In 1577 Whetstone invited Gascoigne to join him on a visit to his friends near Stamford, and Gascoigne died on 5 Oct. 1577, while he was Whetstone's guest. Whetstone commemorated the sad episode in a volume of verse (in six-line stanzas) under the title ‘A Remembraunce of the wel imployed life and godly end of George Gaskoigne, Esquire. The report of Geor. Whetstons, gent, an eye witnes of his godly and charitable end in this world. Imprinted at London for Edward Aggas’ [1577]. The only copy known is in the Malone collection at the Bodleian Library. It was reprinted in Chalmers's ‘English Poets,’ 1810, ii. 457–466; separately at Bristol in 1815; with Gascoigne's ‘Princely Pleasures,’ London, 1821; and in Arber's reprints of Gascoigne's works in 1868.

In 1577 some verses by Whetstone prefaced Kendall's ‘Flowres of Epigrammes.’ Next year he contributed a poem called ‘Twenty Good Precepts’ to a new edition of Edwards's ‘Paradise of Dainty Devices.’ At the same time he essayed a more ambitious form of literature. He wrote a play entitled ‘The right excellent and famous Historye of Promos and Cassandra: devided into two Commicall Discourses,’ London by R. Jhones, 1578 (a copy is in the British Museum; it was reprinted in Nichols's ‘Six Old Plays,’ 1779, and in ‘Shakespeare's Library,’ edited by Collier and Hazlitt, 1875, II. ii. 201–304). The play is in two parts, each of five acts, and is throughout in rhymed verse, with songs interspersed; the story is drawn


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 from Giraldi Cinthio's ‘Hecatommithi,’ and closely resembles the plot of Shakespeare's ‘Measure for Measure.’ Whetstone's unwieldy play was never acted. He dedicated it, when it was printed, to his ‘worshipful friend and kinsman William Fleetwood, Recorder of London.’ Whetstone there offered interesting comments on the contemporary drama of Europe, censuring the English dramatists for basing their plots on ‘impossibilities.’

But literature proved an uncertain support, and Whetstone again sought adventures abroad. He was, as the printer explains in a note to the reader, unable to see his play of ‘Promos’ through the press, owing to his resolve to accompany Sir Humphrey Gilbert on his voyage to Newfoundland. He left Dartmouth with Gilbert's expedition on 23 Sept. 1578, and he returned to Plymouth in May 1579. The expedition proved disastrous to all concerned. In 1580 Whetstone visited Italy with a gentleman of Picardy named Dobart and another Englishman, and at Turin he challenged a Spaniard who insulted his country, but the Spaniard disappeared without fighting (The Honourable Reputation of a Soldier, 1585, epistle dedicatory).

Settling once more in England, Whetstone published in 1582 a collection of prose romances, which he named after the well-known volume by the Queen of Navarre, ‘An Heptameron of Ciuill Discourses. Containing the Christmasse Exercise of Sundrie well Courted Gentlemen and Gentlewomen. In whose behauiours the better sort may see a represētation of their own virtues. And the Inferiour may learne such Rules of Ciuil Govermēt as will rase out the Blemish of their basenesse. Wherein is Renowned the Vertues of a most honourable and brave mynded gentleman’ (London, printed by Richard Jones, 3 Feb. 1582, 4to, b. l.; Brit. Mus. and Huth Libraries). It was dedicated to Sir Christopher Hatton. Whetstone writes: ‘Whatsoever is praiseworthy in this Booke belongeth to Segnior Phyloxenus and his Courtly favourers.’ By ‘Segnior Phyloxenus’ Whetstone apparently meant Giraldi Cinthio, from whose ‘Hecatommithi’ many of the stories in the volume seem derived. The book is divided, after the manner of Italian novelists, into seven ‘days’ and one ‘night.’ In the ‘Fourth Dayes Exercise’ is given (from Cinthio) ‘The rare Historie of Promos and Cassandra reported by Isabella.’ Cinthio's tale had already furnished Whetstone with the plot of his play of the same name. His prose as well as his dramatic rendering of the tale was doubtless familiar to Shakespeare, who based on it his play of ‘Measure for Measure.’ Whetstone's prose version is reprinted in Collier and Hazlitt's ‘Shakespeare's Library,’ iii. 153–66, and in Cassell's National Library (1889). Richard Jones, the publisher, reissued Whetstone's ‘Heptameron’ in 1593 as ‘Aurelia, the Paragon of Pleasure and Princely Delights, by G. W., gent.’

In 1584 Whetstone abandoned imaginative literature and produced an elaborate prose treatise reprobating the vices that prevailed among the young men of London. The title ran: ‘A Mirour for Magestrates of Cyties. Representing the Ordinaunces, Policies, and Diligence of the Noble Emperour, Alexander (surnamed) Severus to suppresse and chastise the notorious Vices noorished in Rome by the superfluous nomber of Dicing-houses, Tavarns, and common Stewes: suffred and cheerished by his beastlye Predecessour, Helyogabalus’ (London, by R. Jones, 1584, 4to). A new title-page introduced ‘An addition or a Touchstone for the Time,’ which gave a very detailed account of the disreputable aspects of London life. The book was dedicated to Sir Edward Osborne, the lord mayor, and there was a subsidiary address to ‘Gentlemen of the Innes of Court.’ The book was reissued by the publisher Jones in 1586, under the new title, ‘The Enemie to Unthryftiness: publishing by Lawes, Documents, and Disciplines a Right Rule for Reformation of Pride, and other Prodigall and Riotous Disorders, in a Common wealth.’ Copies of both issues are in the British Museum. At the back of the title-page of the second issue the printer inserted a list of Whetstone's previously printed works—ten in all—together with the titles of three ‘bookes redy to be printed,’ viz. ‘A Panoplie of Devices,’ ‘The English Mirrour,’ and ‘The Image of Christian Justice.’ The first and the third of these are not otherwise known in connection with Whetstone.

In 1585 Whetstone temporarily resumed his military career, and accompanied the English forces to Holland. He was present at the battle of Zutphen, when Sir Philip Sidney received his fatal wound on 13 Sept. 1586, and his description of the disaster is in the ‘True Discourse’ of his friend Thomas Churchyard (1602). Military zeal was visible in his ‘The honorable Reputation of a Souldier. With a Morall Report, of the Vertues, Offices, and (by abuse) the Disgrace of his profession’ (London, by Richard Jones, 1585, 4to). The title-page has a fanciful woodcut of a soldier in armour. The book, which consists of anecdotes of military service drawn from classical writers, was dedicated to Sir


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 William Russell. It was translated into Dutch, doubtless while Whetstone was in Holland, and was printed in both Dutch and English in parallel columns at Leyden in 1586; this edition has an appendix addressed to Dutch students on the pronunciation of English. The book, Whetstone tells us, was ‘a member or small parcel’ of a more ambitious political treatise which he had written some time before but had not yet published. The unpublished treatise appeared in 1586 with the fantastic title: ‘The English Myrror. A Regard wherein al estates may behold the Conquests of Envy’ (London, by J. Windet for G. Seton, b. 1. 4to; two copies in Brit. Mus.). There was a dedication to Queen Elizabeth, and an address to the ‘nobilitie of this flourishing realm.’ New title-pages introduce second and third parts, called respectively ‘Envy conquered by vertue, publishing the blessings of peace, the scourge of traitors, the glory of Queen Elizabeths peaceable victories,’ and ‘A fortresse against Envy.’ The first division of the work treats of miscellaneous incidents in foreign history, the second division treats of the reigns of the Tudors in England and supplies much interesting detail respecting recent conspiracies against Elizabeth's rule; the third division discusses the duties of rulers and the functions performed in a well-regulated state by the nobility, the clergy, the yeomanry, and officers of justice.

Meanwhile Whetstone had from time to time composed biographical elegies in verse on distinguished men of the day, pursuing the plan that he had adopted when commemorating the death of his friend Gascoigne. He boasted that several ‘worthy personages, which in my time are deceased, have had the second life of their vertues bruted by my Muse’ (English Myrror, 1586, bk. iii. ded.). In 1579 there appeared his ‘Remembrance of the woorthie and well imployed life of Sir Nich. Bacon, Lord-Keeper’ (London, 4to; dedicated to Gilbert Gerrard, attorney-general). In 1583 Whetstone issued two works of the kind, namely: ‘A Remembraunce of Sir James Dier’ (London, 4to), dedicated to Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor; and ‘A Remembraunce of the Life, Death, and Vertues of … Thomas, Erle of Sussex’ (London, 4to) dedicated to Henry Radcliffe, earl of Sussex. In 1585 there followed ‘A mirror of Treue Honnour and Christian Nobilitie: exposing the life and death and devine vertues of … Francis, Earl of Bedford’ (London, 1585, 4to). Whetstone's final contribution to elegiac literature was an interesting biography in verse of Sir Philip Sidney. This was entitled ‘Sir Philip Sidney, his honourable life, his valiant death and true ‘vertues’ (1586–7, 4to); it was dedicated to Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick. A manuscript copy is in the Public Record Office (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1581–90, p. 387). Whetstone's poems on Bacon, Dyer, Sussex, and Sidney were privately reprinted by Sir Alexander Boswell at the Auchinleck Press in 1816 in a volume entitled ‘Frondes Caducæ.’ The poem on the Earl of Bedford was reprinted in Park's ‘Heliconia’ (vol. ii.).

In 1587 Whetstone published the latest volume that has been set to his credit. It was a prosaic statement of the offences and punishments of Anthony Babington and his fellow conspirators, narrated in the form of a conversation, in which three persons—‘Walker, a godlie devine,’ ‘Weston, a discreet gentleman,’ and ‘Wilcocks, a substantial clothier’—took part. The book bore the title, ‘The Censure of a loyall Subiect: Upon Certaine noted speach and behaviours of those fourteene notable Traitors, at the place of their executions, the xx and xxi of September last past. Wherein is handled matter of necessarye instruction for all dutifull Subjectes, especially the multitude of ignorant people’ (London, by Richarde Jones, 1587, 4to, black letter). It was dedicated to Lord Burghley, and was first issued before the execution of Mary Queen of Scots on 8 Feb. 1586–7. A reissue appeared after her execution, with a prefatory note by Whetstone's friend Thomas Churchyard, stating that Whetstone was in the country. Copies of both issues belong to Mr. Huth. The second only is in the British Museum, and of that two copies are there. This was reprinted by J. P. Collier in his ‘Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature’ in 1863 (vol i. No. 9).

Whetstone is not known to have returned to London after the appearance of the second edition of his ‘Censure of a Loyall Subiect’ in 1587, and it may be assumed that he died soon after it came from the press.

Whetstone's works are crude productions, and are interesting only to the historian of literature and the bibliographer. He achieved some reputation in his day. Webbe, in his ‘Discourse of English Poets,’ 1586 (p. 36), writes of him as a ‘gentleman [who was] worthy, if hee have [it] not already, to weare the Lawrell wreathe; [he is] a man singularly well skyled, in this faculty of Poetrie.’ Meres, in his ‘Palladis Tamia’ (1598), unintelligibly names him among those who are the most passionate poets ‘among us to bewail and bemoane the perplexities of love.’ A later critic, George


text:
Author:George Richmond

Works

 * Portraits:
 * 'Catherine Blake' reprint of sketch in The Letters of William Blake together with His Life by F. Tatham A. G. B. Russell, ed.

title: Author:George Richmond


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 Steevens, speaks of him as ‘the most quaint and contemptible writer, both in prose and verse, he ever met with’ (, Biogr. Literar. p. 388).

[Collier's Bibliographical Catalogue, ii. 504–511, and Poetical Decameron; Corser's Collectanea Anglo-Poetica, xi. 382–92; Brydges and Park's Heliconia, vol. ii.]  WHETSTONE, WILLIAM (d. 1711), rear-admiral, was probably son of John Whetstone, who in 1655 was master of the Swiftsure, flagship of (Sir) William Penn in the expedition against Jamaica. On 30 July 1689, from which date he took post, he was appointed captain of the hired ship Europa, employed during the next two years in convoying victuallers for the army in Ireland. In the autumn of 1692 he commanded the Crown, and in July 1693 was appointed by the joint admirals to the York of sixty guns. In July 1696 he was appointed to the Dreadnought, which he commanded on the Newfoundland station and in the Channel till July 1699, when the ship was paid off. In February 1700–1 he was appointed to the Yarmouth, from which, in the following June, he was moved to the York, to command a squadron going out to Jamaica, and with the local rank of rear-admiral. The detailed history of the York is a curious comment on the state of the navy at that period. In going from St. Helens in July, this newly commissioned ship sprung her mainmast badly, and had to put into Plymouth, where it was found necessary to get a new mainmast. She did not sail from Plymouth till 14 Sept., when she went to Kinsale. She stayed there till the end of October, and on 12 Nov. was back at Plymouth, having carried away her foremast and bowsprit. On 21 Dec. she sailed for Cork, and having sustained some more damage on the way, was surveyed at Cork and pronounced unfit to go to the West Indies. In February 1701–2 Whetstone moved into the Canterbury, and finally sailed from Cork on 14 March. In May he joined Vice-admiral John Benbow [q. v.] at Port Royal. In July he was left by Benbow to command at Jamaica, while he himself went over to the mainland to look for a French squadron that had been reported in that neighbourhood. When the squadron returned to Port Royal Whetstone was president of the court-martials which tried the several captains who had shamefully conspired against their admiral [see ]; on the death of Benbow on 4 Nov. 1702, Whetstone succeeded to the command, which he held till the following June, being then superseded by Vice-admiral John Graydon [q. v.], with whom he returned to England in October.

In January 1703–4, to mark his approval of Whetstone's conduct while having temporary rank, and at the same time to separate him from the charges against Graydon, Prince George promoted him to be rear-admiral of the blue, over the heads of other captains, his seniors, and especially of Sir James Wishart [q. v.] Sir George Rooke, with whom Wishart was then serving, took the matter up very warmly, and it was eventually settled by promoting Wishart and antedating his commission. In March 1703–4 Whetstone had command of a squadron in the Channel; on 18 Jan. 1704–5 he was promoted to be rear-admiral of the white; on 17 Feb. he was appointed commander-in-chief in the West Indies, and on 22 Feb. he was knighted. With his flag on board the Montagu he arrived at Jamaica in the middle of May. The smaller vessels under his command made several valuable prizes; but the strength of his squadron was insufficient to permit him to attack any of the Spanish settlements, and to an invitation to declare in favour of King Charles, the governor of Cartagena replied that ‘he knew no sovereign but King Philip.’ In December 1706 Whetstone returned to England.

In May 1707 he was appointed to command a squadron off Dunkirk, with special instructions to look out for that very active corsair, M. de Forbin. In June he had further orders to convoy the trade for the White Sea as far as the Shetland Islands. This he did in force, and did not part company with the merchant ships till they were well past the Shetlands. Two days afterwards Forbin fell in with them and captured fifteen. Whetstone had even exceeded his orders, which were clearly insufficient against such an enemy as Forbin; but as it was necessary to sacrifice somebody to the popular indignation, it was more convenient to sacrifice Whetstone than the lord high admiral or his council. Whetstone was accordingly superseded from his command, and was not employed again. He seems to have died in the spring of 1711. On 7 May 1711 letters of administration were granted to his widow, Maria Whetstone. He is therein described as ‘of Bristol.’

[Charnock's Biogr. Nav. ii. 290; Journal of Sir George Rooke (Navy Records Soc.), p. 258; Burchett's Transactions at Sea, p. 697; Lediard's Naval History, p. 824; Mémoires du Comte de Forbin, ii. 240; official letters, appointments, &c., in the Public Record Office.]


text:
Portal:Christian denominations

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 * Portal:Roman Catholicism
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 * Portal:Oriental Orthodoxy

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Also known as the Assyrian Church or Nestorian Church:
 * Portal:Church of the East (including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, and the Chaldean Catholic Church)

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The various branches of Protestantism are covered by separate portals:
 * Portal:Moravian Church
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Works about Protestantism in general

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title: Portal:Christian denominations


text: Author:Emma Polk Harris

title: Author:Emma Polk Harris


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Rh extending along under cliffs covered with ilexes. A little way out to sea, two tawny-coloured rocks, like fantastic beasts at rest, close the harbour, and receive over their long backs the foam of the breakers; the first is couched some cable lengths from the shore, the second five hundred metres beyond it. They bear the names of the Land and the Sea Lions."

It was here that Napoleon entered the vessel deporting him to Elba, attended by the Commissioners of the Allied Powers. He had left Fontainebleau upon April 20th, 1814. As he got south he was made to perceive that his popularity, if he ever had any in Provence, was gone. Near Valence he encountered Augereau, whom he had created Duke of Castiglione, and who was an underbred, coarse fellow. Napoleon and his Marshal met on the 24th. Napoleon took off his hat, but Augereau, with vulgar insolence, kept his on. "Where are you going?" asked the fallen Emperor, "to Court?"—"I care for the Bourbons as little as I do for you," answered Augereau: "all I care for is my country." Upon this, Napoleon turned his back on him, and reentered the carriage. Augereau would not even then remove his hat and bow, but saluted his former master with a contemptuous wave of the hand. At Valence, Napoleon saw, for the first time, French soldiers wearing the white cockade. At Orange the air rang with cries of "Vive le Roy!" On arrival at Orgon the populace yelled, "Down with the Corsican! Death to the tyrant! Vive le Roy!"Portraits of Bonaparte were burnt before his eyes; an effigy of himself was fluttered before the carriage window, with the breast pierced, and dripping with

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whately, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whately, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whately, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whatton, William Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheare, Degory


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116 blood. A crowd of furious women screamed, "What have you done with our children?" The Commissioners were obliged to stand about the carriage to protect him; and it was with difficulty that a way could be made through the mob for the carriages to proceed. At Saint Cannat the crowd broke the windows of his coach. Then, for his protection, he assumed a cap and a greatcoat of Austrian uniform, and instead of pursuing his way in the coach, entered a cabriolet. The carriages did not overtake the Emperor till they reached La Calade. The escort found him standing by the fire in the kitchen of the inn, talking with the hostess. She had asked him whether the tyrant was soon to pass that way. "Ah, sir," she said, "it is all nonsense to assert that we are rid of him. I have always said that we never shall be sure of being quit of him till he is thrown to the bottom of a well and it is then filled in with stones. I only wish that well were mine in the yard. Why, the Directory sent him to Egypt to get rid of him, and he returned." Here the woman, having finished skimming her pot, looked up, and perceived that all the party was standing uncovered, except the person whom she was addressing. She was confounded, and her embarrassment amused the ex-Emperor and dispelled his annoyance.

The sous-préfet of Aix closed the gates of the town to prevent the people from issuing forth. At a château near Napoleon met his sister Pauline, who was ill, or pretended to be ill, and was staying there. When he entered to embrace her, she started back. "Oh, Napoleon, why this uniform?" "Pauline," replied he, "do you wish that I were dead?"

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheatley, Benjamin Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheatley, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheatly, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheatstone, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, Daniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, Hugh Massy


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 Rh The princess, looking at him steadfastly, replied, "I cannot kiss you in that Austrian dress. Oh, Napoleon, what have you done?" The ex-Emperor at once retired, and having substituted a greatcoat of his Old Guard for the Austrian suit, entered the chamber of his sister, who ran to him and embraced him tenderly. Then, going to the window, he saw a crowd in the court in a very uncertain temper. He descended at once, and noticing among them an old man with a gash across his nose and a red ribbon in his button-hole, he went up to him at once, and asked, "Are you not Jacques Dumont?"

"Yes, yes, Sire!" And the old soldier drew himself up and saluted.

"You were wounded, but it seems to me that it was long ago." "Sire, at the battle of Tebia, with General Suchet. I was unable to serve longer. But even now, whenever the drum beats, I feel like a deserter. Under your ensign, Sire, I could still serve whenever your Majesty would command." The old man shed tears as he said, "My name! To recollect that after fifteen years! " All hesitation among the crowd as to how they would receive Napoleon was at an end. He had won every heart. Napoleon, as it happens, had a very bad memory for names. What is probable is, that Pauline pointed the old soldier out to her brother from the window, and named him, before Napoleon descended. The English frigate, the Undaunted, was lying in the Gulf of Fréjus. The fallen Emperor manifested considerable reluctance to go on board. However, on April 28th he sailed from S. Raphael, and after a rough

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, James Talboys


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, Maurice


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheeler, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheelocke, Abraham


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheler, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wheler, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whelpdale, Roger


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118 passage disembarked at Porto Ferrajo, the capital of Elba, on the 4th of May. The great Roman road, the Via Aurelia, left the capital of the world by the Janiculan Gate, made for Pisa, Lucca, followed the coast the whole way, passed above where is now Monaco, over a spur of the Maritime Alps by Nice, Antibes, Cannes, came to a little town in the lap of the Gulf of Fréjus, and thence turned abruptly away from the coast and made direct for Aix and Aries. Thence roads radiated: one, leading up the left bank of the Rhone, took troops and commerce to the Rhine. Thence also the Domitian Way conveyed both by Narbonne into Spain. This bay was the last harbour on the Mediterranean for troops that were to march into the heart of Gaul, to Britain, or to the Rhine. Hitherto the road, hugging the coast, offered innumerable facilities for provisioning soldiery and supplying them with munitions of war. But from the Bay of Fréjus this advantage ceased. Julius Cæsar saw the great strategical importance of the harbour, and he resolved to make of it an important haven, a naval station, and an emporium for stores. Marseilles he did not choose. It was a commercial town, a Greek town, and he was out of temper with it for having sided with Pompey against him. Accordingly he settled here some veterans of his favourite Tenth Legion, to become the nucleus of a colony. But Caesar overlooked what was a most important point—his port Forum Julii was planted at the mouth of the Argens, and the river brought down a vast amount of fluviatile deposit, mud and sand, and inevitably in a few years would silt up his port. It had a further disadvantage—it was a fever trap. To the south the town had a wide

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whethamstede, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whetstone, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Whetstone, William


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Author:Lionel James

Works

 * (In part)

title: Author:Lionel James


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Rh tract of fetid marsh, breeding malaria and mosquitoes. He would have done well to have swallowed his resentment against Marseilles and to have taken the opinion of so observant a man as Vitruvius, or even to have studied the conditions himself more closely. Now all the harbour is buried in silt, and grass grows where galleys floated. The lap of the bay, which was once at Fréjus, begins now at S. Raphael and extends to Cap S. Aigous. In time S. Raphael also will be inland, and the Lion de Mer will become, like its fellow, a Lion de Terre. Michel de l'Hôpital, who lived in the sixteenth century, in one of his letters wrote:—

"We arrived at Fréjus, which is nothing more now but a poor little town. Here are grand ruins of an ancient theatre, foundered arcades, baths, aqueduct, and scattered remains of quays and basins. The port has disappeared under sand, and is now nothing but a field and a beach."

If S. Raphael be devoid of antiquities and of history, at a little distance is Fréjus, that has both in abundance.

The ruins are many, but not beautiful; everything was built in a hurry, and badly built. The aqueduct was no sooner completed than it gave way and had to be patched up. The triumphal arch on the old quays is a shabby affair. The amphitheatre is half cut out of the natural rock. There was plenty of granite and porphyry accessible, but the builders did not trouble themselves to obtain large and solid blocks; they built of brick and small stones, without skill and impatiently. The work was probably executed by corvées of labourers impressed from the country round. There were two enormous citadels; one to the north, the other to the

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120 south of the port. The latter, the Butte S. Antoine, was, however, mainly a huge accumulation of store chambers, magazines for whatever was needed for the soldiers, and attached to it was the lighthouse. Beyond, some way on the ancient mole, is the most perfect monument of Roman times extant in Fréjus. It goes by the name of La Lantern; but it was not a lighthouse at all, but the lodge of a harbour-master, who gave directions with a flag to vessels how to enter the harbour and avoid the shoals. The railway now runs close to it across the ancient basin, the port made by Agrippa. To the north of this, where stands now the chapel of S. Roch, was the Port of Cæsar. Poplars now stand where was formerly a forest of masts. The amphitheatre is cut through its entire length by a road. The old wall of the town reached to it, included it, and then drew back to where is now the railway station. The remains of the theatre are to the north of the modern town, and those of the baths to the southwest; they may be reached by taking a road in that direction from the Butte S. Antoine. Although Julius Caesar has the credit of having made the place and called it after his own name, it is certainly more than a guess that there was a Græco-Phœnician settlement here before that time, occupying the bunch of high ground rising above the marshes of the Argens. Indeed, monuments have been found that imply as much, though later in date than the making of the place into a naval station by Caesar. One of these is bi-lingual—Latin and Greek. It begins in Latin:—

"To Caius Vilius Ligur, this is dedicated by his mother Maxima."

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Rh Then comes Greek:—

"This tomb had been constructed for those much older; but Destiny, under the influence of the country and climate, has smitten a child of seven years. His parents, his father and mother, have buried him whom they brought up. Vain are the hopes of men here below."

It is noticeable that this child bore the name of Ligur, living and dying among the Ligurians of the coast. Possibly the family had this native blood in their veins and were not ashamed of it. Another tomb is all in Latin:—

"Agrippina Pia to the Memory of her Friend Baricbal. He lived forty years. She who was his heiress has constructed this monument for him and herself."

And underneath are a pair of clasped hands. What was the story? The name Baricbal is Barac Baal, the Blessed of Baal, the name of a Phœnician. The young heiress undertakes to be buried in the same tomb with him later. But she was an heiress, and she was young. I doubt if her resolution held out, and she did not clasp hands after a year or two with some one else. The cathedral is not particularly interesting; it is of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The baptistery is earlier, and sustained by eight Corinthian columns of granite taken from a Roman building. The cloisters are good, the arches resting on pairs of columns. Fréjus has produced some remarkable men. First of all comes Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus, who wrote his life. From that biography we see what an honourable, true, and in every way upright man an old Roman could

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122 be. Agricola was born in AD, 37 and died in 93. His life is of special interest to us, as he spent so much of his time in Britain, carried the Roman arms into Scotland, and sent an expedition round the coast and established the fact that Britain was an island. He was moved to this by the following circumstance. A body of Germans had been levied on the Rhine and were sent over to serve under Agricola. But after having murdered a centurion and some soldiers who were drilling them, they seized on three light vessels and compelled the captains to go on board with them. One of these, however, escaped to shore, whereupon these Germans murdered the other two, put to sea, and sailed away without one of them having any acquaintance with the sea and the management of ships. They were carried north by winds and waves, and landed occasionally to obtain water and food and to plunder the natives. They circumnavigated the north of Scotland, and then were carried out to sea and suffered terrible privations. They were driven by starvation to kill and eat the weakest of their number and to drink their blood. At length they were wrecked on the North German coast, where they were seized on as pirates, and sold as slaves to the Romans on the left bank of the Rhine. Here they talked and yarned of their adventures, and the news reached Agricola; so he fitted out his expedition and proved the fact that Britain actually was an island. Finally, owing to his success, he fell under suspicion to the jealous tyrant Domitian and was recalled to Rome, where he died; whether poisoned by the Emperor or died a natural death is uncertain. Tacitus himself does not venture to pass an opinion. Another great native of Fréjus was S. Hilary of

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Rh Arles. He was born of noble parents in the year 401, and was a relative of Honoratus, abbot of Lerins. Honoratus left his retirement to seek his kinsman Hilary and draw him to embrace the monastic life; but all his persuasion was at first in vain. "What floods of tears," says Hilary, "did this true friend shed to soften my hard heart! How often did he embrace me with the most tender and compassionate affection, to wring from me a resolve that I would consider the salvation of my soul. Yet I resisted." "Well, then," said Honoratus, "I will obtain from God what you refuse." And he left him. Three days later Hilary had changed his mind, and went to Lerins to place himself under the discipline of Honoratus. In 428 S. Hilary was elected Archbishop of Arles. He was a man of a very impetuous and wilful character, and got sadly embroiled with Pope Leo the Great, whom he defied on behalf of the liberties of the Gallican Church, speaking out to him, as his contemporary biographer asserts, "words that no layman would dare to utter, no ecclesiastic would endure to hear." He had after this to escape from Rome, where assassination was to be feared—by knife or poison—and hurried back to Arles. Leo retorted by writing a letter to the bishops of the province of Vienne denouncing the audacity of Hilary in daring to set himself up against his authority, and releasing them from all allegiance to the see of Arles. Soon after this a fresh quarrel broke out. A bishop Projectus complained that when he was ill, Hilary had rushed into his diocese without inquiring whether he were yet dead, and Without calling on the clergy and people to elect a successor, had consecrated another

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