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 Munday knights and aldermen. This edition contains some four hundred pages of original matter; but in value it is greatly surpassed by the edition of 1633, ‘completely finished by the study and labour of A. M. H[umphry] D[yson]’ and others, and published four months after Munday's death (for a valuable digest of the additions made by Munday and his coadjutors, see the note by Bolton Corney in Collier's edition of John a Kent and John a Cumber, p. lxxi).

Munday died in 1633, and was buried on 10 Aug. in that year in the church of St. Stephen, Coleman Street. His monument, with a long inscription, was destroyed in 1666, but the inscription was printed in full in the 1633 edition of Stow's ‘Survay’ (p. 869). The names of Munday's children, together with the dates of their christenings, are given in the register of St. Giles, Cripplegate: Elizabeth, 28 June 1584; Roase, 17 Oct. 1585 (buried 19 Jan. 1586); Priscilla, 9 Jan. 1587; Richard, 27 Jan. 1588, perhaps Richard Munday the painter-stainer, whose heraldic labours are recorded in the Catalogue of the Harleian MSS. (1529-77); Anne, 5 Sept. 1589.

Manday was in his versatility an epitome of his age. Ready to turn his hand to any occupation, he was as a man of letters little more than a compiler, destitute of originality or style; yet, apart from such names as Shakespeare and Marlowe, there are few Elizabethan writers who occupied a greater share of public attention, or contributed more largely to popular information and amusement.

Apart from his plays which have already been enumerated, Munday's writings may be classified under three headings: (I) Translations of Romances; (II) City Pageants; (III) Miscellaneous Writings. To most of his works Munday affixes his name in full, though in some cases he uses the pseudonym Lazarus Piot, or L. P. A great number bear his motto, ‘Honos alit artes;’ a few another motto, ‘Patere aut abstine.’

I.
1. ‘The famous, pleasant, and variable Historie of Palladino of England. Discoursing of honourable Adventures of Knightly Deedes, of Armes and Chivalrie; interlaced likewise with the Love of sundrie noble Personages, &c. Translated out of French by A. M. London: printed by Edward Allde for John Perin,’ 1588, 4to (see Bridgewater Cat. 4to, 1837, p. 203; now in Mr. Christy Miller's library at Britwell). 2. ‘Palmerin d'Oliva.’ Translated by A. M. John Charlwood, 1588, 4to (ib. p. 204; 1637, Brit. Mus.). 3. ‘The famous History of Palmendos, Son to the most renowned Palmerin d'Oliva, Emperour of Constantinople, and the Heroic Queen of Tharsus,’ Charlwood, 1589, 4to; 1653, 4to Brit. Mus. 4. ‘Gerileon of England. The second part of his most excellent, delectable morall and sweet contrived Historie. . . Written in French by Estrienne de Maisonneufue, Bordelois, and translated into English by A. M.,’ 1592, fol. (Britwell). 5. ‘Amadis de Gaule, the first Book translated by Anthony Munday,’ 1595, 4to. A copy of this work was entered at Stationers' Hall as early as January 1588-9, but no perfect copy of this date is known. The copies at the British Museum and at Britwell both want title-pages. Parts of this famous romance had been translated before, but Munday was the first to present the first book of it to English readers. 6. ‘The Second Booke of Amadis de Gaule, containing the Description, Wonders, and Conquest of the Forme-Island. The Triumphs and Troubles of Amadis, his manifold Victories obtained, and sundry Services done for King Lisuart, &c. . . . Englished by L[azarus] P[iot], London, for C. Burbie,’ 1595, 4to (see Notes and Queries, I, iv. 85). The first and second books were also reissued with the addition of the third and fourth in 1619, fol. 7. ‘The second part of the honourable Historie of Palmerin d'Oliva . . . translated by A. M.,’ 1597, 4to (Britwell). 8. ‘Palmerin of England,’ translated from the French, 1602. This translation, which is described by Southey as the ‘Grub Street Patriarch's worst piece of work,’ was entered 13 Feb. 1581, but no perfect copy earlier than 1602 is known. It contains verses by Dekker, Webster, and others, and seems to have been the work of Munday in part only. There are five editions in the Museum dated 1602, 1609, 1616, 1639, and 1664 respectively. A copy at Britwell assigned to 1596 is very imperfect. 9. ‘The famous and renowned Historie of Primaleon of Greece, Sonne to the great and mighty Prince Palmerin d'Oliva, Emperor of Constantinople. . . Translated out of French and Italian into English by A. M.,’ London, 1619, 8vo (Brit. Mus.) This is the first edition extant, but the work was commenced in 1589, and a complete version published in 1595.

II.
1. ‘The Triumphs of reunited Britania, performed at the Cost and Charges of the Right Worshipful Company of the Merchant Taylors, in honor of Sir Leonard Holliday,’ 29 Oct. 1605, London, 4to.; reprinted in Nichols's ‘Progresses of James I,’ i. 564-76. 2. ‘Camp-bell, or the Ironmongers Faire Field,’ at the installation of Sir Thomas Campbell, 29 Oct. 1609,


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 Munday 4to. 3. ‘Chryso-Thriambos; the Triumphs of Golde; at the Inauguration of Sir James Pemberton in the Dignity of Lord Maior of London,’ 29 Oct. 1611. 4. ‘Himatia-Poleos: Triumphs of Old Drapery, or the Rich Cloathing of England at the Installation of Thomas Hayes,’ 1614. 5. ‘Metropolis Coronata; the Triumphs of Ancient Drapery, or Rich Cloathing of England, in a second Yeere's Performance; in honour of the Advancement of Sir John Jolles. . . 30 Oct. 1615; reprinted in Nichols's ‘Progresses,’ iii. 107-18. 6. ‘Chrysanaleia, the Golden Fishing; or the Honour of Fishmongers applauding the Advancement of Mr. John Leman to the Dignitie of Lord Maior. . . on 29 Oct. 1616,’ London, 1616, 4to. Copies are in the Bodleian and Longleat Libraries. This was reproduced in a sumptuous folio, with coloured plates by Henry Shaw, by John Gough Nichols in 1844 (ib. iii. 195-207; cf., Lord Mayor's Pageants, 1831, p. 102). 7. ‘Sidero-Thriambos, or Steele and Iron Triumphing. Applauding the Advancement of Sir Sebastian Harvey . . . 29 Oct. 1618’. 8. ‘The Triumphs of the Golden Fleece. . . for the Enstaulment of Mr. Martin Lumley in the Maioraltie of London, 29 Oct. 1623.’ The British Museum possesses all these with the exception of No. 3, which is in the Duke of Devonshire's collection.

III.
1. ‘The Defence of Povertie against the Desire of Worldly Riches, dialogue-wise; collected by Anthonie Mundaye.’ Licensed to John Charlwood, 18 Nov. 1577. No copy known. 2. ‘The History of Galien of France.’ Printed before 1579, and dedicated to the Earl of Oxford. No copy known. 3. ‘The Mirrour of Mutabilite, or Principal Part of the Mirrour for Magistrates. Describing the fall of diuers famous Princes and other memorable Personages. Selected out of the Sacred Scripture by Antony Munday, and dedicated to the Right Honourable the Earle of Oxenford. Imprinted at London by John Allde, and are to be solde by Richard Ballard, at Saint Magnus Corner,’ 1579, 4to, b.l. Prefixed are verses by, among others, William Hall ‘in commendation of his kinsman, Antony Munday.’ One of the few copies known was bequeathed to the British Museum by Tyrwhitt in 1788. Another is at Britwell. 4. ‘The Paine of Pleasure. Profitable to be perused of the Wise, and necessary to be followed by the Wanton. For Henrie Car,’ 1580, 4to, b.l.; in verse, and dedicated to Lady Douglas Sheffield (Pepysian Library). This work bears Munday's motto, but his authorshlp has been questioned. 5. ‘Zelavto. The Fountaine of Fame. Erected in an Orcharde of Amorous Adventures. Containing a Delicate Disputation, gallantly discoursed betweene two noble Gentlemen of Italye. Given for a friendly Entertainment to Euphues, at his late arrival in England By A. M., Seruant to the Right Honuorable the Earle of Oxenforde,’ 1580, 4to; partly in verse (Bodleian). 6. ‘A View of Sundry Examples. Reporting many straunge Murthers, sundry Persons Perjured, Signes and Tokens of God's Anger towards us. What straunge and monstrous Children have of late beene borne: And all memorable Murthers since the Murther of Maister Saunders by George Browne [the subject of ‘A Warning to Fair Women,’ 1599], to this present and bloody Murther of Abell Bourne, Hosyer, who dwelled in Newgate Market, 1580. Also a short Discourse of the Late Earthquake, the sixt of Aprill for William Wright,’ London, 4to, b.l. (Lambeth); dedicated to William Waters and George Baker, gentlemen attendant upon the Earl of Oxford (reprinted together with Collier's ‘John a Kent and John a Cumber’). 7. ‘An Aduertisement and Defence for Trueth against her Backbiter, and specially against the whispring Fauourers and Colourers of Campians, and the rest of his Confederats Treasons, 1581;’ no place or date, 4to (Lambeth, Britwell, and Huth Libraries; the work is believed to have been suppressed by Archbishop Grindal). 8. ‘A Breefe Discourse of the taking of Edm. Campion and divers other Papists in Barkeshire,’ 1581, 8vo (Lambeth). 9. ‘A Covrtly Controuersie betweene Loue and Learning. Pleasauntlie passed in Disputation betweene a Ladie and a Gentleman of Scienna. Wherein is no Offence offered to the Vertuous nor any ill Motion to delight the Vicious,’ 1581, sm. 8vo, b.l.; in prose (Brit. Mus.) 10. ‘A Breefe and True Reporte of the Execution of Certaine Traytours at Tiborne, the xxviii and xxx. Dayes of May, 1582. Gathered by A. M., who was there Present,’ 1582, 4to (British Museum, reprinted by Collier). 11. ‘A Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates, their most Horrible and Traiterous Practises against her Majesties most royall Person and the Realme. Wherein may be seene how thorowe the whole Course of their Araignement; they were notably convicted in every Cause. Whereto is added the Execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and Alexander Brian, executed at Tiborne the 1 of December. Published by A. M., sometime the Popes Scholler, allowed in the Seminarie at Roome amongst them, &c.,’ January 1582, 8vo (St. John's College, Cambridge). 12. ‘A Breefe Aunswer made unto two seditious Pamphlets, the one printed in

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 Munday French, and the other in English. Contayning a Defence of Edmund Campion and his Complices, &c.,’ 1582, b.l. 4to (Brit. Mus., Lambeth, and Britwell). 13. ‘The English Romayne Lyfe; Discovering the Lives of the Englishmen at Roome, the Orders of the English Seminarie, the Dissention betweene the Englishmen and the Welshmen, the banishing of the Englishmen of out Roome, the Popes sending for them againe: a Reporte of many of the paltrie Reliques in Roome, their Vautes under the Grounde, their holy Pilgrimages, &c. Printed by John Charlewood for Nicholas Ling, at the Signe of the Maremaide,’ 1582, 4to, b.l.; another edition, 1590, 4to (reprinted in ‘Harleian Miscellany,’ vol. vii.) 14. ‘The sweete Sobbes and amorous Complaints of Sheppardes and Nymphes, in a Fancye composed by An. Munday,’ 1583. No copy known. 15. ‘A Watch-woord to Englande to beware of Traytours and tretcherous Practices which haue beene the ouerthrowe of many famous Kingdoms and common weales,’ 1584, b.l. 4to. Dedicated to the queen, and containing also an introductory epistle to Thomas Pullison, lord-mayor elect (British Museum, Huth Library, and elsewhere). 16. ‘Fidele and Fortunio, the Deceipts in Loue discoursed in a Comedie of two Italyan Gentlemen,’ translated into English, 1584. It is dedicated to John Heardson, and is in rhyme. An imperfect copy is in the British Museum; no title-page appears to be extant. One of the characters, Captain Crackstone, was alluded to in Nash's ‘Have with you to Saffron Walden’ (1596), but the play appears never to have been acted. 17. ‘Ant. Monday, his godly Exercise for Christian Families, containing an order of Praiers for Morning and Evening, with a little Cathechism betweene the Man and his Wife,’ 1586, 8vo. No copy known. 18. ‘A Banqvet of Daintie Conceyts. Furnyshed with verie delicate and choyse Inuentions to delight their Mindes, who take Pleasure in Musique, and there-withall to sing sweete Ditties, either to the Lute, Bandora, Virginalles, or anie other Instrument. . . . Written by A. M., Seruant to the Queenes most Excellent Maiestie,’ 1588, b.l. 4to. In verse, with several large woodcuts (Huth Library). It is reprinted in the ‘Harleian Miscellany’ (vol. ix.) A sequel or ‘second service of this Banquet’ is announced at the end of the volume, but is not known to have appeared. 19. ‘The Masque of the League and the Spanyard discovered. Wherein (1) The League is painted forth in all her Collours. (2) Is showen that it is not Lawful for a Subiect to arme Himself against his King for what Pretence so euer it be. (3) That but few Noblemen take part with the Enemy: An Aduertisement to them cōcerning their Dutie. To my Lord the Cardinal of Burbon, from the French,’ 1592, 4to. This political pamphlet reappeared in 1605, under the title ‘Falsehood in Friendship, or Unions Vizard: or Wolves in Lambskins’ (Huth Library). 20. ‘The Defence of Contraries. Paxadoxes against common Opinion. . . to exercise yong Wittes in difficult Matters,’ 1593, 4to. 21. ‘The Orator, handling a hundred several Discourses, by Lazarus Piot,’ 1596. This is substantially an expansion of the preceding, and, like it, is based, with additions, upon ‘Certen Tragicall Cases conteyninge LV Histories written in French by Alexander Vandenbush, alias Sylven, translated into English by E. A., and licensed to E. Aggas and J. Wolf 20 Aug. 1590.’ This book contains the declamation of the Jew who would have his pound of flesh. 22. ‘The Strangest Adventure that ever happened, either in the Ages passed or present. Containing a Discourse concerning the Successe of the King of Portugall, Dom Sebastian, from the time of his Voyage into Affricke, when he was lost in the Battell against the Infidels in the Years 1578, unto the sixt of January, this present 1601;’ 1601, 4to. A translation from the Spanish of José Teixeira. A similar work had been licensed to J. Wolf in 1598 (British Museum, Bodleian, and Huth Libraries). 23. ‘A true and admirable Historie of a Mayden of Confolens in the Prouince of Potiers, that for the space of three Yeares and more hath lived and yet doth without receiuing either Meat or Drinke,’ London, 1604, 8vo, translated from the French of Nicolas Caeffeteau, bishop of Marseilles, with verses by Thomas Dekker (Britwell). 24. ‘A Briefe Chronicle of the Successe of the Times from the Creation of the Worlde to this Instant,’ 1611, 8vo.

Munday also translated, from the French, Thelius's ‘Archaioplutus, or the Riches of Elder Ages. Prouing by manie good and learned Authors, that the Auncient Emperors and Kings, were more rich and magnificent than such as reign in these daies,’ London, 1592, 4to, and, from the Low Dutch, Gabelhoner's ‘Boock of Physicke,’ Dort, fol. 1599. He contributed verses to ‘Newes from the North,’ by F. Thynne, 1579; to Hakluyt's ‘Voyages,’ 1589; to the ‘Gorgious Gallery of Gallant Inventions,’ 1578, and to Bodenham's ‘Belvidere,’ 1600.

[Though neither very accurate nor complete, the best basis for a biography of Munday is still afforded by J. Payne Collier's introduction to his edition of John a Kent and John a Cumber,


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The New International Encyclopædia/Knobel, Karl August

KNOBEL, knō'bĕl, (1807-63). A German Old Testament scholar. He was born near Sorau in Silesia, and was educated there and at Breslau. In 1831 he became docent, and four years later professor extraordinary of theology at Breslau, and in 1838 became professor at Giessen, where he spent the remainder of his life. His greatest service was the preparation of the commentaries upon the books of Ecclesiastes (1836), Isaiah (1843), Genesis (1852), Exodus and Leviticus (1857), and Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua (1861) in the series known as Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament. The commentaries upon Isaiah and the books of the Pentateuch were rewritten by August Dillmann (q.v.).


text: A Book of Dartmoor/Chapter 7

title: A Book of Dartmoor/Chapter 7


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 Munday

printed for the Shakspeare Society in 1851; but this must be supplemented throughout by Joseph Hunter's Collectanea on Munday in his Chorus Vatum (Add. MS. 24488, f. 423), by Mr. Fleay's Chronicle of the English Drama 1559-1642 (ii. 110), Hazlitt's Bibliographical Collections, the Stationers' Registers in Mr. Arber's Transcripts, and, above all, by Munday's own works in the British Museum, especially The English Romayne Lyfe. Other authorities are: Ritson's Bibliographia Poetica, p. 282; Warton's English Poetry, ed. Hazlitt, iv. 427, 429; Webbe's Discourse on English Poetry, 1586; Meres's Palladis Tamia, 1598; Kempe's Nine Daies Wonder (Camden Soc.), p. 21; Baker's Biographia Dramatica, i. 504; Nichols's Progresses of James I; Corser's Collectanea Anglo-Poetica, pt. ix. vol. v. pp. 31-9; Fleay's History of the Stage and Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama; Cohn's Shakespeare in Germany, 1865, lxvii; Dunlop's Hist. of Prose Fiction, ed. Wilson, i. 379, 384, 393; Chettle's Kind-Harte's Dream (Percy Soc. 1841), p. 13; Cunningham's Extracts from Accounts of the Revels at Court (Shakspeare Soc.) passim; Anthony Copley's Wits, Fits, and Fancies, 1614, p. 134; Lowndes's Bibl. Man. (Bohn) ii. 1309; Dibdin's Library Companion, p. 709; Gifford's Jonson, 1816, vi. 325; Huth's Ancient Ballads and Broadsides, 1867, p. 370; Huth Library Catalogue; Henslowe's Diary (Shakspeare Soc.), pp. 106, 118, 158, 163, 171, 235; Collier's Memoirs of Actors (Shakspeare Soc.), p. 111; Drake's Shakespeare and his Time, i. 547, 693; Ward's English Dramatic Literature, i. 234-5, ii. 237; Simpson's Life of Campion, pp. 311-12; J. Gough Nichols's Lord Mayor's Pageants, p. 102; Fairholt's History of Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc.), p. 38; Brayley's Londiniana, 1829, iv. 92-6; Ames's Typographical Antiquities, ed. Herbert, pp. 897, 1006, 1103, 1198, 1223, 1337, 1345; Brydges's Censura Literaria and Restituta, passim; Maitland's Early English Books in Lambeth Library, p. 78; notes kindly supplied by R. E. Graves, esq.; Notes and Queries,, iv. 55, 83, 120;, iii. 261, xii. 203, 450;, i. 202, iii. 65, 136, 178.]

 MUNDAY, HENRY (1623–1682), schoolmaster and physician, was the son of Henry Munday of Henley-on-Thames, and was baptised there on 21 Sept. 1623 (par. reg.) He matriculated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, on 20 May 1642, and afterwards became postmaster or portionist of Merton College. He graduated B.A. on 2 April 1647. After enjoying, according to Wood, 'some petit employment' during the civil wars and the Commonwealth, Munday was elected head-master of the free grammar school in his native town in 1656. To his work as a teacher he added the practice of medicine, and the school suffered in consequence. His death saved him from the disgrace of dismissal. He died from a fall from his horse as he was returning home from a visit to John, third baron Lovelace [q. v], at Hurley, on 28 June 1682, and was buried in the north chancel of Henley Church. His estate was administered for 'Alicia and Marie Mundy, minors.'

He published: 'Βιοχρηστολογία seu Commentarii de Aere Vitali, de Esculeutis, de Potulentis, cum Corollario de Parergis in Victu,' Oxford, 1680, 1685; London, 1681; Frankfort, 1685; Leipzig, 1685; Leyden, 16151715 [sic].

 MUNDEFORD, OSBERT or OSBERN (d. 1460), treasurer of Normandy, was son of Osbert Mundeford (d. 1456), by Margaret Barrett. The family, whose name is sometimes spelt Mountford or Montfort, had been long seated at Hockwold in Norfolk, where they held Mundeford's Manor; they had been honourably distinguished in the French wars. Osbert went abroad probably early in Henry VI's reign, and received various offices of importance, such as bailly-general of Maine and marshal of Calais. He also served as English representative on several occasions in the conferences which were held, notably in 1447, with reference to the occupation of Le Mans. In the re-conquest of Normandy, Mundeford occupied Pont Audemer, and was taken prisoner when it fell in 1449 ; he was ransomed for ten thousand crowns. He afterwards wrote an account of the siege, which has been printed in the 'Chronique de Mathieu d'Escouchy,' ed. De Beaucourt, iii. 354.

Mundeford was appointed treasurer of Normandy in 1448 in succession to one Stanlawe. After the expulsion of the English he seems to have lived in Calais and about 1459 sent thence a letter in French to his relative John Paston, which has been preserved. He seems to have been a strong Lancastrian, and in June 1460 he gathered together some five hundred men in the town of Sandwich 'to fette and conduc the Duk of Somerset from Guynes in to England,' but Warwick's men came and took the town, and carrying off Mundeford to Calais beheaded him and two of his followers at the Rise Bank.

Mundeford married Elizabeth, daughter of John Berney, and a relative of the Pastons, and left a daughter, Mary, who married Sir William Tindale, K.B., and carried the estates of the family into other hands.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Knobelsdorff, Georg Wenzeslaus von

KNOBELSDORFF, knō'bĕls-dôrf, (1699-1753). A German architect, born at Kuckädel, near Krossen. He served in the army for some years, and then studied architecture, and traveled in Italy and France. He was appointed director of royal buildings in Prussia by Frederick II., who, when Crown Prince, had been his patron. His best known works are the Berlin Opera House, the

Sans Souci Palace at Potsdam, and the extension of the palace at Charlottenburg, all in the classic style. He also laid out part of the town, and the park at Potsdam, and the Thiergarten in Berlin. For these his models were French.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff, Nataly von

KNOBELSDORFF-BRENKENHOFF, brĕṉk ' en-hṓf, (1860— ). A German novelist, known under her maiden name, Nataly von Eschstruth, born at Hofgeismar, Hesse-Cassel, the daughter of an officer, and educated at Berlin. She married an officer, afterwards Captain Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff, and later settled at Schwerin. Among her novels may be mentioned: Wolfsburg (1885); Gänseliesel, eine Hofgeschichte (1886; 5th ed. 1891); Polnisch Blut (1887; 4th ed. 1894); Hofluft (1889; 5th ed. 1894); Sternschnuppen (1890); Von Gottes Gnaden (1895); Jung gefreit (1897); Der Majoratsherr (1898); Aus vollem Leben (1900); Sonnenfunken (1901); Der verlorene Sohn (1902). Of some little dramas, Karl Augusts Brautfahrt and Die Sturmnixe (3d ed. 1888) were performed. In 1887 appeared a volume of her poems under the title Wegekraut, and in 1899 an illustrated edition of her collected works in 25 Volumes began to be published.


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 low hills below Malton in a narrow picturesque valley, and debouches upon the central plain of Yorkshire. Its direction, hitherto westerly and south-westerly from the Carrs, now becomes southerly, and it flows roughly parallel to the Ouse, which it joins near Barmby-on-the-Marsh, in the level district between Selby and the head of the Humber estuary, after a course, excluding minor sinuosities, of about 70 m. As a tributary of the Ouse it is included in the Humber basin. It is tidal up to Sutton-upon-Derwent, 15 m. from the junction with the Ouse, and is locked up to Malton, but the navigation is little used. A canal leads east from the tidal water to the small market town of Pocklington.

(2) The Derbyshire Derwent rises in Bleaklow Hill north of the Peak and traverses a narrow dale, which, with those of such tributary streams as the Noe, watering Hope Valley, and the Wye, is famous for its beauty (see ). The Derwent flows south past Chatsworth, Matlock and Belper and then, passing Derby, debouches upon a low plain, and turns south-eastward, with an extremely sinuous course, to join the Trent near Sawley. Its length is about 60 m. It falls in all some 1700 ft. (from Matlock 200 ft.), and no part is navigable, save certain reaches at Matlock and elsewhere for pleasure boats.

(3) The Cumberland Derwent rises below Great End in the Lake District, draining Sprinkling and Sty Head tarns, and flows through Borrowdale, receiving a considerable tributary from Lang Strath. It then drains the lakes of Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, after which its course, hitherto N. and N.N.W., turns W. and W. by S. past Cockermouth to the Irish Sea at Workington. The length is about 34 m., and the fall about 2000 ft. (from Derwentwater 244 ft.); the waters are usually beautifully clear, and the river is not navigable. At a former period this stream must have formed one large lake covering the whole area which includes Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite; between which a flat alluvial plain is formed of the deposits of the river Greta, which now joins the Derwent from the east immediately below Derwentwater, and the Newlands Beck, which enters Bassenthwaite. In time of high flood this plain is said to have been submerged, and the two lakes thus reunited.

(4) A river Derwent rises in the Pennines near the borders of Northumberland and Durham, and, forming a large part of the boundary between these counties, takes a north-easterly course of 30 m. to the Tyne, which it joins 3 m. above Newcastle.

 DERWENTWATER, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of Radclyffe, or Radcliffe, from 1688 to 1716 when the 3rd earl was attainted and beheaded, and claimed by his descendants, adherents of the exiled house of Stewart, from that date until the death of the last male heir in 1814. Sir Francis Radclyffe, 3rd baronet (1625–1697), was the lineal descendant of Sir Nicholas Radclyffe, who acquired the extensive Derwentwater estates in 1417 through his marriage with the heiress of John de Derwentwater, and of Sir Francis Radclyffe, who was made a baronet in 1619. In 1688 Sir Francis was created Viscount Radclyffe and earl of Derwentwater by James II., and dying in 1697 was succeeded as 2nd earl by his eldest son Edward (1655–1705), who had married Lady Mary Tudor (d. 1726), a natural daughter of Charles II. The 2nd earl died in 1705, and was succeeded by his eldest son James (1689–1716), who was born in London on the 28th of June 1689, and was brought up at the court of the Stewarts in France as companion to Prince James Edward, the old Pretender. In 1710 he came to reside on his English estates, and in July 1712 was married to Anna Maria (d. 1723), daughter of Sir John Webb, baronet, of Odstock, Wiltshire. Joining without any hesitation in the Stewart rising of 1715, Derwentwater escaped arrest owing to the devotion of his tenantry, and in October, with about seventy followers, he joined Thomas Forster at Green-rig. Like Forster the earl was lacking in military experience, and when the rebels capitulated at Preston he was conveyed to London and impeached. Pleading guilty at his trial he was attainted and condemned to death. Great efforts were made to obtain a mitigation of the sentence, but the government was obdurate, and Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th of February 1716, declaring on the scaffold his devotion to the Roman Catholic religion and to King James III. The earl was very popular among his tenantry and in the neighbourhood of his residence, Dilston Hall. His gallant bearing and his sad fate have been celebrated in song and story, and the aurora borealis, which shone with exceptional brightness on the night of his execution, is known locally as “Lord Derwentwater’s lights.” He left an only son John, who, in spite of his father’s attainder, assumed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and who died unmarried in 1731; and a daughter Alice Mary (d. 1760), who married in 1732 Robert James, 8th Baron Petre (1713–1742).

On the death of John Radclyffe in 1731 his uncle Charles (1693–1746), the only surviving son of the 2nd earl, took the title of earl of Derwentwater. Charles Radclyffe had shared the fate of his brother, the 3rd earl, at Preston in November 1715, and had been condemned to death for high treason; but, more fortunate than James, he had succeeded in escaping from prison, and had joined the Stewarts on the Continent. In 1724 he married Charlotte Maria (d. 1755), in her own right countess of Newburgh, and after spending some time in Rome, he was captured by an English ship in November 1745 whilst proceeding to join Charles Edward, the young Pretender, in Scotland. Condemned to death under his former sentence he was beheaded on the 8th of December 1746. His eldest son, James Bartholomew (1725–1786), who had shared his father’s imprisonment, then claimed the title of earl of Derwentwater, and on his mother’s death in 1755 became 3rd earl of Newburgh. His only son and successor, Anthony James (1757–1814), died without issue in 1814, when the title became extinct de facto as well as de jure. Many of the forfeited estates in Northumberland and Cumberland had been settled upon Greenwich Hospital, and in 1749 a sum of £30,000 had been raised upon them for the benefit of the earl of Newburgh. The present representative of the Radclyffe family is Lord Petre, and in 1874 the bodies of the first three earls of Derwentwater were reburied in the family vault of the Petres at Thorndon, Essex.

In 1865 a woman appeared in Northumberland who claimed to be a grand-daughter of the 4th earl and, as there were no male heirs, to be countess of Derwentwater and owner of the estates. She said the 4th earl had not died in 1731 but had married and settled in Germany. Her story aroused some interest, and it was necessary to eject her by force from Dilston Hall.

 DERWENTWATER, a lake of Cumberland, England, in the northern part of the celebrated (q.v. for the physical relations of the lake with the district at large). It is of irregular figure, approaching to an oval, about 3 m. in length and from m. to 1 m. in breadth. The greatest depth is 70 ft. The lake is seen at one view, within an amphitheatre of mountains of varied outline, overlooked by others of greater height. Several of the lesser elevations near the lake are especially famous as view-points, such as Castle Head, Walla Crag, Ladder Brow and Cat Bells. The shores are well wooded, and the lake is studded with several islands, of which Lord’s Island, Derwent Isle and St Herbert’s are the principal. Lord’s Island was the residence of the earls of Derwentwater. St Herbert’s Isle receives its name from having been the abode of a holy man of that name mentioned by Bede as contemporary with St Cuthbert of Farne Island in the 7th century. Derwent Isle, about six acres in extent, contains a handsome residence surrounded by lawns, gardens and timber of large growth. The famous Falls of Lodore, at the upper end of the lake, consist of a series of cascades in the small Watendlath Beck, which rushes over an enormous pile of protruding crags from a height of nearly 200 ft. The “Floating Island” appears at intervals on the upper portion of the lake near the mouth of the beck. This singular phenomenon is supposed to owe its appearance to an accumulation of gas, formed by the decay of

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 vegetable matter, detaching and raising to the surface the matted weeds which cover the floor of the lake at this point. The river (q.v.) enters the lake from the south and leaves it on the north, draining it through Bassenthwaite lake, to the Irish Sea. To the north-east of the lake lies the town of Keswick.

 DES ADRETS, FRANÇOIS DE BEAUMONT, (c. 1512–1587), French Protestant leader, was born in 1512 or 1513 at the château of La Frette (Isère). During the reign of Henry II. of France he served with distinction in the royal army and became colonel of the “legions” of Dauphiné, Provence and Languedoc. In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, not from religious conviction but probably from motives of ambition and personal dislike of the house of Guise. His campaign against the Catholics in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Des Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his brilliant military qualities were marred by his revolting atrocities. The reprisals he exacted from the Catholics after their massacres of the Huguenots at Orange have left a dark stain upon his name. The garrisons that resisted him were butchered with every circumstance of brutality, and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced eighteen prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by his pride and violence, he entered into communication with the Catholics, and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation. On the 10th of January 1563 he was arrested on suspicion by some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes. He was liberated at the edict of Amboise in the following March, and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Catholics, retired to the château of La Frette, where he died, a Catholic, on the 2nd of February 1587.

 DESAIX DE VEYGOUX, LOUIS CHARLES ANTOINE (1768–1800), French general, was born of a noble though impoverished family. He received a military education at the school founded by Marshal d’Effiat, and entered the French royal army. During the first six years of his service the young officer devoted himself assiduously to duty and the study of his profession, and at the outbreak of the Revolution threw himself whole-heartedly into the cause of liberty. In spite of the pressure put upon him by his relatives, he refused to “emigrate,” and in 1792 is found serving on Broglie’s staff. The disgrace of this general nearly cost young Desaix his life, but he escaped the guillotine, and by his conspicuous services soon drew upon himself the favour of the Republican government. Like many other members of the old ruling classes who had accepted the new order of things, the instinct of command, joined to native ability, brought Desaix rapidly to high posts. By 1794 he had attained the rank of general of division. In the campaign of 1795 he commanded Jourdan’s right wing, and in Moreau’s invasion of Bavaria in the following year he held an equally important command. In the retreat which ensued when the archduke Charles won the battles of Amberg and Würzburg (see ) Desaix commanded Moreau’s rearguard, and later the fortress of Kehl, with the highest distinction, and his name became a household word, like those of Bonaparte, Jourdan, Hoche, Marceau and Kléber. Next year his initial successes were interrupted by the Preliminaries of Leoben, and he procured for himself a mission into Italy in order to meet General Bonaparte, who spared no pains to captivate the brilliant young general from the almost rival camps of Germany. Provisionally appointed commander of the “Army of England,” Desaix was soon transferred by Bonaparte to the expeditionary force intended for Egypt. It was his division which bore the brunt of the Mameluke attack at the battle of the Pyramids, and he crowned his reputation by his victories over Murad Bey in Upper Egypt. Amongst the fellaheen he acquired the significant appellation of the “Just Sultan.” When his chief handed over the command to Kléber and prepared to return to France, Desaix was one of the small party selected to accompany the future emperor. But, from various causes, it was many months before he could join the new Consul. The campaign of 1800 was well on its way to the climax when Desaix at last reported himself for duty in Italy. He was immediately assigned to the command of a corps of two infantry divisions. Three days later (June 14), detached, with Boudet’s division, at Rivalta, he heard the cannon of Marengo on his right. Taking the initiative he marched at once towards the sound, meeting Bonaparte’s staff officer, who had come to recall him, half way on the route. He arrived with Boudet’s division at the moment when the Austrians were victorious all along the line. Exclaiming, “There is yet time to win another battle!” he led his three regiments straight against the enemy’s centre. At the moment of victory Desaix was killed by a musket ball. Napoleon paid a just tribute to the memory of one of the most brilliant soldiers of that brilliant time by erecting the monuments of Desaix on the Place Dauphinè and the Place des Victoires in Paris.

 DÉSAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE MADELEINE (1772–1827), French dramatist and song-writer, son of Marc Antoine Désaugiers, a musical composer, was born at Fréjus (Var) on the 17th of November 1772. He studied at the Mazarin college in Paris, where he had for one of his teachers the critic Julien Louis Geoffroy. He entered the seminary Saint Lazare with a view to the priesthood, but soon gave up his intention. In his nineteenth year he produced in collaboration with his father a light opera (1791) adapted from the Médecin malgré lui of Molière.

During the Revolution he emigrated to St Domingo, and during the negro revolt he was made prisoner, barely escaping with his life. He took refuge in the United States, where he supported himself by teaching the piano. In 1797 he returned to his native country, and in a very few years he became famous as a writer of comedies, operas and vaudevilles, which were produced in rapid succession at the Théâtre des Variétés and the Vaudeville. He also wrote convivial and satirical songs, which, though different in character, can only worthily be compared with those of Béranger. He was at one time president of the Caveau, a convivial society whose members were then chiefly drawn from literary circles. He had the honour of introducing Béranger as a member. In 1815 Désaugiers succeeded Pierre Yves Barré as manager of the Vaudeville, which prospered under his management until, in 1820, the opposition of the Gymnase proved too strong for him, and he resigned. He died in Paris on the 9th of August 1827.

Among his pieces maybe mentioned Le Valet d’emprunt (1807); Monsieur Vautour (1811); and Le Règne d’un terme et le terme d’un règne, aimed at Napoleon.

 DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744–1795), French anatomist and surgeon, was born at Magny-Vernois (Haute Saône) on the 6th of February 1744. He was destined for the church, but his own inclination was towards the study of medicine; and, after learning something from the barber-surgeon of his native village, he was settled as an apprentice in the military hospital of Belfort, where he acquired some knowledge of anatomy and military surgery. Going to Paris when about twenty years of age, he opened a school of anatomy in the winter of 1766, the success of which excited the jealousy of the established teachers and professors, who endeavoured to make him give up his lectures. In 1776 he was admitted a member of the corporation of surgeons; and in 1782 he was appointed surgeon-major to the hospital De la Charité. Within a few years he was recognized as one of the leading surgeons of France. The clinical school of surgery which he instituted at the Hôtel Dieu attracted great numbers of students, not only from every part of France but also from other countries; and he frequently had an audience of about 600. He introduced many improvements into the practice of surgery, as well as into the construction of various surgical

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 instruments. In 1791 he established a Journal de chirurgerie, edited by his pupils, which was a record of the most interesting cases that had occurred in his clinical school, with the remarks which he had made upon them in the course of his lectures. But in the midst of his labours he became obnoxious to some of the revolutionists, and he was, on some frivolous charge, denounced to the popular sections. After being twice examined, he was seized on the 28th of May 1793, while delivering a lecture, carried away from his theatre, and committed to prison in the Luxembourg. In three days, however, he was liberated, and permitted to resume his functions. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1795, the story that his death was caused by poison being disproved by the autopsy carried out by his pupil, M. F. X. Bichat. A pension was settled on his widow by the republic. Together with François Chopart (1743–1795) he published a Traité des maladies chirurgicales (1779), and Bichat published a digest of his surgical doctrines in Œuvres chirurgicales de Desault (1798–1799).

 DES BARREAUX, JACQUES VALLÉE, SIEUR (1602–1673), French poet, was born in Paris in 1602. His great-uncle, Geoffroy-Vallée, had been hanged in 1574 for the authorship of a book called Le Fléau de la foy. His nephew appears to have inherited his scepticism, which on one occasion nearly cost him his life. The peasants of Touraine attributed to the presence of the unbeliever an untimely frost that damaged the vines, and proposed to stone him. His authorship of the sonnet on “Pénitence,” by which he is generally known, has been disputed. He had the further distinction of being the first of the lovers of Marion Delorme. He died at Chalon-sur-Saône on the 9th of May 1673.

 DESBOROUGH, JOHN (1608–1680), English soldier and politician, son of James Desborough of Eltisley, Cambridgeshire, and of Elizabeth Hatley of Over, in the same county, was baptized on the 13th of November 1608. He was educated for the law. On the 23rd of June 1636 he married Eltisley Jane, daughter of Robert Cromwell of Huntingdon, and sister of the future Protector. He took an active part in the Civil War when it broke out, and showed considerable military ability. In 1645 he was present as major in the engagement at Langport on the 10th of July, at Hambleton Hill on the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he commanded the horse at the storming of Bristol. Later he took part in the operations round Oxford. In 1648 as colonel he commanded the forces at Great Yarmouth. He avoided all participation in the trial of the king in June 1649, being employed in the settlement of the west of England. He fought at Worcester as major-general and nearly captured Charles II. near Salisbury. After the establishment of the Commonwealth he was chosen, on the 17th of January 1652, a member of the committee for legal reforms. In 1653 he became a member of the Protectorate council of state, and a commissioner of the treasury, and was appointed one of the four generals at sea and a commissioner for the army and navy. In 1654 he was made constable of St Briavel’s Castle in Gloucestershire. Next year he was appointed major-general over the west. He had been nominated a member of Barebones’ parliament in 1653, and he was returned to the parliament of 1654 for Cambridgeshire, and to that of 1656 for Somersetshire. In July 1657 he became a member of the privy council, and in 1658 he accepted a seat in Cromwell’s House of Lords. In spite of his near relationship to the Protector’s family, he was one of the most violent opponents of the assumption by Cromwell of the royal title, and after the Protector’s death, instead of supporting the interests and government of his nephew Richard Cromwell, he was, with Fleetwood, the chief instigator and organizer of the hostility of the army towards his administration, and forced him by threats and menaces to dissolve his parliament in April 1659. He was chosen a member of the council of state by the restored Rump, and made colonel and governor of Plymouth, but presenting with other officers a seditious petition from the army council, on the 5th of October, was about a week later dismissed. After the expulsion of the Rump by Fleetwood on the 13th of October he was chosen by the officers a member of the new administration and commissary-general of the horse. The new military government, however, rested on no solid foundation, and its leaders quickly found themselves without any influence. Desborough himself became an object of ridicule, his regiment even revolted against him, and on the return of the Rump he was ordered to quit London. At the restoration he was excluded from the act of indemnity but not included in the clause of pains and penalties extending to life and goods, being therefore only incapacitated from public employment. Soon afterwards he was arrested on suspicion of conspiring to kill the king and queen, but was quickly liberated. Subsequently he escaped to Holland, where he engaged in republican intrigues. Accordingly he was ordered home, in April 1666, on pain of incurring the charge of treason, and obeying was imprisoned in the Tower till February 1667, when he was examined before the council and set free. Desborough died in 1680. By his first wife, Cromwell’s sister, he had one daughter and seven sons; he married a second wife in April 1658 whose name is unrecorded. Desborough was a good soldier and nothing more; and his only conception of government was by force and by the army. His rough person and manners are the constant theme of ridicule in the royalist ballads, and he is caricatured in Butler’s Hudibras and in the Parable of the Lion and Fox.

 DESCARTES, RENÉ (1596–1650), French philosopher, was born at La Haye, in Touraine, midway between Tours and Poitiers, on the 31st of March 1596, and died at Stockholm on the 11th of February 1650. The house where he was born is still shown, and a métairie about 3 m. off retains the name of Les Cartes. His family on both sides was of Poitevin descent. Joachim Descartes, his father, having purchased a commission as counsellor in the parlement of Rennes, introduced the family into that demi-noblesse of the robe which, between the bourgeoisie and the high nobility, maintained a lofty rank in French society. He had three children, a son who afterwards succeeded to his father in the parlement, a daughter who married a M. du Crevis, and René, after whose birth the mother died.

Descartes, known as Du Perron, from a small estate destined for his inheritance, soon showed an inquisitive mind. From 1604 to 1612 he studied at the school of La Flêche, which Henry IV. had lately founded and endowed for the Jesuits. He enjoyed exceptional privileges; his feeble health excused him from the morning duties, and thus early he acquired the habit of reflection in bed, which clung to him throughout life. Even then he had begun to distrust the authority of tradition and his teachers. Two years before he left school he was selected as one of the twenty-four who went forth to receive the heart of Henry IV. as it was borne to its resting-place at La Flêche. At the age of sixteen he went home to his father, who was now settled at Rennes, and had married again. During the winter of 1612 he completed his preparations for the world by lessons in horsemanship and fencing; and then started as his own master to taste the pleasures of Parisian life. Fortunately he went to no perilous lengths; the worst we hear of is a passion for gaming. Here, too, he made the acquaintance of Claude Mydorge, one of the foremost mathematicians of France, and renewed an early intimacy with (q.v.), now Father Mersenne, of the order of Minim friars. The withdrawal of Mersenne in 1614 to a post in the provinces was the signal for Descartes to abandon social life and shut himself up for nearly two years in a secluded house of the faubourg St Germain. Accident betrayed the secret of his retirement; he was compelled to leave his mathematical investigations, and to take part in entertainments, where the only thing that chimed in with his theorizing reveries was the music. French politics were at that time characterized by violence and intrigue to such an extent that Paris was no fit place for a student, and there was little honourable prospect for a soldier. Accordingly, in May 1617, Descartes set out for the Netherlands and took service in the army of Prince Maurice of Orange. At Breda he enlisted as a volunteer, and the first and only pay which he accepted he kept as a curiosity through life. There was a lull in the war, and the

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The New International Encyclopædia/Knitting

KNITTING (from knit, AS. cnyttan, cnittan, to knit, from cnotta, knot). The art of forming a fabric out of a single thread by means of needles on which the thread is placed in a succession of loops arranged in rows so that each loop in one row passes through the adjacent loop in the preceding row. Knitting is a more recent invention than the kindred art of netting, with which it is sometimes confused. In both knitting and netting but one thread is used, but in the latter the thread is not looped, but is knotted into itself at definite intervals to form a mesh. (See .) Knitting and netting both differ from weaving, because in weaving there are two sets of threads, the longitudinal or warp threads, and the filling or weft threads, which pass in and out at right angles to the warp. Braiding is a still different process, in which the threads, all longitudinal, are woven diagonally in and out of each other. The advantage possessed by knitted goods over all other fabrics is their great elasticity, which enables them to fit snugly irregular outlines.

The time and place at which the art of knitting was invented is a matter of dispute. The weight of evidence remains in favor of Scotland. From Scotland knitted stockings found their way to France, where a guild of stocking-knitters was formed who chose for their patron saint Saint Fiacre of Scotland.

The needles used in hand knitting are made of steel, wood, bone, rubber, or other substance. Those of steel are usually pointed at both ends, while those of other materials have a point at one end and a round knob at the other. The following technical terms are used in knitting: To cast on is to make the first row of loops or stitches on the needle. To cast off is to knit two stitches and then pass the first over the second, securing the last stitch by drawing the yarn through it. A purl, seam, or rib is formed by bringing the wool in front of the needle in knitting. To widen is to increase the number of stitches. To slip a stitch is to take a stitch off ihe needle without either knitting or purling. For further definitions and a full description of the various styles of hand knitting, consult Roseyear's Text-book on Knitting. Hand knitting, except as a light form of ladies' ‘fancy work,’ is no longer practiced, having been completely superseded by the more rapid and economical method of knitting by machinery.

. It is probable that the first knitting-machine or stocking-frame was invented in less than a century after the art of knitting by hand had been learned. The invention was made by William Lee of Nottinghamshire, England, in 1589. The first knitting-machine was a very simple affair, but its complicated modern successor depends for its efficiency upon the same essential principle as Lee's stocking-frame. This, in turn, was modeled after the process of hand knitting which originated it. In knitting by hand the thread is formed in a succession of loops on a knitting-needle; each of these loops has, in succession, another loop passed through it by means of another and similar needle, and this operation is carried on successively until the whole fabric is made.

In Lee's stocking-frame, instead of one needle to hold the stationary loop while those of the moving row are being inserted, there are as many needles as there are to be loops in the breadth of the web, and these are so made as to alternately form and give off the loops. Each needle terminates in a hook or small indentation. The other end of the needle is fixed into a casting formed to fit into a frame and be securely fastened, side by side with the rest of the needles. Between the needles are placed thin plates called sinkers in two rows; in one row the sinkers move freely on an axis; in the other they are all fixed to a bar and move with it. The object of the loose ones, or jack-sinkers, is to make loops by pressing the thread down beneath the needles. The other row on the bar, or lead sinkers, is brought down so as to press simultaneously on the hooks of the needles, and press their points down into the little depression so that they will pass through the loops without catching one way, and take them up when opened and drawn in the contrary direction. The great ingenuity of Lee's invention lies in this arrangement for closing the hook in the needle so that one loop can be drawn through another. No improvement of importance was made in Lee's stocking-frame until 1758, when Jedediah Strutt added a second series of needles, by the use of which it was possible to produce ribbed or seamed knitting. All the earlier machines produced a flat web; but in 1816 Marc L. Brunel invented a circular knitting-machine which produced a tubular web. Power was applied to the knitting-machine by Bailey in 1831. The latch needle was patented by a Frenchman named Jandeau as early as 1806. A modification of this needle was patented in the United States by Hibbert in 1863. In this needle a hinged latch folds back on the needle, so that the hook may

take up the thread, and then closes down over the hook so that it may pass the loop through the preceeding loop. The movement of the latch is regulated by the yarn as it passes through, actuated by the machine.

Circular machines have largely superseded the earlier form, on account of their greater speed and capacity. In these machines “a circular series of vertical parallel needles slide in grooves in a cylinder, and are raised and lowered successively by an external rotating cylinder which has on the inner side cams that act upon the needles.” According to Byrne, from whom the preceding sentence is quoted, about 2000 patents on various forms of knitting machinery had been issued in the United States at the close of the nineteenth century. These patents included attachments for shaping special parts, for finishing off work, and even for raveling waste work.

. The remarkable increase in popularity of all forms of knitted fabrics is shown not only by the number of machines which have been invented to produce them, but also by the enormous increase in their production, as shown by the United States Census for 1900. In 1850 there were only 85 establishments, with a combined capital of $554,734, and a combined annual product of $1,028,102, engaged in this industry. During the decade 1851-60 the value of the annual product increased seven times, and in the following decades, 2½, 1½, 2⅓, and 1⅓ times respectively. In 1900 the number of factories for the production of knit goods in the country was 921, with a total capital of $81,860,604, and an annual product valued at $951,482,566. In 1870 the number of knitting-machines reported to be in use was 5625; thirty years later it was 89,047. In the early days of the industry, wool was almost exclusively used for the production of knit goods. A marked increase in the use of other fibres, especially cotton and silk, occurred during the closing decade of the century. In 1890 32,248,849 pounds of cotton yarn were used in the manufacture of knit goods; in 1900 the amount so used had increased to 131,820,068 pounds. The value of silk yarn used for the same purpose in 1900 is estimated at $1,000,000.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Knorr, Ludwig

KNORR, knṓr, (1859— ). A German chemist, best known for his work in synthesis, especially his discovery of the pyrazol compounds, of which antipyrine is most commonly used. He was born at Munich; studied there, at Heidelberg and Erlangen; and was appointed professor at Würzburg (1888), and at Jena (1889).


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The New International Encyclopædia/Knortz, Karl

KNORTZ, knṓrts, (1841— ). A German-American author and educator, born at Garbenheim near Wetzlar, where he studied at the Royal Gymnasium. He graduated at Heidelberg University in 1863, and went the same year to the United States. He taught German language and literature at Detroit (1866-68), at Oshkosh till 1871, at Cincinnati, and New York (1882), and also edited German papers in Cincinnati and Indianapolis. In 1892 he was made superintendent of the German department in the public schools of Evansville, Ind. He translated Evangeline, Hiawatha, and The Courtship of Miles Standish ( 1872), and, in 1879, Whittier's Snow Bound and Whitman's Leaves of Grass, and he published in Berlin a Geschichte der nordamerikanischen Litteratur (1891). Besides literary essays and works upon child education, he wrote Märchen und Sagen der nordamerikanischen Indianer (1871); Amerikanische Skizzen (1876); Modern American Lyrics (1880); Aus dem Wigwam (1880); Kapital und Arbeit in Amerika (1881); and Amerikanische Lebensbilder (1884).


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Rh bridled, and "looking him kindly in the face." He bore my gaze with equanimity, but when the riding-whip was produced he started violently; and when I raised my hand to pat his neck reassuringly he threw up his head and ran back. This evidently was not temper, but alarm. Clearly, moral suasion was not the kind that had been used with him hitherto. In plain English, he had been beaten on the head; and it was some time before he got over the impression made by such ill-treatment and ceased dodging at every sudden motion on my part.

However, a lump of sugar gave the poor fellow more confidence, and, avoiding all brusque movements, I went on to give him the first lesson of the Baucher series, viz., To Come to the Whip.

It is encouraging for beginners that this lesson, while producing conspicuous results, is in most cases very easy. In less than half an hour my audience was not a little surprised to see Sambo come to me at the slightest motion of the whip, and follow me about with neck arched, ears pricked up, and eyes lustrous with the unwonted pleasure of comprehending and voluntarily carrying out his master's wishes.

"Well, that's very pretty," said the farmer; "but what's the good of it?"

This criticism, it may be remarked, he continued to repeat at every step in the horse's education. He did not "see the good" of a double bridle with two bits.

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6 He did not see the good of teaching the horse to relax the muscles of his jaw and to hold the bit lightly in the mouth. He did not see the good of suppling the various muscles of the neck, on which, nevertheless, depend to a surprising degree the balance of the whole body and the easy motion of the limbs.

In fact, he maintained his attitude of amused and good-natured incredulity until one day, after about three weeks, I rode Sambo into the lawn, his neck arched and tail displayed, and, with the reins hanging on my little finger, made him cut circles and figure eights of all sizes at a spanking trot.

Then my good farmer gave up, and said he really

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Rh would hardly have believed it could be the same horse. What is more, he took off his own driving horses "the overdrawn check-reins" by which he had been hauling their noses up into as near a horizontal line as possible, and allowed them to carry their heads in a more natural manner.

The afternoon of his first lesson Sambo was put in double harness for a drive of ten or twelve miles, during which he annoyed me excessively by his restless dancing and fretting, so that next morning I expected to have to begin all over again; but, to my satisfaction, he had forgotten nothing, and came towards me at the first motion of the whip, so that I passed on to the Flexions de la Mâchoire, which we translate as the suppling of the muscles of the jaw. Here I came upon my first difficulty, and it lasted me several days. It was, however, the only serious one in my whole course, and from subsequent experience I am satisfied that my own awkwardness and disposition to compel obedience by main force were the principal causes of it.

However, success soon rewarded my perseverance, and I had the satisfaction of feeling the iron grip of the bit relax, and seeing the nose brought in and the face assume a perpendicular position.

Without at present going further into detail, I will simply say that at the expiration of a month, during which Sambo had been driven double almost daily, his education for the saddle had so far advanced that his

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Category:Contributors to The American Journal of Sociology

The American Journal of Sociology was established in 1895 by Albion Small and is the oldest academic journal of sociology in the United States. The journal is attached to the University of Chicago's sociology department and it is published bimonthly by the University of Chicago Press.

The authors below contributed articles to the journal.


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And


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8 head was admirably carried, his trot was greatly improved—his walk always had been light and swift—he could trot sideways to the right or left, could pirouette to the right or to the left on the hind-feet or on the fore-feet, responding to the pressure of the rein upon his neck or of the leg against his side, while he had become so steady that I could fire at a mark with a pistol from his back.

All this was very satisfactory progress, especially in view of my total inexperience, poor health, and the heat of the weather; but there is no doubt that any active young girl of sixteen or eighteen can do the like, for it was accomplished not by any mysterious or difficult process, nor by any exertion of physical strength, but by patiently following out, step by step, the processes which I am about to describe, and which are substantially those of Baucher, adapted to the use of a person of total inexperience, and that person a lady.

If any such, having accompanied me thus far, feels the impulse to try to improve her own mount, I will confide to her the fact that the incidents narrated really occurred within the last few years not a hundred miles from New York; and I hope that the following propositions, which are literally true, will help to encourage her to an undertaking in which she will find amusement, exercise, and a discipline as useful to herself as to her horse:

1. If, as is very likely, you feel a little afraid of your

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Rh horse, you may be assured that your horse is a great deal more afraid of you.

2. If you can only make clear to him what you wish him to do, he will try his best to do it, and will feel amply repaid for his efforts by a few kind words and caresses.

3. His narrow brain can entertain only one idea at once, and therefore only one problem, and that a simple one, must be given him at a time.

4. Once the problem is mastered, a very little practice makes the performance of the task instinctive, so that it will be performed at the proper signal, even against his own will, provided his mind is occupied with something else.

This course of lessons is prepared with these facts in view.

"But is horse-breaking a fitting amusement for young ladies?" a mother asks, and with an air indicating that to her, at least, a reply seems quite unnecessary. My dear madam, it is not horse-breaking we are talking of, but horse-training, which is a very different thing. There are, doubtless, many women who could break a colt if they chose, but it is an undertaking which we certainly do not recommend. In the "breaking to harness" of an untamed horse there is naturally included more or less of training, but the essential lesson to be taught is that it is useless to resist the will of man, for sooner or later the horse will test the question, and put

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 Rh emphasis and its conclusions as applied to a concrete circumstance it was a new creation. As philosophers those who drew its phraseology had predecessors; as American statesmen, they had none. The undimmed glory of a new initiative is thus theirs.

He who would be for American education the Jefferson to herald the liberating word and intone the birth song of a new freedom, will, consciously or unconsciously, pursue paths analogous to those which the framers and signers of the declaration of our political independence chose for their confession of faith. In his theories, the spirit of the age will find a powerful echo. His, as incontestably as any European thinker's, is the past of the race. The failures and the victories with which the records of distant centuries or near decades are vocal are weighty monitions or winged messages to him. The American educator is no Chinese Mandarin who in the anxiety to preserve his independence forgets the interdependence of all ages and countries. For such Mandarins America has no call. But in the application of his wisdom, gleaned in all the fields and quarried in all the mines of accessible earth, the American has no more urgent circumstance to weigh and to remember than that he is neither in Germany nor in England—but in America.

In their temporal appointments even, for many circling years to come, if not for ever, our universities will be confronted with difficulties pressing down to the same degree none of their European continental sisters. In Germany and France, and the other transatlantic states, education in its widest scope, from the primary school to the academy, counting among its members the greatest masters, is the solicitude of the government. Museums, libraries and laboratories; funds for publications and grants for scientific expeditions are endowed or maintained from the same source from which the police or administrative machinery of organized society draws its support. Moreover, the university stands, on the one hand, in an organic relation to the secondary schools, which are regulated with a sole eye to make them the well-equipped drill and recruiting grounds for the higher schools;


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Rh horsemen in the nightly pageant swinging the firebrands handed them to one another. To transmit to his pupils such light as he himself had received from his masters was esteemed the utmost scope of the teacher's professional obligation.

The emancipation of the American university from slavery to this prejudice was the final triumph over scholasticism, which defeated elsewhere had found its last refuge in our American school methods. The schoolman has implicit faith in books and authority. Knowledge for him is the acquisition of information established before. This view is involved in the very fundamental proposition of all scholasticism. Truth is a fixed quantity. To it nothing may be added, from it nothing can be detracted. Truth, in very fact, comes to man; he cannot come to and by it. Under the dominion of this idea, Moses and Aristotle, the Bible and the Organon became the taskmasters of all mediæval thought. Life and man dwindled away to a shadowy background while the "book," the "letter" loomed up in the foreground in gigantic stature. Tradition was the court of final appeal and precedent the peg to every tether. Christianity, Judaism, the Islam were alike under the spell; law and medicine no less than philosophy and theology were left to fret away their fresh impulses in the torture of a Procustes couch to which, under the despotism of the preestablished "truth" as found in the "books" by the surgery of casuistic dialectics "life" and "man" had to be fitted. Scholastic education emphasized books; the modern ideal—man. To restore to living man his birthright which the dead book had usurped, was the motive of the struggle which began when the age of the crusades and discoveries demonstrated by bringing men face to face with new facts, for which, in the scholastic scheme there was neither provision nor place, that the territory of truth embraced wider regions than the parchments of dead authorities had measured. The impulse given by the expeditions of the seafaring nations, to doubt the all-sufficiency of the schoolmen's dogma, and to replace memorizing and disputation by observation, acquired additional momentum in the tendencies leading up to the brilliant century of the Renaissance


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Rh or tongue was apprehended the necessity of placing life and man, not authority and the book, in the very center of the educational cosmos. Her gymnasia became the nurseries of the humanities and her universities the great workshops of creative minds inviting younger and ambitious souls to the confidences of their inspirations. By whatever errors the history of Germany's pedagogical theories and practices may be fringed, however one-sided this or that emphasis may have been; in the steady pursuit of the one ideal, that education of whatever grade or character to be—education shall focus in living man and not in tradition and books, from the days of the Renaissance to this hour, German masters have led the van. The wonderful philology of Germany, child of the Renaissance and the Reformation, was fruit of the passion to learn to know man and to be man. The decadence of the joy and zest in the flowing and rich life of man in Hellas to dry-as-dust grammatical micrology which forgets that accidence and syntax are made for and by language and not language for grammar, is to be deprecated, but by contrast it heightens the glory of the original intention of the humanists. German rationalism and Aufklaerung may have exaggerated the creative independence of man and the supremacy of his reason, or on the other hand in consequence of preceding overestimation of antiquity may have leaned to the opposite extreme in disregarding the historical influences and limitations; but in comparison with the disdain for reason triumphant elsewhere, even German rationalism is entitled to credentials admitting it to the front file in the regiment of man's emancipators. German rationalism, indeed, produced its own corrector.

The criticism of Kant dethroned reason as an autocrat and made it a constitutional ruler with limitations well apprehended, while Lessing heralded the deeper appreciation of history and the laws of historical development. From these two men dates the New Germany that has become the great teacher of the world. Her fondness for metaphysical constructions, which characterized her efforts during the first four decades of this century, has by many a dwarf of recent years been made the target


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Rh facts he is but concerned in so far as they are his tools. Knowledge is not repetition but reproduction. The guide to the halls of learning has no other duty but to stimulate the energies of the mind confided to his leadership to reproduction. Method, the power to control facts, the means to discover facts, not the transmission of knowledge, is the ultimate design of all true teaching. This has always been the view of German pedagogics. In winning recognition for this elementary but all important conception, the American scholar has opened for himself another opportunity, admitting him to science's holy of holies. He, condemned so long to act the part of the hewers of wood and the drawers of water, may now aspire to the very high priest's tiara. To teach is not his sole preoccupation. To search for new truths is also his obligation. Knowledge is not a fixed quantity. Her realm has no boundaries beyond which there is no need to push on. The university professor, and so is the university student, is the Columbus of unknown seas, the Livingstone of unvisited continents. What he knows, is for him an indication of what still remains unknown. What others have found, must always suggest to him that more things are hidden waiting for the explorer's eye!

The American university has in these days found this, to it so long denied, supreme opportunity. Its new sense of independence inspires it also with self-confidence that among the busy pathfinders its sons shall not be the last nor the least. The sky which arches over our continent is studded with interrogation points as richly as is the firmament of the Eastern hemisphere. The American astronomer, therefore, cannot complain of lack of opportunity for original investigation. Our rocks and rivers, our fauna and fiora, our mountains and cafions, spell solicitous invitations for geologists and botanists and biologists promising ample rewards to him who refuses them not the tribute of devoted attention. Indeed, no words are needed to prove the assertion that America has not been step-motherly to the loving suitor who would have her tell him the innermost secrets of her birth and growth. In fact, American scientific men, whatever their


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Rh soon learn to know and to trust him. The American schools at Athens and now at Rome, the American expedition to old Babylon have annexed the acropolis and the forum and the ruins of so many royal palaces to—America. These are now a part of every true American university.

Were even this disadvantage of distance greater than it is for the race who have learned to trust the jealous ocean, the nightmare once of every Roman, by way of compensation, the American university is assigned under the principles of the division of labor many a field which to cultivate the world looks to it. The investigation of the Red Man's civilization, the study of his dialects, is preëminently the contribution which American anthropology and glossology is expected to make. The very fact that our republic has become the meeting ground of varied races and nations constitutes it also a laboratory for the ethnologist and sociologist which the European may well begrudge to his American colleague. The very degradation of our municipalities renders them great trial fields for the elucidation of the pathology of muncipal government, that cannot but attract and reward the devotee to political science. America has a history; if its archives do not teem with dusty regesta and papal bulls or imperial franchises and charters, the formative period of our republic, its constitutional development and much more was not unworthy the searching acumen of a von Hoist That American finance and political economy tempt the schooled mind by the very exuberance of the experiments we have indulged in stands to reason. American independent scholarship and the American university have both by their earnestness and the vastness of their peculiar opportunity won the right to full recognition in the republic of science.

"Who reads an American book?" could, not many decades ago, be the insolent skepticism of one who deemed the virgin bride of the setting sun too much engrossed in material work and worry to attune her lyre to song worthy of intonation in presence of British minstrels. Today the taunt of assumed superiority is changed to eager summons for the American muse to sound her


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Rh line between the "Naturwissenschaften" and the "Geisteswissenschaften." In the method to be pursued they are insistent today upon loyalty to the same principle. Their matter cannot constitute the essential and clashing distinctions. As man is vitally interested in understanding the home in which he lives, every natural science may be claimed for the humanities; but as again man is of nature's household, every function of his belongs to the domain of the natural sciences. Philology and philosophy are as legitimately natural sciences as are physiology or anatomy. History, literature, even religion, are not extra naturam, but in natura and per naturam. It is natural for man to be religious as it is for him to breathe. But mark, nature which includes man and man that claims nature as falling within the range of his humanities, are concepts not connoted by the loose use of either term. But science cannot tolerate loose usage of words. Exactness is the prime condition of the scholar. True to the convictions that natura and homo, and even deus, are not irreconcilable antitheses, the American university realizes fully that as in the Father's house there are many mansions, so in culture's palace there are many living rooms. Guided by the experience of many generations, yet not blind to the changing needs of the new time, in the spirit of broad tolerance and of deep insight into the humanizing power of everything that man is concerned in, our American university has recognized the legitimacy of the claim that many paths lead to culture. In a certain sense, the classic nations had attained unto fullness of human life. In that sense their literatures will forever be great guides unto humanity. But their deficiencies in another sense shall not be minimized. A classic humanity is less than the humanity demanded by our age. Under wise limitations that experience suggests the gradus ad parnassum, access to the ladder on whose rounds the university guides the student to scale the heights of a cultured scholarship, is open to all from whatever angle of the broad plain the candidate may seek the privilege of participating in the ascent.

Yet another vital duty devolves upon the American university.


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Rh stead in many a crisis which would have swept away nations on a more mercurial basis.

This conservatism has crystallized in the Constitution, this wonderful instrument of political sagacity, and in so doing has stamped upon our institutions their characteristic element. For it is this which distinguishes American constitutional life from that of Great Britain. In the United Kingdom no such breakwater is erected as we possess in our Supreme Court. Beneficial as this institutional conservatism on the whole to us has been, it cannot be disputed that in this epoch of industrialism of ours emergencies have arisen for which to provide apparently the framework timbered in a period of agriculture and provincial barter is not broad enough. Progress is more vital and justice more essential and humanity more sacramental than even constitutional literalism or casuistry. Yet this reconciliation of the political principles of the eighteenth with the social philosophy of the nineteenth century cannot be accomplished by heated prejudice and passionate appeal. That of this we have today a surfeit none may dispute. Selfishness always engenders selfishness. Selfishness wears today too often the cloak of conservatism; it cannot be indignantly surprised that as frequently its own motives assumes as readily the livery of radicalism. The duty to mediate devolves clearly upon the trained minds and men who have learned to pierce beyond the selfish outer crust of interest to the inner kernel of principles. To the university primarily addresses itself today the admonition: Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat. Let the consuls be on the alert lest injury result to the commonwealth.

The social question is today the perplexity of every land. It is the penalty which man now pays for his Promethean presumption to yoke the lightning to his plough. I have faith that its solution will be peaceably attained on the continent over which floats the starry banner of Liberty wedded to Law. I question not the sufficiency of our political principles to meet the issue. Yet, I cannot hold with what would pass and pose for American conservatism, that the "foreigner" is the sole disturber of Israel.


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Rh clad itself in indifference to the bugles sounding the advance. If it does this, it cannot but engender the counterirritant of pseudo-radicalism. At the root of spurious conservatism is thought decayed; at that of pseudo-radicalism thought immature. Thought to keep fresh and to ripen is the mission of the university. Its hands are on the pulse of the age. It must detect the slackened beat of senility and apply its corrective as well as the intermittent throb of fevered impatience and administer the sedative. The hand on the dial of time can neither be arrested nor quickened in its steady progress. Pernicious conservatism would fain attempt the former; destructive radicalism is bent upon the latter. The scholar's influence must be for healthy growth. All half-truths, be they dear to the conservative or moulded by the radical, it is for it pitilessly to expose.

And have we not today a surfeit of half-truths urged by both conservatives and radicals as the cure-all for all our ills, social, financial or religious? Here is the opportunity of the American university. Shall we be silent when on the one hand conservatism makes of competition a fetich and radicalism would ignore the element of human freedom? Shall no better light be had on government and its functions than that peddled about in the catchwords Paternalism or Self-government? Is conservatism not exposing for food rotten over-ripe fruit when it hucksters its insistence that government is only an umpire in a fight which is said to be between equals but which is not between equals? Is radicalism not crying out ware that is but half made when it lures us to buy its toy, no government at all, or all by government? Is the doctrine of rights so glib on tongue of conservative and radical not also a half-truth? Every right, be it of property, of labor, or of what else, is pillared upon a duty. Shall this be ignored? Who shall speak the liberating and therefore the conciliating word of the full truth, if not he who is searching for it, who knows how to discriminate between the petrifaction of a former truth outstripped in the fuller life of today, and the hot-house exotic parading as truth as though it was the naturally blown flower—and will have none of either? The university


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Rh conservative produces the dogmatism of the radical. Ingersollism is the inevitable reaction against the bitterness of unscientific bibliolatry. The university does not exempt religion or Bible from methodical scientific investigation. Does it rob religion of her crown jewels or the Bible of her sparkling gems? Religion is a supreme fact in human life; it is a factor in society, in state, and has been this at all times. The crimes imputed by half-thought to religion were perpetrated for political reasons. This and much more comparative research in the psychology, the history, the institutionalism of religion demonstrates in defense of religion. The Bible has had its history; its truths are brought out, not beclouded, under treatment of the critic. False conceptions, errors about the Bible, he disputes. He shows the rise of this wonderful literature in connection with the unfolding of God's purposes in the people whose seers and singers confided its ideals to stone or papyrus. Woe to a Bible that has to be afraid of the Hebrew or Greek grammarian! Woe to a theology which is so little sure of its truth as to dread the search-light of critical studies in sacred literature. This theology, arrant atheism, radical demagogism, operating with notions as crude as are those it attacks, may indeed overturn. The religion of Isaiah and Jesus stands forever; criticism indeed only confirms its message and unique character. The American university in disseminating these correct principles saves religion and the Bible for the American people.

As an American university ours was conceived; as an American university open to the light from arc or lamp, no matter where shining, but conscious of its own opportunities and obligations it is developing. Vivat, crescat, floreat! May it live, grow and flourish—into ever greater usefulness as the months roll on and the years lengthen!


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 Netherlands was distracted by the quarrels of Gomarists and Arminians. During the leisure thus arising, Descartes one day had his attention drawn to a placard in the Dutch tongue; as the language, of which he never became perfectly master, was then strange to him, he asked a bystander to interpret it into either French or Latin. The stranger, Isaac Beeckman, principal of the college of Dort, offered to do so into Latin, if the inquirer would bring him a solution of the problem,—for the advertisement was one of those challenges which the mathematicians of the age were accustomed to throw down to all comers, daring them to discover a geometrical mystery known as they fancied to themselves alone. Descartes promised and fulfilled; and a friendship grew up between him and Beeckman—broken only by the dishonesty of the latter, who in later years took credit for the novelty contained in a small essay on music (Compendium Musicae) which Descartes wrote at this period and entrusted to Beeckman.

After spending two years in Holland as a soldier in a period of peace, Descartes, in July 1619, attracted by the news of the impending struggle between the house of Austria and the Protestant princes, consequent upon the election of the palatine of the Rhine to the kingdom of Bohemia, set out for upper Germany, and volunteered into the Bavarian service. The winter of 1619, spent in quarters at Neuburg on the Danube, was the critical period in his life. Here, in his warm room (dans un poêle), he indulged those meditations which afterwards led to the Discourse of Method. It was here that, on the eve of St Martin’s day, he “was filled with enthusiasm, and discovered the foundations of a marvellous science.” He retired to rest with anxious thoughts of his future career, which haunted him through the night in three dreams that left a deep impression on his mind. The date of his philosophical conversion is thus fixed to a day. But as yet he had only glimpses of a logical method which should invigorate the syllogism by the co-operation of ancient geometry and modern algebra. For during the year that elapsed before he left Swabia (and whilst he sojourned at Neuburg and Ulm), and amidst his geometrical studies, he would fain have gathered some knowledge of the mystical wisdom attributed to the Rosicrucians; but the Invisibles, as they called themselves, kept their secret. He was present at the battle of Weisser Berg (near Prague), where the hopes of the elector palatine were blasted (November 8, 1620), passed the winter with the army in southern Bohemia, and next year served in Hungary under Karl Bonaventura de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy or Boucquoi (1571–1621). On the death of this general Descartes quitted the imperial service, and in July 1621 began a peaceful tour through Moravia, the borders of Poland, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Holstein and Friesland, from which he reappeared in February 1622 in Belgium, and betook himself directly to his father’s home at Rennes in Brittany.

At Rennes Descartes found little to interest him; and, after he had visited the maternal estate of which his father now put him in possession, he went to Paris, where he found the Rosicrucians the topic of the hour, and heard himself credited with partnership in their secrets. A short visit to Brittany enabled him, with his father’s consent, to arrange for the sale of his property in Poitou. The proceeds were invested in such a way at Paris as to bring him in a yearly income of between 6000 and 7000 francs (equal now to more than £500). Towards the end of the year Descartes was on his way to Italy. The natural phenomena of Switzerland, and the political complications in the Valtellina, where the Catholic inhabitants had thrown off the yoke of the Grisons and called in the Papal and Spanish troops to their assistance, delayed him some time; but he reached Venice in time to see the ceremony of the doge’s wedlock with the Adriatic. After paying his vows at Loretto, he came to Rome, which was then on the eve of a year of jubilee—an occasion which Descartes seized to observe the variety of men and manners which the city then embraced within its walls. In the spring of 1625 he returned home by Mont Cenis, observing the avalanches, instead of, as his relatives hoped, securing a post in the French army in Piedmont.

For an instant Descartes seems to have concurred in the plan of purchasing a post at Châtellerault, but he gave up the idea, and settled in Paris (June 1625), in the quarter where he had sought seclusion before. By this time he had ceased to devote himself to pure mathematics, and in company with his friends Mersenne and Mydorge was deeply interested in the theory of the refraction of light, and in the practical work of grinding glasses of the best shape suitable for optical instruments. But all the while he was engaged with reflections on the nature of man, of the soul and of God, and for a while he remained invisible even to his most familiar friends. But their importunity made a hermitage in Paris impossible; a graceless friend even surprised the philosopher in bed at eleven in the morning meditating and taking notes. In disgust, Descartes started for the west to take part in the siege of La Rochelle, and entered the city with the troops (October 1628). A meeting at which he was present after his return to Paris decided his vocation. He had expressed an opinion that the true art of memory was not to be gained by technical devices, but by a philosophical apprehension of things; and the cardinal de Berulle, the founder of the Congregation of the Oratory, was so struck by the tone of the remarks as to impress upon the speaker the duty of spending his life in the examination of truth. Descartes accepted the philosophic mission, and in the spring of 1629 he settled in Holland. His financial affairs he had entrusted to the care of the abbé Picot, and as his literary and scientific representative he adopted Mersenne.

Till 1649 Descartes lived in Holland. Thrice only did he revisit France—in 1644, 1647 and 1648. The first of these occasions was in order to settle family affairs after the death of his father in 1640. The second brief visit, in 1647, partly on literary, partly on family business, was signalized by the award of a pension of 3000 francs, obtained from the royal bounty by Cardinal Mazarin. The last visit in 1648 was less fortunate. A royal order summoned him to France for new honours—an additional pension and a permanent post—for his fame had by this time gone abroad, and it was the age when princes sought to attract genius and learning to their courts. But when Descartes arrived, he found Paris rent asunder by the civil war of the Fronde. He paid the costs of his royal parchment, and left without a word of reproach. The only other occasions on which he was out of the Netherlands were in 1630, when he made a flying visit to England to observe for himself some alleged magnetic phenomena, and in 1634, when he took an excursion to Denmark.

During his residence in Holland he lived at thirteen different places, and changed his abode twenty-four times. In the choice of these spots two motives seem to have influenced him—the neighbourhood of a university or college, and the amenities of the situation. Among these towns were Franeker in Friesland, Harderwyk, Deventer, Utrecht, Leiden, Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Leeuwarden in Friesland. His favourite residences were Endegeest, Egmond op den Hoef and Egmond the Abbey (west of Zaandam).

The time thus spent seems to have been on the whole happy, even allowing for warm discussions with the mathematicians and metaphysicians of France, and for harassing controversies in the Netherlands. Friendly agents—chiefly Catholic priests—were the intermediaries who forwarded his correspondence from Dort, Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden to his proper address, which he kept completely secret; and Father Mersenne sent him objections and questions. His health, which in his youth had been bad, improved. “I sleep here ten hours every night,” he writes from Amsterdam, “and no care ever shortens my slumber.” “I take my walk every day through the confusion of a great multitude with as much freedom and quiet as you could find in your rural avenues.” At his first coming to Franeker he arranged to get a cook acquainted with French cookery; but,

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Articles that appeared in The American Journal of Sociology.