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Rh adherence to the king, but the castle that commanded it was occupied by the forces of the Baron de Méolhon, who was also Governor of the Port of Marseilles, and he was a Carcist, and inclined to favour the claims of the Duke of Savoy. He had placed a Captain Merle in the castle, with secret instructions to hold it for the duke. M. de la Valette was Governor of Provence, and he saw himself obliged to make an attempt to take the castle. A messenger between De Méolhon and the Duke of Savoy had been taken with in his possession treasonable correspondence, betraying the plans of the Leaguers. Hyères readily opened its gates to De la Valette, in November, 1588, and he summoned Merle to surrender the castle, but met with a prompt refusal. Then he attempted to take it by escalading, but in vain. It stood too high; its garrison were too alert. He could not even prevent well-wishers of the Carcists from smuggling provisions into the fortress. At last, despairing of success, the Governor of Provence withdrew; and having failed to take the castle by force, had recourse to other means. He bought the aid of a M. de Callas, a Leaguer, related to two of the officers of the garrison, and induced him to enter the fortress and bribe and cajole its defenders into surrendering. Merle, however, was not to be seduced. He must be got rid of by other means. A cannon was dragged upstairs to an upper window of a house that commanded Merle's dining apartment. It was known at what hour he supped, and in what part of the room he sat. A signal was to be given by a traitor when Merle took his place at the table, with his covers before

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 Rh But I hope that none of my designs will be destitute of infinite particulars which will present themselves to the contemplator. And though I call them mine, I know that they are not mine, being of the same opinion with Milton when he says that the Muse visits his slumbers and awakes and governs his song when morn purples the east, and being also in the predicament of that prophet who says: "I cannot go beyond the command of the Lord, to speak good or bad."

If you approve of my manner, and it is agreeable to you, I would rather paint pictures in oil of the same dimensions than make drawings, and on the same terms. By this means you will have a number of cabinet pictures, which I flatter myself

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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92 him. The appointed signal was made: the cannon thundered, and a ball crashed in through the window and knocked supper and wine bottles and everything about in wreckage. But happily something had occurred to the captain as he took his seat, and he had left the room. When he returned, there was no more a dumpling on the table, but an exploded shell.

De Callas was sent again into the castle to propose terms of surrender. Merle would still have held out, but the garrison had been bought, and they refused to continue the defence. Terms of capitulation were agreed on, whereby Merle, for surrendering, was to be indemnified with ten thousand crowns. This extraordinary agreement was signed on August 31st, 1589, after the castle had held out against the king for ten months.

The churches of Hyères are not without interest. That of S. Paul, on the height, has immense substructures. It is a curious jumble of parts and styles. It dates back to the eleventh or twelfth century, but the vaulting is later, and later windows were added. The great square tower is Romanesque.

The other church, outside the walls, that of S. Louis, is in much better preservation. It was the chapel of the Knights of the Temple, and is of the twelfth century, very severe, without sculptured capitals to the pillars, and without clerestory. It is a somewhat gloomy church, deriving nearly all its light from the west window. The preceptory of the Templars is within the old town, and is now the Hôtel de Ville. The ILes de Hyères are a detached portion of the crystalline rocks of the Montagnes des Maures. Their climatic condition is very different from that of Hyères, as they are exposed to the sweep of every wind. They

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text:
Translation:The Demonstration of the Luminiferous Aether

Note by, presented by.

I.. - I set into uniform rotation around a vertical axis, at a speed of one or two turns a second, a horizontal plate (50cm in diameter) that bears, firmly anchored, the various parts of an interferometer similar to one which I employed in my former research and described in 1910 (Comptes rendus, t. 150, p. 1676). Both interfering rays, reflected by four mirrors located at the edge of the rotating table, are superimposed in opposite directions on the same horizontal circuit surrounding a certain area S. The rotating system also includes the light source, a small electric lamp, and the receiver, a fine-grained photographic plate that records the interference fringes located at the telescope focus.

On the d and s images, respectively obtained during a clockwise and a counter-clockwise rotation of the plate at the same rotation frequency, the center of the central fringe takes two different positions. I measure this displacement of the interference center.

First method. - I mark on the d image, then on the s image, the position of the central fringe with respect to the image of the vertical graduations of a micrometer located in the focal plane of the light collimator.

Second method. - I measure directly the distance from the vertical central fringe of the d image to the central fringe of the s image, which is exactly adjacent to the first below a sharp, horizontal separation-line. I obtain these two adjacent images directly, without touching the photographic frame, by moving razor edges in the focal plane of the collimator into either of two adjacent positions corresponding to the illuminated slit, before each of the two exposures d and s.

II. . - Measured in distance between interference fringes, the displacement z of the center of interference, that I observed by the preceding method, is a particular case of the optical vortex effect which I defined before (Congrès de Bruxelles de septembre 1910, t. I, p. 217; Comptes rendus, t. 152, p. 310; Le Radium, t. VIII, 1911, p.1), and which, according to current understanding, must be regarded as a direct manifestation of the luminiferous aether:

In a system collectively moving with respect to the aether, the propagation time between two arbitrary points of the system must be altered in the same way as it would be in a stationary system subjected to the action of an aether wind, whose relative velocity at each point of the system would be equal and directly opposed to the velocity of that point, and which would carry the light waves in the same manner as atmospheric wind carrying sound waves. The observation of the optical effect of such a relative aether wind constitutes a proof of the aether, just as the observation of the influence of the relative wind of the atmosphere on the velocity of sound in a moving system would allow, in the absence of other significant effects, proof of the existence of a stationary atmosphere surrounding the moving system.

The need to bring together the vibrations from the same original luminous point to another point to make them interfere reduces to zero the first order interference effect of the collective translation of an optical system, unless the matter which constitutes the aether causes a circulation C of the aether in the optical circuit of area S, i.e. a vortex bS of the aether (Comptes rendus, t. 141, 1905, p. 1220; 1910 et 1911, loc. cit.). I showed interferometrically (1910 and 1911, loc. cit.), with an optical circuit enclosing 20m² of vertical projection, that the entrainment of aether in the vicinity of the ground does not produce a vortex density b in the aether of even $$\tfrac{1}{1000}$$ radian per second.

In a horizontal optical circuit, at latitude α, the diurnal rotation of the Earth must, if the aether is motionless, produce a relative aether vortex whose density is $$\tfrac{4\pi\sin\alpha}{T}$$ or $$\tfrac{4\pi\sin\alpha}{86164}$$ radian per second, where T is the duration of the sidereal day; notably lower than $$\tfrac{1}{1000}$$, the upper limit that I established for a vertical circuit. I hope to be able to determine whether a corresponding small optical vortex effect exists or not.

It was easier first for me to find a proof of the aether by setting into rotation a small optical circuit. A frequency N of two rotations per second provided to me a relative aether vortex density of 4πN, or 25 radians per second. A uniform clockwise rotation of the interferometer produces a counter-clockwise aether wind; it delays by x the phase of the beam (T), whose circulation around the area S is clockwise, and it advances the opposite beam R by an equal amount, thus causing a fringe displacement of 2x. The displacement z, that I observe comparing an s image with a d image, must be double that of the former. On the basis of the value of x observed previously (loc. cit. 1910 and 1911), we have

$z=4x=4\frac{b\mathsf{S}}{\lambda\mathsf{v}_{0}}=\frac{16\pi\mathsf{NS}}{\lambda\mathsf{v}_{0}};$|undefined

where $$V_0$$ indicates the speed of light in vacuum, and λ is the wavelength used.

For a rotational frequency N of 2 turns per second, and an area S of the circuit of 860cm², the displacement attained by z has the value 0.07 when using indigo light, quite visible on the photographs which I have attached to this Note, and where the distance between interference fringes is 0.5mm to 1mm.

The interference displacement z, a constant fraction of the fringe spacing for a given rotation frequency N, becomes invisible on the photographs when the fringes are adjusted to be sufficiently narrow; this clearly shows that the observed effect is due to a phase difference related to the rotational motion of the system and that (thanks to the counter-screws which block movement of the optical parts) the displacement of the center of interference, observed by comparing an s image with a d image, does not result from accidental relative displacements or tensions of the optical parts during rotation.

A turbulent vortex of air, produced by a fan of vertical axis (above the interferometer) blowing in a downward direction, does not move the interference center, due to the carefully regulated superposition of the two opposite beams. Any similar and less intense flow of turbulent air produced by the interferometer during rotation should thus not have any sensible effect.

The interference effect observed is clearly an optical vortex effect due to the motion of the system with respect to the aether and directly demonstrates the existence of the aether, the necessary carrier of the light waves proposed by Huygens and Fresnel.

Translator's notes
L’éther lumineux démontré


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunn, Daniel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunn, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunn, Robert Campbell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunn, William


text:
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Rh are bleak and uninviting. The only inhabitants are fishermen, Customs-officers, and the lighthouse men. On L'Ile du Levant was a reformatory for young criminals, started by M. de Pourtalès, but it came to a disastrous end.

According to a law of 1850, such reformatories might be founded and conducted by private individuals, and in 1860 the Count de Pourtalès, as an act of humanity, established an agricultural colony on this island for young criminals, and placed over it an amiable, well-intentioned man named Fauvau.

In Corsica was another, but that was a State establishment. It had become a nest of such disorder and misconduct that it was broken up in 1866, and some of the young criminals from this Corsican reformatory were drafted into that on the Ile du Levant, to the number of sixty-five. These young fellows began at once to give trouble; they complained of their food, of their work, and they demanded meat at every meal, tobacco, coffee, and daily six hours in which to amuse themselves. On Tuesday, October 2nd, they broke out in mutiny, smashed the windows and the lamps, destroyed some of the cells, and drove away the warders. The leader in the movement was one Coudurier, a boy of sixteen. By his command the whole body now rushed to the lock-up, where were confined some of those who had misconducted themselves, broke it open, and led them forth. Then they descended to the cellar, and with axes and crowbars burst open the door, tapped the barrels of wine, and drank as much as they liked.

Coudurier now ordered the breaking into of the storehouse. This was a building standing by itself; it had a strong door, and windows firmly barred with iron.

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text:
Translation:On the Proof of the Reality of the Luminiferous Aether

Note by, presented by.

In Comptes rendus of October 27 (p. 708 of this Volume), I showed that an interferometer whose optical circuit encloses a specific area, and which rotates in the plane of this circuit, detects its overall motion with respect to the vacuum aether.

1. The interferometer, already described briefly, is schematically illustrated in the figure: a horizontally rotating plate (50cm in diameter) carries, firmly screwed on it (the adjustable screws being secured by lock screws), all the optical parts as well as the source of light O, a small lamp with a horizontal metal filament. A microscope objective $$C_0$$ projects the image of this filament through the Nicol prism N onto the horizontal slit F in the focal plane of the collimating objective C; m is a reflecting mirror. The vertically polarized (per Fresnel's convention) parallel beam is divided by an air gap beam splitter $$\jmath$$, as in the usual interferometer of my research (Comptes rendus, t. 150, 1910, p. 1676), which I applied to the optical study of the motion of the Earth (Congrès de Bruxelles, sept. 1910, t. I, p. 207; Comptes rendus, t. 152, 1911, p. 310; Le Radium, 1911, p. I): the ray T transmitted through the air gap $$\jmath$$ is reflected successively on four mirrors M and traverses the closed circuit $$\jmath a_{1}a_{2}a_{3}a_{4}\jmath$$ of area S. The beam R which is reflected by the same air gap traverses the same circuit in the opposite direction. Returning to $$\jmath$$, the beam T, again transmitted, and the beam R, again reflected, are superimposed in the same direction along T² and R², and form interference fringes at the principal focus of the lens L on the fine-grained photographic plate $$pp'$$.

2. Mode of operation. I point out that perfect superposition of the two opposite beams T and R is characterized by general extinction of the telescope field for the radiation employed, which is here close to the indigo portion of the mercury arc spectrum. Starting from there, a small rotation ε of the beam splitter $$\jmath$$ around a vertical axis, in the clockwise direction (swing-direction D ), or counter-clockwise (swing-direction S ), narrows the dark field into a central vertical fringe bordered by parallel side fringes.

With the fringes appropriately adjusted and the photographic plate $$pp'$$ mounted in its frame and uncovered in red light, I gradually start up an electrical motor whose vertical axis carries a horizontal disc D that is encircled by a leather belt and which rolls this belt on the thick rim of the plate. When the desired rotational frequency N is reached, I make a photographic exposure by establishing electric current to the small lamp O, using a sliding contact on the axis of the revolving plate.

3. Direction and magnitude of the optical vortex effect. - In Fresnel's aether hypothesis, the light waves T and R are propagated in the aether of vacuum with a velocity V$0$ that is independent of the overall motion of the interferometer; the phase of the waves T in the clockwise direction of propagation (see the figure) is altered along the closed circuit, as if the luminiferous aether were driven by a counter-clockwise vortex when the circuit rotates in the D direction. The magnitude 4πNS of this vortex, that is, the relative circulation C of the aether in the optical circuit, gives, according to the expression $$\tfrac{\mathsf{C}}{\lambda\mathsf{V}_{0}}$$, the phase delay x of the wave T and the equal advance of wave R propagating in the opposite direction; the displacement y of the fringes equals 2x. The absolute direction of this fringe displacement must be from p to p′, that is, the d direction, in the same sense as the rotation of the interferometer (the effect is in the positive direction) when the swing-direction adjustment of the beam-splitter is D. The

total fringe displacement z, equal to 2y or 4x, measured by comparing an s exposure with a d exposure, then must be of direction d. If the swing-direction of the beam-splitter adjustment is S, displacements y and z will change sign.

During many tests, I constantly observed the predicted fringe displacements. The fact that effect z reverses when I turn the beam-splitter $$\jmath$$ by only a fraction of degree to reverse the swing-direction of its adjustment, characterizes the effect as a phase difference related to the motion of the interferometer, and makes it possible to distinguish it from the effect of deformation of the optical components.

Here are the examples of measurements of z compared with the computed values using the expression $$\tfrac{16\pi\mathsf{NS}}{\lambda\mathsf{V}_{0}}$$; I determined the wavelength λ corresponding to the distance between the interference rings obtained by the small lamp O, by comparing this distance with the distance between the slightly different diameter interference rings obtained using the 436mμ line from a mercury arc. Measurements are made by one of the two methods indicated in my note of October 27. The central fringe c which is clear on the negative that we studied, and the dark lateral fringes f, are bordered by only relatively narrow penumbras, which was conducive to precision measurement of the fringe peaks which I performed under low magnification, while framing the fringe peak between two parallel threads of an ocular micrometer.

The interferometer produces and measures, by the expression $$\tfrac{1}{2}$$z, the first order vortex-effect of its overall motion, without using any external reference.

The result of these measurements shows that, in ambient space, light propagates with a velocity $$V_0$$, independent of the collective motion of the source of light O and the optical system. This property of space experimentally characterizes the luminiferous aether. The interferometer measures, according to the expression $$\tfrac{1}{4}z\lambda\mathsf{V}_{0}$$, the relative circulation of the luminiferous aether in the closed circuit $$\jmath a_{1}a_{2}a_{3}a_{4}\jmath$$.

Translator's Notes
Sur la preuve de la réalité de l’éther lumineux


text: Translation talk:On the Proof of the Reality of the Luminiferous Aether


text: Translation talk:The Demonstration of the Luminiferous Aether


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94 The young ruffians succeeded in beating in the upper panels, but those below resisted all their efforts. They climbed over the solid portion and carried forth bacon, sausages, sugar, brandy, and what they could lay their hands on, and when well laden returned over the door to make way for others. Meantime Coudurier had chosen two lieutenants, Ferrendon and Allarcf, and, in council with them and some others of the worst miscreants, had resolved on putting to death several of their comrades whom they regarded as milksops and spies. By Coudurier's orders only those were allowed to enter the store-house whose names he called forth, and thus he sent fourteen of the lads he regarded as sneaks into the magazine. Then he emptied a bottle of petroleum over some paper by the door, and stationed Ferrendon and Allard to prevent the egress of the lads who had been sent in. Ferrendon by his orders set the petroleum on fire, and he provided Allard with a long knife with which to drive back the victims into the fire when endeavouring to escape, and to prevent any attempt at rescue. "Ferrendon," said he to a comrade, Lecocq, "is game for any mischief; and Allard is half-drunk." In a few minutes the sole entrance to the storehouse was a sheet of flame. One boy, Garibaldi, who was within, at once dashed through the fire and began to scramble over the broken door.

Allard stabbed him in the shoulder and breast, and then flung him down into the sheet of flaming petroleum. The scene now became inexpressibly horrible. The boys, seeing the fire rapidly spreading, got to the windows, put their arms between the bars, and screamed for help. They pulled at the gratings with desperation, but were unable to dislodge it. Two boys who ran

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Elizabeth (1734-1790)


text:
Author:Alice Louisa Theodora Zimmern

Works

 * Women's Suffrage in Many Lands
 * Methods of Education in the United States
 * The Renaissance of Girls' Education in England
 * (tr.) Meditations of Marcus Aurelius
 * (tr.) Porphyry's Letter to Marcella

title: Author:Alice Louisa Theodora Zimmern


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 Rh to attempt to extinguish the fire were driven back by the knife of Ferrendon. Some of the young criminals did feel qualms, and a desire to free their comrades, but were overawed by Coudurier. The lighthouse man, who had come to the spot, got a blanket, dipped it in water, and ran to the door, but was seized by the boys, taken off his legs, and flung into a pit twenty feet deep, and broke his ankle in the fall, so that he was unable to stir. A boy who snatched at the blanket and tried to extend it to some of those in a window, was also flung into the pit; but he happily came off better, and ran away. The poor wretches within, black against a background of fire, shrieked and wept; their clothes, their hair, caught fire, and one by one they fell back into the flames behind. The frightful end of their comrades sobered the drunken, mutinous crew; and some strove to drown their fears for the consequences by drinking themselves into total unconsciousness. Next day the mutineers scattered over the island, doing what mischief they pleased. Not till October 4th did help arrive, when the fire was extinguished, the island was occupied by soldiery, and the youths were taken to prison on the mainland, and the ringleaders brought to trial. It may be wondered where was Fauvau, the Director, all this while. He and the chaplain had got into a boat and escaped to shore. What had become of the warders we are not told, but they seem also to have effected their escape. On January 3rd, 1867, sixteen of the young criminals were tried at Draguignan. Ferrendon was a boy little over thirteen, a lad with a soft expressive face. Allard was aged thirteen, with a hangdog, evil look. One of the

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96 accused was a lad from Paris, refined in appearance and with large, beautiful eyes. One was aged twenty. Coudurier, Fouché, Laurent, and Bérond were found guilty by the jury, not of murder, but of homicide, with extenuating circumstances, and were sentenced to lifelong hard labour. Allard was condemned to be sent to a reformatory for ten years. Ferrendon was discharged as innocent! Guenau was also declared innocent. "Where, then, am I to sleep to-night?" he asked; whereupon the audience made up a handsome sum for him. This was not the end of the matter. In prison one of these culprits murdered another of his fellow boy-convicts because he thought the latter had given evidence against him. It is hard to say which came out worst in this affair, the Director, Chaplain, and warders, or the jury at Draguignan. Although M. de Pourtalès was willing to renew the experiment, the establishment was not restored, and of the reformatory only the ruins remain.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Elizabeth (1769-1823)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, John


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 60 will not be unworthy of a scholar of Rembrandt and Teniers, whom I have studied no less than Raphael and Michael Angelo. Please to send me your orders respecting this, and in my next effort I promise more expedition.—I am, revd. sir, your very humble servant,

.

6.

To the Rev. Dr. Trusler.

13 ,

23rd August 1799.

,—I really am sorry that you are fallen out with the spiritual world, especially if I should have to answer for it. I feel very sorry that your ideas and mine on moral painting differ so much as to have made you angry with my method of study. If I am wrong, I am wrong in good company. I had hoped your plan comprehended all species of this art, and especially that you would not regret that species which gives existence to every other, namely, visions of eternity. You say that I want somebody to elucidate my ideas. But you


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98 The forms of the mountains are rounded, and there are no bold crags; but it is scooped out into valleys that descend rapidly to the sea and to little bays; and these scoopings afford shelter from winter winds and cold, facing the sun, and walled in from every blast. I know a farm kitchen where a pair of curved settees are drawn about the fire, and the gap between the settees is closed in the evening by a green baize curtain. The family sits on a winter night in this cosy enclosure, the men with their pipes and jugs of cider, the women knitting and sewing; all chattering, singing, laughing. Now the southern face of the Maures is precisely such a snuggery formed by Nature. The mountains curve about to focus the sun's rays; and the cork woods, evergreen, kill all glare. Here the date trees ripen their fruit; here the icy blasts do not shrivel up the eucalyptus, and smite down the oranges. The pity is, there are as yet no well-established winter resorts at Lavandou, Cavalière, and, above all, Cavalaire—places more adapted to delicate lungs than Hyères, exposed to the currents of wind over the Crau; than that blow-hole S. Raphael, planted between the cheeks of the Maures and l'Estérel; than Cannes, where the winds come down from the snows over the plains of the Siagne; than Nice, with the Paillon on one side and the Var on the other. But for the English visitor in these suntraps three things are lacking—a lawn-tennis ground, a lending library, and an English chapel. Inevitably the Bay of Cavalaire will, in the future, become a great refuge for invalids. But that this may become so, above all, what is needed is a bunch of thorns applied to the tail of the engine that runs the train along the line from Hyères

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 Rh ought to know that what is grand is necessarily obscure to weak men. That which can be made explicit to the idiot is not worth my care. The wisest of the ancients considered what is not too explicit as the fittest for instruction, because it rouses the faculties to act. I name Moses, Solomon, Esop, Homer, Plato.

But as you have favoured me with your remarks on my design, permit me in return to defend it against a mistaken one, which is, that I have supposed Malevolence without a cause. Is not merit in one a cause of envy in another, and serenity and happiness and beauty a cause of malevolence? But want of money and the distress of a thief can never be alleged as the cause of his thieving, for many honest people endure greater hardships with fortitude. We must therefore seek the cause elsewhere than in want of money, for that is the miser s passion, not the thief's.

I have therefore proved your reasonings ill-proportioned, which you can never prove my figures to be. They are those of Michael Angelo, Raphael and the antique, and of the best living models. I perceive that your eye is perverted by caricature prints, which ought not to abound so much as they do. Fun I love, but too much fun is of all things the most loathsome. Mirth is better than fun, and happiness is better than


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 62 mirth. I feel that a man may be happy in this world, and I know that this world is a world of imagination and vision. I see everything I paint in this world, but everybody does not see alike. To the eyes of a miser a guinea is far more beautiful than the sun, and a bag worn with the use of money has more beautiful proportions than a vine filled with grapes. The tree which moves some to tears of joy is in the eyes of others only a green thing which stands in the way. Some see Nature all ridicule and deformity, and by these I shall not regulate my proportions; and some scarce see Nature at all. But to the eyes of the man of imagination, Nature is Imagination itself. As a man is, so he sees. As the eye is formed, such are its powers. You certainly mistake, when you say that the visions of fancy are not to be found in this world. To me this world is all one continued vision of fancy or imagination, and I feel flattered when I am told so. What is it sets Homer, Virgil, and Milton in


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Rh to S. Raphael by the coast. From Hyeres to that place is just fifty miles, and the quick trains do it in four, the slow in five hours. The mountains are mantled in cork wood, save the bald heads of some, and the making of corks is the main industry of the scattered villages. The cork tree (Quercus suber) retains its leaves for two years. It has two envelopes of bark, which are quite distinct. The inner cannot be removed without destroying the life of the tree. Virgin cork is not of much value; it is employed only for nets, and has no elasticity.

Only after the third harvest is the cork in perfect condition. The tree is then about forty years old. It is first skinned (démasclée) when the tree is aged twenty or five-and-twenty. The second peeling takes place when it is aged thirty or five-and-thirty. The third and best is collected when the tree is between forty and forty-five years old. The cork is taken off the trunk from above the ground to a height of about six feet, leaving the under surface of a coffee colour. The cork bark is plunged into a cauldron of boiling water, and is left in it for half an hour. Then it is cut into strips, next into squares. It is again boiled for a quarter of an hour, and then allowed slowly to dry, and is not touched again for six months, after which it is cut into shape. The best corks are made out of strips that have been kept for three years. To whiten the corks they are subjected to sulphur fumes. The great enemy to the cork tree is the Coroebus bifascatus, an insect that bores a gallery, not in the bark, but in the wood of the tree. It attacks the branches, and its presence can be detected by the sickly

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Maria


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Peter


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Robert


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stinnes, Hugo

STINNES, HUGO (1870-      ), German industrialist and financier, was born at Mülheim on Feb. 12 1870. He was the son of Hugo Stinnes, and grandson of Matthias Stinnes, who was the founder of a firm in no great way of business at Mülheim in the Ruhr district. After passing his leaving examination from a Realschule, young Stinnes was placed in an office at Coblentz where he speedily picked up the elements of a business training. In order to get a practical knowledge of mining he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wiethe colliery. He then, in 1889, attended a course of instruction at the Academy of Mining in Berlin. In the following year he entered the firm which his grandfather had founded. He remained there only two years and then established a firm of his own, Hugo Stinnes, Ltd. The whole original share capital was 50,000 marks (pre-war=£2,500). Gradually, from dealing in coal, he became

himself the owner of several mines and extended his business to the manufacture of different kinds of fuel such as briquettes. He also began to purchase sea-going vessels as well as river steamers and barges, the latter, especially on the Rhine, on a constantly increasing scale. He next organized an extensive international business in coal, and had 13 steamers trading to and from North Sea, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea ports. They carried coal, wood and grain, also iron-ore, Stinnes having begun to manufacture iron and steel. He also imported great quantities of English coal and had an agency at Newcastle as well as an interest in some English mines. This led to his establishing branches of his business at Hamburg and at Rotterdam. Before the World War he was the possessor of a fortune which was vaguely estimated at several millions of pounds. He was a director of many of the greatest industrial and mining companies of Westphalia, the Rhineland and Luxemburg. Business interests of this magnitude were constantly expanding, and he became interested in numerous subsidiary enterprises, such as tramways and the supply of electric power and light. He was always engaged in founding new concerns or amalgamating existing ones. Stinnes managed to maintain an extensive and even a detailed knowledge of the working of all the concerns in which he was engaged, and in all of them to exact zealous and conscientious work from his business subordinates. The secret of his success was essential unity of direction and coördination of aims in all branches of his enterprises.

When the World War broke out he secured an enormous share in the war profits which flowed into the coffers of the great industrialists. In enemy countries, it is true, his enterprises were sequestrated, and his firm at Rotterdam placed on the Allies' “black list.” But he was richly compensated, apart from the regular indemnification paid by the German Government, when he was called in by Ludendorff as the most competent expert to give advice, to organize the coal and the industrial production of occupied Belgium and to help to set in motion the gigantic production of war material which the German G.H.Q. demanded from the homeland. His connexion with Ludendorff led to his becoming an influence behind the scenes in German politics, and, after the revolution, to his entering the Reichstag, as well as to his début as a newspaper proprietor on a grand scale. During the war he had extended his activities in Hamburg and had bought up in 1916 the Woermann and the E. African lines. In these fresh undertakings he became associated with the two greatest German shipping concerns, the Hamburg-American line and the North German Lloyd. His Hamburg interests continued from that date onwards to multiply in something like geometrical progression. Half a dozen landed estates were purchased in Saxony to supply timber for pit props. At Flensburg in Schleswig he secured control of the largest Baltic shipping concern, and proceeded to build a new fleet of ships, christening one of them the “Hindenburg.” In the elections of June 1920 he secured a seat in the Reichstag as a member of the Deutsche Volkspartei, the new electioneering name of the former National Liberal party. He had about the same time begun to buy up leading German newspapers, one of his main objects being to organize a solid and powerful bloc of opinion in Germany in support of law and order and the promotion of the highest industrial and commercial efficiency. His newspaper purchases included the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung in Berlin, formerly the organ of Bismarck and then of all succeeding German Governments, the Münchener Neueste Nachrichten and the München-Augsburger Zeitung, the last-named being one of the oldest newspapers in Germany. Both of the South German journals were previously exponents of a very much more democratic trend of opinion than that which came to characterize them under the new proprietorship. Ancillary to these acquisitions large interests were secured by Stinnes in paper-works in order to make his newspapers independent of the paper market.

In the autumn of 1921 he was reported to be contemplating some still vaster venture in the nature of a super trust to control every industry in Germany, so that the whole might ultimately

be coördinated like one gigantic concern regulating production, transport and the supply of the German markets and those of the whole world. It might thus be possible to avoid waste, sudden crises, ruinous competition and foreign commercial dictation. He was reported to have already expended the equivalent of about £250,000,000 on these aims and to be continuing to sink further millions in them. The Social Democrats were believed not to be averse from Stinnes' vaster scheme, as it corresponded in certain aspects with their own plans, when they were in power, for coördinating all German industries, pending the possibility of socializing them. An instrument for superintending this coordination in the social and economic aspects was ready to hand in the Economic Council of the German Reich, set up by the new Republican constitution of 1919.

The only public check which Stinnes was known to have received in the course of his career was at the Spa Conference in 1920, when he attempted to address that assembly in peremptory language concerning the impossibility of the coal deliveries demanded by the Allies and was summarily silenced by the president.


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100 look of the leaves. When this indication shows that it is burrowing, the branches affected are cut off above the point to which it has bored, and are burnt. At one time it was supposed that the cork tree required no culture. But of late years great pains have been taken with it, and it readily responds to them. A self-sown tree growing up in the midst of heather and cistus is not likely to attain to a great size. It is cut down to the root; then, when it sends up fresh shoots, one is kept, the rest removed. This operation has to be repeated, and the ground about the root to be well dressed. After six years the tree will take care of itself. The great danger, above all, to which the cork woods are exposed, is fire; whole tracts have been devastated in this way, and the proprietors ruined. Consequently, precautions are insisted on. Smokers are specially warned not to throw about their unextinguished matches.

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) is another that is met with, and which attracts the attention of the visitor from the north. The pods, called locust beans, are supposed to have been those on which S. John the Baptist fed when in the wilderness. These beans grow in shape like a horn, which has given its name to the tree. They contain a sweet nutritious pulp, enclosing yellow seeds. The fruit is used extensively for feeding animals, and is eaten by children, who, indeed, will eat anything. When the phylloxera was ravaging the vineyards of France, a company started a distillery at Cette to manufacture cognac out of the fruit of the carob. But it failed, as the brandy so made retained a peculiar and disagreeable flavour that could not be got out of it. The carob is an evergreen, vigorous and beautiful,

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 Rh so high a rank of art? Why is the Bible more entertaining and instructive than any other book? Is it not because they are addressed to the imagination, which is spiritual sensation, and but mediately to the understanding or reason? Such is true painting, and such was alone valued by the Greeks and the best modern artists. Consider what Lord Bacon says: "Sense sends over to imagination before reason have judged, and reason sends over to imagination before the decree can be acted." (See Advancement of Learnings. part ii. p. 47 of first edition.)

But I am happy to find a great majority of fellow-mortals who can elucidate my visions, and particularly they have been elucidated by children, who have taken a greater delight in contemplating my pictures than I even hoped. Neither youth nor childhood is folly or incapacity. Some children are fools, and so are some old men. But there is a vast majority on the side of imagination or spiritual sensation.

To engrave after another painter is infinitely more laborious than to engrave one's own inventions. And of the size you require my price has been thirty guineas, and I cannot afford to do it for less. I had twelve for the head I sent you as a specimen; but after my own designs I could do at least six times the quantity of labour in the same


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Rh It grows in most stony, arid spots, where is hardly a particle of soil. Such a tree cannot live only on what it derives from its roots; it must live in a great measure by its leaves, as, indeed, to a large extent, do all evergreens. The scanty soil will in many places not feed trees that drop their leaves in autumn, and supply them afresh every spring. Such renewal exacts from the poor soil more than it can furnish. Consequently, Nature spreads evergreens over the rocky surfaces that contain but slight nutritive elements. Thus it is that in Provence the vegetation is nearly all of an evergreen character. Beside the manufacture of corks, the inhabitants of the Maures breed silkworms, and so grow mulberry trees for their sustenance. King Réné is credited with having introduced the mulberry into Provence from Sicily; but it is more probable that it is indigenous. What Réné did was to suggest its utilisation for the feeding of the silkworm. This branch of production was greatly encouraged by Henry IV., but wars and intestine troubles, the ravaging of the country by rival factions, by the Savoyards and by the French, caused the cultivation of the silkworm to decline. Of late years, however, it has been on the increase, and the number of mulberry trees planted has accordingly also, greatly increased. The Chain des Maures takes its name from the Saracens, who occupied it, and made it their stronghold, whence they descended to burn and destroy.

By the infusion of new elements, forms of government, new religious ideas, conceptions of individual and political rights, the old world of Gaul was in process of transformation; it was gradually organising itself on a

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 64 time, which will account for the difference of price, as also that chalk engraving is at least six times as laborious as aqua tinta. I have no objection to engraving after another artist. Engraving is the profession I was apprenticed to, and should never have attempted to live by anything else, if orders had not come in for my designs and paintings, which I have the pleasure to tell you are increasing every day. Thus if I am a painter it is not to be attributed to seeking after. But I am contented whether I live by painting or engraving.—I am, revd. sir, your very obedient servant,

Marked by the recipient: "Blake, dim'd with superstition."

7.

To.

,

26th August 1799.

,—I ought long ago to have written to you to thank you for your kind recommendation to Dr. Trusler, which, though it has failed of success, is not the less to be remembered by me with gratitude.

I have made him a drawing in my best manner;


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 Rh he has sent it back with a letter full of criticisms, in which he says it accords not with his intentions, which are to reject all fancy from his work. How far he expects to please, I cannot tell. But as I cannot paint dirty rags and old shoes when I ought to plan naked beauty or simple ornament, I despair of ever pleasing one class of man. Unfortunately our authors of books are among this class; how soon we shall have a change for the better I cannot prophesy. Dr. Trusler says: "Your fancy, from what I have seen of it, and I have seen a variety at Mr. Cumberland's, seems to be in the other world, or the world of spirits, which accords not with my intentions, which, whilst living in this world, wish to follow the nature of it." I could not help smiling at the difference between the doctrines of Dr. Trusler and those of Christ. But, however, for his own sake I am sorry that a man should be so enamoured of Rowlandson's caricatures as to call them copies from life and manners, or fit things for a clergyman to write upon.

Pray let me entreat you to persevere in your designing; it is the only source of pleasure. All your other pleasures depend upon it: it is the tree; your pleasures are the fruit. Your inventions of


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102 broad basis, when in the midst of this society in reconstruction appeared a new element, quite unknown, and on whose advent no reckoning had been made. It came from the coasts of Africa, and was Mohammedan. Some called these people Hagarenes, as descendants of Hagar, but they themselves regarded their descent as from Sarah, and so called themselves Saracens. Their first appearance on the Provençal coast was in 730, when they sacked Nice and other towns, and the inhabitants fled to the mountains to save their lives. They harassed the littoral incessantly, not in large forces at a time, attempting a conquest, but arriving in a few vessels, unexpectedly, to pillage, murder, and carry away captives. As soon as ever the forces of the Counts arrived, they escaped to their ships and fled, to recommence their devastations at another point. In 846 the Saracens carried ruin and desolation over the whole plain of Aix, and made themselves masters of all vantage points along the coast. The population sunk in despair, no longer offered effective resistance, and the nobles, quarrelling among themselves, invoked the aid of the infidels against their neighbours of whom they were jealous. About this time it happened that a Moorish pirate was wrecked in the bay of S. Tropez. He soon saw the strategic value of the chain of granite and schist mountains, and returning to Africa collected a large band, crossed the sea, and took possession of the whole mountainous block. At this time, moreover, Mussulman Spain was a prey to a bloody schism. The dynasty of the Abassides was succeeded by that of the Ommiades, and the vicissitudes of parties continually augmented the number of those who were conquered and proscribed. These, flying from Spain, sought refuge

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Rh in this corner of Provence, which by such means was converted into a little Mussulman realm. On every height was built a rebath, a fort that the Christians called a fraxinet, whence a sharp watch was kept over the sea, and should a merchant vessel be descried, at once a flotilla of pirate boats started out of the harbour of S. Tropez, and fell on the unfortunate merchantmen. Thus established here, masters also of the Balearic Isles, of Sardinia and Sicily, as well as of the African coast, they completely paralysed the trade of the Mediterranean, and exposed the inhabitants of the seaboard, that was Christian, to daily peril of being carried off to be sold in the slave markets of Tunis and Morocco. In Spain, the Mussulman conquerors had developed a high state of civilization. They had become architects of great skill. They cultivated science and literature. In Provence they were not constructive. They did nothing for civilization, everything to waste, set back, and to destroy. They have left behind them in the country not a trace, save a few names, of their strongholds. The condition of affairs had became intolerable. The Moors of the Grand Fraxinet, their principal fortress in the Montagnes des Maures, started on a pillaging expedition, crossed Lower Provence, and entered the Alps. As they turned north they met with great resistance. They ascended the river Roja, they pushed over the Col de Tende, and descended into the plains of Lombardy. They took the monastery of S. Dalmas de Pedene, and although most of the monks had fled, they caught and killed forty of them, and either massacred or took prisoners all the peasants about.

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 66 intellectual visions are the stamina of everything you value. Go on, if not for your own sake, yet for ours, who love and admire your works; but, above all, for the sake of the arts. Do not throw aside for any long time the honour intended you by nature to revive the Greek workmanship. I study your outlines as usual, just as if they were antiques.

As to myself, about whom you are so kindly interested, I live by miracle. I am painting small pictures from the Bible. For as to engraving, in which art I cannot reproach myself with any neglect, yet I am laid by in a corner as if I did not exist, and since my Young's Night Thoughts have been published, even Johnson and Fuseli


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 Rh have discarded my graver. But as I know that he who works and has his health cannot starve, I laugh at fortune, and go on and on. I think I foresee better things than I have ever seen. My work pleases my employer, and I have an order for fifty small pictures at one guinea each, which is something better than mere copying after another artist. But above all, I feel happy and contented. Having passed now nearly twenty years in ups and downs, I am used to them, and perhaps a little practice in them may turn out to benefit. It is now exactly twenty years since I was upon the ocean of business, and, though laugh at fortune, I am persuaded that she alone is the governor of worldly riches, and when it is fit she will call upon me. Till then I wait with patience, in hopes that she is Bottom," in the National Gallery, is one of the finest of his oil paintings. It is, however, in some of his small sketches and studies, many of them in water-colours, that his ability really asserts itself.

He is likely to have made Blake's acquaintance in 1780, when he returned from Italy and settled down in Broad Street, Carnaby Market, close to Blake's own home. It was under Blake's influence that his imaginative quality first began to develop itself, and that his style underwent a change in the direction of restraint and refinement. He remained Blake's constant friend and admirer. He is said to have been the author of the Advertisement of the designs to Young's Night Thoughts, and he afterwards composed the prospectus of the illustrations of Blair's Grave. Several of his designs were engraved by Blake's hand.


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 68 busied among my friends.—With mine and my wifes best compliments to Mrs. Cumberland, I remain, yours sincerely,.

8.

To , 6th May 1800.

,—I am very sorry for your immense loss, which is a repetition of what all feel in this valley of misery and happiness mixed. I send the shadow of the departed angel, and hope the likeness is improved. The lips I have again lessened as you advise, and done a good many other softenings to the whole. I know that our deceased friends are more really with us than when they were apparent to our mortal part. Thirteen years ago I lost a brother, and with his spirit I converse daily and


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104 Another pillaging excursion crossed the great S. Bernard to attack the monastery of S. Maurice, where the Archbishop of Embrun, and some of the Provençal prelates had stored the treasures of their churches. A third party from the Fraxinet, aided by a fleet from Africa, had taken Genoa, and put all the inhabitants to the edge of the sword. Hugh, Count of Provence and King of Italy, was appealed to for aid. Having no naval force to oppose to that of the Moors, he solicited help from the Emperor of the East, and a fleet from Constantinople entered the Gulf of S. Tropez, and burnt that of the Saracens. Hugh, in the meantime, invaded the mountains and reached the Fraxinet. But whilst thus engaged, he heard that Berengarius, Marquess of Ivrea, had taken advantage of his absence to fall on his possessions in Italy. Hugh thereupon dismissed the Greek fleet, and made an alliance with the Saracens, to whom he committed the passages of the Alps. About this same Hugh of Provence, one of the biggest scoundrels who ever breathed, it will be as well to say something.

Hugh was the son of Theobald, Count of Provence, and of Bertha, daughter of Lothair, King of Burgundy. The House of Provence had acquired great possessions during the reign of Louis III., King of Aries and Emperor (d. 915), the uncle of Hugh. But Hugh was not content. He raised pretensions to the kingdom of Italy, then held by Rudolf, King of Transjuran Burgundy. Hugh was seconded by his half-brothers Guido and Lambert, Dukes of Tuscany and Spoleto, and by his sister, Ermengarde, widow of the Marquess of Ivrea

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Translation:At my Moscow home how the domes do shine!..

* * *

At my Moscow home how the domes do shine! At my Moscow home how the bells do chime! And behold, in rows every tomb and shrine Where the ladies sleep, and the lords

Little knowest thou that the Kremlin air Is of all the world’s marvellously fair! Little knowest thou that my morning prayer Reaches out to thee, ere it dawns

And thou passest nigh quays of thy Neva As I stand, head bent, over the Moskva And the evening lamps, overlooking, are Winking sleepily at the floats

And I love thee for all my sleepless nights And I heed thee for all my waking eyes As I stand here, lorn, near the Kremlin dikes To the morning bells calling oft …

But as rivers two will not ever meet So the hands of you mine will never greet We are sundered like as two dawns, my Sweet Lest they ever both be aloft

Стихи_к_Блоку_(Цветаева)/5


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1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wiley, Harvey Washington

WILEY, HARVEY WASHINGTON (1844-      ), American chemist, was born in Kent, Ind., Oct. 18 1844. He was educated at Hanover (Ind.) College (A.B.1867; A.M.1870), Indiana Medical College (M.D.1871), and Harvard (B.S.1873). He was professor of Greek and Latin at Butler College, Indianapolis, (1868-70); state chemist of Indiana and professor of Chemistry at Purdue University (1874-83); and chief chemist of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1883-1912). He was elected president of the American Chemical Society in 1893, and from 1899 was professor of Agricultural Chemistry at the George Washington University. He frequently represented the United States in scientific meetings abroad. He was specially interested in preventing food adulteration, and antagonized many food packers by opposing the use of benzoate of soda as a preservative. In 1911 his enemies urged his dismissal from the Department of Agriculture on the technical charge that an expert in his department had received recompense exceeding the legal rate. Later in the year President Taft wrote a letter wholly exonerating Dr. Wiley, but failed to take the obviously proper steps to remove from the Department a hostile member, with whom Dr. Wiley had to come into constant contact. Accordingly, Dr. Wiley resigned in 1912. Henceforth, he devoted himself largely to the cause of pure food by lecturing and writing.


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 By the publication of ‘A Bride-Bvsh; or a Direction for Married Persons. Plainely describing the Dvties common to both, and peculiar to each of them’ (London, 1619, 4to; republished 1623; Bristol, 1768, 12mo; translated into Welsh, Llanrwst, 1834, 8vo), in which he propounded that ‘the sin of adultery or wilfull desertion dissolveth the bond and annihilateth the covenant of matrimonie,’ Whately raised a storm of opposition in the church. He was convened before the high commission, but, retracting his propositions on 4 May 1621, was dismissed. To the second edition of ‘The Bride Bush’ (1623) he appended an address to the reader ‘from him that had rather confesse his owne error than make thee erre for company;’ and again in ‘A Care Cloth’ he denied his former opinion. Whately died at Banbury on 10 May 1639. He was buried in the churchyard under a raised monument, now destroyed, but the remarkable inscription is preserved by a copy made on 13 July 1660 (Harl. MS. 4170).

The people of Banbury held Whately in high esteem, a fact referred to ironically by Richard Corbet [q. v.], successively bishop of Norwich and Oxford, in his ‘Iter Boreale,’ written about 1625, where he says, referring to the neglected condition of the church: If not for God's, for Mr. Wheatlye's sake, Levell the walkes; suppose these pitt falls make Him spraine a lecture, or misplace a joynt In his long prayer, or his fiveteenth point. Whately's engraved portrait is prefixed to the posthumous volume of sermons issued by his executors, Henry Scudder and Edward Leigh.

By his wife, Martha Hunt (buried at Banbury on 10 Dec. 1641), Whately had two sons—William (d. 24 Jan. 1647), perhaps identical with William Whately, mayor of Banbury; and Thomas, vicar of Sutton-under-Brailes, Warwickshire, whence he was ejected in 1662; he afterwards preached at Milton, Woodstock, and Long Combe, Oxfordshire, and was buried at Banbury on 27 Jan. 1698 (, ed. Palmer, iii. 350). An engraved portrait is prefixed to his ‘Prototypes.’

Whately was also author of: 1. ‘The Redemption of Time,’ London, 1606, 12mo. 2. ‘A Caveat for the Covetous,’ London, 1609, 12mo. 3. ‘The New Birth,’ London, 1618, 4to; 2nd edit. 1622, 4to. 4. ‘God's Husbandry,’ London, 1622, 8vo; republished London, 1846, 12mo. 5. ‘A Pithie, Short, and Methodicall opening of the Ten Commandements,’ London, 1622, 8vo. 6. ‘Mortification,’ London, 1623, 4to. 7. ‘Charitable Teares,’ London, 1623, 4to. 8. ‘A Care-Cloth; or a Treatise of the Cvmbers and Troubles of Marriage,’ London, 1624. 9. ‘Sinne no more,’ London, 1628, 4to (a rare sermon, preached upon the occasion of a fire which on Sunday, 2 March 1628, destroyed almost the whole of Banbury town). 10. ‘The Poore Man's Advocate,’ London, 1637, 8vo. 11. ‘The Oyle of Gladness, or Comfort for Dejected Sinners,’ London, 1637, 8vo. 12. ‘Prototypes’ (posthumous), London, 1640, fol.; 2nd edit. 1647, fol.

Whately's library, catalogued by Edward Millington (London, 1683, 4to), was sold at Bridge's coffee-house in Pope's Head Alley on 23 April 1683; but Scudder tells us that, although a great reader, Whately did not own many books, having the run of a bookseller's shop in Banbury.

[Scudder's Life of Whately, prefixed to ‘Prototypes;’ Wood's Athenæ Oxon. ed. Bliss, ii. 638; Brook's Lives of the Puritans, ii. 436; Fuller's Worthies, ii. 220, 232; Mede's Works, 3rd ed. fol. 1672, p. xxxvii; Beesley's Hist. of Banbury, containing the best account of him; Durham's Life of Robert Harris, 1660; Granger's Biogr. Hist. ii. 190; Macray's Reg. Magd. Coll. ii. 195; Bodleian Catalogue; Clarke's Marrow of Ecclesiastical History, 1675, p. 460.]  WHATTON, WILLIAM ROBERT (1790–1835), surgeon and antiquary, son of Henry Whatton, by Elizabeth, daughter of John Watkinson, was born at Loughborough, Leicestershire, on 17 Feb. 1790. He was admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons on 16 March 1810, and settled at Manchester about 1816, where he was afterwards surgeon to the Royal Infirmary. In January 1822 he joined the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and was elected librarian in 1828. To the ‘Memoirs’ of that society he contributed in 1824 ‘Observations on the Armorial Bearings of the Town of Manchester and on the Descent of the Baronial Family of Gresley’ (printed for the author, Manchester, 4to). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 5 June 1834, and was F.S.A. of London and Edinburgh. To ‘Archæologia’ (xxx. 595) he sent an ‘Account of the Discovery of an Ancient Instrument of Brass at Rochdale,’ and to ‘Archæologia Scotica’ (iv. 1) an interesting paper on certain furniture at Speke Hall, Lancashire. In 1828 he wrote ‘The History of Manchester School,’ and in 1833 ‘A History of Chetham Hospital and Library,’ which together form the third volume of Hibbert-Ware's ‘Foundations in Manchester.’ He projected a work on the worthies of Lancashire; but when Edward Baines [q. v.] announced his


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xviii. And yet, apart from this, merely as dramas, the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides will never cease to be admired. These poets are teachers, but they teach through art. To ask simply, as Carlyle once did, ‘What did they think?’ is not the way to understand or learn from them.

Considered simply as works of art, the plays of Sophocles stand alone amongst dramatic writings in their degree of concentration and complex unity.

1. The interest of a Sophoclean drama is always intensely personal, and is almost always centred in an individual destiny. In other words, it is not historical or mythical, but ethical. Single persons stand out magnificently in Aeschylus. But the action is always larger than any single life. Each tragedy or trilogy resembles the fragment of a sublime Epic poem. Mighty issues revolve about the scene, whether this is laid on Earth or amongst the Gods, issues far transcending the fate of Orestes or even of Prometheus. In the perspective painting of Sophocles, these vast surroundings fall into the background, and the feelings of the spectator are absorbed in sympathy with the chief figure on the stage, round whom the other characters—the members of the chorus being included—are grouped with the minutest care.

2. In this grouping of the persons, as well as in the conduct of the action, Sophocles is masterly in his use of pathetic contrast. This motive must of course enter into all tragedy—nothing can be finer than the contrast of Cassandra to Clytemnestra in the Agamemnon,—but in Sophocles it is all-pervading, and some of the minor effects of it are so subtle that although inevitably felt by the spectator they are often lost upon the mere reader or student. And every touch, however transient, is made to contribute to the main effect. To recur once more to the much-abused analogy of statuary:—the work of Aeschylus may be compared to a colossal frieze, while that of Sophocles resembles the pediment of a smaller temple. Or if, as in considering the Orestean trilogy, the arrangement of the pediment


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United States Code/Title 11/Chapter 11/Section 1129

§ 1129. Confirmation of plan

 * (a) The court shall confirm a plan only if all of the following requirements are met:
 * (1) The plan complies with the applicable provisions of this title.
 * (2) The proponent of the plan complies with the applicable provisions of this title.
 * (3) The plan has been proposed in good faith and not by any means forbidden by law.
 * (4) Any payment made or to be made by the proponent, by the debtor, or by a person issuing securities or acquiring property under the plan, for services or for costs and expenses in or in connection with the case, or in connection with the plan and incident to the case, has been approved by, or is subject to the approval of, the court as reasonable.
 * (5)
 * (A)
 * (i) The proponent of the plan has disclosed the identity and affiliations of any individual proposed to serve, after confirmation of the plan, as a director, officer, or voting trustee of the debtor, an affiliate of the debtor participating in a joint plan with the debtor, or a successor to the debtor under the plan; and
 * (ii) the appointment to, or continuance in, such office of such individual, is consistent with the interests of creditors and equity security holders and with public policy; and
 * (B) the proponent of the plan has disclosed the identity of any insider that will be employed or retained by the reorganized debtor, and the nature of any compensation for such insider.
 * (6) Any governmental regulatory commission with jurisdiction, after confirmation of the plan, over the rates of the debtor has approved any rate change provided for in the plan, or such rate change is expressly conditioned on such approval.
 * (7) With respect to each impaired class of claims or interests—
 * (A) each holder of a claim or interest of such class—
 * (i) has accepted the plan; or
 * (ii) will receive or retain under the plan on account of such claim or interest property of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, that is not less than the amount that such holder would so receive or retain if the debtor were liquidated under chapter 7 of this title on such date; or
 * (B) if section 1111 (b)(2) of this title applies to the claims of such class, each holder of a claim of such class will receive or retain under the plan on account of such claim property of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, that is not less than the value of such holder’s interest in the estate’s interest in the property that secures such claims.
 * (8) With respect to each class of claims or interests—
 * (A) such class has accepted the plan; or
 * (B) such class is not impaired under the plan.
 * (9) Except to the extent that the holder of a particular claim has agreed to a different treatment of such claim, the plan provides that—
 * (A) with respect to a claim of a kind specified in section 507 (a)(2) or 507 (a)(3) of this title, on the effective date of the plan, the holder of such claim will receive on account of such claim cash equal to the allowed amount of such claim;
 * (B) with respect to a class of claims of a kind specified in section 507 (a)(1), 507 (a)(4), 507 (a)(5), 507 (a)(6), or 507 (a)(7) of this title, each holder of a claim of such class will receive—
 * (i) if such class has accepted the plan, deferred cash payments of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, equal to the allowed amount of such claim; or
 * (ii) if such class has not accepted the plan, cash on the effective date of the plan equal to the allowed amount of such claim;
 * (C) with respect to a claim of a kind specified in section 507 (a)(8) of this title, the holder of such claim will receive on account of such claim regular installment payments in cash—
 * (i) of a total value, as of the effective date of the plan, equal to the allowed amount of such claim;
 * (ii) over a period ending not later than 5 years after the date of the order for relief under section 301, 302, or 303; and
 * (iii) in a manner not less favorable than the most favored nonpriority unsecured claim provided for by the plan (other than cash payments made to a class of creditors under section 1122 (b)); and
 * (D) with respect to a secured claim which would otherwise meet the description of an unsecured claim of a governmental unit under section 507 (a)(8), but for the secured status of that claim, the holder of that claim will receive on account of that claim, cash payments, in the same manner and over the same period, as prescribed in subparagraph (C).
 * (10) If a class of claims is impaired under the plan, at least one class of claims that is impaired under the plan has accepted the plan, determined without including any acceptance of the plan by any insider.
 * (11) Confirmation of the plan is not likely to be followed by the liquidation, or the need for further financial reorganization, of the debtor or any successor to the debtor under the plan, unless such liquidation or reorganization is proposed in the plan.
 * (12) All fees payable under section 1930 of title 28, as determined by the court at the hearing on confirmation of the plan, have been paid or the plan provides for the payment of all such fees on the effective date of the plan.
 * (13) The plan provides for the continuation after its effective date of payment of all retiree benefits, as that term is defined in section 1114 of this title, at the level established pursuant to subsection (e)(1)(B) or (g) of section 1114 of this title, at any time prior to confirmation of the plan, for the duration of the period the debtor has obligated itself to provide such benefits.
 * (14) If the debtor is required by a judicial or administrative order, or by statute, to pay a domestic support obligation, the debtor has paid all amounts payable under such order or such statute for such obligation that first become payable after the date of the filing of the petition.
 * (15) In a case in which the debtor is an individual and in which the holder of an allowed unsecured claim objects to the confirmation of the plan—
 * (A) the value, as of the effective date of the plan, of the property to be distributed under the plan on account of such claim is not less than the amount of such claim; or
 * (B) the value of the property to be distributed under the plan is not less than the projected disposable income of the debtor (as defined in section 1325 (b)(2)) to be received during the 5-year period beginning on the date that the first payment is due under the plan, or during the period for which the plan provides payments, whichever is longer.
 * (16) All transfers of property of the plan shall be made in accordance with any applicable provisions of nonbankruptcy law that govern the transfer of property by a corporation or trust that is not a moneyed, business, or commercial corporation or trust.

 * (b)
 * (1) Notwithstanding section 510 (a) of this title, if all of the applicable requirements of subsection (a) of this section other than paragraph (8) are met with respect to a plan, the court, on request of the proponent of the plan, shall confirm the plan notwithstanding the requirements of such paragraph if the plan does not discriminate unfairly, and is fair and equitable, with respect to each class of claims or interests that is impaired under, and has not accepted, the plan.
 * (2) For the purpose of this subsection, the condition that a plan be fair and equitable with respect to a class includes the following requirements:
 * (A) With respect to a class of secured claims, the plan provides—
 * (i)
 * (I) that the holders of such claims retain the liens securing such claims, whether the property subject to such liens is retained by the debtor or transferred to another entity, to the extent of the allowed amount of such claims; and
 * (II) that each holder of a claim of such class receive on account of such claim deferred cash payments totaling at least the allowed amount of such claim, of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, of at least the value of such holder’s interest in the estate’s interest in such property;
 * (ii) for the sale, subject to section 363 (k) of this title, of any property that is subject to the liens securing such claims, free and clear of such liens, with such liens to attach to the proceeds of such sale, and the treatment of such liens on proceeds under clause (i) or (iii) of this subparagraph; or
 * (iii) for the realization by such holders of the indubitable equivalent of such claims.
 * (B) With respect to a class of unsecured claims—
 * (i) the plan provides that each holder of a claim of such class receive or retain on account of such claim property of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, equal to the allowed amount of such claim; or
 * (ii) the holder of any claim or interest that is junior to the claims of such class will not receive or retain under the plan on account of such junior claim or interest any property, except that in a case in which the debtor is an individual, the debtor may retain property included in the estate under section 1115, subject to the requirements of subsection (a)(14) of this section.
 * (C) With respect to a class of interests—
 * (i) the plan provides that each holder of an interest of such class receive or retain on account of such interest property of a value, as of the effective date of the plan, equal to the greatest of the allowed amount of any fixed liquidation preference to which such holder is entitled, any fixed redemption price to which such holder is entitled, or the value of such interest; or
 * (ii) the holder of any interest that is junior to the interests of such class will not receive or retain under the plan on account of such junior interest any property.

 * (c) Notwithstanding subsections (a) and (b) of this section and except as provided in section 1127 (b) of this title, the court may confirm only one plan, unless the order of confirmation in the case has been revoked under section 1144 of this title. If the requirements of subsections (a) and (b) of this section are met with respect to more than one plan, the court shall consider the preferences of creditors and equity security holders in determining which plan to confirm.

 * (d) Notwithstanding any other provision of this section, on request of a party in interest that is a governmental unit, the court may not confirm a plan if the principal purpose of the plan is the avoidance of taxes or the avoidance of the application of section 5 of the Securities Act of 1933. In any hearing under this subsection, the governmental unit has the burden of proof on the issue of avoidance.

 * (e) In a small business case, the court shall confirm a plan that complies with the applicable provisions of this title and that is filed in accordance with section 1121 (e) not later than 45 days after the plan is filed unless the time for confirmation is extended in accordance with section 1121 (e)(3).


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Rh affords the more fitting parallel even for Aeschylus, yet the forms are so gigantic that minute touches of characterization and of contrast are omitted as superfluous. Whereas in Sophocles, it is at once the finish of the chief figure and the studied harmony of the whole, which have led his work to be compared with that of his contemporary Phidias. Such comparison, however, is useful by way of illustration merely. It must never be forgotten that, as Lessing pointed out to some who thought the Philoctetes too sensational, analogies between the arts are limited by essential differences of material and of scope. All poetry represents successive moments. Its figures are never in repose. And although the action of Tragedy is concentrated and revolves around a single point, yet it is a dull vision that confounds rapidity of motion with rest.

3. Sophocles found the subjects of his dramas already embodied not only in previous tragedies but in Epic and Lyric poetry. And there were some fables, such as that of the death of Oedipus at Colonos, which seem to have been known to him only through oral tradition. For some reason which is not clearly apparent, both he and Aeschylus drew more largely from the Cyclic poets than from ‘our Homer’. The inferior and more recent Epics, which are now lost, were probably more episodical, and thus presented a more inviting repertory of legends than the Iliad and Odyssey.

Arctinus of Lesbos had treated at great length the story of the House of Thebes. The legend of Orestes, to which there are several allusions, not always consistent with each other, in the Homeric poems, had been a favourite and fruitful subject of tradition and of poetical treatment in the intervening period. Passages of the Tale of Troy, in which other heroes than Achilles had the pre-eminence, had been elaborated by Lesches and other Epic writers of the Post-Homeric time. The voyage of the Argonauts, another favourite heroic theme, supplied the subjects of many dramas which have disappeared. Lastly, the taking of Oechalia by


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Author:Thomas Brown (1778-1820)

Works

 * Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect (1805; 3rd ed., 1818)
 * Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind (1822)
 * "Villers's Philosophy of Kant" in Edinburgh Review (1803)
 * "The Non-Descript"

Works about Brown

 * Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas Brown (1825), by David Welsh

title: Author:Thomas Brown (1778-1820)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Coventry, John (1735-1812)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Coventry, Maria


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xx Heracles, and the events which followed it, had been narrated in a long poem, in which one version of that hero’s multiform legend was fully set forth.

The subjects of the King Oedipus, Oedipus at Colonos, and Antigone, are taken from the Tale of Thebes; the Aias and the Philoctetes are founded on incidents between the end of the Iliad and the taking of Troy; the Electra represents the vengeance of Orestes, the crowning event in the tale of ‘Pelops’ line’; the Trachiniae recounts the last crisis in the life of Heracles.

4. Of the three Theban plays, the Antigone was first composed, although its subject is the latest. Aeschylus in the Seven against Thebes had already represented the young heroine as defying the victorious citizens who forbade the burial of her brother, the rebel Polynices. He allowed her to be supported in her action by a band of sympathizing friends. But in the play of Sophocles she stands alone, and the power which she defies is not that of the citizens generally, but of Creon, whose will is absolute in the State. Thus the struggle is intensified, and both her strength and her desolation become more impressive, while the opposing claims of civic authority and domestic piety are more vividly realized, because if either is separately embodied in an individual will. By the same means the situation is humanized to the last degree, and the heart of the spectator, although strained to the uttermost with pity for the heroic maiden whose life when full of brightest hopes was sacrificed to affection and piety, has still some feeling left for the living desolation of the man, whose patriotic zeal, degenerating into tyranny, brought his city to the brink of ruin, and cost him the lives of his two sons and of his wife, whose dying curse, as well as that of Haemon, is denounced upon him. In the Oedipus Tyrannus, Sophocles goes back to the central crisis of the Theban story. And again he fixes our attention, not so much on the fortunes of the city, or of the reigning house, as on the man Oedipus, his glory and his fall:—


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 ‘History of Lancashire’ he handed over his biographies, in completed form, to be incorporated in that work. In 1829 he published two pamphlets proposing the establishment of a university for Manchester to be engrafted on the Royal Institution of that town. This scheme of a Manchester university was again brought forward by Harry Longueville Jones [q. v.] in 1836, but not finally carried out until the Victoria university was founded in 1880.

His professional papers were confined to a contribution on ‘Spinal and Spino-ganglial Irritation’ to the ‘North of England Medical and Surgical Journal’ (1830), and ‘An Address to the Pupils of the Manchester Infirmary’ (1834).

He died at Manchester on 5 Dec. 1835. By his wife Harriet Sophia, daughter of William Seddon of Eccles, near Manchester, whom he married in 1822, he had a son and a daughter. His son, Arundel Blount Whatton (born on 22 Sept. 1827, died at Middlesex Hospital on 18 May 1862), became a clergyman, and published in 1859 a ‘Memoir of the Life and Labours of the Rev. Jeremiah Horrox’ (2nd edit. 1875; see ).

[Gent. Mag. 1825 i. 308, 1836, ii. 661; communications from Mr. Edward Trimmer, secretary to the Royal College of Surgeons, and Mr. R. Harrison, assistant secretary of the Royal Society.]  WHEARE, DEGORY (1573–1647), professor of history at Oxford University, was born at the mansion of Berry Court, Jacobstow, about eight miles south of Stratton in North Cornwall. He matriculated from Broadgates Hall, Oxford, on 6 July 1593, as son of a commoner, graduated B.A. on 5 Feb. 1596–7, and proceeded M.A. on 16 June 1600. The date of his matriculation was identical with that of another Cornishman, Francis Rous [q. v.], his firm friend through life, and he was tutor at Broadgates Hall to John Pym (matriculated 18 May 1599), whose mother had married, as her second husband, Sir Anthony Rous, father of Francis Rous.

Wheare was admitted on 7 July 1602 as Cornish fellow of Exeter College, and became full fellow on 7 July 1603, resigning his fellowship on 30 April 1608. In that year he went abroad as travelling companion to Grey Brydges, fifth lord Chandos [q. v.], on whose return to England Wheare continued to live with him. He was then permitted to occupy lodgings with his wife in Gloucester Hall, Oxford, where he was admitted into close friendship with Thomas Allen (1542–1632) [q. v.], the mathematician.

Through the influence of Allen with Camden, the founder of the chair, Wheare was appointed on 16 Oct. 1622 the first professor of modern history at Oxford, and he became principal of Gloucester Hall on 4 April 1626. Both of these positions he retained for life. He raised that hall to an unprecedented pitch of prosperity. Wood was credibly informed that in Wheare's time it contained ‘an hundred students, and some being persons of qualitie, 10 or 12 went in their doublets of cloth of silver and gold’ (Life and Times, ii. 398). The chapel was finished, the hall repaired, and books and plate were acquired, but the books, ‘though kept in a large press, have been thieved away.’

Wheare died at Oxford on 1 Aug. 1647, and was buried under the eagle in Exeter College Chapel on 3 Aug., a large gravestone marking the place of burial. He left a widow and several children, who were reduced to poverty. Four of his sons had been educated at Oxford; Charles was an unsuccessful candidate on his father's death for the professorship of modern history. Anthony Wood says that Wheare ‘was esteemed by some a learned and genteel man, and by others a Calvinist.’

The great work of Wheare was his Latin dissertation ‘De Ratione et Methodo Legendi Historias,’ which was delivered at Oxford on 12 July 1623, and printed with a dedication to Camden in that year. The third edition, with an altered title-page to ‘Relectiones hyemales de Ratione et Methodo legendi historias,’ came out in 1637. The fourth edition, with an appendix by Rev. Nicholas Horseman, was published at Oxford in 1662, and it was reissued, with that and other additions, at Cambridge in 1684. An English translation by Edmund Bohun passed through several editions (1694, 1698, and 1710). This treatise was praised by Humphrey Prideaux in 1679, and was in use as a text-book at Cambridge until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A volume of accessions to it was compiled by J. C. Neu and published at Tübingen in 1704.

Verses by Wheare were printed in his friend Charles Fitzgeffery's poem on ‘Sir Francis Drake,’ and in four sets of verses by the university of Oxford (Bibl. Cornub. ii. 865). He published at Oxford in 1624 his opening address in the chair of modern history, and a volume entitled 'Camdeni In signum,' containing a record of Camden's life and death. This record, as well as his


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Author:Horatio Arthur Yorke

Works

 * (British Railway Legislation)

title: Author:Horatio Arthur Yorke


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  of Camden's bust, 12 Nov. 1626, and a sheaf of his own letters, wre included in his 'Dedicatio imaginis Camdeniæ' (1626), and his 'Pietes erga benefactores' (1628). The letters included several to Lord Pembroke, Sir Benjamin Rudyard, Camden, John Pym, Francis Rous, and William Noy. The nine letters to Camden were included in the volume of letters to and from that antiquary (1691); the originals of five are in Cottonian MSS. Julius C. v. British Museum. His books and collection of manuscripts came to Francis Rous. The manuscript of his lectures on the Punic war of Lucius Florus is at the Bodleian Library, and his book on Gloucester Hall (1630) is at Worcester College, Oxford.

A Latin prayer-book formerly in use at Worcester College may have been composed by Wheare (Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. iii. 491).

[Wood's Athenæ, ed. Bliss, vol. i. p. lxxvi, ii. 347, 448, iii. 104, 216–20, iv. 221, 617, and Fasti, i. 272, 285, 356, ii. 78; Wood's Oxford Colleges (1786), pp. 120, 635, 638; Wood's Oxford Univ. (1796), ii. pt. i. pp. 359, 513, 879–80; Trevelyan Papers (Camden Soc.), iii. 77; Prideaux's Letters (Camden Soc.), p. 63; Boase and Courtney's Bibl. Cornub. ii. 864–6; Boase's Ex. Coll. Fellows (Oxford Hist. Soc. 1894), pp. 90–1; Foster's Alumni Oxon.; Macleane's Pembroke Coll. pp. 123–4; Clark's Oxford Colleges, pp. 431–4.]  WHEATLEY, BENJAMIN ROBERT (1819–1884), bibliographer, born on 29 Sept. 1819, was the eldest son of Benjamin Wheatley, a well-known auctioneer in Piccadilly. He was educated at King's College school, London, and on leaving, when barely seventeen years of age, he catalogued for his father the twelfth part of the great Heber library, which appeared in 1841.

From that time he devoted himself to the compilation of catalogues and indexes, his work being remarkable not only for its amount, but for its high quality and for the judgment shown by him in classification and arrangement. He altered and adapted what is known as the French system of classification, to suit the character of the library with which he was dealing. He has explained his principles in a paper entitled ‘Desultory Thoughts on the Arrangement of a private Library,’ which appeared in 1878 in the ‘Library Journal’ (iii. 211–16).

In 1843 he catalogued a portion of the library of the Athenæum Club, under the supervision of C. J. Stewart, the bookseller. In 1844 he catalogued the library of Charles Shaw-Lefevre (afterwards Viscount Eversley) at Heckfield in Hampshire, and in 1845 the remains of the library at Hafod in Cardiganshire collected by Thomas Johnes [q. v.] In the same year he catalogued the library of the Geological Society, and in 1846 that of Charles Richard Fox [q. v.] in Addison Road, Kensington, and that collected by John Byrom [q. v.] at Kersell Cell, Manchester. The last catalogue was printed in 1848. During his stay at Manchester he made the acquaintance of James Crossley [q. v.] and of other literary men residing in the neighbourhood. Between 1847 and 1850 he catalogued the libraries of John Archer Houblon at Hallingbury Place in Essex, of the Alfred Club, of the Marquis of Lansdowne at Bowood in Wiltshire, and in Lansdowne House, Berkeley Square, of the Royal College of Physicians, of Augustus Gostling at Whitton, of Lord Bolton at Hackwood Park, and of the Army and Navy Club.

In 1850 and 1851 Wheatley was engaged in compiling an index of subjects to supplement the catalogue of authors at the Athenæum Library. It was printed in 1851. This work has served as a model for several subsequent indexes. In 1852 he catalogued the libraries of the Travellers' and the Oxford and Cambridge clubs, and in 1853 that of the United Service Club and the Dugald Stewart collection, bequeathed to the club by his son, Colonel Matthew Stewart.

In the subsequent years he catalogued the libraries of Lady Charlotte Guest at Canford Manor in Dorset, of the privy council office, of Lord Lilford, of Dr. Edward Moore, of the Junior United Service Club, and of the Earl of Romney. He also catalogued, jointly with his friend Thomas Boone, the library of Lord Vernon. In 1854 he made an index to the first fifteen volumes of the Statistical Society's ‘Journal’ (London, 1854, 8vo), and he continued to make the indexes of the annual volumes to the close of his life.

In 1855 Wheatley was appointed resident librarian of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, for whom he had worked as early as 1841; and from that time he ceased to make library catalogues, with the exception of one with bibliographical notes which he subsequently prepared for the Royal College of Physicians. In 1857 he completed an index to Tooke's ‘History of Prices.’ He made two printed catalogues of the Medical and Chirurgical Society's library in 1856 and 1869, and two indexes of subjects in 1860 and 1879; the edition of 1879 is a useful guide to medical literature. He also found time to make a manuscript catalogue of the collection of engraved


text:
1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willy

WILLY, the pen-name adopted by the French novelist (1859-       ), born at Villiers-sur-Orge Aug. 10 1859. He was educated at the Lycée Condorcet and the Collège Stanislas, and afterward adopted a literary career. His early works include a Recueil des Sonnets (1878), and various volumes of essays and criticism, including Essais sur Mark Twain et les Parnassiens (1882), but he is best known for his novels, many of which were written in collaboration with the actress and authoress Colette Willy. The most famous of these is Claudine à l'École (1900), with its sequels Claudine à Paris (1901), Claudine en Ménage (1902) and Claudine s'en va (1903). Willy contributed largely to leading reviews, and also published various plays, including a theatrical version of Claudine à Paris, produced in 1902.

title: 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Willy


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  of medical men in the possession of the society, with short biographies of nine hundred of the persons portrayed.

Wheatley was one of the organising committee of the conference of librarians, and served on the first council. He occasionally acted as vice-president of the Library Association. He died in London unmarried on 9 Jan. 1884 at 53 Berners Street, the premises of the Medical and Chirurgical Society.

Besides those specified, Wheatley's publications are: 1. ‘General Index to the Transactions of the Pathological Society, vols. xvi–xxv.,’ London, 1878, 8vo. 2. ‘General Index to the first twelve volumes of the Transactions of the Clinical Society of London,’ London, 1880, 8vo. He also contributed articles on bibliographical subjects to the ‘Transactions and Proceedings of the Conference of Librarians,’ the ‘Monthly Notes of the Library Association of the United Kingdom,’ the ‘Bibliographer,’ and the ‘Library Journal.’ Wheatley was a poet as well as a bibliographer, and printed several of his poems privately, including ‘Buds of Poesy,’ London, 1838, 12mo.

[H. B. Wheatley's Bibliographical Notes on the Life of the late Benjamin R. Wheatley, 1884, reprinted from the Bibliographer, March 1884; Academy, 1884, i. 44; Athenæum, 1884, i. 88; Medical Times, 1884, i. 79.]  WHEATLEY, CLARA MARIA (d. 1838), painter. [See .]

WHEATLEY, FRANCIS (1747–1801), painter, born in 1747 in Wild Court, Covent Garden, was son of a master-tailor. He early displayed a talent for art, and studied at William Shipley's drawing-school, and from 1769 in the schools of the Royal Academy. His progress was marked by the receipt of several premiums from the Society of Arts. In his younger days he was associated much with John Hamilton Mortimer [q. v.], whose works he frequently copied, and whom he assisted in decorative paintings at Brocket Hall and elsewhere. He was also employed on the decorations at Vauxhall. As early as 1765, in his eighteenth year, he appears as an exhibitor with the Incorporated Society of Artists, sending a small portrait. He was a director of that society in 1772, and contributed small portraits and landscapes. Wheatley was a man of elegant habits and agreeable company, who formed many acquaintances in theatrical and polite society. This led him into extravagant habits and plunged him into debt. Having had an intrigue with the wife of a popular artist, John Alexander Gresse [q. v.], he eloped with her to Dublin. There Wheatley resided for a few years, and was much patronised by the leaders of fashion. He painted some of his most important pictures in Dublin, such as ‘The Interior of the Irish House of Commons,’ with Grattan addressing the house; ‘The Collecting of the Irish Volunteers in College-Green, 1779,’ containing numerous portraits, and ‘Review of Troops in the Phœnix Park, by General Sir John Irwin, K.B.’ (painted in 1781, and exhibited at the Society of Artists in London in 1783); both the latter pictures are in the National Gallery at Dublin. Wheatley's small portraits, especially those of military officers, are bright and pleasing in colour. Through the discovery of the irregularity in his domestic life, Wheatley was forced to leave Dublin and return to London, where he resumed his place as a painter of small popular portraits, landscapes, and scenes from daily or peasant life. He set himself deliberately to imitate the French painter, Greuze. His works show no strength, though they are neatly and prettily finished, with much taste and sentiment in the drawing. They lent themselves, however, remarkably well to the elegant and sugary style of stipple-engraving then in vogue, and many of his works, thus translated, especially if printed in colours, such as ‘The Cries of London,’ are highly valued by amateurs at the present day. Wheatley first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1778, and after his return from Ireland became a regular exhibitor there from 1784 to the year of his death. He was elected an associate in 1790, and a Royal Academician in the following year. Throughout his life Wheatley was afflicted with gout, due to the irregularities of his life, which at last obtained such a mastery over him that he was compelled to become a pensioner of the Royal Academy. He was employed to paint pictures for Boydell's ‘Shakespeare Gallery,’ Macklin's ‘Poets' Gallery,’ and Bowyer's ‘Historical Gallery.’ One of his best pictures, ‘The Gordon Riots in 1780,’ was finely engraved by James Heath (1757–1834) [q. v.], but was accidentally destroyed by fire in his house. His portraits were often inserted in landscape with a pleasing effect, and one of ‘The Second Duke of Newcastle and a Shooting Party’ gained him much repute. Wheatley subsequently married Clara Maria Leigh, by whom he had several children [see ]. Mrs. Wheatley was a handsome woman, whose portrait was introduced by her husband into some of his scenes from rustic or daily life. Wheatley died on 28 June 1801.


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 A portrait of Wheatley, drawn by the younger [q. v.], is in the library of the Royal Academy.

WHEATLEY, WILLIAM (fl. 1315), divine and author. [See .]

WHEATLY, CHARLES (1686–1742), divine, born on 6 Feb. 1685–6, was the son of John Wheatly, a tradesman of London. His mother, whose maiden name was White, was a descendant of Ralph White, brother of Sir [q. v.], founder of St. John's College, Oxford. Charles was entered at Merchant Taylors' school on 9 Jan. 1698–9, and matriculated from St. John's College, Oxford, on 28 March 1705. He was elected a fellow in 1707, and graduated B.A. on 23 Jan. 1709–10, and M.A. on 28 March 1713, resigning his fellowship in the same year. On 24 May 1717 he was chosen lecturer of St. Mildred-in-the-Poultry, and in 1725 lecturer of St. Swithin, Londonstone. On 23 March 1725–6 he was instituted vicar of Brent Pelham, and on 1 April 1726 vicar of Furneaux Pelham in Hertfordshire. He died at Furneaux Pelham on 13 May 1742, and was buried in the parish church. He was twice married: first, on 16 Aug. 1713, to Maria (d. 10 Dec. 1724), daughter of William Findall of the Clarendon Press; secondly, to Mary, daughter of Daniel Fogg, rector of All Hallows Staining. His second wife survived him.

Wheatly was an industrious divine. The work by which he is chiefly remembered is ‘The Church of England Man's Companion, or a Rational Illustration of the Harmony … and Usefulness of the Book of Common Prayer,’ which first appeared in 1710 (Oxford, 8vo), and went through many editions, the latest being that published at Cambridge under the care of George Elwes Corrie in 1858. Wheatly was also the author of:
 * 1) ‘Bidding of Prayers before Sermon no mark of Disaffection to the present Government,’ London, 1718, 8vo; new edit. London, 1845, 8vo.
 * 2) ‘The Nicene and Athanasian Creeds … explained and confirmed by the Holy Scriptures,’ London, 1738, 8vo.
 * 3) ‘Fifty Sermons on Several Subjects, and Occasions,’ ed. John Berriman, London, 1753, 8vo.

WHEATSTONE, CHARLES (1802–1875), man of science and inventor, son of W. Wheatstone, a music-seller of Gloucester, was born at Gloucester in February 1802, and educated in a private school there. At the age of twenty-one he commenced business in London as a musical instrument maker. A few months after he contributed a paper to Thomson's ‘Annals of Philosophy’ on his early experiments on sound. Other papers followed, and among them was a description of his ‘kaleidophone.’ This consisted of steel wire of rectangular cross-section fixed to a heavy base and carrying a silver bead at the top. The times of vibration of the bead in two directions at right angles being regulated by the particular rectangular section of the wire, the bead could be made to describe very beautiful curves illustrating the combination of harmonic motions of different periods. His principal contribution to acoustics is a memoir on the so-called Chladni's figures, produced by strewing sand on an elastic plane and throwing it into vibration by means of a violin bow. This memoir was presented to the Royal Society in 1833, and subsequently published in their ‘Transactions.’ He showed that in square and rectangular plates every figure, however complicated, was the resultant of two or more sets of isochronous parallel vibrations; and by means of simple geometrical relations he carried out the principle of the ‘superposition of small motions’ without the aid of any profound mathematical analysis, and succeeded in predicting the curves that given modes of vibration should produce.

To the subjects of light and optics Wheatstone made several important contributions. The conception of the stereoscope, by which the appearance of solidity is obtained through the mental combination of two pictures, in dissimilar perspective, is entirely due to Wheatstone. In 1835 he read a paper on the ‘Prismatic Analysis of Electric Light’ before the British Association meeting at Dublin. He demonstrated the fact that the spectrum of the electric spark from different metals presented more or less numerous rays of definite refrangibility, producing a series of lines differing in position and colour from each other, and that thus the presence of a very minute portion of any given metal might be determined. ‘We have here,’ he said, ‘a mode of discriminating metallic bodies more readily than by chemical examination, and which may hereafter be employed for useful purposes.’ This remark is