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Rh he became taverner of the Warren Inn, that at that time stood on the opposite side of the road to its present position. The miners frequented it, and they were rough customers, drinking hard, fighting and dancing. On one occasion they broke out into mutiny against Jonas, because he would serve out no more drink; they drove him from the house, and he was compelled to "hidey-peep," as he termed it, on the Moor, whilst they emptied his barrels. On another occasion two miners fought in the tavern, with a fatal result for one of them, but the survivor was let off with three weeks' imprisonment, mainly on Jonas's evidence, for he was able to establish gross provocation.

In an evil hour for himself, Jonas pulled down the old inn and built, at his own cost, the new Warren Inn on the opposite side of the road. Now it happened that the old inn had been on common land of the parish of North Bovey, but where he had built the new inn was on Duchy property. Down on him came the agent for the Duchy, but not till the house was complete, and the last slate nailed on, and said to him, "Now you are on Duchy land you shall pay rent for the inn you have built on our land, without our gracious permission."

Towards the end of his life Jonas became very infirm and blind; his memory began to fail, and he accounted for this by saying that as he had always possessed a genius for poetry, he supposed he had overwhelmed his brain with too much study. He died on 12 February, 1890, and is buried at Widdecombe. I say no more of him here, as I gave his life and stories about him in my Dartmoor Idylls, 1896. There is as well a memoir with his portrait in Mr. Burnard's Pictorial Records, already quoted.


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 Opinion of the Court for acts of copyright infringement by third parties using the product. We hold that one who distributes a device with the object of promoting its use to infringe copyright, as shown by clear expression or other affirmative steps taken to foster infringement, is liable for the resulting acts of infringement by third parties.

A
Respondents, Grokster, Ltd., and StreamCast Networks, Inc., defendants in the trial court, distribute free software products that allow computer users to share electronic files through peer-to-peer networks, so called because users’ computers communicate directly with each other, not through

by Kevin P. Roddy and Matthew E. Van Tine; for Sixty Intellectual Property and Technology Law Professors et al. by Deirdre K. Mulligan and Pamela Samuelson; for Sovereign Artists et al. by James R. Wheaton; for Computer Science Professor Harold Abelson et al. by James S. Tyre; for Professor Edward Lee et al. by Mr. Lee, pro se; for Charles Nesson by Mr. Nesson, pro se; and for Malla Pollack et al. by Ms. Pollack, pro se.

Briefs of amici curiae were filed for the American Intellectual Property Law Association by Rick D. Nydegger and Melvin C. Garner; for Audible Magic Corp. et al. by Bruce V. Spiva and Jeremy H. Stern; for Bridgemar Services, Ltd. d/b/a iMesh.com by Jeffrey A. Kimmel; for the Business Software Alliance by E. Edward Bruce and Robert A. Long, Jr.; for Creative Commons by Lawrence Lessig; for the Digital Media Association et al. by Lawrence Robbins, Alan Untereiner, Markham C. Erickson, and Jerry Berman; for Emerging Technology Companies by Michael Traynor and Matthew D. Brown; for IEEE USA by Matthew J. Conigliaro, Andrew C. Greenberg, Joseph H. Lang, Jr., and Daniel E. Fisher; for Innovation Scholars and Economists by Laurence F. Pulgram; for the Intellectual Property Owners Association by James H. Pooley; for Media Studies Professors by Roy I. Liebman; for the National Venture Capital Association by Michael K. Kellogg, Mark L. Evans, and David L. Schwarz; for Sharman Networks Limited by Mr. Dorman; for SNOCAP, Inc., by Joel W. Nomkin; for Kenneth J. Arrow et al. by David A. Strauss; for Lee A. Hollaar by Lloyd W. Sadler; for U. S. Senator Patrick Leahy et al. by Mr. Leahy, pro se, and Senator Orrin G. Hatch, pro se; and for Felix Oberholzer-Gee et al. by Carl H. Settlemyer III and Arnold P. Lutzker.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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708 After having made such success with his mines about the Upper Webburn, Quaker Palk became reckless in his speculations, and was soon heavily involved. He was kept on his feet by Mr. Bailey, of Plymouth, and Joe Matthews, who bought Palk's holding of Birch Tor Mine. He died suddenly 9 February, 1853, aged fifty-nine years.

I think, but cannot be sure, that it was of John Palk that the story was told of two old folks, returning from the funeral, when one said to the other, "Sure and he was a very charitable man."

"I reckon he were," replied the other. "He always had three eggs boiled to his breakfast, and gave away the broth."

His wife survived him thirty-one years, and died in Plymouth 24 May, 1884, aged eighty-five years.


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 is willing to observe the conditions stated in an open-content license is free to use the work without the particularized approval of (and indeed, without notice to) the licensor. An unavoidable consequence is that an open-content licensor ordinarily has no way of knowing the identities of all the licensees, for the parties to the license may never communicate.

Third, the universal availability of the content on the terms stated in the license minimizes transaction costs. Open-content licenses are available “off the shelf” to accommodate several types of concerns that may confront users of the licensed works. Use of the works in a fashion consistent with the license entails no greater burden than reading the license; there is no need to incur the expense of negotiating an individual usage agreement (again, assuming that the licensee is satisfied with the conditions stated in the license). Even the burden of reading the license, moreover, is minimized, because a relatively small number of standard-form licenses govern a wide variety of projects available from different open-content suppliers. There is, correspondingly, a diminished need to become familiar with particularized license terms that may vary from one vendor to the next outside the open-content domain.

Finally, combining the foregoing characteristics yields the defining feature of all open-content licenses: they promote freedom. Open-content licenses expressly authorize a large community of users, at their sole election and without further negotiation or expense, to use a variety of works in a manner that would otherwise infringe copyright. In doing so, the licenses facilitate at least some uses that would not otherwise occur. The licenses create, in economic terms, a commons: a pool of raw materials upon which members of the public are free to draw for their own consumptive or productive ends.

The public domain presents a possibly more familiar model of such a commons. Any creator is free to draw from public-domain materials and to incorporate them into her own creation. A growing literature recognizes the

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 Dr Jameson’s programme was largely one of material development. In the words of the speech opening the 1905 session of parliament, “without a considerable development of our agricultural and pastoral resources our position as a self-sustaining colony cannot be assured.” This reliance on its own resources was the more necessary for the Cape because of the keen rivalry of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the Transvaal. The opening up of backward districts by railways was vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made to assist agriculture. These efforts to help the country districts met with cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers, and the release, in May 1904, of all rebel prisoners was another step towards reconciliation. On the exclusion of Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in agreement with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of friendly relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one of the leading objects of Dr Jameson’s policy. The Bond, on its side, sought to draw closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization in the Transvaal, and similar bodies, and at its 1906 congress, held in March that year at Ceres, a resolution with that aim was passed, the design being to unify, in accordance with the original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and action throughout South Africa.

Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In January 1905 an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported on the native question as it affected South Africa as a whole, proposals being made for an alteration of the laws in Cape Colony respecting the franchise exercised by natives. In the opinion of the commission the possession of the franchise by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to create in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over 23,000 coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed separate voting by natives only for a fixed number of members of the legislature—the plan adopted in New Zealand with the Maori voters. The privileged position of the Cape native was seen to be an obstacle to the federation of South Africa. The discussion which followed, based partly on the reports that the ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led, however, to no immediate results.

Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs was the revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West Africa (q.v.). In 1904 and the following years large numbers of refugees, including some of the most important chiefs, fled into British territory, and charges were made in Germany that sufficient control over these refugees was not exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came to an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief who had been interned by the colonial authorities, but had escaped and recommenced hostilities against the Germans, was once more on the British side of the frontier and, refusing to surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted Police and killed after a smart action. The revolt in the German protectorate had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the indirect occasion of a “Boer raid” into Cape Colony. In November 1906 a small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed by the Germans against the Hottentots, entered the colony under the leadership of a man named Ferreira, and began raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits. Within a week the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four companions were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude.

As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention of a strongly protective character came into force on the 1st of June of that year. At the same time the rebate on goods from Great Britain and reciprocating colonies was increased. The session of parliament which sanctioned this change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and railway schemes. But one important measure of a political character was passed in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under its provisions over 7000 ex-rebels, who would otherwise have had no vote at the ensuing general election, were readmitted to the franchise in 1907.

While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources of the country proved successful, the towns continued to suffer from the inflation—over-buying, over-building and over-speculation—which marked the war period. As a consequence, imports further declined during 1906–1907, and receipts being largely dependent on customs the result was a considerably diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending 30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of £640,455. The decline in revenue, £4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection of the economic condition of the country—yearly becoming more self-supporting by the increase in home produce—caused general disquietude and injuriously affected the position of the ministry. In the session of 1907 the Opposition in the legislative council brought on a crisis by refusing to grant supplies voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the constitutional right of the council so to act, and on his advice the governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on diamond- and copper-mining companies earning over £50,000 per annum, and another act establishing an agricultural credit bank.

Mr Merriman, Premier.—The elections for the legislative council were held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond victory. Its supporters, who called themselves the South African party, the Progressives being renamed Unionists, obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson thereupon resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with Mr J. X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J. W. Sauer as minister of public works. Neither of these politicians was a member of the Bond, and both had held office under Cecil Rhodes and W. P. Schreiner. They had, however, been the leading parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a considerable time. The elections for the legislative assembly followed in April and, partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the ex-rebels, resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry. There were returned 69 members of the South African party, 33 Unionists and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr Schreiner. The change of ministry was not accompanied by any relief in the financial situation. While the country districts remained fairly prosperous (agricultural and pastoral products increasing), the transit trade and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression was accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected adversely the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the diamond trade, leading to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley mines. (The “slump” in the diamond trade is shown by a comparison of the value of diamonds exported from the Cape in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at £8,973,148, in 1908 at £4,796,655.) This seriously diminished the revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907–1908 showed a deficit of £996,000, and a prospective deficit for the ensuing year of an almost equal amount. To balance the budget, Mr Merriman proposed drastic remedies, including the suspension of the sinking fund, the reduction of salaries of all civil servants, and taxes on incomes of £50 per annum. Partly in consequence of the serious economic situation the renewed movement for the closer union of the various South African colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received the support of the Cape parliament. During 1907–1908 a national convention decided upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was established (see : History).

Leading Personalities.—The public life of Cape Colony has produced many men of singular ability and accomplishments. The careers of Cecil Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, and of Dr L. S. Jameson have been sufficiently indicated (see also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon Sprigg, four times premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from 1873 to 1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In and out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those

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Rh  of a pope, Cyriacus, otherwise unknown to history. The scepticism aroused by these wholesale discoveries was silenced by the visions of Elizabeth of Schönau (d. 1165), which provided elaborate explanations of all difficulties and inconsistencies. Further and even more extravagant explanations were supplied after Elizabeth's death by two books written in 1183 and 1187, probably by the blessed Hermann, popularly called Hermann Joseph. Geoffrey of Monmouth first interwove the legend with the general history of the time, embellished it with many fanciful details and historical anachronisms, and gave universal currency to what was originally a purely local tradition (see his Hist. Brittonum, lib. v. chaps. ix.–xix.). By the end of the twelfth century the saint had become one of the most widely revered in Europe. At Cologne a famous church, served first by nuns and afterwards by canonesses, rose on the site of the discoveries, which by an extension of the city became included within its walls. This church still contains the tomb of St. Ursula and a wonderful collection of relics of the virgin-host (see, Wegweiser zur Kirche der heiligen Ursula in Köln). Relics were scattered throughout Europe with a lavish hand until Boniface IX (d. 1404) forbade further translations of them. Churches were dedicated to St. Ursula all over Europe, especially in North Germany, but also in Italy, Hungary, Spain, and Britain (for the hospital of St. Ursula at Leicester, see, Monasticon, vi. 765). Heligoland was often called the ‘island of St. Ursula,’ and the story grew that she stopped there on her way to the Rhine. She came to be looked on as the special patron of maidens; gilds and societies were established under her patronage, especially in the Rhineland and Swabia; the oldest was founded at Cracow in the fourteenth century, and they were generally called ‘St. Ursula ships,’ a symbol intimately associated with the saint (cf., Lives of the Saints, Oct. ii., p. 544; Ein fast grosse lobliche Bruderschaft genand Sandt Ursulas Schifflein, Nuremberg? 1525; The Confraternity of St. Ursula at St. Lawrence Jewry, London, 1550). The cult of Ursula was never more universal than in the fifteenth century, when she held almost a unique position as a favourite subject both of German and Italian painters. One of the earliest religious orders founded during the counter-reformation was that of the Ursulines in 1537 (see Chronique de l'Ordre des Ursulines, Paris, 1576, 2 vols.); and special devotion was shown to St. Ursula by the jesuits, who in 1588 organised a brilliant translation of Ursulan relics to Lisbon.

A representation of St. Ursula painted before 1450 is preserved in one of the wings of the famous Dombild at Cologne, and in the Ursula church in the same city her story is told in a series of old but much restored pictures. In the Wallraf Richartz Museum, Cologne, are at least fourteen pictures, by early German masters, treating of her history. Of infinitely greater merit than these is the series of exquisitely finished small pictures painted by Hans Memling about 1486 to adorn the shrine of St. Ursula at Bruges, in which a portion of her relics is preserved. Her history is also delineated in the series of nine pictures painted about 1495 by Vittore Carpaccio, and now in the academy at Venice. An especially fine Moretto at Brescia has Ursula as its central subject (, Miscellaneous Studies, p. 97). Lorenzo di Credi, Palma Vecchio, and Martino da Udine have also painted what was evidently a favourite subject with Venetian artists (cf. The Legend of St. Ursula, 1869; Mrs., Sacred and Legendary Art, pp. 297–306; , La Légende de Sainte Ursule d'après les anciens tableaux de l'Eglise de Sainte-Ursule à Cologne, 1860; , Ursule d'après les Peintures d'Hemling, Ghent, 1818; and for Carpaccio, , Fors Clavigera, 1872, No. xx. pp. 14–16, and 1876, pp. 339–41, 350–7, where he apparently follows late Italian versions of the legend).

[The earliest form of the developed legend is taken from a Passio Sanctarum Undecim Millium Virginum, generally called, from its opening words, Regnante Domino, which is printed in Crombach's Ursula Vindicata, pp. 1–18, the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum, Oct. ix. pp. 157–63, and, with a German translation, in Kessel's St. Ursula und ihre Gesellschaft, pp. 168–95; it is also summarised in Sigebert of Gemblours' Chronographia in Mon. Germ. Hist. Scriptt. vi. 310. The Sermo in Natali is printed in Acta SS. pp. 154–5, and in Kessel, pp. 156–67. The books of Hermann, sometimes attributed to the Englishman, Richard the Premonstratensian [q. v.], are printed in the Acta Sanctorum, pp. 173–202, which also contains a list of the names of the eleven thousand (pp. 202–7, 258–69). An attempt to reconcile the version in the Regnante Domino with the Schönau visions is made in a twelfth-century Prologus in Novam Editionem Passionis XI Millium Virginum, first printed in Kessel, pp. 206–19. The sceptical view first maintained by J. de Montreuil, who died in 1418 (see Martene and Durand's Vet. Script. Collect. Ampliss. ii. 1417–18), was naturally adopted by the reformed churches, and even Baronius toned the legend down to vague generalities. J. Sirmond (d. 1561) suggested that ‘undecim millia’


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Rh was a misreading of ‘Undecimilla,’ the name of one of Ursula's companions; Leibnitz held that ‘Ursula et Ximillia’ was the correct expression, and Max Francis, the last elector of Cologne, ordered the clergy of his diocese to erase the ‘eleven thousand’ from their service-books. In the present century F. W. Rettberg conjectured that XI. M. V., meaning ‘eleven martyred virgins,’ was misread ‘eleven thousand virgins.’ Most of these theories are conveniently collected in Gieseler's Kirchengeschichte, II., ii. 454–5. Parallel to the rationalistic tendency elaborate apologies for the whole legend were produced under the influence of the counter-reformation. In 1594 Fleien devoted a volume of his Regesta Martyrum to the history of Ursula and her companions. Still more elaborate was the Vita et Martyrium Sanctæ Ursulæ et Sociarum, published by the jesuit Hermann Crombach at Cologne in 1647. The modern investigation begins with Die Sage von der heiligen Ursula und den elftausend Jungfrauen (Hanover, 1854) of Oscar Schade, who explains Ursula as a christianised representative of the heathen goddess Freya or Nehalennia, who in Thuringia was actually called Hörsel, and reduces her ultimately to a nature myth; he is on firmer ground when he points out the curious parallelisms between the legend of Ursula and that of St. Géréon and the Theban legion, also localised at Cologne. Two replies to Schade have been published respectively by the Bollandist, De Buck, in the Acta Sanctorum (Oct. ix. pp. 73–303, Brussels, 1858), and by J. H. Kessel in his St. Ursula und ihre Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1863). The general disposition of modern champions of the legend is to abandon Elizabeth of Schönau and Hermann, and uphold the historic basis of the Sermo in Natali and the Regnante Domino. Baring Gould's Lives of the Saints, Oct. ii. pp. 535–56, gives a useful summary in English.]  URSWICK, CHRISTOPHER (1448–1522), diplomatist and dean of Windsor, son of John Urswick, was born at Furness in 1448. His father and mother were respectively lay brother and sister of Furness Abbey. He was educated probably at Cambridge, and graduated LL.D. there or at some foreign university. Newcourt's statement, followed by Raines in ‘The Fellows of the Collegiate Church of Manchester,’ that Urswick was recorder of London before 1483, is obviously a confusion with Christopher's relation, Sir Thomas Urswick [q. v.] About 1482 Christopher came under the notice of Margaret Beaufort [q. v.], who was then married to her third husband, Thomas Stanley, first earl of Derby [q. v.] Possibly it was through the Stanleys that Urswick became attached to Margaret, who made him her chaplain and confessor, and appointed him rector of Puttenham, Hertfordshire. In 1483 Urswick was initiated into the secret schemes of Margaret and John (afterwards cardinal) Morton [q. v.], in favour of Margaret's son Henry, earl of Richmond (afterwards Henry VII), who was then in Brittany. The chief object was the negotiation of a marriage between Henry and Elizabeth of York. Urswick is said to have made several journeys between England and Flanders in this capacity during 1484, and before the end of the year he was sent by Morton to warn Henry against the machinations of Pierre Landois, the Duke of Brittany's chief minister, which were instigated by Richard III. Urswick was appointed Henry's chaplain and confessor, and was one of the few attendants who accompanied Henry in his secret flight from Vannes to the court of the French king, narrowly escaping capture by Landois's agents on the borders of Brittany.

Urswick landed with Henry at Milford Haven on 7 Aug. 1485, and accompanied him to Shrewsbury, and thence to Bosworth (cf., Richard III, act iv. scene 5). He was liberally rewarded for his services; on 21 Sept. he was granted a prebend in St. Stephen's, Westminster; on the 23rd he became a notary in chancery; on 25 Nov. he was appointed master of King's Hall, Cambridge (resigning the rectory of Puttenham on the 26th); on 20 Feb. 1485–6 he was given the prebend of Chiswick in St. Paul's Cathedral; on 9 March 1486–7 he was presented to the rectory of All Hallows, London, and on 18 April following to that of Chaddesley, near Kidderminster, which he resigned on 11 Oct. 1488 (, Materials, ii. 130, 137). In April 1488 he relinquished the mastership of King's Hall, and on 22 May following was elected dean of York, receiving in addition the living of Bradwell-juxta-Mare on 14 Nov.

Meanwhile Urswick had been employed on various missions of importance. On 4 Feb. 1485–6 he received letters of recommendation on being appointed envoy to the pope (ib. i. 275, 360; Letters and Papers of Henry VII, ii. 118). He had returned before the following November, when he was sent to quiet some discontent in Lancashire (Materials, ii. 99). In March 1487–8 he was sent on the important embassy to Ferdinand and Isabella which negotiated the marriage between Prince Arthur and Catherine of Arragon (Cal. State Papers, England and Spain, i. 3 sqq.; Materials, ii. 273). In May following Henry VII sent him to France to offer his negotiation between France and Brittany. The offer was refused, and Edward lord Woodville's attack on France placed Urswick in some personal danger


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Urswick (, England under the Tudors, i. 43). In the autumn he was again sent to France to renew the offers of mediation (Materials, ii. 377;, i. 45). In March 1491–2 he was despatched to receive ratification of the treaty of peace with James of Scotland, and on 30 Oct. following once more went as ambassador to France. His mission resulted in the signature of the treaty of Étaples on 3 Nov. On 5 March 1492–3 he was commissioned to invest Alfonso, eldest son of the king of Sicily, with the insignia of the Garter, of which order Urswick had recently been appointed registrar. Two months later he was again sent to negotiate an extension of the truce with Scotland, and in June was made commissioner to arrange border disputes. In April 1496 he was sent to Augsburg on a mission to the king of the Romans (Cal. State Papers, Venetian, i. 698–706;, i. 126 sqq.). He returned towards the end of May, and was not again employed in a diplomatic capacity.

He continued to accumulate ecclesiastical preferments. In 1490 he was appointed canon of Windsor and archdeacon of Wiltshire. On 21 March 1492–3 he was made prebendary of Buttevant in York Cathedral, and archdeacon of Richmond in the same year. In June 1494 he resigned the deanery of York, and on 20 Nov. 1495 was elected dean of Windsor. He refused the bishopric of Norwich vacated in 1498 by the death of James Goldwell, and in 1500 resigned the archdeaconry of Richmond. He was present in that year at the meeting between Henry VII and the Archduke Philip (Harl. MS. 1757, f. 361). On 5 Nov. 1502 he was inducted to the living of Hackney, where he mainly resided during the rest of his life; and before 1505 he became fellow of the collegiate church of Manchester. He sometimes officiated at court ceremonies, served on the commission of sewers for Middlesex, Essex, and Hertfordshire, and in 1513 acted as executor to Margaret Beaufort. During his later years he was a close friend of Erasmus and More. Erasmus is said to have made his acquaintance in 1483; he paid Urswick a visit in 1503, and sent him a translation of Lucian's dialogue, ‘Somnium sive Gallus.’ Urswick on his part gave Erasmus a horse which ‘thrice carried him safely to and from Basle’ (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII, ii. 3339). When it died, Erasmus hoped ‘to wheedle Urswick out of a new horse by sending him a New Testament’ (ib. ii. 2290, 2323, 3659), an attempt which was not successful.

Urswick died, aged 74, on 24 March 1521–2, and was buried in St. Augustine's Church, Hackney, which he was engaged in rebuilding. Two brass plates were placed over his grave with an inscription recording his eleven embassies. St. Augustine's was demolished in 1798, when the plates on the altar, which Urswick had erected, were removed to the porch of the neighbouring church of St. John. By his will, dated 10 Oct. 1521, and proved 11 April 1522, he made bequests to Cuthbert Tunstall [q. v.] and to the school of Lancaster. As dean of Windsor it was under his direction and that of Sir Reginald Bray [q. v.] that St. George's Chapel was rebuilt. A chapel in the north-west corner is still called the Urswick Chapel, though it was appropriated in 1818 for the cenotaph of the Princess Charlotte, and the stone screen bearing an inscription asking for prayers for Urswick, which is still legible, was removed to the south aisle. Urswick figures among the eminent persons connected with St. George's in the window over the door of the Albert Chapel, and his arms frequently occur with Bray's on the roof of St. George's. He also rebuilt the deanery at Windsor.

[A very detailed account of Urswick's career, with authorities, is given in Urwick's Records of the Family of Urwick or Urswick, 1893, pp. 81–140. See also Lansd. MSS. 978 f. 244, 979 f. 8; Addit. MS. 15673, f. 113; Campbell's Materials for the Reign of Henry VII, Gairdner's Letters and Papers of Henry VII, and Andrea's Historia (Rolls Ser.); Brewer's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII; Paston Letters, iii. 468; Cal. State Papers, Venetian and Spanish; Cal. Inq. post mortem, 1898, i. 1120, 1144; Erasmi Epistolæ; Knight's Erasmus; Froude's Life and Letters of Erasmus; Robinson's Hackney, i. 91, ii. 21; Busch's England under the Tudors, pp. 13, 15, 17, 23, 43, 45; Hennessy's Novum Repertorium, 1898, pp. 22, 177, 456; Fellows of the Collegiate Church of Manchester (Chetham Soc.) new ser. xxi. 27–31.]  URSWICK, THOMAS (d. 1479), judge, was apparently son of Thomas Urswick of Badsworth and Uprawcliff, and was related to Christopher Urswick [q. v.] He was educated in the study of law, but at what inn is not known. On 27 June 1453 he was appointed common serjeant of London, and on 3 Oct. 1455 became recorder. Like most London citizens, he sided with the Yorkists in the wars of the roses, and in July 1460, after the arrival of Warwick and Edward, earl of March (afterwards Edward IV), in London, Urswick was placed on a commission to try Lancastrian partisans at the Guildhall (Rot. Parl. vi. 19). Similarly, when Margaret of Anjou had won the second battle of St. Albans (17 Feb. 1460–


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 1461), he was sent by the lord mayor to Barnet to excuse the delay of the citizens in sending her supplies. He was elected member for London to Edward IV's parliaments in 1461 and 1467. On 14 June 1461 he was placed on a commission for gaol delivery, and on 8 June 1463 on a commission of oyer and terminer for London. He frequently sat on similar commissions in the succeeding years (''Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1461–7 passim). In 1471, on Edward IV's return after Warwick's rebellion, Urswick secretly admitted him to the city of London (, pp. 15, 21), and after the battle of Tewkesbury (4 May) vigorously opposed Fauconberg's attack on the city (, London and the Kingdom'', i. 298, 313, 316, 317). As a reward he was knighted on 14 June following, and on 22 May 1472 was appointed chief baron of the exchequer. The promotion was a recompense for political services, and Urswick's legal attainments appear to have been insignificant. His name does not occur in the year-books before his elevation to the bench, and only appears in the judgments of the exchequer in four terms during the eight years he held the chief-justiceship. He died in 1479, and was buried in the chancel of Dagenham church, Essex. By his first wife, whose maiden name was Needham, Urswick had issue one daughter, who became a nun. His second wife was Anne, daughter of Richard Rich (d. 1469), a rich merchant of London, and great-grandfather of Richard, first baron Rich [q. v.] By her Urswick had issue four sons and eight daughters, of whom all but five daughters predeceased him. His widow married in 1482 John Palmer of Otford, Kent.

[A full memoir, with references to original authorities, is given in Urwick's Records of the Family of Urswick or Urwick, 1893; see also Foss's Lives of the Judges and authorities cited.]

URWICK, THOMAS (1727–1807), independent divine, second son of Samuel Urwick of Shrewsbury, by his wife, Mary Wright, was born at Shelton, near Shrewsbury, on 8 Dec. 1727. The family were lineal descendants of the Urwicks of Furness [see under ]. Thomas was educated in the Shrewsbury grammar school. He was also under the tuition of Job Orton [q. v.], whose ministry his parents attended, and, encouraged by him, Urwick entered in 1747 the college at Northampton, under the direction of Philip Doddridge [q. v.] After the death of Doddridge in 1751 he went to the university of Glasgow, and finished his academic studies under William Leechman [q. v.] In 1754 he became assistant to Joseph Carpenter, minister of Angel Street, Worcester, and continued in that position during Dr. Allen's pastorate. In 1764 he was chosen sole pastor, and was ordained the following year. He filled the duties of the pastorate without an assistant for eleven years with much success. In 1775, to the regret of the congregation, he resigned, and undertook a small pastorate at Narborough, near Leicester. But in 1779 he was invited to succeed Dr. Philip Furneaux [q. v.] as pastor of the influential congregation at Clapham. He was chosen one of the trustees of William Coward (1657?–1725) [q. v.] for the academy in which he had been educated, and was also elected a trustee of Dr. Williams's library. When Joseph Lancaster [q. v.], the founder of the British or Lancasterian system of education, secretly ran away from home as a boy to enlist in the navy, Urwick happened to learn of the escapade from the boy's mother, discovered his whereabouts, and restored him to his family. He was assisted in later years by James Philipps, who succeeded him. He died on 26 Feb. 1807 at Balham Hill. His wife, Mary Smith, whom he married at Worcester in 1767, died on 17 June 1791. The remains of both lie in a tomb on the north side of Clapham churchyard. Besides some separately issued sermons, Urwick published ‘The proper Improvement of Divine Chastening recommended to National Attention’ (1800). There is a portrait of Urwick in pastels in the Coward trustees' room, New College, Hampstead, a photograph of which (with memoir) is given in Urwick's ‘Nonconformity in Worcester,’ pp. 100–8.

[Walter Wilson's MSS. M. 4, in Dr. Williams's Library, containing a memoir of Urwick by T. Taylor of Carter's Lane; Monthly Repository, 1807, ii. 161; Gent. Mag. 1807, i. 282, 371–3.]

URWICK, WILLIAM (1791–1868), congregational divine, son of William Urwick by his wife, Elinor Eddowes, and a grand-nephew of Thomas Urwick [q. v.], was born in Shrewsbury on 8 Dec. 1791. He was educated at Worcester under Thomas Belsher, and subsequently, in 1812, entered Hoxton Academy to study for the congregational ministry under Robert Simpson. In 1815 he was invited to the pastorate of the church at Sligo, and was ordained there on 19 June 1816. With great energy he threw himself into the work of converting the Roman catholics, took the lead in philanthropic movements, and gave his services as secretary of the famine committee in 1824–5. He more than once intervened to prevent duelling, which was rife in the district.


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 In 1826 he was called to the pastorate of the church in York Street chapel, Dublin, built in 1808 by the Countess of Huntingdon's connexion. During Urwick's ministry the huge building, capable of seating sixteen hundred, soon was filled. Little of stature, although with a noble head and a clear bell-like voice, Urwick obtained the sobriquet among the students of Trinity College, many of whom attended his chapel, of multum in parvo, and on the Exchange he was known as ‘the little giant.’ With Henry Harvey [q. v.] he was the pioneer of the temperance movement before Father Mathew's time, and for years he was the only clergyman in Dublin who as an abstainer gave the pledge. In 1829 he published ‘The Evils, Occasions, and Cure of Intemperance.’ He published in 1831 ‘The true Nature of Christ's Person and Atonement stated,’ in reply to Edward Irving [q. v.], and in the following year ‘One hundred Reasons from Scripture for believing in the Deity of Christ.’ In this year (1832) he was called to the chair of dogmatics and pastoral theology in the Dublin Theological Institute, an office which he filled, together with his pastorate, for twenty years. The degree of D.D. was conferred upon him (1832) by the trustees of Dartmouth College, Connecticut. In 1835 he published ‘The Value and Claims of the Sacred Scriptures, and Reasons of Separation from the Church of Rome.’ Archbishop Whately having published a letter to his clergy forbidding the holding of meetings at which extempore prayers were offered, Urwick issued a reply entitled ‘Extemporary Prayer in Public Worship considered,’ 1836.

Urwick's two chief works appeared in 1839. ‘The Saviour's Right to Divine Worship’ took the form of letters upon the unitarian controversy addressed to James Armstrong [q. v.], then William Hamilton Drummond's colleague in Strand Street. ‘The Second Advent,’ opposing the pre-millennial hypothesis, is still regarded as the best work from that point of view. With this literary activity he combined great energy in preaching throughout Ireland, and founded an Irish congregational home mission, of which he acted as honorary secretary for some years; he fought a hard battle for home rule in church matters against the opposition of the Irish Evangelical Society of London with its paid officers. He was one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance, inaugurated at Liverpool in 1845. He attended its meetings regularly, and spoke in Paris in 1855 and at Geneva in 1862. On occasion of ‘the papal aggression’ in 1852 he published ‘The Triple Crown,’ giving a concise history of ‘the papacy, its power, course, and doom.’ He also wrote a memoir of his friend Thomas Kelly the hymn-writer. In 1862, the bicentenary of the nonconformist evictions of 1662, he wrote ‘Independency in Dublin in the Olden Time,’ giving the lives of Samuel Winter, provost of Trinity College, Dublin, from 1650 to 1660; John Rogers of St. Bride's, John Murcot, and Samuel Mather. The jubilee of his residence and work in Ireland was celebrated in November 1865, when a cheque for 2,000l. was presented with illuminated addresses from the Irish churches. Of this sum he at once gave away 600l. to the city charities. In March 1866 he published ‘Christ's World School,’ essays in verse on Matt. xxviii. 18–20, and he left in manuscript two other poems, ‘The Inheritance of the Saints’ and ‘My Sligo Ministry.’ He died in Dublin on 16 July 1868, aged 76. His last book, ‘Biographic Sketches of James Digges La Touche,’ the patron of Sunday schools in Ireland, appeared after his death. ‘A Father's Letters to his Son on coming of Age’ was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1874. On 16 June 1818 he married Sarah (d. 1852), daughter of Thomas and Mary Cooke of Shrewsbury. By her he had ten children, five of whom survived youth.

Besides the works above mentioned and some single sermons, Urwick wrote: 1. ‘A Concise View of the Ordinance of Baptism,’ 1822. 2. ‘A Collection of Hymns,’ 1829. 3. ‘The Duty of Christians in regard to the use of Property,’ 1836. 4. ‘Thoughts suggested by the Ecclesiastical Movement in Scotland,’ 1843. 5. ‘Remarks on the Connection between Religion and the State,’ 1845. 6. ‘Life of Howe,’ prefixed to his ‘Works’ in the ‘Library of Puritan Divines,’ 1847. 7. ‘A Voice from an Outpost,’ two discourses upon ‘the papal aggression,’ 1850. 8. ‘China,’ two lectures, 1854. 9. ‘Earth's Rulers Judged,’ on the death of the Czar Nicholas, 1855. 10. ‘History of Dublin,’ for the Religious Tract Society.

[Urwick's Urswick Family, 1893; Life and Letters of W. Urwick, D.D., by his son, 1868.]

USCYTEL or USKETILLUS (d. 971), archbishop of York. [See .]

USHER. [See also .]

USHER, JAMES (1720–1772), schoolmaster, controversialist, and essayist, a descendant of Archbishop Henry Ussher [q. v.], was son of a gentleman farmer in the county of Dublin, where he was born in 1720. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (, Hist. of the Univ. of Dublin, p. 480). He


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 was brought up in the protestant religion, but a perusal of the controversial works of the jesuit father Henry Fitzsimon [q. v.] led him to join the Roman catholic church (, Life of Fitzsimon, 1881, p. 224). He began life as a gentleman farmer, and, not meeting with success, he opened a linendraper's shop in Dublin, but failed in that business also. About this period his wife died, and, finding himself a widower with a family of four children—three boys and a girl—he took holy orders, it is said, in the church of Rome, sent his three sons for education to the college of Lombard in Paris, and his daughter to a convent, where she soon afterwards died. The statement that he entered the priesthood is open to doubt. He now came to London, and Charles Molloy (d. 1767) [q. v.], who had been a political writer against Sir Robert Walpole, left him a legacy of 300l. This enabled him to open a school for catholic youth at Kensington Gravel Pits in partnership with John Walker (1732–1807) [q. v.], author of the ‘Pronouncing Dictionary,’ who was also a convert. Walker subsequently withdrew from the undertaking, and Usher became sole master of the school, which he conducted until his death in 1772.

His works are: 1. ‘A New System of Philosophy, founded on the Universal Operations of Nature,’ London, 1764, 8vo. 2. ‘A Free Examination of the common Methods employed to prevent the growth of Popery,’ London, 1766. This work appeared originally as a series of letters signed ‘A Free Thinker’ in the ‘Public Ledger.’ It elicited replies from Benjamin Pye (1767) and D. Grant, vicar of Hutton Rudby, Yorkshire (1771). 3. ‘Clio: or a Discourse on Taste, addressed to a Young Lady’ (anon.), London, 1767, 8vo; 2nd edit., with large additions, Dublin, 1770, 8vo; 3rd edit., Dublin, 1772, 8vo; new edition, with notes, anecdotes, and quotations by J. Mathew, London, 1803, reprinted 1809, 8vo. 4. ‘An Introduction to the Theory of the Human Mind. By J. U., author of Clio,’ London, 1771, 8vo; 2nd edit. 1773. 5. ‘An Elegy’ (sine anno); privately reprinted 1860.

[European Mag., March 1796, xxix. 151; Green's Diary of a Lover of Literature, 1810, p. 128; Lowndes's Bibl. Man. (Bohn); Milner's Life of Challoner, 1798, pp. 41–4.]

USHER, RICHARD (1785–1843), clown, was born in 1785. His father, the proprietor of a mechanical exhibition, travelled in the north of England and in Ireland. The son at an early age took a share in the management of the exhibition, and inherited his father's talent in the construction of curious contrivances. A spirit of adventure soon induced him to start on his own account, and with a friend he gave exhibitions in Newcastle, Manchester, Liverpool, and other large towns. At Christmas 1807 he appeared as a clown at the Liverpool Amphitheatre under Mr. Banks's management. His success was immediate, his readiness in the circle supplied a fund of jokes, and no contrivance was too difficult for his inventive powers. In 1809, under John Astley's rule, he came out at Astley's Amphitheatre, London, where for many years he remained a great favourite. His annual benefit was an occasion on which extraordinary performances took place both in and out of the theatre. The most remarkable of these feats occurred in 1828, when in a washing-tub drawn by geese he sailed down the Thames from Westminster to Waterloo Bridge. He was then to have proceeded in a car drawn by eight cats to the Coburg Theatre, but the crowd in the Waterloo Road made this impossible, and he was carried to the theatre on the shoulders of several watermen. On boxing night 1828 he was at Drury Lane in W. Barrymore's pantomime, ‘Harlequin Cock Robin, or the Babes in the Wood.’ There were two clowns, Usher and Southby; Barnes was pantaloon, Howell harlequin, and Miss Ryall columbine. There were six scenes in the opening burlesque, eleven in the harlequinade, and the performance lasted from half-past six until midnight.

Usher was known in the profession as the John Kemble of his art, and in the ring was the counterpart of Grimaldi on the stage, never descending to coarseness or vulgarity; his manner was irresistibly comic, and his jokes remarkable for their point and originality. He was the writer and inventor of several stock pantomimes. With increasing years he gave up clowning, and confined himself to invention and design. When William Batty purchased Astley's and rebuilt the house in 1842, he refused to employ any architect, and the extensive buildings were constructed from Usher's plans and models. Usher died at Hercules Buildings, Lambeth, London, on 23 Sept. 1843. He married, first, Mrs. Pincott (the mother of Leonora Pincott, the wife of Alfred Sydney Wigan [q. v.]); and, secondly, a sister of James William Wallack [q. v.], who survived him with a family.

[Gent. Mag. 1843, ii. 549–50; Stirling's Old Drury Lane, 1881, ii. 206–8.]

USK, (fl. 1400), chronicler. [See .]


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Usk USK, THOMAS (d. 1388), the author of ‘The Testament of Love,’ formerly ascribed to Chaucer, was born in the city of London. His family resided in the neighbourhood of Newgate. The documents of the period mention several persons bearing the same surname, to whom he may possibly have been related; a Roger Usk and Agnes his wife, living in London, received a life interest in property at Queenhithe by a will dated 1368 (, London Wills, ii. 111); in 1377 a Roger Usk was commissioned at Westminster to arrest a runaway friar (Cal. Pat. Rolls, Richard II, i. 91); and a Nicholas Usk was treasurer of Calais in 1403 (Issue Rolls of Exchequer, p. 287). The chronicler Adam of Usk (who mentions Thomas Usk's execution) does not come into consideration, as he was so called from his birthplace, his real surname being unknown [see ].

The statement that Usk was a priest (English Continuation of, Rolls ser. viii. 467) is probably erroneous; but he belonged to the clerical order, and his book gives evidence of considerable theological and philosophical reading. It appears from his own statements that he had at one time held lollard opinions, which he afterwards recanted. He says further that in his youth he was induced by his zeal for the welfare of his native city to enter into certain conspiracies professing to aim at bringing about a reform in the government of London, but that he discovered, to his great grief, that the leaders whom he had followed were actuated by base and self-interested motives. He admits, however, that desire for personal advancement had had too great a share in determining his own conduct. He professes to have made great sacrifices for the cause which he had espoused, paying for the maintenance of some of his fellow-conspirators ‘till they were turned out of Zealand.’ He also says that he had spent some time in exile, and had been treated with gross ingratitude by those whom he had assisted.

The meaning of these autobiographical allusions is in part elucidated by the facts that are known from other sources respecting Usk's life. He was private secretary to John de Northampton [q. v.], the leader of the democratic and Wyclifite party in the city of London; and during Northampton's two years' mayoralty (1381–3) was the chief instrument in carrying out his patron's designs against the power of the city companies. It appears from Usk's own language that he occupied a highly lucrative and influential position. At the end of 1383 Northampton was defeated in a contest for the mayoralty by Sir Nicholas Brembre [q. v.], and in February 1384 the new lord mayor caused his rival to be arrested on a charge of sedition. Usk appears from his own statements to have fled the country; but, failing to receive the help in money which he expected from his friends in England, he was obliged to return, and early in August was committed to Newgate (Cal. Pat. Rolls, Richard II, ii. 500) as an accomplice in his master's crimes. On promising to reveal all he knew he was set at liberty, and was entertained for a time in the house of the lord mayor.

On 18 Aug. Northampton was brought before the king and his council at Reading, and Usk appeared as the principal witness against him, accusing his master of a long series of crimes, to which he confessed that he had himself been accessory. Northampton angrily denied the charges, and challenged his accuser to single combat. His contumacious behaviour exasperated the king, who ordered him to be hanged; but, on the intercession of the queen, the sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. In September Richard, sensible of the illegality of his procedure, caused Northampton to be brought before the judges at the Tower. Usk was again the accuser, and (according to his own assertion, which is indirectly corroborated by Walsingham) offered to prove the truth of his words by wager of battle. Northampton was sentenced to death, but reprieved. On 24 Sept. Usk received the king's pardon (ib. ii. 467). It was generally believed that he had been suborned by Brembre to make false charges against his master. In ‘The Testament of Love’ he shows himself deeply sensible of the odium which his treachery had brought upon him. He endeavours to justify himself for having revealed secrets which, as he admits, he had sworn to preserve. From some of his expressions it appears that he had failed to gain the confidence of his new associates, and that his recantation of lollard heresies had proved unavailing to procure his reconciliation with the church. No further mention of him occurs until 7 Oct. 1387, when the king addressed a letter to the lord mayor, thanking the citizens for having, at his request, appointed Usk under-sheriff. The appointment appears to have been made with some reluctance, and the king promised that it should not be treated as a precedent (, London and the Kingdom, i. 231).

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, of whom Brembre was one, and it is probable that Usk was arrested about the same time.

At the meeting of the ‘Merciless’ parliament on 1 Feb. 1388 the indictment of the five ‘evil counsellors’ of the king was presented. One of its counts was that they had appointed as under-sheriff ‘a false villain of their faction, named Thomas Usk,’ for the purpose of bringing about the trial and condemnation, on false charges of treason, of the Duke of Gloucester and others of the king's loyal subjects. Usk was brought before the parliament on 3 March, and accused of having endeavoured to compass the death of Gloucester and his associates. His only defence was that he had acted in obedience to the commands of his liege lord. On 4 March he was condemned to death, and the sentence was carried out the same evening. He made an edifying end. ‘As he was being dragged from the Tower to Tyburn he devoutly repeated “Placebo,” the seven penitential psalms, “Te Deum,” “Quicunque vult,” “Nunc dimittis,” and the prayers appropriate to those in the article of death, and exhibited the profoundest contrition for his sins.’ To the last, however, he maintained the truth of the accusations he had formerly made against John of Northampton. He was first hanged, then cut down while still alive, and finally beheaded ‘by nearly thirty strokes of the sword.’ His head was set up over Newgate ‘to disgrace his kinsfolk, who lived in that part of the city’ (, ii. 294).

‘The Testament of Love,’ as Usk calls his only known literary work, is a prose composition in three books, and is a close imitation of Chaucer's translations of Boethius, many passages of which are almost literally copied. The author represents himself as visited in prison by the apparition of a beautiful lady, who makes herself known to him as Love. She listens to his vindication of his past conduct, consoles him for his unmerited sufferings, and instructs him how to gain the favour of an allegorical personage who is referred to as ‘the Margaret Pearl,’ and who at the end of the book is explained to represent ‘holy church.’ The initial letters of the chapters form an acrostic, which reads ‘Margarete of virtw, have merci on thin [= thine] Usk.’

The precise date at which the book was written is uncertain. Usk speaks of his ‘first imprisonment’ (in 1384) as a thing of the past, but implies that at the time when the earlier chapters, at least, were written he was again in prison. It is difficult to suppose that a piece containing nearly sixty thousand words can have been written between Usk's arrest in November 1387 and his execution on 4 March 1388. Possibly it was composed during an unrecorded second imprisonment between the end of 1384 and the middle of 1387. It is unlikely that this second imprisonment was merely metaphorical, though, as the writer had evidently free access to books, his references to ‘chains’ and ‘dungeon’ cannot be interpreted literally.

Apart from its historical and philological interest, ‘The Testament of Love’ is worthless. It was obviously written for the purpose of conciliating those on whom the author's fate might depend. While he endeavours to justify his treachery towards John of Northampton, Usk's chief concern is to make it appear that he is now a pious and contrite soul, whose hopes are fixed in heaven, and from whom no further ‘meddling’ in political matters need be apprehended. Apparently he hoped to secure the good offices of Chaucer; a passage containing a florid eulogy of ‘Troilus and Creseide’ is introduced in an awkward manner which suggests that it was written for a special purpose; and the writer's display of familiarity with the translation of Boethius and with ‘The House of Fame’ (portions of which he paraphrases) may have been intended to gain the goodwill of the poet. It is very likely that Usk sent a copy of his work to Chaucer, and the discovery of the manuscript among Chaucer's papers may have been the circumstance that caused the book to be attributed to his authorship. The mistaken attribution received a seeming confirmation from the passage in the first version of Gower's ‘Confessio Amantis,’ in which Chaucer is admonished to ‘do make his testament of love.’ As it is now ascertained that the passage in question was written not before 1390, it may possibly contain a playful allusion to the title of Usk's work.

No manuscript of ‘The Testament of Love’ is known to exist. It was first printed in William Thynne's edition of Chaucer's works in 1532, and reprinted, with progressive deterioration of the text, in the various editions of Chaucer down to that of John Urry [q. v.] in 1720, and again in the first volume of Chalmers's ‘English Poets.’ Thynne's own text abounds in blunders throughout, and the third book was reduced to nonsense by an extraordinary series of dislocations, evidently due to an accidental displacement of the leaves of the manuscript. The restoration of the true order of the text by the present writer (Athenæum, 6 Feb. 1897) rendered it possible to interpret the acrostic, the


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OME years ago I wrote a little account of "White Witches" in the Daily Graphic, in which I narrated some of my experiences and my acquaintance with their proceedings. This brought me at the lowest computation fifty letters from all parts of the country from patients who had spent much of their substance upon medical practitioners, and, like the woman with the issue of blood in the Gospel, "had suffered many things of many physicians and was nothing bettered, but rather grew worse." These entreated me to furnish them with the addresses of some of these irregular practitioners, that they might try them. I did not send what was desired, and that for a very good reason, that I regard these individuals as impostors and the occasion of a good deal of mischief.

At the same time distinguez, as the French would say. They are not all so, and I have seen and can testify to very notable and undeniable cures that they have effected. That they believe in their powers and their cures is true in a good many cases, and I quite admit that they may be in possession of a large number of valuable herbal recipes, doubtless of real efficacy. Some of our surgeons are far too fond of using the knife, and the majority of them employ strong mineral medicines that, though they may produce an immediate effect, do injury in the long run. I take it that one reason why our teeth are so bad in the present generation is due largely to the way in which calomel was


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 qualities which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great leader, he was at least a model of industry. Among other prominent politicians were Sir James Rose-Innes, Mr J. X. Merriman and Mr W. P. Schreiner. The two last named both held the premiership; their attitude and views have been indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a lawyer whose intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been impugned, was not a “party man,” and this made him, on more than one occasion, a somewhat difficult political ally. On the native question he held a consistently strong attitude, defending their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing the native liquor traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief justice of that colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative, though he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought forward. A man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made his influence felt, not only in politics, but in journalism and the best social life of the Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he held the office of agent-general of the colony in London.

In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors whose works have taken their place among those of the best English writers of their day. The History of South Africa, by Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a classic work of reference. The careful industry and the lucidity which characterize Mr Theal’s work stamp him as a historian of whom South Africa may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs Cronwright-Schreiner) produced, while still in her teens, the Story of an African Farm, a work which gave great promise of original literary genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest of South Africa, was subsequently swept into the seething vortex of contemporary politics and controversy. In music and painting there have been artists of talent in the Cape Colony, but the country is still too young, and the conditions of life too disturbed, to allow such a development as has already occurred in Australia.

.—The majority of the books concerning Cape Colony deal also with South Africa as a whole (see : Bibliography). The following list gives books specially relating to the Cape. For ethnography see the works mentioned under, , and.

(a) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:—The best early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille’s Journal historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Espérance (Paris, 1763), the Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Espérance (Amsterdam, 1778); F. le Vaillant’s Voyage dans l’intérieur de l’Afrique (Paris, 1790), and Second Voyage (Paris, an III. [1794–1795]); C. P. Thunberg’s “Account of the Cape of Good Hope” in vol. xvi. of Pinkerton’s Travels (London, 1814); A. Sparman’s Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope 1772–1776 (translated into English from the Swedish, London, 1785)—an excellent work; and W. Paterson’s A Narrative of Four Journeys  1777–1779 (London, 1789). P. Kolbe or Kolben’s Present State of the Cape of Good Hope (English translation from the German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy. Sir J. Barrow’s Account of Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa in 1797–1798 (2 vols., London, 1801–1804); H. Lichtenstein’s Travels in Southern Africa in 1803–1806 (translated from the German, 2 vols., London, 1812–1815), and W. J. Burchell’s Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa (2 vols., London, 1822–1824) are standard works. Burchell’s book contains the best map of the Cape published up to that time. W. P. Greswell’s Geography of Africa south of the Zambesi (Oxford, 1892) deals specially with Cape Colony; the Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa (Cape Town, 1893) includes chapters on the zoology, flora, productions and resources of the colony. A. R. E. Burton, Cape Colony To-day (Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the country and its resources. A Statistical Register is issued yearly by the Cape government. The Census of the Colony, 1904: General Report (Cape Town, 1905) and previous census reports contain much valuable matter.

(b) Special subjects:—For detailed information on special subjects consult The Natives of South Africa (London, 1901); R. Wallace, Farming Industries of Cape Colony (London, 1896); A. R. E. Burton, Cape Colony for the Settler (London, 1903); The Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope; Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative work by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A. W. Rogers, An Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony (London, 1905) and “The Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay,” ''Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa'', vol. ix. (1906); Reports, Geological Commission of the Cape of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); Science in South Africa (Cape Town, 1905); H. A. Bryden, Kloof and Karoo; sport, legend and natural history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); South African Education Yearbook (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For books dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see.

(c) History:—H. C. V. Leibbrandt, Précis of the Archives of the Cape of Good Hope (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek’s Journal, Cape Town, 1896—1902); The Rebellion of 1815, generally known as Slachter’s Nek (Cape Town, 1902); G. M. Theal, Chronicles of Cape Commanders 1651–1691  (Cape Town, 1882), and Records of the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831, from MS. in the Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897–1905); History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company, 1652 to 1795 (2 vols., London, 1897); History of South Africa from 1795 to 1834 (London, 1891); E. B. Watermeyer, Three Lectures on the Cape  under the  Dutch East India Company (Cape Town, 1857); A. Wilmot and J. C. Chase, History of the  Cape  from its Discovery to  1868 (Cape Town, 1869); Lady Anne Barnard, South Africa a Hundred Years Ago: Letters-written from the Cape, 1797–1801 (London, 1901), a vivid picture of social life, &c.; Mrs A. F. Trotter, Old Cape Colony  Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806 (London, 1903); C. T. Campbell, British South Africa, 1795–1825 (London, 1897), the story of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau’s Life of Sir Bartle Frere; the Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith; P. A. Molteno’s Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno (first premier of Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot’s Life of Sir Richard Southey (London, 1904), and G. C. Henderson’s Sir George Grey (London, 1907). B. Worsfold’s Lord Milner’s Work in South Africa, 1897–1902 (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape politics. For Blue-books, &c., relating to the colony published by the British parliament, see the Colonial Office List (London, yearly)

 CAPEFIGUE, JEAN-BAPTISTE HONORÉ RAYMOND (1801–1872), French historian and biographer, was born at Marseilles in 1801. At the age of twenty he went to Paris to study law; but he soon deserted law for journalism. He became editor of the Quotidienne, and was afterwards connected, either as editor or leading contributor, with the Temps, the Messager des Chambres, the Révolution de 1848 and other papers. During the ascendancy of the Bourbons he held a post in the foreign office, to which is due the royalism of some of his newspaper articles. Indeed all Capefigue’s works receive their colour from his legitimist politics; he preaches divine right and non-resistance, and finds polite words even for the profligacy of Louis XV. and the worthlessness of his mistresses. He wrote biographies of Catherine and Marie de’ Medici, Anne and Maria Theresa of Austria, Catherine II. of Russia, Elizabeth of England, Diana of Poitiers and Agnes Sorel—for he delighted in passing from “queens of the right hand” to “queens of the left.” His historical works, besides histories of the Jews from the fall of the Maccabees to the author’s time, of the first four centuries of the Christian church, and of European diplomatists, extend over the whole range of French history. He died at Paris in December 1872.

 CAPEL, ARTHUR CAPEL, (fl. 1640–1649), English royalist, son of Sir Henry Capel of Rayne Hall,

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hospodar

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hospodar


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Capefigue, Jean-Baptiste Honoré Raymond


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Rh administered in times past, a medicine that touches the liver but is rottenness to the bones.

What Jesus the son of Sirach said centuries ago is true still: "The Lord hath created medicines out of the earth, and he that is wise will not abhor them … by such doth he heal men, and taketh away their pains. Of such doth the apothecary make a confection" (Ecclus. XXXVIII. 4, 7, 8). What the writer meant was herbs and not minerals. The simples employed by the wise old women in our villages were admirable in most cases, but they were slow, if sure of action, and in these days when we go at a gallop we want cures to be rapid, almost instantaneous.

But the professed herbalist in our country towns is very often not a herbalist at all, but a mere impostor. He puts up "herbalist" on a brass plate at his door, but his procedure is mere quackery.

Moreover, the true White Witch is consulted not for maladies only, but for the discovery of who has cast the evil eye, "overlooked" and "ill-wished" some one who has lost a cow, or has been out of sorts, or has sickness in his pig-sty. The mode of proceeding was amusingly described in the Letters of Nathan Hogg, in 1847. Nathan in the form of a story gives an account of what was the general method of the White Witch Tucker in Exeter. A farmer whose conviction was that disorders and disasters at home were the result of the ill-wishing of a red-cloaked Nan Tap, consulted Tucker as to how the old woman was to be "driven" and rendered powerless.

I modify the broad dialect, which would not be generally intelligible.  When into Exeter he had got To Master Tucker's door he sot; He rung'd the bell, the message sent, Pulled off his hat, and in he went,


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72 And seed a fellow in a room That seem'd in such a fret and fume. He said he'd lost a calf and cow, And com'd in there to know as how, For Master T., at little cost, Had often found the thing's he'd lost.

Thereupon the farmer opened his own trouble, and told how he and his were bewitched by Nan Tap. And as he told his tale, it seemed so sad that the man in the room bade him go in first to consult the White Witch.

Now this fuming man was employed by Tucker to draw out from the gulls what their trouble was, and there was but a sham wall of paper between the room where the interview took place and that in which he received the farmer, whom he greatly astonished by informing him of all the circumstances that led to the visit. The remedy he prescribed was to carry a little bag he gave him, in which were some stones, and to dash water in the direction of the old woman, and say, "I do it in the name of Tucker," and if this did not answer, he was to put a faggot up his chimney, set fire to it, and say a prayer he taught him while it was burning. We need not follow the account any further.

There was a few years ago a notable White Witch of the name of Snow, at Tiverton, who did great business. In a case with which I am well acquainted, he certainly was the means of curing a substantial farmer. The man had caught a severe chill one night of storm, when a torrent threatened to inundate his house. He had stood for hours endeavouring to divert the stream from his door. The chill settled on his chest, and he became a wreck; he drew his breath with difficulty, walked bent, almost double, and as I was convinced would not live out the twelve months. He consulted the most famous and experienced physicians, and they


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Rh did him no good. Then in desperation he went to "Old Snow." From that day he mended. What the White Witch gave him I do not know; but the man is now robust, hearty, and looks as if many years were before him.

I know another case, but this is of a different nature. A young farmer, curious as to the future, visited a White Witch to learn who his future wife would be. Said she—this witch was a woman, and an old one: there are female witches who are young and exercise very powerful charms—said she: "Next Sunday, you go along Narracott lane, and the first young woman you see pass, look her well in the face, and when you've gone by, turn your head and look, and if she's also turned her head and is looking at you, that's the one."

"Well now," said this farmer in later years, "it were a coorious thing it were, but as I were goin' along thickey lane there I seed Bessie Baker, and I turn'd, and sure enough her were lookin' over her shoulder to me, and wot's most coorious of all—her's my missus now. After that, don't ee go and tell me as how White Witches knows nothin'. But there's somethin' more to the tale. I heerd afterwards as Bessie, her'd consulted old Nan, and Nan had said to her, 'Go along Narracott lane, and the first man as you sees, when you've past, turn and look; and if he's lookin' over his shoulder to you, that's the one.' There's facts; and wi' them facts staring of you in the face, don't you go and say White Witches is nort."

There is an old woman I know—she is still alive. It was six years since she bought a bar of yellow or any other soap. But that is neither here nor there. She was esteemed a witch—a white one of course. She was a God-fearing woman, and had no relations with


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74 the Evil One, of that one may be sure. How she subsisted was a puzzle to the whole parish. But, then, she was generally feared. She received presents from every farm and cottage. Sometimes she would meet a child coming from school, and stay it, and fixing her wild dark eye on it, say, "My dear, I knawed a child jist like you—same age, red rosy cheeks, and curlin' black hair. And that child shrivelled up, shrumped like an apple as is picked in the third quarter of the moon. The cheeks grew white, the hair went out of curl, and she jist died right on end and away."

Before the day was out, a chicken or a basket of eggs as a present from the mother of that child was sure to arrive.

I have given an account of this same old woman in my An Old English Home, and will here add a few more particulars about her. She possessed of her own a two-storied house, thatched, built mainly of cob, but with two chimneys of brick. Some five-and-twenty years ago the house was habitable enough. The thatch had given way in several places, but she could not or would not have it repaired. Perhaps she had not the means; but the farmers offered her straw, and a thatcher would have done the work for her gratis, or only for her blessing. She would not. "God made the sky," she said, "and that is the best roof of all." After a while, however, the roof became leaky everywhere. Then she sought shelter for her head by stuffing up the chimney of her bedroom fireplace with a sack filled with chaff, and pushing her bed to the hearth, she slept with her head and pillow under the sack. But access to this bedroom became difficult, as the stairs, exposed to the rain, rotted and gave way, and she was compelled to ascend and descend by an improvised ladder.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ure, Andrew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ure, David


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Uri, Joannes


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urien


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urquhart, David


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Rh The rector of the parish went to her and remonstrated at the dangerous condition of the tenement. "My dear," said she, "there be two angels every night sits on the rungs of the ladder and watches there, that nobody comes nigh me, and they be ready to hold up the timbers that they don't fall on me." The rector's daughter carried her some food every now and then. One day the woman made her a present of some fine old lace. This was gratefully accepted. As the young lady was departing, "Old Marianne" called after her from the bedroom door, "Come back, my dear, I want that lace again. If any one else be so gude as to give me aught, I shall want it to make an acknowledgment of the kindness." The lace was often given as acknowledgment, and as often reclaimed. After a while the ladder collapsed. Then the old woman descended for good and all, and took up her abode on the ground floor—kitchen and parlour, dining-room and bedroom all in one. Finally the whole roof fell in and carried down the flooring of the upper story, but in such manner that the "planchin" rested at one end against the wall, but blocked up door and fireplace. Then she lived under it as a lean-to roof, and without a fire for several winters, amongst others that bitter one of 1893-4, and her only means of egress and ingress was through the window. Of that half the number of panes was broken and patched with rags. As the water poured into her room she finally took refuge in an old oak chest, keeping the lid up with a brick. I knew her very well; she was a picturesque object. Once she and I were photographed together standing among the ruins of her house. She must have been handsome in her day, with a finely-cut profile, and


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urquhart, Thomas (fl.1650?)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urquhart, Thomas (1611-1660)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urry, John (d.1650)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urry, John (1666-1715)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urse d'Abetot


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76 piercing dark eyes. She usually wore a red kerchief about her head or neck and an old scarlet petticoat. But she was dirty—indescribably so. Her hands were the colour of mahogany. She promised me her book of charms. I never got it, and this was how. The huntsmen were wont, whenever passing her wretched house, to shout "Marianne! Marianne!" and draw up. Then from amidst the ruins came a muffled response, "Coming, my dears, coming!" Presently she appeared. She was obliged to crawl out of her window that opened into the garden and orchard at the back of the house, go round it, and unlace a gate of thorns she had erected as a protection to her garden; there she always received presents. One day as usual the fox-hunters halted and called for her; she happened at the time to have kindled a fire on the floor of her room to boil a little water in a kettle for tea, and she left the fire burning when she issued forth to converse with the gentlemen and extend her hand for half-crowns. Whilst thus engaged the flames caught some straw that littered the ground, they spread, set fire to the woodwork, and the room was in a blaze. Everything was consumed, her chest-bed, her lace, her book of charms. After that she was conveyed to the workhouse, where she is still, and now is kept clean.

Once, before this catastrophe, I drove over to see her, taking my youngest daughter with me. The child had breakings-out on her face; Marianne noticed this. "Ah, my dear," said she, "I see you want my help. You must bring the little maiden to me, she must be fasting, and then I will bless her face, and in two days she will be well." Her cure for whooping-cough was to cut the hair off the cross on a donkey's back, fasten it in silk bags, and tie these round the


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Barack Obama's White House Iftar Dinner Speech

Good evening. Welcome to the White House. To you, to Muslim Americans across our country, and to more than one billion Muslims around the world, I extend my best wishes on this holy month. Ramadan Kareem. I want to welcome members of the diplomatic corps; members of my administration; and Members of Congress, including Rush Holt, John Conyers, and Andre Carson, who is one of two Muslim American Members of Congress, along with Keith Ellison.

Here at the White House, we have a tradition of hosting iftars that goes back several years, just as we host Christmas parties, seders, and Diwali celebrations. These events celebrate the role of faith in the lives of the American people. They remind us of the basic truth that we are all children of God, and we all draw strength and a sense of purpose from our beliefs. These events are also an affirmation of who we are as Americans. Our Founders understood that the best way to honor the place of faith in the lives of our people was to protect their freedom to practice religion. In the....

...Virginia Act for Establishing Religion Freedom, Thomas Jefferson wrote that “all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion.” The First Amendment of our Constitution established the freedom of religion as the law of the land. And that right has been upheld ever since.

Indeed, over the course of our history, religion has flourished within our borders precisely because Americans have had the right to worship as they choose – including the right to believe in no religion at all. And it is a testament to the wisdom of our Founders that America remains deeply religious – a nation where the ability of peoples of different faiths to coexist peacefully and with mutual respect for one another stands in contrast to the religious conflict that persists around the globe.

That is not to say that religion is without controversy. Recently, attention has been focused on the construction of mosques in certain communities – particularly in New York. Now, we must all recognize and respect the sensitivities surrounding the development of lower Manhattan. The 9/11 attacks were a deeply traumatic event for our country. The pain and suffering experienced by those who lost loved ones is unimaginable. So I understand the emotions that this issue engenders. Ground Zero is, indeed, hallowed ground.

But let me be clear: as a citizen, and as President, I believe that Muslims have the same right to practice their religion as anyone else in this country. That includes the right to build a place of worship and a community center on private property in lower Manhattan, in accordance with local laws and ordinances. This is America, and our commitment to religious freedom must be unshakeable. The principle that people of all faiths are welcome in this country, and will not be treated differently by their government, is essential to who we are. The writ of our Founders must endure.

We must never forget those who we lost so tragically on 9/11, and we must always honor those who have led our response to that attack – from the firefighters who charged up smoke-filled staircases, to our troops who are serving in Afghanistan today. And let us always remember who we are fighting against, and what we are fighting for. Our enemies respect no freedom of religion. Al Qaeda’s cause is not Islam – it is a gross distortion of Islam. These are not religious leaders – these are terrorists who murder innocent men, women and children. In fact, al Qaeda has killed more Muslims than people of any other religion – and that list of victims includes innocent Muslims who were killed on 9/11.

That is who we are fighting against. And the reason that we will win this fight is not simply the strength of our arms – it is the strength of our values. The democracy that we uphold. The freedoms that we cherish. The laws that we apply without regard to race or religion; wealth or status. Our capacity to show not merely tolerance, but respect to those who are different from us – a way of life that stands in stark contrast to the nihilism of those who attacked us on that September morning, and who continue to plot against us today.

In my inaugural address, I said that our patchwork heritage is a strength, not a weakness. We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus — and non-believers. We are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this Earth. That diversity can bring difficult debates. Indeed, past eras have seen controversies about the construction of synagogues or Catholic churches. But time and again, the American people have demonstrated that we can work through these issues, stay true to our core values, and emerge stronger for it. So it must be – and will be – today.

Tonight, we are reminded that Ramadan is a celebration of a faith known for great diversity. And Ramadan is a reminder that Islam has always been part of America. The first Muslim ambassador to the United States, from Tunisia, was hosted by President Jefferson, who arranged a sunset dinner for his guest because it was Ramadan—making it the first known iftar at the White House, more than 200 years ago.

Like so many other immigrants, generations of Muslims came here to forge their future. They became farmers and merchants, worked in mills and factories, and helped lay the railroads. They helped build America. They founded the first Islamic center in New York City in the 1890s. They built America’s first mosque on the prairie of North Dakota. And perhaps the oldest surviving mosque in America—still in use today—is in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

Today, our nation is strengthened by millions of Muslim Americans. They excel in every walk of life. Muslim American communities—including mosques in all fifty states—also serve their neighbors. Muslim Americans protect our communities as police, firefighters and first responders. Muslim American clerics have spoken out against terror and extremism, reaffirming that Islam teaches that one must save human life, not take it. And Muslim Americans serve with honor in our military. At next week’s iftar at the Pentagon, tribute will be paid to three soldiers who gave their lives in Iraq and now rest among the heroes of Arlington National Cemetery.

These Muslim Americans died for the security that we depend upon, and the freedoms that we cherish. They are part of an unbroken line of Americans that stretches back to our Founding; Americans of all faiths who have served and sacrificed to extend the promise of America to new generations, and to ensure that what is exceptional about America is protected – our commitment to stay true to our core values, and our ability to perfect our union.

For in the end, we remain “one nation, under God, indivisible.” And we can only achieve “liberty and justice for all” if we live by that one rule at the heart of every religion, including Islam—that we do unto others as we would have them do unto us. Thank you all for being here, and I wish you a blessed Ramadan. And with that, let’s eat.


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 (London, 1890). The Historia de S. Domingos may be read in a modern edition (6 vols., Lisbon, 1866).

—Obras de D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo, ii. 61–171; Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, v. 327, xvi. 72; Dr Sousa Viterbo, Manoel de Sousa Coutinho (Lisbon, 1902).

 SOUSLIK, or, the vernacular name of a European burrowing rodent mammal, nearly allied to the marmots, but of much smaller size and of more slender and squirrel-like build (see ). The species, Spermophilus (or Citillus) citillus, is rather smaller than an ordinary squirrel, with minute ears, and the tail reduced to a stump of less than an inch in length. The general colour of the upper parts is yellowish grey, with or without a rusty tinge, which is, however, always noticeable on the head; while the underparts are lighter. The range of this species embraces south-east Europe, from southern Germany, Austria and Hungary to the south of Russia. Farther east it is replaced by more or less nearly allied species; while other species extend the range of the genus across central and northern Asia, and thence, on the other side of Bering Strait, all through North America, where these rodents are commonly known as gophers. Many of the species have medium or even long tails, while some are nearly double the size of the typical representative of the group. All, however, have large cheek-pouches, whence the name of pouched marmots, by which they are sometimes called; and they have the first front-toe rudimentary, as in marmots. They are divided into several sub generic groups. One of the most striking American species is the striped gopher, S. (Ictidomys) tridecemlineatus, which is marked on each side with seven yellow stripes, between which are rows of yellow spots on a dark ground. The common souslik lives in dry, treeless plains, especially on sandy or clayey soil, and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground. It forms burrows, often 6 or 8 ft. deep, in which food is stored up and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one entrance, which is closed up when winter approaches; a second hole, however, being previously driven from the sleeping place to within a short distance of the surface of the ground. This second hole is opened the next year, and used as the ordinary entrance, so that the number of closed up holes round a burrow gives an indication of the length of time that it has been occupied. Sousliks feed on roots, seeds and berries, and occasionally on animal food, preying on eggs, small birds and mice. They bring forth in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if taken early, may be easily tamed. Sousliks are eaten by the inhabitants of the Russian steppes, who consider their flesh an especial delicacy.

 SOUTANE, the French term adopted into English for a cassock especially used for the general daily dress worn by the secular Roman clergy in France, Italy, Spain and Portugal. The Med. Lat. subtaneus, adapted in O. Fr. as sotane, in Span. and Ital. as sotana, and Port. as sotaina, meant an under-skirt, and is formed from subtus, beneath, sub, under. (See .)

 SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716), English divine, was born at Hackney, Middlesex, in September 1634. He was educated at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford. Before taking orders in 1658 he was in the habit of preaching as the champion of Calvinism against Socinianism and Arminianism. He also at this time showed a leaning to Presbyterianism, but on the approach of the Restoration his views on church government underwent a change; indeed, he was always regarded as a time-server, though by no means a self-seeker. On the 10th of August 1660 he was chosen public orator of the university, and in 1661 domestic chaplain to Lord Clarendon. In March 1663 he was made prebendary of Westminster, and shortly afterwards he received from his university the degree of D.D. In 1667 he became chaplain to the duke of York. He was a zealous advocate of the doctrine of passive obedience, and strongly opposed the Toleration Act, declaiming in unmeasured terms against the various Nonconformist sects. In 1676 he was appointed chaplain to Lawrence Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester), ambassador-extraordinary to the king of Poland, and of his visit he sent an interesting account to Edward Pococke in a letter, dated Dantzic, 16th December, 1677, which was printed along with South’s Posthumous Works in 1717. In 1678 he was presented to the rectory of Islip, Oxfordshire. Owing, it is said, to a personal grudge, South in 1693 published with transparent anonymity Animadversions on Dr Sherlock’s Book, entitled a Vindication of the Holy and Ever Blessed Trinity, in which the views of (q.v.) were attacked with much sarcastic bitterness. Sherlock, in answer, published a Defence in 1694, to which South replied in Tritheism Charged upon Dr Sherlock's New Notion of the Trinity, and the Charge Made Good. The controversy was carried by the rival parties into the pulpit, and occasioned such keen feeling that the king interposed to stop it. During the greater part of the reign of Anne South remained comparatively quiet, but in 1710 he ranked himself among the partisans of Sacheverell. He declined the see of Rochester and the deanery of Westminster in 1713. He died on the 8th of July 1716, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

 SOUTH AFRICA. As a geographical unit South Africa is usually held to be that part of the continent south of the middle course of the Zambezi. The present article (1) deals with that part of Africa as a whole, (2) outlines the constitution of the British possessions forming the Union of South Africa, and (3) summarizes the history of the country from the time of its discovery by Europeans.

In the geographical sense stated South Africa lies between 16° and 35° S. and 12° and 36° E., narrows from 1600 m. from west to east along its northern border to some 600 m. of coast facing south. Its greatest length south-west to north-east is also about 1600 m. It has an area of about 1,333,000 sq. m. It comprises the Union of South Africa (i.e. the provinces of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, with Zululand, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal); Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Swaziland and Southern Rhodesia, all British possessions; German South-West Africa, and the southern part of Portuguese East Africa. By some writers Northern Rhodesia is included in South Africa, but that district belongs more accurately to the central portion of the continent. Other writers confine the term to the British possessions south of the Zambezi, but in this case British South Africa is the proper designation. South African standard time, adopted in 1903, is that of 30° E., or two hours in advance of Greenwich.

Physical Features.—There is a marked uniformity in physical features throughout South Africa. The coast line, from the mouth of the Kunene on the west to the delta of the Zambezi on the east, is little indented and contains only two sheltered natural harbours of any size—Saldanha Bay on the west and Delagoa Bay on the east. At Port Natal, however, the removal of the sand bar at its entrance has made available a third magnificent harbour, while at Table Bay (Cape Town) and at other places ports have been constructed. South Africa presents, however, a solid land mass without peninsulas of any size or any large islands off its coasts. Moreover, behind the low-lying coastlands, which extend in general from 50 to 250 m. inland, rise ramparts of hills shutting off the interior. This conformation of the country has been a powerful influence in determining its history and development. Here and there the mountains,

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text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souslik

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souslik


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soutane

title: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soutane


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Rh

greatest agitation prevailed in the city of Nismes. New arrests had taken place, suspicion had increased still more, and many noblemen, who until then had escaped observation, were shut up in the prisons. No condition, no inhabitant was now deemed in safety, treachery lurked in every house. The Marshal had brought some of his ci-devant friends, even ladies, to a strict trial.

The amiable hero was concealed in the severe judge. The Intendant had never yet been so pleased with his opponent. The consternation was still greater in the country, and those who dwelt in the château, no longer knew how to escape the mistrust and suspicion of the rebellion,


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/South, Robert


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Rh particularly the newly converted, whose assurances were not trusted, and whose devotedness and patriotism were no longer valued.

The physician, Vila, was also obliged to proceed to the city to answer numerous accusations against him. Deeply afflicted as he was, he however testified no depression or humiliation before his judges, but was able to refute with perfect composure all that they would lay to his charge. The Intendant as well as the Marshal were undecided, whether they ought to impute his self-possession and security to innocence, or to the obstinacy of a rebel.

"No, my honoured lords," said he, as he stood before them in the hall surrounded by a great number of officers and civilians; "I have nothing to do with these most unfortunate affairs, for it is impossible that any one would lay to my charge as evil propense, that I recently intended to cure the Lord Marquis without a wig, an occurrence, which may indeed be astonishing enough,


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ursula


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urswick, Christopher


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urswick, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urwick, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Urwick, William


text:
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Rh but which however does not render the extremity necessary, that you should now immediately cause my head to be taken off, whereby I should become an entirely useless and slaughtered man."

"Be serious sir," replied the Intendant in the greatest anger, but with a calm exterior: "what took you to the mountains some time since? wherefore that disguise of which you yourself have complained?"

"Irrepressible curiosity, my noble Lord," said Vila, "as an inquisitive doctor, I also wished to thrust my nose for once into these spiritual monstrosities. In my youth, I knew only of four great and twelve lesser prophets of the bible, the thousand great, and twenty thousand lesser of our times seemed to me so little plausible, that I wished to see some examples of them in my proximity, and to examine myself their ascribed characters."

"And you persuaded your son and the young Edmond to accompany you there?"

The old man paused a while, and was


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Usher, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Usher, Richard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Usk, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ussher, Ambrose


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ussher, Henry (d.1790)


text:
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Rh obliged to wipe his eyes. "Pardon," said he then, "man is affected, though already old, by certain sensations, a kind of cold, which operates on the tear vessels; perhaps you may have already experienced this. Strong snuff produces the sensation. Yes, it was I indeed that induced the young men to this folly. I could never have thought that the young lads would have made a serious affair of it. They should only have reflected on themselves, collect psychological observations, to strengthen thereby their own mature wisdom and corroborate all noble religion; and the simpletons act like that peasant, who is to take only twelve drops daily from a phial, and would rather swallow down the whole bottle with cork and label. But believe me the cholic will not delay coming, and it will require skill to empty the body of the devilry again."

"You appear to consider the affair on the jesting side," cried the Marshal.

"Certainly," said the old man, who


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ussher, James