text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/46

40 town is very rich and level, covered with a large growth of timber, principally beach, sugar maple, and ash. It produces excellent corn, rye, wheat, hemp, flax, and all kinds of vegetables, and will probably be highly favourable to fruit trees. This town has settled with unusual rapidity.

About sixteen miles northeast of Worthington, is the town of Bixby, a new, but very growing settlement. It has much the same face of country and soil with that of Worthington.

Upon the main branch of the Scioto, thirty-six miles from Franklinton, and near the Indian boundary line, is the town of Delaware, the seat of justice for the county of that name. It is situated on the east bank of the river, and the land level and good in every direction near it, but at present thinly settled.

The Scioto has no falls from the mouth to its source, and glides with a gentle current, the greater part of the distance, over a sandy bottom. It abounds with fish, mostly of the perch and sucker kind, but cat-fish and pike are frequently caught. Near Chilicothe, eighty barrels of the fish called white perch were taken out of one deep place in a day.

The next considerable river, westward, which runs from the northward into the Ohio, is the Little Miami. Its banks are high, and has good land on its borders, but has not a sufficient depth of water for batteaux or boats.


text:
Page:Montesquieu.djvu/42

42 as they have been locally modified. A very large proportion of Colonial enactments are directly copied from the English Statute-book, with minor local variations. And the practice of looking for and copying precedents supplied by other legislatures is steadily on the increase, not only within the British Empire, but in all parts of the civilized world. This, then, is one cause of uniformity.

In the next place the facility of intercourse, and especially the closeness of commercial relations between different countries, tends to a general assimilation of commercial usages. The diversity of laws which was found intolerable in France at the end of the eighteenth century, and in Germany at the end of the nineteenth century, has long made itself felt as a serious and as a remediable nuisance in matters of commerce throughout the world, and in many parts of the domain of commercial law we have either attained to or are within measurable distance of that common code of laws which is the dream of comparative jurists.

And lastly, in a world compacted and refashioned by science, those causes of difference to which Montesquieu attached importance, and in some cases exaggerated importance, causes such as climate, race, geographical conditions, difference in forms and degrees of civilization, tend to become of less importance. Not that they have disappeared, or can be left out of account. Montesquieu took much interest in questions of political economy, and he would certainly have pointed out that fiscal arrangements which are well adapted to a state whose territories are continuous, are presumably less well adapted to a state whose component parts are sundered by oceans. The question of race is always

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Page:Montesquieu.djvu/42


text:
Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 46.djvu/315

 'the greatest pulpit-monger in England in man's memory … every time, when Master Preston plucked off his hat to Doctor Davenant, the college master, he gained a chamber or study for one of his pupils.' The college buildings were enlarged to provide for the influx of students. He was in the habit of sending those designed for the church to finish their studies with Cotton, now vicar of Boston, Lincolnshire. Meanwhile, Preston's health was suffering, and he was troubled with insomnia. Twice he applied for advice (once in disguise) to (1535-1618) [q. v.] of Clare Hall, a successful empiric. Butler only told him to take tobacco; on doing so he found his remedy in 'this hot copious fume.'

Preston had now taken orders, and become dean and catechist of Queens'. He began a course of sermons which were to form a body of divinity. Complaints were made to the vice-chancellor that the college chapel was crowded with scholars from other colleges and townsmen. Order was issued excluding all but members of the college. Preston then began an afternoon lecture at St. Botolph's, of which Queens' College is patron. This brought him into conflict with Newcome, commissary to the chancellor of Ely, whose enmity Preston had earned by preventing a match between his pupil. Sir Capel Bedels, and Newcome's daughter Jane. A dispute with Newcome at St. Botolph's delayed the afternoon service; to make room for the sermon, common prayer was for once omitted. Newcome sped to the court at Newmarket to denounce Preston as a nonconformist. The matter came before the heads of houses, and there was talk of Preston's expulsion from the university. At the suggestion of [q. v.], then bishop of Ely, Preston was directed to declare his judgment regarding forms of prayer in a sermon at St. Botolph's. He acquitted himself so as to silence complaint. Soon afterwards he was summoned to preach before the king at Finchingbrook, near Royston, Cambridgeshire. James highly approved his argument against the Arminians; he would have shown him less favour had he known that Preston was the author of a paper against the Spanish match, circulated with much secrecy among members of the House of Lords. He was proposed as a royal chaplain by, second marquis of Hamilton [q. v.], but James thought this premature.

Preston's kinsman, Sir [q. v.], who had married a relative of, first duke of Buckingham [q. v.], now took occasion to represent to Buckingham that he might make friends of the puritans by promoting Preston. Through Buckingham's interest he was made chaplain-in-ordinary to Prince Charles, He took the degree of B.D. in 1620. On Davenant's election (11 June 1621) to the see of Salisbury, Preston had some expectation of succeeding him as Margaret professor of divinity. He felt his Latin to be rusty, and, as an exercise in speaking Latin, he resolved on a visit to the Dutch universities, a project which he carried out with a singular excess of precaution. From the privy council he obtained the necessary license for travel. He gave out that he was going, the next vacation, to visit Sir Richard Sandys in Kent, and possibly to drink the Tunbridge waters. From the Kentish coast he took boat for Rotterdam, in a lay habit with 'scarlet cloake' and 'gold hat band.' In Holland he consorted with Roman catholics as well as protestants. On his return to Cambridge he met the rumour of his having been beyond the seas with a wonder 'at their sillyness, that they would beleeve so unlikely a relation.' After all he had been outwitted, for Williams, the lord keeper, suspecting some puritan plot, had set a spy on his movements, who sent weekly intelligence of his doings.

In February 1622 (1573-1631) [q. v.] resigned the preachership at Lincoln's Inn, and the benchers elected Preston as his successor. A new chapel, finished soon after his appointment, gave accommodation to the large numbers who flocked to hear him. A more important piece of preferment followed, but it was not obtained without intrigue. [q. v.], the first master of Emmanuel, had held that post with distinction for thirty-eight years. He had outlived his influential friends, and the fellows thought that to secure Preston's interest with Buckingham would be to the advantage of their college. In particular they wanted a modification of the statutes, which enjoined continuous residence, so cutting them off from chaplaincies and lectureships, and at the same time compelled them to vacate at the standing of D.D., whether otherwise provided or not. From Preston's influence they hoped to gain more liberty, as well as to increase the number of college livings. Chaderton thought highly of Preston, but was very reluctant to resign, and doubted whether, if he did, an Arminian might not be appointed. Preston procured a letter from Buckingham (20 Sept. 1622) assuring Chaderton that it was the wish of the king and the prince that he should make way for Preston, and promising him a 'supply of maintenance.' Accordingly


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Harrison, Benjamin


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/60

52 of the skin. Some have been caught of eight or ten pounds weight. They are not amphibious, for they will not live longer out of the water than the pout or eel. The other reptiles, and the great variety of insects, found in this country, do not appear materially to differ from those of the Atlantic States.


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/61

 A

TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

OF THE

INDIANA TERRITORY.

part of the northwestern country was constituted a territorial government, by an act of Congress, passed the 7th day of May, 1800, and was bounded eastwardly by the following line of separation; viz. "All that part of the territory of the United States, northwest of the Ohio river which lies westward of a line beginning at the Ohio, opposite to the mouth of the Kentucky river, and running thence to fort Recovery, and thence north until it shall intersect the territorial line between the United States and Canada, shall, for the purpose of a temporary government, constitute a separate territory, and be called the Indiana Territory. And Saint Vincennes, on the Wabash river, shall be the seat of the government." Only the eastern boundary is named in the act, and the Indian claim of a large portion of the Territory is not extinguished. The whole tract, agreeable to this line, is bounded south by


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Harrison, Frederic


text:
Page:Montesquieu.djvu/43

Rh with us, and the jealousies and antipathies of white, brown, yellow and black races present an insoluble problem to the legislator in almost every part of the globe. Nor are the legislative problems which, apart from race, arise from the contrast between different degrees and stages of civilization, less numerous, less difficult, or less interesting. Within the British Empire we have to legislate for the hill-tribes of India, for the fetish-worshippers of Western Africa, and for the savages of New Guinea, and a museum full of instruction and suggestions to the statesman and the jurist is to be found in the Regulations made by the Government of British India for its less advanced regions and in the Ordinances which have been passed for the West African Protectorates. Thus the causes of difference remain and are of importance. But on the whole the importance of the causes which make for difference tends to decrease, and the importance of the causes which make for uniformity tends to increase. Take up one of the annual summaries of the world's legislation which are published by the French and English Societies of Comparative Legislation. Your first impression will be one of bewilderment at the multiplicity and variety of the subjects dealt with. But if you read on, and still more if you extend your studies over a series of years, you will be struck with the large number of important subjects which recur with unfailing regularity in the legislation of each state in each year. Education, factory laws, mining laws, liquor traffic,—everywhere you will find the same problems being dealt with on lines of increasing similarity, though with a due recognition of the differences arising from diversities of race, character and local conditions. In the year 1902 the legislature

title: Page:Montesquieu.djvu/43


text:
User talk:Michele.nogueira

Welcome

Hello, and welcome to Wikisource! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:

 * Help pages
 * Style Guide
 * Inclusion policy

You are welcome to continue editing articles without logging in, but you may wish to  [ create an account] . Doing so is free, requires no personal information, and provides several benefits. For one thing, if you continue to edit without a username, your IP address is used to publicly identify you.

In any case, I hope you enjoy donating your time to grow the Wikisource library that is free for everyone to use! In discussions, please sign your comments using four tildes ( ~ ); this will automatically produce your IP address (or username if you're logged in) and the date. If you need help, ask me on my talk page, or ask your question here (click  [ edit] ) and place  before your question. Again, welcome! -- George Orwell III (talk) 22:07, 30 December 2010 (UTC) A contribution from this account or ip address, which appeared to be a test edit, was removed or reverted. Please use the sandbox for this purpose. The community portal has information on contributing to this library.

title: User talk:Michele.nogueira


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Harrison, Mrs. Burton


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/59

51 less active and destitute of rattles. Their bite is not considered so dangerous as that of the rattle snake. They have five or six very small poisonous teeth, placed in the same sack, on each side of the upper jaw; the rattle snake has only one on each side, but are very large. The moccason snake, which is very common in the Carolinas, has been seen in some parts of the State, but very rarely. In the prairies, a very small rattle snake, about the size of a man's finger, and ten or twelve inches in length, is frequently found among the grass. They are called the prairie rattle snake, and are said to be venomous. These are all the poisonous snakes found in this country. There are two kinds of water snake; the backs are black, and the belly of the one is a bright red, and of the other of an ash colour. The other snakes are the common black snakes; some with a ring round the neck, but the most of them have none; the striped and green snake, and the speckled snake, usually called the house adder. Lizards, of various colours, and some of them very beautiful and active, are plenty. At the falls of Point Creek, a remarkably large water lizard has been taken with the hook, while fishing for the cat and other fish. The form is that of a lizard; the skin, in colour and smoothness, resembles the New England pout; the legs short, and the tail flattened like an eel. When a pressure is made on the body, thick, milky matter, in large drops, and perfectly white, exudes from the pores


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/58

50 be taught to imitate the human voice. The habits o£ these birds are in some respect singular, They are always seen in flocks, which retire, at night, into hollow trees, frequently in large numbers, where they suspend themselves by their bills. These flocks also retreat to hollow trees in the winter. There have been found after a severe winter, prodigious numbers in a large tree, filling the whole cavity, where they had perished by the severity of the cold. There are a great variety of other large and small birds, but the most of them are similar to those which are indigenous in the northern and middle Atlantic States.

Some of the people, who first emigrated into this country, had fearful apprehensions of venomous serpents, but were soon relieved on their arrival. The snakes are very nearly of the same kind, which are found in the middle and northern Atlantic States; probably not so numerous as they were there, on their first settlement. The black and yellow rattle snakes are found in the Ohio State, but are not very often seen, except it be near the places where they have dens. The copper-heads are more frequently met with, about the trunks of fallen trees and about rubbish, under which they retreat in the winter. They resemble the rattle snake in colour, but not so large, are


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/57

49 are frequently seen swimming across the largest rivers, and are extremely destructive to fields of Indian corn.

Of the winged fowls, the swan and pelican are sometimes seen; geese, brant, and ducks of various species, are found in the rivers; turkies, pheasants, partridges, and quails in abundance, in the forests. Turkies are still in great plenty, though perhaps not so numerous, as before the settlements commenced. They are of a large size, and the flesh of an excellent flavour. Large flocks visit the wheat fields after sowing, and at the time of harvest, and often greatly injure the crop. When their eggs are hatched under hens, the turkey chickens will be tame, and in this way the wild turkey is easily domesticated. The pigeons are so numerous as almost to exceed credibility. At certain times in the year, vast flights resort to particular places, called pigeon roosts. Many of these roosts extend over more than an hundred acres of land, and it is said, some have been found to exceed a thousand acres. They light upon the trees in such numbers as to fill all the branches, and, by their weight, break off large limbs. Every tree in these extended roosts is killed, and the dung on the ground, which has been found from twelve to eighteen inches deep, destroying every species of vegetation beneath them. The green paroquet with a yellow crown, a species of the parrot, is very common. It has a harsh, unpleasant note, and although easily tamed, it cannot 5


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/56

48, bass, and salmon, but differ from those fish in the northern States. The buffaloe fish seem to be peculiar to these waters, and are said to be so called on account of a noise they make in the water, resembling a buffaloe.

The State undoubtedly abounds in a great variety of fossils, such as clayes, ochres, pigments, and the most useful ores, but it has been very little explored. The waters of the Scioto, and some parts of the Ohio, particularly the rapids, possess a petrifying quality. Pieces of wood, small fish,and other animals,have been found completely changed into stone. The bones of animals of an enormous size, and some of the skeletons nearly complete, have been dug up in several places, particularly at Big Bone creek, on the left bank of the Ohio.

The quadrupeds which are native are the buffaloe, elk, red deer, bear, wolf, grey and black fox, panther, wild cat, rackoon, beaver, porcupine, ground hog, grey and black squirrels, and those smaller animals which are found in similar climates. As the settlements have advanced, the buffaloe and elk have retreated into the uncultivated country. Grey and black squirrels still continue in prodigious numbers. They


text: The Garden of Years and Other Poems

title: The Garden of Years and Other Poems


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/55

47 greater length, with Sandusky river. The portage is likewise short from the Scioto to this river, and great advantages are expected to result to the State of Ohio, in future time, by a communication between the waters which descend to the Ohio, and those which run into the lakes.

The waters of the Great Miami are not interrupted by falls,or considerable rapids for three hundred miles. Large boats can pass from Dayton to the Ohio, the greater part of the year. But being subject to a much greater decrease of water, it is less favourable to navigation than the Muskingum, nor is the river equally good for the passage of boats at any season. This river furnishes excellent fish, mostly of the same kind, but somewhat of a greater variety, than the Scioto. Considerable quantities of fine fish are taken in the Little Miami, which afford a good supply for the market, at Cincinnati, in summer and autumn.

The streams in every part of the State are well stocked with fish of various kinds. The most of them appear, at least, specifically different from those in the waters of the Atlantic States. But similar names are applied to many of them. The black and yellow cat-fish are of the largest size, and weigh from four or five to more than one hundred pounds. They nearly resemble the pout of New England. The pike differ little from those over the mountains in form, but are much larger. Some have been caught of thirty or forty pounds weight. There are fish called perch,


text:
Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 46.djvu/316

 Chaderton resigned on 25 Sept.; contrary to statute, the vacancy was not announced, on the plea that all the fellows were in residence; the election took place on 2 Oct. with locked gates, and nothing was known of it at Queens' until Preston was sent for to be admitted as master of Emmanuel. The statutes limited the master's absence to a month in every quarter. This would interfere with Preston's preaching at Lincoln's Inn. His ingenuity found out evasions to which the fellows consented; the statutes condoned absence in case of 'violent detention' and of 'college business;' a 'moral violence' was held to satisfy the former condition, and a suit at law about a college living, which lasted some years, formed a colourable pretext for alleging college business. But Preston was inflexible on the point of vacating fellowships. In 1623 he was made D.D. by royal mandate. According to Ball, he had been selected by Buckingham to accompany, lord Chichester [q. v.], on a projected embassy to Germany, and was, on this occasion, made D.D. There is probably some confusion here: Chichester's actual expedition to the palatinate was in May-September 1622.

Preston was anxious for opportunities of preaching at Cambridge, and listened to proposals in 1624 for putting him into a vacant lectureship at Trinity Church. The other candidate, Middlethwait, fellow of Sidney Sussex, was favoured by [q. v.], bishop of Ely. The matter was referred to James I, who wanted to keep Preston out of a Cambridge pulpit, and, through (afterwards Viscount Conway) [q. v.], offered him any other preferment at his choice. It was then that Buckingham told Preston he might have the bishopric of Gloucester, vacant by the death of (d. 20 Oct. 1624). But Preston, backed by the townsmen, maintained his ground and got the lectureship.

He was in attendance as Charles's chaplain at Theobalds on Sunday, 27 March 1625, when James I died, and accompanied Charles and Buckingham to Whitehall, where the public proclamation of Charles's accession was made. For the moment it seemed as if Preston was destined to play an important part in politics. He exerted influence on behalf of his puritan friends, obtaining a general preaching license (20 June 1625) for [q. v.] But he found his plans counteracted by Laud. On the plea of a danger of the plague, he closed his college and took a journey into the west. He wanted to consult Davenant at Salisbury about the 'Appello Cæsarem' of or Mountague [q. v.], on which Buckingham had asked his judgment. From Salisbury he went on to Dorchester, and thence to Plymouth, where Charles and Buckingham were. When the news reached Plymouth of the disaster at Rochelle (16 Sept. 1625), Preston did his best to excuse and defend Buckingham against the outburst of protestant indignation. On the removal of Williams from the lord-keepership (30 Oct. 1625), Buckingham 'went so farr as to nominate' Preston to be lord keeper. , lord Coventry [q. v.], who had been counsel for Emmanuel College in the suit above mentioned, was eventually appointed.

Preston, however, could not draw the puritans to the side of Buckingham, whom they profoundly distrusted. Preston's friends urged the necessity of a conference on Montagu's books, and nominated on the one side [q. v.], bishop of Rochester, and Francis White, then dean of Carlisle; on the other, (1564-1659) [q. v.], then bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, and Preston. Buckingham played a double part, begging Preston as his friend to decline the conference, and letting others know that he had done with Preston. The conference was held in February 1626 at York House. Preston refused to take part, but came in after it was begun and sat by as a hearer. A second conference followed in the same month, at which Preston took the lead against Montagu and White.

Buckingham was elected chancellor of Cambridge University on 1 June 1626. Preston did not oppose his election, as [q. v.] and others did; but he now felt his position in the university insecure, looked to Lincoln's Inn as a refuge in case he were ousted from Cambridge, and as a last resort contemplated a migration to Basle. A private letter to a member of parliament, in which Preston suggested a line of opposition to Buckingham, came by an accident into Buckingham's hands. Seeing that Preston's influence at court was waning, the fellows of Emmanuel petitioned the king to annul the statute limiting the tenure of their fellowships. Buckingham supported their plea. Preston had the support of Sir [q. v.], the founder's grandson. At length a compromise was reached. Charles suspended the statute (5 May 1627) till such time as six new livings of 100l. a year should be annexed to the college. Buckingham was now engaged with his ill-fated expedition (27 June 1627) to the Isle of Ré. In November Preston preached before Charles at Whitehall a sermon which was regarded as prophetic when,


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/54

46 river. Its situation is pleasant, being surrounded by a rich country, and bids fair to become a place of considerable business. It contains about eighty houses, the most of which are neatly built. It is the seat of justice for the county of Montgomery. On the west side of the Miami, a little above Dayton, comes in a large branch, called Stillwater. This branch extends from the Miami, in a westerly direction, beyond the line of the State, which is about forty miles distant. Within the State, the lands on this branch are rich and level. This tract has been settled by a number of French or Quakers, who emigrated from the States of South Carolina or Georgia. In the habits of industry and œconomy, they devoted themselves to the cultivation of the land, and have made great improvements. The tract is thickly settled and very productive. So large a settlement by these quiet, peaceable inhabitants has been a valuable acquisition of the State.

From Dayton to the Indian line, north, is about fifty miles. The lands are mostly level and rich. From the Indian boundary the lands are generally level to the head waters of the stream which run into lake Erie. Some portion of this tract of country is inundated in the winter and spring for two or three months. The head waters of the main branch of the Great Miami, called Leromie's creek communicate, by a short portage, with Au Glaize, which runs into the Miami of the lakes, and another branch, by a portage of somewhat


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/53

45 Orleans in keel boats, which return laden with foreign goods. The passage of a boat of forty tons down to New Orleans is computed at about twenty-five, and its return to Cincinnati at about sixty-five days.

From Cincinnati to North Bend, on the Ohio, is sixteen miles; and to the mouth of the Great Miami, where the west boundary line of the State meets the Ohio, is seven miles further. This tract of land, which extends some distance from the Ohio, is interval of the first quality; well settled, and in a high state of cultivation. Receding farther back from the Ohio, the land is hilly, the soil indifferent, and thinly settled. The road up the Great Miami leaves the Ohio at Cincinnati, and comes to the Miami at Hamilton, fourteen miles distant. Hamilton is the spot where fort Hamilton formerly stood. It is situated on a large plain, well cultivated, but does not contain more than ten or fifteen houses. It has been a considerable village, but since Cincinnati has so rapidly increased, Hamilton has been on the decline. Thirty-five miles above Hamilton is Franklin, on the Great Miami, containing about sixty houses, built on one street. The lands in its vicinity are level and rich, and have some of the best cultivated farms in the State. Dayton is thirty miles above Franklin; the country more level than below, and the lands well settled and improved. The town is situated on the east branch of the Great Miami at the mouth of Mad


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/52


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/51


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/50

44 the sale of Congress lands, two printing offices, issuing weekly Gazettes, thirty mercantile stores, and the various branches of mechanism are carried on with spirit. Industry of every kind being duly encouraged by the citizens, Cincinnati is likely to become a considerable manufacturing place. It is eighty-two miles north by east from Frankfort, and about three hundred and eighty by land south southwest from Pittsburgh, north latitude thirty-nine degrees, five minutes, fifty-four seconds, according to Mr. Ellicot, and west longitude eighty-five degrees, forty-four minutes. It is the principal town in what is called Symmes's purchase, and is the seat of justice for what is called Hamilton county, Ohio. It has a bank issuing notes under the authority of the State, called The Miami Exporting company. The healthiness and salubrity of the climate; the levelness and luxuriance of the soil; the purity and excellence of the waters, added to the blessings attendant on the judicious administration of mild and equitable laws; the great security in the land titles; all seem to centre in a favourable point of expectation, that Cincinnati and the country around it, must one day become rich and very populous, equal perhaps, if not superior to any other place of an interior in the United States. The site of Fort Washington is near the centre of the town. It was a principal frontier post; it is now laid out in town lots." A considerable trade is carried on between Cincinnati and New


text: Talk:The Garden of Years and Other Poems


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/49

43 strange taste of iron and copper. It is in high repute for its medicinal virtues, and is become a place of considerable resort.

The land further up the river is level and the growth principally oak. Although the soil is rather thin, it produces good wheat. Springfield is about twenty miles above Zenia, consisting of about fifty houses and the most of them well built. It is situated on the forks of Mad river. From Sringfield to Urbana is fourteen miles. The land north of Springfield is much richer than that which lies south of it. Here the growth varies from oak to beach, ash, sugar-maple, black and white walnut, and cherry. Urbana is the seat of justice for the county of Champaign. It contains about sixty houses and is rapidly increasing in inhabitants. From this town to the Indian boundary line is about sixty miles; the land mostly level, the growth large, inclining to beach, the water good, and will admit of many excellent mill seats.

Returning back to the Ohio, the first town below Columbia is Cincinnati, five miles distant. In the Ohio Navigator a concise and correct description is given of this town.

"Cincinnati is handsomely situated on a first and second bank of the Ohio, opposite Licking river. It is a flourishing town, has a rich, level, and well settled country around it. It contains about four hundred dwellings, an elegant court house, jail, three market houses, a land office for


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/48

42 county, containing about fifty houses, and a handsome stone court house. The face of the country is hilly, but the soil is rich, especially on the banks of the river, where the lands are very fine.

Further up the Miami is Lebanon, situated on the bank, and the largest town on this river. It contains about an hundred houses and is inhabited by the people called Shaking Quakers. They are emigrants from Kentucky, who were first formed into a regular society by a Mr. Macnamara, who still continues to be their head. They have acquired much credit, as a frugal, industrious people.

About twenty-five miles above Lebanon, is Zenia, situated on the bank of the Miami, and is the seat of justice for the county of Greene. It contains about fifty houses and a handsome court house. The country around it is level and fertile. Nine miles above this town is a very singular spring. It issues near the brow of an high, flat topped hill, about a mile from the western bank of the river. Water sufficient to carry an over-shot mill issues from it, and the quantity has never been known to increase or diminish. It throws out a reddish sediment, which concretes into a hard mass, forming a kind of bank, which frequently alters the position of the spring. The side of the hill is very steep, and the elevation of the spring from the base of the hill is about eighty feet. The water is very cold and has a


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/47

41 The county of Highland lies on the east side of this river and south of the great prairie, extending eastward within twenty miles of Chilicothe. It is moderately hilly, the soil rich, and the growth of timber generally large. Hillsborough is the seat of justice, and contains about thirty houses, and a handsome brick court house. A tract of swaly, wet land, about eight miles in width, passes through the country, which drains a part of the great prairie. Its waters run off by Oak creek into the Ohio. The road from Chilicothe to Cincinnati passes through it, and the depth of mud and water renders travelling extremely troublesome at all seasons of the year.

The people settled between the Scioto and Little Miami are mostly from Virginia and Kentucky, and the improvements are inconsiderable, excepting near Chilicothe.

Immediately below the mouth of the Little Miami, is the town of Columbia. It was laid out by Col. Symmes, and is the oldest settlement in the State, on the Ohio river, except Marietta; but has increased very little in the number of its inhabitants.

At present, it is only a neat, pleasant village, consisting of about forty houses, built at some distance from each other, on a rich bottom or interval. Nor is it probable, from its situation, that it will ever become a place of much business.

On an eastern branch of the Little Miami, is Williamsburge, the seat of justice for Clermont 4*


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/107

 A

TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

OF

RED RIVER.

river enters the Mississippi on the western side, at the first great bend below Fort Adams, about nine miles distant from the crossing of the line of demarkation [sic]. It is large, and one of the most beautiful rivers in Lower Louisiana. Its waters are brackish, of a reddish colour, turbid, and deposit a sediment collected from the red banks, far up the river. The banks are overflowed in the spring to a great extent, and in places to the depth of fifteen or eighteen feet. The freshets begin to fall in June, and by August the water retires to the channel of the river and lagoons. In the low lands the growth is principally willow and cotton wood, and on the higher, large elms, ash, and hickory ; where the grape vine greatly abounds. About six miles from the mouth of the river is a bayau, leading from Lake Long, which is a narrow lake, two or three miles in


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/240


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/239

 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Dec. 2004 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/238


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/237


text: Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/236


text:
Page:A Topographical Description of the State of Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana.djvu/235

219 Table of the probable number of warriors and souls of the Indians, residing west of the Allegany mountains and vicinity of the lakes, within the limits of the United States.

THE END.


text: The Garden of Years and Other Poems/Author’s Note


text:
Page:Dictionary of National Biography volume 46.djvu/317

 on the following Wednesday, news arrived of Buckingham's defeat (8 Nov.) He was not allowed to preach again, but considered that he had obtained a moral victory for his cause.

But Preston's health was now breaking; his lungs were diseased, he fell into a rapid decline, and died at a friend's house at Preston-Capes, Northamptonshire, on Sunday, 20 July 1628; he was buried on 28 July in Fawsley church, [q.v.], rector of the neighbouring parish of Fawsley, preaching the funeral sermon. There is no monument to his memory. A fine engraved portrait of him is prefixed to his 'New Covenant,' 1629; it is poorly reproduced in Clarke; there are also two smaller engravings. As Ball describes him, 'he was of an able, firme, well-tempered constitution, comely visadge, vigorous and vived eye.' He was unmarried. His will provided for his mother and brothers, founded exhibitions at Emmanuel College, and left his books and furniture to [q. v.], his favourite pupil and his minute biographer.

Preston's early inclination for diplomacy was symptomatic of his character, which Fuller has summed as that of 'a perfect politician,' apt 'to flutter most on that place which was furthest from his eggs.' He had great self-command, kept his own counsel, and was impervious to outside criticism. Only to Ball does he seem to have frankly bared his mind, and Ball's admiring delineation of him furnishes a singular picture of cautious astuteness and constitutional reserve. It is clear that his heart was firmly set on the propagation of the calvinistic theology; his posthumous works (edited by Richard Sibbes, John Davenport, Thomas Ball, and partly by, D.D. [q. v.]) are a storehouse of argument in its favour. They comprise: An 'Abridgment' of six of Preston's works by [q. v.] was published in 1648, 12mo. With his sermons are sometimes erroneously catalogued some funeral sermons (1615-19) by John Preston, vicar of East Ogwell, Devonshire.
 * 1) 'The Saints Daily Exercise; or a … Treatise of Prayer,' &c., 3rd edit. 1629, 4to (on 1 Thess. v. 17).
 * 2) 'The New Covenant … xiv Sermons on Genesis, xvii. 1, 2,' &c., 1629, 4to.
 * 3) 'Four Sermons,' &c., 1630, 4to (on Eccles. ix. 1,2, 11, 12).
 * 4) 'Five Sermons … before his Majestie,' &c., 1630, 4to (on 1 John v. 15; Isaiah, lxiv. 4; Eph. v. 15; 1 Tim. iii. 15; 1 Sam. xii. 20-22).
 * 5) 'The Breastplate of Faith and Love,' &c. 1630, 4to (eighteen sermons, on Rev. i. 17; 1 Thess. i. 3; Gal. v. 6).
 * 6) 'The Doctrine of the Saints Infirmities' &c., Amsterdam [1630?], 12mo (on 2 Chron. vxx. 18-20).
 * 7) 'Life Eternal; or a … Treatise … of the Divine … Attributes in xvii Sermons,' &c. 1631, 4to.
 * 8) 'The Law Ovt Lavved,' &c. Edinburgh, 1631, 4to (on Rom. vi. 14).
 * 9) 'An Elegant … Description of Spirituall Life and Death,' &c., 1632, 4to.
 * 10) 'The Deformed Forme of a Formall Profession,' &c., Edinburgh, 1632, 4to (on 2 Tim. iii. 5); London, 1641, 4to.
 * 11) 'Sinnes Overthrow; or a … Treatise of Mortification,' &c., 2nd edit. 1633, 4to (on Col. iii. 5).
 * 12) 'Foure … Treatises,' &c. 1633, 4to (includes
 * 13) 'A Remedy against Covetousnes,' on Col. iii. 5;
 * 14) 'An Elegant and Lively Description of Spiritual Life and Death,' on John v. 25;
 * 15) 'The Doctrine of Selfe-deniall,' on Luke ix. 23, preached at Lincoln's Inn;
 * 16) 'Three Sermons upon the Sacrament,' on 1 John v. 14).
 * 17) 'The Saints Qualification,' &c., 3rd edit. 1634, 4to (ten sermons on Humiliation, nine of them on Rom. i. 18, the tenth preached before the House of Commons on Num. xxv. 10, 11; nine sermons on Sanctification, on 1 Cor. v. 17; three on communion with Christ in the Sacrament, on 1 Cor. x. 16).
 * 18) 'A Liveles Life; or Man's Spirituall Death,' &c., 3rd edit. 1635, 4to (on Eph. ii. 1-3).
 * 19) 'A Sermon preached at Lincolnes-Inne,' &c., 1635, 4to (on Gen. xxii. 14).
 * 20) 'Remaines of … John Preston,' 2nd edit. 1637, 4to ' (includes
 * 21) 'Judas his Repentance,' on Matt, xxvii. 3-5;
 * 22) 'The Saints Spirituall Strength,' on Eph. iii. 16;
 * 23) 'Pauls Conversion,' on Acts ix. 6).
 * 24) 'The Golden Scepter … Three Treatises,' &c., 1638, 4to.
 * 25) 'Mount Ebal … Treatise of the Divine Love,' &c., 1638, 4to (five sermons on 1 Cor. xvi. 22).
 * 26) 'The Saints Submission,' &c., 1638, 12mo.
 * 27) 'The Fulnesse of Christ,' &c., 1640, 4to (on John i. 16).
 * 28) 'The Christian Freedome,' &c. 1641, 4to (on Rom. vi. 14).
 * 29) 'De Irresistibilitate Gratiæ Convertentis. Thesis habita in Scholis Publicis Academiæ Cantabrigiensis … Ex ipsius manuscripto,' &c. 1643, 16mo; in English, 'The Position of John Preston … Concerning the Irresistiblenesse of Converting Grace,' &c. 1654, 4to.
 * 30) 'Riches of Mercy,' &c, 1658, 4to.
 * 31) 'Prayers,' &c., 24mo; this last is in the list of works prefixed to 'The Position.'

[The Life of Preston, by Thomas Ball, written in 1628, several times printed in an abridged form by Samuel Clarke, the martyrologist (whose last edition is in his Lives of Thirty-two English Divines, 1677. pp. 75 sq.), is full and graphic; the chronological arrangement is sometimes confused (see also Clarke's Life of John Cotton in the same collection, p. 219); it was edited in 1885 by E. W. Harcourt, esq., from the original


text:
Armor and Cavalry Units

Brigades

 * 6th Cavalry Brigade (United States)

Regiments

 * 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 2nd Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 3rd Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 4th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 5th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 6th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 8th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 11th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 12th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 13th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 14th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 15th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 16th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 17th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 20th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 26th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 27th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 28th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 29th Cavalry Regiment (United States)
 * 31st Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 32nd Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 33rd Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 34th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 35th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 36th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 37th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 40th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 41st Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 42nd Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 43rd Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 44th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 45th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 46th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 47th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 48th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 66th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 67th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 68th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 69th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 80th Armored Regiment (United States)
 * 81st Armored Regiment (United States)
 * Armored Force School Demonstration Regiment (United States)

Separate Battalions/Squadrons

 * Under Construction

title: Armor and Cavalry Units


text: The Garden of Years and Other Poems/To the Reader


text:
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

THE VARIATION

ANIMALS AND PLANTS

UNDER DOMESTICATION.

CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1868.

VOLUME I.
 * INTRODUCTION
 * Chapter I. DOMESTIC DOGS AND CATS.
 * Chapter II. HORSES AND ASSES.
 * Chapter III. PIGS—CATTLE—SHEEP—GOATS.
 * Chapter IV. DOMESTIC RABBITS.
 * Chapter V. DOMESTIC PIGEONS.
 * Chapter VI. PIGEONS—continued.
 * Chapter VII. FOWLS.
 * Chapter VIII. DUCKS—GOOSE—PEACOCK—TURKEY—GUINEA-FOWL—CANARY-BIRD—GOLD-FISH—HIVE-BEES—SILK-MOTHS.
 * Chapter IX. CULTIVATED PLANTS: CEREAL AND CULINARY PLANTS.
 * Chapter X. PLANTS continued—FRUITS—ORNAMENTAL TREES—FLOWERS.
 * Chapter XI. ON BUD-VARIATION, AND ON CERTAIN ANOMALOUS MODES OF REPRODUCTION AND VARIATION.

VOLUME II.
 * Chapter XII. INHERITANCE.
 * Chapter XIII. INHERITANCE continued—REVERSION OR ATAVISM.
 * Chapter XIV. INHERITANCE continued—FIXEDNESS OF CHARACTER—PREPOTENCY—SEXUAL LIMITATION—CORRESPONDENCE OF AGE.
 * Chapter XV. ON CROSSING.
 * Chapter XVI. CAUSES WHICH INTERFERE WITH THE FREE CROSSING OF VARIETIES—INFLUENCE OF DOMESTICATION ON FERTILITY.
 * Chapter XVII. ON THE GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING, AND ON THE EVIL EFFECTS OF CLOSE INTERBREEDING.
 * Chapter XVIII. ON THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHANGED CONDITIONS OF LIFE: STERILITY FROM VARIOUS CAUSES.
 * Chapter XIX. SUMMARY OF THE FOUR LAST CHAPTERS, WITH REMARKS ON HYBRIDISM.
 * Chapter XX. SELECTION BY MAN.
 * Chapter XXI. SELECTION—continued.
 * Chapter XXII. CAUSES OF VARIABILITY.
 * Chapter XXIII. DIRECT AND DEFINITE ACTION OF THE EXTERNAL CONDITIONS OF LIFE.
 * Chapter XXIV. LAWS OF VARIATION—USE AND DISUSE, ETC.
 * Chapter XXV. LAWS OF VARIATION, continued—CORRELATED VARIABILITY.
 * Chapter XXVI. LAWS OF VARIATION, continued—SUMMARY.
 * Chapter XXVII. PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS OF PANGENESIS.
 * Chapter XXVIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS.

INDEX


text: Talk:The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication


text:
Page:The Partisan (revised).djvu/253

have witnessed the sudden capture of the truculent British sergeant, by the brother of the damsel whom he had destined for his prey. Aided by his new recruits, Humphries brought his prisoner to the camp with little difficulty. The worthy sergeant, it is true, did at first offer resistance; he mouthed and struggled, as the bandages compressed his mouth, and the ligatures restrained his arms; but the timely application of hand and foot, which his captors did not hesitate to employ to compel obedience, not to speak of the threatening aspect of the dagger—which the much roused lieutenant held more than once to his throat—brought him to reason, and counselled that wholesome resignation to circumstances, which, though not always easy and pleasant of adoption, is, at least, on most occasions, well becoming in him who has no alternatives. He was, therefore, soon mounted on horseback, along with one of the troopers, and in a state of most commendable quietness, he reached, after an hour's quick riding, the encampment at Bacon's Bridge. There, well secured with a stout rope, and watched by the guard assigned for the other prisoners, close in the thick and knotty wood which girded the swamp, we will at present leave him.

Singleton had well concealed his little squadron in the same shelter. Like a true partisan, he had omitted no precautions. His scouts—men that he could trust—were out in all directions, and his sentries watched both sides of the river. The position which he had chosen was one established by General Moultrie in the previous season. It had been vacated when that brave old warrior was called to league his troops with those of Lincoln, in defence of the

title: Page:The Partisan (revised).djvu/253


text:
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication/Introduction

The object of this work is not to describe all the many races of animals which have been domesticated by man, and of the plants which have been cultivated by him; even if I possessed the requisite knowledge, so gigantic an undertaking would be here superfluous. It is my intention to give under the head of each species only such facts as I have been able to collect or observe, showing the amount and nature of the changes which animals and plants have undergone whilst under man's dominion, or which bear on the general principles of variation. In one case alone, namely in that of the domestic pigeon, I will describe fully all the chief races, their history, the amount and nature of their differences, and the probable steps by which they have been formed. I have selected this case, because, as we shall hereafter see, the materials are better than in any other; and one case fully described will in fact illustrate all others. But I shall also describe domesticated rabbits, fowls, and ducks, with considerable fullness.

The subjects discussed in this volume are so connected that it is not a little difficult to decide how they can be best arranged. I have determined in the first part to give, under the heads of the various animals and plants, a large body of facts, some of which may at first appear but little related to our subject, and to devote the latter part to general discussions. Whenever I have found it necessary to give numerous details, in support of any proposition or conclusion, small type has been used. The reader will, I think, find this plan a convenience, for, if he does not doubt the conclusion or care about the details, he can easily pass them over; yet I may be permitted to say that some of the discussions thus printed deserve attention, at least from the professed naturalist.

It may be useful to those who have read nothing about Natural Selection, if I here give a brief sketch of the whole subject and of its bearing on the origin of species. This is the more desirable, as it is impossible in the present work to avoid many allusions to questions which will be fully discussed in future volumes.

From a remote period, in all parts of the world, man has subjected many animals and plants to domestication or culture. Man has no power of altering the absolute conditions of life; he cannot change the climate of any country; he adds no new element to the soil; but he can remove an animal or plant from one climate or soil to another, and give it food on which it did not subsist in its natural state. It is an error to speak of man "tampering with nature" and causing variability. If organic beings had not possessed an inherent tendency to vary, man could have done nothing. He unintentionally exposes his animals and plants to various conditions of life, and variability supervenes, which he cannot even prevent or check. Consider the simple case of a plant which has been cultivated during a long time in its native country, and which consequently has not been subjected to any change of climate. It has been protected to a certain extent from the competing roots of plants of other kinds; it has generally been grown in manured soil, but probably not richer than that of many an alluvial flat; and lastly, it has been exposed to changes in its conditions, being grown sometimes in one district and sometimes in another, in different soils. Under such circumstances, scarcely a plant can be named, though cultivated in the rudest manner, which has not given birth to several varieties. It can hardly be maintained that during the many changes which this earth has undergone, and during the natural migrations of plants from one land or island to another, tenanted by different species, that such plants will not often have been subjected to changes in their conditions analogous to those which almost inevitably cause cultivated plants to vary. No doubt man selects varying individuals, sows their seeds, and again selects their varying offspring. But the initial variation on which man works, and without which he can do nothing, is caused by slight changes in the conditions of life, which must often have occurred under nature. Man, therefore, may be said to have been trying an experiment on a gigantic scale; and it is an experiment which nature during the long lapse of time has incessantly tried. Hence it follows that the principles of domestication are important for us. The main result is that organic beings thus treated have varied largely, and the variations have been inherited. This has apparently been one chief cause of the belief long held by some few naturalists that species in a state of nature undergo change.

I shall in this volume treat, as fully as my materials permit, the whole subject of variation under domestication. We may thus hope to obtain some light, little though it be, on the causes of variability,—on the laws which govern it, such as the direct action of climate and food, the effects of use and disuse, and of correlation of growth,—and on the amount of change to which domesticated organisms are liable. We shall learn something on the laws of inheritance, on the effects of crossing different breeds, and on that sterility which often supervenes when organic beings are removed from their natural conditions of life, and likewise when they are too closely interbred. During this investigation we shall see that the principle of Selection is all important. Although man does not cause variability and cannot even prevent it, he can select, preserve, and accumulate the variations given to him by the hand of nature in any way which he chooses; and thus he can certainly produce a great result. Selection may be followed either methodically and intentionally, or unconsciously and unintentionally. Man may select and preserve each successive variation, with the distinct intention of improving and altering a breed, in accordance with a preconceived idea; and by thus adding up variations, often so slight as to be imperceptible by an uneducated eye, he has effected wonderful changes and improvements. It can, also, be clearly shown that man, without any intention or thought of improving the breed, by preserving in each successive generation the individuals which he prizes most, and by destroying the worthless individuals, slowly, though surely, induces great changes. As the will of man thus comes into play, we can understand how it is that domesticated breeds show adaptation to his wants and pleasures. We can further understand how it is that domestic races of animals and cultivated races of plants often exhibit an abnormal character, as compared with natural species; for they have been modified not for their own benefit, but for that of man.

In a second work I shall discuss the variability of organic beings in a state of nature; namely, the individual differences presented by animals and plants, and those slightly greater and generally inherited differences which are ranked by naturalists as varieties or geographical races. We shall see how difficult, or rather how impossible it often is, to distinguish between races and sub-species, as the less well-marked forms have sometimes been denominated; and again between sub-species and true species. I shall further attempt to show that it is the common and widely ranging, or, as they may be called, the dominant species, which most frequently vary; and that it is the large and flourishing genera which include the greatest number of varying species. Varieties, as we shall see, may justly be called incipient species.

But it may be urged, granting that organic beings in a state of nature present some varieties,—that their organization is in some slight degree plastic; granting that many animals and plants have varied greatly under domestication, and that man by his power of selection has gone on accumulating such variations until he has made strongly marked and firmly inherited races; granting all this, how, it may be asked, have species arisen in a state of nature? The differences between natural varieties are slight; whereas the differences are considerable between the species of the same genus, and great between the species of distinct genera. How do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater difference? How do varieties, or as I have called them incipient species, become converted into true and well-defined species? How has each new species been adapted to the surrounding physical conditions, and to the other forms of life on which it in any way depends? We see on every side of us innumerable adaptations and contrivances, which have justly excited in the mind of every observer the highest admiration. There is, for instance, a fly (Cecidomyia) which deposits its eggs within the stamens of a Scrophularia, and secretes a poison which produces a gall, on which the larva feeds; but there is another insect (Misocampus) which deposits its eggs within the body of the larva within the gall, and is thus nourished by its living prey; so that here a hymenopterous insect depends on a dipterous insect, and this depends on its power of producing a monstrous growth in a particular organ of a particular plant. So it is, in a more or less plainly marked manner, in thousands and tens of thousands of cases, with the lowest as well as with the highest productions of nature.

This problem of the conversion of varieties into species,—that is, the augmentation of the slight differences characteristic of varieties into the greater differences characteristic of species and genera, including the admirable adaptations of each being to its complex organic and inorganic conditions of life,—will form the main subject of my second work. We shall therein see that all organic beings, without exception, tend to increase at so high a ratio, that no district, no station, not even the whole surface of the land or the whole ocean, would hold the progeny of a single pair after a certain number of generations. The inevitable result is an ever-recurrent Struggle for Existence. It has truly been said that all nature is at war; the strongest ultimately prevail, the weakest fail; and we well know that myriads of forms have disappeared from the face of the earth. If then organic beings in a state of nature vary even in a slight degree, owing to changes in the surrounding conditions, of which we have abundant geological evidence, or from any other cause; if, in the long course of ages, inheritable variations ever arise in any way advantageous to any being under its excessively complex and changing relations of life; and it would be a strange fact if beneficial variations did never arise, seeing how many have arisen which man has taken advantage of for his own profit or pleasure; if then these contingencies ever occur, and I do not see how the probability of their occurrence can be doubted, then the severe and often-recurrent struggle for existence will determine that those variations, however slight, which are favourable shall be preserved or selected, and those which are unfavourable shall be destroyed.

This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity. No one objects to chemists speaking of "elective affinity;" and certainly an acid has no more choice in combining with a base, than the conditions of life have in determining whether or not a new form be selected or preserved. The term is so far a good one as it brings into connection the production of domestic races by man's power of selection, and the natural preservation of varieties and species in a state of nature. For brevity sake I sometimes speak of natural selection as an intelligent power;—in the same way as astronomers speak of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets, or as agriculturists speak of man making domestic races by his power of selection. In the one case, as in the other, selection does nothing without variability, and this depends in some manner on the action of the surrounding circumstances on the organism. I have, also, often personified the word Nature; for I have found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity; but I mean by nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws,—and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events.

In the chapter devoted to natural selection I shall show from experiment and from a multitude of facts, that the greatest amount of life can be supported on each spot by great diversification or divergence in the structure and constitution of its inhabitants. We shall, also, see that the continued production of new forms through natural selection, which implies that each new variety has some advantage over others, almost inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and less improved forms. These latter are almost necessarily intermediate in structure as well as in descent between the last-produced forms and their original parent-species. Now, if we suppose a species to produce two or more varieties, and these in the course of time to produce other varieties, the principle of good being derived from diversification of structure will generally lead to the preservation of the most divergent varieties; thus the lesser differences characteristic of varieties come to be augmented into the greater differences characteristic of species, and, by the extermination of the older intermediate forms, new species come to be distinctly defined objects. Thus, also, we shall see how it is that organic beings can be classed by what is called a natural method in distinct groups—species under genera, and genera under families.

As all the inhabitants of each country may be said, owing to their high rate of reproduction, to be striving to increase in numbers; as each form is related to many other forms in the struggle for life,—for destroy any one and its place will be seized by others; as every part of the organization occasionally varies in some slight degree, and as natural selection acts exclusively by the preservation of variations which are advantageous under the excessively complex conditions to which each being is exposed, no limit exists to the number, singularity, and perfection of the contrivances and co-adaptations which may thus be produced. An animal or a plant may thus slowly become related in its structure and habits in the most intricate manner to many other animals and plants, and to the physical conditions of its home. Variations in the organization will in some cases be aided by habit, or by the use and disuse of parts, and they will be governed by the direct action of the surrounding physical conditions and by correlation of growth.

On the principles here briefly sketched out, there is no innate or necessary tendency in each being to its own advancement in the scale of organization. We are almost compelled to look at the specialization or differentiation of parts or organs for different functions as the best or even sole standard of advancement; for by such division of labour each function of body and mind is better performed. And, as natural selection acts exclusively through the preservation of profitable modifications of structure, and as the conditions of life in each area generally become more and more complex, from the increasing number of different forms which inhabit it and from most of these forms acquiring a more and more perfect structure, we may confidently believe, that, on the whole, organization advances. Nevertheless a very simple form fitted for very simple conditions of life might remain for indefinite ages unaltered or unimproved; for what would it profit an infusorial animalcule, for instance, or an intestinal worm, to become highly organized? Members of a high group might even become, and this apparently has occurred, fitted for simpler conditions of life; and in this case natural selection would tend to simplify or degrade the organization, for complicated mechanism for simple actions would be useless or even disadvantageous.

In a second work, after treating of the Variation of organisms in a state of nature, of the Struggle for Existence and the principle of Natural Selection, I shall discuss the difficulties which are opposed to the theory. These difficulties may be classed under the following heads:—the apparent impossibility in some cases of a very simple organ graduating by small steps into a highly perfect organ; the marvellous facts of Instinct; the whole question of Hybridity; and, lastly, the absence, at the present time and in our geological formations, of innumerable links connecting all allied species. Although some of these difficulties are of great weight, we shall see that many of them are explicable on the theory of natural selection, and are otherwise inexplicable.

In scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypothesis, and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory. The undulations of the ether and even its existence are hypothetical, yet every one now admits the undulatory theory of light. The principle of natural selection may be looked at as a mere hypothesis, but rendered in some degree probable by what we positively know of the variability of organic beings in a state of nature,—by what we positively know of the struggle for existence, and the consequent almost inevitable preservation of favourable variations,—and from the analogical formation of domestic races. Now this hypothesis may be tested,—and this seems to me the only fair and legitimate manner of considering the whole question,—by trying whether it explains several large and independent classes of facts; such as the geological succession of organic beings, their distribution in past and present times, and their mutual affinities and homologies. If the principle of natural selection does explain these and other large bodies of facts, it ought to be received. On the ordinary view of each species having been independently created, we gain no scientific explanation of any one of these facts. We can only say that it has so pleased the Creator to command that the past and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order and in certain areas; that He has impressed on them the most extraordinary resemblances, and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups. But by such statements we gain no new knowledge; we do not connect together facts and laws; we explain nothing.

In a third work I shall try the principle of natural selection by seeing how far it will give a fair explanation of the several classes of facts just alluded to. It was the consideration of these facts which first led me to take up the present subject. When I visited, during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, the Galapagos Archipelago, situated in the Pacific Ocean about 500 miles from the shore of South America, I found myself surrounded by peculiar species of birds, reptiles, and plants, existing nowhere else in the world. Yet they nearly all bore an American stamp. In the song of the mocking-thrush, in the harsh cry of the carrion-hawk, in the great candlestick-like opuntias, I clearly perceived the neighbourhood of America, though the islands were separated by so many miles of ocean from the mainland, and differed much from it in their geological constitution and climate. Still more surprising was the fact that most of the inhabitants of each separate island in this small archipelago were specifically different, though most closely related to each other. The archipelago, with its innumerable craters and bare streams of lava, appeared to be of recent origin; and thus I fancied myself brought near to the very act of creation. I often asked myself how these many peculiar animals and plants had been produced: the simplest answer seemed to be that the inhabitants of the several islands had descended from each other, undergoing modification in the course of their descent; and that all the inhabitants of the archipelago had descended from those of the nearest land, namely America, whence colonists would naturally have been derived. But it long remained to me an inexplicable problem how the necessary degree of modification could have been effected, and it would have thus remained for ever, had I not studied domestic productions, and thus acquired a just idea of the power of Selection. As soon as I had fully realized this idea, I saw, on reading Malthus on Population, that Natural Selection was the inevitable result of the rapid increase of all organic beings; for I was prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence by having long studied the habits of animals.

Before visiting the Galapagos I had collected many animals whilst travelling from north to south on both sides of America, and everywhere, under conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive, American forms were met with—species replacing species of the same peculiar genera. Thus it was when the Cordilleras were ascended, or the thick tropical forests penetrated, or the fresh waters of America searched. Subsequently I visited other countries, which in all the conditions of life were incomparably more like to parts of South America, than the different parts of that continent were to each other; yet in these countries, as in Australia or Southern Africa, the traveller cannot fail to be struck with the entire difference of their productions. Again the reflection was forced on me that community of descent from the early inhabitants or colonists of South America would alone explain the wide prevalence of American types of structure throughout that immense area.

To exhume with one's own hands the bones of extinct and gigantic quadrupeds brings the whole question of the succession of species vividly before one's mind; and I had found in South America great pieces of tesselated armour exactly like, but on a magnificent scale, that covering the pigmy armadillo; I had found great teeth like those of the living sloth, and bones like those of the cavy. An analogous succession of allied forms had been previously observed in Australia. Here then we see the prevalence, as if by descent, in time as in space, of the same types in the same areas; and in neither case does the similarity of the conditions by any means seem sufficient to account for the similarity of the forms of life. It is notorious that the fossil remains of closely consecutive formations are closely allied in structure, and we can at once understand the fact if they are likewise closely allied by descent. The succession of the many distinct species of the same genus throughout the long series of geological formations seems to have been unbroken or continuous. New species come in gradually one by one. Ancient and extinct forms of life often show combined or intermediate characters, like the words of a dead language with respect to its several offshoots or living tongues. All these and other such facts seemed to me to point to descent with modification as the method of production of new groups of species.

The innumerable past and present inhabitants of the world are connected together by the most singular and complex affinities, and can be classed in groups under groups, in the same manner as varieties can be classed under species and sub-varieties under varieties, but with much higher grades of difference. It will be seen in my third work that these complex affinities and the rules for classification receive a rational explanation on the principle of descent, together with modifications acquired through natural selection, entailing divergence of character and the extinction of intermediate forms. How inexplicable is the similar pattern of the hand of a man, the foot of a dog, the wing of a bat, the flipper of a seal, on the doctrine of independent acts of creation! how simply explained on the principle of the natural selection of successive slight variations in the diverging descendants from a single progenitor! So it is, if we look to the structure of an individual animal or plant, when we see the fore and hind limbs, the skull and vertebræ, the jaws and legs of a crab, the petals, stamens, and pistils of a flower, built on the same type or pattern. During the many changes to which in the course of time all organic beings have been subjected, certain organs or parts have occasionally become at first of little use and ultimately superfluous; and the retention of such parts in a rudimentary and utterly useless condition can, on the descent-theory, be simply understood. On the principle of modifications being inherited at the same age in the child, at which each successive variation first appeared in the parent, we shall see why rudimentary parts and organs are generally well developed in the individual at a very early age. On the same principle of inheritance at corresponding ages, and on the principle of variations not generally supervening at a very early period of embryonic growth (and both these principles can be shown to be probable from direct evidence), that most wonderful fact in the whole round of natural history, namely, the similarity of members of the same great class in their embryonic condition,—the embryo, for instance, of a mammal, bird, reptile, and fish being barely distinguishable,—becomes simply intelligible.

It is the consideration and explanation of such facts as these which has convinced me that the theory of descent with modification by means of natural selection is in the main true. These facts have as yet received no explanation on the theory of independent Creations; they cannot be grouped together under one point of view, but each has to be considered as an ultimate fact. As the first origin of life on this earth, as well as the continued life of each individual, is at present quite beyond the scope of science, I do not wish to lay much stress on the greater simplicity of the view of a few forms, or of only one form, having been originally created, instead of innumerable miraculous creations having been necessary at innumerable periods; though this more simple view accords well with Maupertuis's philosophical axiom "of least action."

In considering how far the theory of natural selection may be extended,—that is, in determining from how many progenitors the inhabitants of the world have descended,—we may conclude that at least all the members of the same class have descended from a single ancestor. A number of organic beings are included in the same class, because they present, independently of their habits of life, the same fundamental type of structure, and because they graduate into each other. Moreover, members of the same class can in most cases be shown to be closely alike at an early embryonic age. These facts can be explained on the belief of their descent from a common form; therefore it may be safely admitted that all the members of the same class have descended from one progenitor. But as the members of quite distinct classes have something in common in structure and much in common in constitution, analogy and the simplicity of the view would lead us one step further, and to infer as probable that all living creatures have descended from a single prototype.

I hope that the reader will pause before coming to any final and hostile conclusion on the theory of natural selection. It is the facts and views to be hereafter given which have convinced me of the truth of the theory. The reader may consult my 'Origin of Species,' for a general sketch of the whole subject; but in that work he has to take many statements on trust. In considering the theory of natural selection, he will assuredly meet with weighty difficulties, but these difficulties relate chiefly to subjects—such as the degree of perfection of the geological record, the means of distribution, the possibility of transitions in organs, &c.—on which we are confessedly ignorant; nor do we know how ignorant we are. If we are much more ignorant than is generally supposed, most of these difficulties wholly disappear. Let the reader reflect on the difficulty of looking at whole classes of facts from a new point of view. Let him observe how slowly, but surely, the noble views of Lyell on the gradual changes now in progress on the earth's surface have been accepted as sufficient to account for all that we see in its past history. The present action of natural selection may seem more or less probable; but I believe in the truth of the theory, because it collects under one point of view, and gives a rational explanation of, many apparently independent classes of facts.