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  In a very few years, however, the open pit mining was rendered impossible by the mud rushes, by the falls of the masses of barren rock known as “reef,” which were left standing in the mine, and by landslips from the sides, so that in 1883, when the pit had reached a depth of about 400 ft., mining in the Kimberley crater had become almost impossible. By 1889, in the whole group of mines, Kimberley, Dutoitspan, De Beers and Bultfontein, open pit working was practically abandoned. Meanwhile mining below the bottom of the pits by means of shafts and underground tunnels had been commenced; but the full development of modern methods dates from the year 1889 when Cecil Rhodes and Alfred Beit, who had already secured control of the De Beers mine, acquired also the control of the Kimberley mine, and shortly afterwards consolidated the entire group in the hands of the De Beers Company. (See .)

The scene of native mining was now transferred from the open pit to underground tunnels; the vast network of wire ropes (Plate II. fig. 12) with their ascending and descending buckets disappeared, and with it the cosmopolitan crowd of busy miners working like ants at the bottom of the pit. In place of all this, the visitor to Kimberley encounters at the edge of the town only a huge crater, silent and apparently deserted, with no visible sign of the great mining operations which are conducted nearly half a mile below the surface. The aspect of the Kimberley pit in 1906 is shown in fig. 13 of Plate II., which may be compared with the section of fig. 8.

In fig. 13, Plate II., the sequence of the basalt, shale and melaphyre is clearly visible on the sides of the pit; and fig. 8 shows how the crater or “pipe” of blue ground has penetrated these rocks and also the underlying quartzite. The workings at De Beers had extended into the still more deeply seated granite in 1906. Figure 9, Plate I., shows the top of the De Beers’ crater with basalt overlying the shale. Figure 8 also explains the modern system of mining introduced by Gardner Williams. A vertical shaft is sunk in the vicinity of the mine, and from this horizontal tunnels are driven into the pipe at different levels separated by intervals of 40 ft. Through the blue ground itself on each level a series of parallel tunnels about 120 ft. apart are driven to the opposite side of the pipe, and at right angles to these, and 36 ft. apart, another series of tunnels. When the tunnels reach the side of the mine they are opened upwards and sideways so as to form a large chamber, and the overlying mass of blue ground and débris is allowed to settle down and fill up the gallery. On each level this process is carried somewhat farther back than on the level below (fig. 8); material is thus continually withdrawn from one side of the mine and extracted by means of the rock shaft on the opposite side, while the superincumbent débris is continually sinking, and is allowed to fall deeper on the side farthest from the shaft as the blue ground is withdrawn from beneath it. In 1905 the main shaft had been sunk to a depth of 2600 ft. at the Kimberley mine.

For the extraction and treatment of the blue ground the De Beers Company in its great winding and washing plant employs labour-saving machinery on a gigantic scale. The ground is transferred in trucks to the shaft where it is automatically tipped into skips holding 96 cubic ft. (six truck loads); these are rapidly hoisted to the surface, where their contents are automatically dumped into side-tipping trucks, and these in turn are drawn away in a continual procession by an endless wire rope along the tram lines leading to the vast “distributing floors.” These are open tracts upon which the blue ground is spread out and left exposed to sun and rain until it crumbles and disintegrates, the process being hastened by harrowing with steam ploughs; this may require a period of three or six months, or even a year. The stock of blue ground on the floors at one time in 1905 was nearly 4,500,000 loads. The disintegrated ground is then brought back in the trucks and fed through perforated cylinders into the washing pans; the hard blue which has resisted disintegration on the floors, and the lumps which are too big to pass the cylindrical sieves, are crushed before going to the pans. These are shallow cylindrical troughs containing muddy water in which the diamonds and other heavy minerals (concentrates) are swept to the rim by revolving toothed arms, while the lighter stuff escapes near the centre of the pan. The concentrates are then passed over sloping tables (pulsator) and shaken to and fro under a stream of water which effects a second concentration of the heaviest material.

Until recently the final separation of the diamond from the concentrates was made by hand picking, but even this has now been replaced by machinery, owing to the remarkable discovery that a greased surface will hold a diamond while allowing the other heavy minerals to pass over it. The concentrates are washed down a sloping table of corrugated iron which is smeared with grease, and it is found that practically all the diamonds adhere to the table, and the other minerals are washed away. At the large and important Premier mine in the Transvaal the Elmore process, used in British Columbia and in Wales for the separation of metallic ores, has been also introduced. In the Elmore process oil is employed to float off the materials which adhere to it, while the other materials remain in the water, the oil being separated from the water by centrifugal action. The other minerals found in the concentrates are pebbles and fragments of pyrope, zircon, cyanite, chrome-diopside, enstatite, a green pyroxene, mica, ilmenite, magnetite, chromite, hornblende, olivine, barytes, calcite and pyrites.

In all the S. African mines the diamonds are not only crystals of various weights from fractions of a carat to 150 carats, but also occur as microscopic crystals disseminated through the blue ground. In spite of this, however, the average yield in the profitable mines is only from 0·2 carat to 0·6 carat per load of 1600 lb, or on an average about 1 grs. per ton. The annual output of diamonds from the De Beers mines was valued in 1906 at nearly £5,000,000; the value per carat ranging from about 35s. to 70s.

Pipes similar to those which surround Kimberley have been found in other parts of S. Africa. One of the best known is that of Jagersfontein, which was really the first of the dry diggings (discovered in 1870). This large mine is near Fauresmith and 80 m. to the south of Kimberley. In 1905 the year’s production from the Orange River Colony mines was more than 320,000 carats, valued at £938,000. But by far the largest of all the pipes hitherto discovered is the Premier mine in the Transvaal, about 300 m. to the east of Kimberley. This was discovered in 1902 and occupies an area of about 75 acres. In 1906 it was being worked as a shallow open mine; but the description of the Kimberley methods given above is applicable to the washing plant at that time being introduced into the Premier mine upon a very large scale. Comparatively few of the pipes which have been discovered are at all rich in diamonds, and many are quite barren; some are filled with “hard blue” which even if diamantiferous may be too expensive to work.

The most competent S. African geologists believe all these remarkable pipes to be connected with volcanic outbursts which occurred over the whole of S. Africa during the Cretaceous period (after the deposition of the Stormberg beds), and drilled these enormous craters through all the later formations. With the true pipes are associated dykes and fissures also filled with diamantiferous blue ground. It is only in the more northerly part of the country that the pipes are filled with blue ground (or “kimberlite”), and that they are diamantiferous; but over a great part of Cape Colony have been discovered what are probably similar pipes filled with agglomerates, breccias and tuffs, and some with basic lavas; one, in particular, in the Riversdale Division near the southern coast, being occupied by a melilite-basalt. It is quite clear that the occurrence of the diamond in the S. African pipes is quite different from the occurrences in alluvial deposits which have been described above. The question of the origin of the diamond in S. Africa and elsewhere is discussed below.

The River Diggings on the Vaal river are still worked upon a small scale, but the production from this source is so limited that they are of little account in comparison with the mines in the blue ground. The stones, however, are good; since they differ somewhat from the Kimberley crystals it is probable that they were not derived from the present pipes. Another S. African locality must be mentioned; considerable finds were reported in 1905 and 1906 from gravels at Somabula near Gwelo in Rhodesia where the diamond is associated with chrysoberyl, corundum (both sapphire and ruby), topaz, garnet, ilmenite, staurolite, rutile, with pebbles of quartz, granite,

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 chlorite-schist, &c. Diamond has also been reported from kimberlite “pipes” in Rhodesia.

Other Localities.—In addition to the South American localities mentioned above, small diamonds have also been mined since their discovery in 1890 on the river Mazaruni in British Guiana, and finds have been reported in the gold washings of Dutch Guiana. Borneo has possessed a diamond industry since the island was first settled by the Malays; the references in the works of Garcia de Orta, Linschoten, De Boot, De Laet and others, to Malacca as a locality relate to Borneo. The large Borneo stone, over 360 carats in weight, known as the Matan, is in all probability not a diamond. The chief mines are situated on the river Kapuas in the west and near Bandjarmassin in the south-east of the island, and the alluvial deposits in which they occur are worked by a small number of Chinese and Malays. Australia has yielded diamonds in alluvial deposits near Bathurst (where the first discovery was made in 1851) and Mudgee in New South Wales, and also near Bingara and Inverell in the north of the colony. At Mount Werong a stone weighing 29 carats was found in 1905. At Ruby Hill near Bingara they were found in a breccia filling a volcanic pipe. At Ballina, in New England, diamonds have been found in the sea sand. Other Australian localities are Echunga in South Australia; Beechworth, Arena and Melbourne in Victoria; Freemantle and Nullagine in Western Australia; the Palmer and Gilbert rivers in Queensland. These have been for the most part discoveries in alluvial deposits of the goldfields, and the stones were small. In Tasmania also diamonds have been found in the Corinna goldfields. Europe has produced few diamonds. Humboldt searched for them in the Urals on account of the similarity of the gold and platinum deposits to those of Brazil, and small diamonds were ultimately found (1829) in the gold washings of Bissersk, and later at Ekaterinburg and other spots in the Urals. In Lapland they have been found in the sands of the Pasevig river. Siberia has yielded isolated diamonds from the gold washings of Yenisei. In North America a few small stones have been found in alluvial deposits, mostly auriferous, in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, Wisconsin, California, Oregon and Indiana. A crystal weighing 23 carats was found in Virginia in 1855, and one of 21 carats in Wisconsin in 1886. In 1906 a number of small diamonds were discovered in an altered peridotite somewhat resembling the S. African blue ground, at Murfreesboro, Pike county, Arkansas. Considerable interest attaches to the diamonds found in Wisconsin, Michigan and Ohio near the Great Lakes, for they are here found in the terminal moraines of the great glacial sheet which is supposed to have spread southwards from the region of Hudson Bay; several of the drift minerals of the diamantiferous region of Indiana have been identified as probably of Canadian origin; no diamonds have however yet been found in the intervening country of Ontario. A rock similar to the blue ground of Kimberley has been found in the states of Kentucky and New York. The occurrence of diamond in meteorites is described below.

Origin of the Diamond in Nature.—It appears from the foregoing account that at most localities the diamond is found in alluvial deposits probably far from the place where it originated. The minerals associated with it do not afford much clue to the original conditions; they are mostly heavy minerals derived from the neighbouring rocks, in which the diamond itself has not been observed. Among the commonest associates of the diamond are quartz, topaz, tourmaline, rutile, zircon, magnetite, garnet, spinel and other minerals which are common accessory constituents of granite, gneiss and the crystalline schists. Gold (also platinum) is a not infrequent associate, but this may only mean that the sands in which the diamond is found have been searched because they were known to be auriferous; also that both gold and diamond are among the most durable of minerals and may have survived from ancient rocks of which other traces have been lost.

The localities at which the diamond has been supposed to occur in its original matrix are the following:—at Wajra Karur, in the Cuddapah district, India, M. Chaper found diamond with corundum in a decomposed red pegmatite vein in gneiss. At São João da Chapada, in Minas Geraes, diamonds occur in a clay interstratified with the itacolumite, and are accompanied by sharp crystals of rutile and haematite in the neighbourhood of decomposed quartz veins which intersect the itacolumite. It has been suggested that these three minerals were originally formed in the quartz veins. In both these occurrences the evidence is certainly not sufficient to establish the presence of an original matrix. At Inverell in New South Wales a diamond (1906) has been found embedded in a hornblende diabase which is described as a dyke intersecting the granite. Finally there is the remarkable occurrence in the blue ground of the African pipes.

There has been much controversy concerning the nature and origin of the blue ground itself; and even granted that (as is generally believed) the blue ground is a much serpentinized volcanic breccia consisting originally of an olivine-bronzite-biotite rock (the so-called kimberlite), it contains so many rounded and angular fragments of various rocks and minerals that it is difficult to say which of them may have belonged to the original rock, and whether any were formed in situ, or were brought up from below as inclusions. Carvill Lewis believed the blue ground to be true eruptive rock, and the carbon to have been derived from the bituminous shales of which it contains fragments. The Kimberley shales, which are penetrated by the De Beers group of pipes, were, however, certainly not the source of the carbon at the Premier (Transvaal) mine, for at this locality the shales do not exist. The view that the diamond may have crystallized out from solution in its present matrix receives some support from the experiments of W. Luzi, who found that it can be corroded by the solvent action of fused blue ground; from the experiments of J. Friedländer, who obtained diamond by dissolving graphite in fused olivine; and still more from the experiments of R. von Hasslinger and J. Wolff, who have obtained it by dissolving graphite in a fused mixture of silicates having approximately the composition of the blue ground. E. Cohen, who regarded the pipes as of the nature of a mud volcano, and the blue ground as a kimberlite breccia altered by hydrothermal action, thought that the diamond and accompanying minerals had been brought up from deep-seated crystalline schists. Other authors have sought the origin of the diamond in the action of the hydrated magnesian silicates on hydrocarbons derived from bituminous schists, or in the decomposition of metallic carbides.

Of great scientific interest in this connexion is the discovery of small diamonds in certain meteorites, both stones and irons; for example, in the stone which fell at Novo-Urei in Penza, Russia, in 1886, in a stone found at Carcote in Chile, and in the iron found at Cañon Diablo in Arizona. Graphitic carbon in cubic form (cliftonite) has also been found in certain meteoric “irons,” for example in those from Magura in Szepes county, Hungary, and Youndegin near York in Western Australia. The latter is now generally believed to be altered diamond. The fact that H. Moissan has produced the diamond artificially, by allowing dissolved carbon to crystallize out at a high temperature and pressure from molten iron, coupled with the occurrence in meteoric iron, has led Sir William Crookes and others to conclude that the mineral may have been derived from deep-seated iron containing carbon in solution (see the article ). Adolf Knop suggested that this may have first yielded hydrocarbons by contact with water, and that from these the crystalline diamond has been formed. The meteoric occurrence has even suggested the fanciful notion that all diamonds were originally derived from meteorites. The meteoric iron of Arizona, some of which contains diamond, is actually found in and about a huge crater which is supposed by some to have been formed by an immense meteorite penetrating the earth’s crust.

It is, at any rate, established that carbon can crystallize as diamond from solution in iron, and other metals; and it seems that high temperature and pressure and the absence of oxidizing agents are necessary conditions. The presence of sulphur, nickel, &c., in the iron appears to favour the production of the diamond. On the other hand, the occurrence in meteoric stones, and the experiments mentioned above, show that the diamond may also crystallize from a basic magma, capable of yielding some of the metallic oxides and ferro-magnesian silicates; a magma, therefore, which is not devoid of oxygen. This is still more forcibly suggested by the remarkable eclogite boulder found in the blue ground of the Newlands mine, not far from the Vaal river, and described by T. G. Bonney. The boulder is a crystalline rock consisting of pyroxene (chrome-diopside), garnet, and a little olivine, and is studded with diamond crystals; a portion of it is preserved in the British Museum (Natural History). In another eclogite boulder, diamond was found partly embedded in pyrope. Similar boulders have also been found in the blue ground elsewhere. Specimens of pyrope with attached or embedded diamond had previously been found in the blue ground of the De Beers mines. In the Newlands boulder the diamonds have the appearance of being an original constituent of the eclogite. It seems therefore that a holocrystalline pyroxene-garnet rock may be one source of the diamond found in blue ground. On the other hand many tons of the somewhat similar eclogite in the De Beers mine have been crushed and have not yielded diamond. Further, the ilmenite, which is the most characteristic associate of the diamond in blue ground, and other of the accompanying minerals, may have come from basic rocks of a different nature.

The Inverell occurrence may prove to be another example of diamond crystallized from a basic rock.

In both occurrences, however, there is still the possibility that the eclogite or the basalt is not the original matrix, but may have caught up the already formed diamond from some other matrix. Some regard the eclogite boulders as derived from deep-seated crystalline rocks, others as concretions in the blue ground.

None of the inclusions in the diamond gives any clue to its origin; diamond itself has been found as an inclusion, as have also black specks of some carbonaceous materials. Other black specks have been identified as haematite and ilmenite; gold has also been found; other included minerals recorded are rutile, topaz, quartz, pyrites, apophyllite, and green scales of chlorite (?). Some of these are of very doubtful identification; others (e.g. apophyllite and chlorite) may have been introduced along cracks. Some of the fibrous inclusions were identified by H. R. Göppert as vegetable structures and were supposed to point to an organic origin, but this view is no longer held. Liquid inclusions, some of which are certainly carbon dioxide, have also been observed.

Finally, then, both experiment and the natural occurrence in rocks and meteorites suggest that diamond may crystallize not only from iron but also from a basic silicate magma, possibly from various rocks consisting of basic silicates. The blue ground of S. Africa may be

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 the result of the serpentinization of several such rocks, and although now both brecciated and serpentinized some of these may have been the original matrix. A circumstance often mentioned in support of this view is the fact that the diamonds in one pipe generally differ somewhat in character from those of another, even though they be near neighbours.

History.—All the famous diamonds of antiquity must have been Indian stones. The first author who described the Indian mines at all fully was the Portuguese, Garcia de Orta (1565), who was physician to the viceroy of Goa. Before that time there were only legendary accounts like that of Sindbad’s “Valley of the Diamonds,” or the tale of the stones found in the brains of serpents. V. Ball thinks that the former legend originated in the Indian practice of sacrificing cattle to the evil spirits when a new mine is opened; birds of prey would naturally carry off the flesh, and might give rise to the tale of the eagles carrying diamonds adhering to the meat.

The following are some of the most famous diamonds of the world:—

A large stone found in the Golconda mines and said to have weighed 787 carats in the rough, before being cut by a Venetian lapidary, was seen in the treasury of Aurangzeb in 1665 by Tavernier, who estimated its weight after cutting as 280 (?) carats, and described it as a rounded rose-cut-stone, tall on one side. The name Great Mogul has been frequently applied to this stone. Tavernier states that it was the famous stone given to Shah Jahan by the emir Jumla. The Orloff, stolen by a French soldier from the eye of an idol in a Brahmin temple, stolen again from him by a ship’s captain, was bought by Prince Orloff for £90,000, and given to the empress Catharine II. It weighs 194 carats, is of a somewhat yellow tinge, and is among the Russian crown jewels. The Koh-i-nor, which was in 1739 in the possession of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror, and in 1813 in that of the raja of Lahore, passed into the hands of the East India Company and was by them presented to Queen Victoria in 1850. It then weighed 186 carats, but was recut in London by Amsterdam workmen, and now weighs 106 carats. There has been much discussion concerning the possibility of this stone and the Orloff being both fragments of the Great Mogul. The Mogul Baber in his memoirs (1526) relates how in his conquest of India he captured at Agra the great stone weighing 8 mishkals, or 320 ratis, which may be equivalent to about 187 carats. The Koh-i-nor has been identified by some authors with this stone and by others with the stone seen by Tavernier. Tavernier, however, subsequently described and sketched the diamond which he saw as shaped like a bisected egg, quite different therefore from the Koh-i-nor. Nevil Story Maskelyne has shown reason for believing that the stone which Tavernier saw was really the Koh-i-nor and that it is identical with the great diamond of Baber; and that the 280 carats of Tavernier is a misinterpretation on his part of the Indian weights. He suggests that the other and larger diamond of antiquity which was given to Shah Jahan may be one which is now in the treasury of Teheran, and that this is the true Great Mogul which was confused by Tavernier with the one he saw. (See Ball, Appendix I. to Tavernier’s Travels (1889); and Maskelyne, Nature, 1891, 44, p. 555.).

The Regent or Pitt diamond is a magnificent stone found in either India or Borneo; it weighed 410 carats and was bought for £20,400 by Pitt, the governor of Madras; it was subsequently, in 1717, bought for £80,000 (or, according to some authorities, £135,000) by the duke of Orleans, regent of France; it was reduced by cutting to 136 carats; was stolen with the other crown jewels during the Revolution, but was recovered and is still in France. The Akbar Shah was originally a stone of 116 carats with Arabic inscriptions engraved upon it; after being cut down to 71 carats it was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for £35,000. The Nizam, now in the possession of the nizam of Hyderabad, is supposed to weigh 277 carats; but it is only a portion of a stone which is said to have weighed 440 carats before it was broken. The Great Table, a rectangular stone seen by Tavernier in 1642 at Golconda, was found by him to weigh 242 carats; Maskelyne regards it as identical with the Darya-i-nur, which is also a rectangular stone weighing about 186 carats in the possession of the shah of Persia. Another stone, the Taj-e-mah, belonging to the shah, is a pale rose pear-shaped stone and is said to weigh 146 carats.

Other famous Indian diamonds are the following:—The Sancy, weighing 53 carats, which is said to have been successively the property of Charles the Bold, de Sancy, Queen Elizabeth, Henrietta Maria, Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV.; to have been stolen with the Pitt during the French Revolution; and subsequently to have been the property of the king of Spain, Prince Demidoff and an Indian prince. The Nassak, 78 carats, the property of the duke of Westminster. The Empress Eugénie, 51 carats, the property of the gaikwar of Baroda. The Pigott, 49 carats(?), which cannot now be traced. The Pasha, 40 carats. The White Saxon, 48 carats. The Star of Este, 25 carats.

Coloured Indian diamonds of large size are rare; the most famous are:—a beautiful blue brilliant, 67 carats, cut from a stone weighing 112 carats brought to Europe by Tavernier. It was stolen from the French crown jewels with the Regent and was never recovered. The Hope, 44 carats, has the same colour and is probably a portion of the missing stone: it was so-called as forming part of the collection of H. T. Hope (bought for £18,000), and was sold again in 1906 (resold 1909). Two other blue diamonds are known, weighing 13 and 1 carats, which may also be portions of the French diamond. The Dresden Green, one of the Saxon crown jewels, 40 carats, has a fine apple-green colour. The Florentine, 133 carats, one of the Austrian crown jewels, is a very pale yellow.

The most famous Brazilian stones are:—The Star of the South, found in 1853, when it weighed 254 carats and was sold for £40,000; when cut it weighed 125 carats and was bought by the gaikwar of Baroda for £80,000. Also a diamond belonging to Mr Dresden, 119 carats before, and 76 carats after cutting.

Many large stones have been found in South Africa; some are yellow but some are as colourless as the best Indian or Brazilian stones. The most famous are the following:—the Star of South Africa, or Dudley, mentioned above, 83 carats rough, 46 carats cut. The Stewart, 288 carats rough, 120 carats cut. Both these were found in the river diggings. The Porter Rhodes from Kimberley, of the finest water, weighed about 150 carats. The Victoria, 180 carats, was cut from an octahedron weighing 457 carats, and was sold to the nizam of Hyderabad for £400,000. The Tiffany, a magnificent orange-yellow stone, weighs 125 carats cut. A yellowish octahedron found at De Beers weighed 428 carats, and yielded a brilliant of 288 carats. Some of the finest and largest stones have come from the Jagersfontein mine; one, the Jubilee, found in 1895, weighed 640 carats in the rough and 239 carats when cut. Until 1905 the largest known diamond in the world was the Excelsior, found in 1893 at Jagersfontein by a native while loading a truck. It weighed 971 carats, and was ultimately cut into ten stones weighing from 68 to 13 carats. But all previous records were surpassed in 1905 by a magnificent stone more than three times the size of any known diamond, which was found in the yellow ground at the newly discovered Premier mine in the Transvaal. This extraordinary diamond weighed 3025 carats (1 ℔) and was clear and water white; the largest of its surfaces appeared to be a cleavage plane, so that it might be only a portion of a much larger stone. It was known as the Cullinan Diamond. This stone was purchased by the Transvaal government in 1907 and presented to King Edward VII. It was sent to Amsterdam to be cut, and in 1908 was divided into nine large stones and a number of small brilliants. The four largest stones weigh 516 carats, 309 carats, 92 carats and 62 carats respectively. Of these the first and second are the largest brilliants in existence. All the stones are flawless and of the finest quality.

—Boetius de Boot, Gemmarum et lapidum historia (1609); D. Jeffries, A Treatise on Diamonds and Pearls (1757); J. Mawe, Travels in the Interior of Brazil (1812); Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones (1813): Pinder, De adamante (1829); Murray, Memoir on the Nature of the Diamond (1831); C. Zerenner, De adamante dissertatio (1850); H. Emanuel, Diamonds and Precious Stones (1865); A. Schrauf, Edelsteinkunde (1869); N. Jacobs and N. Chatrian, Monographie du diamant (1880); V. Ball, Geology of India (1881); C. W. King, The Natural History of Precious Stones

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 and Precious Metals (1883); M. E. Boutan, Le Diamant (1886); S. M. Burnham, Precious Stones in Nature, Art and Literature (1887); P. Groth, Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde (1887); A. Liversidge, The Minerals of New South Wales (1888); Tavernier’s Travels in India, translated by V. Ball (1889); E. W. Streeter, The Great Diamonds of the World (1896); H. C. Lewis, The Genesis and Matrix of the Diamond (1897); L. de Launay, Les Diamants du Cap (1897); C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (1898); E. W. Streeter, Precious Stones and Gems (6th ed., 1898); Dana, System of Mineralogy (1899); Kunz and others, The Production of Precious Stones (in annual, Mineral Resources of the United States); M. Bauer, Precious Stones (trans. L. J. Spencer, 1904); A. W. Rogers, An Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony (1905); Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa (revised edition, 1906); George F. Kunz, “Diamonds, a study of their occurrence in the United States, with descriptions and comparisons of those from all known localities” (U.S. Geol. Survey, 1909); P. A. Wagner, Die Diamantführenden Gesteine Südafrikas (1909).

Among papers in scientific periodicals may be mentioned articles by Adler, Ball, Baumhauer, Beck, Bonney, Brewster, Chaper, Cohen, Crookes, Daubrée, Derby, Des Cloizeaux, Doelter, Dunn, Flight, Friedel, Gorceix, Gürich, Goeppert, Harger, Hudleston, Hussak, Jannettaz, Jeremejew, de Launay, Lewis, Maskelyne, Meunier, Moissan, Molengraaff, Moulle, Rose, Sadebeck, Scheibe, Stelzner, Stow. See generally Hintze’s Handbuch der Mineralogie.

 DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE AFFAIR OF THE, a mysterious incident at the court of Louis XVI. of France, which involved the queen Marie Antoinette. The Parisian jewellers Boehmer and Bassenge had spent some years collecting stones for a necklace which they hoped to sell to Madame Du Barry, the favourite of Louis XV., and after his death to Marie Antoinette. In 1778 Louis XVI. proposed to the queen to make her a present of the necklace, which cost 1,600,000 livres. But the queen is said to have refused it, saying that the money would be better spent equipping a man-of-war. According to others, Louis XVI. himself changed his mind. After having vainly tried to place the necklace outside of France, the jewellers attempted again in 1781 to sell it to Marie Antoinette after the birth of the dauphin. It was again refused, but it was evident that the queen regretted not being able to acquire it.

At that time there was a personage at the court whom Marie Antoinette particularly detested. It was the cardinal Louis de Rohan, formerly ambassador at Vienna, whence he had been recalled in 1774, having incurred the queen’s displeasure by revealing to the empress Maria Theresa the frivolous actions of her daughter, a disclosure which brought a maternal reprimand, and for having spoken lightly of Maria Theresa in a letter of which Marie Antoinette learned the contents. After his return to France the cardinal was anxious to regain the favour of the queen in order to obtain the position of prime minister. In March 1784 he entered into relations with a certain Jeanne de St Remy de Valois, a descendant of a bastard of Henry II., who after many adventures had married a soi-disant comte de Lamotte, and lived on a small pension which the king granted her. This adventuress soon gained the greatest ascendancy over the cardinal, with whom she had intimate relations. She persuaded him that she had been received by the queen and enjoyed her favour; and Rohan resolved to use her to regain the queen’s good will. The comtesse de Lamotte assured the cardinal that she was making efforts on his behalf, and soon announced to him that he might send his justification to Marie Antoinette. This was the beginning of a pretended correspondence between Rohan and the queen, the adventuress duly returning replies to Rohan’s notes, which she affirmed to come from the queen. The tone of the letters became very warm, and the cardinal, convinced that Marie Antoinette was in love with him, became ardently enamoured of her. He begged the countess to obtain a secret interview for him with the queen, and a meeting took place in August 1784 in a grove in the garden at Versailles between him and a lady whom the cardinal believed to be the queen herself. Rohan offered her a rose, and she promised him that she would forget the past. Later a certain Marie Lejay (renamed by the comtesse “Baronne Gay d’Oliva,” the last word being apparently an anagram of Valoi), who resembled Marie Antoinette, stated that she had been engaged to play the role of queen in this comedy. In any case the countess profited by the cardinal’s conviction to borrow from him sums of money destined ostensibly for the queen’s works of charity. Enriched by these, the countess was able to take an honourable place in society, and many persons believed her relations with Marie Antoinette, of which she boasted openly and unreservedly, to be genuine. It is still an unsettled question whether she simply mystified people, or whether she was really employed by the queen for some unknown purpose, perhaps to ruin the cardinal. In any case the jewellers believed in the relations of the countess with the queen, and they resolved to use her to sell their necklace. She at first refused their commission, then accepted it. On the 21st of January 1785 she announced that the queen would buy the necklace, but that not wishing to treat directly, she left the affair to a high personage. A little while later Rohan came to negotiate the purchase of the famous necklace for the 1,600,000 livres, payable in instalments. He said that he was authorized by the queen, and showed the jewellers the conditions of the bargain approved in the handwriting of Marie Antoinette. The necklace was given up. Rohan took it to the countess’s house, where a man, in whom Rohan believed he recognized a valet of the queen, came to fetch it. Madame de Lamotte had told the cardinal that Marie Antoinette would make him a sign to indicate her thanks, and Rohan believed that she did make him a sign. Whether it was so, or merely chance or illusion, no one knows. But it is certain that the cardinal, convinced that he was acting for the queen, had engaged the jewellers to thank her; that Boehmer and Bassenge, before the sale, in order to be doubly sure, had sent word to the queen of the negotiations in her name; that Marie Antoinette had allowed the bargain to be concluded, and that after she had received a letter of thanks from Boehmer, she had burned it. Meanwhile the “comte de Lamotte” appears to have started at once for London, it is said with the necklace, which he broke up in order to sell the stones.

When the time came to pay, the comtesse de Lamotte presented the cardinal’s notes; but these were insufficient, and Boehmer complained to the queen, who told him that she had received no necklace and had never ordered it. She had the story of the negotiations repeated for her. Then followed a coup de théâtre. On the 15th of August 1785, Assumption day, when the whole court was awaiting the king and queen in order to go to the chapel, the cardinal de Rohan, who was preparing to officiate, was arrested and taken to the Bastille. He was able, however, to destroy the correspondence exchanged, as he thought, with the queen, and it is not known whether there was any connivance of the officials, who did not prevent this, or not. The comtesse de Lamotte was not arrested until the 18th of August, after having destroyed her papers. The police set to work to find all her accomplices, and arrested the girl Oliva and a certain Reteaux de Villette, a friend of the countess, who confessed that he had written the letters given to Rohan in the queen’s name, and had imitated her signature on the conditions of the bargain. The famous charlatan Cagliostro was also arrested, but it was recognized that he had taken no part in the affair. The cardinal de Rohan accepted the parlement of Paris as judges. A sensational trial resulted (May 31, 1786) in the acquittal of the cardinal, of the girl Oliva and of Cagliostro. The comtesse de Lamotte was condemned to be whipped, branded and shut up in the Salpetrière. Her husband was condemned, in his absence, to the galleys for life. Villette was banished.

Public opinion was much excited by this trial. It is generally believed that Marie Antoinette was stainless in the matter, that Rohan was an innocent dupe, and that the Lamottes deceived both for their own ends. People, however, persisted in the belief that the queen had used the countess as an instrument to satisfy her hatred of the cardinal de Rohan. Various circumstances fortified this belief, which contributed to render Marie Antoinette very unpopular—her disappointment at Rohan’s acquittal, the fact that he was deprived of his charges and exiled to the abbey of la Chaise-Dieu, and finally the escape of the comtesse de Lamotte from the Salpetrière, with the connivance, as people believed, of the court. The adventuress, having taken refuge abroad, published Mémoires in which she accused the queen. Her

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172 which produced such intense nausea as one of those "objective" chairs, one of those scented mannikins-about-town of history, a thing half-priest, half-satyr (Renan parfum), which betrays by the high, shrill falsetto of his applause what he lacks and where he lacks it, who betrays where in this case the Fates have plied their ghastly shears, alas: in too surgeon-like a fashion! This is distasteful to me, and irritates my patience; let him keep patient at such sights who has nothing to lose thereby,—such a sight enrages me, such spectators embitter me against the "play," even more than does the play itself (history itself, you understand); Anacreontic moods imperceptibly come over me. This Nature, who gave to the steer its horn, to the lion its χάσμ' ὄδόντων, for what purpose did Nature give me my foot?—To kick, by St. Anacreon, and not merely to run away! To trample on all the worm-eaten "chairs," the cowardly contemplators, the lascivious eunuchs of history, the flirters with ascetic ideals, the righteous hypocrites of impotence! All reverence on my part to the ascetic ideal, in so far as it is honorable! So long as it believes in itself and plays no pranks on us! But I like not all these coquettish bugs who have an insatiate ambition to smell of the infinite, until eventually the infinite smells of bugs; I like not the whited sepulchres with their stagey reproduction of life; I like not the tired and the used up who wrap themselves in wisdom and look "objective"; I like not the agitators dressed up as heroes, who hide their dummy-heads behind the stalking-horse of an ideal; I like not the ambitious artists who would fain play the ascetic and the priest, and

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Rh are at bottom nothing but tragic clowns; I like not, again, these newest speculators in idealism, the Anti-Semites, who nowadays roll their eyes in the patent Christian-Aryan-man-of-honour fashion, and by an abuse of moralist attitudes and agitation dodges, so cheap as to exhaust any patience, strive to excite all the blockhead elements in the populace (the invariable success of every kind of intellectual charlatanism in present-day Germany hangs together with the almost indisputable and already quite palpable desolation of the German mind, whose cause I look for in a too exclusive diet, of papers, politics, beer, and Wagnerian music, not forgetting the condition precedent of this diet, the national exclusiveness and vanity, the strong but narrow principle, "Germany, Germany above everything," and finally the paralysis agitans of "modern ideas"). Europe nowadays is, above all, wealthy and ingenious in means of excitement; it apparently has no more crying necessity than stimulantia and alcohol. Hence the enormous counterfeiting of ideals, those most fiery spirits of the mind; hence too the repulsive, evil-smelling, perjured, pseudo-alcoholic air everywhere. I should like to know how many cargoes of imitation idealism, of hero-costumes and high falutin' clap-trap, how many casks of sweetened pity liqueur (Firm: la religion de la souffrance), how many crutches of righteous indignation for the help of these flat-footed intellects, how many comedians of the Christian moral ideal would need to-day to be exported from Europe, to enable its air to smell pure again. It is obvious that, in regard to this over-production, a new trade possibility lies open; it is

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 [Birmingham Daily Post, 25, 27, 28, 29 Jan. 1898; Times, 25, 29 Jan. 1898; Daily Chronicle, 25 Jan. 1898; Leeds Grammar School Register, 1897, p. 23; Reid's Life of Forster, 1888; Smith's Life of John Bright, 1881, ii. 512; Ann. Reg.; Hansard's Parliamentary Debates.]

DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822–1870), sporting writer, known as ‘The Druid,’ the second son of Peter Dixon (d. 1866), a large cotton-spinner residing at Warwick Bridge, near Carlisle, who married in 1820 Sarah Rebecca, daughter of General Tredway Clarke, was born in Cumberland on 16 May 1822. He was educated under Arnold at Rugby (1838–41), and proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1846, and would have obtained high honours in classics but for the temporary failure of his eyesight. He had written on sporting subjects for ‘Bell's Life’ both at Rugby and at Cambridge, and when he settled as clerk to an attorney at Doncaster he was easily persuaded by the veteran James White, known as ‘Martingale,’ to become a systematic writer on sporting topics. He showed remarkable aptitude from the first, became in a very short time the manager of the ‘Doncaster Gazette,’ and was introduced from it to Vincent Dowling, editor of ‘Bell's Life in London,’ for which he began writing in 1850. On Dowling's death in November 1862 he was offered but refused the editorship of ‘Bell's Life’ with a commencing salary of 1,000l. He probably retained the idea of practising at the bar, for he was called in 1853, and went for a time upon the midland circuit. But this soon failed him as a resource, and he began writing regularly for the ‘Sporting Magazine,’ first under the pseudonym of General Chassé, and then as ‘The Druid.’ Three of his best known works, ‘Post and Paddock’ (1856), ‘Silk and Scarlet’ (1859), and ‘Scott and Sebright’ (1862), which last he considered his best work, made their first appearance in the pages of that periodical. At the time that he was writing ‘Silk and Scarlet’ he was, in order to conciliate his father, working hard upon ‘The Law of the Farm,’ a useful compendium, which first appeared in 1858, and has maintained its position as a standard work through numerous editions. After its appearance he began a column of freshly written information for the ‘Illustrated London News,’ under the heading of ‘The Farm,’ and in 1859 also he began a series of papers upon ‘The Flocks and Herds of Great Britain’ for the ‘Mark Lane Express.’ He visited upwards of eighty herds, and henceforth his attention was largely diverted from the turf to cattle and farming matters. He won four prizes for essays offered by the Royal Agricultural Society, the most important being his essay on the ‘Breeding of Shorthorns’ in 1865. In the same year appeared his ‘Field and Fern,’ the result of a careful perambulation of Scotland and inspection of the herds of that country, on the conclusion of which he rode from the Orkneys to his house at Kensington on the back of a small pony without stopping at an hotel, thus winning a sovereign, the largest bet he ever made, from the editor of the ‘Field.’ Like ‘Field and Fern,’ his larger work on the herds and cattle of England was issued in two volumes (‘North’ and ‘South’) under the title of ‘Saddle and Sirloin’ in 1870. In the meantime Dixon had been appointed upon the regular staff of the ‘Daily News,’ in which paper his much appreciated article on ‘Cub-hunting’ appeared. But he had suffered terribly from severe exposure during his numerous tramps, and his health gradually gave way. Working to the last with unflinching courage and industry, he died at his house in Kensington on 16 March 1870.

He married in May 1847 Caroline, daughter of Thomas Lynes, who survived him with a large family. An excellent portrait was engraved by W. J. Alais for ‘The Life and Times of the Druid’ (1895).

The Druid rarely hunted or betted on a horse race; he was not a Nimrod himself (like Apperley), but he was an interested spectator of all kinds of sport, and was emphatically one of those lookers-on who see most of the game. He had not much in common with the ordinary turfite, having retained to the last ‘the view he had imbibed at Rugby as to the respect due to classical scholarship, to liberalism in politics, and above all to religion.’ Yet, as an exponent of sporting tradition, he has no rival, though all sporting journalists have lit their torches at the Druid's fire. His sympathies were nearly universal, and, inclining always to take a kindly view of human nature, he studiously avoided writing a word to cause pain. His faults are lack of the finish and clearness that can only be obtained by revision (which he neglected), and the obscurity that comes from allusiveness. There is a strong vein of poetry in many of his vivid sporting recollections and impressions of landscape. A number of stories are told of the Druid's eccentricities, arising for the most part from his queer solitary habits and his singular indifference to money and to regular meals.


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174 obvious that there is a new business to be done in little ideal idols and obedient "idealists"—don't pass over this tip! Who has sufficient courage? We have in our hands the possibility of idealising the whole earth. But what am I talking about courage? we only need one thing here—a hand, a free, a very free hand.

27.

Enough! enough! let us leave these curiosities and complexities of the modern spirit, which excite as much laughter as disgust. Our problem can certainly do without them, the problem of the meaning of the ascetic ideal—what has it got to do with yesterday or to-day? those things shall be handled by me more thoroughly and severely in another connection (under the title "A Contribution to the History of European Nihilism," I refer for this to a work which I am preparing: The Will to Power, an Attempt at a Transvaluation of All Values). The only reason why I come to allude to it here is this: the ascetic ideal has at times, even in the most intellectual sphere, only one real kind of enemies and damagers: these are the comedians of this ideal—for they awake mistrust. Everywhere otherwise, where the mind is at work seriously, powerfully, and without counterfeiting, it dispenses altogether now with an ideal (the popular expression for this abstinence is "Atheism")—with the exception of the will for truth. But this will, this remnant of an ideal, is, if you will believe me, that ideal itself in its severest and cleverest formulation, esoteric through and through, stripped of all outworks, and consequently not so much

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156 little foresaw the ordeal in store for them, yet they were comparatively fortunate in remaining at their convent. They would have been buffeted about like others but for the overcrowding of the prisons and the spaciousness of their heterogeneous buildings, so graphically described by George Sand, afterwards a boarder there. Their journal, which the present chaplain, the Abbé Cédoz, has allowed me to inspect, has a gap of several years, followed by a brief statement of the cause.

A motley throng of prisoners, good and bad, rich and poor, occupied the convent. They included several actresses; Malesherbes's daughter, Madame de Rosanbo, guillotined with eleven other inmates; George Sand's grandmother, Madame Dupin; and the birdseller's daughter, Victoire Delaborde. Curiously enough, these two did not then make each other's acquaintance, and Maurice Dupin, then a boy living at Auteuil, who agreed with his mother that at a certain hour in the day both should fix their eyes on the dome of the Pantheon, had no presentiment that his destined wife, Victoire, might also be gazing at it. Disparity of station kept the two women apart. A number of British subjects were detained there, among them the Abbé Edgeworth's sister, Betty, who was "dragged from prison to prison." His mother, too, was probably there also, for she was arrested while he was still in concealment in Paris,


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Rh its remnant as its kernel. Unqualified honest atheism (and its air only do we breathe, we, the most intellectual men of this age) is not opposed to that ideal, to the extent that it appears to be; it is rather one of the final phases of its evolution, one of its syllogisms and pieces of inherent logic—it is the awe-inspiring catastrophe of a two-thousand-year training in truth, which finally forbids itself the lie of the belief in God. (The same course of development in India—quite independently, and consequently of some demonstrative value—the same ideal driving to the same conclusion the decisive point reached five hundred years before the European era, or more precisely at the time of Buddha—it started in the Sankhyam philosophy, and then this was popularised through Buddha, and made into a religion.)

What, I put the question with all strictness, has really triumphed over the Christian God? The answer stands in my Joyful Wisdom, Aph. 357: "the Christian morality itself, the idea of truth, taken as it was with increasing seriousness, the confessor-subtlety of the Christian conscience translated and sublimated into the scientific conscience into intellectual cleanness at any price. Regarding Nature as though it were a proof of the goodness and guardianship of God; interpreting history in honour of a divine reason, as a constant proof of a moral order of the world and a moral teleology; explaining our own personal experiences, as pious men have for long enough explained them, as though every arrangement, every nod, every single thing were invented and sent out of love for the salvation of the soul; all this is now done away with, all this has the conscience against it, and is regarded by every

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This little book is published at the oft-repeated and urgent request of many of our clergy and candidates for Holy Order. The book entitled, The Ceremonies of the Mass, published in the year 1905, under the auspices of the Clerical Union, has long been out of print, and the publication of a new and revised edition has been delayed for several years by the greatly increased cost thereof. Until that new edition is published, and indeed at all times, this smaller and less extensive book, as inexpensive and sufficient for ordinary use, may reasonably be expected to serve its purpose. It contemplates not ideal conditions but such as are common among us throughout this country, and is intended to help priests who have not been trained to celebrate the holy Eucharist with a fitting ceremonial and who desire to fulfil this all-important part of their official duty more perfectly. The fact is recognized that in many instances for certain reasons, be they good or bad, priests are wont to celebrate without the assistance of a server. In order to simplify the ceremonial directions and make them such as may easily be followed, a few of the less important details have been omitted, and some have been confined to the sections under the head of "General Rules." Several of the articles in the appendix have been written in order to correct, so far as possible, certain abuses which, in recent years, have become increasingly common. Directions of more than usual fulness, have been given concerning vestments, with the purpose of enabling priests to utilize the services of needle-women who may be found among the people to whom they minister, and so to provide the needed vestments which might not otherwise be obtained. The performance of some of the ceremonial actions hereinafter directed involves sincere and intelligent belief in Catholic doctrine concerning the holy Eucharist; and it may also be said that such belief


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 involves (in a priest) the performance of such, or similar, actions.

Every priest of our communion ought to be profoundly thankful that he has for his mass-rite, a Catholic liturgy in his own mother-tongue, understood by the people, and "a rite which contains every feature regarded as important whether by the Latins or by the Greeks; and one also from which has been eliminated every word seemingly condemnatory of, or inconsistent with, any definition touching the Blessed Sacrament which either Rome or Constantinople has set forth." Surely, such a rite should not be shorn of fitting ceremonial, by which the people may be edified, their devotion increased, their faith strengthened, and God glorified. The best of liturgical authority can be given for whatsoever is herein set forth, but for the sake of brevity all references to liturgical authors, save in two or three instances, have been omitted. . New York, Oct. 1st, 1921


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176 subtler conscience as disreputable, dishonourable, as lying, feminism, weakness, cowardice—by means of this severity, if by means of anything at all, are we, in sooth, good Europeans and heirs of Europe's longest and bravest self-mastery." . . . All great things go to ruin by reason of themselves, by reason of an act of self-dissolution: so wills the law of life, the law of necessary "self-mastery" even in the essence of life—ever is the law-giver finally exposed to the cry, "patere legem quam ipse tulisti" ; in thus wise did Christianity go to ruin as a dogma, through its own morality; in thus wise must Christianity go again to ruin to-day as a morality—we are standing on the threshold of this event. After Christian truthfulness has drawn one conclusion after the other, it finally draws its strongest conclusion, its conclusion against itself; this, however, happens, when it puts the question, "what is the meaning of every will for truth?" And here again do I touch on my problem, on our problem, my unknown friends (for as yet I know of no friends): what sense has our whole being, if it does not mean that in our own selves that will for truth has come to its own consciousness as a problem?—By reason of this attainment of self-consciousness on the part of the will for truth, morality from hence-forward—there is no doubt about it—goes to pieces: this is that great hundred-act play that is reserved for the next two centuries of Europe, the most terrible, the most mysterious, and perhaps also the most hopeful of all plays.

28.

If you except the ascetic ideal, man, the animal man

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The priest should thoroughly commit to memory certain parts of the mass-rite, viz., the Decalogue; the Exhortation beginning with the words, "Ye who do truly," etc.; the Confession; the Absolution; the "Comfortable Words"; the versicles, "Lift up your hearts," and "Let us give thanks unto our Lord God"; the prayer of "Humble Access"; the forms for the administration of the Communion; and the Blessing.

Assuming that he will not fail to use his privilege of saying, privately and so as not to interfere with the public order, certain suitable prayers before and at certain points in the mass, the priest will do well to commit to memory and make due use of the forms set forth in full in the Appendix (or other similar forms,) which should commend themselves to priests who make use of this book.

Gravity and seriousness should characterize the conduct and behavior of the priest when he is engaged in celebrating the Holy Eucharist. When he approaches the altar, returns from it, or moves from one place to another, the priest should walk with solemn gait, hold his head erect, have his eyes cast down and be recollected but not self-conscious. In passing from one part of the altar to another, and when going up or coming down the steps of the altar, the priest should never move sideways nor backward, but should first turn himself so as to face in the direction in which he is to go, and then proceed. When coming down from the footpace to the level of the sanctuary (and not carrying the Blessed Sacrament), the priest should not turn his back directly upon the altar-cross, but, having bowed towards the cross, should turn himself by his left so as to bring his back towards the Epistle-side of the altar, or by his right so as to bring his back towards the Gospel-side, and then go Rh


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DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833–1900), historian, poet, and divine, was the eldest son of Dr. [q. v.], a distinguished Wesleyan preacher, by Mary, only daughter of the Rev. (1781–1833) [q. v.] In the biography he wrote of his father, Dixon describes his mother as 'an excellent Latin and Greek scholar, a perfect French and a sufficient Italian linguist, and an exquisite musician;' and of his grandmother, Mrs. Watson, who made a home with her daughter, he retained an affectionate recollection as of a very good and clever woman. Both the Watsons and Dixons belonged to the early school of methodists, who did not renounce their membership in the church of England, so that there was no feeling that Dixon had been disloyal to their communion when he prepared for orders in the church.

He was born on 5 May 1833 at Islington, and educated, under Dr. GiffardGifford [sic], at King Edward's School, Birmingham, where he had for school friends [q. v. Suppl. [sic]] and (Sir) [q. v. Suppl.] In June 1851 he matriculated at Pembroke College, Oxford, and when in the Christmas term of the same year Edward Burne-Jones and [q. v. Suppl.] came up to Exeter College, they, with Fulford, Faulkner, Cormell Price, and a few more, formed a close brotherhood. An excellent account of these Oxford days was contributed by Dixon to Mr. J. W. Mackail's ‘Life of Morris’ (i. 42 sqq.) He says ‘Jones and Morris were both meant for holy orders, and the same may be said of the rest of us except Faulkner; but the bond of alliance was poetry and indefinite artistic and literary aspirations. We all had the notion of doing great things for men according to our own will and bent.’ With Morris, Dixon projected the ‘Oxford and Cambridge Magazine,’ and had a hand, under Rossetti's direction, in the amateur distempering of the walls of Woodward's new debating hall at the Oxford Union with frescoes from the Arthurian Romances, now almost completely obliterated. Dixon did not in after life pursue painting as a study—a single canvas, a wedding-scene from Chaucer, is, it is believed, the only picture of his that survives —but he always retained his interest, and a visit to the old masters in the National Gallery was a regular incident of any visit to London. At Oxford Dixon read for the ordinary classical schools, and graduated B.A. in 1857. The next year he won the Arnold historical prize for an essay on ‘The Close of the Tenth Century of the Christian Era,’ and in 1863 the Cramer prize for a sacred poem, the subject being ‘St. John in Patmos.’ The poem is in the heroic couplet, and is a very dignified and impressive piece of writing. His first published volume of poems, called ‘Christ's Company,’ had already appeared in 1861, and a second, ‘Historical Odes,’ followed in 1863. These early poems of Dixon were distinguished by not a little of the colour and imagination, and also by something of the eccentricity, that marked the early efforts of the Pre-Raphaelite school.

The poems of the first volume, though largely upon religious subjects, are not strictly religious poetry; they are works of picturesque imagination rather than of devotional feeling. The ‘Historical Odes’ show an advance in simplicity, and a power, that Dixon afterwards carried further, of ode construction. The odes upon Wellington and Marlborough contain much good writing, and deserve more attention than they have received.

After leaving Oxford Dixon lodged for a time with Morris and Burne-Jones in Red Lion Square. In 1858 he was ordained to the curacy of St. Mary-the-Less, Lambeth, Mr. Gregory, the present dean of St. Paul's, giving him his title. In 1861 (9 April) he married the widow of William Thomson of Haddingtonshire (née Maria Sturgeon), in the same year removing to the curacy of St. Mary, Newington Butts. From 1863 to 1868 he was second master at Carlisle High School, and from 1868 to 1875 minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle Cathedral. After that he was for eight years vicar of Hayton, in Cumberland, and was then presented by the bishop of Carlisle to the vicarage of Warkworth in Northumberland, which he held till his death. Besides these small livings Dixon received no preferment in the church, although the best years of his life were devoted to writing a church history, which took rank from the first moment of its appearance as a standard authority. His friends would have greatly valued for him the increase of leisure and opportunities for study which a cathedral stall would have afforded; but it was not to be. The distinctions which he received after the appearance of the first volume of his history, in 1877, were such as to reduce the already scanty leisure of a hard-worked parish clergyman. In 1874 he had been made honorary canon of Carlisle; in 1879 he


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 down the steps. When standing at the altar, the priest should avoid leaning against it, lolling upon it, and a waving motion of the body. He should avoid all exaggerated gestures and everything suggestive of affectation. In a word, every act and motion should be pervaded by a quiet dignity and manly reverence.

In celebrating the Holy Eucharist, whensoever no part of the rite, as set forth in the Book of Common Prayer, is sung, all parts of the rite, whether "read upon the book" or said in addressing the people, should be uttered distinctly, in a clear and audible voice. The priest should so read or say whatever is prescribed that he himself may read or speak "with understanding," not mechanically or without attention to the significance of the words which he utters: and, while avoiding everything suggestive of declamation, so read and speak that the people may hear and be edified. In his utterance of words the priest should avoid, both over-haste and excessive slowness. Whatever is to be said or done should be said or done at the proper time, and not anticipated. Thus, for example, the priest having said the Kyries standing before the midst of the altar, should not say the words, "Let us pray," as he passes to the Epistle-corner, but wait until he stands facing the book. In general, whatever is to be read should be "read upon the book," even though the priest know by heart what he is reading.

When officiating at the altar, the priest is in duty bound to safeguard the chiefest channel into his soul, viz., his sense of sight, by keeping his eyes from whatsoever might distract his attention from the service in which he is engaged. As a rule his eyes should be down-cast. They should be fixed on the Sacrament at the elevation, and whenever it is taken into the hands; and while saying the private prayers immediately before communion.

If it be remembered that Christ, immediately before addressing his heavenly Father, when about to raise Lazarus from the dead, and again before beginning the solemn prayer recorded in the seventeenth chapter of the Gospel Rh


text:
Infantry, Part I: Regular Army /Preface

 * Preface

 * Infantry are those troops that fight on foot and that rely chiefly upon the small arms carried by individuals. This volume on infantry in the United States Army deals with the organization of foot units at the level of regiments and below. Infantry brigades and divisions will be covered in a subsequent volume in the Army Lineage Series.

 * Although the narrative portion discusses infantry in the reserve components as well as in the Regular Army, this volume (Part I) includes lineages only for Regular Army parent regiments organized under the Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS) and for those of their elements that have been active since the establishment of CARS. Army National Guard and Army Reserve infantry lineages will be published in the near future in a separate volume (Part II), because infantry units of all three components are far too numerous to be included in one book. Lineages for Army Reserve elements of Regular Army parent regiments which appear in this volume will be reprinted in the second part, so that a complete set of reserve infantry lineages will be available in that volume.

 * In the first edition of this book, published in 1953, the narrative ended with World War II and most of the lineages were carried only to the outbreak of the Korean War. Since that time several major reorganizations and the adoption of CARS have significantly changed infantry organization, while many infantry units have earned additional honors in Korea and Vietnam. In the present volume, the narrative has been brought up to date through 31 December 1969 and the lineages through 31 December 1970. Only those Vietnam campaign participation credits that have been confirmed in Department of the Army General Orders are listed, but all unit decorations reported up to the time the book went to the printer are included.

 * The 1953 edition was prepared by Dr. Mahon, and his narrative from the American Revolution through World War II is reprinted in this volume with only minor changes. Miss Danysh wrote the narrative from 1945 to the end and selected the illustrations to accompany the text. The Organizational History Branch (OHB) of the Office of the Chief of Military History (OCMH) is responsible for the determination of official unit lineages and honors. The lineages which appear in this volume are the result of research done by many members of OHB, past and present. Miss Danysh brought all the lineages up to date and added the Vietnam honors.

 * Descriptions of coats of arms, historic badges, distinctive insignia, and other heraldic items approved for infantry regiments are included with the lineages. These descriptions as well as the color illustrations of the heraldic items were furnished by the Institute of Heraldry, U.S. Army. The authors are particularly grateful to Dr. Opal V. Landrum, Miss Ellen Bantz, and Mr. Charles A. Reynolds.

 * Miss Janice E. McKenney of OHB compiled the unit bibliographies with .the assistance of Mr. Charles E. Dornbusch's comprehensive bibliography entitled Histories, Personal Narratives, United States Army (Cornwallville, New York: Hope Farm Press, 1967) . Most of the unit histories cited are unofficial works that were prepared outside the Department of the Army. They are, nevertheless, valuable sources of additional information about the units.

 * The authors want to thank Brig. Gen. Hal C. Pattison, who as Chief of Military History took a personal interest in the publication of this volume and generously shared his broad professional knowledge and experience. All members of the OCMH review panel for the revised edition (Dr. Stetson Conn, then Chief Historian, chairman; Mr. Joseph R. Friedman, Editor in Chief; Col. Robert H. Fechtman, Chief, Historical Services Division; Mr. John W. Wike, Deputy Chief, Historical Services Division; Mrs. Mary Lee Stubbs, Chief, OHB; Mr. Stanley Russell Connor, Deputy Chief, OHB; and Dr. Ernest F. Fisher, Jr., General History Branch) were most helpful, and their constructive criticism of the draft improved the final product considerably.

 * Special thanks are given to Dr. Conn, who took time from a very busy schedule to make valuable oral and written comments, and to Mrs. Stubbs and Mr. Connor, coauthors of the Armor Cavalry volume, published in 1969 in the Army Lineage Series. In addition to reviewing the narrative, Mrs. Stubbs provided guidance and inspiration for the entire revision project, while Mr. Connor carefully read draft after draft and made numerous excellent suggestions.

 * Helpful comments and suggestions were also made by Col. Wolfred K. White, formerly Chief, Histories Division; Mr. Charles B. MacDonald, Chief, Current History Branch; Mr. John B. Wilson, OHB; Col. S. B. Sightler, Jr., USA, Retired; and the United States Army Infantry School. The manuscript was edited by Mr. David Jaffe, Chief of the Editorial Branch, assisted by Mr. Bernard F. Halloran and Miss Christine A. Otten. We owe our thanks, too, to Mrs. Corinna L. Swan and Miss Maxine L. Pressley for expertly typing and retyping countless pages without losing their sense of humor.

 * Many others contributed to the completion of this volume by their knowledge, advice, co-operation, and encouragement-and to all of them we are sincerely grateful. For any and all errors in the narrative and in the lineages the authors alone are responsible.

 * Washington, D.C.
 * 15 April 1971

 * JOHN K. MAHON
 * ROMANA DANYSH

title: Infantry, Part I: Regular Army /Preface


text: More Celtic Fairy Tales/The Ridere of Riddles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Dixon, Henry Hall


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 4 increase of cocoa (cacao), the quality of which comes next to that of Trinidad, among the West India islands; and the larger growth of cotton and spices, the latter including cloves and vanilla, pepper and cardamoms, and, especially, nutmegs. The export of spices, for instance, grew from a value of under £3500 in 1880, to close upon £18,000 in 1896. The fruit-trade is also becoming important in the markets of Barbados, Trinidad, and New York, and comprises coco-nuts and mangoes, with tropical fruits of almost every kind. Some products, in this line, of temperate climes have been introduced with success, including raspberries, strawberries, and apples. The plants and roots used for home-food consist of yams, sweet-potatoes, pigeon-peas, plantains, Indian corn, manioc, bread-fruit, and others. Turning to the chief commercial growths, we find that, in 1892, of the 20,418 acres under cultivation, sugar-cane was growing on only 911, while 11,115 were devoted to cocoa (cacao)-trees, 1812 to cotton, and 1343 acres to spices. In 1890, over 8 million pounds weight of cocoa were shipped, with a value of nearly £230,000, against little more than half the amount in 1880. Other exports comprise Indian corn, cotton and cotton-seed, ground-nuts, hides and skins, whale-oil, obtained from "fish" caught around the Grenadines, and live stock as above mentioned. Trade is carried on with the neighbouring islands and Venezuela, with the United States, and, very largely, with the British Isles. Timber, in great demand for new houses needed by an increasing population, bread-stuffs, and salt meat, come from the States; manufactured goods, in textiles and hardware, from Great Britain. The total exports, in 1896, had a value of £184,000, of which about £170,000 are accounted for by the United Kingdom. Of imports to the worth of over £154,000, the British Isles sent out £66,485. The revenue, mainly obtained by import duties, was £56,275 in 1896, with an expenditure of £60,523, and a public debt exceeding £127,000. St. George, the capital, as seat of government for all these Windward Isles, and also the chief port, lies on the south-west side of Grenada, in the middle of a large sandy-bottomed bay, safe from storms, with an inner spacious landlocked harbour on the eastern side. The little city of 5000 people is seen scrambling up the hillside with red roofs and church spires, among cacao and bread-fruit trees, and with garden-girt villas leading the eye up to the large and handsome Government


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 according to St. John, lifted up his eyes; and that in ancient Liturgies, both Eastern and Western, the mind of the Church has expressed itself in words manifesting the belief that our Lord when blessing the bread at the Institution of the holy Eucharist, lifted up his eyes heavenward, it should appear fitting that in celebrating the holy mysteries wherein the life as well as the final sufferings and the death of Christ are set forth, similar actions should be performed by the priest. Therefore, upon this principle and in accordance with traditional usage, the priest should lift up his eyes at certain points in the mass, viz., immediately before the prayers, (1) "Cleanse my heart," etc., and (2) "Receive, Holy Father," etc.; during the prayer (3) "We offer unto thee," etc.; on beginning the prayer (4) "Come, O Holy Ghost," etc., immediately before the prayer (5) "Receive, O Holy Trinity," etc.; at the commencement of the Prayer (6) of Consecration; immediately before (7) the consecration of the bread; and before (8) the blessing. The eyes are to be raised without movement of the head, and so that the priest looks at the altar-cross. Having been raised they are at once cast down except at the offering of the wine, where they remain uplifted throughout the prayer.

It is a general rule that when the priest, officiating at the altar, is not performing any action with his hands, he should keep them joined before his breast. The hands are thus joined by placing the palms nearly or quite close together, and the fingers stretched out close together, all the fingers of one hand being applied to those of the other, and the thumb of the right hand crossed over the thumb of the left hand. When the hands are held joined before the breast, the fingers are turned a little upwards. After the consecration the thumbs can not be crossed nor all the fingers stretched out and applied to each other, but the position in general is the same as directed above.

When the hands are joined and placed upon the altar, the little fingers do not rest upon the altar, but the tips thereof touch the front of the mensa (or altar-table), the extremities of the six longer fingers rest upon the corporal, and the thumbs are crossed. When the hands are extended, Rh


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Rh had no meaning. His existence on earth contained no end; "What is the purpose of man at all?" was a question without an answer; the will for man and the world was lacking; behind every great human destiny rang as a refrain a still greater "Vanity!" The ascetic ideal simply means this: that something was lacking, that a tremendous void encircled man—he did not know how to justify himself, to explain himself, to affirm himself, he suffered from the problem of his own meaning. He suffered also in other ways, he was in the main a diseased animal; but his problem was not suffering itself, but the lack of an answer to that crying question, "To what purpose do we suffer?" Man, the bravest animal and the one most inured to suffering, does not repudiate suffering in itself: he wills it, he even seeks it out, provided that he is shown a meaning for it, a purpose of suffering. Not suffering, but the senselessness of suffering was the curse which till then lay spread over humanity—and the ascetic ideal gave it a meaning! It was up till then the only meaning; but any meaning is better than no meaning; the ascetic ideal was in that connection the "faute de mieux" par excellence that existed at that time. In that ideal suffering found an explanation; the tremendous gap seemed filled; the door to all suicidal Nihilism was closed. The explanation—there is no doubt about it—brought in its train new suffering, deeper, more penetrating, more venomous, gnawing more brutally into life: it brought all suffering under the perspective of guilt; but in spite of all that—man was saved thereby, he had a meaning, and from henceforth was no more like a leaf in the wind, a shuttle-cock of chance, of nonsense, he could now "will" something—absolutely

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text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Crédit Foncier

CRÉDIT FONCIER, krā'dē' fôn'syā', in France and other continental countries, a mode of raising money on land, the peculiarity of which is that the advance must not exceed one-half of the value of the property pledged or hypothecated, and that the repayment of the loan is by an annuity, which includes the interest and part of the principal, terminable at a certain date. Several companies have been established by the government with the privilege of making loans. The movement was initiated by L. Wolowski and was accepted by government decree in 1852. Its name became the “Banque Foncière of Paris.” Similar institutions at Nevers and Marseilles were amalgamated into one under the title of “Crédit Foncier de France.” Consult Wolowski, L., ‘De la Mobilisation du Crédit foncier’ (in Revue Wolowski, Vol. X, p. 241, 1839); Josseau, Chonsky and Delanoy, ‘Des Institutions de crédit foncier et agricole dans les principaux Etats de l'Europe’ (1851); Girault, A., ‘Le Crédit foncier et ses privilèges’ (Paris 1889, in Buttetin de la Société de législation comparée, 1891, pp. 232-237).


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 Rh House, behind which one green hill after another rises towards the peak of Mount Maitland, 1700 feet in height. The place was originally built by the French, with the name of Port Royal, changed to St. George on the cession of Grenada in 1763. The five stone-built forts on the surrounding hills have been dismantled since 1854, when the regular forces were removed from the island; the chief of these structures, Fort George, is now used as a barrack for the police force. The Grenadines are a line of islands, about 300 in number, and varying in size from 600 to nearly 8000 acres, running for sixty miles northward from Grenada to St. Vincent. Bare of wood, and edged with cliffs and streaks of red and gray rock, they rise a few hundred feet out of very deep sea. The inhabitants are chiefly a quiet and prosperous race of small proprietors or yeomen, raising and exporting live stock and vegetable products, conveyed to the larger islands in coasters of their own building. The southern islands of the group are attached politically to Grenada, and of these the chief is Carriacou, with an area of nearly 7000 acres and a population of about 6000. The chief island connected with St. Vincent is Becquia, in the north of the Grenadines; it is somewhat larger than Carriacou. The beautiful St. Vincent, an irregular oblong in shape, broader in the northern than in the southern half, lies about 70 miles north-north-east of Grenada, and 100 miles due west of Barbados. Eighteen miles long, and eleven in extreme breadth, it has an area of 132 sq. miles, with a population (1898) just exceeding 46,000, of whom about 2450 were whites, and 31,000 blacks, the residue being mainly coloured people and East Indian coolies. The history of the island in the nineteenth century involves nothing worthy of mention save the great eruption of 1812; the decline of sugar production due to the slave-emancipation of 1838, to the admission in British ports of slave-grown sugar, in 1846, at the same tariff as the West Indian article, and to a fall of prices in more recent years; and the establishment, in 1878, after previous changes in the constitutional system, of the island's rule as a "Crown colony" instead of by representative government. The mention of "eruption" has already stated the volcanic origin and character of St. Vincent. From north to south runs a chain of densely-wooded mountains with peaks from 3000 to 4000 feet in height. The chief crater,


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VI.] out those methods and processes which, with such modifications as the varying circumstances rendered necessary, should be applied in the investigation of other types of language also. The foundation was broad enough to build up a shapely and many-sided edifice upon. Yet the study of Indo-European language is not the science of language. Such is the diversity in unity of human speech that exclusive attention to any one of its types could only give us partial and false views of its nature and history. Endlessly as the dialects of our family appear to differ from one another, they have a distinct common character, which is brought to our apprehension only when we compare them with those of other stock; they are far from exhausting the variety of expression which the human mind is capable of devising for its thought; the linguist who trains himself in them alone will be liable to narrowness of vision, and will stumble when he comes to walk in other fields. We claim only that their inner character and outer circumstances combine to give them the first place in the regard of the linguistic scholar; that their investigation will constitute in the future, as it has done in the past, a chief object of his study; and that their complete elucidation is both the most attainable and the most desirable and rewarding object proposed to itself by linguistic science.

The general method of linguistic research has already been variously set forth and illustrated, in an incidental way; but a summary recapitulation of its principles, with fuller reference to the grounds on which they are founded, will not be amiss at this point in our progress. The end sought by the scientific investigator of language, it will be remembered, is not a mere apprehension and exposition, however full and systematic, of the phenomena of a language, or of all human speech—of its words, its forms, its rules, its usages: that is work for grammarians and lexicographers. He strives to discover the why of everything: why these words, these affixes, have such and such meanings; why usage is thus, and not otherwise; why so many and such words and forms, and they only, are found in a given tongue—and so on, in ever farther-reaching inquiry, back even to the question,


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 the upper part of the arms (i. e. above the elbow) are held near the body, the palms of the hands are turned towards each other, neither upwards nor downwards nor forwards, the hands are held as high as the shoulders and the fingers point upwards. The hands are held extended during the prayers (which are said aloud) and are joined at the conclusion thereof. When the hands, disjoined, are placed upon the altar, the palms are turned to the surface of the mensa, the fingers extended, and the wrists are not allowed to go beyond the front edge of the mensa.

During the reading of the Epistle the priest places his hands on the mass-book and holds it, or else he touches the book with his palms and allows the little fingers to rest on the altar.

On announcing the Gospel, the priest places his left hand upon the book, makes a small sign of the cross, with the tip of the thumb of his right hand, upon the opening words of the Gospel; and then, placing his left hand near and a little below his breast, he makes similar signs of the cross on his forehead, lips, and breast. While performing these actions the hands are extended, and palms turned towards book and person.

When anything is done with only one hand, the other must be placed on the book, altar, breast, or chalice, as the particular action may require. When the hands are placed upon the altar they rest thereon beyond the corporal prior to the consecration. After the consecration, they rest on the corporal.

The custom of smiting the breast as a sign of penitence and an expression of a sense of unworthiness in connection with the acknowledgment of unworthiness and sin, is of great antiquity. It has been very generally practiced by faithful Christians, and, by traditional usage, has its place among the liturgical acts of the priest when he celebrates the holy Eucharist. The breast is struck, neither violently nor over-lightly, with the fingers of the right hand held closely together, and slightly curved, the left hand meanwhile being held near and a little below the breast. While performing this action the priest should not withdraw his Rh


text: More Celtic Fairy Tales/Notes and References


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Page:The British Empire in the nineteenth century Volume VI.djvu/18

 6 styled the Soufrière (sulphur-mine) as in other West Indian islands, lies in the north of this range, which sends off spurs on each side, dividing the island into a series of beautiful and fertile valleys running east and west to the coast. The southern part of the chain ends in Mount St. Andrew, 2500 feet in height, overlooking a fine bay and the chief town. The many streams are small, except when they are swollen by the heavy rains in the season between May and February, the average annual fall being 100 inches. At this time thunder-storms are of frequent occurrence, and the prevailing wind is from the north-east. In spite of humidity and the tropical heat, the climate is one of the most healthy in the West Indies. The only wild animals are some hogs and agoutis; the little rivers abound in a fish called "mountain-mullet", somewhat like the grayling in flavour; the sea has abundant and excellent fish, a small species of whale, 20 to 30 feet in length, and a race of sharks which, it seems, do not care for human flesh, and never attack men upset from the island-boats in the many sudden fierce squalls rushing down from the hills.

The pride of St. Vincent, in the way of scenery, is the magnificent Soufrière, one of the finest and largest craters in the world, with its edge at a height of about 3700 feet in the north-west of the island. The road thither up the mountain-side is adorned with flowers of many species, especially with bignonias and orchids; it passes amidst groves of splendid tree-ferns up to a wild and windy, cool and rainy, treeless region, clothed with fern and small red-blossomed "scrub", and with rich broad-bladed grass, covering a surface of cinders that yield to the tourist's tread. Close to the top, on one side of the crater-edge, two huge flat oval slabs, about 200 feet long, and 30 feet high, profusely adorned with ferns, seem to stand sentinel over the vast chasm out of which they were volcanically blown. One step forward, and the grandeur of the Soufrière bursts all at once on the eye. Near a thousand feet below, beneath a ring of awful cliff, lies a circular lake three miles in circumference, formed by an eruption in 1718 which blew into the skies the great ash-cone then rising in a gracefully tapering form for many hundreds of feet above the surrounding crater-lips, studded with trees and flowers amidst which the songs of countless birds made music in one of nature!s noblest gardens. No bottom has been reached by soundings in the water that, to the spectator


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178 to what end, to what purpose, with what means he wished: the will itself was saved. It is absolutely impossible to disguise what in point of fact is made clear by complete will that has taken its direction from the ascetic ideal: this hate of the human, and even more of the animal, and more still of the material, this horror of the senses, of reason itself, this fear of happiness and beauty, this desire to get right away from all illusion, change, growth, death, wishing and even desiring—all this means—let us have the courage to grasp it—a will for Nothingness, a will opposed to life, a repudiation of the most fundamental conditions of life, but it is and remains a will!—and to say at the end that which I said at the beginning—man will wish Nothingness rather than not wish at all.

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text:
Dapplegrim

 * "Grimsborken" in Folkeeventyr, 1852.
 * "Dapplegrim in The Red Fairy Book, 1890.
 * "Dapplegrim in Popular Tales from the Norse, 1912.

title: Dapplegrim


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238 why we speak at all. And since it appears that every existing or recorded dialect, and every word composing it, is the altered successor, altered in both form and meaning, of some other and earlier one; since all known language has been made what it is, out of something more original, by action proceeding from the minds of those who have used it, its examination must be conducted historically, like that of any other institution which has had a historic growth and development. All human speech has been during long ages modified, was even perhaps in the first place produced, by human capacities, as impelled by human necessities and governed by human circumstances; it has become what these influences by their gradual action have made it: it, on the one hand, is to be understood only as their product; they, on the other hand, are to be read in the effects which they have wrought upon it. To trace out the transformations of language, following it backward through its successive stages even to its very beginnings, if we can reach so far; to infer from the changes which it is undergoing and has undergone the nature and way of action of the forces which govern it; from these and from the observed character of its beginnings to arrive at a comprehension of its origin—such are the inquiries which occupy the attention of the linguistic scholar, and which must guide him to his ultimate conclusions respecting the nature of speech as an instrumentality of communication and of thought, and its value as a means of human progress.

And as in its general character, so also in its details, the process of investigation is historical. We have already seen (lecture second, p. ) that the whole structure of our science rests upon the study of individual words; the labours of the etymologist must precede and prepare the way for everything that is to follow. But every etymological question is strictly a historical one; it concerns the steps of a historical process, as shown by historical evidences; it implies a judgment of the value of testimony, and a recognition of the truth fairly deducible therefrom. What is proved respecting the origin and changes of each particular word by all the evidence within reach, is the


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 PEOPLES AND COUNTRIES.

Translated by J. M. KENNEDY.

(The following twenty-seven fragments were intended by Nietzsche to form a supplement to Chapter VIII of Beyond Good and Evil, dealing with Peoples and Countries.)

1.

The Europeans now imagine themselves as representing, in the main, the highest types of men on earth.

2

A characteristic of Europeans: inconsistency between word and deed; the Oriental is true to himself in daily life. How the European has established colonies is explained by his nature, which resembles that of a beast of prey.

This inconsistency is explained by the fact that Christianity has abandoned the class from which it sprang.

This is the difference between us and the Hellenes: their morals grew up among the governing castes. Thucydides' morals are the same as those that exploded everywhere with Plato.

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 right hand far from his breast, nor thrust out his right elbow away from his right side. After the consecration, only the three fingers which have not touched the Sacrament are used in striking the breast. During the course of the mass the priest strikes his breast ten times, viz., thrice during the saying of the Confession; once at the utterance of the words, "We are unworthy," towards the close of the Prayer which follows the Invocation, in the Canon; thrice while saying "O Lamb of God," etc., and thrice while saying "Lord I am not worthy," in the private prayers which immediately precede the priest's communion.

1. THE KISSES DURING LOW MASS

As acts expressive of reverential regard for the holy things themselves and for what they symbolize, the kiss which the priest impresses upon the vestments, the altar, and the Book of the Gospels, are in no way superstitious, but edifying ceremonies and the reverent perpetuation of a liturgical custom of great antiquity.

The amice, stole and maniple are kissed while putting on and taking off the said vestments. The page in the mass-book from which the priest has read the Gospel is kissed (out of reverence for the written Word of God) immediately after the reading thereof is ended. The altar, as God's throne upon earth and a symbol also of Christ himself, is kissed in the prayer, "We pray thee, O Lord," etc.; and again immediately before the priest says, "Let us pray for the whole state," etc.; again before the Blessing; and, lastly, immediately after the prayer, "Let this my bounden duty," etc.

The thing to be kissed should be touched by the lips of the priest, without producing any sound.

2. BOWING THE HEAD

Chief among bodily acts of reverence are bowing the head, and kneeling upon one knee (the right) or upon both knees. Bows are made by slightly inclining the head, and by bending in some degree the shoulders as well as the head, and by bending the upper part of the body as well as the head and shoulders. In making the most profound of the said Rh


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 Rh above, gleams in the sunshine with a grass-green hue, while waves that are crested with snowy foam are moving across the surface dead against the wind, and breaking, noiselessly to the distant ear, on the shore below. All sides of the vast abyss are one glorious fernery, broken only for about a mile on the south by a forest of small, leafless, black, dead trees killed by the "Little Eruption" of 1814. The new crater formed two* years previously has a smooth grassy bottom higher in level than the lake, with a triangular pond of transparent water fed by a tiny stream. The sides of this later vent are mostly black and charred, and the two craters are separated by a knife-edge of rock over 700 feet in height. The historic "Great Eruption" of 1812 was a most convincing proof of the part played by volcanic action in the sterner work of nature's forces. For the two years prior to March, 1812, a great internal pressure upon the earth's crust had been seeking some outlet, and causing an agitation of sea and land over an area half as large as Europe, from the Azores to the West Indies and the coast of Venezuela, and from the Cordillera chain of New Grenada to the valleys of the Mississippi and the Ohio. These earthquakings reached their height of violence in the terrible catastrophe of March 26th, 1812, the day on which, in that year, Holy Thursday fell, when the people of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, were assembled in the churches, and the troops were drawn up and the processions formed to honour the occasion, beneath a serene and blazing sky. Then, in an instant, in the twinkling of an eye, came the tragedy described in the pages of Humboldt. The troops, in one minute of earthquake, were crushed to death by the fall of their barracks; the worshippers were buried in the ruins of their churches; the houses fell in and fell out, smiting to death the home-stayers and people in the streets. The whole loss of life reached from 10,000 to 12,000, the former being Humboldt's estimate. A month or more had elapsed at mourning Caracas, when the survivors were startled, on April 3Oth, by a subterranean noise resembling frequent discharges of the largest cannon. No shock was felt, but the sound was heard over a space of 4000 square leagues, from Martinique and Guadeloupe to the Llanos or grassy plains of the Orinoco. Preparations were made to resist a foe supposed to be advancing with heavy cannon. The cause of the portentous noise was afterwards found to lie five hundred miles