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 But on 31 May 1661 Titus, who is described as groom of the bedchamber, was made keeper of Deal Castle (ib. 1660–1, p. 598). In 1666, during the Dutch war, he was captain of a company in the lord-admiral's regiment of foot (2 July) and colonel of a regiment of Kentish militia (ib. 1665–6, pp. 280, 487, 510). On 3 Feb. 1670 he was returned to parliament for Loswithiel, in February 1679 for Hertfordshire, in August 1679 and in February 1681 for Huntingdonshire. During the excitement of the popish plot and the exclusion bill Titus became one of the leaders of the House of Commons. He was one of the first to attack Danby (, Debates, vi. 352, 362, vii. 135), urged the removal of Lauderdale from the king's councils, and in 1680 that of Halifax (ib. vii. 196, viii. 22, 282). No one believed more entirely in the plot or was more eager against papists. He was one of the managers of Lord Stafford's trial, and did not hesitate to denounce the judges when they showed any doubts of the evidence for the plot or discouraged protestant petitioners. Titus was not eloquent, but he was a vigorous speaker with a gift of humorous illustration which made his speeches effective. Lawrence Hyde, who was incapable of jesting himself, once complained that Titus had made the house sport, to which Titus retorted that things were not necessarily serious because they were dull. A good specimen of his style is the speech on moderation in dealing with papists, which called forth Hyde's criticism (, vii. 400). But his most famous speech was against the limitation which Charles offered to impose upon a catholic sovereign, rather than pass the bill for excluding his brother from the throne. Titus argued with great effect that when a sovereign was once upon the throne, it would be practically impossible to maintain these restrictions. ‘To accept of expedients to secure the protestant religion, after such a king had mounted the throne, would be as strange as if there were a lion in the lobby, and we should vote that we would rather secure ourselves by letting him in and chaining him than by keeping him out’ (ib. viii. 279;, Debates, ii. 93). The illustration is versified in Bramston's ‘Art of Politics’ (1729).

After the dissolution of the parliament of 1681 Titus kept aloof from the conspiracies in which some of the whig leaders engaged, though in July 1683, when the Rye House plot was discovered, it was rumoured that a warrant was out against him (, Diary, i. 266). Five years later, when James II was striving to win over the nonconformists, Titus was one of the persons to whom he applied. He approved of the repeal of the penal laws, but by February 1688 declared that he would have no more to do with James, and that he was convinced that the design of the government was to bring in popery (, James II, p. 210). Nevertheless on 6 July 1688 he accepted a seat in the privy council, allured, according to Macaulay, by the honour offered him and the hope of obtaining a large sum due to him from the crown (Hist. of England, i. 534, people's edit.). He was present at the last council meeting held by James after his return from Feversham, but he had no hesitation in transferring his allegiance to William (, Autobiography, p. 340; Diary of Henry, Earl of Clarendon, ed. Singer, ii. 180, 228).

His compliance with James had destroyed his former popularity, but he succeeded in getting returned to the parliament of 1690 for Ludlow (, Diary, ii. 311). His speeches had lost their effectiveness, but sometimes a flash of his old humour appeared in them. He was zealous for triennial parliaments, and urged the passing of the triennial bill, even though it had originated in the lords. At the same time he owned it was natural that the commons should dislike to have the lords prescribe to them times when to meet and when to be dissolved. ‘St. Paul desired to be dissolved; but if any of his friends had set him a day, he would not have taken it well of them’ (, Debates, x. 373, cf. x. 298, 308). At the general election of 1695 Titus stood for Huntingdonshire, and his defeat then terminated his political career (, iii. 544). He died in December 1704, and was buried at Bushey (, Monumenta Anglicana, 1700–15, p. 92). Titus left three daughters.

The grant of an addition to his coat-of-arms made to Titus in 1665 enumerates, among his services, that ‘by his pen and practices against the then usurper, Oliver, he vigorously endeavoured the destruction of that tyrant and his government.’ This probably refers to the fact that Titus claimed the authorship of ‘Killing no Murder.’ Evelyn in his ‘Diary’ under 2 April 1669 attributes the pamphlet to Titus. On the other hand, Titus, when referring to it in his correspondence with Clarendon at the time of its publication, makes no claim for himself (Cal. Clarendon Papers, iii. 397). Moreover, Sexby before his death confessed to having written it (, vi. 560), and internal evidence supports his statement. Titus, however, was very intimate with


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 their end is come, the instant their credit with them fails. Consequently the first proceeds of their extortions are scrupulously applied to the payment of the interest on their loans.

In addition to paying the interest on their bonds, they perhaps grant to the holders of them great monopolies in banking, like the Banks of England, of France, and of Vienna; with the agreement that these banks shall furnish money whenever, in sudden emergencies, it may be necessary to shoot down more of their people. Perhaps also, by means of tariffs on competing imports, they give great monopolies to certain branches of industry, in which these lenders of blood-money are engaged. They also, by unequal taxation, exempt wholly or partially the property of these loan-mongers, and throw corresponding burdens upon those who are too poor and weak to resist.

Thus it is evident that all these men who call themselves by the high-sounding names of Emperors, Kings, Sovereigns, Monarchs, Most Christian Majesties, Most Catholic Majesties, High Mightinesses, Most Serene and Potent Princes, and the like, and who claim to rule "by the grace of God," by "Divine Right,"—that is, by special authority from Heaven,—are intrinsically not only the merest miscreants and wretches, engaged solely in plundering, enslaving, and murdering their fellow men, but that they are also the merest hangers on, the servile, obsequious, fawning dependents and tools of these blood-money loan-mongers, on whom they rely for the means to carry on their crimes. These loan-mongers, like the Rothschilds, laugh in their sleeves, and say to themselves: These despicable creatures, who call themselves emperors, and kings, and majesties, and most serene and potent princes; who profess to wear crowns, and sit on thrones; who deck themselves with ribbons, and feathers and jewels; and surround themselves with hired flatterers and lickspittles; and whom we suffer to strut around, and palm themselves off, upon fools and slaves, as sovereigns and lawgivers specially appointed by Almighty God; and to hold

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134 From the foot of the cone issues the source of the Fontollière, strong enough at ten paces down to turn a mill. Near the Vestide is the little lake Forraud, not situated in a crater, but formed in a depression of the surface. Also, near at hand, is the Suc de Bauzon, another volcanic vent, red-headed, and 4,430 feet high. On the summit is a large stone table, at which, according to tradition, every year the four Seigneurs of Montpezat, Roux, Urclades, and S. Cirgues met, and each sat on a seat in his own territory, as all their lands met in the midst of this table. There is no crater on this suc.

We return again to the valley of the Ardèche and mount to Thueyts, leaving on the left the pretty little bathing establishment of Neyrac.

The road ascends along the flank of the Petit Gravenne on the left bank of the river and crosses a bridge thrown over the stream of the Mordaric, whose waters form the cascade of the Gueule d'Enfer. The huge basaltic wall now comes into sight that sustains the plateau of Thueyts, on which the town is built. The river has carved for itself a channel through this mass of lava and the granite below, and exhibits a majestic colonnade of basalt 150 feet high, and extending with few breaks for a mile and a half along the valley. But one of these breaks forms the Echelle du Roy, a rift due to dislocation of the flow. To visit the Pavé des Géants, the finest basaltic causeway in the Vivarais, it is well to descend to the river at the Gueule d'Enfer, sometimes on basaltic prisms, then on masses of granite. The columnar basalt now becomes regular; some prisms 60 feet long, others shorter jointed. The black walls rise like those of a fortress, and the path follows the base till the Royal Ladder is reached, a staircase in a natural


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52 out as the sole fountains of honors, and dignities, and wealth, and power,—all these miscreants and impostors know that we make them, and use them; that in us they live, move, and have their being; that we require them (as the price of their positions) to take upon themselves all the labor, all the danger, and all the odium of all the crimes they commit for our profit; and that we will unmake them, strip them of their gewgaws, and send them out into the world as beggars, or give them over to the vengeance of the people they have enslaved, the moment they refuse to commit any crime we require of them, or to pay over to us such share of the proceeds of their robberies as we see fit to demand.

Now, what is true in Europe, is substantially true in this country. The difference is the immaterial one, that, in this country, there is no visible, permanent head, or chief, of these robbers and murderers, who call themselves "the government." That is to say, there is no one man, who calls himself the state, or even emperor, king, or sovereign; no one who claims that he and his children rule "by the Grace of God," by "Divine Right," or by special appointment from Heaven. There are only certain men, who call themselves presidents, senators, and representatives, and claim to be the authorized agents, for the time being, or for certain short periods, of all "the people of the United States;" but who can show no credentials, or powers of attorney, or any other open, authentic evidence that they are so; and who notoriously are not so; but are really only the agents of a secret band of robbers and murderers, whom they themselves do not know, and have no means of knowing, individually; but who, they trust, will openly or secretly, when the crisis comes, sustain them in all their usurpations and crimes.

What is important to be noticed is, that these so-called presidents, senators, and representatives, these pretended agents of all "the people of the United States," the moment their exactions

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 Sexby, and may well have helped him in composing it.

Wood also attributes to Titus ‘A seasonable speech made by a member of parliament in the House of Commons concerning the other House in March 1659,’ reprinted in Morgan's ‘Phœnix Britannicus,’ 1732, p. 167. In this case the attribution is probably correct, though it was assigned many years later to Anthony Ashley Cooper, first earl of Shaftesbury [q. v.] (, Life of Shaftesbury, i. app. iv.).

[Wood's Athenæ Oxonienses, ed. Bliss, iv. 623; Clutterbuck's Hertfordshire, i. 342–5; Kingston's Civil War in Hertfordshire, 1894, p. 124; Hillier's Charles I in the Isle of Wight, 1852. The letters of Charles I to Titus, and other documents printed by Hillier, are in the British Museum, Egerton MS. 1533.]  TOBIAS (d. 726), bishop of Rochester, is said to have been a native of Kent and to have been educated at Dover and Canterbury. He ‘was one of the scholarly ecclesiastics who had been trained in the great school at Canterbury’ (, Chapters of Early Church History, 1897, p. 429). There he was a pupil of Theodore and Hadrian, and Bede describes him as ‘a man of multifarious learning in the Latin, Greek, and Saxon tongues’ (Hist. Eccles. v. 8, 23). He was consecrated ninth bishop of Rochester by Brihtwald in succession to Gebmund, who died probably in 696. The first genuine charter attested by him is dated 706; he was present at the council of Clovesho in 716, when King Wihtred promulgated his law against the alienation of church property (, pp. 430–1). He died in 726 and was buried in St. Paul's Church in St. Andrew's Cathedral at Rochester (, Reg. Roffense, p. 5;, Registers of Rochester, p. 64). Bale ascribes to him a book of homilies and Pits a book of letters; neither is known to be extant.

[Authorities cited; Leland's Collectanea; Bale's Scriptt. 1559, p. 90; Pits, p. 124; Baronius's Annales Eccl. 1762, xii. 364; Wilkins's Concilia; Fabricius's Bibl. Lat. Medii Ævi, vi. 768–9; Tanner's Bibl. Brit.-Hib.; Wharton's Anglia Sacra, i. 330; Bernard's Cat. MSS. Angliæ, i. 241; Le Neve's Fasti, ed. Hardy; Wright's Biogr. Literaria, i. 242; Haddan and Stubbs's Councils; Bishop Stubbs in Dict. Christian Biogr.]  TOBIN, GEORGE (1768–1838), rear-admiral, second son of James Tobin of Nevis in the West Indies, and elder brother of John Tobin [q. v.], was born at Salisbury on 13 Dec. 1768. He entered the navy in 1780 on board the Namur, in which he afterwards went out to the West Indies and was present in the action of 12 April 1782. After the peace he was for some time in the Bombay Castle, guardship at Plymouth, in the Leander on the Halifax station, in the Assistance; and from 1788 to 1790 he made a voyage in a ship of the East India Company. On his return he was borne for a few weeks in the Tremendous during the Spanish armament, and on 22 Nov. he was made a lieutenant. During 1791–3 he was in the Providence with Captain William Bligh [q. v.] in the voyage to Tahiti and the West Indies, and on his return to England learned that by his absence he had escaped (as he then considered it) being appointed third lieutenant of the Agamemnon with Captain Horatio (afterwards Viscount) Nelson [q. v.], who, through his wife, was connected with Tobin's family. It seemed to him a much better thing to be appointed second lieutenant of the Thetis frigate with Captain Alexander Cochrane [q. v.] In the Thetis he remained. Some four years later, 12 July 1797, Nelson wrote: ‘The time is past for doing anything for him. Had he been with me, he would long since have been a captain, and I should have liked it, as being most exceedingly pleased with him.’

Tobin was not made a commander till 12 July 1798. He was advanced to the rank of captain in the large promotion at the peace, 29 April 1802, and in September 1804 was appointed to the Northumberland, flagship of his old chief, Cochrane, off Ferrol and afterwards in the West Indies; in September 1805 he was moved into the Princess Charlotte, a 38-gun frigate, and in her, off Tobago, captured the French corvette Cyane after a very gallant resistance. After much convoy service Tobin, still in the same frigate (renamed Andromache in 1812), co-operated during 1813–14 with the army in the north of Spain and the west of France. In July 1814 the Andromache was paid off, and Tobin had no further service at sea. On 8 Dec. 1815 he was nominated a C.B., became a rear-admiral on 10 Jan. 1837, and died at Teignmouth on 10 April 1838. He married, in 1804, Dorothy, daughter of Captain Gordon Skelly of the navy, widow of Major William Duff of the 26th regiment, and by her had issue one son and one daughter.

[Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biogr. iv. (vol. ii. pt. ii.) 629; United Service Journal, June 1838; Gent. Mag. 1838, ii. 100.]  TOBIN, JOHN (1770–1804), dramatist, author of ‘The Honey Moon,’ born at Salisbury on 28 Jan. 1770, was the son of James Tobin, a merchant, and his wife, born Webbe,


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Rh chimney, where every step is a basaltic prism that has been broken. The view of the valley from the top of the ladder is of striking beauty. The ascent is 240 feet.

In Thueyts itself there is not much to be seen of architectural interest.

Still further up the valley of the Ardèche, by the fine road constructed by the Estates of Languedoc for communication with Le Puy as easier than that followed by the Romans by Montpezat, is Mayres in the bottom of a valley and in a delightful situation surrounded by mountains. It is the last station before ascending the pass over the backbone of the Cevennes.

Here flutters and soars a great black eagle, that carries off lambs to the nest in the rocks of Astel rising over 900 feet from the valley. It is believed to come from the Alps to spend its breeding season in the Vivarais, both in these rocks and in those of Abraham, and that it returns to the Alps in winter. This is not the Aquila fulva, which is common enough, but the Aquila imperials. It soars so high and keeps so well at a distance from men that the hunters very rarely are able to kill one.

How greatly one would like to know what the men in medieval days thought of the volcanic phenomena of Auvergne and the Velay and the Vivarais. Possibly enough they did not give a thought to them, any more than does the peasant of to-day. But the baron who built his castle on the top of a rock compiled of basaltic prisms thick-set as reeds by a river side, the builders of churches who exploited these naturally faced columns—did they never ask how these came into existence, what their origin was? One can understand how they explained the existence of fossil shells on the


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 meet with any formidable resistance from any portion of "the people" themselves, are obliged, like their co-robbers and murderers in Europe, to fly at once to the lenders of blood money, for the means to sustain their power. And they borrow their money on the same principle, and for the same purpose, viz., to be expended in shooting down all those "people of the United States"—their own constituents and principals, as they profess to call them—who resist the robberies and enslavement which these borrowers of the money are practising upon them. And they expect to repay the loans, if at all, only from the proceeds of the future robberies, which they anticipate it will be easy for them and their successors to perpetrate through a long series of years, upon their pretended principals, if they can but shoot down now some hundreds of thousands of them, and thus strike terror into the rest.

Perhaps the facts were never made more evident, in any country on the globe, than in our own, that these soulless blood-money loan-mongers are the real rulers; that they rule from the most sordid and mercenary motives; that the ostensible government, the presidents, senators, and representatives, so-called, are merely their tools; and that no ideas of, or regard for, justice or liberty had anything to do in inducing them to lend their money for the war. In proof of all this, look at the following facts.

Nearly a hundred years ago we professed to have got rid of all that religious superstition, inculcated by a servile and corrupt priesthood in Europe, that rulers, so called, derived their authority directly from Heaven; and that it was consequently a religious duty on the part of the people to obey them. We professed long ago to have learned that governments could rightfully exist only by the free will, and on the voluntary support, of those who might choose to sustain them. We all professed, to have known long ago, that the only legitimate objects of government were the maintenance of liberty and justice equally for all. All this

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 Rh to have been acquired by eating or tasting the flesh of a snake or dragon, as Sigurd, in the Volsung tale, first became aware of Regin's designs against his life, when he accidentally tasted the heart-blood of Fafnir, whom he had slain in dragon shape, and then all at once the swallow's song, perched above him, became as intelligible as human speech.

We now come to a class of beings which plays a large part, and always for ill, in these Tales. These are the Giants or Trolls. In modern Norse tradition there is little difference between the names, but originally Troll was a more general expression for a supernatural being than Giant, which was rather confined to a race more dull than wicked. In the Giants we have the wantonness of boundless bodily strength and size, which, trusting entirely to these qualities, falls at last by its own weight. At first, it is true, that proverbial wisdom, all the stores of traditional lore, all that could be learnt by what may be called rule of thumb, was ascribed to them. One sympathises too with them, and almost pities them as the representatives of a simple primitive race, whose day is past and gone, but who still possessed something of the innocence and virtue of ancient times, together with a stock of old experience, which, however useful it might be as an example to others, was quite useless to help


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 the daughter of a rich West India sugar planter. George Tobin [q. v.] was his elder brother. Another brother, James Webbe Tobin, an acquaintance of Lamb and Coleridge, was greatly respected at Nevis, where he died on 30 Oct. 1814 (St. Christopher Gazette, 4 Nov. 1814). About 1775 the father set out with his wife to Nevis in the West Indies. The children were left behind, and John was placed for a while under the care of Dr. Richard Mant, the father of the bishop, at Southampton. After the American war, James Tobin having returned to England and settled at Redland, near Bristol, John was sent to Bristol grammar school under Dr. Lee. In 1787 he left Bristol to be articled to a solicitor in Lincoln's Inn, and, some ten years later, upon his employer's death without a successor, he took over the practice in partnership with three other clerks in the office. Dissensions arose, and the arrangement broke down after causing much anxiety to Tobin, who eventually entered a new firm.

From 1789 Tobin had devoted all his spare time and energy to dramatic composition. His talent was essentially imitative, but he imitated now Sheridan, now the Elizabethans, and now Gay or Foote, with remarkable taste and ingenuity. Superior, however, as was his work to the leaden and mechanical dramas produced at the close of the last century, Tobin approached the managers no fewer than thirteen times with different pieces without success. One of them, ‘The Faro Table,’ was provisionally accepted by Sheridan, but rejected ‘upon consideration.’ The manager of Drury Lane dallied in a similar manner with his picturesque drama ‘The Curfew.’ In 1800 his ‘School for Authors,’ which afterwards achieved a striking success, was rejected, and it was not until April 1803 that he had the satisfaction (due to the good opinion of Munden) of seeing a piece of his own on the boards, an early and insignificant farce, ‘All's Fair in Love,’ which was speedily forgotten. In 1804, having submitted his fourteenth production, a romantic play in blank verse called ‘The Honey Moon,’ to the management at Drury Lane (it had failed to win acceptance at Covent Garden), he left his rooms near the Temple and the neighbourhood of the theatres with philosophic resignation, and went to recruit his health in Cornwall. He came to the conclusion that editing Shakespeare would be a less arduous occupation than combating the obduracy of managers, and he began collecting materials. He was almost delirious with joy on hearing that ‘The Honey Moon’ had been accepted; but in the meantime alarming symptoms of consumption had manifested themselves. He was told that to save his life he must winter in the West Indies. He set sail accordingly on 7 Dec. 1804, but died the first day out. The ship put back, and he was buried in the little churchyard of Cove, near Cork, where the remains of Charles Wolfe, author of the ‘Burial of Sir John Moore,’ were laid nineteen years later (for epitaph see Gent. Mag. 1815, i. 178). Tobin was unmarried.

‘The Honey Moon’ was given at Drury Lane on 31 Jan. 1805, with Elliston and Bannister in the leading rôles, and proved a decided success. It remained a favourite on the English stage for twenty years. But its merits are comparative only, the author having the same mistaken idea as Charles Lamb, that the drama of Shakespeare and Fletcher was a thing for laborious imitation after the lapse of two centuries. Hazlitt thought the plot owed much to the ‘Taming of the Shrew;’ Genest detected reminiscences of Massinger and other Elizabethans. Tobin really excelled at light comedies and stage lyrics. After his premature death, his rejected pieces of past years were eagerly sought after by the managers.

Tobin's works, all posthumous, were: 1. ‘The Honey Moon: a comedy’ (five acts, mainly verse), London, 1805, 8vo; New York, 1807; frequently reprinted, translated by Charles Nodier as ‘La Lune de Miel’ in ‘Chefs d'œuvre des Théâtres Étrangers,’ 1822. 2. ‘The Curfew: a play’ (in five acts, prose and verse), London, 1807, 8vo; 7th edit. 1807. It was produced at Drury Lane on 19 Feb. 1807, and would have run longer than twenty nights but for Sheridan's anxiety to avoid the obligation of a benefit for Tobin's relatives (see, viii. 35–8, where a good abstract is given). 3. ‘The School for Authors: a comedy’ (in three acts, prose), London, 1808, 8vo. Based on ‘The Connoisseur,’ one of Marmontel's tales, this amusing and well-constructed little play owes something to ‘The Patron’ of Foote, and a little perhaps also to ‘The Critic.’ Happy, if not original, the part of Diaper, the sensitive author, afforded a triumph to Munden when he created the rôle at Covent Garden on 5 Dec. 1808. 4. ‘The Faro Table; or the Guardians: a comedy,’ London, 1816, 8vo. This was given at Drury Lane on 5 Nov. 1816, or nearly twenty years after it had been written, when the manners it satirises were already passing away; it was not a success. Several of Tobin's unpublished dramas were published in one volume in 1820; among them ‘The Gypsy of Madrid,’ after the ‘Gitanilla’


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 we had professed for nearly a hundred years. And we professed to look with pity and contempt upon those ignorant, superstitious, and enslaved peoples of Europe, who were so easily kept in subjection by the frauds and force of priests and kings.

Notwithstanding all this, that we had learned, and known, and professed, for nearly a century, these lenders of blood money had, for a long series of years previous to the war, been the willing accomplices of the slave-holders in perverting the government from the purposes of liberty and justice, to the greatest of crimes. They had been such accomplices for a purely pecuniary consideration, to wit, a control of the markets in the South; in other words, the privilege of holding the slave-holders themselves in industrial and commercial subjection to the manufacturers and merchants of the North (who afterwards furnished the money for the war). And these Northern merchants and manufacturers, these lenders of blood-money, were willing to continue to be the accomplices of the slave-holders in the future, for the same pecuniary consideration. But the slave-holders, either doubting the fidelity of their Northern allies, or feeling themselves strong enough to keep their slaves in subjection without Northern assistance, would no longer pay the price which these Northern men demanded. And it was to enforce this price in the future—that is, to monopolize the Southern markets, to maintain their industrial and commercial control over the South—that these Northern manufacturers and merchants lent some of the profits of their former monopolies for the war, in order to secure to themselves the same, or greater, monopolies in the future. These—and not any love of liberty or justice—were the motives on which the money for the war was lent by the North. In short, the North said to the slave-holders: If you will not pay us our price (give us control of your markets) for our assistance against your slaves, we will secure the same price (keep control of your markets) by helping your slaves against you, and using them as our tools for

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 cliv They are the old Tories of mythology, as opposed to the Æsir, the advanced liberals. They can look back and say what has been, but to look forward to say what will be and shall be, and to mould the future, is beyond their ken. True as gold to the traditional and received, and worthless as dross for the new and progressive: such a, nature, when unprovoked, is easy and simple; but rouse it, and its exuberant strength rises in a paroxysm of rage, though its clumsy awkward blows, guided by mere cunning, fail to strike the slight and lissom foe who waits for and eludes the stroke, until his reason gives him the mastery over sheer brute force which has wearied itself out by its own exertions.

This race, and that of the upstart Æsir, though almost always at feud, still had their intervals of common intercourse, and even social enjoyment. Marriages take place between them, visits are paid, feasts are given, ale is broached, and mirth is fast and furious. Thor was the worst foe the giants ever had, and yet he met them sometimes on good terms. They were destined to meet once for all on that awful day, "the twilight of the gods," but till then, they entertained for each other some sense of mutual respect.

The Trolls, on the other hand, with whom mankind had more to do, were supposed to be less easy-tempered, and more systematically malignant, than the Giants, and with the term were bound up notions of sorcery and


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 clii In one tale (p. 264) the Goat appears in full force, and dashes out the brains of the Troll, who lived under the bridge over the burn. In another, "Tatterhood," p. 345, he helps the lassie in her onslaught on the witches. He, too, was sacred to Thor in the old mythology, and drew his thundering car. Here something of the divine nature of his former lord, who was the great foe of all Trolls, seems to have been passed on in popular tradition to the animal who had seen so many adventures with the great God who swayed the thunder. This feud between the Goat and the Trolls comes out curiously in "The Old Dame and her Hen," p. 14, where a goat falls down the trapdoor to the Troll's house: "Who sent for you, I should like to know, you long-bearded beast? " said the Man o' the Hill, who was in an awful rage; and with that he whipped up the Goat, wrung his head off, and threw him down into the cellar." Still he belonged to one of the heathen gods, and so in later Middle-Age superstition he is assigned to the Devil, who even takes his shape when he presides at the "Witches' Sabbath.

Nor in this list must the little birds be forgotten which taught the man's daughter, in the tale of "The Two Stepsisters," p. 113, how to act in her trials. So, too, in "Katie Woodencloak," p. 357, the little bird tells the Prince, "who understood the song of birds very well," that blood is gushing out of the golden shoe. The belief that some persons had the gift of understanding what the birds said is primeval. We pay homage to it in our proverbial expression, "A little bird told me." Popular traditions and rhymes protect their nests, as in the case of the wren, the robin, and the swallow. Occasionally this gift seems


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fleischer, Heinrich Leberecht

FLEISCHER, Heinrich Leberecht, German Orientalist: b. Schandau, Saxony, 21 Feb. 1801; d. Leipzig, 10 Feb. 1888. He studied at the University of Leipzig from 1819-24. In the latter year he went to Paris where he continued his studies of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages under de Sacy. From 1831-36 he taught at one of the Dresden high schools. In 1836 he accepted the chair of Oriental languages at the University of Leipzig, which he occupied until his death in spite of invitations to accept similar positions in Saint

Petersburg and Berlin. He was one of the few foreign members of the French Academy of Inscriptions, a member of many German and foreign scientific societies, possessor of honorary degrees from the universities of Königsberg, Prague, Saint Petersburg, Dorpat and Edinburgh, and one of the founders of the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft. He edited Abulfeda's ‘Historia Ante-Islamica’ (Leipzig 1831); Samachshari's ‘Golden Necklaces’ (Leipzig 1835); ‘Ali's Hundred Sayings’ (Leipzig 1837); Beidhawis, ‘Commentary on the Koran’ (2 vols., Leipzig 1846-48); catalogues of oriental manuscripts in the Royal Library at Dresden and in the Town Library at Leipzig. After Habicht's death he continued his edition of ‘The Thousand and One Nights,’ bringing out Vols. IX-XII (Leipzig 1842-1843). He also published a German edition of Mirza Mohammed Ibrahim's ‘Grammar of the Modern Persian Language’ (Leipzig 1847); ‘Hermes Trismegistus an die Menschliche Seele’ (Leipzig 1870); ‘Kleinere Schriften’ (3 vols., Leipzig 1885-88).


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 dominion over you; for the control of your markets we will have, whether the tools we use for that purpose be black or white, and be the cost, in blood and money, what it may.

On this principle, and from this motive, and not from any love of liberty or justice, the money was lent in enormous amounts, and at enormous rates of interest. And it was only by means of these loans that the objects of the war were accomplished.

And now these lenders of blood-money demand their pay; and the government, so called, becomes their tool, their servile, slavish, villanous tool, to extort it from the labor of the enslaved people both of the North and the South. It is to be extorted by every form of direct, and indirect, and unequal taxation. Not only the nominal debt and interest—enormous as the latter was—are to be paid in full; but these holders of the debt are to be paid still further—and perhaps doubly, triply, or quadruply paid—by such tariffs on imports as will enable our home manufacturers to realize enormous prices for their commodities; also by such monopolies in banking as will enable them to keep control of, and thus enslave and plunder, the industry and trade of the great body of the Northern people themselves. In short, the industrial and commercial slavery of the great body of the people, North and South, black and white, is the price which these lenders of blood money demand, and insist upon, and are determined to secure, in return for the money lent for the war.

This programme having been fully arranged and systematized, they put their sword into the hands of the chief murderer of the war, and charge him to carry their scheme into effect. And now he, speaking as their organ, says: "Let us have peace."

The meaning of this is: Submit quietly to all the robbery and slavery we have arranged for you, and you can have "peace." But in case you resist, the same lenders of blood-money, who furnished the means to subdue the South, will furnish the means again to subdue you.

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 of De Solis (, Spanish Lit. 1863, p. 430 n.), ‘The Indians,’ and two light operas, ‘Yours or Mine’ and ‘The Fisherman.’ Among other pieces by him, apparently no longer extant, are mentioned ‘The Reconciliation,’ ‘The Undertaker,’ and ‘Attraction.’

TOCLIVE, RICHARD (d. 1188), bishop of Winchester. [See .]

TOD, JAMES (1782–1835), colonel, Indian diplomatist, born at Islington on 20 March 1782, was the son of James Tod (b. 1745), and Mary, the daughter of Andrew Heatly, a Scotsman, settled in Rhode Island. In 1798 his uncle, Patrick Heatly, procured him an East Indian cadetship, and, after a course of instruction at Woolwich, he proceeded (March 1799) to Bengal, where he was posted to the 2nd European regiment, his commission bearing date 9 Jan. 1800. Volunteering for service with Lord Wellesley's projected expedition to the Moluccas, he served for a short time with the marines on board the Mornington. Appointed on 29 May 1800 lieutenant in the 14th Bengal infantry, he went up country; and in 1801, when stationed at Delhi, was ordered to survey an old canal in the neighbourhood. In 1805 he was attached to the escort sent with Græme Mercer, envoy and resident at Sindhia's court. While travelling with the maharaja's camp, and afterwards from 1812 to 1817 when it remained at Gwalior, he was constantly engaged either in surveying or in collecting tographical information. In 1815 he submitted a map to the governor-general (Lord Hastings), in which for the first time the term ‘Central India’ was applied to the collection of native states now under the Central India agency. Rajputana was also included in the area of his researches. ‘Though I never,’ he wrote, ‘penetrated personally further into the heart of the Indian desert than Mundore … my parties of discovery have traversed it in every direction, adding to their journals of routes living testimonies of their accuracy, and bringing to me natives of every t'hul from Bhutnair to Omurkote and from Aboo to Arore. The journals of all these routes, with others from Central and Western India, form eleven moderate-sized folio volumes’ (Annals of Rajasthan, ii. 289). Most of his extra salary was spent in paying his native explorers. In October 1813 he was promoted captain, with command of the resident's escort; and in October 1815 the resident, Richard Strachey, nominated him second assistant.

When Lord Hastings, in 1817, began operations against the Pindharis, Tod's local knowledge became invaluable. He had already sent in reports on the Pindharis and plans of a campaign, and on volunteering for service was sent to Rowtah in Haraoti, where he organised and superintended an intelligence department, which in the governor-general's opinion ‘materially contributed to the success of the campaign.’ He also induced the regent of Kotah to capture and surrender to the British officers the wives and children of the leading Pindhari chiefs.

In 1818, after the chiefs of Rajputana had accepted the protective alliance offered to them, Tod was appointed by the governor-general political agent in the western Rajput states, and was so successful in his efforts to restore peace and confidence that within less than a year some three hundred deserted towns and villages were repeopled, trade revived, and, in spite of the abolition of transit duties and the reduction of frontier customs, the state revenue had reached an amount never before known. During the next five years Tod earned the respect of both the chiefs and the people; and was able to rescue more than one princely family, including that of the ranas of Udaipur, from the destitution to which they had been reduced by Mahratta raiders. Bishop Heber, who travelled through Rajputana in February 1825, was told that the country had never known prosperity till Tod came, and that every one, rich or poor, except thieves or Pindharis, loved him. ‘His misfortune,’ Heber added, ‘was that, in consequence of favouring native princes so much, the government of Calcutta were led to suspect him of corruption, and consequently to narrow his powers and associate other officers with him in his trust, till he was disgusted and resigned his place.’ ‘They are now,’ said Heber, ‘satisfied, I believe, that their suspicions were groundless.’ But ill-health was the reason assigned for Tod's retirement in June 1822, though it did not prevent his journeying to Bombay by the circuitous route described


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 These are the terms on which alone this government, or, with few exceptions, any other, ever gives "peace" to its people.

The whole affair, on the part of those who furnished the money, has been, and now is, a deliberate scheme of robbery and murder; not merely to monopolize the markets of the South, but also to monopolize the currency, and thus control the industry and trade, and thus plunder and enslave the laborers, of both North and South. And Congress and the president are to-day the merest tools for these purposes. They are obliged to be, for they know that their own power, as rulers, so called, is at an end, the moment their credit with the blood-money loan-mongers fails. They are like a bankrupt in the hands of an extortioner. They dare not say nay to any demand made upon them. And to hide at once, if possible, both their servility and their crimes, they attempt to divert public attention, by crying out that they have "Abolished Slavery!" That they have "Saved the Country!" That they have "Preserved our Glorious Union!" and that, in now paying the "National Debt," as they call it (as if the people themselves, all of them who are to be taxed for its payment, had really and voluntarily joined in contracting it), they are simply "Maintaining the National Honor!"

By "maintaining the national honor," they mean simply that they themselves, open robbers and murderers, assume to be the nation, and will keep faith with those who lend them the money necessary to enable them to crush the great body of the people under their feet; and will faithfully appropriate, from the proceeds of their future robberies and murders, enough to pay all their loans, principal and interest.

The pretence that the "abolition of slavery" was either a motive or justification for the war, is a fraud of the same character with that of "maintaining the national honor." Who, but such usurpers, robbers, and murderers as they, ever established slavery? Or what government, except one resting upon

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 in the volume of ‘Travels in Western India,’ published after his death.

He left Bombay for England in February 1823, and never returned. The remainder of his life was mostly spent in arranging and publishing the immense mass of materials amassed during his Indian career. He also acted for a time as librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society, before which he read several papers on his favourite subjects. On 1 May 1824 he was gazetted major, on 2 June 1826, lieutenant-colonel, being retransferred to the 2nd European infantry, and on 28 June 1825, he retired from the service.

Thenceforth he lived much on the continent, and in 1827 visited Count de Boigne, Sindhia's old general at Chambéri. In September 1835 he purchased a house in Regent's Park, and on 16 Nov. following, while transacting business at his banker's in Lombard Street, was stricken with apoplexy, from which he never recovered. He died on 17 Nov. 1835, aged 53. On 16 Nov. 1826 he married the daughter of Dr. Clutterbuck, a London physician, by whom he had two sons and a daughter.

Tod published, besides archæological papers in the Royal Asiatic Society's ‘Transactions’ and a paper on the politics of Western India, appended to the report of the House of Commons committee on Indian affairs, 1833: 1. ‘Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India,’ London, 1829–32, 2 vols. 4to; a second edition was published at Madras in 1873, and a popular edition at Calcutta, s.d. 2. ‘Travels in Western India, embracing a Visit to the Sacred Mounts of the Jains,’ London, 1839, 4to, with an anonymous memoir of Tod.

[Tod's works cited above; R. A. S. Journal, vol. iii. p. lxi. (1836); Asiatic Journal, 1836, p. 165.]  TODD, ALPHEUS (1821–1884), librarian of the parliament of Canada, son of Henry Cooke Todd, was born in London on 30 July 1821, and went with his family to Canada in 1833. He produced an ‘Engraved Plan of the city of Toronto’ in 1834, was employed on the staff of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada, and in 1836 became assistant librarian to the house. In 1840, four years before the publication of May's well-known treatise, he compiled a manual of parliamentary practice for the use of the legislature, which he issued under the title of ‘The Practice and Privileges of the two Houses of Parliament,’ Toronto, small 8vo. This was formally adopted for the use of the members, and the cost of production defrayed out of the public funds. Upon the union of the two provinces of Canada in 1841 Todd was made assistant librarian to the legislative assembly, in 1854 succeeded Dr. Winder as principal librarian, and subsequently was appointed constitutional adviser to both houses of legislature. In 1856 he was sent to Europe to spend 10,000l. on books for the library. He printed at Ottawa in 1866 ‘Brief Suggestions in regard to the Formation of Local Governments for Upper and Lower Canada, in connection with a Federal Union of the British North American Provinces.’ After the provinces of Canada and North America were federated in 1867, Todd was appointed librarian at Ottawa to the parliament of the Dominion, an office which he retained up to the time of his death. The library grew with him; he was a zealous and efficient custodian, as well as a diligent compiler of catalogues and indexes. In 1867 appeared the first volume of his well-known work ‘On Parliamentary Government in England: its Origin, Development, and Practical Operation,’ described in the ‘Edinburgh Review’ as ‘one of the most useful and complete books which has ever appeared on the practical operation of the British constitution’ (April 1867, p. 578). The second volume came out in 1869. A second edition, edited by the writer's son, A. H. Todd, was published in 1887–9, and a ‘new edition, abridged and revised by [Sir] Spencer Walpole,’ in 1892, 2 vols. In the opinion of Sir William Anson, ‘of books dealing with the subject [of constitutional law] in its entirety, I have found the fullest and most serviceable to be the work of Mr. Alpheus Todd’ (Law and Custom of the Constitution, 1892, vol. ii. pref. p. vii). A German translation by R. Assmann appeared in 1869–1871, and one in Italian in 1884. In 1878 he wrote a pamphlet ‘On the Position of a Constitutional Governor under responsible Government,’ a forerunner of his treatise on ‘Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies,’ 1880, of which the second edition, edited by his son (A. H. Todd), appeared in 1894. In 1881 he received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Queen's College, Kingston, and was also created C.M.G. by the queen.

Todd had a strong bent towards biblical and theological study. In 1837 he entered the ministry of the newly constituted ‘Catholic Apostolic Church.’ He engaged in church work with so much earnestness that at one time he resolved to retire from his secular employment, but was dissuaded by the authorities of his church. For ten years before his death he was in charge of the apostolic congregation at Ottawa. He died


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ES BOUTIÈRES have already had some sentences devoted to them. They differ geologically, and consequently in scenery, altogether from the high range of volcanic peaks of the mountains of the Vivarais below Privas. They are composed of granite and gneiss, and continue the Cevennes chain northwards. There are among them no craters, no floods of crystallised lava. Their heights are not extraordinary; they throw out long lateral spurs towards the Rhone. The scenery is tamer than in any other part of the Cevennes; that portion from Annonay to S. Etienne is given up to factories, which makes the country people prosperous but the country unattractive.

But from Annonay south to Privas there is pleasant if not fine scenery, and it is very rarely visited.

"It is," says Dr. Francus (A. Mazon), "a land that has a stamp of its own; its mountains, its agriculture, its customs, even its religion are peculiar to it. A land of steep slopes,


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 Rh unholy power. But mythology is a woof of many colours, in which the hues are shot and blended, so that the various races of supernatural beings are shaded off, and fade away almost imperceptibly into each other; and thus, even in heathen times, it must have been hard to say exactly where the Giant ended and the Troll began. But when Christianity came in, and heathendom fell, when the godlike race of the Æsir became evil demons instead of good genial powers, then all the objects of the old popular belief, whether Æsir, Giants, or Trolls, were mingled together in one superstition, as "no canny." They were all Trolls, all malignant; and thus it is that, in these Tales, the traditions about Odin and his underlings, about the Frost Giants, and about sorcerers and wizards, are confused and garbled; and all supernatural agency that plots man's ill is the work of Trolls, whether the agent be the arch-enemy himself, or giant, or witch, or wizard.

In tales such as "The Old Dame and her Hen," p. 14, "The Giant who had no Heart in his Body," p. 59, "Shortshanks," p. 131, "Boots and the Troll," p. 215, "Boots who ate a Match with the Troll," p. 36, the easy temper of the old Frost Giants predominates, and we almost pity them as we read. In another, "The Big Bird Dan," p. 382, we have a Troll Prince, who appears as a generous benefactor to the young Prince, and lends him a sword by help of which he slays the King of the Trolls, just as we sometimes find in the Edda friendly meetings between the Æsir and this or that Frost Giant. In "Tatterhood," p. 345, the Trolls are very near akin to the witches of the Middle Age. In other tales,


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 suddenly at Ottawa on 21 Jan. 1884, leaving four sons and a daughter.

[Rose's Cyclopædia of Canadian Biogr. 1886; Morgan's Dominion Ann. Register for 1884, pp. 247–8; Appleton's Cyclopædia of American Biogr. vi. 125; Times, 7 Feb. 1884; Toronto Weekly Mail, 24 Jan. 1884; Toronto Globe, 23 Jan. 1884; Bourinot's Intellectual Development of the Canadian People, 1881, p. 113; Morgan's Bibl. Canad. 1867, p. 373; P. Gagnon's Essai de Bibliographie Canadienne, Quebec, 1895.]  TODD, ELLIOTT D'ARCY (1808–1845), British resident at Herat, third and youngest son of Fryer Todd, accountant, Chancery Lane, a Yorkshire gentleman of good family, and originally of good fortune, was born in Bury Street, St. James's, London, on 28 Jan. 1808. His mother was Mary Evans, the ‘Mary’ of Samuel Taylor Coleridge [q. v.] His father lost his fortune by speculation, the home was broken up, and Elliott D'Arcy Todd, when three years old, was consigned to the care of his maternal uncle, William Evans, of the East India Company's home establishment. He was educated at Ware and in London, and entered the military college of the East India Company at Addiscombe in 1822.

Todd received a commission as second lieutenant in the Bengal artillery on 18 Dec. 1823, landed at Calcutta on 22 May 1824, and was stationed at the artillery headquarters at Dum Dum until the rainy season of 1825, when he was posted to the 4th company 3rd battalion of foot artillery at Cawnpore. He went with his company to join Lord Combermere's army of thirty thousand men for the second siege of Bhartpur. When the place was carried by assault on 18 Jan. 1826, Todd received a share of the prize money, and the same year he was posted to the 1st troop 2nd brigade of the horse artillery; but, on promotion to be first lieutenant on 28 Sept. 1827, he reverted to the foot artillery. Having made an earnest request to serve in the horse artillery, he was posted in 1828 to a troop at Muttra. In January 1829 he went to Karnal, where bad health compelled him to go on sick leave to the hills, whither he was accompanied by his friend, James Abbott, of the artillery.

On 2 March 1831 Todd was transferred to the 1st troop 1st brigade horse artillery. He studied Persian with such assiduity and success that the Indian government, who, among their efforts to enable the shah of Persia to maintain his independence, had decided in 1833 to send British officers to instruct the Persian army in drill and discipline, selected Todd to serve with the disciplined troops in Persia under Major Pasmore's command, and to be instructor in artillery. He embarked in the Cavendish Bentinck at Calcutta on 7 Aug., taking with him a model of the field gun and carriage and ammunition wagon of the royal artillery pattern. He arrived at Teheran on 28 March 1834. He had little to do the first year, owing to the difficulty of getting his duties and responsibilities defined by the prime minister. After the death of Fatteh Ali and the accession of Muhammad Shah, a firman was issued placing all matters connected with artillery in Todd's hands.

In 1834, during a journey from Shiraz to Bushire, he was robbed, being stripped of everything, and carried a prisoner to the hills, but was subsequently released. He took great pains in drilling the Irak and part of the Azerbyan artillery at Teheran, and received from the shah the decoration of the second class of the order of the Lion and Sun. Sir Henry Ellis [q. v.], British minister at Teheran, was much impressed by a lengthy paper written by Todd on Sir Alexander Burnes's ‘Military Memoir on the Countries between the Caspian and the Indus,’ in which the opinions and reasoning of the traveller were somewhat roughly handled. Ellis wrote to Lord Auckland, the governor-general, urging the necessity of a political agent at Kabul, and recommending Todd for the appointment—‘a most intelligent, clear-headed young man; he has given much attention to the question of the possible invasion of India from the north-west; he is fully alive to and well acquainted with the views and designs of Russia; in short, I know of no one whom I could myself employ with more confidence’ (letter dated 3 Jan. 1836).

In the autumn of 1836 Todd was at Tabriz as military secretary to Major-general Sir Henry Lindesay Bethune [q. v.], commanding the Persian legion disciplined by British officers, but when Bethune declined to accompany the shah's troops beyond Khorasan and returned to Teheran, Todd was sent, in January 1837, by John McNeill (1795–1883) [q. v.], British minister, to proceed by the shores of the Caspian, Ghilan, and Rudbar, to Kazvin, and thence to Teheran. For his report on this route he received a complimentary letter from Lord Palmerston. He was granted the local rank of major while employed on particular service in Persia (London Gazette, 2 June 1837). In March 1838 Todd accompanied the British minister to the Persian camp before Herat, where he arrived on 6 April. His report on and map of the journey were sent to the foreign office. Todd was employed by McNeill to negotiate


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 the sword, like the one we now have, was ever capable of maintaining slavery? And why did these men abolish slavery? Not from any love of liberty in general—not as an act of justice to the black man himself, but only "as a war measure," and because they wanted his assistance, and that of his friends, in carrying on the war they had undertaken for maintaining and intensifying that political, commercial, and industrial slavery, to which they have subjected the great body of the people, both white and black. And yet these impostors now cry out that they have abolished the chattel slavery of the black man—although that was not the motive of the war—as if they thought they could thereby conceal, atone for, or justify that other slavery which they were fighting to perpetuate, and to render more rigorous and inexorable than it ever was before. There was no difference of principle—but only of degree—between the slavery they boast they have abolished, and the slavery they were fighting to preserve; for all restraints upon men's natural liberty, not necessary for the simple maintenance of justice, are of the nature of slavery, and differ from each other only in degree.

If their object had really been to abolish slavery, or maintain liberty or justice generally, they had only to say: All, whether white or black, who want the protection of this government, shall have it; and all who do not want it, will be left in peace, so long as they leave us in peace. Had they said this, slavery would necessarily have been abolished at once; the war would have been saved; and a thousand times nobler union than we have ever had would have been the result. It would have been a voluntary union of free men; such a union as will one day exist among all men, the world over, if the several nations, so called, shall ever get rid of the usurpers, robbers, and murderers, called governments, that now plunder, enslave, and destroy them.

Still another of the frauds of these men is, that they are now

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fleischmann, Wilhelm

FLEISCHMANN, flīsh'män, Wilhelm, German agriculturist and chemist: b. Erlangen 1837. He received his education at Nuremberg, Würzburg, Erlangen and Munich. In Liebig's laboratory in 1862 he began work on agricultural chemistry and in 1864-67 while teaching in the Realschule at Memmingen conducted experiments there. From 1867-76 he was principal of the Realschule at Lindau and for the following 10 years directed the first dairy experiment station of Germany, in the vicinity of Lalendorf, Mecklenburg. From 1886 to 1896 he was director of the Agricultural Institute at Königsberg and of that at Göttingen after 1896. He did important work in the chemistry of milk. His works include ‘Handbuch des Molkereiwesens’ (1876); ‘Altgermanische und altrömische Agrarverhaltnisse’ (1906); ‘Lehrbuch der Milkwirtschaft’ (1908; English and Russian translations), and ‘Cäsar, Tacitus, Karl der Grösse, und die deutsche Landwirtschaft’ (1911).


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William, who succeeded to the title; Charlotte Margaret, maid of honour to Queen Charlotte, who married, on 6 Jan. 1790, the Hon. Stephen Digby; and Barbara Evelyn Isabella, who married in 1795 Major-general Ross.

[Eg. MSS. 2696-2706; Parl. Papers, Hist. MSS. Comm. Gunning Papers, 10 Rep. App. p. 400; Hist. MSS. Comm. 3rd Rep. App. 248-50; Gent. Mag. 1752 p.l43, 1757 p. 141, 1765 p.539, 1771 p. 572, 1790 pt. i. 83, 1816 pt. ii. 465-6 ; Nicolas's Hist. of British Knighthood, vol. iii.; Nichols's Illustr. of Lit. vi. 153; Haydn's Dignities, p. 80; Burke's Baronetage; Foster's Baronetage.]  GUNNING, SUSANNAH (1740?–1800), novelist, was married on 8 Aug. 1768 (Gent. Mag. 1768, p. 398) as Miss Minifie of Fairwater, Somersetshire, to John Gunning, son of John Gunning of Castlecoote, co. Roscommon, and of Hemingford Grey, Huntingdonshire, by Bridget, daughter of the sixth Viscount Bourke of Mayo (, Peerage, ed. 1889, p. 640). Her husband's sisters, Elizabeth and Maria, were the famous beauties [see , and Gunning, Elizabeth (1734-1790) (DNB00), ]. Her husband, John Gunning, a man of dissolute life, is said to have distinguished himself at the battle of Bunker's Hill, and rose to be a lieutenant-general in the army, and colonel of the 65th regiment of foot, through the interest of his brother-in-law, the Duke of Argyll. His only child Elizabeth, a beautiful and accomplished girl, born in 1769, carried on simultaneous flirtations with her cousin, the Marquis of Lorne, and with the Marquis of Blandford, who was said to be favoured by her mother (cf., Letters, ed. Cunningham, ix. 284, and elsewhere). General Gunning wrote to the Duke of Marlborough on 3 Feb. 1791 inquiring into Lord Blandford's intentions. A reply showing that Lord Blandford had changed his mind was returned, and afterwards appeared to be a forgery, presumably by Miss Gunning. A Mrs. Bowen forwarded some letters to the general, in which his daughter declared her passion for Lord Lorne. The general, enraged at his daughter's deceit, turned her out of doors. Mrs. Gunning followed, and both were received by the Duchess of Bedford. Many squibs and satires on what Walpole calls the 'Gunningiad' were circulated. One of these is in Nichols's 'Illustrations,' vii. 716. In March 1791 Mrs. Gunning published a Letter … addressed to his grace the Duke of Argyll,' declaring that the letters were an infamous forgery fabricated by Mrs. Bowen and Captain Essex Bowen, her husband. Captain Bowen, after vainly seeking legal redress, replied in the following April in 'A Statement of Facts in answer to Mrs. Gunning's Letter.' Soon afterwards General Gunning was accused of an intrigue with a Mrs, Duberly, and on 22 Feb. 1792 a jury, swayed by Erskine's eloquence, awarded the lady's husband 5,000l. damages. The general, with his mistress, had retired to Naples, where he died on 2 Sept, 1797. It is said that he altered his will the day before his death, in consequence of a letter he had received from his daughter: to her and to his wife he left 8,000l., and to the latter he also bequeathed his estate in Ireland (Gent. Mag. 1797, pt.ii p. 892). Mrs. Gunning died in Down Street, London, on 28 Aug. 1800, aged 60, and was buried in the north cloister at Westminster Abbey (, Reg. of Westminster Abbey, p. 464). Before her marriage and after her separation she wrote various novels, including, 1. 'The Histories of Lady Frances S—— and Lady Caroline S—— ,' 4 vols.8 vo, London, 1763 (with her sister Margaret). 2. 'Barford Abbey: a novel;' in a series of letters [anon.], 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1708. 3. 'The Count de Poland,' 4 vols. 12mo, London, 1780. 4. 'Anecdotes of the Delborough Family,' 5 vols. 12mo, London, 1792. 5. 'Virginius and Virginia; a poem in six parts, from the Roman history,' &c., 4to, London [1792], 6. 'Memoirs of Mary: a novel,' 5 vols. 12mo, London, 1793; 3rd edit. 1794, which was supposed to contain allusions to the family scandals. 7. 'Delves: a Welch Tale,' 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1796. 8. 'Love at First Sight: a novel from the French,' with alterations; and additions, 5 vols. 12mo, London, 1797. 9. 'Fashionable Involvements,' 3 vols. 12mo, London, 1800. 10. 'The Heir Apparent, revised and augmented by her daughter, Miss Gunning, 3 vols. 12mo, London, 1802. She also wrote 'The Picture' (in association with her sister), 'Family Pictures,' and 'The Cottage.'

Mrs. Gunning's novels, many of which passed through several editions, are exceedingly harmless; an absence of plot forming their most original characteristic.

The daughter, (1769-1823), published several translations from the French, including: 1. 'Memoirs of Madame de Barneveldt,' 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1795. Prefixed to the second edition, in 1796, is a charming portrait of Miss Gunning by the younger Saunders, engraved by F. Bartolozzi, R.A. 2. 'The Wife with two Husbands: a tragi-comedy, in three acts [and in prose]. Translated from the French [of R. C. Guilbert de Pixèrecourt],' 8vo, London, 1803. She had unsuccessfully offered this, with an opera based upon it, to Covent Garden and Drury Lane. 3. Fontenelles'


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 clvi as "The Mastermaid," p. 71, "The Blue Belt," p. 155, "Farmer Weathersky," p. 285, a sort of settled malignity against man appears as the direct working and result of a bad and evil spirit. In "Buttercup," p. 124, and "The Cat on the Dovrefell," we have the Troll proper,—the supernatural dwellers of the woods and hills, who go to church, and eat men, and porridge, and sausages indifferently, not from malignity, but because they know no better, because it is their nature, and because they have always done so. In one point they all agree: in their place of abode. The wild pine forest that clothes the spurs of the fells, but more than all, the interior recesses of the rocky fell itself, is where the Trolls live. Thither they carry off the children of men, and to them belongs all the untold riches of the mineral world. There, in caves and clefts in the steep face of the rock, sits the. Troll, as the representative of the old giants, among heaps of gold and silver and precious things. They stride off into the dark forest by day, whither no rays of the sun can pierce; they return home at nightfall, feast themselves full, and snore out the night. One thing was fatal to them: the sight of the sun. If they looked him full in the face, his glory was too great for them, and they burst, as in "Lord Peter," p. 295, and in "The Old Dame and her Hen," p. 14. This, too, is a deeply mythic trait. The old religion of the North was a bright and lively faith; it lived in the light of joy and gladness; its gods were the "blithe powers"; opposed to them were the dark powers of mist and gloom, who could not bear the glorious face of the Sun, of Baldr's beaming visage, or the bright flash of Thor's levin bolt.


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 with the Heratees, and, as it was the first time a British officer had appeared in Herat in full uniform, ‘a vast crowd went out to gaze at him.’ The negotiations failed, and in May Todd was made the bearer of despatches from McNeill to Lord Auckland, informing him of the condition of affairs. He travelled as an Englishman, but in Afghan dress and without baggage, and his route was by Kandahar, Kabul, and Peshawar. He arrived at Simla on 20 July, having accomplished the ride in sixty days.

On 1 Oct. 1838 Todd was appointed political assistant and military secretary to William Hay Macnaghten [q. v.], the British envoy and minister to Shah Shuja. He was promoted to be brevet captain on 18 Dec. 1838. He arrived with Sir John Keane's army at Kandahar in April 1839. Eldred Pottinger [q. v.] was the political agent at Herat, but it was decided to send Todd on a special mission to negotiate a treaty with Shah Kamran (London Gazette, 30 Aug. 1839). Todd took with him as his assistant Brevet Captain James Abbott of the Bengal artillery. The mission left Kandahar in June, and arrived at Herat on 25 July. A treaty was concluded with the Shah Kamran, by which he was allowed twenty-five thousand rupees a month on certain conditions, one of which was that he should hold no intercourse with Persia without the knowledge and consent of the British envoy.

After Pottinger's departure for Kabul in September 1839 things went on smoothly at Herat for some months. One of the objects of the mission was to do all that was possible to stop the traffic in slaves by the Central Asia tribes. In this traffic Yar Muhammad Kamran's minister, the khan of Khiva, and the Turkoman tribes towards the Caspian were the chief participants. In December 1839 Todd, on his own responsibility, sent Abbott on a friendly mission to the khan of Khiva to mediate between him and the Russians who were advancing on Khiva, and to negotiate for the release of the Russian captives in slavery. Todd's action was approved.

Early in April 1840 Todd received, through the British chargé d'affaires at Erzeroum, whither the Persian captain had temporarily withdrawn, a letter which the wazir, Yar Muhammad, had written in January in the name of Shah Kamran to the Persian Shah Muhammad; Kamran herein declared himself the faithful servant of the Persian monarch, and stated that he merely tolerated the presence of the British envoy at Herat from motives of expediency. Kamran and his people had been saved from starvation by British aid, and had received over ten lacs of rupees from the Indian government. The act of treachery was, however, pardoned by the governor-general.

On 27 Jan. 1841 Todd was formally gazetted political agent at Herat. From the time of his first arrival at Herat in 1839 he had desired to introduce into Herat a contingent of Indian troops under British officers. Early in 1841 Kamran and his minister proposed to agree to their introduction on condition that 20,000l. was paid down and the monthly subsidy increased. It soon, however, became clear to Todd that Yar Muhammad and his master had no intention of admitting any contingent into Herat, and that the money would be expended in intrigues against the British. He therefore refused to pay the amount, and also stopped the monthly subsidy. Yar Muhammad declared that either the money must be paid or the mission must leave Herat. After submitting to every indignity short of personal violence, Todd withdrew the mission on 9 Feb. 1841 to Kandahar, without having received definite instructions to do so.

Lord Auckland was so exasperated by the unauthorised withdrawal of the mission from Herat that, without waiting for Todd's explanations, Macnaghten was informed of the displeasure of the governor-general, and Todd was removed from the political department and ordered to join his regiment for military duty as a subaltern of artillery. Todd was stunned by this unjust treatment. Macnaghten wrote to comfort him that his ‘conduct had been as admirable as that of Yar Mahomed had been flagitious. And so,’ he added, ‘I told the governor-general.’ But Lord Auckland, who had written to Macnaghten, ‘I am writhing in anger and bitterness at Major Todd's conduct at Herat,’ was obdurate. Todd ceased to be political agent and military secretary to the envoy at Kabul on 24 March 1841, and gave over charge of the Herat political agency on 24 April, when he was posted to the 2nd company of the 2nd battalion of the Bengal artillery. Before joining he went in November to Calcutta, and had a personal interview with the governor-general, but without result. Todd received from Shah Shuja, the amir of Afghanistan, the second class of the order of the Durani Empire, in acknowledgment of his services in the affairs of that country, and he received permission to accept and wear the insignia both of this order and of the Royal Persian order of the Lion and Sun in the ‘London Gazette’ of 26 March 1841.

Todd joined his regiment at Dum Dum in March 1842, having been appointed to com-


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 Rh In one aspect, the whole race of Giants and Trolls stands out in strong historical light. There can be little doubt that, in their continued existence amongst the woods, and rocks, and hills, we have a memory of the gradual suppression and extinction of some hostile race, who gradually retired into the natural fastnesses of the land, and speedily became mythic. Nor, if we bear in mind their natural position, and remember how constantly the infamy of sorcery has clung to the Finns and Lapps, shall we have far to go to seek this ancient race, even at the present day. Between this outcast nomad race, which wandered from forest to forest, and from fell to fell, without a fixed place of abode, and the old natural powers and Frost Giants, the minds of the race which adored Odin and the Æsir soon engendered a monstrous man-eating cross-breed of supernatural beings, who fled from contact with the intruders as soon as the first great struggle was over, abhorred the light of day, and looked upon agriculture and tillage as a dangerous innovation which destroyed their hunting-fields, and was destined finally to root them out from off the face of the earth. This fact appears in countless stories all over the globe, for man is true to himself in all climes, and the savage in Africa or across the Rocky Mountains dreads tillage and detests the plough as much as any Lapp or Samoyed.

"See what pretty playthings, mother!" cries the Giant's daughter, as she unties her apron, and shows her a plough, and horses, and peasant. "Back with them this instant," cries the mother in wrath, "and put them down as carefully as you can, for these playthings can do our race great harm, and when these come we must budge."


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 establishing, and that the war was designed to establish, "a government of consent." The only idea they have ever manifested as to what is a government of consent, is this—that it is one to which everybody must consent, or be shot. This idea was the dominant one on which the war was carried on; and it is the dominant one, now that we have got what is called "peace."

Their pretences that they have "Saved the Country," and "Preserved our Glorious Union," are frauds like all the rest of their pretences. By them they mean simply that they have subjugated, and maintained their power over, an unwilling people. This they call "Saving the Country;" as if an enslaved and subjugated people—or as if any people kept in subjection by the sword (as it is intended that all of us shall be hereafter)—could be said to have any country. This, too, they call "Preserving our Glorious Union;" as if there could be said to be any Union, glorious or inglorious, that was not voluntary. Or as if there could be said to be any union between masters and slaves; between those who conquer, and those who are subjugated.

All these cries of having "abolished slavery," of having "saved the country," of having "preserved the union," of establishing "a government of consent," and of "maintaining the national honor," are all gross, shameless, transparent cheats—so transparent that they ought to decievedeceive [sic] no one—when uttered as justifications for the war, or for the government that has succeeded the war, or for now compelling the people to pay the cost of the war, or for compelling anybody to support a government that he does not want.

The lesson taught by all these facts is this: As long as mankind continue to pay "National Debts," so-called,—that is, so long as they are such dupes and cowards as to pay for being cheated, plundered, enslaved, and murdered,—so long there will be enough to lend the money for those purposes; and with that

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 "What sort of an earthworm is this?" said one Giant to another, when they met a man as they walked. " These are the earthworms that will one day eat us up, brother," answered the other; and soon both Giants left that part of Germany. Nor does this trait appear less strongly in these Norse Tales. The Giants or Trolls can neither brew nor wash properly, as we see in "Shortshanks," p. 131, where the Ogre has to get Shortshanks to brew his ale for him; and in "East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon," p. 22, where none of the Trolls are able to wash out the spot of tallow. So also in the "Two Step-sisters," p. 113, the old witch is forced to get human maids to do her household work; and, lastly, the best example of all, in "Lord Peter," p. 295, where agriculture is plainly a secret of mankind, which the Giants were eager to learn, but which was a branch of knowledge beyond their power to attain.

Before we leave these gigantic natural powers, let us linger a moment to point out how heartily the Winds are sketched in these Tales as four brothers; of whom, of course, the North wind is the oldest, and strongest, and roughest. But though rough in form and tongue, he is a genial, kind-hearted fellow after all. He carries the lassie to the castle, "East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon," whither none of his brothers had strength to blow. All


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 mand No. 9 light field battery on the 2nd of the previous month. He was promoted to be captain in the Bengal artillery on 13 May 1842. On 27 Sept. 1845 he was given the command of the 2nd troop of the 1st brigade of the horse artillery, in which he had served as a subaltern. His wife died on 9 Dec., and he hurried from her grave to join his troop at Ambala, and marched with it to take part in the first Sikh war. He fought gallantly at Mudki on 18 Dec., when the artillery bivouacked beside their guns in the battlefield. At sunset on 21 Dec. 1845 Todd's troop was ordered forward in the battle of Firozshah. He placed himself in front of the troop, and was in the act of giving orders for the advance when his head was taken off by a round shot (London Gazette, 23 Feb. 1846). A medal and clasp awarded to him for the campaign was received by his family.

He married, on 22 Aug. 1843, Marian Sandham, eldest daughter of Surgeon Smyth of the 16th lancers.

A portrait of Todd, after Charles Grant, was engraved for the third volume of Major-general F. W. Stubbs's ‘History of the Regiment of Bengal Artillery.’

 TODD, HENRY JOHN (1763–1845), editor of Milton and author, baptised at Britford or Burtford, near Salisbury, on 13 Feb. 1763, was the son of the Rev. Henry Todd, curate of that parish from 1758 to 1765, and of Mary his wife (Letters of Radcliffe and James, Oxford Hist. Soc., p. 25). He was admitted a chorister of Magdalen College, Oxford, on 20 July 1771, and was educated in the college school. On 15 Oct. 1779 he matriculated from Magdalen and graduated B.A. thence on 20 Feb. 1784. Soon afterwards he became fellow-tutor and lecturer at Hertford College, whence he proceeded M.A. on 4 May 1786. In 1785 he was ordained deacon as curate at East Lockinge, Berkshire, and in 1787 he took priest's orders.

Todd was presented in 1787 by his aunts, the Misses Todd, to the perpetual curacy of St. John and St. Bridget, Beckermet, in Cumberland. Through the interest of his father's great friend, Bishop Horne, then dean of Canterbury, he was appointed to a minor canonry in Canterbury Cathedral, and was exempted from the necessity of residing on his living. He had always been industrious, and his new position afforded him opportunities for the study of rare books and manuscripts. It also obtained for him the patronage of Archbishop Moore.

Through the influence of the archbishop, Todd held during 1791 and 1792, on the gift of the dean and chapter of Canterbury, the sinecure rectory of Orgarswick, and, on the nomination of the same patrons, he was vicar from 1792 to 1801 of Milton, near Canterbury. By 1792 he had become chaplain to Robert, eleventh viscount Kilmorey, and James, second earl of Fife. He was inducted on 9 Nov. 1801 to the rectory of All Hallows, Lombard Street (in the gift of the dean and chapter of Canterbury), which he retained until 1810. On receiving this advancement he took up his residence in London, was elected F.S.A. on 27 May 1802, and became domestic chaplain to John William, seventh earl of Bridgewater, on 5 April 1803.

The favour of this nobleman secured for Todd the living of Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, in December 1803, when he resigned his curacy of Beckermet. He became, on the nomination of the bishop of Rochester, rector (1803–5) of Woolwich (, Blackheath, p. 165). Lord Bridgewater then bestowed on him the vicarage of Edlesbrough, Buckinghamshire, which he kept until 1807, and he is said to have been, on the same nomination, rector of Little Gaddesden in Hertfordshire for a short period in 1805. Todd had been for some time keeper of the manuscripts and records at Lambeth Palace, and by 1807 he was appointed chaplain and librarian to Archbishop Manners-Sutton, who in that year gave him the rectory of Coulsdon, and in 1812 appointed him to the vicarage of Addington, both in Surrey. In December 1812 Todd was created royal chaplain in ordinary (a position which he retained until his death), and in July 1818 he was appointed one of the six preachers in Canterbury Cathedral.

Todd vacated all these preferments, excepting the crown chaplaincy, on his appointment, in November 1820, by the Earl of Bridgewater to the valuable rectory of Settrington in Yorkshire, where he took up his residence. He was appointed by the archbishop, on 9 Jan. 1830, to the prebendal stall of Husthwaite in York Cathedral, and was installed, on the archbishop's gift, on 2 Nov. 1832 in the archdeaconry of Cleveland. He must by this time have been fairly well off, for Isaac Reed made him a legacy and Charles Dilly the publisher left him 500l. In May 1824 he became a member of the Royal Society of Literature; but


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 money a plenty of tools, called soldiers, can be hired to keep them in subjection. But when they refuse any longer to pay for being thus cheated, plundered, enslaved, and murdered, they will cease to have cheats, and usurpers, and robbers, and murderers and blood-money loan-mongers for masters.

APPENDIX.

Inasmuch as the Constitution was never signed, nor agreed to, by anybody, as a contract, and therefore never bound anybody, and is now binding upon nobody; and is, moreover, such an one as no people can ever hereafter be expected to consent to, except as they may be forced to do so at the point of the bayonet, it is perhaps of no importance what its true legal meaning, as a contract, is. Nevertheless, the writer thinks it proper to say that, in his opinion, the Constitution is no such instrument as it has generally been assumed to be; but that by false interpretations, and naked usurpations, the government has been made in practice a very widely, and almost wholly, different thing from what the Constitution itself purports to authorize. He has heretofore written much, and could write much more, to prove that such is the truth. But whether the Constitution really be one thing, or another, this much is certain—that it has either authorized such a government as we have had, or has been powerless to prevent it. In either case, it is unfit to exist.

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104 boisterous rivers, rude summits, with pines above and chestnut trees below, with Biblical types of men, bullet-headed, and with brains not altogether like other men's brains. Nature herself puts on a severe countenance; the woods look like gloomy conspirators, the wind seems to chant psalms, and with a little imagination it is possible to fancy that one hears a far-off echo of some Assembly of the Desert that Time has forgotten to sweep away in its onward march."

Looking westward from Valence is seen the little town of S. Peray, and towering above it the ruined castle of Crussol on a limestone cliff.

S. Peray is famous, with a limited fame, for its sparkling wine.

The white wine of S. Peray always had a certain celebrity. The wine merchants of Burgundy and Champagne, seeing that very good juice of the grape was to be had there cheap, bought it up and sold it as their own crus, or else doctored it. They purchased whole vintages at the time of the gathering in and crushing of the grape, and by means of the navigation of the Rhone and Saône, were able to bring them into the heart of France.

But after a while the owners of the vineyards of S. Peray saw their way to selling direct to the consumer. In 1798 one of them discovered the secret how to make the wine effervesce, and he set to work to produce sparkling S. Peray, which soon obtained great favour.

The phylloxera came in 1874 and devastated the vineyards. But they have been replanted with stocks from America, grafted with the indigenous vine, and these are strong and flourishing, and yield abundantly, the wine somewhat coarse at first, but mellowing as


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 Rh he asks is that she won't be afraid, and then he takes a good rest, and puffs himself up with as much breath as ever he can hold, begins to blow a storm, and off they go. So, too, in "The Lad who went to the North Wind," p. 228, though he can't restore the meal he carried off, he gives the lad three things which make his fortune, and amply repay him. He, too, like the Grecian Boreas, is divine, and lineally descended from Hræsvelgr, that great giant in the Edda, who sits "at the end of the world in eagle's shape, and when he flaps his wings, all the winds come that blow upon men."

Enough surely has now been said to shew that the old religion and mythology of the Norseman still lives disguised in these popular tales. Besides this internal evidence, we find here and there, in the written literature of earlier days, hints that the same stories were even then current, and current then, as now, among the lower classes. Thus in King Sverri's Saga we read, "And so it was just like what is said to have happened in old stories of what the king's children suffered from their stepmother's ill-will." And again, in Olof Tryggvason's Saga by the monk Odd, "And better is it to hear such things with mirth than stepmother's stories which shepherds tell, where no one can tell whether anything is true, and where the king is always made the least in their narrative." But, in truth, no such positive evidence is needed. Any one who has read the Volsung tale as we have given it, will be at no loss to see where the "little birds" who speak to the Prince and the lassie, or the "pit of snakes" into which folk are cast, in these tales, come from; nor when they read in the "Big Bird Dan," p. 382, about "the naked


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96 hunchback named Pannard, who endeavoured to get into conversation with him and learn where he intended to pass the night on his way home to Pradelles. He curtly informed him that he would sleep at the house of a friend at Mayres.

Hugon was on his way home when he was passed by Pannard riding a mountain pony, and going the same way as himself. In fact, the hunchback was on the road to Peyrabeille to announce to the Martins that some good game was coming to their net. After sleeping at Mayres, Hugon pursued his journey on the following morning, and halted at the inn of the Martins to breakfast, but saw none there save the women. When about to leave, Marie Martin strongly advised him to take a short cut which she pointed out, and which would save him over a mile. Without suspicion he followed her directions, and had gone some way, when out of the bushes leaped Pierre Martin and Jean Rochette, armed with picks; and the former with his weapon dealt a blow at Hugon that cut his head open and wounded his back, but happily failed to stun him or split his skull. The farmer at once whirled his cudgel and struck Martin under the knee with such force as to bring him to the ground. Rochette, who was behind, yelled to his master, "Strike on! strike on!" But Pierre was unable to rise for a moment, and Hugon took to his heels and ran before Jean could deal him another blow. Pierre got up now, and he and Rochette pursued the farmer, who fled and did not draw breath till he reached the high road on which were passengers, and where he felt himself safe. He also breathed not a word of his adventure and escape till the Martins were under lock and key. Not long after this Pannard was arrested on a


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Fox, George

FOX, George, English religionist, founder of the Society of Friends: b. Drayton, Leicestershire, England, July 1624; d. London, 13 Jan. 1690. He was the son of a weaver in good circumstances. While yet a boy he was distinguished by his gravity and exemplary conduct. When in the 20th year of his age, and for some two or three years afterward, Fox describes himself as having been in a distressed state of mind, but from this condition he was at length delivered by that which he regarded as the voice of God in his soul, directing him to Christ as alone able “to speak to his condition.” Very soon after this he commenced his public ministrations at Dukinfied, Manchester and the neighborhood. In 1646 he ceased to attend church. From the first his preaching seems to have made many converts, mainly from the lower middle class, and excited much opposition. Fox's first imprisonment took place in the year 1649, in consequence of his opposing the preacher in “the great steeple-house at Nottingham,” on a point of doctrine. In 1650 he was imprisoned at Derby under a false charge of blasphemy. One of the committing justices, Bennet, acted with great violence on this occasion, and it was he who on Fox's bidding him “tremble at the word of the Lord” first applied to him and his friends the name of Quakers. Fox lay in prison at Derby for about a year, the time having been lengthened in consequence of his refusal to accept a commission as captain of one of the regiments then being raised by Parliament. To his belief in non-resistance and in the unlawfulness of all war, which prompted this refusal, was added at the same time a clear view of the enormity of the punishment of

death for crimes affecting property only, and he exerted himself to save the life of a poor woman then in jail for theft. Within 10 years of Fox's appearance as a preacher, meetings of the Friends were established in most parts of England. At the same time, so actively were they persecuted, that for many years there were seldom less than 1,000 of them in prison. Cromwell, though himself favorable to liberty of conscience, and before whom Fox appeared in 1655, seems to have been unable to curb the excesses of popular hostility launched in all quarters against a sect which denounced all state interference with religion and maintained that the gospel should be preached without fee or reward. His doctrine of “the inner light” rested on one central idea, “God is a spirit, and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in truth.”

About a month after the restoration of Charles II, Fox was committed to Lancaster Castle, “on the charge of being a common disturber of the peace and of endeavoring to make insurrection and embroil the whole kingdom in blood.” After lying in jail some months, a habeas corpus was obtained, and the authorities showed their disbelief of these grave charges by allowing Fox himself, unbailed and unguarded, to convey to London the sheriff's return to the writ. The hopes entertained by the members of the young society that they would be allowed a breathing-time from persecution were dispelled at the commencement of 1661 by the atrocious measures which followed the mad attempt of Venner and his Fifth-Monarchy men. The act empowering magistrates to tender the oaths of allegiance and supremacy to any person whom they thought fit to suspect, also operated with great severity against the Friends; under its provisions Fox was committed to prison at Lancaster in the beginning of 1664, whence he was removed to Scarborough Castle, where he lay till the autumn of 1666. In 1669 Fox married Margaret Fell, who was 10 years his senior and the widow of one of the judges of the Welsh courts, and who proved a faithful coadjutor as well as helpmeet. The year 1670 witnessed the passing of the most stringent of the Conventicle Acts, forbidding under heavy penalties the assembling for religious worship, in any house, of more than four persons besides the family, except according to the usages of the Church of England. Soon after his recovery from a severe illness he sailed for Barbadoes, where he exerted himself greatly in the interests of religion and humanity. It was while in this island that Fox drew up a statement of his own and his friends' belief in all the great doctrines of Christianity — a statement clearly disproving their alleged sympathy with Socinian tenets. After a considerable time spent in Barbadoes, Jamaica and the North American continent, he returned to England in 1673, where further persecutions awaited him. He underwent 14 months' imprisonment in Worcester jail, and was at length liberated by the Court of King's Bench on account of the errors in his indictment. In all, he suffered eight terms of imprisonment. In 1677, in company with Penn and Barclay, who had joined the Society about 10 years before, he paid a visit to Holland and some parts of Germany, where his services seem to have been well received. The last 15

years of his life were tranquil as regards personal molestation, but he continued to be actively engaged in various ways in promoting the welfare of his brethren. Their persecutions continued throughout the reign of Charles II. In the first year of William and Mary was passed the bill which nullified the Conventicle Acts, and allowed the Friends to make a solemn declaration in lieu of taking the oaths, and Fox had the gratification of seeing the public worship of the Society legally recognized before his death. Fox was a mystic and visionary; but there was another side of character; his mind was one of singular penetration, and his ‘Journal’ is one of the world's most famous books, rich in spiritual insight, in noble simplicity and in moral fibre. In his schemes for the relief of the poor and the education of the people he was far in advance of his age. He typified in his generation that manifestation of the love of God which has been so singularly exemplified in the history of Society of Friends in practical and unostentatious service to the well-being of their fellowmen. (See ). His works were issued in three volumes 1694-1700. The best edition was that published in Philadelphia (8 vols.) in 1831. Consult Sewell, ‘History of the Quakers’; Lives by Marsh (1848); Janney (1853); Watson (1860); Hodgkin (1897); Wood (1912); Tallack, ‘George Fox, the Friends and the Early Baptists’ (1868); Bickley, ‘George Fox and the Early Quakers’ (1884).


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Rh SEE, see! what shall I see? A horse's head where his tail should be.

I HAD a little pony, His name was Dapple-gray, I lent him to a lady, To ride a mile away;

She whipped him, she slashed him, She rode him through the mire; I would not lend my pony now For all the lady's hire.

I LOST my mare in Lincoln Lane, And couldn't tell where to find her, Till she came home both lame and blind, With never a tail behind her.

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38 A BOOK OF NURSERY RHYMES I HAD a little hobby-horse, And it was dapple grey; Its head was made of pea-straw, Its tail was made of hay

I sold it to an old woman For a copper groat; And I'll not sing my song again Without another coat.

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36

the horse, and shoe the mare; But let the little colt go bare.

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40

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Gunning, Susannah