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 Savinien to a long and mature examination. His conduct has just made him suspected by all families, and placed between him and any heiress barriers which will be overcome with difficulty.”

A divine smile dried Ursule’s tears and she said:

“In some circumstances misfortune is a good thing!”

The doctor could not answer this simplicity.

“What has he done, godfather?” she resumed.

“In two years, my little angel, he has contracted one hundred and twenty thousand francs’ worth of debts in Paris! He was foolish enough to allow himself to be put in Sainte-Pélagie, a blunder which, as times go, brings a young man into disrepute forever. A spendthrift who is capable of plunging a poor mother into sorrow and want, would kill his wife from despair as your poor father did.”

“Do you think he could reform?” she asked.

“If his mother pays for him, he would be reduced to beggary, and I know no worse correction for a nobleman than to be without money.”

This answer made Ursule thoughtful; she dried her tears and said to her godfather:

“If you can, do save him, godfather; this service would give you the right to advise him; you would remonstrate with him—”

“And,” said the doctor, imitating Ursule’s way of speaking, “he could come here, the old lady would come here, we should see them, and—”

“I was only thinking of him just then,” replied Ursule, blushing.


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 “Do not think of him any more, my poor child; it is folly!” said the doctor, gravely. “Madame de Portenduère, a Kergarouët, had she only three hundred francs a year to live on, would never consent to the marriage of the Vicomte Savinien de Portenduère, grand-nephew of the late Comte de Portenduère, lieutenant-general of the King’s navy and son of the Vicomte de Portenduère, post-captain, with whom? with Ursule Mirouët, daughter of a bandmaster in a regiment, without fortune, and whose father, alas! now is the moment to tell you, was the bastard of an organist, my father-in-law.”

“Oh! godfather, you are right; we are only equal before God. I will never think of him again but in my prayers!” she said between the sobs excited by this disclosure. “Give him all that you destine for me. What can a poor girl like myself want?—In prison, he!”

“Present all your sorrows to God, and perhaps He will come to our aid.”

Silence reigned for several moments. When Ursule, who had not dared look at her godfather, raised her eyes to his, her heart was deeply touched at seeing the tears rolling down his withered cheeks. Old men’s tears are as alarming as children’s are natural.

“Mon Dieu! What is the matter?” she said, throwing herself at his feet and kissing his hands. “Are you not sure about me?”

“I, who long to satisfy all your wishes, am obliged to cause you the first great sorrow of your

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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 life! I suffer as much as you do. I never wept except at my children’s and Ursule’s death—Here, I will do anything you wish!” he cried.

Through her tears, Ursule gave her godfather a look that was like a flash; she smiled.

“Let us go to the salon, and contrive to keep all this to yourself, my little one,” said the doctor, leaving his goddaughter in his study.

This father felt himself so weak before this divine smile, that he was almost on the point of saying a word of hope and so misleading his goddaughter.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Reuleaux, Franz

REULEAUX,, (1829— ). A German mechanical engineer, born at Eschweiler, near Aix-la-Chapelle, where his father had machine shops. After finishing his apprenticeship in Koblenz, he worked in his father's shops, studied at Karlsruhe, and for a year was head of a factory in Cologne. Then he taught in Zurich (1856-64) and in Berlin (1864-96), where from 1868 until retirement he was director of the Industrial School. Reuleaux was intimately connected with German machinery exhibits at Philadelphia in 1876 and at Sydney and Melbourne (1879-81). His Briefe aus Philadelphia (1877) voice a sharp criticism on German methods of construction and especially on the lack of artistic design. To remedy this fault Reuleaux gathered a great collection of kinematic models in Berlin. His works are: Konstruktionslehre (with Moll, 1854-62); Der Konstrukteur (1860-62, and often); Kurzgefasste Geschichte der Dampfmaschine (1891); and Thomassche Rechenmaschine (2d ed. 1892).


text: Portal talk:Guatemala

title: Portal talk:Guatemala


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Rh "Halloo, Geordy! you have got him fast, I see. Where are the dogs?"

"Gone," said Geordy.

"There's Ruler in the east—what's he after?" "A deer," says Geordy. "And Rouser to the south—what's he after?" "Another deer," says Geordy. "And Nimrod to the southwest—I need not ask what he's after, for he follows nothing but deer. Your second barrel snapped, of course?" "I don't say that," says Geordy; "I had wounded the six last deer I'd fired at, so I thought I'd kill one to-day, and while I looked to see if that was really dead the others slipped by me." "Done like a sportsman, Geordy; one dead deer is worth a dozen crippled ones. I remember once your powder was too weak; and next, your shot were too small; and next, your aim was somewhat wild; and one went off bored of an ear, and another nicked of a tail. You are bound to set up an infirmary across the river for the dismembered deer you have dispatched there! You have done well to kill—let it grow into a habit. Nimrod to the southwest, said you? That rascal is a born economist; and not a foot will he budge in pursuit of a living deer after your horn has told him there is venison in the rear! Ruler will drive his deer across the river; Rouser, to the marshes. Nimrod's quarry is the only one likely to halt and give us another chance." And sure enough, there came Nimrod trotting back on his track, his nose cocked up in air as if to indorse and verify the inferences of his ear, his tail curled and standing out from his body at an angle of forty-five degrees. "This is the safe play—hang up the deer—sound your horn till the hounds come in from their several chases—and then


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Reumont, Alfred von

REUMONT,, (1808-87). A German historian. He was born at Aix-la-Chapelle, studied at Bonn and Heidelberg, and in 1832 traveled through Greece and the Ionian Islands. In 1835 he entered the diplomatic service, and subsequently was Minister Resident in Italy, principally at the Papal Court. His historical works include: Ganganelli, seine Briefe und seine Zeit (1847); Beiträge zur italienischen

Geschichte (1853-57); Die Jugend Katharinas de' Medici (1854); Die Gräfin von Albany (1860); Zeitgenossen (1862); Geschichte der Stadt Rom (1867-70); Lorenzo de' Medici il Magnifico (1874); Geschichte Toscanas (1870-77); Vittoria Colonna (1881); and Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens (1886). Upon art he wrote biographies of Michelangelo (1834), Andrea del Sarto (1835), and Benvenuto Cellini (1847), and other works.


text: Portal talk:Guinea

title: Portal talk:Guinea


text: Portal talk:Guinea-Bissau

title: Portal talk:Guinea-Bissau


text: Portal talk:Guyana

title: Portal talk:Guyana


text: Portal talk:Haiti

title: Portal talk:Haiti


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22 for Nimrod's lead! to Chapman's bays, I think!—there are some sheltered nooks in which they will stop and bask when they find themselves unpursued." "I'll go in with the boys," says Loveleap, with an unconcerned air, but a sly twinkle of the eye, which did not escape his comrades. "As you like. Geordy and I will mind the stands." Some time was lost before the hounds could be drawn from their several chases; yet, as emulation did not "prick them on," they came the sooner for being scattered. Loveleap heads the drivers, and it was just what we had anticipated, when, before a single dog had given tongue, we heard him fire; then came a burst, and then a second barrel; but to our great surprise no horn announced the expected success. The report of that gun went unquestioned in our sporting circle; it was in a manner axiomatic in woodcraft mysteries, and passed current with all who heard it for thus much—"a deer is killed." Loveleap did an extraordinary thing that day—he missed! But the drivers could not understand and the hounds would not believe it; so they rushed madly away in pursuit, as if it was not possible for the quarry long to escape. "Push on," says Geordy, "they make for the river!" and away we went. We reined in for a minute at the ford; and finding that they had already outstripped us and were bearing down for Chapman s fort,—a mile to the west of our position,—we struck across for the marshes south of us, where we might, if he was a young deer, intercept him on his return to his accustomed haunts. In an old buck we had no chance; he is sure to set a proper value on his life, and seldom stops until he has put a river between his pursuer and himself.

Taking advantage of a road that lay in our way, we soon cleared the woods and entered an old field that skirted the marsh. It was a large waving plain of rank broom grass,


text: Portal talk:Hungary

title: Portal talk:Hungary


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Sage Advice


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Dog and the Cat


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Canary and the Crow


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Monkey with the Magic Lantern


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Three Fortune Seekers


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Persecuted Poodle


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Dove and the Magpie


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Rh chequered here and there by strips of myrtle and marsh mallows. "So far, Geordy," said I, "we have kept one track; now let us separate. The hounds are out of hearing, and we have little chance of any game but such as we may rouse without their help. How delightfully sheltered is this spot! how completely is it shut-in by that semicircle of woods from the sweep of the northwest winds! How genially the sun pours down upon it! Depend upon it, we shall find some luxurious rogues basking in this warm nook, for, next to your Englishman, a deer is the greatest epicure alive! Now, then, by separate tracks let us make across the old field; a blast of the horn will bring us together when we reach the marsh."

By separate tracks then we moved, and had not advanced two hundred yards, when crack went Geordy's gun. I looked in the direction of the report, and his head only was visible above the sea of marsh mallows. The direction of his face I could see, and that was pointed toward me. Toward me, then, thought I, runs the deer. I reined in my horse and turned his head in that direction. It was such a thickly woven mass of mallows and myrtle—high as my shoulders as I sat in the saddle—that there was little hope of being able to see the game. I trusted to my ear to warn me of his approach, and soon heard the rustling of the leaves and the sharp, quick leap which mark the movement of a deer at speed. I saw him not until he appeared directly under my horse's nose, in act to leap; he vaulted, and would have dropped upon my saddle had he not seen the horse while yet poised in air, and, by an effort like that of the tumbler who throws a somersault, twisted him self suddenly to my right. He grazed my knee in his descent; and as he touched the earth I brought my gun down, pistol-fashion, with a rapid twitch, and sent the whole charge through his backbone. It was so instantaneous—so like a flash of


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/The Squirrel, the Dog, and the Fox


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/King Alphonso


text: The Fables of Florian (tr. Phelps)/Death's Choice of Prime Minister


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXI

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXI


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14 descendant of the Hapsburgs, had recently published his Pragmatic Sanction, was straining every nerve to secure the succession for his daughter Maria Theresa, and was wrangling with the 'Termagant of Spain' for the reversion of the Duchies of Modena and Parma. Frederick William of Prussia was recruiting his grenadiers, holding his tobacco parliaments, and negotiating his double marriage project. In Italy, the commercial republics of Venice and Genoa were sinking into decay, Piedmont was emerging as a military power, Florence was under the last of the Medici Grand Dukes. In England, Walpole had secured the confidence of the new king through the influence of his capable queen, and was doing his best, with the help of Cardinal Fleury, to maintain the peace of Europe.

Montesquieu started from Paris in April in the company of Lord Waldegrave, Marshal Berwick's nephew, who had recently been appointed ambassador to the imperial court at Vienna. He travelled through Austria and Hungary, thence went to Venice, visited in turn all the petty states into which Italy was then divided, spent several months at Florence, where he devoted himself mainly to art, and made even a longer stay at Rome, to which he returned after Naples. Of his last interview with the Pope a story is told, for

title: Page:Montesquieu.djvu/14


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXII

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXII


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIII

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIII


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIV

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIV


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXV

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXV


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVI

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVI


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVII

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVII


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVIII

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXVIII


text:
The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIX

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXIX


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The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXX

The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CCCXXX


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Rh which one could wish there were better evidence. The Pope expressed a wish to do something for his distinguished visitor, and at last offered him for himself and his family a perpetual dispensation from fasting. The next day a papal official called with a bull of dispensation made out in due form, and an account of the customary fees. But the thrifty Gascon waved away the parchment. 'The Pope is an honest man,' he said; 'his word is enough for me, and I hope it will be enough for my Maker.'

After leaving Italy he visited Munich and Augsburg, travelled by Würtemberg and the Rhine countries to Bonn, the residence of the Elector and Archbishop of Cologne, had an interview with our king George II at Hanover, explored the Hartz country (on whose mines he wrote a paper), and thence went to the Low Countries. At the Hague he met Lord Chesterfield, who was then British Ambassador, and was on the point of taking leave for England, where he hoped to be made Secretary of State. Montesquieu sailed with him in his yacht on the last day of October 1729, and remained in England until some time in 1731.

A distinguished German historian, who takes a rather depreciatory view of Montesquieu, says that he travelled rather as a tourist than as a student. The journals of travels and copious notes which have been recently given to the world by the Montesquieu family do not bear out this statement. Probably no

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16 man ever started on his travels better equipped by reading and observation, or with a more definite notion of what he wanted to see, hear, and know, or had better opportunities for finding out what was most worth knowing.

Montesquieu had already travelled in imagination through the countries which he was to visit in the flesh. In one of the earlier Persian Letters, written long before Montesquieu left France, Rhédi describes his sojourn at Venice. 'My mind is forming itself every day. I am instructing myself about the secrets of commerce, the interests of princes, the forms of government. I do not neglect even European superstitions. I apply myself to medicine, physics, astronomy. I am studying the arts. In fact, I am emerging from the clouds that covered my eyes in the country of my birth.'

That was the programme sketched out in advance, and he had excellent opportunities for carrying it out. At Vienna he spent 'delightful moments ' with that great captain, Prince Eugene of Savoy. At Venice he had long conversations with two famous adventurers, the Comte de Bonneval, and the Scotchman, Law. At Rome he made the acquaintance of Cardinal Alberoni and the exiled Stuarts. At Modena he conversed with the great antiquarian, Muratori. In England Lord Chesterfield's introduction brought him at once into the best political and social circles. His English journals, if they ever existed, are lost, and for our knowledge of his English experiences we are mainly dependent on the scanty but witty Notes on England, which were first published in 1818, and on the numerous references

title: Page:Montesquieu.djvu/16


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32 between the pitch and the diameter varies throughout the entire scale. Thus the pitch of the ¼ inch is one-fifth of the diameter—that of the ½-inch, one-sixth—of the 1-inch, one-eighth—of the 4-inch, one-twelfth—of the 6-inch, one-fifteenth. It is obvious that more power is required as the diameter increases. But this consideration alone will not account for the actual deviation, which is much less than it would be if the scale were calculated with reference to the power required. The amount of power necessary must be determined in relation to the muscular force of the human arm, aided by the leverage of the screw key. Now, in the case of smaller screws, there is a considerable excess of force. Again, in the larger, there will be found a deficiency of power, for with all the leverage which can generally be applied, it requires the force of several men to fix a bolt of six inches diameter. Hence it is evident that at the two extremes of the scale the amount of power required is not the leading consideration in fixing the pitch of the thread. In the smaller sizes the necessary depth of a coarser thread—as before observed—would too much weaken the centre part of the screw. It may also be mentioned that coarse threads would render small screws apt to work loose for want of sufficient hold to prevent the effect of jarring.


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Rh On the other hand, finer threads on large bolts besides being weaker and less durable, would render it difficult to unfix them when occasion required.

It will be remembered that the threads, of which the preceding table shows the average, are used in cast iron as well as wrought; and this circumstance has had its effect in rendering them coarser than they would have been, if restricted to wrought iron.

The variation in depth among the different specimens was found to be greater proportionally than in pitch. The angle made by the sides of the thread will afford a convenient expression for the depth. The mean of the variations of this angle in 1-inch screws was found to be about 55°, and this was also pretty nearly the mean of the angle in screws of different diameters. As it is for various reasons desirable that the angle should be constant, more especially with reference to general uniformity of system, the angle of 55° has been adopted throughout the entire scale. A constant proportion is thus established between the depth and the pitch of the thread. In calculating the former, a deduction is to be made for the quantity rounded off, amounting to one-third of the whole depth—that is, one-sixth from the top, and one-sixth from the bottom of the thread. Making this Rh


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34 deduction it will be found that the angle of 55° gives for the actual depth rather more than three-fifths and less than two-thirds of the pitch. The precaution of rounding off is adopted to prevent the injury which the thread of the screw, and that of the taps and dies, might sustain from accident.

The system of threads selected in the manner above described has already obtained greater extension than any other. It has been adopted exclusively on many of the railways, and in some of the most extensive engineering establishments in England and Scotland. During the present year it has been introduced into the Royal Dockyard at Woolwich, and it is now being applied to the engines constructing for the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. There is therefore reason to hope this system may be instrumental in promoting the proposed object of uniformity, of which it already exemplifies the practicability and advantage.

But the difficulty of obtaining a concurrence of opinion in favour of a particular system is not the only one to be encountered. The inconvenience to existing establishments which any change would involve is calculated to retard the prevalence of an approved system, nor could general co-operation be reasonably expected unless there were a certain prospect of success.


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Rh This, however, is an obvious reason why the attention of engineers should, without loss of time, be directed to the subject.

It will probably occur to practical men that there are other obstacles to be surmounted before the principle of uniformity can be carried into full operation. The great want of accuracy in screwing and tapping by the ordinary process may be particularly mentioned. To whatever extent this may prove an obstruction, it may be also regarded as an additional motive for urging the subject on general attention. The necessity for greater correctness will thus be placed in a new and stronger light, and the effect no doubt will be a material improvement in this essential respect. It is mainly for want of accuracy that screw bolts so frequently fail. Unless the threads of the screw and nut exactly correspond in every part, and coalesce throughout their whole length and depth, their mutual action is completely deranged, power and strength are both sacrificed, and friction is proportionally increased. The immense consumption of bolts and nuts in fitting up and working machinery may give some idea of the extent to which greater accuracy might be productive of economy.

To maintain uniformity, provision must be made for multiplying standards of the diameters and threads. This may be easily done, and will Rh


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36 prevent the screwing tackle from degenerating by use and propagation.

This part of the case is connected with a subject of great extent which, under every aspect, lays claim to the attention of practical engineers. We allude to the general use of standard gauges, graduated to a fixed scale, as constant measures of size. It is quite practicable by such means to work to a common measure with a degree of accuracy sufficient for all ordinary purposes. Corresponding parts, instead of being got up one to another, might be prepared separately. The indefinite multiplication of sizes would thus be prevented, and the economy of the workshop simplified to an extent beyond calculation.


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 ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.

,—This being the first time I have taken the chair since you did me the honour to elect me your President for the present year, I propose to address you shortly on a few topics more or less connected with our profession of mechanical engineering. But first, let me express my gratification, and I am sure that of my fellow-countrymen, in thus meeting our northern friends in this important city.

Glasgow is peculiarly interested in the mechanical arts, for the minerals for making iron are found in great abundance in this locality; indeed, it is to this neighbourhood, more than to any other, that the world is indebted for the cheapest and most abundant supply of iron. Here, too, that metal is converted into a great variety of machinery. There are large manufactories of the steam-engine—fixed,


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Page:Hoyt's New Cyclopedia Of Practical Quotations (1922).djvu/687

 PUBLISHING PUNISHMENT {{Hoyt quote | num = 1 | text = Grex venalium. A flock of hirelings (venal pack). Suetonius—De Clar. Rhet. I. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Juvenal) | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Vulgus ignavum et nihil ultra verba ausurum. A cowardly populace which will dare nothing beyond talk. Tacitus—Annates. Bk. III. 58. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Neque mala, vel bona, quae vulgus putet. The views of the multitude are neither bad nor good. Tacitus—Annates. Bk. VI. 22. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = 1 | text = It is to the middle class we must look for the safety of England. "Thackeray—Four Georges. George the Third. | author =  | work =  | place =  | note =  | topic =  | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = The public be damned. W. H. Vanderbilt's amused retort when asked whether the public should be consulted about luxury trains. As reported by Clarence Dresser in Chicago Tribuzie, about 1883. See Letter by Ashley W. Cole in N. Y. Times, Aug. 25, 1918. Also Letter in Herald, Oct. 1, 1918, which was answered in same, Oct. 28, 1918. e Ssevitque animis ignobile vulgus, Jamque faces et saxa volant. The rude rabble are enraged; now firebrands and stones fly. Vergil—Æneid. I. 149. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Scinditur incertum studia in contraria vulgus. The uncertain multitude is divided by opposite opinions. Vergil—Æneid. II. 39. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Vox omnibus una. One cry was common to them all. Vergil—Æneid. V. 616. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Les prgjuges, ami, sont les rois du vulgaire. Prejudices, friend, govern the vulgar crowd. Voltaire—Le Fanatisme. II. 4. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Our supreme governors, the mob. Horace Walpole—Letter to Horace Mann. Sept. 7, 1743. n [Thel public path of life Is dirty. Young—Night Thoughts. VIII. 373. PUBLISHING | seealso = (See also {{sc|Books, Printing}}) | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = But I account the use that a man should seek of the publishing of his own writings before his death, to be but an untimely anticipation of that which is proper to follow a man, and not to go along with him. Bacon—An Advertisement Touching a Holy War. Epistle Dedicatory. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Yon second-hand bookseller is second to none in the worth of the treasures which he dispenses. Leigh Hunt—On the Beneficence of Bookstalls. If I publish this poem for you, speaking as a trader, I shall be a considerable loser. Did I publish all I admire, out of sympathy with the author, I should be a ruined man. Bulwer-Lytton—My Novel. Bk. VI. Ch. xrv. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = If the bookseller happens to desire a privilege for his merchandize, whether he is selling Rabelais or the Fathers of the Church, the magistrate grants the privilege without answering for the contents of the book. Voltaire—A Philosophical Dictionary. Books. Sec. 1.

PUMPKIN

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = I don't know how to tell it—but ef such a thing could be As the angels wantin' boardin', and they'd call around on me— I'd want to 'commodate 'em—all the whole-in-durin' flock— When the frost is on the punkin and the fodder's in the shock. James Whitcomb Riley—When the Frost is on the Punkin. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = And the Creole of Cuba laughs out to behold Through orange leaves shining the broad spheres of gold. Whittier—The Pumpkin. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = O,—fruit loved of boyhood!—the old days recalling, When wood-grapes were purpling and brown nuts were falling! When wild, ugly faces we carved in its skin, Glaring out through the dark with a candle within! When we laughed round the com-heap, with heartstall in tune, Our chair a broad pumpkin,—our lantern the moon, Telling tales of the fairy who travelled like steam In a pumpkin-shell coach, with two rats for her team! Whither—The Pumpkin.

PUN (See Humor, Jesting, Wrr;

PUNISHMENT

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = See they suffer death, But in their deaths remember they are men, Strain not the laws to make their tortures grievous. | author = Addison | work = Goto. Act III. Sc 5. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = | page = 649 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Let them stew in their own grease (or juice). Bismarck, at the time of the Franco-German war, to Mr. Malet at Meaux. See Labouchere—Diary of a Besieged Resident. Stewing in our own gravy. Ned Ward—London Spy. Pt. DC. P. 219. (1709) (Describing a Turkish bath.) Idea in Viautus—Captives, Act I. Ver. 80-84. Teubner's ed. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Chaucer)


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 Cant.=Canticum (Song of Songs). Cant. B.=Canticum Rabbah (Midrash Shir hash-Shirim or Ḥazitha). ch. Ch. =Chaldaic. Chron.=Chronicles, Book of. cmp.=compare (mostly referring to association of ideas). comment.=commentary or commentaries. comp.=compound or composed. contr.=contracted or contraction. contrad.=contradistinguished. corr. acc.=correct accordingly. corrupt.=corruption. Curt. Griech. Etym.=Curtius Griechische Etymologie. Dan.=Daniel, Book of. Darkhe Mish.=Frankel, Hodegetica in Mishnam, Leipzig 1859 (Hebrew). def.=defining or definition. Del.=Delitzsch, Friedrich. Del. Assyr. Handw.=Delitzsch Assyrisches Handwörterbuch, Leipzig 1896. Del. Proleg.=Delitzsch Prolegomena einesneuen Hebräisch-Aramäischen Wörterbuchs &c. Dem.=D'mai (Mishnah, Tosefta a. Y'rushalmi). denom.=denominative. Der. Er.=Derekh Erets (Ethics, a late Talmudic treatise, Rabbah [the great], Zuta [the small]). Deut.=Deuteronomy, Book of. Deut. B.=Deuteronomy Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Deut.). diff. differ. =different interpretation or differently interpreted. dimin.=diminutive. Du.=Dual. ed.=edition or editions (current editions, opposed to manuscripts or especially quoted editions). Ed=Eduyoth (Mishnah and Tosefta). ellipt.=elliptically. Erub.=Erubin (Talmud). esp.=especially. Esth.=Esther, Book of. Esth. R.= Esther Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Esther). Ex.=Exodus, Book of. Ex. R.=Exodus Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Sh'moth). expl.=explained. explan.=explanation. Ez.=Ezekiel, Book of. Fl.=Fleisher, appendix to Levy's Targumic or Talmudic Lexicon. foreg.=foregoing. fr.=from. freq.=frequently. Fr.=Friedman (edition). Prank.=Frankel, v. Darkhe, and M'bo. Gem.=G'mara. Gen.=Genesis, Book of. gen. of=genitive of. Gen. R.=Genesis Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to B'reshith). Ges. H. Dict.=Gesenius Hebrew Dictionary, German edition. Gitt.=Giṭṭin. Gloss.=Glossary. Hab.=Habakkuk, Book of. Hag.=Haggai, Book of. Ḥag.=Ḥăgigah (Talmud). Ḥall.=Ḥallah (Mishnah, Tosefta and Y'rushalmi). Hif.=Hifil. Hildesh. Beitr.=Hildesheimer Beiträge zur Geographie Palestinas, Berlin 1886. Hithpa.=Hithpaël. Hithpo.=Hithpolel. Hor.=Horayoth (Talmud). Hos.=Hosea, Book of. Ḥuck.=Ḥuḳḳath (a pericope). Ḥull.=Ḥullin (Talmud). intens.=intensive. introd.=introduction. Is.=Isaiah, Book of. Isp.=Ispeel. Ithpa.=Ithpaal. Ithpe.=Ithpeel. Jer.=Jeremiah, Book of. Jon.=Jonah. Jos.=Josephus. Josh.=Joshua, Book of. Jud.=Judices, Book of Judges. K.A.T. KAT =Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament by Schrader (second edition), Giessen 1883. Kel.=Kelim (Mishnah and Tosefta, the latter divided into Baba Ḳamma, M'tsiʿa, and Bathra). Ker.=K'rithoth (Talmud). Keth.=K'thuboth (Talmud). Kidd.=Ḳiddushin (Talmud). Kil.=Kilayim (Mishnah, Tosefta and Talmud Y'rushalmi). Kin.=ḲinuimḲinnim [sic] (Mishnah). Koh.=Koheleth, Book of Ecclesiastes. Koh. Ar. Compl.=Kohut in Aruch Completum. Koh. R.=Koheleth Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Ecclesiastes). l. c.=loco citato or locum citatum. Lam.=Lamentations, Book of. Lam. R.=Lamentations Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Lam.; Ekhah Rabbathi). Lev.=Leviticus, Book of. Lev. R.=Leviticus Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah to Leviticus, Vayyiḳra Rabbah). M. Kat.=Moʿed Ḳaṭon (Talmud). Maas. Sh.=Maʿăser Sheni (Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud Y'rushalmi). Maasr.=Maʿasroth (Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud Y'rushalmi). Macc.=Maccoth, Makkoth (Talmud). Maim.=Maimonides. Makhsh.=Makhshirin (Mishnah and Tosefta). Mal.=Malachi, Book of. marg. vers.=marginal version. Mass.=Massekheth (Treatise). Mat. K.=Matt'noth K'hunnah (commentary to Midrash Rabbah). M'bo=Frankel, Introductio in Talmud Hierosolymitanum. Breslau 1870 (Hebrew). Meg.=M'gillah (Talmud). Meil.=M'ʿilah (Talmud). Mekh.=M'khilta(a Midrash to portions of Exodus). Men.=M'naḥoth (Talmud). Mic.=Micah, Book of. Midd.=Middoth (Mishnah). Midr.=Midrash. „ Sam.=Midrash Samuel. „ Till.=Midrash Tillim (Midrash to Psalms, Shoḥer Ṭob). Mikv.=Mikvaoth (Mishnah and Tosefta Mish.=Mishnah. „ N. or Nap.=Mishnah, editio Napolis. „ Pes.=Mishnah, editio Pesaro. Mishp.=Mishpaṭim (name of a pericope). Ms.=Manuscript „ F.=Manuscript Florence.  „ H.=„Hamburg.  „ K.=„Karlsruhe.  „ M.=„Munich.  „ 0.=„Oxford.  „ R.=„Rome. Mus.=Musafia (additamenta to Arukh). Nah.=Nahum, Book of. Naz.=Nazir (Talmud). Neg.=N'gaʿim (Mishnah and Tosefta, also a subdivision in Sifra). Neh.=Nehemiah, Book of. Neub. Géogr.=Neubauer Géographie du Talmud, Paris 1868. Ned.=N'darim (Talmud). Nidd.=Niddah (Talmud). Nif.=Nifal.


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22 my care and kindness, I did not expect such a sad return as this. I am sorry to expose this perverse bird even to you, but he will not be corrected by me. I will do as you desire, and go into the open air a little." So saying, she repaired to a neighbouring tree, where she anxiously awaited the result of her mate's admonition.

As soon as the mother departed, the father thus addressed the delinquent:— "And so,Robin, you want to be master of the nest? A pretty master you would make, indeed, who do not know even how to govern your own temper! I will not stand to talk much to you now, but depend upon it, I will not suffer you to use any of the family ill, particularly your good mother; and if you persist in obstinacy, I will certainly turn you out of the nest before you can fly." These threatenings intimidated Robin, and he also began to be very hungry as well as cold; he therefore promised to behave better for the future, and his brother and sisters pleaded earnestly that he might be forgiven and restored to his usual place.

"I can say nothing in respect to the last particular," replied the father; "that depends upon his mother; but as it is his first offence, and he seems to be very sorry, I will myself pardon it, and intercede for him

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text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter I

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter I


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 Rh with his mother." On this he left the nest to seek for her. "Return, my dear," said he, "to your beloved family; Robin seems sensible of his offence, and longs to ask your forgiveness." Pleased at this intelligence the mother raised her drooping head, and closed her wings, which hung mournfully by her sides, expressive of the dejection of her spirits. "I fly to give it him," said she, and hastened into the nest. In the meanwhile Robin wished for, yet dreaded, her return.

As soon as he saw her he lifted up a supplicating eye, and in a weak tone (for hunger and sorrow had made him faint) he cried, "Forgive me, dear mother; I will not again offend you." "I accept your submission, Robin," said she, "and will once more receive you to my wing; but indeed your behaviour has made me very unhappy." She then made room for him, he nestled closely to her side, and soon found the benefit of her fostering heat; but he was still hungry, yet he had not confidence to ask his father to fetch him any food; but this kind parent, seeing that his mother had received him into favour, flew with all speed to an adjacent field, where he soon met with a worm, which with tender love he presented to Robin, who swallowed it with gratitude. Thus was peace restored to the nest, and the happy

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24 mother once more rejoiced that harmony reigned in the family.

A few days after, a fresh disturbance took place. All the little redbreasts, excepting Pecksy, in turn committed some fault or other, for which they were occasionally punished; but she was of so amiable a disposition, that it was her constant study to act with propriety, and avoid giving offence; on which account she was justly caressed by her parents with distinguished kindness. This excited the envy of the others, and they joined together to treat her ill, giving her the title of the Favourite; saying that they made no doubt that their father and mother would reserve the nicest morsels for their darling.

Poor Pecksy bore all their reproaches with patience, hoping that she should in time regain their good opinion by her gentleness and affection. But it happened one day that, in the midst of their tauntings, their mother unexpectedly returned, who, hearing an uncommon noise among her young ones, stopped on the ivy to learn the cause, and as soon as she discovered it, she made her appearance at the entrance of the nest, with a countenance that showed she knew what was going on.

"Are these the sentiments," said she, "that subsist in a family which ought to be bound together by love

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text: Index:The Bad Child's Book Of Beasts.djvu


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Rh and kindness? Which of you has cause to reproach either your father or me with partiality? Do we not with the exactest equality distribute the fruits of our labours among you? And in what respect has poor Pecksy the preference, but in that praise which is justly her due, and which you do not strive to deserve? Has she ever yet uttered a complaint against you? though, from the dejection of her countenance, which she in vain attempted to conceal, it is evident that she has suffered your reproaches for some days past. I positively command you to treat her otherwise, for it is a mother's duty to succour a persecuted nestling; and I will certainly admit her next my heart, and banish you all from that place you have hitherto possessed in it, if you suffer envy and jealousy to occupy your bosoms, instead of that tender love which she, as the kindest of sisters, has a right to expect from you."

Robin, Dicky, and Flapsy were quite confounded by their mother's reproof; and Pecksy, sorry that they had incurred the displeasure of so tender a parent, kindly endeavoured to soften her anger. "That I have been vexed, my dear mother," said she, "is true, but not so much as you suppose; and I am ready to believe that my dear brothers and sister were not in earnest in the severe things they said of

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26 me—perhaps they only meant to try my affection. I now entreat them to believe that I would willingly resign the greatest pleasure in life, could I by that means increase their happiness; and so far from wishing for the nicest morsel, I would content myself with the humblest fare, rather than any of them should be disappointed."

This tender speech had its desired effect; it recalled those sentiments of love which envy and jealousy had for a time banished; all the nestlings acknowedged their faults, their mother forgave them, and a perfect reconciliation took place, to the great joy of Pecksy, and indeed of all parties.

All the nestlings continued very good for several days, and nothing happened worth relating. The little family were soon covered with feathers, which their mother taught them to dress, telling them that neatness was a very essential thing, both for health, and also to render them agreeable to the eye of the world.

Robin was a very strong, robust bird, not remarkable for his beauty, but there was a great briskness in his manner, which covered many defects, and he was very likely to attract notice. His father judged, from the tone of his chirpings, that he would be a very good songster.

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 Rh Dicky had remarkably fine plumage; his breast was of a beautiful red, his body and wings of an elegant mottled brown, and his eyes sparkled like diamonds.

Flapsy was also very pretty, but more distinguished for the elegance of her shape than for the variety and lustre of her feathers.

Pecksy had no outward charms to recommend her to notice; but these defects were supplied by the sweetness of her disposition. Her temper was constantly serene, she was ever attentive to the happiness of her parents, and would not have grieved them for the world; and her affection for her brothers and sister was so great, that she constantly preferred their interest to her own, of which we have lately given an instance.

The kind parents attended to them with unremitting affection, and made their daily visit to Frederick and Harriet Benson, who very punctually discharged the benevolent office of feeding them. The robin redbreasts, made familiar by repeated favours, approached nearer and nearer to their little friends by degrees' and at length ventured to enter the room and feed upon the breakfast-table. Harriet was delighted at this circumstance, and Frederick was quite transported; he longed to catch the birds, but his mamma

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28 told him that would be the very means to drive them away. Harriet entreated him not to frighten them on any account, and he was prevailed upon to forbear, but could not help expressing a wish that he had them in a cage, that he might feed them, all day long.

"And do you really think, Frederick," said Mrs. Benson, "that these little delicate creatures are such gluttons as to desire to be fed all day long? Could you tempt them to do it, they would soon die; but they know better, and as soon as their appetites are satisfied, always leave off eating. Many a little boy may learn a lesson from them. Do you not recollect one of your acquaintances, who, if an apple-pie or anything that he calls nice is set before him, will eat till he makes himself sick?" Frederick looked ashamed, being conscious that he was too much inclined to indulge his love of delicacies. "Well," said his mamma, "I see you understand who I mean, Frederick, so we will say no more on that subject; only when you meet with that little gentleman, give my love to him, and tell him I beg he will be as moderate as his redbreasts."

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CHAPTER III.

THE NESTLINGS FRIGHTENED BY THE GARDENER.

cock bird, having finished his breakfast, flew out at the window, followed by his mate; and as soon as they were out of sight, Mrs. Benson continued her discourse:—"And would you really confine these sweet creatures in a cage, Frederick, merely to have the pleasure of feeding them? Should you like to be always shut up in a little room, and think it sufficient if you were supplied with victuals and drink? Is there no enjoyment in running about, jumping, and going from place to place? Do you not like to keep company with little boys and girls? And is there no pleasure in breathing the fresh air? Though these little animals are inferior to you, there is no doubt but they are capable of enjoyments similar to these; and it must be a dreadful life for a poor bird to be shut

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30 up in a cage, where he cannot so much as make use of his wings, where he is separated from his natural companions, and where he cannot possibly receive that refreshment which the air must afford to him when at liberty to fly to such a height. But this is not all; for many a poor bird is caught and taken from its family, after it has been at the trouble of building a nest, has perhaps laid its eggs, or even hatched its young ones, which are by this means exposed to certain destruction. It is likely that these very redbreasts may have young ones, for this is the season of the year for their hatching; and I rather think they have from the circumstance of their always coming together."

"If that be the case," said Harriet, "it would be a pity indeed to confine them. But why, mamma, if it is wrong to catch birds, did you at one time keep canary-birds?"

"The case is very different in respect to canary-birds, my dear," said Mrs. Benson; "by keeping them in a cage I did them a kindness. I considered them as little foreigners who claimed my hospitality. This kind of bird came originally from a warm climate; they are in their nature very susceptible of cold, and would perish in the open air in our winters; neither does the food which they feed on grow plentifully in

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650

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Noxiae pcena par esto. Let the punishment be equal with the offence. Ciceko—De Legibus. Bk. III. 20. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Gilbert)

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Cavendum est ne major pcena quam culpa sit; et ne iisdem de causis alii plcctantur, alii ne appellentur quidem. Care should be taken that the punishment does not exceed the guilt; and also that some men do not suffer for offenses for which others are not even indicted! Cicero—Dc Officiis. I. 23. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Diis proximus illc est Quern ratio non ira movet: qui factor rependens Consilio punire potest. He is next to the gods whom reason, and not passion, impels; and who, after weighing the facts, can measure the punishment with discretion. Claudinaus—De Comndatu Malii Tkeodari Panegyris. CCXXVII. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = I stew all night in my own grease. Cotton—Virgil Travestie. P. 35. (Ed. 1807)

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Fat enough to be stewed in their own liquor. Fuller—Holy Slate and the Profane State. P. 396. (Ed. 1840)

| seealso = (See also {{sc|Chaucer) 7

Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot. Deuteronomy. XLX. 21. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 'Tis I that call, remember Milo's end, Wedged in that timber which ho strove to rend. {{sc|Wentworth Dillon}}—Essay on Translated Verse. Ovid. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 9 That is the bitterest of all,—to wear the yoke of our own wrong-doing. George Eliot—Daniel Deronda. Bk. V. Ch. XXXVI. 10

Send them into everlasting Coventry. Emerson—Essays. Manners. During the Civil War in England officers were sent for punishment to the garrison at Coventry. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Vengeance comes not slowly cither upon you or any other wicked man, but steals silently and imperceptibly, placing its foot on the bad. Euripides—Fragment. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 12 Mv punishment is greater than I can lx>nr Omesi*. IV. 13. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = Whoso sheddcth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. Genesis. IX. 6. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 14 Something lingering with boiling oil in it .... something humorous but lingering—with either boiling oil or melted lead. W. S. Gilbert—Afifcodo. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 15 My object all sublime I shall achieve in time— To let the punislunent fit the crime. W. S. Gilbert—Mikado. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Cicero)

16 The wolf must die in his own skin. | author = Herbert | work = Jacula Prudentum. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 17 Culpam pcrna premit comes. Punishment follows close on crime. Horace—Carmina. IV. 5. 24. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 18 Ne scutica dignum horribili sectere flagello. Do not pursue with the terrible seouige him who deserves a slight whip. Horace—Satires. I. 3. 119. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 19 For whoso spareth the spring [switch] spilleth his children. Langland—Piers Ploughman. | seealso = (See also {{sc|Proverbs)

20 Breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth. Leviticus. XXIV. 20. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 21 Quidquid multis peccatur inultum est. The sins committed by manv pass unpunished. Lucan—Pharsalia. V. 260. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 22 It were better for him that a millstone werp hanged about his neck, and he cast into the sea. Luke, XVII. 2. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 23 The object of punishment is, prevention from evil; it never can be made impulsive to good. Horace Mann—Lectures and Reports on Education. Lecture VII. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 24 Where their worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched. Mark. IX. 44. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 25 Unrespited, unpitied, unrepriev'd. | author = Milton | work = Paradise Lost. | place = Bk. II. L. 185. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 20 Our torments also may in length of time Become our elements. | author = Milton | work = Paradise Lost. | place = Bk. II. L. 274. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 27 Back to thy punishment, False fugitive and to thy speed add wings, MnroN—Paradise Lost. | place = Bk. II. L. 699. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}

{{Hoyt quote | num = | text = 28 Just prophet, let the damn'd one dwell Full in the sight of Paradise, Beholding heaven and feeling hell. Moore—Lalla Itookh. Fire Worshippers. L. 1.028. | author = | work = | place = | note = | topic = Punishment | page = 650 }}


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 PUNISHMENT PUNISHMENT


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652


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter II

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter II


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter III

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter III


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter IV

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter IV


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter V

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter V


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VI

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VI


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VII

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VII


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VIII

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter VIII


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter IX

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter IX


text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter X

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter X


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Rh of books of large houses in Mexico, exhibiting accounts of a series of years, I found that eighty-five to ninety per cent of long-credit sales were paid in full. Not one American business man in five hundred will succeed in Mexico, for the sole reason that he attempts to force his own ways and methods upon a people whose habits and ways are the antipodes of his own. Our manners are not in accord with the extreme politeness and consideration to be found in Mexico. Business is largely done on the basis of feeling and sentiment, and established acquaintance. Neither has time nor money the transcendent value that it has with us." It is also interesting to note here that for these, or some other reasons, there are comparatively few Jews in Mexico, and that as a race they do not seem to fancy the country, either as a place of residence or for the transaction of business.

Consul-General Sutton, of Matamoros, tells the following story illustrative of the good faith in a mercantile transaction of the rancheros of Northern Mexico, the particulars of which were detailed to him by the parties concerned: "A German house in interior Mexico contracted for the purchase of two hundred mule-colts, to be delivered a year following; and payment, at the rate of twenty dollars a pair, was made in advance. A

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text: A Study of Mexico/Chapter XI

title: A Study of Mexico/Chapter XI


text: Page:The Bad Child's Book Of Beasts.djvu/4


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254 and more kindly consideration on their part than it has hitherto received, he will feel that his investigations have not been wholly unsatisfactory.

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Rh

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text: A Study of Mexico/Index

title: A Study of Mexico/Index


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 Child! do not throw this book about; Refrain from the unholy pleasure Of cutting all the pictures out! Preserve it as your chiefest treasure.

Child, have you never heard it said That you are heir to all the ages? Why, then, your hands were never made To tear these beautiful thick pages!

Your little hands were made to take The better things and leave the worse ones. They also may be used to shake The Massive Paws of Elder Persons.

And when your prayers complete the day, Darling, your little tiny hands Were also made, I think, to pray For men that lose their fairylands.


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1 st

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 DEDICATION

To

Master EVELYN BELL

Of Oxford


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119 as yet do not appear to have been productive of any marked results.

On the other hand, the Mexican land laws discriminate very rigorously against the acquirement of land by foreigners who do not propose to become Mexican citizens, and seem to be especially framed to prevent any encroachments on the part of the United States. Thus, no foreigner who is a citizen of any country adjoining Mexico may, without previous permission of the President of the Republic, acquire real estate in any of the border States, within twenty leagues (sixty miles) of the frontier; but such permission has of late been freely given to citizens of the United States for the acquirement of ranching property on the northern frontier. The ownership of real estate by a foreigner in either country or city, within fifteen miles of the coast, is, however, absolutely forbidden, by a provision of the Mexican Constitution. By the Constitution of Mexico also, a foreigner who purchases any real estate in that country, without declaring that he retains his nationality, becomes a citizen of Mexico; and it is difficult to see how under such conditions he could properly invoke any protection from the country of his prior citizenship, in case he considered his rights in Mexico to be invaded.

The laws regulating mining property in Mexico

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Verses by H. BELLOC

Pictures by B. T. B.

DUCKWORTH, HENRIETTA STREET, CONVENT GARDEN


text:
Bend v. Hoyt/Dissent Thompson

Mr. Justice THOMPSON, dissenting.

The amount in controversy in this case is too small to attach much importance to it, on that account. But the principle involved in the decision, and the practical effect it is to have upon the course of business at the customhouse, between the merchant and collector; must be may excuse for publicly dissenting from the opinion of the Court, in a case apparently of so little importance in itself.

I fully concur in that part of the opinion which exempts the goods in question (silk hosiery) from the payment of any duty; but dissent from that part which exonerates the collector from an action to recover back the duties received by him without any authority warranted by law.

The only question presented by the point certified to this Court, is whether the plaintiff is entitled to recover from the collector a sum of money, admitted to have been paid to him by mistake, without the least colour or suspicion of fraud or misconduct on the part of the plaintiff; and the mistake made known to the collector before the money was actually paid, and a claim interposed to have it deducted from his bond. The opinion of the Court upon the other point certified, settles the question that the silk hosiery on which the duty was paid, was not subject to duty. The money was therefore in the hands of the collector, without any right whatever to hold it, and exacted in violation of law; not a voluntary payment, but demanded under the penalty of a loss of credit at the customhouse, if the bond was not paid. If, under such circumstances, the money cannot be recovered back, it must rest upon some stern and unyielding principles of law or public policy, against the manifest justice of the case. But, in my judgment, there are no principles of law or public policy that can unhold such a course on the part of the collector.

But it may be proper to state, a little more particularly, the circumstances under which the money was paid to the collector. Upon the trial in the Circuit Court, an affidavit of the plaintiff was produced and read in evidence by the defendant; and he cannot now be permitted to deny the truth of the facts therein stated. In this affidavit, the plaintiff states, that in March, 1837, he imported from Liverpool, in the ship Roscoe, eight cases and casks of hosiery and gloves, owned by Barker and Adams, manufacturers of Nottingham in England, and consigned by them to him for sale. That his clerk not being able to ascertain from the wording of the invoice, which packages contained gloves and which hosiery, and knowing that cotton gloves and cotton hosiery paid the same duty; he entered them all at the customhouse as cotton gloves, and a duty of twenty-five per cent. was charged upon them by the collector, and he gave bonds for the payment of the duties. That upon an examination of the goods contained in one of the cases, marked B 45, he found them to be spun silk hosiery, and not cotton gloves, as entered at the customhouse. That the goods are called upon the original invoice passed at the customhouse, 'spun knots,' a term well known in the trade to be applied to hosiery of silk only; and that he verily believed, that the error of entry of the said case as paying duty, arose from the ignorance of the clerk who made the entry. That he did not upon this, nor does he upon any occasion examine whether the customhouse entries made by his clerk are correct. And he further swears, that he had never sold any part of that case; and that, to the best of his knowledge and belief, nothing had been taken from or added to it, but that it was in every respect in the same condition as it was when he received it.

This deposition establishes, beyond all controversy, that the entry was a pure mistake. And suppose it arose from the ignorance of the clerk in not understanding the kind of goods called spun knots? It was equally the ignorance of the customhouse officer who received the entry; for not only the oath upon which the entry was made, states that the original invoice was presented to the collector, upon which the article is denominated spun knots; but it is required by law, that the original invoice should be produced to the collector at the time the entry is made, 1 Story, 606, s. 36. He had therefore the same means of knowing what the cases contained, as the clerk who made the entry, the cases not having been opened or examined. It was, therefore, a case of mutual error or mutual ignorance. There are not grounds whatever for charging the plaintiff with negligence in this case. He pursued the ordinary course of business. Entries at the customhouse are usually made by clerks. But if no mistake made by a clerk can be corrected, every merchant will be obliged to submit in silence to all losses occasioned by mistakes, or attend in person to make his entries; which will be entirely changing the course of business. But suppose the plaintiff himself had made the mistake; can it be that it is beyond the reach of the law to correct such mistakes. The rule now laid down by the Court would equally extend to such a case. If there are any grounds whatever to suspect fraud or imposition, it is open to inquiry. But to close the door against correcting innocent mistakes, on any supposed ground of public policy, is applying a very severe rule to the transaction of business at the customhouse, and one that, in my judgment, is not called for to protect the revenue of the country. And the very form of the oath required by law to be made on the entry, presupposes that mistakes may be committed, and provides for the correction of them. The person on whose oath the entry is made, swears that the invoice and bill of lading presented to the collector, is the true and only invoice of the goods received, and that the entry contains a just and true account of the goods according to the invoice and bill of lading, and that nothing to his knowledge has been suppressed or concealed, whereby the United States may be defrauded of any part of the duty lawfully due on the said goods; and that if at any time thereafter, he discovers any error in the invoice, or in the account rendered of the goods, &c., he will immediately make the same known to the collector. There is nothing in this case to take it out of the rule of law applicable to ordinary innocent mistakes.

The original invoice was produced and laid before the collector as by law required, to be examined and compared with the entry; in which invoice the goods are denominated spun knots. If, therefore, there was any supposed error in the clerk in entering them as gloves, it was the duty of the collector to have corrected the error; and he is as much chargeable with negligence as the clerk. But the reason why no notice was taken of it, doubtless, was, that it was altogether unimportant in the view of the collector: for he considered the duty chargeable upon the goods as hosiery, and that it was perfectly immaterial whether it was cotton or silk hosiery.

There is nothing in the case to show that the error or mistake was not immediately made known to the collector, as soon as it was discovered; or that the collector made any objection to correcting it on that account. And it was in proof that it was made known to him before the duties were paid. It having been settled by this Court, that according to the true construction of the acts of Congress, no duties could be demanded upon this hosiery, there can be no doubt that if the plaintiff had not paid the duties, but suffered his bond to be prosecuted, this mistake in the estimate of duties might have been set up by way of defence, and deduction from the bond. The bond is not given for the payment of any sum certain for the duties; but in a penalty sufficient to cover the supposed amount, with a condition to pay the amount of duties to be ascertained upon the goods in the entry referred to, 1 Story, 629, s. 62: and the question is therefore open to inquiry, what was the amount due upon the goods contained in such entry, if any error or mistake has occurred. But the obligors in the bond cannot permit themselves to be sued, without forfeiting their credit at the customhouse; for the act of Congress declares, that no person whose bond has been received either as principal or surety for the payment of duties, and which bond may be due and unsatisfied, shall be allowed a future credit for duties, until such bond shall be fully paid or satisfied. And the merchant had better submit to the imposition of paying illegal duties, especially if they are of small amount, than to have his credit suspended at the customhouse until he can try the question in a suit upon he bond. Money exacted under such circumstances, is but little short of duress, if the collector is protected from any suit to recover it back. I cannot believe that there is any principle of law or public policy, that can be permitted to work such injustice. Due notice was given to the collector before the bond fell due of the mistake, and a claim to have the deduction made upon the bond; and no pretence on the part of the collector that the notice came too late, or any suggestion of fraud or unfair conduct on the part of the plaintiff. The collector therefore acted with full knowledge of all the facts-and indeed under an implied admission of the mistake. For he professed to act under the instructions of the comptroller of the treasury, that no errors of fact could be corrected after the merchandise had passed beyond the control of the officers of the customs. If such be the rule of the customhouse, no errors or mistakes can be corrected, unless every package of goods shall be opened and examined at the public stores before being delivered to the merchant, which would be contrary to the uniform course of business. But I trust the instructions of the comptroller are not to be assumed as law.

Although instructions from the treasury department may afford an apology for the collector, and exonerate him from any intentional violation of duty, yet it can never be admitted, that they can shield him from all responsibility, when not warranted by the rules and principles of law. If any authority is necessary to support this position, it will be found in the case of Elliot vs. Swartwout, 10 Peters, 153, where it is expressly laid down, that instructions from the treasury department cannot change the law or affect the rights of the parties: that the collector is not bound to take and adopt such instructions, but is at liberty to judge for himself, and act accordingly. And, in that case, the personal responsibility of the collector is fully examined; and his liability held to be governed by the fact, whether he has paid over the money to the treasury before any notice of a claim to have it refunded has been given to him. And it is there settled, that where the money has been paid over to the treasury, without any notice or objection to its being paid over, it is to be considered a purely voluntary payment; and no suit can be maintained against the collector to recover it back: but when, at the time of payment, notice is given to the collector that the duties are charged too high, and accompanied with a declaration, by the party paying the money, that he intends to prosecute him to recover back the amount erroneously paid, in such case the collector is personally liable. And the Court add, that such must necessarily be the rule, unless the broad proposition can be maintained, that no action will lie against a collector to recover back an excess of duties paid him, but that recourse must be had to the government for redress. Such a principle, say the Court, would be extending an exemption to a public officer, beyond any protection sanctioned by any principle of law or sound public policy. And numerous cases in the English Courts are referred to, where suits have been maintained against public officers, to recover back money paid to obtain a release and discharge of goods seized, which were not liable to seizure: the Courts observing, that the revenue laws ought not to be made the means of oppressing the subject. And if an action would lie to recover back money paid to obtain possession of goods illegally seized, the same principle will sustain an action to recover back money illegally exacted, under the penalty of forfeiting all credit at the customhouse, due notice having been given to the collector not to pay it over to the treasury. The true doctrine on this subject is laid down in the case of Bize vs. Dickason, 1 Term. Rep. 286. Lord Mansfield there said the rule had always been, that if a man has paid what the law would not have compelled him to pay, but what in equity and conscience he ought to pay, he cannot recover it back in an action for money had and received: but where money is paid under a mistake, which there was no ground to claim in conscience, the party may recover it back again in this kind of action. If this be the true rule, of which I think there can be no doubt, the plaintiff has a right to recover back the money in this case. It is fully proved that it was included in his bond by mistake, and was held by the collector, without any right in law or conscience to retain it; and payment of the bond was exacted under the penalty of forfeiture of credit at the customhouse. If an action against the collector cannot be maintained to recover back money paid under such circumstances, it is difficult to conceive a case that would sustain an action.

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120 are very peculiar. No one in Mexico, be he native or foreigner, can own a mine absolutely, or in fee, no matter what he may pay for it. He may hold it indefinitely, so long as he works it; but under an old Spanish law, promulgated as far back as 1783, and still recognized, if he fails "to work it for four consecutive months, with four operatives, regularly employed, and occupied in some interior or exterior work of real utility and advantage," the title is forfeited and reverts to the state; and the mine may be "denounced," and shall belong, under the same conditions, "to the denouncer who proves its desertion." The denouncer, to keep the property, must, however, at once take possession and begin the prescribed work within a period of sixty days. Any person also may denounce a mine, no matter upon whose land it may be found; and also have the right to a ready access to it. This practice has one great advantage over the American mining system; and that is, that litigation about original titles and conflicting claims to mining property are comparatively rare in Mexico.

On the plateau of Mexico, where nine tenths of its present population live, there is undoubtedly much good land; but the great drawback to this whole region, as already pointed out, is its lack of water. During the rainy season, which

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Rh in June and lasts about four months, there is a plentiful rainfall for Central and Southern Mexico; but in Northern Mexico the rainfall, for successive years, is not unfrequently so deficient as to occasion large losses, both in respect to stock and to crops. For the remainder of the year, or for some eight months, little or no rain falls, and the climatic characteristic is one of extreme dryness. During the most of the year, therefore, the whole table-land of Mexico is mainly dependent for its water-supply upon a comparatively few springs and storage-reservoirs; and Agriculture can not be generally carried on without resorting to some form of irrigation. One rejoinder to what may be an unfavorable inference from these statements has been the counter-assertion that "in the immediate neighborhood of the large cities enough grain is raised by irrigation to keep constantly more than a year's extra supply ahead to provide against a possible failure of crops"; and, further, that the storage capacity of the existing reservoirs of Mexico might easily be increased, and thus greatly extend the area of land capable of cultivation. But, admitting this, how great must be the obstacles in the way of developing any country where there is a liability to an almost entire failure of the crops from drought; and where the small agricultural

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122, who depends on each year's earnings to meet each year's needs, has always got to anticipate and guard against such a possibility! There are vast tracts of land also in Mexico, especially in the northern part, where grass sufficient for moderate pasturage will grow all or nearly all the year, but on which the water-holes are so few, and so entirely disappear in the dry season, that stock can not live on them. In a report recently sent (January, 1885) to the State Department, by Warner P. Sutton, United States consul-general to Matamoros, the statement is made that the annual value of the agricultural products of the State of South Carolina, having an area of 30,570 square miles, is at least two and a half times as great as the whole like product of the six States of Northern Mexico—namely, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Lower California, and Sonora—which have an area of 355,000 square miles, and represent about one half of the territory of the whole republic; or, making allowance for the areas of land under comparison, the annual agricultural product of South Carolina is from twenty to twenty-five times as valuable as that of the whole northern half of Mexico!

At the same time, while nearly all of Northern Mexico, in common with New Mexico and Arizona and the western part of Texas, is notably a very

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Rh dry country, it has vast tracts covered with highly nutritious grasses, which are eminently fitted for the pasturage of horses, cattle, and sheep; and which at the present time, as they have been for many years past, are abundantly stocked with these animals. In fact, the whole so-called "cattle-range business" had its origin, not in the United States, but in this section of Mexico, whence the current phrases, the manners, customs, and the methods of doing business have been derived and copied all over the United States, wherever live-stock is raised, as it is termed, "on the range." Here also was the original home and origin of the cow-boy; and here, to-day, "herding" constitutes the basis of nearly all business, and the source of nearly all subsistence, profits, and wealth of the inhabitants. Everybody here, as has been remarked, "is more or less of a cow-boy—the lawyer, the doctor, the shoemaker, the tailor, the merchant, and even the editor"; for it is "the man with the spurs and the lariat that gives character to this whole region."

On the "tierras calientes" or comparatively narrow belt of coast-lands, on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Mexico, there is abundance of wood and water, cheap and fertile land, and most luxuriant vegetation, but the climate is such that the white races will never live there in the capacity of laborers. When one hears, therefore, of

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124 possibilities of these regions in respect to coffee, sugar, tobacco, and a wide range of other valuable tropical products, this fact has got to be taken into account. They would, however, seem to be particularly adapted to the introduction and employment of Chinese labor; and during the past year delegations from the associated Chinese Companies of San Francisco have, it is understood, entered into negotiations with the Mexican Government, with a view of promoting an extensive immigration into these portions of the national territory.

In the State of Yucatan the scourge of locusts prevails to such an extent that almost the only agricultural product on which the planter can confidently rely is the plant that furnishes the fiber of the heniquen, which for some reason the locusts do not attack. Fields of maize, well developed in this section of Mexico, are said to be devoured level with the ground by these pests in the course of a single hour.

Again, much of the best land of the plateau of Mexico is in the nature of valleys surrounded by mountains, or of strips or sections separated by deserts. Thus, for example, to get from the city of Mexico into the fertile valley of Toluca, a comparatively short distance, one has to ascend nearly three thousand feet within the first twenty-four

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Rh miles: while between Chihuahua and Zacatecas there is an immense desert tract, over which the "Mexican Central Railway" has to transport in supply-tanks the water necessary for its locomotives. It is true that in both of these instances the natural difficulties have now in a great measure been remedied by railroad constructions; but when it is remembered that, outside of the leading cities and towns of Mexico, there are hardly any wheeled vehicles, save some huge, cumbersome carts with thick, solid, wooden wheels (a specimen of which, exhibited as a curiosity, may be seen in the National Museum at Washington); that the transportation of commodities is mainly effected on the backs of donkeys or of men; that the roads in Mexico, as a general thing, are hardly deserving of the name; and that, even with good, ordinary roads and good teams and vehicles at command, a ton of corn worth twenty-five dollars at a market is worth nothing at a distance of a hundred and

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126 twenty miles—remembering these things, one can readily accept the statement that, in many sections of Mexico, no effort is made to produce anything in the way of crop products, except what has been found necessary to meet the simplest wants of the producers; and for the reason that experience has proved to them that it was not possible to obtain anything in exchange for their surplus.

The plow generally in use in Mexico is a crooked stick, with sometimes an iron point; the yoke being lashed with rawhide thongs to the horns of the oxen which draw the prehistoric implement. American plows are beginning to be introduced to a considerable extent; but the Mexican peasant on coming into possession of one, generally cuts off one handle, in order to make it conform, as far as he can, to his ancient implement; and in recognition of this peculiarity of habit, an Illinois firm has recently introduced a form of plow with one handle! A bundle of brush constitutes the harrow. "Their hoes are heavy grub-hoes, and grass is cut by digging it up with such a hoe." "The sickle is of the conventional type of the time of the patriarchs, but, instead of having a sharp edge, it is provided with saw-teeth, and is used in gathering small grain, the employment

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Rh of a cradle for such a purpose being unknown. In nearly all of Mexico, with the exception of some few districts, all grain is thrashed by the feet of horses or mules, which are driven round in a ring, the straw having been first spread on the ground, and the grain is separated from the chaff by the action of the wind. One objection urged by the Mexicans to thrashing-machines is that they leave the straw whole, while by the use of horses it is by the constant trampling cut up as fine as though run through a feed-cutter, and, as this straw is universally used as feed, any further preparation is obviated."—Consul Campbell.

On not a few of the great haciendas of Mexico American and English agricultural machinery has, however, been introduced, and more or less used. But cheapness of manual labor and the great cost incident to transportation, local taxes, etc. (agricultural machinery being free from import duties), constitute serious drawbacks to the introduction of improved machinery into the country. Added to this, should any part of a costly and unfamiliar machine break upon one of the great estates, no Mexican blacksmith can repair it—especially if the broken part is cast-iron—and the machine, in most cases, is laid aside for that season.

Nothing exhibits more strikingly the present poverty of Mexico, and the present inefficiency of

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128 her agriculture—notwithstanding the natural advantages claimed for this industry, and that it is undoubtedly the principal occupation and support of her people—than a brief comparison of some of the results which have been recently reported for Mexico and the United States. According to a report published in 1883, by M. Bodo von Glaimer, an accepted Mexican authority, and other data, gathered and published by Señor Cubas, United States Consul-General Sutton, and the Agricultural Bureau at Washington, the value of all the leading agricultural products of Mexico—corn, wheat, sugar, tobacco, beans, coffee, and the like—for the year 1882 was estimated at about $175,000,000. But the present estimated value of the oat-crop alone of the United States is $180,000,000. Again, corn constitutes the staple food of the Mexican people, and its product for 1882 was estimated at about 213,000,000 bushels; which, with an assumed population of ten million, would give a product of 21$3/10$ bushels per capita. But for the United States for the year 1885 the product of corn was about thirty-three bushels per capita.

Although much of the soil of Mexico is undoubtedly well adapted to the cultivation of wheat, it is as yet a crop little grown or used—wheat-bread being eaten only by the well-to-do classes.

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Rh Its product for 1882 was estimated at 12,500,000 bushels, or at the rate of about 1$3/10$ bushel per capita; while for the year 1885, with a very deficient crop, the wheat product of the United States was in excess of six bushels per capita. Mexican coffee is as good as, and probably better than, the coffee of Brazil, and yet Mexico in 1883-'84 exported coffee to all countries to the value of only $1,717,190, while the value of the exports of coffee from Brazil to the United States alone, for the year 1885, was in excess of $30,000,000! Much has also been said of the wonderful adaptation of a great part of the territory of Mexico for the production of sugar, and everything that has been claimed may be conceded; but, at the same time, sugar is not at present either produced or consumed in comparatively large quantities in Mexico, and, in common with coffee—another natural product of the country—is regarded rather as a luxury than as an essential article of food. Thus the sugar product of Mexico for the year 1877-'78 the latest year for which data are readily accessible, amounted to only 154,549,662 pounds. Assuming the product for the present year (1886) to be as great as 200,000,000 pounds, this would give a Mexican per capita consumption of only twenty pounds as compared with a similar present consumption in the United States of nearly fifty

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130 pounds. The further circumstance that Mexico at the present time imports more sugar than it exports; and that the price of sugar in Mexico is from two to four times as great as the average for the United States—coarse-grained, brownish-white, unrefined sugar retailing in the city of Mexico for twelve and a half cents a pound (with coffee at twenty-five cents)—is also conclusive on this point. With the present very poor outlook for the producers of cane sugars in all parts of the world, owing mainly to the bounty stimulus offered by the governments of Europe for the production of beet-sugar; and the further fact that the only hope for the former is in the use of the most improved machinery, and the making of nothing but the best sugars at the point of cane production, the idea so frequently brought forward that labor and capital are likely to find their way soon into the hot, unhealthy coast-lands of Mexico, in preference to Cuba and South America, and that the country is to be speedily and greatly profited by her natural sugar resources, has little of foundation. And, as additional

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132 The completion of the railways leading to the United States has prejudiced the market and greatly diminished the production of cotton in Mexico, as cotton can now be imported without the expense and delay that were hitherto unavoidable.

Potatoes are grown to a small extent in Mexico. The seed appears to degenerate, and needs frequent changes. A sort of sweet-potato, called the camote, is grown, but not extensively. Whatever, therefore, may be the natural capabilities of Mexico for agriculture, they are certainly for the future rather than of the present.

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134 in connection with the famous mines of Guanajuato. Many years ago an English company bought the famous Real del Monte mine, near Pachuca, which is reported to have yielded in a single year, with rude labor, $4,500,000. It was assumed that two things only were requisite to insure even greater returns; namely, the pumping out of the water which had accumulated in the abandoned shafts, and the introduction of improved machinery for working at lower levels. Large steam-engines and other machinery were accordingly imported from England, and dragged up by mule-power from Vera Cruz, at immense cost and labor. But the new scheme proved utterly unprofitable, and after some years' trial was abandoned. The expensive machinery was sold for about its value as old iron; the mines reverted to a Mexican company; the old methods were again substantially introduced, and then the property once more began to pay.

Deposits of coal of good quality are from time to time reported as existing, and readily accessible. But the fact that the "Mexican Central Railroad" supplies itself from the coal-fields of Colorado, nearly fifteen hundred miles from the city of Mexico, and that the "Vera Cruz Railroad" and the great silver-mines at Pachuca import their coal from England—the latter at a reported cost

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Rh of twenty-two dollars per ton—is in itself sufficient evidence that no coal from any Mexican mine has yet been made largely available for industrial purposes. In Central Mexico, wood commands at the present time from twelve to sixteen dollars per cord, and coal from fifteen to twenty-one dollars per ton.

On the other hand, the handicraft production of many articles of domestic use, such as laborers' tools and implements, hand-woven fabrics of cotton, wool, hemp, ixtle and other fibers, sandals, saddles, earthenware and tiles, the national hat, or sombrero, of wool or woven palm-leaf, baskets, trays, the national liquor, pulque, and its distillates and the like, constitutes a great domestic industry, which, as it is individual and unorganized, is of necessity very imperfectly known, and can not be recognized or represented by statistics. The number of factories of all kinds, using power, in Mexico, in 1883, was returned at somewhat over one hundred. Included in this number were eighty-four cotton-factories, running 243,534

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136 spindles, ten woolen-mills, and five establishments for the printing of calicoes, representing a valuation of $9,507,775, and giving employment to 12,646 operatives of both sexes, of which 7,680 were men, 2,111 women, and 2,855 children.

The range of product of the Mexican factories is exceedingly limited, and comprises little besides the coarser cottons and woolens, the coarser varieties of paper, a few (cloth) printing and dye works, milling (flour), some machine-shops, and the manufacture of unrefined sugar.

Notwithstanding, also, that Mexico is an agricultural country, she does not produce sufficient material (cotton and wool) to keep her small number of textile factories in operation; and for this reason, and also because of the inferior quality of cotton produced, she imports a considerable proportion of her raw cotton from the United States (5,877,000 pounds in 1885), and also of her wool from Australia.

The two largest and finest cotton-factories in Mexico are located at Querétaro, on the Mexican plateau, and at Orizaba, on the line of the "Vera

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Rh Cruz Railroad," and just at the foot of the great decline from the plateau; and it is interesting to note that, although the land adjacent to both of these factories is eminently adapted to the culture of cotton, and cotton is actually grown upon it, one half of the cotton used at Querétaro is American, while at Orizaba none other is used but the best New Orleans.

The industry of Mexican pottery, a handicraft exclusively, employs a great many laborers, but has no organization—every community, and almost every family, in the districts where the conditions for production are favorable, making its own wares, as iron, tin, and copper cooking utensils are almost unknown in the domestic life of the masses of the Mexican people. The Indian manufacturer packs his pottery into wicker crates, about two feet broad and from five to six feet long, and starts to different portions of the country, on foot, with the crate on his back. Consul Lambert, of San Blas, states that he has known one "to travel more than two hundred and fifty miles to find a market, and dispose of his articles at prices varying from one and a half to twelve, and, in the case of large pieces, as high as eighteen cents,

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130 receiving, in the aggregate, for the sale of his cargo, from twelve to fifteen dollars."

The manufacture of leather is also one of the great industries of Mexico; but, with the exception of the sewing-machine, which has been largely introduced, in this and other occupations, the product is exclusively one of handicraft In a country where everybody rides who can, the saddlery business is especially important; and by general acknowledgment there are no better saddles made anywhere in the world than in Mexico; and yet the United States has for many years exported from twenty to thirty thousand dollars' worth of saddles annually to Mexico. The explanation is, that the mechanical appliances used in the United States for making the "trees," and for stamping, cutting, sewing, and ornamental stitching, enable the American manufacturers to pay an import duty of fifty-five per cent, and undersell the hand-product of the low price (but dear cost) Mexican artisan. Consul-General Sutton, of Matamoros, reports to the State Department, under date of July, 1885, that Mexican dealers send to the United States model saddle-trees and designs for trappings, and find it more profitable to have the major part of the work of saddle-making done there, than to do it all by the low-wage hand-labor of their own country.

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Rh "Hitherto public opinion in Mexico has almost absolutely prohibited any respectable female from engaging in any professional or personal occupations, and "any occupation or profession which would draw a woman from the seclusion of her domestic circle would entail upon her loss of caste and the general reprobation of her sex. An educated lady may devote herself to teaching the poor from motives of religious zeal, or exhibit her musical talents in public at a charity concert, but professionally never. Pressed by poverty, a Mexican lady will work in lace, embroidery, or other artistic labor, and sell her productions privately, or even give private lessons in music, etc.; but all the female professional teachers, artists, boarding-house keepers, etc., are foreigners, or nearly all; for of late years, foreign travel, foreign education, and contact with foreigners at home, combined with the liberalizing tendency of reform laws, have somewhat modified the strictness of Mexican society in this regard. Among the Indians and lower classes of Mexico, however, the women take part promiscuously in all the labors, occupations, interests, and amusements incident to their condition in life, and are neither secluded nor oppressed."—Report by United States Consul Strother, 1885.

No country affords such striking illustrations as Mexico of the fallacy and absurdity of the

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140 called "pauper-labor" argument for "protection"; or of the theory, which has proved so popular and effective in the United States, for justifying the enactment of high tariffs, that the rate of wages paid for labor is the factor that is mainly determinative of the cost of the resulting product; and that, therefore, for a country of average high wages, the defense of a protective tariff against a country of average low wages is absolutely necessary as a condition for the successful prosecution by the former of its industries.

Wages, on the average, in Mexico, are from one half to two thirds less than what are paid in similar occupations in the United States; and yet in comparison with the United States the price of almost all products of industry in Mexico is high. Thus, in the city of Mexico, where wages rule higher than in almost any part of the republic, the average daily wages in some of the principal occupations during the year 1885 were as follow: Laborers, porters, etc., forty to fifty cents; masons, seventy-five cents to one dollar; assistants, thirty-seven and a half to fifty cents; teamsters, fifty cents; blacksmiths, one dollar and fifty cents; printers, one dollar; saddle and harness makers, sixty-two cents; tailors, seventy-five cents; painters, eighty-seven and a half cents; weavers in the cotton-mills at Tepic and Santiago, four dollars per

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Rh week of seventy-two hours; spinners, three dollars ditto. In the cotton-mills in the vicinity of the city of Mexico a much higher average is reported. The operatives in the woolen manufactories of Mexico are in receipt of higher average wages than those in almost any other domestic industry; and Mexican woolen fabrics are comparatively cheap and of good style and quality. Underground miners, at the great mines of Zacatecas and Guanajuato, receive an average of nine dollars per week of sixty hours; underground laborers, three dollars ditto.

The wages of common or agricultural laborers vary greatly according to their nationality, location, and character of employment. The Indian agriculturist rarely achieves more than a meager and miserable support for himself and his family, with possibly a little surplus to pay his taxes to the State and his dues to the Church.

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142 to the "Mexican Financier" of recent date, "the wages of farm-laborers on the central table-lands of Mexico range from eighteen to twenty-three cents per day, and in the hot-country States, and on the coast, where labor is not so plentiful, the rates average from thirty-seven to fifty cents per day." Agricultural laborers in the district of San Blas average nineteen cents per day, with an allowance of sixteen pounds of corn per week. On a hacienda near Regla, in Central Mexico,

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Rh comprising an area some eighteen miles in length by twelve in its greatest breadth, and including an artificial lake two miles in its principal dimensions, the wages paid in 1883 were six cents a day for boys and thirty-seven cents for the best class of adults.

All statements of this nature have, however, but little of significance unless account at the same time is taken of the value or purchasing power of the wages received, the needs of the wage recipient, and the character and value of the work which the wages purchase; and when these matters are given due consideration it will be undoubtedly found that wages in Mexico, as everywhere else, sustain a pretty constant ratio to the value of the services rendered, the inefficient and primitive methods used, and the necessities of the laborers; and that if they seem to a citizen of the United States to be extraordinarily low, it should be remembered that the Mexican peasant, living in a mild and in part tropical climate, has not the stimulus of prospective want which exists elsewhere to incite to industrial effort, and is not required to labor to meet expenditures for fuel, clothing, food, and habitation, which in temperate and colder countries are essential for comfort and even for existence; or, in other words, his

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