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 Club on 15 Nov. 1858. One of his most useful publications was 'Familiar Words, a Collection of Quotations,' a work of much labour, which he produced in 1864. In the same year he wrote his best-known work, 'The Gentle Life,' which became very popular, and ran to upwards of twenty editions, including an edition dedicated by desire to the queen. His own periodical, 'The Censor, a Weekly Review of Satire, Politics, Literature, and Arts,' enjoyed but a short life, only running from 23 May to 7 Nov. 1868. He was the projector and editor of the 'Bayard Series, a Collection of Pleasure Books of Literature,' published by Sampson Low & Co., and he also edited the 'Gentle Life Series,' the latter series consisting chiefly of reprints of his own writings. In 1867 he was a contributor to the 'Evening Star' under the signature of Jaques. While on a visit to Richard Brinsley Sheridan at Frampton Court, Dorsetshire, in December 1869, whither he had been invited to meet John Lothrop Motley, author of the 'Rise of the Dutch Republic,' he ruptured a blood-vessel. He was henceforth a confirmed invalid, but continued to work till within a few hours of his death. In 1870 he produced 'Modern Men of Letters honestly criticised.' Mr. Sala, whose life was very severely commented on in this work, brought an action for defamation of character against Hodder & Stoughton, the publishers of the book, and obtained 500l.. damages (Times, 18 Feb. 1871, p. 11). In the advancement of the working classes Friswell took a great interest, delivering lectures, giving readings, and forming schools for their instruction. He also laboured earnestly to reform cheap literature for boys, and his efforts were successful in repressing the circulation of some of the most notorious of the penny publications. The majority of his essays attained great popularity; but his novels did not possess the elements of enduring life. He died at his residence, Fair Home, Bexley Heath, Kent, 12 March 1878. He was the author or editor of the following works: 1. 'The Russian Empire, its History and Present Condition of its People,' 1854. 2. 'Houses with the Fronts off,' 1854. 3. 'Blackwood's Comic Zadkiel,' 1855. 4. 'Twelve inside and one out,' 1855. 5. 'Songs of the War. Edited with Original Songs,' 1855. 6. 'Diamonds and Spades, a story of Two Lives,' 1858. 7. 'Ghost Stories and Phantom Fancies,' 1858. 8. 'Sham, a Novel written in earnest,' 1858; 3rd ed. 1861. 9. 'Out and About, a Boy's Adventures,' 1860. 10. 'Footsteps to Fame, a Book to open other Books,' 1861. 11. 'Young Couple and Miscellanies,' 1862. 12. 'A Daughter of Eve,' a novel, 1863. 13. 'About in the World,' essays, 1864; 6th ed. 1879. 14. 'The Gentle Life, Essays in Aid of the Formation of Character,' 1864; 21st ed. 1879. 15. 'Life Portraits of Shakespeare, a history of the various representations of the Poet,' 1864. 16. 'A Splendid Fortune,' a novel, 1865. 17. 'Familiar Words, an Index Verborum, or a Quotation Handbook,' 1864; 5th ed. 1880. 18. 'Francis Spira,' and other poems, 1865. 19. 'Like unto Christ,' a translation of the 'De Imitatione Christi' of À Kempis, 1868. 20. 'Varia, Readings from Rare Books,' 1866. 21. 'Essays by Montaigne,' edited and compared, 1866. 22. 'The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia,' by Sir P. Sidney, with notes and introductory essay, 1867. 23. 'Other People's Windows,' a series of sketches, 2 vols. 1868, 3rd ed. 1876. 24. 'The Silent Hour, Essays for Sunday Reading,' 1868. 25. 'The Gentle Life,' 2nd ser. 1868; 11th ed. 1879. 26. 'Essays on English Writers,' 1869. 27. 'Essays on Mosaic,' by T. Ballantyne, with a preface, 1870. 28. 'Modern Men of Letters honestly criticised,' 1870. 29. 'One of Two,' a novel, 3 vols. 1871. 30. 'Pleasure, a Holiday Book,' 1871. 31. 'Reflections,' by F. de Rochefoucauld, with introduction, notes, and an account of the author and his times, 1871. 32. 'A Man's Thoughts,' 1872. 33. 'Ninety Three,' by V. M. Hugo, translated, 1874. 34. 'Ward's Picture Fables from Æsop, told anew in Verse,' 1874. 35. 'The Better Self, Essays from Home Life,' 1875. 36. 'Our Square Circle,' completed by his daughter, L. H. Friswell, 1880. He also wrote 'Christmas Eve in Custody,' printed in 'Mixed Sweets,' 1867, and the 'Magical Ointment,' printed in 'The Savage Club Papers,' 1868.

 FRITH, JOHN (1503–1533), protestant martyr, was born in 1503 at Westerham in Kent. During his childhood his parents went to reside at Sevenoaks in the same county, where his father became an innkeeper. He was then sent to Eton, and subsequently became a student at King's College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of B.A. in 1525. A few months afterwards he proceeded to Oxford and was incorporated a member of the university on 7 Dec. in that year, being made one of the junior canons of Cardinal College (afterwards Christ Church), at the instance of the founder, Cardinal Wolsey, who had been attracted by his learning and great abilities.


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 1832.] place in the island : it now presents a melancholy, but very picturesque appearance. Having procured a black Padre for a guide, and a Spaniard who had served in the Peninsular war as an interpreter, we visited a collection of buildings, of which an ancient church formed the principal part. It is here the governors and captain-generals of the islands have been buried. Some of the tombstones recorded dates of the sixteenth century. The heraldic ornaments were the only things in this retired place that reminded us of Europe. The church or chapel formed one side of a quadrangle, in the middle of which a large clump of bananas were growing. On another side was a hospital, containing about a dozen miserable-looking inmates.

We returned to the Vênda to eat our dinners. A considerable number of men, women, and children, all as black as jet, collected to watch us. Our companions were extremely merry ; and everything we said or did was followed by their hearty laughter. Before leaving the town we visited the cathedral. It does not appear so rich as the smaller church, but boasts of a little organ, which sent forth singularly inharmonious cries. We presented the black priest with a few shillings, and the Spaniard, patting him on the head, said, with much candour, he thought his colour made no great difference. We then returned, as fast as the ponies would go, to Porto Praya.

Another day we rode to the village of St. Domingo, situated near the centre of the island. On a small plain which we crossed, a few stunted acacias were growing; their tops had been bent by the steady trade-wind, in a singular manner—some of them even at right angles to their trunks. The direction of the branches was exactly N.E. by N., and S.W. by S., and these natural vanes must indicate the prevailing direction of the force of the trade-wind. The travelling had made so little impression on the barren soil, that we here missed our track, and took that to Fuentes. This we did not find out till we arrived there ; and we were afterwards glad of our mistake. Fuentes is a pretty village, with a small stream ; and everything appeared to prosper well, excepting, indeed, that which ought to do so most—its


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Rh became concentrated upon one or more festivals, chiefly Christmas and Easter. The result of this process—due to economical and political causes—was a mixture of rites, observances, and celebrations; so that in the mumming-plays we have rites of Yule-tide, along with dramatic reminiscences of the legend of St. George, which figures more individually in connection with Easter. But, if we take the St. George element of the Pace-Egg and the mumming-plays, and, collating them, compare the result with the earliest recorded dramatic presentation of the legend of St. George and the Dragon, we find that various features have been added, and, of these features, that some are common to both types, while in all important instances they are archaic, and belong to the earliest traditions.

But, granting for the moment that the main stem of the mumming-play is the legend of St. George, what does that represent, to begin with? It is an example of the skill with which the Church supplanted the pagan Pantheon. Yet was the policy hardly so successful as it appeared to be. For whether St. George represents the adoption by the Church of an important feature in the Northern mythology under another name, or the legend were of Eastern or Southern origin, the effect and result were the same. Under the first hypothesis we have Northern paganism thinly disguised; under the second we have a legend adopted in the country because it recognisably represented, let us say, Odin and his horse Sleipner, and the dragon suggested the dragon Nidhug, which dwelt by the fountain Hvergelmer in Niflheim. To dismiss the first hypothesis does not dispose of the second; and to prove that St. George was a Christian product would not dispose of the circumstance that, while the missionaries taught one thing, the folk were thinking of something else, superficially very much like it, but in fact totally different. On the supposition, then, that the main stem of the mumming-play is the St. George and Dragon legend, it places us in connection with the earliest history of our race in this


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152 country. Indeed, if we trace the course of its descent, we find that it has reverted to its original type, to use a cant phrase in science; more correctly, it has thrown off the cloak fastened upon it by the Church, and now, in this fin de siècle period, when Culture is cultivating aesthetic Paganism, the mumming-play of the backward class, as it is distinguished by some folk-lorists, has become more pagan. The dragon, conflict with which may have symbolised some spiritual idea, has disappeared, and the mummers fight together with high boasting; they glory in their deeds; and when they are slain they do not die, but live to fight again. This is a reversion to something extremely like Valhal. I trust the folk-lorists of a future age will not connect it with the æsthetic paganism of our time.

As we are entering the warlike atmosphere of the Northern mythology, I will not lack boldness, but will for a moment refer to the instances of the pageant of St. George in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, mentioned in my previous paper, as it was performed when the Roman Church was at the height of its power, and the St. George's pageant had its place among the miracle-plays which were an institution in the land. In these instances we have the Christian knight rescuing the King of Egypt's daughter from the dragon; but even here there is an element that betrays the northern soil into which the legend was transplanted. The representations invariably took place by a well or water-conduit; and the association with the dragon suggests the fountain Hvergelmer, and its guardian or tenant, the dragon Widhug, or possibly Thor overcoming the serpent Midgard, whom he slew in the waters?

So much at present for the pageant of St. George and the Dragon, reminiscences of which, as it was performed by the Guilds of St. George on April 23rd, we find in the Christmas mumming-plays. But how short of the truth it is to say that these plays consist of nothing but the St. George and Dragon legend, will appear as the analysis proceeds.


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Rh Of the three important divisions or types of English folk-drama, viz., the Christmas Mumming-play, the Plough-Monday Play, and the Easter or Pace-Egg Play, the first and the last contain the character of St. George, with allusions to the legend, while in the Plough-Monday play that element is absent. But there is another element, which is common to all three groups, and that is the sword-dance. In the northern counties—Durham, for example—there is a sword-dancer's play or interlude, performed at Christmas, in which the traditional movements and evolutions of the sword-dance take place to the accompaniment of a song by the chief character, who is strictly the chorus of the piece, for he characterises each of the characters as they step in and join the performance. At the end of the dance the carefully concerted movements are abandoned, and fighting ensues: the parish clergyman rushes in to prevent bloodshed, receives a death-blow, and is cured by a doctor. Even from this description it is obvious that, in spite of the absence of St. George, this play presents points of resemblance to both the Mumming and the Pace-Egg types. First, a circle is drawn by one of the characters with his sword, and the performance takes place within that circle: the mumming and Pace-Egg plays are invariably prefaced by one of the characters claiming a space for the performance, sometimes with a broom sweeping round a circle, sometimes by "footing it round", as it was called; second, the characters fight together—in the mumming and Pace-Egg types they fight in couples successively; third, the doctor cures the slain—this feature is practically the same in the sword-dance play, and the mumming and Pace-Egg plays.

This sword-dance Christmas play found its way as far south as Devonshire; while versions of the mumming and Pace-Egg plays obtained in all parts of the country. The sword-dance itself, which underlies them all, continued Its traditional existence chiefly, if not entirely, in the northern counties.


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154 It will be seen that the Christmas mumming-play in its various forms is not all St. George and the Dragon. It is not all of anything—but an amalgam. The word "mumming" itself puts us upon the trail of another of its elements, that is, the disguising or masking. The masks were made in imitation of various animals—goats, oxen, deer, foxes, asses, and what not—a custom which found its niche of immortality in the palace of Shakespeare's creations, in the person of Bottom the weaver. The wearing of such masks is essentially of savage origin, and, because their survival has entered into the pageantry of the dominant classes of society, it has never occurred to me to suppose that the stationary portion of society received them by a process of precipitation from the top stratum of the social system—although I quite expect to hear that view propounded presently. I should as soon be convinced that heraldry, instead of being a development from totemism, set the fashion of wearing totem signs, which gradually percolated down to savagery. The wearing of masks by the mummers has died out to a great extent, but I do not think it is extinct; there are several recorded cases within the present century. The disguising, or wearing of strange dresses, continues apparently without diminution. In the demand for drink usually made by the first mummer who enters, and the songs sung in several versions, we have the survival of the rite of the wassail-bowl.

There remains to be considered the structure of the typical mumming-play—the characters represented, the dialogue, and development of the action. All this presents only slight variations from the Easter or Pace-Egg play. By the operation of that law of concentration which we have already discussed, the Pace-Egg play, from being performed at Christmas, became mixed up with the mumming or guizing—that is, disguising—and this mixture is the typical Christmas mumming-play, which is regarded as being nothing more interesting than a debased rendering of the pageant of St. George and the Dragon.


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 Rh The Easter, or Pace-Egg play—so called from its being performed in connection with the well-known custom of Pace-Egging—now calls for our notice, and must take us for the time from Christmas and the mumming-play. Collating two versions of the play (which have found their way into print, and copies of which I exhibit), we find it contains the following characters: Fool; St. George; Slasher; Doctor; Prince of Paradine; King of Egypt; Hector; Beelzebub; Devil-Doubt. The action consists of a fight between St. George and Slasher; Slasher being wounded, is cured by a doctor. Then St. George boasts as follows:

Whereupon the Prince of Paradine enters, and, after exchanging defiance, in course of which St. George calls the prince "thou black Morocco dog", they fight, and the prince is slain. Then we get a palpable interpolation; for the King of Egypt comes in and laments the prince as his son, calling upon Hector to come and avenge him. So that St. George, having won the King of Egypt's daughter, slays his son. Moreover, the king calls St. George "cursed Christian". In this we can perceive the clumsy joinery of the Crusade element and the pageant of St. George and the Dragon. The next point in the action is the fight between St. George and Hector, who goes off wounded. The Fool then challenges St. George, who says:

and goes off, having occupied the stage from the beginning. The play concludes with the entry of Beelzebub, whose business it evidently was to raise a laugh, and little


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156 Devil-Doubt with his broom comes in to receive the largess of the spectators.

Now, at a first glance, that looks as if it were all made up of reminiscences of the St. George and Dragon pageant and the Crusades. People who would hail that interpretation with satisfaction, conceive all such things as having an individual origin. Some individual composed that pageant of St. George; some other individual composed a play about the Crusades; and the stupid, ignorant people mixed it all up. The other method of interpretation takes a wider view. It proceeds upon a generalization of all the past of human life, which shows collectively a faculty of continuity throughout the generations of men: a continuity which leads to the conception of the individuality of human life as a whole, and causes disbelief in sudden and arbitrary origins. It is a conception strictly in accord with the observed phenomena of nature—the seed, the tender shoot, the sapling, the tree, maturity—the seed to the ground; the process repeated; and with this identity modifications occurring with a slowness which it requires a great effort to realise. Let us look a little deeper into this Easter play, and not hastily accept an explanation because it is obvious and simple. Let us look for continuity, and not accept modification for origin.

The Pace-Egg play was performed at Easter. The Christian Easter was fastened upon the Aryan Spring festival, substituting for the celebration of the regeneration of nature the more spiritual celebration of the immortality of the soul of man, so that the egg which symbolised the one attained a higher significance in the other. But the connection between them is indisputable: there is continuity and modification. Similarly, in the Easter or Pace-Egg play the Aryan root of the matter remained under changed conditions and altered signification, as may be illustrated from the Northern mythology.

The Elder Edda thus refers to the death of Balder, the personification of summer and light:


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 Rh

In the Balder myth, Hermod undertakes to ride to the lower world and offer a ransom to Hel if she will permit Balder to return to Asgard. He mounts Odin's horse Sleipner and gallops off on his journey. Arrived at the abode of Hel, he finds Balder occupying the most distinguished seat in the hall. To his entreaties for Balder's release, Hel replies that it should now be tried whether Balder was so universally beloved as he was said to be : if all things in the world, animate and inanimate, will weep for him, then he shall return to the gods ; but, if anything refuse to weep, Hel will keep him. Balder and his wife Nanna then give Hermod those keepsakes for Odin and Frigg, which are construed as earnests of their return, and Hermod rides back to Asgard. The gods then send messengers throughout the world, beseeching everything to weep, and men, animals, earth, stones, trees, metals, all willingly obey, except a giantess, Thok, supposed to be Loke Laufeyarson himself in another form, who caused the death of Balder, by the hand of Hoder, who threw the fatal mistletoe shaft.

The contest between Thok and Balder was represented


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 158 at the Spring festival. Two champions were dressed up, one in foliage and flowers, the other in straw and moss, and the conflict of course ended in the victory of Balder, or Summer. This custom prevailed all over Norseland, in Germany, and in this country. In the myth, the victory over Thok is vague; but it seems to be implicated with Odin's victory over Vafthrudner by means of a riddle which led to the giant forfeiting his head. In the Easter play St. George says:

I merely note this at present because, whether by accident or no, it contains allusions which appear to bear upon the Balder myth. I note next these words spoken by Slasher in his defiance of St. George:

The allusion may be to armour. But if the allusions in the former passage spoken by St. George were proved to be derived from the myth, we should scarcely hesitate to identify Slasher with the champion of Winter, interpreting the iron and steel and knuckle-bone as descriptive of the frost-bound earth. We should then have in St. George and Slasher the renamed representatives of the two champions. Summer and Winter, whose contest was a principal feature in the Spring festival. The next point to be noted is that the episode of the St. George and Slasher contest individualises itself in the


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 Rh Easter play. It ends in the cure by the doctor, who does not reappear to cure the subsequent combatants. In fact, so clearly is the episode marked off from the rest of the play, that, having noted the distinction from the internal evidence, I was not a little surprised to find afterwards that in the versions which I exhibit it had been clearly differentiated by making it a separate and distinct act, the remainder of the play being called Act II.

The element of the doctor and his cure of the wounded or slain combatant is common to the sword-dance play, the Plough-Monday play, and the first portion of the Easter play. Whatever the vagaries of nomenclature may be—I am stating as briefly as possible the result of a very wide and extended collation of versions—we have here the trunk of this body of tradition. Around it all kinds of mutations and changes occur, but itself persists, because it is archaic. And it has nothing to do with the St. George and Dragon pageant, nothing to do with the Crusades. Take the rest of the Easter play—the second part—and you will find it quite distinct and separate, a thing made up of the pageant of St. George and the Crusades, with Beelzebub and the little Devil from some mediaeval miracle-play. In the Easter play we have the elements of Pagan and Christian, as the egg, typical of the regeneration of life, became the symbol of the resurrection after death.

Before recurring to the Christmas mumming-play, into which the Easter play was imported, let us finish the analysis. We have to account for the doctor who cures the wounded Slasher, and, on our theory of continuity, we have to account for the second portion of the play.

According to the traditions of the contest between the Winter and Summer champions, there were other combatants, armed with staves, who also contended, how, or in what order, is not known. This traditional contest was performed at some date very near St. George's Day, the 23rd April, when the pageant was performed, to be followed a few days later by the May-Day games, which celebrated


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 160 the victory of Summer. This presents us with the conditions of an amalgamation, which seems to have taken place at about the period of the Crusades. The Summer champion became St. George; St. George himself became the type or representative of England; and, in place of the dragon of the pageant, one or more of the combatants in the Winter and Summer contest represented Mohammedan warriors, over whom the Christian St. George of England is, of course, victorious. When the dialogue was added we do not know; there were probably spoken words of defiance by the champions in thirteenth-century English, and on this modifications and developments were made, until the play reached the shape in which we know it in more or less debased forms. But in the determination of that shape there, was a factor which remains to be considered, and that was the sword-dance. In this performance a circle was drawn by the Chorus, called "First Clown" in the version given by Henderson in his Folk-lore of the Northern Counties, and "Captain" in the version in Sir Cuthbert Sharp's Bishoprick Garland, who, after walking round the circle, summons the other performers in verses of a song, as thus:

The introduced actor walks round the ring, and the Chorus proceeds:

In this way all the characters are brought in before the concerted movements of the dance itself take place.

Now, the formula—"In comes I"—spoken by the characters as they enter in the Plough-Monday play, in which the element of the sword-dance is indisputable, supplies us with the development of dialogue from chorus. In the


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 Rh mumming-plays, the characters announce themselves in the same way. The sword-dance has retained the integrity of its descent more clearly than any of the other elements of folk-drama; and the association of swords and fighting in the Easter play suggests a connection with the sword-dance, which becomes clearer upon examination. The Fool in the Easter play, who first enters and claims room for the play, summons St. George to enter; and this equates with the Chorus of the sword-dance, who summons the actors in turn. From this point the Fool is silent, and the characters announce themselves, as:

and the familiar:

of the mumming-play.

It seems to me we can see the ground-plan of the Easter play and the mumming-play in the sword-dance with its chorus. In fact, we have the chorus in the Easter play, as the Fool, a part taken by Father Christmas in the mumming-plays.

I have now exhausted the constituents of the Easter play, with the exception of the character of the Doctor, which factor I leave over to the Plough-Monday play, with which it is common.

That there was some form of dramatic representation at Christmas, on to which the St. George or Easter play was engrafted, is what the law of continuity with modification would lead us to expect; and what evidence we have points to this conclusion. Grimm tells us that "at Christmas a sacrificial play is still performed in parts of Gothland, acted by young fellows in disguise, who blacken and rouge their faces. One, wrapped in fur, sits in a chair as the victim, holding in his mouth a bunch of straw-stalks cut fine, which reach as far as his ears, and have the appearance of sow-bristles: by this is meant the boar sacrificed at Yule, which in England is decked with laurel


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 162 and rosemary." Here we have the Scandinavian or Teutonic original of the mumming-play, with which the Scandinavian sword-dance became combined after passing through the Easter play. Henderson tells us that throughout Yorkshire mummers go round visiting at houses where they know they are likely to meet with entertainment, disguised in finery of different sorts, with blackened faces or masks, and carrying with them an image of a white horse. Mr. Baring Gould tells us that "at Wakefield and Stanby the mummers enter a house, and, if it be in a foul state, they proceed to sweep the hearth and clean the kitchen-range, humming all the time 'mum-m-m'." This seems to suggest some connection with the good fairies who perform tasks of housework if properly propitiated. In Scotland, where the mummers are called Gysards, when a party of these visitants enter a house, one of them precedes the rest, carrying a besom, and sweeps a ring or space for the Gysards to dance in. This ceremony is strictly observed; and it has been supposed is connected with the tradition concerning the light dances of the fairies, one of whom is always represented as sweeping the spot appropriated to their festivity. This may be so; but I am inclined to connect it with the sword-dance circle.

Summarising this analysis of the Christmas mumming-play, we find that it consists of the following elements combined by the natural dramatic instincts of the folk:—

I will now communicate some versions of the Christmas mumming or masking play, which I have been the means of collecting during the last two years. I have two versions fresh from Hampshire this last Christmas, one collected by


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 Rh myself, together with a specimen of the dress worn —take actors of this version, which I exhibit, along with wooden swords used by them; the other communicated to me by Mr. S. Peppier of Hamble Cliff, near Southampton, together with photographs of the actors in this version, also exhibited.

I have also a version from Northamptonshire, kindly communicated to me by Miss Burne; and two versions communicated through Mrs. Gomme, one from Marlborough, sent by Mr. H. S. May, and another from Romsey, sent by Miss E. L. Merck.

[Extracts were read to the meeting; and the differences between the versions were pointed out. The mummer's dress was made in a scaly pattern throughout; and it was suggested that this device was intended to represent the dragon which no longer accompanies the mummers, a parallel to the dress of the Plough-Monday players.]

I have not succeeded in getting a printed version of the mumming-play in chap-book form like the two Pace-Egg plays exhibited. The nearest approach to it is the curious little book called The New Christmas Rhyme Book, from Belfast, sent to Mrs. Gomme by Mr. W. H. Patterson. But I believe the mumming-play has been printed and sold as a chap-book; and this leads me to propound a question, to which, perhaps, some of our friends present would give an answer different from that which I should give. Does the fact of writing down or of printing destroy tradition? At the present time the mumming-play is performed in three ways—(a) by those who learn it from printed book; (b) by those who learn it from MS.; (c) by those who learn it by oral tradition. This seems to me to furnish an admirable test-case to the believers and unbelievers in literary origins.

The next branch of folk-drama on which I have to offer a few notes is the Plough-Monday play; and here I may proceed more summarily, as I do not conceive how the champions of literary origin can bring their battery to bear


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 162 on this tradition. It has evolved and descended from Aryan custom, possibly some sacrificial rite in dramatic form to the goddess Gefjun, the goddess of agriculture—Gefjun personifying the ploughed land as Frigg represents the fruit-bearing earth. In the myth of Thor and Hrungner we see how the thunder god crushes the mountain of rock to prepare the way for agriculture; and the Gefjun myth about the ploughing with four oxen represents the subsequent tillage. In Blomefield's History of Norfolk we read: "Anciently, a light called the 'Plough Light' was maintained by old and young persons who were husbandmen, before images in some churches, and on Plough-Monday they had a feast, and went about with a plough and dancers to get money to support the plough-light. The Reformation put out these lights, but the practice of going about with the plough begging for money remains." No doubt the begging in the first place was for the maintenance of the lights, a derivation, possibly, of sacrifice to the goddess Gefjun.

The dancers alluded to by Blomefield were the sword-dancers; and here again we have the phenomena of amalgamation and continuity with modification. The result was a play called the Plough-Monday play, the process being analogous to that we have already discussed, where the sword-dance entered into and gave shape and coherence to existing dramatic traditions.

It is impossible for me to do more now than indicate the outline of this important branch of English folk-drama. With the plough we get the horse, and the horse again places us in connection with the fabulous horses of Aryan mythology. These godlike animals, commemorated in English traditions, become identified with the horses familiar in agriculture: thus we get the hobby-horse, and a whole cycle of observance, of which the effigy of a horse, or a horse's head, is the pivot. This element is a common factor in the problem of folk-drama; this and the doctor who cures the wounded combatants, or raises them to life


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Rh when slain, and both of them—like the sword-dance—take us straight back to Scandinavia. By way of illustrating this permanence of the archaic in dramatic tradition, let me select two instances. A version of the St. George drama is concluded with the introduction of a hobby-horse, over whom a song of several verses is sung, the horse snapping his jaws by way of chorus after each verse, by a device familiar on the stage, when Bottom in his ass's head moves the ass's jaws when speaking. The fourth verse is as follows:—

That last line is an obvious interpolation, connecting the horse with the plough. In the whole song it is the only line which utterly escapes the metre. Counting the syllables, it makes about two-and-a-half lines of the verse in the rest of the piece. It is clearly an interpolation; it belongs to the traditionary observance which survived from the sacrificial rite to the Scandinavian goddess of agriculture. Another instance: another version of the same song in another county. At the close of the song, which is one of lamentation over the poor old horse, past his prime, the animal, or rather its representative, drops down as if dead. Same dialogue ensues, the upshot of which is that the horse gets a new lease of life, like the wounded combatants in the St. George and mumming plays; and the horse proceeds to worry a blacksmith who endeavours to shoe him. The affair is concluded by the singing of the following stanza:—

These lines, says the recorder, are sung with great noise


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 166 and histrionic display: for mentioning which fact I am extremely obliged to him ; we know that noise and tumult were always associated with the traditions of Thor, and this episode presents in the blacksmith with his hammer a pretty clear reminiscence of Thor's connection with agriculture in the Scandinavian mythology.

I have mentioned these instances because they occur in dramatic songs, which at a superficial glance appear to be quite modern and commonplace, for which reason they admirably exemplify the survival of the archaic in the midst of later accretions.

It is with great pleasure that I bring to your notice now a version of the Plough-Monday play which has been communicated to me by Mrs. Chaworth Musters, along with the most interesting dress worn by the actors of this version as repeatedly witnessed by Mrs. Chaworth Musters at her residence, Wiverton Hall, near Bingham, Nottinghamshire. The version wears a modern look, but, like the hobby-horse performances just noticed, it has its elements of archaism which persist. I should like first to read an extract from a letter I received from Mrs. Musters, as it is in effect a message to the Society, and brings before us the aspects of the play as they impressed themselves on an eye-witness:—

"I hope that if all is well another year, I may have the pleasure of seeing some members of the Folk-lore Society here for Plough-Monday, and I hope the play will not die out in this neighbourhood for long, as the actors this time were all youths who had learnt their parts by word of mouth. I had some difficulty in getting a copy of the words a few years ago, as it seems never to have been written down; but I did get it, very ill-spelt and difficult to make out, except that I had heard it several times, and I had it printed in the appendix of a Notts story I wrote, so that it might be preserved. I enclose the book. The same version seems to be known in Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire. I wish I could have got a photograph of performers, but they could only come in the evening, being


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 Rh labourers. The man who is called 'Hopper Joe' has a basket slung before him, as if he was going to sow seeds, in which you put any money you like to give. The sergeant gets hold of any bit of old uniform he can meet with, and the young lady always has a veil, Beelzebub a blacked face, and either a besom of straw or a club with a bladder fastened to the end of it. The chief feature of the play is the raising to life of the old woman (who is knocked down by Beelzebub) by the doctor, who is always dressed in the smartest modern clothes, with a riding-whip and top hat if possible. This year the men had no cut-out figures on their shirts, only ribbons and rosettes and feathers stuck in their hats, and the brass ornaments of their horse's harness hanging down in front. But I have generally seen them with small horses, and ploughs in red and black, stuck on. They do not bring a plough with them here. Little boys with ribbons on come round begging in all the villages in the vale of Belvoir here, on Plough-Monday, but no women or girls ever seem to take part in it."

Mrs. Musters subsequently sent me the dress exhibited. In a letter which accompanied it she said: "The group of men are intended to represent the Plough-Monday boys ……… The idea of the man who made it is that all the live creatures connected with a farm ought to be represented." Mrs. Musters also sent me a copy of the verses sung on the occasion of the play. These have never before been recorded. I exhibit the MS. of the Ploughman who sang them on Plough-Monday last, and who wrote them down for Mrs. Musters.

I also exhibit the figure of a horse cut out to be worn I on the dress, which I received from Mrs. Musters before I received the dress. When I learnt from Mrs. Musters the interesting fact that although these players no longer bring a plough with them they figure it on the dress, I begged her to obtain a specimen of the dress for exhibition this evening, a request with which she at once complied. It was made by the man from whom she had obtained the figure of the horse. The dress seems to present us with an example of picture-writing and such


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 168 a survival must be very encouraging to the anthropologist and folk-lore collector. I shall hope to hear presently from the President and others their views on this point. It will be observed that the execution of the letters is not superior, but rather the reverse, to that of the figures.

[The scaly pattern of the mummer's dress from Hampshire was again referred to, and the likelihood of a similar desire for representation having caused this reminiscence of the dragon was pointed out.] It is a curious fact to contemplate that at the present time we have in this country, living simultaneously in rural districts, representatives of two distinct levels of culture. There is the younger generation, equipped with a uniform education tending to make all minds of one type; and there is in the generation dying out a quite different mental aspect—a culture varying in degree and kind, but united by an underlying system of tradition. Picture-writing and gesture-language in the age of Board schools suggest conditions which may make us wonder if the law of continuity with modification is about to cease. Quite recently, I heard of an interesting case of an old couple living in Surrey, between Woking and Guildford, which illustrates the use of picture-writing in the age of newspapers. The old lady always takes the Police News, and she explained to my friend that she does this because she hears the news from her neighbours who read the newspapers, and then she can take her picture-paper and make it all out. This is strictly analogous to the use of picture-writing by savage tribes. The old lady went on to explain that her old man knew no more about the news than she did, although he could read a bit: he knew that "S-t-o-k-e" spelt Guildford, but she could find her way there by the direction-post as well as he.

With regard to what was said as to the idea of the man who prepared the dress, that all the live creatures on a farm should be represented, this is doubtless the idea of


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 Rh the tradition. In Lincolnshire, representatives of all the branches of farming industry joined the procession. First came the plough, to which it was not unusual to see as many as a score of sons of the soil yoke themselves ; hence the name Plough Bullocks applied to them, or, in Yorkshire, Plough Stotts. Ploughmen from neighbouring hamlets joined the procession, dressed in clean smock-frocks, decked out with ribbons by the maids. Some wore bunches of corn in their hats. Often "the procession was joined by threshers carrying their flails, reapers with sickles, and carters with their long whips, which they were ever cracking to add to the noise; while even the smith and the miller were among their number, for the one sharpened the ploughshare, and the other ground the corn." Here we have the idea of representation which we see in the dress exhibited.

The same eye-witness gives a description of a curious custom in connection with Plough-Monday, which I give in his words, as follows:—"But the great event of the day was when they came before some house which bore signs that the owner was well-to-do in the world, and nothing was given them. Bessy rattled his box and the ploughmen danced, while the country lads blew their bullocks' horns or shouted with all their might; but, if there was still no sign, no coming forth of either bread-and-cheese or ale, then the word was given, the ploughshare driven into the ground before the door or window, the whole twenty men yoked pulling like one, and, in a minute or two, the ground before the house was as brown, barren, and ridgy as a newly-ploughed field ……… We are not aware that the ploughmen were ever summoned to answer for such a breach of the law, for they believe, to use their own expressive language, 'they can stand by it, and no law in the world can touch 'em, 'cause it's an old charter'." One of the mummers in the Lincolnshire Plough-Monday procession usually wears a fox's skin in the form of a hood;


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 170 the Bessy, a bullock's tail behind, under his gown, which he held in his hand while dancing. From a rare book, dated in 1814, I have the following note of the custom in Yorkshire:

With this formless procession and dance the sword-dance became combined, as described in Young's History of Whitby, and the result of the union was the Plough-Monday play. Here we have a repetition of the process I described in connection with the Easter and mumming plays. The shaping factor in folk-drama was the sword-dance, with its circle, chorus, and carefully concerted movements.

I will now read the version of the play, for which we are indebted to Mrs. Chaworth Musters. I do this because, although that lady has happily insured its preservation—an act which I feel this Society ought gratefully to acknowledge—it is far less familiar than the mumming or Easter plays; and I think its communication this evening may strengthen my plea for the speedy and exhaustive collection of all the remains of English folk-drama still surviving. Also, it is a very pleasant tradition, which seems to take us into the midst of country life in mid-winter, a sensation which Mrs. Musters has kindly offered to allow some of us


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 Rh to realise next January. I have spoken of the modern aspect which the piece bears, but the archaism of the latter portion will be evident from my interpretation of the Easter and mumming plays.

[Extracts were read to the meeting.] I do not think I need greatly insist on the archaism of the latter portion of this play—the episode of Beelzebub, Dame Jane, and the Doctor. It is clearly distinct in itself—as distinct as the episode of the fight between St. George and the Slasher, and the curing by the Doctor in the Easter play, which we have identified with the Summer and Winter contest of the Spring festival. It is, in fact, the same element, with modifications and change of characters: Beelzebub enacts the part of St. George, and Dame Jane that of the Slasher; though whether the episode has been imported from the Easter play, or is another version of the original, is precisely the question for discussion. In the absence of the evidence here furnished, I can quite conceive that those who object to allow that we have in English tradition anything peculiar to the race, would give an explanation of the episode quite different from mine. The words:

which I am disposed to regard as a metaphorical description of the earth when possessed by winter, they would doubtless interpret as descriptive of armour worn by the knight. But how can that be, when the words are spoken by a female character? We may grant that in the mutations which occur in folk-drama the episode may have been imported from the Easter play without much idea of fitness; and then the question of interpretation remains as before. But if the object is to get at the root of the matter, surely we have here a good working factor in the problem; and I am by no means disposed to get rid of it, put it on


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 172 one side, get it out of the way, by just affixing to it a label which at a glance appears to belong to it. I prefer to keep the elements before me, unlabelled, in a state of solution, ready to be readjusted in accordance with any fresh evidence that may come to hand. If I were asked to define the greatest danger which besets folk-lore, I should say it was the obvious. It was the obvious which caused the significance of children's games to be so long overlooked. It was the obvious which dismissed the Staffordshire Guisers' play as all St. George and the Dragon. It was the obvious which classified all the mumming-plays and the Easter plays as "versions of some dramatic piece written in commemoration of the Holy Wars". And I suppose Mr. Obvious, if he is here—or perhaps I should say the Messrs. Obvious—will have no patience with me because I hint that in the Easter play and this Plough-Monday play we have an episode which continues the tradition of the Summer and Winter champions.

I have a good deal to say about the character of the Doctor, which seems to be a kind of common denominator in these traditions; but I think I must leave this over. Perhaps I may have another opportunity of reading some further notes on this widely-reaching subject.

I must, however, add a few words on another topic, the Horn-Dance. I exhibit three copies of an enlargement of the photograph, kindly sent to me by Mr. Frank Udale of Uttoxeter. One of these he presents to the Society, the others he presents to me personally. I shall look forward to seeing the photograph in the collection of the Society in the proposed Album. Mr. Udale has been extremely kind in his response to my requests: I feel greatly indebted to him; and I should feel gratified if a message of recognition were sent to him by the Society. The Rev. Dr. Cox has visited Abbots Bromley to inspect the horns, and he tells me he has not the slightest doubt that they are reindeer horns. This opens a vista into which at present I can only peer with the eyes of conjecture. When I have seen the


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 Rh horns and handled them—as I hope to do early in the coming summer—I will report further on the matter. Not that I doubt they are reindeer horns—not for a moment would I doubt the deliberate opinion of Dr. Cox on such a point — but they may possibly be fossilised; in which case one's imagination would run riot over the time when the reindeer was a denizen of this land; or, turning to the alternative of their importation from Norseland, the fossilization would be fraught with possibilities of discovery as to why fossilised horns should be brought over. Again, one thinks of the reindeer tribes of France and the discoveries made by M. Lartet and Christy in the caverns of Perigord; and the idea of relics of the Stone Age reaching this country from the south, without the least regard for one's predilection for northern origins, is quite distracting. Mr. Udale says he is "of opinion they came over at the Conquest with the Bagots—now Lord Bagot—of Blithfield, near Abbots Bromley. In his park are some goats, huge things, the descendants of a stock they brought over with them at or near the Conquest." If so, they may be relics of the reindeer tribes and the Stone Age in France? All conjecture: but conjecture is the investigator's lantern. I will read an extract from a letter which the Vicar of Abbots Bromley kindly sent me on the subject:—

"I hardly know how to begin about the Horn-Dance. I know very little about it, as I have only been here a short time; and I am sorry to say that in the time of my predecessor and his predecessor, comprising some ninety-six years, many interesting particulars about this and other matters have been allowed to die out, and details cannot now be recovered. At present, the six pairs of horns, with a bow and arrow, and the frame of a hobby-horse, are in the church tower, together with a curious old pot with a dle, all of wood, in which the money is collected at the dance. The Horn-Dance takes place now only on the Monday after 'Wakes' Sunday, which is the Sunday next to September 4th. The tradition at, some two hundred years ago, the dance took place on several  Sundays, after morning service, in the churchyard—


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174 presumably in the summer months—and that the money so collected was devoted to the relief of the poor and the repairs of the church. When the dance began is quite unknown, but there were other places in Staffordshire where it lingered until the end of the eighteenth or beginning of this century—notably, Stafford itself, and Seighford, a small village near it. There was a special tune played for the Horn-Dance, by a man with a fiddle, within the memory of some still living; but the tune is lost, and I have quite failed to recover it: now somebody plays a concertina, with ordinary dance-music of any kind. The under-jaw of the hobby-horse is loose, and is moved with a string, so that it 'clacks' against the upper-jaw in time with the music. The same is done with the arrow and the bow. Six men have each a pair of horns; then there is a woman who holds the pot and collects the money—probably 'Maid Marian'; a lad with the bow (? Robin Hood); a jester; and another with the hobby-horse—ten in all. They have a traditional sort of figure, which they dance over and over again. I am afraid I cannot tell you much else about the dance: we are on the borders of what used to be 'Needwood Forest', and probably it had some woodland meaning. But the curious thing is that the horns are reindeer. This has been settled quite satisfactorily just lately by Dr. Cox, the editor of The Antiquary, who came here to see them. Two pairs are very large, larger than any reindeer-horns I have ever seen myself in Russia or Norway. How they came here is a mystery."

Whatever the origin of the horns may be, I think we need entertain little doubt that the dance was, as Mr Bryant suggests, of some woodland character and significance; and from the bow and arrow, and the circumstance of the gifts to the poor, it seems to stand in relation to the Robin Hood epos. The presence of the hobby-horse again, is curious. Like the Doctor, the Hobby- requires a paper to himself. He figures largely in the Day games, as well as in the winter plays; and in  without doubt—or so it seems to me—we have the  of Odin's horse Sleipner; and probably his ubiquity  tradition suggests reminiscences of the other fabulous  of Asgard.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillenburg

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillenburg


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillens, Julien


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 Rh Such is the view that we have been able to take of English Folk-Drama so far as is possible within the compass of a short paper. It is a diminished heritage: much had to be lost before the value of that which we are losing could make itself felt. It is for us to make the best and the most of what remains to us, and, by analysis and careful study, make good, as far as we can, what is now irrecoverable; science, I am sure, can do much to strengthen the links which have become worn and thin in the chain of our traditions; and truly it is a glorious thing to feel that we inherit a right to the mythology of the North, of which that chain is the evidence. Thanks to the peasantry of England, who have preserved the traditions which testify to our birthright! It has come to us to see and to know and to understand, and knowledge is sublime; but, in the presence of that unconscious perpetuation by generation upon generation of men and women of our race, in obedience to the instincts of their blood, I feel myself in the presence of something more than human knowledge—something mighty and organic, in which consciousness and unconsciousness are simply phases of the same thing. Let us not paralyse ourselves with doubt, but hastily snatch up all the fragments and scraps that have fallen from the table of the gods. Let us believe all to be of value rather than cast aside one morsel. We shall have ages of civilisation in which to sort out and arrange the items and squabble about interpretation. But we shall not get another Norse mythology, nor another body of English custom and tradition. It is all vanishing—quietly dying out without giving sign. I urge upon the Society to undertake immediately the thorough and systematic collection of English Folk-Dramas.


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillingen

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillingen


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillmann, Christian Friedrich August


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillon, Arthur Richard


text: Folk-Lore/Volume 4/The Oldest Icelandic Folk-lore


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillon, John


text: A Book of Dartmoor/Chapter 12

title: A Book of Dartmoor/Chapter 12


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diluvium

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diluvium


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dime

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dime


text: Folk-Lore/Volume 4/English Folk-Drama, 2


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dimension

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dimension


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dimity

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dimity


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinajpur

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinajpur


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinan

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinan


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinant

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinant


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinapur

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinapur


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinarchus

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dinarchus


text:
Good Morning, Dearie/Melican Papa

 * Verse 1

 * Chorus

 * Verse 2

 * Chorus

 * Verse 3

 * Chorus

title: Good Morning, Dearie/Melican Papa


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Rh Lady of the May, will occur to every reader of Mannhardt and of English folk-lore. But we want a Spring bride temporarily supplanted. Is she to be found? The possibility of the Greek and European myths having some connection with Spring rites is of course strengthened by the theory that Hera's Dædala festival was celebrated in the Spring (J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, i, p. 100).

Secondly, I would note the separation of true bride and bridegroom—the wandering of Zeus, and the dumbness of Grozdanka. To students of Greek cults, the wandering will at once suggest a chthonic phase: it is interesting to note that dumbness is regarded by H. D. Müller as a special attribute of deities of winter, night, death, and the lower world—in other words, as a chthonic characteristic. Is there any evidence among European or other False Brides that they ever enacted the "Death" or "Winter" which is almost as common to peasant folk-custom as the May Bride or Queen of the May, and which is generally destroyed, driven, or carried out, in village festival early in Spring, as a preliminary rite to the joyful fetching in of the May Bride or "Summer"? I need not refer in detail to this universal custom, W. Mannhardt, J. G. Frazer, and all folk-lore collections abound in examples.

The Golden Cradle is a tempting detail to enlarge


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146 upon, but more evidence is needed to allow the indulgence of theorising; as also the fact that Grozdanka is drawn up (cf. the ανοδος of Greek rites) to her bridegroom. Thus it seems possible that fuller evidence may reveal in the Dædala myth, and in the Grozdanka group of legends, primitive "May Brides", supplanted by the powers of winter, released and wedded in triumph in the spring. If this should prove to be the case, such an instance of primitive ideas and rites centred round the year and its recurring seasons, of their dominance in Greek religion, and their power of survival among the European peasantry, would in itself be of sufficient value.

But the False Bride hints at another significance. It is possible that she may be simply a necessary part of the marriage ceremony of our primitive Aryan ancestors, and that she has thus got into the Greek myth of the Sacred Wedding (ιερος γάμος), and into the many legends which turn on the temporary separation of bride and bridegroom and their final happy reunion.

This, again, it is impossible to discuss till fuller evidence is obtained; and these possibilities and premature theories are only put forward in the hope of thereby eliciting fuller facts from which light may come. Therefore I would emphatically disclaim any attempt at present to demonstrate that in the Daedala festival and myth, and in the many European parallels, traits of a primitive, perhaps Indo-Aryan, marriage ceremony have been preserved, with singular exactness; or further, that in the Dædala festival the marriage of the god was celebrated in this manner. But the following incidental remarks of Dr. Winternitz, Prof Jevons, and Mr. E. S. Hartland, taken together with the declared prevalence of the "False Bride" legends, seem to justify a search into both Aryan and non-Aryan wedding customs.

Dr. Winternitz says: "The custom of substituting an old woman for the bride is certainly one of the most prevalent


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Passy, Frédéric

PASSY, Frédéric, French political economist and statesman: b. Paris, 20 May 1822; d. 12 June 1912. He was educated for the law but practised but a short time before accepting an appointment as auditor to the Council of State in 1846. He withdrew from politics after the coup d'etat of Napoleon III. He was one of the founders of the International and Permanent League of Peace in 1868 and became its permanent secretary. He served in the Chamber of Deputies in 1881-89; and in 1881-1902 he was professor of political economy in several colleges. He was associated with Sir. W. R. Cremer in forming the Interparliamentarian Union for Arbitration and Peace; and was a member of the International Bureau of Peace at Bern, Switzerland. He was elected to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of the French Institute in 1877; was a commander of the Legion of Honor; and in 1901, he, with Henri Dunant, received the first Nobel Peace Prize. He was president of the Society of Political Economy for 70 years. Author of ‘Mélanges économiques’ (1858); ‘De l'Enseignement obligatoire’ (1859); ‘La Guerre et la Paix’ (1867); ‘L'Histoire et les sciences morales et politiques’ (1879); ‘Historique du mouvement de la paix’ (1905), etc.


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Rh customs among Slavonic, Teutonic, and Romance peoples." Mr. Hartland, in discussing the paper by Dr. Winternitz, spoke of the custom of disguising the bride as found in more than one Indo-European race, and "notably in the Balkan peninsula." A closer acquaintance with this disguised bride is much to be desired.

Prof Jevons says: "The practice of substituting an old woman in disguise for the bride when the groom comes to take her to the church, is found in many places in Germany, amongst the Poles, the Wends, the Winds, the Servians, the Roumanians, the Swiss, the French."

Dr. Schroeder thinks that Usener has made it probable that the curious myth in Ovid (Fasti, iii, 677) of the wedding of Mars and Minerva (Nerio) reflects the existence of the custom among the Romans; this again looks as if we were on the right track for solving the Dædala riddle."

Dr. Schroeder cites the custom from all parts of Europe, and gives some variations, the interest of which only increases the desire for more details: such as the enacting of the False Bride among the Esthonians by the bride's brother in woman's clothes; in Bavaria, by a bearded man called the "Wilde Braut"; in Poland, by an old woman veiled in white, and lame; again, among the Esthonians, by an old woman with a birch-bark crown; in Brittany, where the substitutes are first a little girl, then the mistress of the house, and lastly the grandmother.

These rites and myths would, I think, prove of interest to all who care for the thoughts and ways of classical or


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148 peasant folk, could we by help of further evidence approach nearer to their meaning and disentangle their complexities. And I would lay special stress on the hope they afford of gaining light on (1) the primitive religious year, with its successive seasons of ordered ritual; and (2) the occurrence in sacred festivals, and complex ritual, of ceremonies belonging to the primitive social life.


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 4 inhabitants. The black children, completely naked, and looking very wretched, were carrying bundles of firewood half as big as their own bodies.

Near Fuentes we saw a large flock of guinea-fowl—probably fifty or sixty in number. They were extremely wary, and could not be approached. They avoided us, like partridges on a rainy day in September, running with their heads cocked up ; and if pursued, they readily took to the wing.

The scenery of St. Domingo possesses a beauty totally unexpected, from the prevalent gloomy character of the rest of the island. The village is situated at the bottom of a valley, bounded by lofty and jagged walls of stratified lava. The black rocks afford a most striking contrast with the bright green vegetation, which follows the banks of a little stream of clear water. It happened to be a grand feast-day, and the village was full of people. On our return we overtook a party of about twenty young black girls, dressed in excellent taste ; their black skins and snow-white linen being set off by coloured turbans and large shawls. As soon as we approached near, they suddenly all turned round, and covering the path with their shawls, sung with great energy a wild song, beating time with their hands upon their legs. We threw them some vintéms, which were received with screams of laughter, and we left them redoubling the noise of their song.

One morning the view was singularly clear ; the distant mountains being projected with the sharpest outline, on a heavy bank of dark blue clouds. Judging from the appearance, and from similar cases in England, I supposed that the air was saturated with moisture. The fact, however, turned out quite the contrary. The hygrometer gave a difference of 29·6 degrees, between the temperature of the air, and the point at which dew was precipitated. This difference was nearly double that which I had observed on the previous mornings. This unusual degree of atmospheric dryness was accompanied by continual flashes of lightning. Is it not an uncommon case, thus to find a remarkable degree of aerial transparency with such a state of weather ?

Generally the atmosphere is hazy ; and this is caused by the falling of impalpably fine dust, which was found to have slightly


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___________

1893, UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED.

[English books published in London, French books in Paris unless otherwise mentioned.]

. Ueber den lettischen Drachen Mythus (Pukhis). Ein Beitrag zur lettischen Mythologie. 8vo. Mitau : Steffenhagen, 1892.

(The Battle of Rosnaree), with Preface, Translation, and Indices, by Edm. Hogan, S.J. 8vo. xxxii, 282 pp. Dublin, 1892. (Todd Lecture Series, vol. iv.) •.• Two versions of the Irish text are printed and translated, one from the Book of Leinster, one from later MSS.

. Behar Proverbs. Classified and arranged according to their subject-matter, and translated into English, with notes illustrating the Social Custom, Popular Superstition, and Every-day Life of the People, and givirg the Tales and Folklore on which they are founded. With an Appendix and two Indexes. 8vo. Kegan Paul, Trübner, and Co. . On the Tumuli and Inscribed Stones at New Grange, Dowth, and Knowth. 4to. 94 pp., 6 plates and illustrations. (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, xxx, i.) Dublin 1892. •.• A faithful description of the most important group of pre-Christian funereal monuments in Ireland, with a translation of the mediaeval legends respecting it. (Marian Roalfe). Cinderella. Three hundred and forty-five variants of Cinderella, Catskin, and Cap o' Rushes, abstracted and tabulated, with a Discussion of the Mediæval Analogues and Notes. With an Introduction by Andrew Lang. 8vo. lxxx, 536 pp. (F.-L. S. Publications, No. xxxi.) . Un vieux rite medical. Crown 8vo. 84 pp. E. Rolland. •.• The rite is that of passing the patient through an opening or under an object.


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Rh

FASCINATING volume for all students of folk-lore is the Official Report of the Second International Congress. This is not the place to discuss the uses of a Congress; and, indeed, when one of the results is the production of a volume of nearly 500 pages, raising so many questions of interest, opening so many avenues of scientific speculation, heaping together so many new facts, and containing so many hints towards the solution of the problems that already confront us, we hardly pause to ask what are the uses of a Congress. Students of folk-tales will turn, of course, to the Folk-tale Section. But the importance of the Report to them does not stop there. M. Ploix's article on Le Mythe de l'Odyssée seems to have lost its way in the Mythological Section. Mr. Hindes Groome's paper on The Influence of the Gipsies in the Institution and Custom Section, and Mr. Hugh Nevill's Sinhalese Folk-lore in the General Theory and Classification Section, also overlap our own. We can now see how fierce the battle between the Anthropologists and the Disseminationists waxed; and, sitting down quietly with the book in hand, we can measure


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 secondary disturbance corresponding to the element dS of the plane may be supposed to be that caused by a force of the above magnitude acting over dS and vanishing elsewhere; and it only remains to examine what the result of such a force would be.

Now it is evident that the force in question, supposed to act upon the positive half only of the medium, produces just double of the effect that would be caused by the same force if the medium were undivided, and on the latter supposition (being also localized at a point) it comes under the head already considered. According to (18), the effect of the force acting at dS parallel to OZ, and of amount equal to 2b2kD dS cos nt, will be a disturbance

regard being had to (12). This therefore expresses the secondary disturbance at a distance r and in a direction making an angle with OZ (the direction of primary vibration) due to the element dS of the wave-front.

The proportionality of the secondary disturbance to sin is common to the present law and to that given by Stokes, but here there is no dependence upon the angle  between the primary and secondary rays. The occurrence of the factor r−1, and the necessity of supposing the phase of the secondary wave accelerated by a quarter of an undulation, were first established by Archibald Smith, as the result of a comparison between the primary wave, supposed to pass on without resolution, and the integrated effect of all the secondary waves (§ 2). The occurrence of factors such as sin, or (1 + cos ), in the expression of the secondary wave has no influence upon the result of the integration, the effects of all the elements for which the factors differ appreciably from unity being destroyed by mutual interference.

The choice between various methods of resolution, all mathematically admissible, would be guided by physical considerations respecting the mode of action of obstacles. Thus, to refer again to the acoustical analogue in which plane waves are incident upon a perforated rigid screen, the circumstances of the case are best represented by the first method of resolution, leading to symmetrical secondary waves, in which the normal motion is supposed to be zero over the unperforated parts. Indeed, if the aperture is very small, this method gives the correct result, save as to a constant factor. In like manner our present law (20) would apply to the kind of obstruction that would be caused by an actual physical division of the elastic medium, extending over the whole of the area supposed to be occupied by the intercepting screen, but of course not extending to the parts supposed to be perforated.

On the electromagnetic theory, the problem of diffraction becomes definite when the properties of the obstacle are laid down. The simplest supposition is that the material composing the obstacle is perfectly conducting, i.e. perfectly reflecting. On this basis A. J. W. Sommerfeld (Math. Ann., 1895, 47, p. 317), with great mathematical skill, has solved the problem of the shadow thrown by a semi-infinite plane screen. A simplified exposition has been given by Horace Lamb (Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 1906, 4, p. 190). It appears that Fresnel’s results, although based on an imperfect theory, require only insignificant corrections. Problems not limited to two dimensions, such for example as the shadow of a circular disk, present great difficulties, and have not hitherto been treated by a rigorous method; but there is no reason to suppose that Fresnel’s results would be departed from materially.

 DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out), in general, a spreading out, scattering or circulation; in physics the term is applied to a special phenomenon, treated below.

1. General Description.—When two different substances are placed in contact with each other they sometimes remain separate, but in many cases a gradual mixing takes place. In the case where both the substances are gases the process of mixing continues until the result is a uniform mixture. In other cases the proportions in which two different substances can mix lie between certain fixed limits, but the mixture is distinguished from a chemical compound by the fact that between these limits the composition of the mixture is capable of continuous variation, while in chemical compounds, the proportions of the different constituents can only have a discrete series of numerical values, each different ratio representing a different compound. If we take, for example, air and water in the presence of each other, air will become dissolved in the water, and water will evaporate into the air, and the proportions of either constituent absorbed by the other will vary continuously. But a limit will come when the air will absorb no more water, and the water will absorb no more air, and throughout the change a definite surface of separation will exist between the liquid and the gaseous parts. When no surface of separation ever exists between two substances they must necessarily be capable of mixing in all proportions. If they are not capable of mixing in all proportions a discontinuous change must occur somewhere between the regions where the substances are still unmixed, thus giving rise to a surface of separation.

The phenomena of mixing thus involves the following processes:—(1) A motion of the substances relative to one another throughout a definite region of space in which mixing is taking place. This relative motion is called “diffusion.” (2) The passage of portions of the mixing substances across the surface of separation when such a surface exists. These surface actions are described under various terms such as solution, evaporation, condensation and so forth. For example, when a soluble salt is placed in a liquid, the process which occurs at the surface of the salt is called “solution,” but the salt which enters the liquid by solution is transported from the surface into the interior of the liquid by “diffusion.”

Diffusion may take place in solids, that is, in regions occupied by matter which continues to exhibit the properties of the solid state. Thus if two liquids which can mix are separated by a membrane or partition, the mixing may take place through the membrane. If a solution of salt is separated from pure water by a sheet of parchment, part of the salt will pass through the parchment into the water. If water and glycerin are separated in this way most of the water will pass into the glycerin and a little glycerin will pass through in the opposite direction, a property frequently used by microscopists for the purpose of gradually transferring minute algae from water into glycerin. A still more interesting series of examples is afforded by the passage of gases through partitions of metal, notably the passage of hydrogen through platinum and palladium at high temperatures. When the process is considered with reference to a membrane or partition taken as a whole, the passage of a substance from one side to the other is commonly known as “osmosis” or “transpiration” (see ), but what occurs in the material of the membrane itself is correctly described as diffusion.

Simple cases of diffusion are easily observed qualitatively. If a solution of a coloured salt is carefully introduced by a funnel into the bottom of a jar containing water, the two portions will at first be fairly well defined, but if the mixture can exist in all proportions, the surface of separation will gradually disappear; and the rise of the colour into the upper part and its gradual weakening in the lower part, may be watched for days, weeks or even longer intervals. The diffusion of a strong aniline colouring matter into the interior of gelatine is easily observed, and is commonly seen in copying apparatus. Diffusion of gases may be shown to exist by taking glass jars containing vapours of hydrochloric acid and ammonia, and placing them in communication with the heavier gas downmost. The precipitation of ammonium chloride shows that diffusion exists, though the chemical action prevents this example from forming a typical case of diffusion. Again, when a film of Canada balsam is enclosed between glass plates, the disappearance during a few weeks of small air bubbles enclosed in the balsam can be watched under the microscope.

In fluid media, whether liquids or gases, the process of mixing is greatly accelerated by stirring or agitating the fluids, and liquids which might take years to mix if left to themselves can thus be mixed in a few seconds. It is necessary to carefully distinguish the effects of agitation from those of diffusion proper. By shaking up two liquids which do not mix we split them up into a large number of different portions, and so greatly increase the area of the surface of separation, besides decreasing the thicknesses of the various portions. But even when we produce the appearance of a uniform turbid mixture, the small portions remain quite distinct. If however the fluids can really mix, the final process must in every case depend on diffusion, and all we do by shaking is to increase the sectional area, and decrease the thickness of the diffusing portions, thus rendering the completion of the operation more rapid. If a gas is shaken up in a liquid the process of absorption of the bubbles is also accelerated by capillary action, as occurs in an ordinary sparklet bottle. To state the matter precisely, however finely two fluids have been

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Rh The list of incidents is valuable too. It is the first attempt to compile what has long been wanted. If it be imperfect, that is unavoidable; and the imperfection cannot balance our indebtedness to the author. The chief defects are, so far as I have tested it, of three kinds. First, incidents are defined too specifically. For example, the incident, found in drolls, of the fool who tried to get into some article of his clothing by jumping, should be indicated as Jumping into clothes, rather than by the mention of an article only found in some variants as the object of the hero's perspiring efforts. Second, the alphabetical order should be subordinated to some sort of logical order. Thus, I find Candle-lighting election under C, and Kingship test under K. These are both variant forms of one incident, which relates the supernatural designation of the hero to the office of king or pope; and the first may, in fact, be included in the second. What is wanted is a general heading, such as King, Designation [or Nomination—not Election] of, to be followed by sub-divisions into By animals, By bell-ringing. By candle-lighting, and so forth. The third kind of defect arises, I think, usually from too great a desire for compression. Compression is undoubtedly one of the chief matters to be aimed at, but not at the sacrifice of perspicuity. Who could tell that the Thrown in water incident was that of the hapless queen thrown into the water, or otherwise put away, during the king's absence, to make room for her uglier step-sister? Zigzag transformation hardly expresses the incident better yclept by Mr. Nutt Transformation fight. These blemishes, however, are all susceptible of amendment; and a committee of the Society, taking this list as a foundation, could easily compile a standard list adaptable to all our wants.

These practical efforts are so important that they will perhaps draw away the student's attention from the paper by which they are preceded. Such a result is much to be deprecated. Taken together with M. Cosquin's paper,


title: Category:EB1911:Science:Physics


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Rh When she could get no baptist, no priest that would give them names, she made herself a christener, undertook the office of baptist. So she christened her acquisitions, bewitched her progeny, gave names to her offspring, incited them, transformed one into a wolf, turned another into a snake, made a third into a cancer, a fourth into ring-worm (F. forest's nose), the others into harmful things, called one the thrush, formed another into a cripple, another into a tooth-worm, another into a heart-eater, another into woman's enemy.

(c.)

The prodigious maiden Äkäätär [v. Naata, the youngest of girls], whose hair-plait reaches to her heels, whose breasts hang down in front to her knees, caused her skirt to flap on the summit of Pain [v. Help] Mountain, at the centre of the Hill of Pain [v. Help]. As no help resulted from that during the approach of the pains of labour she sprang aside into the sea, rushed sideways into the waves.

A bearded sea-monster (tursas) met the maiden on the turgid foam of the sea, the froth of the surging water. He made the girl his own, he quickened her. Thereupon a birth took place afterwards, an evil progeny was born.

When the time of her confinement drew nigh, she came to the rooms of Pohjola, the bath-house floors of Sariola, to be delivered of her children ; to bring forth her offspring at the far end of the bath-room ridge-pole, on the bath-room couch. She gave birth to a swarm of boys, produced a flock of children while present in one bathroom, while they raised a steam once, at one heating of the bath, by the glimmer of one moon, while one cock crowed.

She hid her children, concealed her acquisitions in a copper vat, a 'fiery' washing-tub, under five woollen


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diffusion

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diffusion


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40 eight long overcoats. She gives names to the evil brats, attached a name to each; she propped up one for him to become wind, poked another to become fire, appointed one to be sharp frost, scattered another to become a fall of snow, tore one to become rickets, designated another the worm, struck one to become a cancrous sore, another to become a heart-eater, one to eat furtively, another to stab openly, to claw the limbs with violence, to cause an aching in the joints, formed one to become gout and gave a plane into his hands, pricked another to become pleurisy, putting arrows into his fist, spears into his wicker-basket, the horses neighed when struck with their points, when the fiends had laid hands upon foals. She sends bitter frost away and caused him to sweep the sea, to brush the waves with a besom.

(d.)

Tuoni's girl, a stumpy, swarthy lassie with shaven head, was crushing iron seeds, pounding nibs of steel in an iron mortar with a steel-tipped pestle in a doorless, windowless smithy. What she had crushed she sifted, and raised up a dust to the sky.

A furious old crone [v. Louhiatar, the strong woman] ate these groats, swallowed the iron hail, the titurated bits of steel, and carried a wame full of sufferings for three full years [v. for thirty summers], less three days [v. and for as many winters].

She sought for a lying-in place near an ornamented hundred-planked church, in the house of a dead man, the house of a deceased, but found no place there. She sought for one here, sought for one there, at last she found a suitable place in the bloody hut of Hiitola, where pigs were being killed. There she reduced her wame, brought forth her progeny to become all sorts of sicknesses, a thousand causes of injury.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Passy

PASSY, pä-sē, France, a western suburb of Paris, since 1860 incorporated with the city. See.

title: The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Passy


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Rh XLIV.—

The devil made his nest, the Evil One his lair in the house of a landed proprietor, before the dwelling of a judge, on the rafter of a sheriff, on the floor of jurymen, in the long sleeves of a bishop, the shirt-collar of a priest. There he engendered his children, begat his offspring to become sources of law-suits for the rich, to become law-courts for the poor [v. as a means for landed proprietors to become rich, as a means for destroying the poor].

XLV.—

A pearl dropped from the Lord, fell with a crash from the Omnipotent, from the sky above, from the hollow of Jesus' hand down on the edge of Osmo's [v. a holy] field, the unploughed edge of Pellervoinen's. Afterwards a birth took place from it, a family was bred, bent grass grew from it, a husk of chaff was formed. It rose from the earth like a strawberry, grew like a three-branched one, being formed to branch by cleared land on which fir branches lie, made to grow by land that has been cleared, rocked to-and fro by a whirl of wind, suckled by bitter frost, drawn up by its top by the Creator, nourished by the Almighty.

XLVI.—

A cold-throated old wife of the North slept a long time in the cold, in a mossy swamp. When she awoke from sleep she caused her petticoat to flap, the bottom of her dress to twirl, rubbed together her two palms, scrubbed both of them. From that blood dropped, rolled down to the mossy


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42 swamp. An evil brood came from it, wretched rust originated from it, sprang up in grassy spots at the steps of the ploughman.

XLVII.—

Whence is the origin of Finland's salt, the growth of pungent rock-salt (F. hail)? The origin of Finland's salt, the growth of pungent rock-salt, is this: Ukko, god of the sky, the mighty lord of the air himself struck fire in the sky, a spark shot down into the sea, was drifted by waves, dissolved into rock-salt. Hence the great pieces of salt originated, out of that the heavy pieces of rock-salt grew.

XLVIII—

(a.)

A field-boy living very far to the north started off to prepare a salve. He encountered a fir-tree, questioned and addressed it. "Is there any honey in thy boughs, any virgin honey beneath thy bark to serve as salve for hurts, as embrocation for sores?"

The fir hastily replied: "There is no honey in my boughs, no virgin honey beneath my bark. Thrice in summer, during this wretched summer season a raven croaked upon my crown, a snake lay at my root, winds blew past me, the sun shone through me."

He goes his way, keeps stepping forwards, finds an oak on a trampled plain, makes inquiry of his oak: "Is there any honey in thy boughs, any virgin honey beneath thy bark to serve as salve for hurts, as embrocation for sores:" The oak made answer intelligently: "There is honey in my boughs, virgin honey beneath my bark. Upon a previous day, indeed, virgin honey dripped on my boughs, honey trickled on my crown from gently drizzling clouds, from


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Past and Present

PAST AND PRESENT, a work by Thomas Carlyle, published in England in April 1843 and in May in the United States. It was written in seven weeks, as a respite from the harassing labor of writing ‘Cromwell.’ In 1842, the Camden Society had published the ‘Chronicles of the Abbey of Saint Edmund's Bury,’ written by Joceline de Brakelonde, at the close of the 12th century. This account of a mediæval monastery had taken Carlyle's fancy; and in ‘Past and Present’ he contrasts the England of his own day with the England of Joceline de Brakelonde.


text:
Author:George Hartley Bryan

Works

 * Stability in Aviation (1911)

title: Author:George Hartley Bryan


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188 could he have given the captain's wife a promise like that so lightly? What was the captain's wife to him as compared with the doctor's wife? Mrs. Zarubkin had never given him a really decent order—just a few things for the house and some mending. Supposing he were now to perform this great service for her, would that mean that he could depend upon her for the future? Was any woman to be depended upon? She would wear this dress out and go back to ordering her clothes from Moscow again. But Mrs. Shaldin, she was very different. He could forgive her having brought this one dress along from abroad. What woman in Russia would have refrained when abroad, from buying a new dress? Mrs. Shaldin would continue to be his steady customer all the same.

The door opened. Abramka rose involuntarily, and clasped his hands in astonishment.

"Well," he exclaimed rapturously, "that is a dress, that is My, my!" He was so stunned he could find nothing more to say. And how charming Mrs. Shaldin looked in her wonderful gown! Her tall slim figure seemed to have been made for it. What simple yet elegant lines. At first glance you would think it was nothing more than an ordinary house-gown, but only at first glance. If you looked at it again, you could tell right away that it met all the requirements of a fancy ball-gown. What struck Abramka most was that it had no waist line, that it did not consist of bodice and skirt. That was strange. It was just caught lightly together under the bosom, which it brought out in relief. Draped over the whole was a sort of upper garment of exquisite old-rose lace embroidered with large silk flowers, which fell from the shoulders and broadened out in bold superb lines. The dress was cut low and edged with a narrow strip of black down around the bosom, around the bottom of the lace drapery and around the hem of the skirt. A wonderful fan of feathers to match the down edging gave the finishing touch.

"Well, how do you like it, Abramka!" asked Mrs. Shaldin with a triumphant smile.

"Glorious, glorious! I haven't the words at my command. What a dress! No, I couldn't make a dress like that. And


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 VIII.

THE GUILLOTINED. Dillon—Ward—O'Moran—Newton—Delany—Chambly— Macdonald——O'Brennan—The Cemetery.

about a dozen men of British birth and as many more of British extraction fell victims to the guillotine, it must not be supposed that they were executed as English subjects. Little respect as the Revolution showed for international rights, it did not wantonly massacre foreigners. A fear of reprisals would alone have sufficed to deter it from this. Even Paine, had Robespierre lived long enough to behead him, would have been beheaded as a naturalised Frenchman and ex-deputy. The British victims were mostly men—alas, that we should have to add, and women—who by birth or long residence, or by service in the army, were really French citizens, and with one exception were not of high position. The exception was General Arthur Dillon, son of the eleventh and brother of the twelfth Viscount Dillon. The Dillons had for nearly a century and a half been an amphibious family, so to speak, and


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 Marshal This fully bears out the singularly concordant eulogy of those who, writing after his death, speak of him as ‘a man endowed with all honourable qualities, distinguished for his noble birth, well instructed in liberal arts, most vigorous in the exercise of arms, and one who kept God before his eyes in all his works’ (Ann. Mon. ii. 313). Though circumstances forced Marshal into the attitude of rebellion, there seems no reason to doubt the substantial truth of the history of his last years, as preserved in the annals of the time, or the explanation which he himself repeatedly gave of his conduct. This was to the effect that he desired to put an end to the evil influence of the king's foreign advisers; and that it was only when Henry under their guidance attacked him that he resorted to arms for the sake of justice, on behalf of the laws of England, and to secure the expulsion of the Poitevin favourites, who were ruining the land. If Marshal had lived it is not impossible that he might have averted much of the evil of the next twenty years; even as it was, the circumstances of his death confirmed for the time the good influence that Archbishop Edmund was able to exert. Two letters written to Marshal by Robert Grosseteste [q. v.] in 1231, have been preserved (Letters of Grosseteste, pp. 38-43, Rolls Ser.); they bear evidence to a familiar friendship between the earl and future bishop.

Marshal left no children, and he was succeeded in his titles and estates by his next brother, Gilbert [see under, first ].

 MARSHAL, WILLIAM, first and  of the Marshal line (d. 1219), regent of England, was second son of John Marshal (d. 1164?) [q. v.], by his second wife, Sibyl, sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. He is represented as describing himself as over eighty years of age in 1216 (Histoire,l. 15510), but his father and mother were not married till 1141 (ib. 11. 372-83), and 1146 is a more likely date for his birth. When Stephen besieged John Marshal at Newbury in 1152, the young William was given as hostage for a truce and the surrender of the castle. John Marshal refused to keep the terms, and his son's life would have been sacrificed had not Stephen, attracted by the child's bold spirit and pretty ways, protected him (ib. 11. 400-650; cf., p. 284). When peace was made William was restored to his father, and early in the reign of Henry II was sent to his cousin William, the Chamberlain of Tancarville, in Normandy, to be trained in knightly accomplishments. As he grew to manhood Marshal earned a high reputation for valour, but most of the incidents referred to this time in the ‘Histoire’ belong rather to 1173. In the autumn of 1167 Marshal returned to England, and, joining his uncle, Earl Patrick, at Salisbury, accompanied him in the following spring to Poitou. Hardly had Patrick arrived in that province when he was slain on 27 March by the Poitevins under Geoffrey de Lusignan. Marshal endeavoured to revenge his uncle's death, but was himself wounded and taken prisoner. After a miserable captivity in Geoffrey's hands he was at length ransomed by Queen Eleanor, who furnished him with arms and money.

On his return to England in 1170 Marshal was chosen by the king to be one of those in charge of his eldest son Henry (Histoire, ll. 1940-8). The friendship thus commenced lasted till the young king's death, and when the war of 1173 broke out Marshal sided with his master (Gesta Henrici, i. 46). But first he went to the Chamberlain of Tancarville, who knighted him at Driencourt or Neufchatel-en-Bray,and under whom he won distinction in the half-hearted warfare of the Norman barons with the Flemings before Neufchatel in July 1173. Then he rejoined the young king, who elected to receive knighthood at his hands, and with whom he went over to England in May 1175, remaining there till April 1176. Despite his share in the rebellion, Marshal does not seem to have forfeited the trust of Henry II, who once more charged him with the care of his son (Histoire, ll. 2428-30). For the next seven years he was constantly with the young king, winning universal admiration by his prowess in tournaments, and rising steadily in his master's favour (ib. ll.2500-5000). His position made him many enemies, who endeavoured to poison the young Henry's mind against him. Marshal treated their  Rh


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Rh fleeting fleecy clouds; then from my boughs it fell upon my leafy twigs and in under my bark."

He gathered branches of the oak, peeled off the bark, plucked goodly herbs, many plants of diverse aspect such as are never seen in these lands, that do not grow in every place. He put a pot upon the fire, brought to boiling-point the brew which was full of oak bark, of herbs of diverse aspect. The pot boiled and crackled for three whole nights, for three summer days. Then he tried the salves to see whether the unguents were efficacious, the charmed remedies reliable. The salves are not efficacious the charmed remedies are not reliable.

He added more herbs, more plants of diverse aspect that had been brought from other parts a hundred stages back, from nine wizards, from eight diviners. He boiled them three nights more, three summer days, then raises the pot from the fire and tries the salves. The unguents are not efficacious, the charmed remedies not reliable.

He put the pot upon the fire to let it simmer anew, and boiled it for three nights more, for nine nights altogether. He scans the salves, scans them, tries them. There was a branchy aspen growing on the headland of a ploughed field; the brutal fellow broke it in two, divided it in twain, then anointed it with the salves, with the charmed remedies. The aspen was made whole again, became better than before. Again he made trial of the salves, again proved the magic remedies, tried them upon the rifts in a stone, upon the splinters of a flagstone. In a trice stones stick to stones, flagstones begin to unite with flagstones.

(b.)

John, the priest of God, gathered herbs, plucked plants by the thousand such as do not grow in these lands, in Lapland's wretched border-lands, in luckless Bothnia, where they do not know or see the growth of every herb.

In summer he prepared unguents, in winter he


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Rh how beautifully it fits you, as if you had been born in it, Mrs. Shaldin. What do you call the style?"

"Empire."

"Ampeer?" he queried. "Is that a new style? Well, well, what people don't think of. Tailors like us might just as well throw our needles and scissors away."

"Now, listen, Abramka, I wouldn't have shown it to you if there were not this sewing to be done on it. You are the only one who will have seen it before the ball. I am not even letting my husband look at it."

"Oh, Mrs. Shaldin, you can rely upon me as upon a rock. But after the ball may I copy it?"

"Oh, yes, after the ball copy it as much as you please, but not now, not for anything in the world."

There were no doubts in Abramka's mind when he left the doctor's house. He had arrived at his decision. That superb creation had conquered him. It would be a piece of audacity on his part, he felt, even to think of imitating such a gown. Why, it was not a gown. It was a dream, a fantastic vision—without a bodice, without puffs or frills or tawdry trimmings of any sort. Simplicity itself and yet so chic.

Back in his shop he opened the package of fashion-plates that had just arrived from Kiev. He turned the pages and stared in astonishment. What was that? Could he trust his eyes? An Empire gown. There it was, with the broad voluptuous drapery of lace hanging from the shoulders and the edging of down. Almost exactly the same thing as Mrs. Shaldin's.

He glanced up and saw Semyonov outside the window. He had certainly come to fetch him to the captain's wife, who must have ordered him to watch the tailor's movements, and must have learned that he had just been at Mrs. Shaldin's. Semyonov entered and told him his mistress wanted to see him right away.

Abramka slammed the fashion magazine shut as if afraid that Semyonov might catch a glimpse of the new Empire fashion and give the secret away.

"I will come immediately," he said crossly.

He picked up his fashion plates, put the yard measure