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Rh talents, a student of botany and conchology. Thus men of the same tastes meet everywhere, yet surely I did not expect to meet a naturalist on the Labrador coast. The vessel is on a surveying cruise, and we are likely to be in company the whole summer. The first lieutenant studies ornithology and collects. After a while I gave my letter from the Duke of Sussex to the captain, who read and returned it without comment. As I was leaving, the rain poured down, and I was invited to remain, but declined; the captain promised to do anything for me in his power. Saw many Siskins, but cannot get a shot at one.

June 23. It was our intention to have left this morning for another harbor, about fifty miles east, but the wind being dead ahead we are here still. I have drawn all day, at the background of the Gannets. John and party went off about six miles, and returned with half a dozen Guillemots, and ten or twelve dozen eggs. Coolidge brought in Arctic Terns and L. marinus; two young of the latter about three weeks old, having the same voice and notes as the old ones. When on board they ran about the deck, and fed themselves with pieces of fish thrown to them. These young Gulls, as well as young Herons of every kind, sit on the tarsus when fatigued, with their feet extended before them in a very awkward-looking position, but one which to them is no doubt comfortable. Shattuck and I took a walk over the dreary hills about noon; the sun shone pleasantly, and we found several flowers in full bloom, amongst which the Kalmia glauca, a beautiful small species, was noticeable. The captain and surgeon from the "Gulnare" called and invited me to dine with them to-morrow. This evening we have been visiting the Montagnais Indians' camp, half a mile from us, and found them skinning Seals, and preparing the flesh for use. Saw a robe the size of a good blanket made of seal-skins tanned so soft and beautiful, with the hair on, that it was as pliant as a kid glove; they would

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158 In the coure of the night a large wave dahed over the deck of our veel, having made its way through the opening between the fore-catle and quarter-deck, where we kept our boats. When I prang out of my bed, I found the cabin filled with water, and imagined we were going to the bottom. It kept us a long time employed before we could rid the hip of the water it had taken in. Three or four uch waves would infallibly have unk us. We hould not have ran such a hazard, if we had been provided with means to lay gratings over the large opening by which the wave entered.

On the 17th of April, when we were in lat. 43° S. long. 129° E. the variation of the magnetic needle was 0.

The Eperance was apprised, that in cae of eparation, our rendezvous at Van Diemen's Cape was to be the Bay of Adventure, intead of the Baie des Huitres.

We lay to under our fore-ail during the night of the 20th, as our day's work had brought us o near the coast, that we could not carry full ail. At nine in the evening, we ounded, without triking ground, with a line of eventy-five fathoms. We brought up with the lead a great quantity of phophoric substances, from about three to even inches in circumference. As the com-


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106 dead pine and, perching in one place, began to call the female. I heard her answer with a note like the squeak of a mouse but could not tell from what direction it was coming. After ten minutes of this he suddenly became silent and flew over several trees into a short-leaf pine whose branches were weighted down with masses of twigs and cones. I could not see where he entered but presently he flew from a clump on one of the lower branches. All excitement I climbed the tree with my rope and after some maneuvering was able to reach and investigate the clump but found no nest tho I cut off the twigs one by one to make sure. This was very tiresome work but I felt sure the nest was in that tree so descended and hid under a tree near by. Soon the female began to call again. Then the male came and fed her and I saw him go. Climbing up once more I searcht another bunch, found

nothing, and came down to wait again. Not to drag the tale out further, it was not until three o'clock, and a large part of the tree lay on the ground that I spied a blade of grass about three feet above me, and on pushing my hand thru the thick cluster of twigs flusht the female. The tree was not a very large one and I had shaken every branch and jarred them with my foot, but until I practically toucht the nest she had stayed on. Incubation was fresh. As this was my first set since 1899 I was much elated and forgot in a jiffy my tired muscles. After packing the eggs I cut off and lowered the entire cluster in which the nest was hidden. It must have weighed all of seventy-five pounds and formed a green ball about three and one-half feet in diameter. The nest was invisible except when the twigs were parted. The female hopt about within a few inches of my hands as I removed the eggs, uttering one of her characteristic notes very softly.

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 INTRODUCTION.

ORIGIN.

HE most careless reader can hardly fail to see that many of the Tales in this volume have the same ground-work as those with which he has been familiar from his earliest youth. They are Nursery Tales, in fact, of the days when there were tales in nurseries—old wives' fables, which have faded away before the light of gas and the power of steam. It is long, indeed, since English nurses told these tales to English children by force of memory and word of mouth. In a written shape, we have long had some of them at least in English versions of the Contes de ma Mère l'Oye of Perrault, and the Contes de Fées of Madame D'Aulnoy; those tight-laced, high-heeled tales of the "teacup times" of Louis XIV. and his successors, in which the popular tale appears to as much disadvantage as an artless country girl in the stifling atmosphere of a London theatre. From these foreign sources, after the voice of the English reciter was hushed—and it was hushed in England more than a century ago—our great-grandmothers learnt to tell of Cinderella and Beauty and the Beast, of Little Red Riding-Hood and Blue Beard, mingled together in the Cabinet des Fées with Sindbad the Sailor and Aladdin's wondrous lamp; for that was an uncritical age, and its spirit breathed hot and cold, east and west, from all quarters of the globe at once,


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 xliv the traditions and tales of all times and countries into one incongruous mass of fable, as much tangled and knotted as that famous pound of flax which the lassie in one of these Tales is expected to spin into an even woof within four-and-twenty hours. No poverty of invention or want of power on the part of translators could entirely destroy the innate beauty of those popular traditions; but here, in England at least, they had almost dwindled out, or at any rate had been lost sight of as homegrowths. We had learnt to buy our own children back disguised in foreign garb; and as for their being anything more than the mere pastime of an idle hour—as to their having any history or science of their own—such an absurdity was never once thought of. It had, indeed, been remarked, even in the eighteenth century—that dreary time of indifference and doubt—that some of the popular traditions of the nations north of the Alps contained striking resemblances and parallels to stories in the classical mythology. But those were the days when Greek and Latin lorded it over the other languages of the earth; and when any such resemblance or analogy was observed, it was commonly supposed that that base-born slave, the vulgar tongue, had dared to make a clumsy copy of something peculiarly belonging to the twin tyrants who ruled all the dialects of the world with a pedant's rod.

At last, just at the close of that great war which Western Europe waged against the genius and fortune of the first Napoleon; just as the eagle—Prometheus and the eagle in one shape—was fast fettered by sheer force and strength to his rock in the Atlantic, there arose a man in Central Germany, on the old Thuringian soil, to


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 Rh whom it was given to assert the dignity of vernacular literature, to throw off the yoke of classical tyranny, and to claim for all the dialects of Teutonic speech a right of ancient inheritance and perfect freedom before unsuspected and unknown. It is almost needless to mention this honoured name. For the furtherance of the good work which he began nearly fifty years ago, he still lives and still labours. There is no spot on which an accent of Teutonic speech is uttered where the name of Jacob Grimm is not a "household word." His General Grammar of all the Teutonic Dialects from Iceland to England has proved the equality of these tongues with their ancient classical oppressors. His Antiquities of Teutonic Law have shewn that the codes of the Lombards, Franks, and Goths were not mere savage, brutal customaries, based, as had been supposed, on the absence of all law and right.. His numerous treatises on early German authors have shewn that the German poets of the Middle Age, Godfrey of Strasburg, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von der Aue, Walter von der Vogelweide, and the rest, can hold their own against any contemporary writers in other lands. And lastly, what rather concerns us here, his Teutonic Mythology, his Reynard the Fox, and the collection of German Popular Tales, which he and his brother William published, have thrown a flood of light on the early history of all the branches of our race, and have raised what had come to be .looked on as mere nursery fictions and old wives' fables—to a study fit for the energies of grown men, and to all the dignity of a science.


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1. . 2. . 3. . (.). 4. . 5. 5. . 6. . 7..

. (Chiefly in the Museum at Warrington.)

To face page 232.

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xlvi In these pages, where we have to run over a vast tract of space, the reader who wishes to learn and not to cavil—and for such alone this Introduction is intended—must be content with results rather than processes and steps. To use a homely likeness, he must be satisfied with the soup that is set before him, and not desire to see the bones of the ox out of which it has been boiled. When we say, therefore, that in these latter days the philology and mythology of the East and West have met and kissed each other; that they now go hand in hand; that they lend one another mutual support; that one cannot be understood without the other, we look to be believed. We do not expect to be put to the proof, how the labours of Grimm and his disciples on this side were first rendered possible by the linguistic discoveries of Anquetil du Perron and others in India and France, at the end of the last century; then materially assisted and furthered by the researches of Sir William Jones, Colebrooke, and others, in India and England during the early part of this century, and finally have become identical with those of Wilson, Bopp, Lassen, and Max Müller, at the present day. The affinity, which exists in a mythological and philological point of view, between the Aryan or Indo-European languages on the one hand, and the Sanscrit on the other, is now the first article of a literary creed, and the man who denies it puts himself as much beyond the pale of argument as he who, in a religious discussion, should meet a grave divine of the Church of England with the strict contradictory of her first article, and loudly declare his conviction that there was no God. In a general way, then, we may be permitted to dogmatize, and to lay it down as a law which


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 Rh is always in force, that the first authentic history of a nation is the history of its tongue. We can form no notion of the literature of a country apart from its language, and the consideration of its language necessarily involves the consideration of its history. Here is England, for instance, with a language, and therefore a literature, composed of Celtic, Roman, Saxon, Norse, and Romance elements. Is not this simple fact suggestive of—nay, does it not challenge us to—an inquiry into the origin and history of the races who have passed over our island, and left their mark not only on the soil but on our speech? Again, to take a wider view, and to rise from archæology to science, what problem has interested the world in a greater degree than the origin of man, and what toil has not been spent in tracing all races back to their common stock? The science of comparative philology—the inquiry, not into one isolated language—for now-a-days it may fairly be said of a man who knows only one language that he knows none—but into all the languages of one family, and thus to reduce them to one common centre, from which they spread like the rays of the sun,—if it has not solved, is in a fair way of solving, this problem. When we have done for the various members of each family what has been done of late years for the Indo-European tongues, its solution will be complete. In such an inquiry the history of a race is, in fact, the history of its language, and can be nothing else; for we have to deal with times antecedent to all history, properly so called, and the stream which in later ages may be divided into many branches now flows in a single channel.

From the East, then, came our ancestors, in days of immemorial antiquity, in that grey dawn of time of which


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 Rh He witnessed, as a Westminster boy, the coronation of William the Fourth. The ceremony in the Abbey, and the burning of the old Houses of Parliament a few years later were, he used to say, the things which most impressed themselves upon his boyish memory at the time. Nor was it likely that the agitation prevailing in the country at the time of the great Reform Movement would find much reflection within the walls of St. Peter's College on the Isle of Thorns, although Westminster was then the favoured school of the great Whig families of England.

In 1832 Dasent's father died, and the final emancipation of the slaves a little later proving the death-knell of the commercial prosperity of the West Indian islands, it became increasingly difficult for the proprietors to live upon their estates. The care of the younger children devolved in great measure upon their half-brother John Bury Dasent [late Judge of County Courts, who died, aged eighty-one, in 1888], then a young student of the Middle Temple, residing on very slender means in Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street.

It so happened that John Sterling, the amiable son of the "Thunderer of the Times" had visited St. Vincent in 1831, shortly before old Mr. Dasent's death, to assume the management of a sugar estate at a place called Colonarie. His health had been very indifferent, and it was hoped that a voyage to the tropics in a sailing-ship would restore it. An intimacy, not without influence on the future career of young George Dasent, as will be seen hereafter, soon sprang up between the two families.

After leaving Westminster, Dasent went for a time to


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 xx King's College, London, and it was there that he first became intimately acquainted with his life-long friend and future brother-in-law, John Thadeus Delane. In 1836 they both matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, of which Dr. Macbride was then the Principal, and Jacobson, afterwards Bishop of Chester, the Vice-Principal.

At Oxford, Dasent read hard, and became a good classical scholar, though by no means neglecting the river or the cricket-field, his interest indeed in athletics and any feats of endurance only ceasing with life itself.

He soon became a favourite with Jacobson, as did Delane; and another lasting friendship begun at Magdalen Hall was with Manuel Johnson who, after taking his degree, was appointed to succeed Rigaud as Radcliffe Observer.

Johnson was very popular in the university, and the Observatory became the resort of the leaders of the High Church party in Oxford. Here Dasent, who was a frequent visitor, came for a time under the spell of Newman; but a more enduring religious influence seems to have been exerted over him by Maurice, whose kindly nature never failed to appeal to the young. We gather from Dasent's diary that he rarely missed the university sermon when Newman or Pusey preached, and that so great was the crowd at St. Mary's to hear the latter that undergraduates waited patiently for the doors to open, when a scramble ensued for places, like the rush at the doors of a popular theatre.

In Easter Term 1840 he took his degree, obtaining a Second Class in Classics in the company of James Anthony Froude, Lord Farrer, and the late Mr. John


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 Rh Walter. In his diary he records that he "did not know whether to be pleased or not. On the whole, perhaps, I have no cause to complain as the first and second [classes] are both small, and I have beaten some men thought better than myself, and have been beaten by no one thought worse."

At any rate he was placed in a company not less distinguished in after achievement than is to be found in the first class of the same honours list.

After going down from the university he spent some little time in London, where his mother had now removed from the West Indies. Delane, who about this time was established in the editorial chair of the Times, was in constant association with him, and it was at this early period of his career that Dasent began to write articles for the paper which he afterwards served so faithfully and so well in an official capacity.

Sterling, who had returned from St. Vincent some years before, introduced him to his father, and Dasent became a frequent visitor at the white house in South Place, Knightsbridge. Here he became acquainted with Carlyle, whose works he had long admired, and whose rugged honesty of purpose and independent character proved an immediate attraction to his opening mind; with John Stuart Mill, with Julius Hare, and with Thackeray, the latter then only known to fame from the publication of the Yellow-Plush Papers.

The elder Sterling, in the evening of his days, after he had practically ceased to launch his thunderbolts in the press, loved to gather men of intellect, both young and old, round his dinner-table. Carlyle, in his Life of John


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 xxii Sterling, speaks of 'the miscellany of social faces round him, of his "kindly advice to the young," and of the "frank and joyous parties" at the Knightsbridge house, a "sunny islet" in the literary London of that age.

Dasent next proceeded to Stockholm as secretary to Sir Thomas Cartwright, the British Envoy to the Court of Sweden, having been recommended to him by his old tutor Jacobson as a young man of great promise and ability.

In these days of rapid railway travelling, when the Swedish capital has been brought within fifty hours of London, it is interesting to read the description given by him in his MS. diary of the dangers and difficulties attending a journey to northern Europe during the bitter winter of 1840-41.

After taking leave of his mother, on New Year's Day 1841, he, the only cabin passenger in the ship, embarked on the City of Hamburg, lying off the Tower Stairs, and reached Cuxhaven on the 4th of January, posting the seventy miles on to Hamburg in twenty-nine hours!

Thence the Copenhagen diligence crawled at a snail's pace through Holstein till a heavy fall of snow compelled him to take to a sledge, "escorted," the diary tells us, "by a band of the most savage peasantry it is possible to conceive." The Danish capital was not reached till the 14th of the month; and here he learnt from Sir Henry Wynn, to whom he brought letters of introduction, that he had missed the diligence for Stockholm by a day. In spite, however, of the extreme cold then prevailing, Dasent, whose impetuous nature was always impatient of delay, again resorted to an open sledge contrary to Wynn's advice, and reaching Elsinore he bargained for a boat to carry him to Helsingborg.


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 Rh But soon after thrusting out from the land "we heard a harsh grating sound against our bows, and found we were on the edge of what seemed to be a boundless sheet of ice on its way from the Baltic to the North Sea, which appeared willing to rest for the night off the harbour of Elsinore." The next day, the ice having shifted a little, Dasent landed safely on Swedish soil, and again taking a sledge, and carrying his provisions with him, he at last reached Stockholm, by dint of travelling night and day in the bitterest of weather, on the twenty-fifth day after going on board ship in the Thames.

At Stockholm he remained about four years, paying however occasional visits to England, and visiting Frankfort-on-the-Main, and other places in Germany, with the Cartwright family.

It was during his stay in Stockholm that he developed that genuine and lasting love of Scandinavian literature and the mythology of the North, with which his name has always been so conspicuously associated. Encouraged by the great Jacob Grimm to master the languages of the North, he soon devoted himself to the study of the Sagas. Few human records, indeed, exist which portray society in its primitive form so graphically, abundantly, and truthfully as the Sagas of Iceland.

"It is with the everyday life of the Icelanders that we feel ourselves thoroughly at home. In the hall of the gallant Gunnar at Lithend, or with the peaceful and lawskilled Njal at Bergthorsknoll, we meet men who think and act as men of noble minds and gentle hearts have ever acted, and will never cease to act, so long as human nature remains the same. Gisli, the generous outlaw,


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 xxiv and Snorri, the worldly-wise priest, Mord Valgardson, the wily traitor, and Hallgerda, the overbearing hateful wife, are characters true for all time, whose works and ways are but eminent examples of our common humanity, and at once arouse our sympathy or our antipathy."

In 1842 he dedicated his first book to Thomas Carlyle in gratitude for the encouragement he received from him to definitely devote himself to literature.

This was a translation of the Prose, or Younger Edda, and was published at Stockholm. In the course of the following year appeared his Grammar of the Icelandic or Old Norse Tongue, from the Swedish of Erasmus Eask; and his Theophilus in Icelandic, Low German and other Tongues, from MSS. to which he had access in the Eoyal Library at Stockholm, followed in 1845.

He returned to England in the spring of this latter year and joined Delane at the Times Office as assistant editor, a post which he continued to fill with remarkable ability for the next quarter of a century. Of very different natures each of the two young brothersin-law, "John "Walter's three-year-olds," as they were sometimes called, contributed something which was wanting in the character of the other, and the result was a remarkable smoothness and evenness in the conduct of the paper. Though neither was at any time of his life what could be called a party man the instincts of Delane were decidedly Liberal; and Dasent himself wrote that during his whole tenure of office the columns of the Times "are composed out of the very ore of liberty and progress, and will for ever remain fehe best monument to his memory."


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Betham, Mary Matilda


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User:Octahedron80

My home is on Thai wikipedia. You can contact me at w:th:user:octahedron80.

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 volumes and the figures large folios; the abundance of forms in the Thallophytes proved to be so great that many botanists devoted their whole attention to them, many collected and described only the Algae, others only the Fungi and Lichens. It is true that a deeper insight into the connection of these forms of life with one another and with other plants was not to be obtained in this way; still an empirical basis was formed for a knowledge of the Cryptogams, such as had been established for the Phanerogams by the herbals of the 17th century. All forms open to observation were named and arranged in one way or another; and there was no difficulty in understanding what form was meant, when names, or tables and figures, were cited from the various books. Of such works, those of Agardh, Harvey, and Kützing on the Algae, those of Nees von Esenbeck , Elias Fries, Léveillé, and Berkeley on the Fungi, and especially Corda's elaborate work on the latter plants are the most valuable.


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 The views entertained on the subject of the development and propagation of the lower Cryptogams down to the year 1850 were very uncertain and fluctuating. In some Algae, Fungi, and Lichens certain organs of multiplication and propagation were known, in others they were quite unknown; some forms appeared in places and under circumstances which seemed to necessitate the assumption of spontaneous generation; in 1827 Meyen declared that the small Algae, known as 'Priestley's matter,' which are formed in stagnant water and even in closed vessels, are produced by free generation, and Kützing endeavoured to show this by experiment in 1833; some Fungi were regarded as diseased growths from other organisms, many were supposed to spring up spontaneously, though they might be capable at the same time of propagating themselves by spores; this view was shared by even the best botanists with regard to the most simple Fungi up to 1850. But the systematic investigation of the Algae and Fungi was as little hindered by the notion of spontaneous generation after 1850 as that of Phanerogams had been in the 17th century by the same notion; it was however at first affected by the view put forth by Hornschuch in 1821 and by Kützing in 1833, that the simplest of all Alga-cells (Protococcus and Palmella), once produced spontaneously, could develop according to circumstances into a variety of Algae, and even of Lichens and Mosses; as some observers even now consider Penicillium and Micrococcus to be the starting-points of very different Fungi. There was a difficulty also in drawing the boundary-line between the lower animals and plants; the difficulty was solved by classing all objects capable of independent movement with animals; thus whole families of Algae (the Volvocineae, Bacillariaceae, and others) were claimed by the zoologists, and when the swarmspores of a genuine Alga were seen for the first time in the act of escaping, the phenomenon was described as the changing of the plant into an animal. Trentepohl in 1807, and Unger in 1830, explained in this way


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 the escape of the zoospores of Vaucheria. The remarkable thing is, not that such views were entertained, but that the majority of botanists combined with them a belief in the constancy of species. But this dogma rendered good service to the science in this instance, for the botanists, who at a later time applied themselves to the systematic examination of the Algae and Fungi, confided in the constancy of the processes of development in each species, which they expected would assert itself in these forms as in the Mosses and higher plants.

With much that was obscure and doubtful, the result of occasional observation accompanied by uncritical interpretation, the literature of the subject had contained for some time a certain number of single well-established facts of real importance, which were well adapted to serve as starting-points for earnest and exact investigation. Among the Algae the genera Spirogyra and Vaucheria especially had supplied remarkable phenomena; Joseph Gärtner observed the formation of zygospores in Spirogyra in 1788, Hedwig saw in the mode of their production at least a suggestion of sexuality (1798), and Vaucher, in his 'Histoire de Conferves d'eau douce,' which appeared in 1803 and was far in advance of its time, called conjugation distinctly a sexual process; the optical means at his disposal did not enable him to observe the fertilisation in Vaucheria (Ectosperma), which was named after him, though he described the sexual organs accurately; the movement also of the zoospores in this genus escaped him, and Trentepohl first observed their escape and swarming in 1807. Vaucher had also observed the formation of new nets in the old cells of Hydrodictyon, and Areschoug repeated the observation in 1842, when he saw the swarming of young cells in the old ones. Bischoff, as early as 1828, saw the spermatozoids of


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 1517, and Vannes immediately wrote to Wolsey begging for some living left vacant by his kinsman's death. At the same time Ammonio's friend Erasmus wrote to Vannes desiring him to collect his correspondence with Ammonio and return it to him. Erasmus was not satisfied with Vannes's efforts to do so, and complained that he could find in Vannes none of Ammonio's genius or temper (ib. ii. 4103, 4107). Silvestro Gigli [q. v.], a native of Lucca and bishop of Worcester, strongly recommended Vannes to Wolsey, and Lorenzo (afterwards cardinal) Campeggio [q. v.] in 1521 sought Vannes's influence to secure his promotion to the see of Worcester. On 12 Nov. 1521 Vannes was presented to the living of Mottram in the diocese of Coventry and Lichfield, and in 1523 he was incorporated B.D. at Cambridge. He is termed ‘frater’ in the proctor's books, but it is not known to what order he belonged.

A vast number of documents calendared by Brewer and Gairdner are in Vannes's handwriting, but they do not supply the exact date when Vannes added the Latin secretaryship to the king to his similar office under Wolsey. In 1526 an unsuccessful effort was made to secure for him the bishopric of Lucca, and in October-November of that year he was in Rome (ib. iv. 2158, 2542). In July 1527 he accompanied Wolsey on his magnificent embassy to France, and in November 1528 was commissioned with Sir Francis Bryan [q. v.] ambassador to the pope. The main purpose of the mission was to induce the pope to declare Henry VIII's marriage with Catherine of Arragon void ab initio, and with this object Vannes was specially instructed to hire advocates of Henry's cause, to bribe the cardinals, and generally to secure support wherever he could (ib. iv. 4979;, Records of the Reformation, i. 189). Other objects of the mission were to withdraw the pope from his alliance with the emperor, to discover the real causes of Campeggio's failure to proceed with the divorce question, and to make searching inquiry into the authenticity of the brief produced by Catherine removing all the disabilities found in the original dispensation for her marriage granted by Julius. If all other means failed, Vannes was ‘to inquire whether the pope will dispense with the king to have two wives, making the children of the second marriage legitimate as well as those of the first, whereof some great reasons and precedents appear, especially in the Old Testament.’ Vannes reached Florence on 9 Jan. 1528–9, and was at Rome on the 28th; the mission was, however, a complete failure, and in October following Vannes returned to England.

Vannes maintained friendly relations with Wolsey after his fall (Letters and Papers, 1 July 1530). That event did not interfere with his advancement; on 4 Dec. 1529 he was collated to the prebend of Bedwyn in Salisbury Cathedral, and on the 16th was instituted to the rectory of Wheathamstead, Hertfordshire. On 17 July 1533 he was appointed collector of papal taxes in England, an office soon to become a sinecure; and in the same year he was sent on the king's business to Rome, Avignon, and Marseilles. On 12 May 1534 he was made archdeacon of Worcester; on 22 Feb. 1534–5 he was admitted prebendary of Bole in York Cathedral; on 22 Sept. 1535 was constituted coadjutor to the dean of Salisbury, who was of unsound mind. He subscribed the articles of religion agreed upon in the convocation of 1536. In 1537 he held the prebend of Compton Dundon in Wells Cathedral, and on 3 Feb. 1539–40 succeeded to the deanery of Salisbury. In April 1542 he was admitted to the prebend of Cadington Major in St. Paul's Cathedral (, Nov. Rep. p. 18). He also received shortly afterwards the prebend of Shipton-Underwood in Salisbury Cathedral, the rectory of Tredington, Worcestershire; and in 1545 a pension of 26l. 13s. 4d. on the loss of his canonry by dissolution at St. Frideswide's, Oxfordshire.

Vannes apparently gave up his deanery during Edward VI's reign, but retained his Latin secretaryship, the grant of which was confirmed to him, with a salary of forty marks, on 12 Dec. 1549. On 19 May 1550 he was sent ambassador to Venice, where he arrived in August; his salary was forty shillings a day. In September 1551 he urged the council of ten to restore to Sebastian Cabot [q. v.] the property claimed by him, and on 16 Oct. was given credentials to the senators of his native city Lucca. Sir John Mason described Vannes's conduct as timid; but he was retained in that post by Queen Mary, who also restored to him the deanery of Salisbury. Vannes was at Venice when Edward Courtenay, earl of Devon, died there, and he sent the queen an account of that event (, vi. 452–3). He was recalled in September 1556. He retained his preferments under Elizabeth and died early in 1563. By his will, dated 1 July 1562, and proved 1 May 1563, he left considerable property to his heir, Benedict Hudson alias Vannes. Leland commemorated his friendship in an ode (Encomia, p. 27; cf., Epist. 278).


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 Rh The late Mr. Mowbray Morris, another brother-in-law of Delane's, became the business manager of the paper, and it is no exaggeration to say that under Delane's able guidance the literary reputation of the Times reached its zenith.

Surrounded by a band of brilliant writers, unsurpassed before or since for the purity of their style and the vigour and soundness of their opinions, Delane commanded the valuable services, in addition to George Webbe Dasent, of Robert Lowe, Abraham Hayward, Henry Reeve (playfully alluded to in Dasent's correspondence with Delane as "Don Pomposo"), Thomas Mozley (Newman's brother-in-law), Laurence Oliphant, Matthew Arnold, and Doctor now Sir William, Russell, the first of all war-correspondents, and at the present day the only survivor of the great Delaue dynasty in Printing House Square. Dasent's intimacy with Bunsen also proved of great service to Delane in connection with the foreign policy of the paper.

In the happy phraseology of Sir James Graham, the Times through its masterly editing at this period "saved the English language." Dasent's literary activity and capacity for hard work in early middle life was prodigious. Notwithstanding late hours six nights in every week spent in the service of the great newspaper, to which


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 Chara, though without understanding them. Observations on conjugating Algae were multiplied; Ehrenberg in 1834 saw corresponding phenomena in Closterium, and Morren described them more exactly in 1836. The formation of swarmspores in fresh-water and salt-water Algae was frequently observed between 1820 and 1830, and in his 'Neues System,' iii, which appeared in 1839, Meyen gave a summary of all that was known up to that time of the propagation of the Algae. But a new aspect was given to the knowledge of the Algae by those researches of Nägeli between the years 1844 and 1849, which have been already mentioned, and which are the first since Vaucher's time that can be regarded as systematic. Nägeli studied especially the laws of cell-division in sexual multiplication and growth, but he considered the Florideae to be the only Algae that were sexually differentiated, and distinguished the rest as being without sexuality. Braun in his 'Verjüngung' (1850) made numerous contributions to the biology of the fresh-water Algae, affording many and most interesting glimpses into a connection still little understood between these forms; and in 1852 he gave an account of the history of growth in the Characeae, a work conceived in Nägeli's spirit and a model of scientific research, in which the mode of derivation of every cell from the apical cell of the stem was shown, the sexual organs were minutely examined, and the relation established between the direction of the 'streaming' of the cell-contents and the morphology of the organs. Gustav Thuret had already made the zoospores of the Algae the subject of detailed examination. Such was the condition of affairs with respect to the Algae about the year 1850, when Hofmeister made the formation of the embryo in the Phanerogams, the Vascular Cryptogams, and the Muscineae the central point of investigation in morphology and systematic botany. He made it clear that a perfect insight into the whole cycle of development in the plant and into its affinities can only be obtained, if we succeed


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 xxvi he contributed in addition to leading articles a large proportion of the reviews of current literature and the biographical notices of eminent men; he worked assiduously at his translation of the Norse Tales of Asbjornsen; one of which, "The Master Thief," first appeared in Blackwood's Magazine for November 1851.

The first collected edition of these celebrated stories appeared in 1859 (the preface is dated from his house, No. 6 Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, December 12th, 1858); and the long introductory essay on the origin and diffusion of popular tales, explaining the migration of these stories from Asia to the north of Europe, which he considered to be the best piece of work he ever did, has been pronounced by so competent an authority as Max Müller to be one of the purest specimens of English literature produced in our own or any other age.

A second edition, greatly enlarged, containing thirteen new tales, and an appendix, consisting of Ananzi stories told by the negroes in the West Indies, was called for within three months. A selection from the Norse tales for the use of children, with illustrations, followed in 1862, and a third edition of the unabridged collection was published in 1888.

The Norsemen in Iceland was published in the Oxford Essays, 1858, a volume which, it is interesting to note, also contained Lord Salisbury's celebrated article on Parliamentary Reform.


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 VAN NOST, JOHN (d. 1780), sculptor, son of a maker of leaden figures for gardens (, Dict. of British Artists), was born in Piccadilly, London, early in the eighteenth century. About 1750 he went to Dublin, and worked there for many years as a sculptor. Among his works were a statue of Lord William Blakeney, erected in Sackville Street, but now removed; the equestrian statue of George II, now in Stephen's Green, and some minor sculpture. Redgrave erroneously says that Van Nost executed the statue of King William in College Green. He also did much of the sculpture in Dublin Castle, besides half-length statues of Thomas Prior [q. v.] and Samuel Madden [q. v.], copies of which were engraved by Charles Spooner [q. v.] He executed the statue of ‘Mr. Lawton, ex-mayor of Cork,’ in that city. He appears to have revisited England during 1780, but he died in Mecklenburgh Street, Dublin, at the end of September 1780.

 VAN RYMSDYK, JAN (fl. 1767–1778), painter and engraver, was a native of Holland, and at first practised as a portrait-painter. In 1767 he executed a mezzotint engraving of ‘Frederick Henry and Emilia Van Solms, Prince and Princess of Orange,’ from a painting by Jordaens at Devonshire House. Afterwards he settled at Bristol. His skill as a draughtsman and engraver brought him into the service of William Hunter (1718–1783) [q. v.], for whom he executed some of the admirable engravings which illustrate Hunter's ‘Anatomia Humani Gravidi Uteri,’ published in 1774. In 1778, in conjunction with his son Andrew, he published a series of plates from antiquities and curiosities in the British Museum, entitled ‘Museum Britannicum;’ a second and revised edition of this work was published in 1791.

His son, (d. 1780), gained a medal at the Society of Arts in 1767, and in 1778 exhibited two enamels at the Royal Academy. He assisted his father in his works, and died at Bath in 1780. The name is sometimes anglicised erroneously as ‘Remsdyke.’

 VANS, PATRICK, of Barnbarroch (d. 1597), lord of session and ambassador, was the second son of Sir John Vans of Barnbarroch by Janet, only child of Sir Samuel MacCulloch of Myreton, keeper of the palace of Linlithgow. He was educated for the church, and became rector of Wigton. In 1568 he succeeded to the family estates on the death of his elder brother, and on 1 Jan. 1576 he was appointed an ordinary lord of session on the spiritual side. On 21 Jan. 1587 he was admitted a member of the privy council (Reg. Privy Council, Scotl. iv. 162). In May of the same year he was sent, along with Peter Young, ambassador to Denmark, to arrange for a marriage between James VI and Anne, princess of Denmark (, Memoirs, p. 64;, Memoirs, p. 363), and, having arrived home in August (, p. 65; p. 364), he was on 1 Oct. exonerated for his proceedings in Denmark (Reg. Privy Council, Scotl. iv. 219). When the ships conveying the princess to Scotland in October 1589 were driven back by storm, and the king resolved to send a special embassy to fetch her, Vans was named one of the principal ambassadors for that purpose (ib. iv. 421), and, when the king resolved himself to embark, was especially chosen to accompany him (, History, v. 67). After witnessing the marriage, he, on the king's resolving to remain in Denmark until the spring, returned to Scotland to report the marriage to the council, arriving in Scotland on 15 Dec. (, p. 81). In 1592 he was elected a lord of the articles, and in June of the same year received an annual pension of 200l. He was again chosen a lord of the articles on 16 July 1593, and at the same time was appointed to a commission for the provision of ministers and augmentation of stipends. He died on 22 July 1597, and was succeeded by his son, Sir John Vans, one of the gentlemen of the chamber to King James.

Though the name of Sir Patrick Vans has not by any ballad editor been associated with the old ballad of ‘Sir Patrick Spens,’ the supposition that he is the hero of it is at least as probable as any other theory as to


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 the origin of the ballad [cf. art. ].

[Calderwood's History of the Church of Scotland; Moysie's Memoirs and Sir James Melville's Memoirs (Bannatyne Club); Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, vols. iii–v.; Brunton and Haig's Senators of the College of Justice; Henderson's Scottish Vernacular Literature, pp. 353–6.]

VANSITTART, GEORGE HENRY (1768–1824), general, born on 16 July 1768, was the eldest son of George Vansittart, M.P., of Bisham Abbey, Berkshire, by Sarah, daughter of the Rev. Sir James Stonhouse, bart., of Radley, Berkshire. Henry Vansittart (1777–1843) [q. v.] was his younger brother. Henry Vansittart (1732–1770) [q. v.] and Robert Vansittart [q. v.] were his uncles. He was educated at Winchester, at a military academy at Strasbourg, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated on 7 Nov. 1785.

After obtaining a commission as ensign in the 19th foot on 18 Oct. 1786, he was allowed a year's leave to study military science at Brunswick and attend the Prussian manœuvres. He became lieutenant on 25 Dec. 1787, exchanged to the 38th foot on 12 March 1788, and obtained a company in the 18th foot on 23 June 1790. He joined that regiment at Gibraltar, went with it to Toulon in 1793, took part in the defence, and was one of the last men to leave the place. He became major in the New South Wales corps on 20 Nov. 1793, and lieutenant-colonel of the 95th on 21 Feb. 1794. He took part with it in the expedition to the Cape under Sir Alured Clarke in 1795. He was made colonel in the army on 26 Jan. 1797; but the 95th was broken up in the course of that year, and for the next three years he was on half-pay and in the Berkshire militia, which his uncle, Colonel Arthur Vansittart, had previously commanded.

On 10 April 1801 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 68th foot, went with it to the West Indies, and was present at the capture of St. Lucia in June 1803. On 25 Sept. he was promoted major-general, and served on the staff in England from 1804 to 1806, and in Ireland from 1806 to 1810, when he became lieutenant-general (25 July). While in command of the Oxford district he received the degree of D.C.L. on 26 June 1805. He had been given the colonelcy of the 12th reserve battalion on 9 July 1803, and was transferred to the 1st garrison battalion on 25 Feb. 1805. The colours of this battalion were afterwards presented to him, and now hang in the great hall in Bisham Abbey. He became general on 19 July 1821, and died on 4 Feb. 1824.

On 29 Oct. 1818 he had married Anna Maria, daughter and coheiress of Thomas Copson of Sheppey Hall, Leicestershire. She survived him, with one son, George Henry (1823–1885), and a second son, Augustus Arthur (1824–1882), was born posthumously. There is a portrait of him in uniform, by Sir George Hayter, at Bisham Abbey.

[Gent. Mag. 1824, i. 278; R. M. Calendar, ii. 176; Burke's Landed Gentry; private information.]

VANSITTART, HENRY (1732–1770), governor of Bengal, born on 3 June 1732 at his father's house in Ormond Street, London, was the third son of Arthur van Sittart of Shottesbrook, Berkshire, by his wife Martha, eldest daughter and coheiress of Sir John Stonhouse, bart., of Radley, Berkshire, comptroller to the household of Queen Anne. Robert Vansittart [q. v.] was his elder brother, and his younger brother, George, was father of General George Henry Vansittart [q. v.] and Vice-admiral Henry Vansittart [q. v.]

The family is of Dutch origin and derive their name from the town of Sittart in Limburg. Henry's ancestors removed to Julich, and afterwards to Danzig, whence his grandfather, Peter van Sittart (1651–1705), removed to London about 1670. Peter, who was a merchant adventurer, gained a large fortune by trade with the Baltic, the East Indies, and the South Seas. He was a governor of the Russia Company, and a director of the East India Company. His fifth son, Arthur van Sittart (1691–1760) (father of the subject of the present notice), was also a director of the Russia Company, and a man of great wealth. He died at his residence near Reading on 16 Sept. 1760.

Henry Vansittart was educated at Reading grammar school and at Winchester College. He was an unruly youth. His father, alarmed at his extravagances, compelled him at the age of thirteen to enter the service of the East India Company on the Madras establishment. In the summer of 1745 he sailed for Fort St. Davids, where he was employed as a writer, and in the winter of next year (1746–7) took part in the defence of the place when the French made an abortive attack on it. He was assiduous in his duties, and early mastered Persian, the tongue then employed in Indian diplomacy. While at Fort St. Davids he made the acquaintance of Clive, and a close friendship sprang up between them. In 1750


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 Vansittart was promoted to the grade of factor, and in the following year visited England. He had amassed a considerable fortune, which he soon dissipated in gambling and riotous living. With his elder brothers, Arthur and Robert, he was a member of the graceless Society of the Franciscans of Medmenham. Returning to India, he was employed in 1754 and 1755 in embassies to the French East India Company, and for his services was promoted to the rank of junior merchant. In 1756 he was advanced to that of senior merchant, while acting as secretary and Persian translator to the secret committee. In 1757 he took his seat in the council, and was appointed searcher of the sea-gate. In February 1759 he took part in the defence of Madras against the French under Lally.

On 8 Nov. 1759, on Clive's recommendation, he was appointed president of the council and governor of Fort William and the company's settlements in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa; but owing to the critical condition of affairs at Fort St. George, where he was acting as governor ad interim, he did not arrive in Bengal until July 1760. His promotion occasioned much discontent at Fort William, due, in part at least, to the fact that he was junior to any member of the council there, and a petition was drawn up by John Zephaniah Holwell [q. v.], the temporary governor, on 29 Dec. 1759, which was signed by the members of the council, remonstrating against his appointment. The directors, however, upheld Vansittart, and in a reply, dated 21 Jan. 1761, removed the petitioners from their official places.

Vansittart arrived in Bengal at the end of July 1760. He found affairs embarrassed. Clive, by undertaking to assist the subadar in military matters, had entirely changed the position of the company in Bengal. By the treaty with the subadar, Mír Jafar, the company undertook to maintain a force under their own direction, but in the subadar's pay, to be at his service when he should require it. The sum for its maintenance was afterwards fixed at a lakh of rupees a month. The new governor found this subsidy unpaid, the treasury empty, and the income of the presidency scarcely sufficient for the current expenses of Calcutta. Nothing was to be expected from Mír Jafar, who was alienated from the English, and who besides had entirely lost control of the administration. The death of his son Mirán on 2 July 1760 plunged matters into inextricable confusion by removing the only man able to control the subadar's troops. Under these circumstances Vansittart resolved to place the administration in the hands of Mír Kásim, Mír Jafar's son-in-law, a man of undoubted ability and well affected to the English. On 2 Oct. 1760 Vansittart proceeded to Kásimbázár, and, finding Mír Jafar resolutely opposed to his plan, deposed him, and at his own request sent him to Calcutta. His successor, Mír Kásim, by a treaty previously concluded on 17 Sept., assigned the revenues of the provinces of Bárdwán, Midnapur, and Chittagong for the maintenance of the company's troops, and placed them under English administration.

In April 1761 a serious difference arose between the English military and civil authorities. Mír Kásim, on assuming authority, among others, summoned Ramnarain, the financial official of Patna and a protégé of the English, to give in a statement of his accounts. This, however, Ramnarain, supported by the military officers at Patna, Lieutenant-colonel (Sir) Eyre Coote (1726–1783) [q. v.] and Major John Carnac [q. v.], steadily evaded doing. Vansittart at first was fully disposed to protect Ramnarain, and sent directions to Patna that if he made a statement of his accounts he was to be sheltered from attempts at extortion. Ramnarain, however, persistently evaded Mír Kásim's demand, and, relying on the connivance of the English, aspired to independence. He coined money in his own name, and Carnac, under pretence of protecting him, publicly, with an armed force, menaced and insulted Mír Kásim. Consequently Vansittart and the council recalled the two officers, leaving Ramnarain at the discretion of Mír Kásim, by whom he was imprisoned and afterwards put to death.

Though harmony was thus established for the moment, the state of affairs in Bengal was such that fresh disputes were inevitable. The company's servants were at that time allowed to engage in private trade, and the result was unfathomable corruption. By unjustifiably extending the privilege of trading free of duty to cover internal as well as foreign trade, by granting ‘dustucks’ or passports for their own and their servants' goods, as well as for those of the company, and by insisting that their native agents should be totally exempted from the subadar's jurisdiction, the English officials had engrossed the entire business of the country, and had established an independent government by the side of the nabob's. Vansittart set his face against these abuses, but the authority of the president was extremely limited. He was little more than chairman of the council, which determined all administrative action by a bare majority. He had hardly begun to take remedial measures when a peremptory order from the directors dismissed from their service three members of


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 in making its sexual propagation, the first commencement of the embryo, the starting-point of the investigation. It was natural to expect as happy results from the embryology of the Algae, as had been obtained in the case of the higher plants; it was important therefore, that the observer should no longer rest satisfied with a knowledge of the sexual multiplication of the Algae; he must enquire into their asexual propagation, and by its aid discover the complete history of their development. Former observations suggested the probability that here too sexual propagation is the prevailing rule; but it was easy to foresee that it would be a task of great labour to make out a connected history of development, a task of which the collectors who liked to call themselves systematists had never formed a conception; but Nägeli's and Hofmeister's researches had made botanists familiar with the highest demands of this kind, and the men who were to gain new conquests for genuine science were already engaged in the work in 1850. A splendid result appeared in 1853, in Thuret's account of the fertilisation of the genus Fucus; this was a simple process as a matter of embryology; but the sexual act was so clear, and even open to experimental treatment, that it threw light at once upon other cases more difficult to observe. Then followed discoveries of sexual processes in rapid succession; Pringsheim solved the old enigma in Vaucheria in 1855, and between 1856 and 1858 in the Oedogonieae, Saprolegnieae and Coleochaetae; in 1855 Cohn observed the sexual formation of spores in Sphaeroplea. Pringsheim however was not content with carefully observing the sexual act; he gave detailed descriptions of growth in the same families in its progress cell by cell, of the formation of the sexual organs, and the development of the sexual product. The asexual propagations which are intercalated into the vegetation and embryology were shown in their true connection. Processes were recognised which often recalled the alternation of generations in the


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 the council for joining in Clive's famous remonstrance of 1759, and placed his party in a minority. In addition the change sent Ellis, Vansittart's strongest opponent, to Patna, the residence of the nabob. Under these circumstances matters took a serious turn. The company's factors, annoyed at the restraint the nabob endeavoured to place on their exactions, retaliated by arresting his officers. Unable to afford redress, Vansittart endeavoured to pursue a policy of conciliation, and, while retaining the nabob's confidence, to soften the animosity of the council. After Warren Hastings, who had consistently supported Vansittart, had been despatched in August 1762 on a preliminary mission of investigation, Vansittart, at the end of the year, taking Hastings as assistant, visited the nabob at Mungír, whither he had removed to avoid Ellis. Vansittart came to an agreement with him whereby the goods of servants of the company should pay a duty of nine per cent., a rate far below that levied on native traders (Clive's speech in the House of Commons, 30 March 1772). This arrangement was immediately repudiated by the council on 1 March 1763, notwithstanding the protest of Vansittart and Warren Hastings, and the nabob, in exasperation, abolished the whole system of duties on internal trade. The council declared that his action was contrary to treaty obligations, and called on him to re-establish the customs. The subadar had long seen that a rupture was inevitable and had made preparations for war. Hostilities were commenced by Ellis, who made an unjustifiable and unsuccessful attack on Patna, was taken prisoner, and put to death at Patna with other European captives. Mír Kasim, after some successes, was overthrown by Major Thomas Adams (1730?–1764) [q. v.], and sought refuge with the nawáb of Oudh. Vansittart, chagrined at the manner in which his policy had been thwarted, resigned the presidency on the conclusion of the war, and left Calcutta on 28 Nov. 1764.

He was assailed by his opponents in England with great vehemence both before and after his arrival. Clive, already aggrieved by the deposition of Mír Jafar, which he considered a reversal of his policy, had been completely alienated from Vansittart by a personal quarrel, and Vansittart was supported in the India House by Clive's opponent, Lawrence Sulivan. In 1764 Vansittart transmitted to London copies of the political correspondence during his administration, which were published by his friends under the title ‘Original Papers relative to the Disturbances in Bengal’ (London, 1764, 2 vols. 8vo). Finding on his arrival that the court of directors would not grant him an interview, he republished the papers with a connecting narrative under the title ‘A Narrative of the Transactions in Bengal from 1760 to 1764’ (London, 1766, 3 vols. 8vo). The rough draft of the narrative, with corrections by Warren Hastings, is preserved in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 29211).

On 16 March 1768 Vansittart was returned to parliament for the borough of Reading. The reports sent home by Clive, who had been despatched to Bengal with extraordinary powers, justified him in the eyes of the company by exposing the corruption existing among their servants in Bengal. Early in 1769 he was elected a director of the company. On 14 June 1769 he was appointed, together with Luke Scrafton, a former official, and Francis Forde [q. v.], to proceed to India with the title of supervisor, and with authority to examine every department of administration. The three supervisors sailed from Portsmouth in September 1769 in the Aurora frigate, left Cape Town on 27 Dec., and were never heard of again (Gent. Mag. 1771 p. 237, 1773 pp. 346, 403, 1774 p. 85). William Falconer (1732–1769) [q. v.], the author of the ‘Shipwreck,’ who was on board in the capacity of purser, perished with them.

In 1754 Vansittart was married to Amilia (d. 1819), daughter of Nicholas Morse, governor of Madras. By her he left five sons—Henry, Arthur, Robert, George, and Nicholas, created Baron Bexley [q. v.] —and two daughters, Ann and Sophia. In 1765 Vansittart purchased the manors of Great and Little Fawley, Whatcombe, and Foxley in Berkshire, as well as a house at Greenwich, which descended to his children.

Owing chiefly to his quarrel with Clive, Vansittart has been unjustly treated by writers on Indian history. His conduct in Bengal was far-sighted, and his dealings with the subadar were distinguished by statesmanlike moderation. On every question that arose his proceedings were in accordance with the principles to which his successors were eventually obliged to conform. Had he been vested with sufficient authority, his administration would have been brilliant, but, like Warren Hastings at a later time, he found himself at the mercy of a hostile majority in the council, and was able only to indicate the right policy, not to carry it out. He was a good scholar and linguist, and was the author of several oriental translations. His son Henry afterwards transmitted several to


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 and they introduced certain moderate reforms, literary rather than dogmatic, in the externals of ritual, and in the liturgical books. An illiterate clergy had allowed abuses to take root, and were excessively intolerant of change. A schism arose between the established church with its rectified texts and improved ceremonial, and the large minority who rejected them.

Everybody knows Newman's story of the ancient priest who fell into the habit, at mass, of saying, "quod ore mumpsimus" instead of "quod ore sumpsimus," and, when admonished of his error, refused to exchange old "mumpsimus" for new "sumpsimus." Although "mumpsimus" is the very motto for the Russian schismatics, and although ignorance and superstition were the root of the matter, they combined with a dread of arbitrary change by an arbitrary power, and supplied a basis for resistance to Erastianism and the fusion of Church and State. This was the heart of the opposition to the later reforms, to which the Church in general yielded reluctantly, and the sectaries not at all, choosing death, and even suicide by fire, to compromise. The reforming government was driven into persecution by the fanaticism of these men.

The new spirit began to reign when the young Tsar Peter triumphed over family intrigues that were supported by the party of reaction. He was uneducated, unmannerly, uncivilised; but he had a clear notion of that which his people required, and the energy and force of character to achieve it. As there were no roads in Russia, and not much material for making them, the waterway was the easy and natural line to follow. The Russian rivers flowed to the Caspian and the Euxine, and invited to the conquest of Persia and Central Asia, or to the deliverance of the Slavonic and Greek brethren from the Turk. Peter was not carried away by either prospect. He did indeed send a fleet down the Volga, and another down the Don. He conquered the Persian coast of the Caspian, but resisted the temptation of pushing his arms to the Indian Ocean. He was repeatedly at


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 the ‘Asiatick Miscellany,’ besides others of his own.

A portrait of Vansittart, painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1767, is at Kirkleatham Hall, Yorkshire. Another portrait of him, painted by Reynolds in 1745, was engraved by Cousins and W. Reynolds; and a third, painted in 1769, was formerly in the India House. A portrait by Hogarth, painted in 1752–3, as a Franciscan of Medmenham, is at Shottesbrook; and a half-length by Dance, painted in 1768, is in the possession of Lord Haldon.

 VANSITTART, HENRY (1777–1843), vice-admiral, fifth son of George Vansittart (1745–1825) of Bisham Abbey, Berkshire, who married, 24 Oct. 1767, Sarah, daughter of the Rev. Sir James Stonhouse, bart., was born in George Street, Hanover Square, on 17 April 1777. George Henry Vansittart [q. v.], was his elder brother. Henry Vansittart [q. v.], the governor of Bengal, was his uncle, and Nicholas, first baron Bexley [q. v.], his first cousin. Having been entered on the books of the Scipio, guardship in the Medway, in October 1788, he was afterwards nominally in the Boyne, guardship in the Thames, and probably actually served in the Pegasus on the Newfoundland station in 1791. In 1792 he was in the Hannibal, stationed at Plymouth, and in 1793 went out to the Mediterranean in the Princess Royal, flagship of Rear-admiral Goodall. During the siege of Toulon by the republican army he was severely wounded. After the evacuation of the place he was moved into L'Aigle, with Captain Samuel Hood, served at the siege of Calvi, and was in October 1794 moved into the Victory, in which he returned to England. On 21 Feb. 1795 he was promoted to be lieutenant of the Stately, in which he was present at the capture of the Cape of Good Hope, and of the Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay [see ]. He was then moved into the Monarch, Elphinstone's flagship, and returned in her to England. He was next appointed to the Queen Charlotte, Keith's flagship in the Channel; and on 30 May 1798 was promoted to be commander of the Hermes. From her he was moved to the Bonetta, which he took out to Jamaica; and on 13 Feb. 1801 he was posted to the Abergavenny stationed at Port Royal. In July he returned to England in the Thunderer, and, after a few months on half-pay, was appointed, in April 1802 to the Magicienne, from which, in January 1803, he was moved to the Fortunée of 36 guns. For upwards of nine years he commanded this ship in the North Sea, off Boulogne, in the Channel, in the West Indies, and in the Mediterranean, for the most part in active cruising and in convoy service. In August 1812 he was moved into the 74-gun ship Clarence, till March 1814. With the exception of a few months in 1801–2 he had served continuously from 1791. He became a rear-admiral on 22 July 1830, vice-admiral on 23 Nov. 1841, and died on 21 March 1843 at his seat, Eastwood, Woodstock, Canada. He married, in 1809, Mary Charity (d. 1834), daughter of the Rev. John Pennefather, and left issue.

 VANSITTART, NICHOLAS, first (1766–1851), chancellor of the exchequer, born on 29 April 1766 in Old Burlington Street, London, was the fifth son of Henry Vansittart (1732–1770) [q. v.], governor of Bengal, by Emilia, daughter of Nicholas Morse, governor of Madras. On his father being lost at sea in 1770, Nicholas was placed under the guardianship of his uncles, Sir Robert Palk [q. v.] and


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 Rh In 1852 Dasent was called to the Bar at the Middle Temple, becoming an Advocate in Doctors' Commons in November of the same year. At the time of his death he was one of the last survivors of that ancient legal Corporation.

In 1852 he also took his degree as D.C.L. He now accepted, under Jelf, the post of Professor of English Literature and Modern History at King's College, and the lectures delivered by him in that capacity from 1853 to 1865 were uniformly of a high order of merit, and well deserve publication in a collected form. Through the instrumentality of Lowe, who quickly perceived his value for educational purposes, he was frequently employed henceforth as a Government examiner of candidates for admission to the Army and the permanent Civil Service. In the autumn of 1854 Delane, whose interest in military affairs was always a keen one, was so impressed by Russell's letters from the front describing the pitiable condition of our troops, that he went to the Crimea to see for himself how the war was progressing, leaving Dasent in supreme command at Printing House Square.

During a similar interregnum in the following year Reeve took umbrage at the alterations which the temporary editor thought it necessary to make in his contributions to the paper on foreign policy, but Delane upheld Dasent's line of action, and Reeve withdrew from the Times to assume the editorship of the Edinburgh Review


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 ; it was shown that very different forms of sexuality and of general development occur in the Algae, and these led to the formation of systematic groups, quite different from those founded on the superficial observation of collectors. It soon appeared in the Algae, and later in the Fungi and Lichens, that special investigation must lay new foundations for the system. From the confused mass of forms not before understood, Pringsheim brought out a series of characteristic groups, which, thoroughly examined and skilfully described in words and by figures, stood out as islands in the chaotic sea of still unexamined forms, and threw light in many ways on all around them. In like manner the morphology of the Conjugatae was thoroughly examined by De Bary before 1860; fragments of the history of development in the Algae were added by Thuret, and he and Bornet cleared up the remarkable embryology of the Florideae in 1867, while Pringsheim established the pairing of the swarm-spores in the Volvocineae in 1869. The Algae offer at present a greater variety in the processes of development than any other class of plants; sexual and asexual propagation and growth work one into the other in a way which opens entirely new glimpses into the nature of the vegetable world.

The old conceptions of the nature of plants had been greatly modified by Hofmeister's discovery of the alternation of generations, and the reduction to it of the formation of the seed in Phanerogams; in like manner the first beginnings of plant-life, the simplest forms of Algae, exhibit phenomena, which compel us to revise our fundamental conceptions of morphology, if we are ever to be able to give a systematic view of the whole vegetable kingdom.

The methodical examination of the Fungi after 1850 led to similar but still more comprehensive results. From earliest times the Fungi had been objects of wonder and superstition; what Hieronymus Bock said of them has been told in the first chapter; this was repeated by Kaspar Bauhin, and similar


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 Godel House (, Hist. Relation of State Affairs, i. 482). Dodd says that he was equal in learning to his Anglican opponents, ‘but much superior to them in his modest behaviour, which gained him great applause, even from those of the adverse party’ (Church Hist. iii. 470).

He was author of: 1. ‘Catholicks no Idolaters; or a full Refutation of Dr. Stillingfleet's Unjust Charge of Idolatry against the Church of Rome,’ London, 1671 and 1672, 8vo. This was in reply to ‘A Discourse of the Idolatry practis'd in the Church of Rome,’ 1671, by Stillingfleet. 2. ‘A Just Discharge to Dr. Stillingfleet's Unjust Charge of Idolatry against the Church of Rome. With a Discovery of the Vanity of his late Defence. … By way of Dialogue between Eunomius, a Conformist, and Catharinus, a Non-conformist,’ 3 pts., Paris, 1677, 12mo. Stillingfleet replied with ‘Several Conferences between a Romish Priest, a Fanatic Chaplain, and a Divine of the Church of England, …’ 1679. 3. A Treatise concerning the Oath of Supremacy. Manuscript (Memoirs of Gregorio Panzani, p. 326). 4. ‘A Sermon of St. Peter, preached before the Queen Dowager … on 29 June 1686,’ London, 1686, 4to, reprinted in ‘Catholick Sermons,’ 1741. The publication of this sermon gave rise to a controversy on the questions of St. Peter's residence at Rome and the pope's supremacy. 5. ‘A Sermon of the Nativity of our Lord, preached before the Queen Dowager … at Somerset House,’ London, 1686, 8vo.

[Addit. MS. 5870, f. 99; Baker's Hist. of St. John's (Mayor), i. 525, 526; Cath. Mag. v. 621, vi. 59; Cooke's Preacher's Assistant, ii. 141; Dodd's Certamen Utriusque Ecclesiæ, p. 16; Gillow's Bibl. Dict. ii. 503, iii. 307; Jones's Popery Tracts, pp. 126, 127, 257, 423, 453, 466, 483; Luttrell's Hist. Relation of State Affairs. i. 391; Mayor's Admissions to St. John's Coll. p. 48; Panzani's Memoirs, p. 338; Tablet, 16 Feb. 1889, p. 257; Wood's Athenæ Oxon. (Bliss), iv. 93, 674.]  GODEL, WILLIAM (fl. 1173), historian, is only known from the allusions in his chronicle, in which he never mentions himself by name. Under the year 1145 he says: ‘This year I, who compiled this work from various histories, entered a monastery; in age a youth, and by race an Englishman.’ But at the end of the manuscript (Bibliothèque Nationale, 4893, sec. xiii) there is a note in a hand of the fourteenth century, stating that the author was William Godel, a monk of St. Martial at Limoges. The writer, however, never mentions St. Martial, nor even the town of Limoges. Probably he was a Cistercian of some monastery in the diocese of Sens, or of Bourges; for at the date of the foundation of Citeaux he gives very exactly the succession of its abbots, and under the year 1145 he reports the death of Henri Sanglier, archbishop of Sens, who was succeeded by Hugues of Touci, from whom he received all the orders except the priesthood. He was ordained priest of Leuroux by Pierre de la Châtre, archbishop of Bourges, who died in 1171. Godel seems to have been fond of travel, and so perhaps often changed his monastery till, dying at St. Martial, he left his chronicle there. The chronicle is a history from the creation to 1173 A.D., with some additions by a later writer down to 1320. It must have been written before 1180, for under date 1137 he speaks of Louis VII as ‘qui nunc rex pius superest,’ and later he refers to Philip Augustus as ‘qui nunc regni coronam expectat.’ The chronicle is very brief till 1066, then rather fuller on English affairs, but contains little that is new or important, and has some gross errors. Godel used as his English authorities Geoffrey of Monmouth, Bede, William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon (from whose work to the accession of Henry I he had made extracts in a monastery in England), and Florence of Worcester. This chronicle closely resembles the anonymous continuation from 1124 to 1184 of the ‘Chronicle of S. Pierre de Sens’ by Clarius, with which it is in many places literally identical. The writers of the ‘Histoire Littéraire’ hold that it was the continuator who had borrowed, while the editors of the ‘Recueil’ incline to the belief that Godel was himself the continuator. This is additional reason for believing that Godel's original monastery was in the diocese of Sens. Almost all Godel's chronicle from the tenth century to 1173 is printed in the ‘Recueil des Historiens de la France,’ x. 259–63, xi. 282–285, and xiii. 671–7, where also extracts from the continuation of Clarius will be found, xii. 283–5.

[Histoire Littéraire de la France, xiii. 508; Hardy's Cat. of Brit. Hist. ii. 402–3; notes in Recueil as above, and pref. to vol. xiii. p. lxviii.  GODERICH,. [See, 1782–1859.]

GODFREY (fl. 1081) is supposed author of a chronicle in the British Museum (MS. Cott. Vesp. D. iv. 73). Bishop Tanner erroneously identified this writer with Godfrey, abbot of Malmesbury in the eleventh century. Godfrey the abbot was a native of Jumièges, who accompanied his townsman, Theodewin, when he was made abbot of Ely in 1071. Two years and a


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Philipot spondence of Sir Ralph Ferrers with the French was brought, and Ferrers being with John of Gaunt in the north, Philipot journeyed thither and saw him safely interned in Durham Castle (ib. p. 278).

At the crisis of the peasants' revolt, in June 1381, Philipot came with the mayor to the young king's assistance, and Walworth having slain Tyler in Smithfield, he and four other aldermen were knighted with Walworth on the spot (, p. 451;, p. 531). He was granted an augmentation of his coat-armour; and it may have been now that Richard gave him an estate of 40l. a year (, p. 184;, iv. 237). In November he again represented London in parliament (Returns of Members, i. 208). Filling the same position in the May parliament of the next year, Philipot was put on a committee of merchants to consider the proposed loan for the king's expedition to France, and was appointed a ‘receiver and guardian’ of the tonnage and poundage appropriated to the keeping of the sea (Rot. Parl. iii. 123–4). But John of Northampton, who was now mayor and busy depressing the influence of the greater companies, had him deposed from his office of alderman (, ii. 71). In the spring and summer of 1383 Philipot carried out the transport arrangements for Bishop Spencer and his crusaders, and sat for London in the October parliament (ib. pp. 88, 95;, p. 222; Returns of Members, i. 218).

He died in the summer of 1384, ‘not leaving his like behind in zeal for the king and the realm,’ and was buried with his second (?) wife before the entrance into the choir of the Greyfriars Church (now Christ Church), London (Chron. Angl. p. 359;, iv. 239). He left his manor at Gillingham to his second son, whose son John exchanged it, in 1433, for Twyford, Middlesex, with Richard, son of Adam Bamme, mayor of London in 1391 and 1397 (ib.) A chapel which Philipot built there was used as a barn in Hasted's time, and is figured in the ‘Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica’ (No. vi. pt. i.). His house in London was in Langbourne Ward, on the site of the present Philpot Lane, which was named after him (, p. 184). He bequeathed lands to the city of London for the relief of thirteen poor people for ever (, bk. i. p. 261).

Philipot was at least twice married—to Marjery Croydon, daughter of Richard Croydon, alderman of London, who brought him the manor at Gillingham; and to Jane Stamford (, iv. 236, 239). Hasted mentions two sons. A daughter, Margaret Philpot, married, first, T. Santlor, and, secondly, John Neyland, and dying after 1399, was buried in the church of the Greyfriars (, Survey, bk. iii. p. 133; Liber Albus, i. 682). Descendants of his dwelt at Upton Court, Sibertswold, near Dover, until the reign of Henry VII.

[Rotuli Parliamentorum; Rymer's Fœdera, Record ed.; Returns of Members of Parliament, 1878 (Blue Book); Kalendars and Inventories of the Exchequer, Issue Roll of Brantingham, and Devon's Issues published by the Record Commission; Chronicon Angliæ, 1328–88; Walsingham's Historia Anglicana and the Liber Albus in Rolls Ser.; Collections of a London Citizen (Camden Soc.); Stow's Survey of London, ed. Strype, 1720; Heath's Grocers' Company, 1829; Herbert's Livery Companies; Riley's Memorials of London; Hasted's History of Kent, 8th ed. 1797; Sir Harris Nicolas's Testamenta Vetusta.]

PHILIPOT, JOHN (1589?–1645), Somerset herald, son of Henry Philpot and his wife, daughter and coheiress of David Leigh, servant to the archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Folkestone, Kent, between 1587 and 1592. His father, who possessed considerable property in Folkestone, and who had been mayor of the town, was lessee of the rectorial tithes, and was buried in the parish church in 1603. From his will, dated in 1602, it appears that his son was then a boy at school. The family name was Philpot, but John insisted upon inserting an ‘i’ between the two syllables. At the end of 1612 he married Susan, only daughter and heir of William Glover, one of the gentlemen ushers' daily waiters in the court of James I. Her father's brother was Robert Glover (1544–1588) [q. v.], Somerset herald, to whom no doubt Philipot owed his introduction to the College of Arms. He was appointed a pursuivant-of-arms extraordinary, with the title of Blanch Lion, in October 1618, and on 19 Nov. he was created Rouge Dragon pursuivant-in-ordinary. By his office he was brought into close connection with William Camden, for whom he entertained profound respect. Camden frequently nominated him as his deputy, or marshal, in his visitations; and Sir Richard St. George, when Clarenceux, and Sir John Burroughs, when Norroy, employed him in the same capacity. He visited Kent in 1619, Hampshire in 1622, Berkshire and Gloucestershire in 1623, Sussex in 1633, and Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, and Rutland in 1634.

In 1622 Ralph Brooke, York herald, brought an action against Philipot in the court of common pleas for his share of the fees given to the heralds and pursuivants on


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 notions existed till late into our own century; about the middle of the 17th century Otto Von Münchausen thought that mushrooms were the habitations of Polypes, and Linnaeus assented to that view. What the nature-philosophers, as Nees von Esenbeck for instance, had to say on the nature of Fungi, need not be reproduced here. Still some useful observations had been accumulating for some time on this subject; as early as 1729 Micheli had collected the spores of numerous Fungi, had sown them and obtained not only mycelia but also sporophores (fructifications), and Gleditsch confirmed these observations in 1753; Jacob Christian Schaeffer about the year 1762 published very good figures of all the Fungi of Bavaria and the Palatinate, and collected the spores of many species. Yet Rudolphi and Link at the beginning of the present century ventured to deny the germination of the spores of Fungi; Persoon in 1818 thought that some Fungi grow from spores, others from spontaneous generation. A decided improvement appears after 1820 in the views of botanists with respect to Fungi, and to this Ehrenberg's elaborate essay, 'De Mycetogenesi,' published in that year in the Leopoldina, contributed greatly. In that work he collected together all that was then known on the nature and propagation of the Fungi, and communicated observations of his own on spores and their germination; he gave figures also of the course of the hyphae in large sporophores and in other parts, but his most important service was a description of the first observed case of


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 sexuality in a Mould, namely, the conjugation of the branches of Syzygites. In the same year Nees von Esenbeck sowed Mucor stolonifer on bread, and obtained ripe sporangia in three days (Flora, 1820, p. 528); Dutrochet proved in 1834 (Mém. ii. p. 173) that the larger Fungi are only the sporophores of a filiform branching plant, which spreads usually under ground or in the interstices of organic substances, and had been till that time regarded as a peculiar form of Fungus under the name of Byssus. Soon after, Trog (Flora, 1837, p. 609) carried these observations further; he distinguished the mycelium from the sporophore, and pointed out that the former is often perennial and is the first product of the germinating spores. He made an attempt to examine the morphology of the larger sporophores, and showed that it was possible to collect the spores of mushrooms on paper, and that those of Peziza and Helvella are forcibly ejected in little clouds of dust; he also produced new proofs of Gleditsch's statement, that the spores of Fungi are disseminated everywhere by the air. Schmitz published in 'Linnaea,' between the years 1842 and 1845 excellent observations on the growth and mode of life of several of the larger Fungi. It was not unnecessary at that time to make it clearly understood that the spores of Fungi reproduce their species exactly.

But the lower, the small and simple Fungi, those especially which are parasitic on plants and animals, were the most attractive objects in the whole field of mycology. Here were difficulties in abundance, here were the darkest enigmas with which botany has ever had to deal, here was new ground to be slowly won by extreme scientific circumspection and foresight. In these forms, as in the Algae, the first thing to be done was to make out the complete history of development in a few species; but it was much more difficult in the Fungi than in the Algae to discover what properly belonged to one cycle of development, and to separate it from casual phases of


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 of other associated Fungi. The merit of first breaking ground in this direction belongs to the brothers Tulasne, who published before 1850 the first more exact researches into the Smuts and Rusts; these were followed by a long series of excellent works on different forms of Fungi, especially the subterranean, whose mode of life and anatomy were described and illustrated by splendid figures; but their account of the development of Ergot of rye (1853), their further investigations into the formation of the spores and the germination of Cystopus, Puccinia, Tilletia, and Ustilago, and their discovery of the sexual organs in Peronospora before 1861, were of greater theoretical importance. The 'Selecta Fungorum Carpologia,' which appeared in three volumes from 1861 to 1865 with fine figures, some of which represented the process of development, contributed greatly to the reformation of mycology. Meanwhile, Cessati had published investigations into the Muscardine-fungus of the silkworm-caterpillar, and Cohn into a remarkable Mould, the Pilobolus.

But mycology owes its present form to none more than to, whose writings, the fruit of twenty years' labour, it would take too much space to enumerate one by one. With a correct understanding of the only means which can lead to sure results in this difficult branch of study, De Bary made it his first endeavour to perfect the methods of observation, and not only sought for the stages of development of the lower Fungi in their natural places of growth, but cultivated them himself with all possible precautions, and thus obtained complete and uninterrupted series of developments. By these means he succeeded in proving that parasitic Fungi make their way into the inside of healthy plants and animals, and that this is the explanation of the remarkable fact, that Fungi live in the apparently uninjured tissue of other organisms, a fact which formerly had led to the supposition that such Fungi owe their origin to spontaneous generation, or to the living contents of the cells of their entertainers. Pringsheim had already


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 observed these occurrences in 1858 in the case of an unusually simple water-fungus (Pythium). De Bary showed that the intrusive parasite vegetates inside the plant or animal which is its host, and afterwards sends out its organs of propagation into the open air, and that at a given time the organism attacked by the fungus sickens or dies. These investigations were not only of high scientific interest to the biologist, but they produced a series of results of the greatest importance to agriculture and forestry, and even to medicine.

With the Fungi, even more than with the Algae, the chief difficulty in making out a complete series of developments in the history of each species arose from the frequent intercalation of the asexual mode of multiplication into the course of its development, and in the further peculiarity, that the several stages of development in some cases could only be completed on different substrata. One of the most important tasks was to find the sexual organs, the existence of which was rendered probable by various analogies, and after De Bary had observed the sexual organs in the Peronosporeae in 1861, he succeeded in 1863 in proving for the first time that the whole fruit-body of an Ascomycete is itself the product of a sexual act, which takes place on the threads of the mycelium.

The literature of mycology based on De Bary's methods of observation and its actual results has been enriched by others also in various directions since 1860; in the case of the Fungi, as in that of the Algae, it is not possible yet to see to what results investigation will ultimately lead; but it is one of the fairest fruits of strictly inductive method, that it has succeeded in smoothing this thorny and indeed perilous route, where the enquirer is constantly in danger of being misled, and in satisfying the severest demands of science. Conclusions have been already reached that are important for morphology and systematic botany, and among these the establishment of the nature of the large sporophores, and of processes similar to the alternation of generations in the higher Cryptogams should be


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 especially mentioned. But the most important result remains to be told; it is, that the two classes of Algae and Fungi, hitherto kept strictly separate, must obviously be now united, and an entirely new classification adopted, in which Algae and Fungi recur as forms differing only in habit in various divisions founded on their morphology.

A few words must be given here to the Lichens. They are the division of the Thallophytes, whose true nature was last recognised, and that only in modern times; till after 1850 scarcely more was known of their organisation than Wallroth had discovered in 1825, namely, that green cells, known as gonidia are scattered through the fungus-like hyphal tissue of the thallus. After Mohl's investigations in 1833, it was known that free spores were formed in the tubes of the fructifications (apothecia), and that a dust collected from the thallus and consisting of a mixture of gonidia and hyphae was in a condition to propagate the species. The genetic relation between the chlorophyll-containing gonidia and the fungus-like hyphae long continued to be obscure, till at last, after 1868, it was shown that the gonidia are true Algae, and the hyphal tissue a genuine Fungus, and that therefore the Lichens are not a class co-ordinating with the Algae and Fungi, but a division of Ascomycetes, which have this peculiarity, that they spin their threads round the plants on which they feed, and take them up into their tissue. De Bary suggested this explanation, but it was Schwendener who adopted it without reserve and openly declared it, as much to the surprise as the annoyance of Lichenologists. It may be foreseen that their opposition will yield to the weight of facts, which already leave no doubt in the minds of the unprejudiced.

Thus researches in the domain of the Thallophytes have led


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 216 during the last twenty years to a complete revolution in the views entertained with respect to the nature of these organisms, and enriched botany with a series of surprising achievements; and the movement there is still far from having come to an end. But we must regard it as one of the great results for the whole science that through the examination of the lower and higher Cryptogams, morphology and systematic botany have been rescued from many ancient prejudices, that the survey has become freer, the methods of investigation surer, the questions more clearly seen and put in more definite form.


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 Vansittart. He was educated at Mr. Gilpin's school at Cheam, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated on 29 March 1784, and graduated B.A. 1787 and M.A. 1791. On 16 June 1814 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. Becoming a student of Lincoln's Inn on 21 April 1788, he was called to the bar 26 May 1791, and went the northern circuit for about a year, but never devoted himself to his profession. He was elected a bencher of Lincoln's Inn on 12 Nov. 1812. In London he at first associated with a somewhat gay set in fashionable society, but soon turned seriously to politics and proved himself a useful pamphleteer in support of Pitt's government. In 1793 he published ‘Reflections on the Propriety of an Immediate Peace,’ in which he maintained the necessity for the war, and the folly of trusting to an uncertain peace. In 1794 and 1795 he defended Pitt's finance in ‘A Reply to the Letter addressed to Mr. Pitt by Jasper Wilson,’ and in ‘Letters to Mr. Pitt on the Conduct of the Bank Directors;’ and in 1796 he published ‘An Inquiry into the State of the Finances of Great Britain, in Answer to Mr. Morgan's Facts respecting the State of the War and the Actual Debt.’ Having thus shown himself likely to be useful to the government in the House of Commons, he was returned as M.P. for Hastings on 25 May 1796, and continued to sit in the house for the next twenty-six years, being returned for Old Sarum on 12 July 1802, Helston on 3 Nov. 1806, East Grinstead on 8 June 1812, and for Harwich on 6 Oct. 1812, in possession of which seat he remained until he was made a peer. From almost the commencement to the end of his parliamentary career he attached himself to Addington. He had joined as cornet in 1797 the City of London and Westminster Light Horse Volunteers, a fashionable regiment in which he was promoted lieutenant in 1798 and captain in 1799.

In February 1801, under the Addington administration, Vansittart was selected to conduct the special mission to Copenhagen; his instructions from Lord Hawkesbury [see ] were to make clear the position of England, and to detach the court of Denmark from the northern alliance. His mission was unsuccessful, Denmark resenting too keenly the lengths to which the claim to search neutral vessels for contraband of war had been carried, and on 16 March Vansittart applied for his passports (cf. Addit. MS. 31233). In March, after his return, he was appointed joint secretary of the treasury, and held this office with credit till the resignation of the ministry on 26 April 1804. He was fortunate in possessing a good friend in the Duke of Cumberland, who warmly recommended him in July to both the king and Pitt as secretary for Ireland. Pitt objected to him at first as being likely to alarm the catholics, and as not being a sufficiently good debater in the house (Addit. MS. 31229, f. 130); but at the beginning of January 1805 he received the appointment, and was admitted member of the privy council on 14 Jan. His short term of Irish office was undistinguished, and he failed to find himself in complete accord with the lord lieutenant, Lord Hardwicke [see, third ] (ib. 31230, ff. 109, 119). Addington (now Lord Sidmouth) left the administration in July 1805, and Vansittart followed his example in September. On Grenville's administration following the death of Pitt, Vansittart again took the secretaryship to the treasury, coming in as one of Sidmouth's friends, and during this period of his office was the first to summon Nathan Meyer Rothschild [q. v.] to the assistance of the treasury. In March 1807 he resigned, with his chief, Sidmouth, just before the break-up of the administration. In the session of 1809, during the debate on the resumption of cash payments, he proposed and carried without opposition thirty-eight resolutions relating to the total war expenditure, sinking fund, and the imports and exports of the United Kingdom, and declaring that the national resources were sufficient to provide for the defence, independence, and honour of the country (Hansard, xiv. 1147). He had now so established his reputation as a financier that in October 1809 Perceval, hoping to secure Sidmouth's followers without their leader, offered the chancellorship of the exchequer to Vansittart. He, however, refused to desert his chief (Life of Lord Sidmouth, iii. 8;, Life of Perceval, ii. 47), and was the first of five to whom the office was on this occasion ineffectually offered. Despite his refusal, he remained on very friendly terms with Perceval.

On the report of the bullion committee in May 1811 Vansittart took the leading part in defeating Francis Horner's resolutions in favour of the resumption of cash payments, and proposed in their place, on 13 May, fourteen resolutions drawn up by the request of Perceval, to the effect that an immediate resumption was inexpedient, and that the restriction in cash payments had no connection with the unfavourable state of the exchanges. The third resolution, which affirmed that the promissory notes of the bank of England were held in public estimation to


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