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CLA one of Saint Finnen's scholars; he established a monastic institution at Saighir. By some he is supposed to have died in Cornwall, and to have been identical with Saint Piran, whose little Church of Piranzabuloe was preserved intact for centuries covered with sand. His festival is the 15th of March.

Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, second son of Edward III., was born at Antwerp 29th November 1338. In 1352 he married Lady Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of the Earl of Ulster, and in her right assumed the style of Earl of Ulster, Lord of Connaught and Tuam. Accompanied by his wife, he landed in Ireland, 15th September 1361, as Lord-Lieutenant, at the head of a powerful array, commanded by the ablest English warriors. He gave much offence to the Anglo-Irish lords by his English exclusiveness, and by forbidding any Irish-born to approach his camp. His first expedition against the O'Byrnes was singularly unsuccessful, and by February, "being in imminent peril from the daily increasing strength of his enemies," his father was obliged to send him additional reinforcements. Next year he was created Duke of Clarence, from the lordship of Clare, in Suffolk, which he had acquired through his wife. She died during his residence in Ireland. He strengthened Dublin Castle, and for a time removed the Exchequer from Dublin to Carlow. He was unsuccessful in prosecuting his Irish wars, or in recovering any of his wife's estates. In the course of the six following years he was thrice Lord-Lieutienant. In 1367 the Duke left the country finally, and shortly afterwards he married an Italian princess, with a dowry of £200,000, besides the town of Alba and several castles in Piedmont. During his administration, and under his presidency, in 1367, the memorable Statute of Kilkenny was passed by the Irish Parliament, rigidly prescribing laws or demarcation between the inhabitants of the Pale and the rest of Ireland. Mr. Eichey, after considering this statute, comes to "the conclusion that the English government at this time abandoned the prospect of reducing to obedience the Irish and degenerate English, and, adopting a policy purely defensive, sought merely to preserve in allegiance to the English crown the miserable remains of the Irish kingdom." Yet it was not long after the passage of this statute that we find the colonists of the Pale writing to the King that "the Irish, with his other enemies and rebels, continued to ride over the country in hostile array, slaying those who oppose them, despoiling the monasteries, churches, castles, towns, and fortresses of the English, without reverence for God or Holy Church, to the great shame and disherison of his Majesty." The Duke of Clarence died in 1368, aged about 30, and the dukedom became extinct.

 Clarke, Adam, Rev., LL.D., biblical commentator, was born at Magherafelt in 1760. From early youth he discovered a deeply religious temperament, and thirst for knowledge. He was apprenticed to a branch of the linen business; but his father and mother being Methodists, and the theological bent of the boy's mind becoming known to some of the ministers who visited at their house, he was admitted to a school founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. There he devoted himself unreservedly to preparing himself for the ministry. He studied Hebrew and a course of Oriental languages beyond the ordinary curriculum of the school. In 1782 he was ordained by Wesley, and for twenty years he laboured principally in the provinces, residing in London or upon a small estate acquired by him in Lancashire. His preaching attracted immense numbers, and he daily gained influence and reputation. In 1802 he published a Bibliographical Dictionary in 6 vols. This work increased his already great reputation; he was admitted a member of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Irish Academy, and other learned bodies. The University of St. Andrews conferred upon him the degrees of M.A. and LL.D. His writings are considered to have materially helped to remove the contempt theretofore attached to the name of Methodist. By the Commissioners of Public Records he was induced to edit Rymer's Foedera, for which he was ill fitted, and which brought him little credit. To one great work he devoted the best energies of his life—The Holy Bible, with a Commentary and Critical Notes. The first volume appeared in 1810; the eighth and last in 1826. Bickersteth says: "There is much valuable matter in it. Light is sometimes thrown on difficult passages; but he is too fond of innovations and justifying generally condemned characters, and has both eccentric and exceptionable passages." He has been charged with parading the oriental learning which he is understood to have possessed; but his excellence of character is unquestioned. "He was in every sense of the word a good man, and his life presents an instructive lesson of rewards and honours attending useful labours, and consistent, virtuous action." He was the author of several other works besides those  82


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24 side of the ablest navigators." So are the sun and moon and all the stars of heaven. When a noble act is done,—perchance in a scene of great natural beauty; when Leonidas and his three hundred martyrs consume one day in dying, and the sun and moon come each and look at them once in the steep defile of Thermopylae; when Arnold Winkelried, in the high Alps, under the shadow of the avalanche, gathers in his side a sheaf of Austrian spears to break the line for his comrades; are not these heroes entitled to add the beauty of the scene to the beauty of the deed? When the bark of Columbus nears the shore of America;—before it, the beach lined with savages, fleeing out of all their huts of cane; the sea behind; and the purple mountains of the Indian Archipelago around, can we separate the man from the living picture? Does not the New World clothe his form with her palm-groves and savannahs as fit drapery? Ever does natural beauty steal in like air, and envelope great actions. When Sir Harry Vane was dragged up the Tower-hill, sitting on a sled, to suffer death, as the champion of the English laws, one of the multitude cried out to him, "You never sate on so glorious a seat." Charles II., to intimidate the citizens of London, caused the patriot Lord Russel to be drawn in an open coach, through the principal streets of the city, on his way to the scaffold. "But," his

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rh says, "the multitude imagined they saw liberty and virtue sitting by his side." In private places, among sordid objects, an act of truth or heroism seems at once to draw to itself the sky as its temple, the sun as its candle. Nature stretcheth out her arms to embrace man, only let his thoughts be of equal greatness. Willingly does she follow his steps with the rose and the violet, and bend her lines of grandeur and grace to the decoration of her darling child. Only let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit the picture. A virtuous man is in unison with her works, and makes the central figure of the visible sphere. Homer, Pindar, Socrates, Phocion, associate themselves fitly in our memory with the geography and climate of Greece. The visible heavens and earth sympathize with Jesus. And in common life, whosoever has seen a person of powerful character and happy genius, will have remarked how easily he took all things along with him,—the persons, the opinions, and the day, and nature became ancillary to a man.

3. There is still another aspect under which the beauty of the world may be viewed, namely, as it becomes an object of the intellect. Beside the relation of things to virtue, they have a relation to thought. The intellect searches out the absolute order of things as they stand in the mind of God, and without the colors of affection. The intellectual and the active powers


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User talk:Shijualex

— billinghurst  sDrewth  05:30, 19 June 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shijualex


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Rh heroic acts, around its way, until evil is no more seen. The kingdom of man over nature, which cometh not with observation,—a dominion such as now is beyond his dream of God,—he shall enter without more wonder than the blind man feels who is gradually restored to perfect sight.'


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User talk:138.88.4.179

Welcome

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title: User talk:138.88.4.179


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26 seem to succeed each other, and the exclusive activity of the one, generates the exclusive activity of the other. There is something unfriendly in each to the other, but they are like the alternate periods of feeding and working in animals; each prepares and will be followed by the other. Therefore does beauty, which, in relation to actions, as we have seen, comes unsought, and comes because it is unsought, remain for the apprehension and pursuit of the intellect; and then again, in its turn, of the active power. Nothing divine dies. All good is eternally reproductive. The beauty of nature re-forms itself in the mind, and not for barren contemplation, but for new creation.

All men are in some degree impressed by the face of the world; some men even to delight. This love of beauty is Taste. Others have the same love in such excess, that, not content with admiring, they seek to embody it in new forms. The creation of beauty is Art.

The production of a work of art throws a light upon the mystery of humanity. A work of art is an abstract or epitome of the world. It is the result or expression of nature, in miniature. For, although the works of nature are innumerable and all different, the result or the expression of them all is similar and single. Nature is a sea of forms radically alike and even unique. A leaf, a sun-beam, a landscape, the


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Rh ocean, make an analogous impression on the mind. What is common to them all,—that perfectness and harmony, is beauty. The standard of beauty is the entire circuit of natural forms,—the totality of nature; which the Italians expressed by defining beauty "il piu nell' uno." Nothing is quite beautiful alone: nothing but is beautiful in the whole. A single object is only so far beautiful as it suggests this universal grace. The poet, the painter, the sculptor, the musician, the architect, seek each to concentrate this radiance of the world on one point, and each in his several work to satisfy the love of beauty which stimulates him to produce. Thus is Art, a nature passed through the alembic of man. Thus in art, does nature work through the will of a man filled with the beauty of her first works.

The world thus exists to the soul to satisfy the desire of beauty. This element I call an ultimate end. No reason can be asked or given why the soul seeks beauty. Beauty, in its largest and profoundest sense, is one expression for the universe. God is the all-fair. Truth, and goodness, and beauty, are but different faces of the same All. But beauty in nature is not ultimate. It is the herald of inward and eternal beauty, and is not alone a solid and satisfactory good. It must stand as a part, and not as yet the last or highest expression of the final cause of Nature.


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ANGUAGE is a third use which Nature subserves to man. Nature is the vehicle of thought, and in a simple, double, and three-fold degree.

1. Words are signs of natural facts.

2. Particular natural facts are symbols of particular spiritual facts.

3. Nature is the symbol of spirit.

1. Words are signs of natural facts. The use of natural history is to give us aid in supernatural history: the use of the outer creation, to give us language for the beings and changes of the inward creation. Every word which is used to express a moral or intellectual fact, if traced to its root, is found to be borrowed from some material appearance. Right means straight; wrong means twisted. Spirit primarily means wind; transgression, the crossing of a line; supercilious, the raising of the eyebrow. We say the heart to express emotion, the head to denote thought; and thought and emotion are words borrowed from sensible things, and now appropriated to spiritual nature. Most of the process 28


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CLA In 1831 Dr. Clarke established several schools in his native province of Ulster. He accumulated a valuable library, including many MSS. and a small museum of curiosities. He died of cholera, during a passing visit to Bayswater, 26th August 1832, aged about 72. He is described as five feet nine inches high, of a large frame, his limbs straight and well-proportioned, and his person unbowed to the last hour of his life. "His personal habits were those of unintermitted industry, unencumbered by busy haste, and directed by the exactest order."

Clarke, Joseph, M.D., a distinguished physician, was born in the County of Londonderry in 1758. After receiving his preliminary education in Ireland, he studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh. Endowed with indomitable perseverance, and with abilities of a high order, he worked his way up from a fortune of £400, out of which his education was paid for, to an annual practice in Dublin of £3,000 per annum. From his fee-book we learn that he received £37,252 in fees of £10 and upwards. Under date 11th November 1801, where a one-pound note is entered, he adds, "First of these vile productions." The gold guinea, the hitherto accustomed fee, was worth £1 2s. 9d. Irish. Of 3,847 cases of parturition he attended in his private practice during forty-four years, it is stated that there were but twenty-two deaths, and of these but eight were the result of child-birth. His name is specially connected with the Rotunda Hospital, of which he was for many years master. He died in 1834 in Edinburgh, whither he had gone to read a paper before the British Association. (7)

Clayton, Robert, Bishop of Clogher, was born in Dublin in 1695. His father was incumbent of a parish. He was educated in England, and afterwards became a Fellow of Trinity College. He was appointed to the Bishopric of Killala in 1729; was transferred to Cork in 1735, and to Clogher in 1745. He was recommended for the vacant Archbishopric of Tuam in 1752; but he was passed over as being the author of several works on ecclesiastical history and chronology exhibiting Arian tendencies. In 1756 he moved in the Irish House of Lords that the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds should be omitted from the Liturgy of the Church of Ireland. In 1757 he published the third part of his Vindication of the History of the Old and New Testaments, containing opinions so contrary to the doctrines of the Thirty-nine Articles, that by direction of the King measures were taken for a prosecution that would probably have resulted in deprivation, had he not died of nervous fever, 26th February 1758, aged about 63. He was member of many learned societies, and corresponded with men of eminence in literature and the arts. He is described as a "munificent, learned, high-spirited man."

 Cleburne, Patrick R., General of the Confederate army, in the American civil war, was born near Queenstown, County of Cork, 17th March 1828. In 1850, after three years' service as a private in the British army, he emigrated to the United States, studied law, and settled down at Helena, Arkansas. He was in successful practice when the civil war broke out early in 1861, and almost immediately entered the Confederate service as a private, rising before long to be colonel of a regiment. In March 1862 he was made Brigadier-General, and was specially distinguished for his valour and ability at the battle of Shiloh. He was wounded at the battle of Perryville. Appointed Major-General in December 1862, he commanded divisions at Murfreesboro' and Chickamauga; he distinguished himself in command of the rear-guard at Mission Ridge, and received the thanks of the Confederate Congress for his defence of Ringgold Gap; at Jonesboro' he covered the retreat of Hood's defeated army. General Cleburne was killed at the battle of Franklin, Tennessee, 30th November 1864, aged 36. He possessed a commanding presence, was skilful and daring in action, and was very popular with both officers and men. Horace Greeley writing of his death, says: "The loss of Patrick Cleburne, the 'Stonewall Jackson of the West,' would of itself have been a rebel disaster."

 Clement, a young Irish monk in the 8th century, who visited the Continent with his friend Albin, and attracted the attention of Charlemagne, who committed to him the instruction of a number of youth. The incident of the appearance of Clement and Albin before the King is narrated by M'Gee in a poem entitled, "The Wisdom-sellers before Charlemagne." [See ALBIN.]

 Clinton, Charles, Colonel and lawyer, was born in the County of Longford in 1690. In May 1729 he chartered a ship to convey his family and a number of relatives and friends to the British colonies of North America. The captain formed the design of starving them to death, probably with a view of acquiring their property; but upon payment of a large ransom he consented to land them at Cape Cod. Numbers of the passengers died from the hardships 83


text: Category:Freedom of speech

title: Category:Freedom of speech


text:
Free Speech on the Internet

Free Speech on the Internet

HON. JERROLD NADLER

OF NEW YORK IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Wednesday, March 19, 1997 Mr. NADLER. Mr. Speaker, I rise today to support the efforts of citizens everywhere to protect free speech on the Internet. Today, the Supreme Court heard arguments to determine the constitutionality of the Communications Decency Act [CDA], which criminalizes certain speech on the Internet. It is because of the hard work and dedication to free speech by netizens everywhere that this issue has gained the attention of the public, and now, our Nation's highest court. I have maintained from the very beginning that the CDA is unconstitutional, and I eagerly await the Supreme Court's decision on this case. I was one of the few Members of this body to vote against the Telecommunications Act, in large part, due to the CDA provision that imposes unacceptable limits on free speech. While the stated intent of this provision is to limit minors' access to indecent material, in fact, its effect will be much farther reaching. This so-called decency language will dangerously constrain electronic free speech. I still believe that it is the cyberspace equivalent to book burning. When this bill first became law, I turned my web page black to protest this dangerous assault on free speech. I have been working actively to overturn the CDA ever since. I received thousands of e-mail messages from around the world from people concerned with the threat to free speech imposed by the CDA. I pledged to join with concerned citizens all across the country to fight the CDA in Congress, in the courts, and in the chat rooms and online forums of the Internet itself. And we have. We won in Philadelphia, we won in New York, and we are now poised to win in the Supreme Court of the United States. We promised not to give up the fight, and to continue our efforts to keep the Internet free, and we have done just that. Now this case is finally before the Supreme Court. Soon we will learn of the outcome of our efforts. Have we successfully challenged this unjust act? Will the Supreme Court uphold the lower court's ruling which struck down the CDA? Will the Justices join the choir of voices who have declared this bill an indecent assault on American liberty? I believe they will. I believe they will recognize what the lower courts have already determined, that 'as the most participatory form of mass speech yet developed, the Internet deserves the highest protection from governmental intrusion,' that the CDA is unconstitutional, and that it dangerously constrains electronic free speech. I applaud everyone who has taken action to support the first amendment, and who has spoken out against this bill to ensure that future generations are able to enjoy the same rights and liberties on the Internet that we have enjoyed in other arenas of expression for the past two centuries.

title: Free Speech on the Internet


text: Leviticus (Bible)

title: Leviticus (Bible)


text:
Numbers (Bible)

For Biblical commentary and analysis, see Numbers.

title: Numbers (Bible)


text: Deuteronomy (Bible)

title: Deuteronomy (Bible)


text:
Category:Author-Creative Commons BY-SA

Authors in this category have released some or all of their works under a Creative Commons BY-SA license, including the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International licenses, all of which permit free use, distribution, and creation of derivatives, so long as the license is unchanged and clearly noted, and the original author is attributed.

title: Category:Author-Creative Commons BY-SA


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 Delamotte, Philip H. The Practice of Photography. 2nd edition. London, 1855

Draper, John William. Scientific Memoirs. London, 1878

Emerson, Peter Henry. Naturalistic Photography for Students of the Art. 1st edition. London, 1889

of the Art. 3rd edition. Including The Death of Naturalistic Photography, London, 1891. New York, 1899
 * Emerson, Peter Henry. Naturalistic Photography for Students

Fenton, Roger. Roger Fenton, Photographer of the Crimean War. With an Essay on his Life and Work by Helmut and Alison Gernsheim. London, 1954

Fouque, Victor. The Truth Concerning the Invention of Photography: Nicephore Niepce— His Life, Letters and Works. Translated by Edward Epstean from the original French edition, Paris, 1867. New York, 1935

Fraprie, Frank R. and Walter E. Woodbury. Photographic Amusements Including Tricks and Unusual or Novel Effects Obtainable with the Camera. 10th edition. Boston, 1931

Gillies, John Wallace. Principles of Pictorial Photography. New York, 1923

Gower, H. D., L. Stanley Jast, & W. W. Topley. The Camera As Historian. London, 1916

Guest, Antony. Art and the Camera. London, 1907

Harrison, W. Jerome. A History of Photography Written As a Practical Guide and an Introduction to Its Latest Developments. New York, 1887

Hartmann, Sadakichi (Sidney Allan). Composition in Portraiture. New York, 1909

Hartmann, Sadakichi (Sidney Allan). Landscape and Figure Composition. New York, 1910

Hepworth, T. C. Evening Work for Amateur Photographers. London, 1890

 * Hicks, Wilson. Words and Pictures. New York, 1952

Hill, Levi L. and W. McCartey, Jr. A Treatise on Daguerreotype.

Parts I, II, III, & IV. Lexington, N.Y., 1850

Humphrey, S. D. -American Hand Book of the Daguerreotype. th edition. New York, 1858

Hunt, Robert. A Manual of Photography. 3rd edition. London, 1853

title: Page:TheAmericanCarbonManual.djvu/140


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 Manufacturers, Importers, and Dealers in all Articles

NEW YORK.

74 Bold St., Liverpool, England.

MANUFACTORIES: Waterbury, Conn., and New Haven, Conn.

SAMUEL HOLMES, Agent.

See further Advertisements herein, and in the Photographic Journals.

title: Page:TheAmericanCarbonManual.djvu/111


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 which we may secure uniform and elegant carbon prints, yet he has not given us all we want. What is needed to make the carbon entirely supersede the silver process, is a direct carbon printing process—one that will enable us to print directly upon a permanent surface without the necessity of making transfers.

Mr. V. M. Griswold, Peekskill, N. Y., has been experimenting in this direction for the last three years with varied success, persistently overcoming one difficulty after another, until he is able to produce passable results always, and very fine and promising ones in some cases. He has shown us prints which possess elegant detail and half-tone, yet lacking purity in the whites and brilliancy. His principal trouble seems to be in the matter of exposure, and to discover the best method of sensitizing his paper or other medium. The prints we have seen are of cabinet size, larger and smaller, upon iron and paper. He secures them with equal facility upon wood, canvas, silk, etc.

The details of his process are not yet made public. We are assured that it is based upon an entirely new and beautiful principle, as well as quite an original one.

To avoid the transferring, Mr. M. Carey Lea recommends printing through or upon glass by reflected light. He places the frame, holding the negative and the pigmented glass, against the wall beside the window at which the sun enters. A mirror is then so placed that the rays fall upon it almost perpendicularly, and are reflected upon the frame. After printing, all that is necessary is to wash off the superfluous pigment, and the picture is finished.

Here we leave this wonderful process, for the experimenter to follow up and perfect.

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 kangaroos and four badgers; stopped at about seven miles for Mr. Grimes to continue his survey; on his return dined. Afterwards went to a lagoon about three miles from the sea. The road to it is through a thick brush and sandy hills. There are some clear spots covered with rushes and appears at times to be flooded. Dug a spot of ground and sowed some seeds. The soil is a light black sand about 8 inches deep on the hills, and from eighteen inches to two feet in the valleys, at bottom white sand. At the end of the lagoon, next the sea, there are some forest land with large gum trees; the soil sandy, and in the marshy grounds are large fern trees with deep black soil.

Tuesday, 28th.—Went along the side of the lagoon a little way, it is of considerable extent. Afterwards divided into two parties, Mr. Grimes, the doctor, and two others to examine the lagoon; the captain, self, and two others to look into the country. The ground is alternately forest and swampy; the soil is shallow on the hills, and deep black earth in the bottoms. The wood is principally blue-gum, from two to three feet in diameter and about twenty on an acre. A little way from the beach was taken ill by drinking some bad water. Stopped some time behind the party. I soon recovered and arrived at headquarters before sunset, where I found all the others arrived about two hours before.

Wednesday 29th.—Made a signal in the morning for the boat to come on shore. Sowed some seeds, and the boat not coming, we set off after dinner, twelve in number, having been joined by one Smith, belonging to Cable's gang, and two natives from Sydney. Travelled about three miles, and being informed that we should not find water for a long way, stopped for the night. The shore is rocky, projecting a considerable way into the sea in many places. On our departure each man took thirty-two biscuits with him, as we expected plenty of game. In the evening caught three young emus, twenty-three seal, and eight kangaroos.

Thursday 30th.—One man went back to the tent with the emus, and we proceeded along the shore. Crossed a fine stream of water and several springs. I am of opinion that the springs issuing from the hills come all from lagoons in the interior. We were joined in the afternoon by the man sent back in the morning. This day caught four emus, three badgers, three porcupines, and a kangaroo. The shore appears the same as on the preceding day.

Friday 31st.—Set out at six o'clock. At about three miles parted, the captain, self, and three others into the country; Mr. Grimes, the doctor, and the other five proceeded to survey the coast. At about a mile from the sea found a small spot of grey loam. Proceeded up a run of water the ground swampy; came to the head of it at about half-a-mile, the ground rising a little. Travelled about three miles over a level country, the timber being chiefly gum and tea-tree; the soil sandy. There have been very large trees, most of which have fallen. The standing timber is from 60 to 100 feet high, and from one to three feet in diameter. Returned to the beach nearly the same road we went, and, after dinner, went to the stream of water seen on the 30th ult. Went up it a little way, and stopped the night.


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 1803

January 1st (Saturday).—Started early in the morning to examine another stream seen as above. The brush was so thick that we could not proceed. It goes up between hills, as far as we could discern, three or four miles. There is a little waterfall near the beach. Returned back, and stopped the night.

Sunday 2nd— Set off at eight o'clock up another stream. There is a considerable current for about a mile, when it became dry at bottom, soon afterwards water, at about three miles swampy, about 18 inches deep of water, and very thick of trees; the water began to extend a considerable width, and, being so very thick of brush, left the swamp and went over some dry ground for about a mile and came to a lagoon. Came up with it at the west end. It appeared to turn to the right and left at the east end and three-quarters of a mile long, but could not distinctly see its form. From thence to the sea, about four miles, is a very thick brush, with many fallen trees, which make travelling nearly impossible. The land dry and sandy, and many large gum trees. At five o'clock came to the place we set out from, and stopped the night.

Monday 3rd.—Started at six o'clock, and made straight for headquarters, where we arrived between nine and ten o'clock a.m. Made a signal for the boat to come on shore, which soon arrived. Went on board for some necessaries, and came back to the tent in the afternoon.

Tuesday 4th.—A party of the crews of the Cumberland and George were coming on shore for blubber. The surf being very strong, two of the men belonging to the latter were drowned; six more were in the water, but got safe out. The men who perished were Cato, late gardener to Mr. Palmer, and Emmanuel, late gunner on board the Anne. The day was spent in finding them and sending them to the New Year's Island to be buried.

Wednesday 5th.—Went with the captain and two others to the lagoon seen on the 20th ult.; traced it from end to end. At top there is a small run of water comes into it down a sandy hollow. Went on the top of a hill and ascended a tree; the appearance—dead-topped gum trees, sandy hills, and thick brush. It is with the greatest difficulty that one can pass through it. Returned in the afternoon, and found Mr. Grimes and party returned. From what I was informed they had not been so far as they intended to have gone when they set off.

Thursday 6th.—Made a signal early in the morning for the boat to come on shore, as we wanted some necessaries previous to our setting off into the country. The boat not coming, remained at marquee all the day.

Friday 7th.—Continued the signal in the morning, and, it not coming, the captain went on board in the George's boat in the evening, which came on shore for some men that had come from Elephant Bay. They informed me that the French commodore had sailed about eight days before, and that he had lost two anchors and a launch. Rain and thunder p.m., with high wind most of the night.


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 Sunday, 4. —At 11 the Governor and all the officers, &c., &c., attended divine service. At ½-past 12 sent all my letters on board the Lady Nelson brig. Dind with Capt. Merthow on board the Ocean transport. C.S., Despatch.

Monday, 5. —At 9 I went on board the Ocean with Mr. Humphrys. 10 Capt. Merthow, Mr. Brown (the botanist), and we went to Risdon Cove, where we dind with Mr. Mountgarret. At 4 we all went up the Derwent River, where we slept on the west side of it, about 17 miles from the camp; I killd two black swans. C.S., Herdsmans Cove; Parole, Excursion.

Tuesday, 6. —At 5 we all got in our boats and went 5 miles up the river and breakfasted; on the east side of the river got some more swans. At 10 we got into the boats again and went 10 miles further up, where we dind, and pitchd our boat sails for a tent. At 4 Mr. Mountgarret and Mr. Humphrys left us for Risdon Creek. Capt. Merthow and self went a shooting; killd a pigeon. At 6 a.m. H.M. Brig Lady Nelson saild for Pt. Jackson with a fair wind. C.S., Pillar.

Wednesday, 7. —At 6 we breakfasted. ½-past 7 Capt. Merthow and self went a shooting 15 miles up the river. Mr. Brown went up the mountains a botanizing. The river took these directions, where the falls of water were:—1, fall reach, E. to W.; 2d., from S.E. to N.W.; 3rd reach, S.-W.; 4th, W.S.W.; 5th reach, N.b.W. We walkd on the west side of the river; the hills, &c., very high. When one side of the river was hilly the other a vally, and it continued so for more than 40 miles from the camp, where there was an extensive plain of very few trees. We see kangaroos, emews, pigeons, and parrotts. At ½-past 4 we return to the hut we left in the morn. During our walk we a great many native hutts and the fires they made; no doubt they see us. In the eve the natives made a fire near where we slep, on the west side of the river. C. Sign, Hogan.

Thursday, 8. —At 5 rain, with hard squalls. We struck our canvass and saild for Herdsman's Cove, where we reachd about 10 and breakfasted; the land appeard not very good. At 12 as we were coming from thence a native appeard, but the distance was too great to discover much of him. Strong breezes and squally. At 5 we arrivd at the Ocean, where we dind, and went to the camp at ½-past 6. C.S., Palmer.

The first party that went on excursion up the river.


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 We now proceed with the details of the process as worked by Mr. Swan, adding a few foot-notes, giving our experience wherever it differs from that described so fully and so plainly by Mr. Simpson.

We shall endeavor to make plain the manipulations in the various stages of producing a carbon print.

The tissue is prepared by machinery, by which a perfect and uniform coating is secured. Each piece of paper is made into an endless band revolving round rollers, which keep it stretched, and repeatedly pass it over a surface of melted gelatine, sugar, and pigment, until a perfectly even coating of the right thickness is applied to the whole length. The trough of gelatine is kept at proper temperature by means of steam. By repeated contact with the gelatine, a thin coating being applied each time it passes over it, a much more perfect surface and even thickness of the gelatine is secured than could be obtained by any plan which applied the full thickness at once. By the arrangement adopted, waves of irregular draining are entirely avoided. These lengths of gelatine are then cut up to specific sizes, and will keep ad infinitum, ready for sensitizing when required.

It is important that the paper employed should possess a fine surface, and be quite free from inequalities and imperfections, in order that it may receive an even layer of the pigmented gelatine, as any imperfection in this layer may result in a blemish in the picture. It is also desirable that it (the paper) shall be sufficiently

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 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

delivery of a Presidential Address has now become a custom so firmly established in this as in other scientific societies that it is not lightly to be broken through, otherwise I confess I should have shrunk from a task which I feel to be one of the most onerous and difficult falling to a President's lot. In some societies the President is expected to give a sort of funeral oration on all the members who have passed away during the year. That is not a cheerful undertaking, even though sweetened with all the spices of the embalmers. In some societies the President is expected to dilate on the position and prospects of the organisation: a function performed for us by the Annual Report of the Council. We have been wont to leave the President a wider discretion: he may talk at large with impunity; and if this result in his airing his own hobbies the members are generous enough to forgive him, and to make allowance for the occasion when they are most indifferent to the subject. The hope of this indulgence is my excuse, albeit a lame one, for the observations I am about to address to you. Fragmentary they needs must be, from the nature of the subject I have chosen. Yet I hope at least they may be helpful, though in ever so feeble a measure, to some who are interested in the problems confronting the student of folklore.

But, first of all, though I do not propose to detail the losses inflicted upon the Society by death during the year, one of them is of no ordinary kind and not to be passed by in silence. I refer to the death of Dr. Brinton. He was not an old man. Indeed many more years of activity might have been anticipated for him. But measured by the extent and variety of his works, and by the influence he wielded in anthropological science, especially in his native country,


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 54 of a singular versatility and alertness of mind, he could not but be fully alive to all the possibilities of anthropological discovery and speculation; and his edition of the Attis of Catullus and his Evolution of the Idea of God contained notable contributions to the discussion of some of the important problems debated of recent years. These make it the more to be regretted that circumstances did not admit of his giving himself wholly to scientific inquiry. His various erudition, accessible on every occasion, his high ideals and strenuous purposes, often expressed with gentle humour, the boldness of his opinions, maintained with vigour tempered with unfailing geniality, and the courage with which he faced consequences not to be disregarded even in these days, rendered personal intercourse with him always fascinating, and gave life and charm to his writings. He has, alas! gone from us, leaving behind for all who knew him the memory of one of the truest, bravest, and most lovable of men.

After these mournful themes, let me pause for a moment on one of a different kind. Allusion has been made in the Report to Professor Starr's visit last June, when he crossed twice three thousand miles of land and ocean to present and explain his collection illustrative of Mexican folklore We passed formal votes of thanks to him; and in the Report we have renewed the expression of our indebtedness. We could not, however, have realised the magnitude of his gift without the Catalogue he has compiled with such care. It is by this time in your hands; and in reading it you will note how, besides gathering and rendering accessible information from various quarters, he has poured forth abundantly from his own stores of observation. I rejoice to know that the collection has found a permanent place of deposit in one of the ancient homes of English learning. There, with the Catalogue in hand, we can study large divisions of the folklore of a people whose more barbarous traditions have been overlaid and transformed by


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 Rh his life was great and fruitful. To enumerate all his writings would be to recite a lengthy catalogue. Many of them were on subjects more or less controversial; yet I will venture to say that, however widely one might differ from his conclusions, it was impossible to read anything he wrote without receiving an intellectual stimulus such as results only from contact with an original mind. Some men display their best qualities only in their books. I remember a favoured undergraduate who had been asked to meet a writer of genius at the table of the head of his college, telling me afterwards of his disappointment. The author, to whose conversation he had looked forward with such lively anticipations, would only talk about the excellencies of buttered toast! Dr. Brinton would not have disappointed him. A man of wide learning and exquisite literary taste, there were few intellectual subjects on which he could not and would not talk in a way that conveyed instruction without patronage and made discussion one of the keenest of pleasures. He received every honour which academic and scientific bodies in America, as well as many in Europe, could bestow; and he added lustre to them all. His name was a household word to British, hardly less than to American, anthropologists; and we join with sad hearts in the last homage of regret universally paid by his countrymen to the author of The Myths of the New World, The American Race, and Religions of Primitive Peoples.

Nor can I forget, among those who on our own side of the water have passed into the unknown, one whose premature departure has for some of us cast a darker gloom over the closing months of a gloomy year, and has called forth more than one eloquent memorial of sorrow from intimate and sympathetic friends, and at least one graceful and touching tribute from an opponent in many a controversial tournament. Mr. Grant Allen was not, like professor Brinton, a member of this Society. But he was an earnest and widely-read student of tradition. Of great and multiform


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Author:Geoffrey D. Miller

Works

 * Transfer Recommendation for Guantanamo Detainee, Shai Jahn Ghafoor, ISN US9A-00363DP (2003)

title: Author:Geoffrey D. Miller


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 Rh modes of thought, European indeed, but of a relatively backward type. It is due to our neighbours across the channel to say that they first appreciated the scientific instruction capable of being conveyed by such objects. M. Sébillot's collection of Breton children's toys filled one of the most interesting cases at the Exhibition of Paris in 1889, and now forms part of the National Museum at the Trocadero. I hope that Professor Starr's generosity will keep us in mind how much we owe in anthropological matters to America, and bind us more closely in friendship to a nation of the same language, and mainly of the same stock and the same ideals as ourselves. Nor has his personal claim on our gratitude ended here. I have the pleasure of laying on the table a further gift in the shape of a copy of his beautiful Ethnological Album of the native races of Southern Mexico. It is intended for our library, where students making use of it will prize it as a witness to his energy and unselfish enthusiasm, as well as for its own intrinsic value.

I am not going to trouble you to-night with a review of folklore during the century now rapidly drawing to an end. Such reviews may be useful and appropriate; but it is equally appropriate and more immediately important to touch upon some current questions. If, however, we glance back for a moment at the past, we shall, I think, find nothing more remarkable in the history of the science of folklore than the change in the methods of record and study since the establishment of the Society twenty-two years ago. Then, folklore had hardly got out of the stage of dilettantism. People in general had only begun to perceive that the phenomena with which we are concerned were something more than curious, in spite of the writings of Sir Henry Maine, Maclennan and, most, important of all, Dr. Tylor. The term folklore, in fact, was confined to scraps of tradition; and anything like the conception of it we now hold was unknown. The Handbook of Folklore, issued by the Society in 1890, marks a


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 56 long step in advance; and nine or ten years' subsequent experience has taken us beyond even that. Some people are said to prefer being in a minority. If there are such people, I am not one of them. Yet I look back with satisfaction on a vote which I gave in the Council when the initial chapter of the Handbook was under discussion, and I found myself alone, or almost alone, in objecting to the definition of folklore as there proposed, namely: "The comparison and identification of the survivals of archaic beliefs, customs, and traditions in modern ages." The Handbook itself, when published, justified, as I venture to think, my criticism and my vote, for the logical implications of the definition were silently set aside in the manner of treatment. I do not recall this from any personal reason, but as an illustration of the growth, the inevitable growth, of our conception of folklore. I say "the inevitable growth," because it was inevitable that, when folklore came to be studied scientifically by a number of students, it would be found impossible to confine the view primarily to the fragmentary relics of earlier stages of culture cropping out here and there in the midst of modern European civilisation, and to use the larger, more varied, and still living products of savagery and barbarism all over the rest of the world as mere illustrations to explain them. We were bound to take a wider view, for the illustrations themselves required to be explained. We were bound to begin at the other end by a careful study of savage life and custom as a whole. Thus only was it possible to understand the folklore of Europe; thus only could we see it in its true perspective, in its real relations with the immense and complex history of humanity.

But this was not simply to take a more scientific view of folklore; it was not simply to cast away the swaddling clothes that enwound the infancy of the study. In abandoning the last traces of dilettantism wherein all science begins, in attaining that insight which perceives that between


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 Rh the tradition of the Irish peasant and the tradition of the Maori no generic difference exists, but both are equally folklore, and in grasping the importance of folklore as thus conceived for any investigation into the past of the human race, the study of folklore has become frankly anthropological. It is no longer possible, even if it were desired, to draw a line between the science of folklore and that side of anthropology which deals with the earlier intellectual, spiritual, and institutional development of mankind. They are one and the same.

Along with this advance in the conception of folklore has gone an advance in the method of recording it. During the last twenty years the work of observation and collection all over the world has swollen our libraries to an alarming extent. Happily the quality of the materials thus brought together has also improved, though we still have only too much cause to harden our hearts, if not to roughen our tongues, against that impertinent person the writer of scraps, the man of scissors and paste, for whom any piece of gossip, or any apocryphal story tricked out with what he may be pleased to call graces of style or local colour, is folklore. Such a person brings discredit on folklore; and charity, or even patience, is a doubtful virtue in dealing with him. The advance in accuracy of record I am referring to has been specially productive in the case of savage peoples. The way has been led by the American Bureau of Ethnology, to whose detailed researches on the tribes of the western continent anthropology is so greatly indebted. In other quarters of the globe individual effort has followed this example. To confine our view to Australia, Mr. Howitt, Mr. Roth, and Messrs. Spencer and Gillen have revealed to us a new world of savage thought. The discoveries thus made have been promptly seized by inquirers into the history of human institutions and belief with the daring, but not always with the success, of a Cortes or a Pizarro. Their jarring theories and conflicting claims have raised the din of


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 58 controversy. The quiet non-combatant student is astonished to find himself in the theatre of war, and hardly knows where to seek a bomb-proof burrow that he may hide his head from the shells of their polemics.

One of the subjects on which recent inquiries have thrown most doubt is that of Totemism. We had looked upon Totemism as one of the most important and far-reaching of anthropological discoveries. We thought the theory solidly established, its foundations laid by Maclennan, its superstructure carefully erected by Dr. Frazer, and adapted by Robertson Smith and Dr. Jevons to the most modern requirements of theology. On a sudden two smashing blows are delivered, one by Dr. Franz Boas and the other by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen; and it seems there is hardly one stone of the fabric left upon another.

Dr. Boas has conducted for many years a remarkable series of investigations among the north-western tribes of Canada. The results have been given to the world partly in reports to the British Association, partly in publications of the Smithsonian Institution; and an important volume of stories has been issued by the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. The monograph on the Kwakiutl Indians to which I want now to direct your attention was contained in the Annual Report of the National Museum at Washington for 1895, actually published in 1898.

I need not do more at the outset than remind you that totemism is a system having a religious and also a social side. The totem of a clan—it is with such only that we are concerned—is a class of material objects reverenced by a body of persons who believe themselves to be united to the totem and to one another by a special bond,


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 permeable by the water to facilitate its removal from the gelatine prior to development. To the quality and proportions of the color and gelatine we refer in another chapter. As the tissue is prepared and sent out ready for use by the patentee, it is not important to enter into more minute details of its preparation here.

The tissue is prepared in three distinct varieties of color; and in each scale there are three gradations of intensity, to suit negatives of various kinds. The colors are described as Indian-ink, sepia, and photographic purple.

The Indian-ink tissue is a pure black, nearly neutral in tone, but inclining to warmth rather than coldness.

The sepia tissue is of a rich deep brown, of a warm sepia tint.

The photographic purple tissue is of a tint resembling that common in gold-toned silver prints, generally of a purple-brown character, or in its extreme depths a purple-black.

Each of these tints is made in three qualities, to suit the different degrees of intensity in negatives, on a principle first pointed out by Mr. Swan, and which it may be well here to explain in detail.

In this method of pigment printing, although the best picture will result from the best negative, it is possible with a very intense hard negative, possessing very abrupt contrasts, to produce extremely soft and harmonious prints; whilst, on the other hand, brilliant prints may be obtained from a feeble negative possessing very little contrast or intensity. The principle upon which these effects are secured is this: The reader has seen that, as the gradations in the picture are obtained by different thicknesses of a translucent colored film resting on a white ground, the deepest shade being secured by the greatest thickness of this material, most completely covering up

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 the white ground, it follows that the greater the proportion of color present in the film of a given thickness, the deeper will be the tint secured; and the less the amount of color present, the thicker must be the layer of the material in order to get depth. If, then, we take a sample of tissue prepared for a good negative, and print with a hard, dense negative, sufficient thickness of the colored translucent film is rendered insoluble to produce deep shadows and well-marked half-tones in the deepest gradations, long before the more delicate half-tones have been formed at all. If the printing be continued until these are secured, the lower half-tones forming the details in the shadows are obscured, sufficient thickness being rendered insoluble in the lighter of these shades to completely mask the underlying white ground. If with such a negative, however, we employ a tissue containing a much smaller proportion of color, it permits a considerable thickness to be rendered insoluble before the deeper half-tones are obscured; and in the time required for this, sufficient light has penetrated through the dense parts of the negative to render the details in the lights properly. On the other hand, by increasing the proportion of color, great contrast may be secured in the print, although little contrast may exist in the negative, as a slight thickness of the translucent material will, if it possess a large proportion of color, give great depth; and by the time the light has passed sufficiently through the thin deposit of a feeble negative to produce details in the lights, sufficient color will have been secured in the shadows to give vigor, without continuing the printing further, and so degrading the picture by rendering insoluble a further layer of color in the lights.

It will be seen, then, that by forming the picture in a thin film of insoluble matter of intense color, vigorous contrasts and perfect gradations from light to dark may

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Rh certain mutual rights and obligations. The totem is the crest or symbol of the clan. The bond uniting the clansmen to one another is that of blood: the tie of kinship. The questions raised by Dr. Boas concern the nature of the bond uniting the clansmen to the totem. "The members of a totem clan," says Dr. Frazer, generalising the information available up to 1887, "call themselves by the name of their totem, and commonly believe themselves to be actually descended from it." But among the tribes of British Columbia, Dr. Boas tells us, "it must be clearly understood that the natives do not consider themselves descendants of the totem." The characteristics of the totem, in fact, suggest relationship rather with the manitous of other North American tribes. When a youth belonging, for instance, to the Ojibways arrives at puberty, he undergoes certain religious rites, and fasts, until some supernatural being appears to him, generally in the form of an animal, and becomes his personal manitou, that is, his guide and protector for the rest of his life. Now the totem in British Columbia, according to Dr. Boas, would seem to be a personal manitou, become the hereditary manitou of a family. Miss Alice Fletcher, who has long lived in intimate converse with the Omaha of the United States, has been led independently to form the same opinion as to the origin of the totems among the Indians of the prairies. These opinions, if correct, will profoundly affect scientific speculation on savage religion and social polity. Though they cannot yet be considered as definitely established, we must accord them the respect due to opinions formed after long inquiry by competent and painstaking observers. At the same time, the legends related by Dr. Boas are hardly decisive of the exact relationship of the totem to the clan, as conceived by the peoples


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 be secured with a thin negative; and that by using a thicker film of insoluble matter, less intense in color, the excessive contrasts of a hard negative may be softened, thus materially ameliorating the faults of bad negatives in either direction.

With a good negative, neither weak on the one hand, nor too intense on the other, there is no difficulty in producing perfect results, rendering between pure white and deep black every minute gradation, from the most delicate demi-tint in the lights to the least illuminated detail in the shadows.

The tissue is prepared, therefore, in each tint to suit negatives of three qualities. These are numbered, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. No. 1 possesses the smallest proportion of color, and is suited to the production of harmonious prints from negatives in which, from the nature of the subject, from under-exposure or over-intensifying, the contrasts are abrupt. No. 2 is suited to good negatives of normal character, in which the densest parts are not absolutely opaque. No. 3 possesses a large proportion of color, and is suited to thin, soft negatives, a little lacking in force and intensity. By a classification of the negatives, and the use of a suitable quality of tissue

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 60 of the Pacific Coast of Canada and Alaska. Let us examine one or two.

The Tsimshians are a tribe reckoning kinship through the mother. One of their clans is that of the Bear; and this is the legend of the clan: "An Indian went mountain-goat hunting. When he had reached a remote mountain-range, he met a black bear, who took him to his home, taught him how to catch salmon, and how to build canoes. For two years the man stayed with the bear; then he returned to his own village. The people were afraid of him because he looked just like a bear. One man, however, caught him and took him home. He could not speak, and could not eat anything but raw food. Then they rubbed him with magic herbs, and gradually he was retransformed into the shape of a man. After this, whenever he was in want, he called his friend the bear, who came to assist him. In winter, when the rivers were frozen, he alone was able to catch salmon. He built a house, and painted the bear on the house-front. His sister made a dancing-blanket, the design of which represented a bear. Therefore the descendants of his sisters use the bear for their crest." Read literally, this is an example of what I may call the manitoutotems; and indeed Dr. Boas expressly brings it forward as such. But you will probably be of opinion that the expressions lead to the inference that at one time the totem stood in a closer relation to the clan; in a word, that the bear was once believed to be the ancestor of the clan. The suspicion is strengthened when we find Dr. Boas writing of the North-western tribes in general: "There exists, however, another class of traditions, according to which the crests or emblems of the clan are. . . brought down by the ancestor of the clan from heaven, or from the underworld or out of the ocean, wherever he may have derived his origin. This is the case with the Sīsîntlaē, whose


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 for each, it will be found possible to secure more complete control over the character of the prints, and a more perfect uniformity of result than is possible in ordinary silver printing.

The tissue should be kept in a cool, dry place, packed flat, and kept under a weight. If suffered to be exposed to the atmosphere, it will be apt, in hot weather, to curl up and become unmanageably horny; whilst in damp weather it would, being a hygroscopic substance, absorb moisture.

This and other subsequent operations will of course be conducted in the "dark-room." A nearly saturated solution of bichromate of potash is employed. As the strength of a saturated solution varies with temperature, Mr. Swan prefers to make a solution of definite strength, by dissolving such a quantity of bichromate of potash as will not, during cold weather, crystallize. Such a solution is formed by dissolving one pound of bichromate of potash in twelve pounds of water.

The tissue is immersed by drawing it (face up) under the solution (contained in a dish two or three inches deep), care being taken to avoid the formation of air-bubbles. After immersion the sheet is turned, and a flat camel's-hair pencil is employed to remove the bubbles that form on the back, which, being apt to repel the aqueous solution in small points, should be brushed over until all parts absorb properly. After the displacement of the bubbles from the back of the tissue, it is

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 again turned, and is drawn repeatedly through the solution. It then has clothes-clips attached along one of the edges, and is slowly withdrawn, so that the solution drains off without being repelled from the face of the tissue, and running off in streams. If the sheet is large, a thin lath of wood may be laid along the edge of the tissue that is first withdrawn from the trough, the tissue and lath being clipped together with clothes-clips. The time of immersion may vary from one to three minutes, depending somewhat on temperature and on the facility with which the tissue absorbs the solution. As a rule, as soon as it is quite limp from the thorough permeation of the solution, it should be removed. The longer the immersion, within certain limits, the more sensitive will be the tissue; but if too much prolonged, there is danger of two serious evils. In the first place, the paper becomes rotten, the gelatine also loses toughness, and the large quantity of water absorbed renders it liable to tear with its own weight. In the next place, long immersion in a saturated solution is apt to produce a crystallized surface in drying, which, of course, renders the tissue quite useless. As a rule, perhaps, two minutes will be about the average time of immersion; but a knowledge of the degree of pliancy required will be gained from two or three experiments.

The tissue should be placed to dry in a dark room, through which a current of dry air is constantly passing. In the first stage of drying, the temperature, of the air must not be above 60 or 70 degrees Fahr., for otherwise the gelatine, already softened with water, would melt. During damp weather, the air of the drying-room may be raised 10 degrees after the tissue has become half dry. If the drying be slow, the development of the image afterwards will be extremely slow or altogether

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 impossible. As the result of much experience, Mr. Swan has arrived at the conclusion that keeping the sensitive tissue for a long time in a moist condition, or drying it slowly, results in a decomposition analogous to that effected by light, producing uniform and complete insolubility. We are able to confirm his conclusions from our own experiments. After complete desiccation, the sensitive tissue may be kept for several days. We have kept it for a fortnight without change. However, Mr. Swan strongly recommends that the tissue be used on the first or second day after sensitizing. By keeping too long, a discoloration of the print results, precisely analogous to that produced by keeping sensitive chloride of silver paper too long. The print develops tardily, and the lights are not clear. Excessively prolonged immersion in the bichromate solution of course retards drying, and should therefore be avoided. As a rule, by sensitizing in the evening, a supply of paper may be prepared for printing next day; twelve hours' suspension in a dry atmosphere being amply sufficient for the necessary drying.

Perfect desiccation, so as to make the tissue horny and unmanageable, is not desirable. It is in such a case difficult to get perfect contact in all parts in the pressure frame, and difficult to mount the tissue before development. Should the tissue by accident be rendered too dry, it is desirable to hang it for a few minutes in a damp place, when it will quickly become sufficiently pliant to permit easy manipulation. On the other hand, it is obvious that the tissue must not be too damp, or retain the slightest capacity for adhesion, or ruin to the negative would be the necessary consequence.

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 Rh emblem is the sun. Here also belong the numerous tales of ancestors who came down from heaven, took off their masks, and became men, for in all these cases the mask has remained the crest of the clan."

If I rightly understand Dr. Boas' account of these tribes, however, this statement is hardly strong enough. In the first place, the word Sīsîntlaē means "children of the sun," and the sun himself is explicitly said to have come down to earth and become the father of the clan. Next, some clans appear to dispense with the apparatus of the mask, that of the G.īg.îlqam of the Nimkish, for instance, who believe themselves to be descendants of the thunder-bird (a mythical being, common to the tradition of many American tribes) and paint its figure upon their house-front. Lastly, even when the apparatus of the mask is retained, it is doubtless no more than a modern and rationalistic expression of the old, deep-seated belief in transformation. So that we have clear evidence of the descent at all events of some of the clans from non-human ancestors, as set forth in the words I have already quoted from Dr. Frazer.

On the other hand, there are cases where the story of the acquisition of the crest, though betraying a certain "analogy," as Dr. Boas says, "to the acquisition of the manitou," is clearly to be distinguished from it. Of such is the story of the chief of a clan, who went hunting and saw a fabulous bird, supposed to be similar to a crane, and heard its cry. It was larger than a man. He hid, and the bird tried to find him. On discovering him at one side of a


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 62 cedar-tree, the bird tried to peck him, but missed him, because he jumped to the other side of the tree. The bird failed to kill him, and when he got home "he carved the crane out of yellow cedar, and now it is the carving of his clan." The clan is called by a name signifying "going through," which is quite different from that of the bird. All that is here recorded is a successful evasion of an attack by a supernatural being. But there is probably something more in the story. What is hinted at, and what, if we had the tale in a perfect form, we should perhaps find, is that the man conquered and killed the bird. Among these curious peoples "names and all the privileges connected with them," like the ancient priesthood of Aricia, "may be obtained by killing the owner of the name, either in war or by murder. The slayer has then the right to put his own successor in the place of his killed enemy." Now the crest is a very special privilege; and although the name of this clan does not now correspond with the crest, it belongs to a class called by Dr. Boas "names of honour," which "there is a decided tendency to substitute for" older names. It may be, therefore, that the present name of the clan has quite recently succeeded to that of the mythical bird.

Again, there are instances of a clan bearing the name of one animal and the emblem of another. "The crest," says Dr. Boas, "is used for ornamenting objects belonging to a member of the clan; they [that is to say, the crests] are carved on columns intended to perpetuate the memory of a deceased relative, painted on the house-front, or carved on a column which is placed in front of the house, and are also shown as masks in festivals of the clan. It is impossible to draw a sharp line between the pure crest and figures, or masks illustrating certain incidents in the legendary history of the clan." As an example, he gives


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I don't know how to include a reference spanning next page. —Atelierele Albe (talk) 10:24, 19 June 2011 (UTC)


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As the prepared side of the tissue is placed in contact with the negative, it is manifest, as we have just seen, that if it retained the slightest adhesiveness of surface, it would be dangerous to bring them together. Care must always be taken, therefore, not to use damp tissue.

For the exposure it is not necessary to use pressure frames with hinged backs, as the print is not, of course, examined in progress, the sole guide as to time being afforded by the photometer. The pressure of the back should be comparatively light, and the backing should be smooth and level. Fine cloth forms an excellent backing. Where the padding of the back is coarse, a piece of smooth cardboard may be placed at the back of the tissue. Too heavy pressure causes a kind of mottle of dark patches at points which have been pressed into absolute contact with the negative. If the tissue be quite dry, there can be no objection to sun printing; but if the slightest moisture were left in the gelatinous film, prolonged exposure to a hot sun with a dense negative would soften the film, and cause it to adhere. As, however, this tissue is much more sensitive than albumenized paper, printing in diffused light will generally

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The last para is a continued footnote from the previous page. I don't know how to link it to that footnote. —Atelierele Albe (talk) 10:26, 19 June 2011 (UTC)


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 be more convenient, as well as safer. As a rule, the exposure is from one-third to one-half of that usually required for albumenized paper. In direct sunlight we have found the exposures with different negatives vary from one to ten minutes; in diffused light, from ten minutes to an hour, or upwards. In using the actinometer, it is scarcely necessary to observe that it must be exposed to the same light as the prints, the progress of which it is intended to indicate.

The term development is used for convenience, although it is essentially different from the operation usually known as development, in which the reduction of a metallic salt on which light has acted produces an image, the developer completing or developing an operation which light has commenced. Here light has completed the chemical action; and the operation which follows is a mechanical one, which, by the removal of the sensitive compound where light has not acted, at once makes visible the image, and prevents the further action of light.

As we have seen that the washing away of the superfluous compound must be effected at the side opposite to that which was in contact with the negative, before we can commence development, the tissue must be mounted on another piece of paper with a material which is not affected by water, in order that the paper on which the compound has rested up to the present time may be removed, so as to expose the hitherto protected surface to the water.

As the paper upon which the tissue has to be

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User:Thukyd1des/Books/Niflung

The Niflung Cycle

 * Poetic Edda/Frá dauða Sinfjötla
 * Poetic Edda/Grípisspá
 * Poetic Edda/Reginsmál
 * Poetic Edda/Fáfnismál
 * Poetic Edda/Sigrdrífumál
 * Poetic Edda/Brot af Sigurðarkviðu
 * Poetic Edda/Guðrúnarkviða I
 * Poetic Edda/Sigurðarkviða hin skamma
 * Poetic Edda/Helreið Brynhildar
 * Poetic Edda/Dráp Niflunga
 * Poetic Edda/Guðrúnarkviða II
 * Poetic Edda/Guðrúnarkviða III
 * Poetic Edda/Oddrúnargrátr
 * Poetic Edda/Atlakviða
 * Poetic Edda/Atlamál hin groenlenzku
 * Poetic Edda/Guðrúnarhvöt

title: User:Thukyd1des/Books/Niflung


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, during the future operations, is placed in contact with the surface which will eventually be the surface of the finished print, it is desirable that it should be smooth and free from blemish; and it should be sufficiently tough to bear the treatment necessary in hot water. Fine Saxe paper answers well.

A solution of India-rubber is used for mounting the tissue. Pure India-rubber should be cut up into fine shreds, and dissolved in pure benzole at the rate of about ten grains to one ounce of the solvent. When properly prepared, it forms a thin varnish, but it leaves a palpable film of India-rubber on the paper to which it is applied. We have at times met with samples which dissolve very tardily in benzole. Where it is found desirable to hasten the complete solution, covering the shreds of India-rubber with a little chloroform will quickly reduce them to a pasty mass, which will be readily dissolved by the addition of benzole.

The India-rubber solution is poured into a flat dish, and the paper floated (till saturated) upon it, or rather drawn over it, so as to secure an even coating on the whole surface. The paper is then hung up by the aid of clothes-clips to dry. The tissue is now floated over the surface of the India-rubber solution in the same manner, care being taken not to allow it to sink below the surface; otherwise the back of the tissue would be coated with the India-rubber, and so retard subsequent operations. The tissue is then hung up to dry for about an hour. When the India-rubber on the paper and on the tissue is dry, the extreme edge of the tissue is

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Author:Anders Chydenius

Works

 * The National Gain (1765); translated into English in 1931

title: Author:Anders Chydenius


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 cut off with scissors, and the two coated surfaces are carefully brought into contact and pressed together, when they cohere very tenaciously. In order to secure perfect contact and cohesion, they are next submitted to heavy rolling pressure. It is necessary to remember that any want of cohesion will issue in blisters, which will mar in greater or less degree the effect of the finished picture. It is important, therefore, that this operation be performed with care. The coated surfaces should be preserved alike from dust and from contact with fingers, or anything which could impair the cohesion of the India-rubber surfaces. In bringing the tissue into contact with the India rubber coated paper, the tissue should be bent back, so that contact is first made with the middle of the print; the ends of the tissue being then allowed to fall after first contact. Shifting the position after the tissue has touched the paper is inadmissible; it must, therefore, be laid on straight. After being placed, the back of the tissue may be lightly rubbed with the hand or a pad, the rubbing being from the centre outwards. It is an advantage to prepare a stock of paper in advance, and to use it about an inch larger than the tissue, and to fold this upon itself, so as to form a double thickness half an inch wide. Several prints may be attached to one piece of paper.

The press used for this and subsequent operations, in Messrs. Mawson & Swan's establishment, is a powerful copper-plate press (by which a pressure of several tons can be applied), having a plate of polished steel on the bed of the press, whilst a piece of thick elastic felt is placed between the print and the roller, compensating for possible inequalities in the tissue, paper, etc, and securing perfect contact in every part of the paper and print. It is probable that the more inexpensive rolling machines might be applied to this purpose without disadvantage;

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 but very heavy pressure is indispensable. We find any ordinary bed-plate press, with the plate moving between the rollers, to be applicable to this stage of the process. The plate should be entirely level. In rolling, the India-rubber coated paper is laid on the steel plate, and a blanket of thick felt is laid over the tissue, which is uppermost, whilst it passes through the press.

We may remark here, that whilst the prepared surface of the sensitive tissue must be always carefully shielded from light, when once that has been covered up by mounting, it may be submitted to a dull, diffused light with impunity, care being taken that the back of the original tissue, which has now been rendered very non-actinic by the yellow color of the bichromate with which it is saturated, be uppermost. This permits the rolling of the mounted tissue to be effected in a moderately light room. The back of each print should be examined, and any India-rubber solution removed by rubbing with a piece of India-rubber. The object of this precaution is to secure uniform development. If some portions were rendered waterproof by patches of India-rubber at the back, such spots would be protected from the action of the water for a time, and would be incompletely developed when the other portions of the print were finished; the result of which would be a patch of a deeper tint than the remainder of the picture.

The print is now ready for development. To effect this, a plentiful supply of warm water is necessary. In the Newcastle establishment, a series of three large wood-troughs are used. These are provided with hot and cold water-taps and waste-pipe. Into these troughs the prints are passed in succession. This ready supply of water

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 and facility of securing any temperature is very desirable, as a matter of convenience, wherever the operations are conducted on a large scale. But the same result could be easily obtained on a more limited scale in photographic dishes, and having at hand a large vessel of hot water, as well as the ordinary cold water supply.

Where hot and cold water are not convenient, the following arrangement will be found very useful:

A wooden frame-work is made of the desired height, similar to a table with an open top, and a cross-piece in the centre. A and B are metal pans four to six inches deep, placed in the open top, suspended there by their rims, and heated by a gas-burner or the stove C. One of these is used for cold or tepid, and the other for hot water. It is convenient to have a thermometer in each pan.

The prints are first immersed in cold water, all air-bubbles being carefully removed. Here they are left for half an hour or more, as may be convenient, to permit the water to penetrate and soften the gelatine; after

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 this, they are placed one by one in water of from 80 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. This immediately loosens the backing paper upon which the tissue-compound was originally coated, and which, having now completed its office of supporting the tissue until it is no longer needed, is stripped off. It is separated from the tissue at one edge, and lifted gently away. If it still adhere tenaciously, a little longer soaking in the warm water will be necessary to effect the removal of the paper; but this is always a bad sign. The back surface of the tissue, opposite to that which was exposed, is now uncovered; and the next operation is to remove all gelatine, pigment, and chromic salt which have not been rendered insoluble.

The operation of developing, up to this period, has been conducted in a subdued or yellow light. As the sensitive surface is now exposed, it is obvious that strong white light should be avoided until the bichromate has been washed out of the film. This is rapidly done. A large portion has been removed whilst the print was soaking; and now that the gelatinous compound is exposed to the warm water, the salt is rapidly diffused in the water. The process of clearing may be accelerated by allowing a gentle stream of the warm water to fall on the surface of the print, or by laving the water on to it with the hands, so as to produce slight attrition between the surface and the water. This, however, is not necessary, as, if the print be left face down in the warm water, it will be found, in the course of from five minutes to a quarter of an hour, to have parted with nearly all the superfluous gelatine and color, presenting the image in all its proper gradations, and only requiring a little further washing to complete the operation.

The usual temperature for development is from 80 to 100 degrees, Fahrenheit; but there are circumstances

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 which modify this. If, from over-exposure, the picture appear too dark, or from some tendency to insolubility in the compound, the image appear slowly, the temperature may be raised, when necessary, even to 150 degrees Fahrenheit; but high temperature must not be used until all the development has been effected that can be effected by water of a lower temperature.

The development is best commenced at as low a temperature as possible; and then, as soon as the image is fully made out, the print should be removed to cold water, in which the residue of bichromate will be washed away without risk of injury to the delicate half-tones, which would, with an under-exposed print, disappear in hot water. After two or three hours' immersion in cold water, the prints are one by one re-immersed in water at 80 or 90 degrees. Those which show signs of under-exposure are very carefully rinsed in merely tepid water, say 80 degrees, to clear away the soluble gelatine and adherent color; after which they are suspended to dry. The more fully-exposed prints remain longer in the warm water, in fact, until they become light enough. Any that are overexposed are put into hotter water, and are allowed to remain until the depth is sufficiently reduced. By judicious management of the development, using merely tepid water (not over 80 degrees), at the commencement of the operation, any under-exposed prints are discovered and saved. Then, by the use of hotter water to the more fully-exposed prints, these are speedily lightened to the required degree, and thus very few prints are lost either from under- or over-exposure.

When sufficient gelatine and coloring matter have been removed, and the prints are fully developed, they are hung up to dry. In the developing operation, several prints may be placed in one vessel; but as the image, although no longer soluble in water, is still slightly

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, it is liable to abrasion; and care should be taken to avoid the prints dragging over each other, or over the bottom of the dish.

There are a few precautions to be carefully observed in development. It is most important to preserve uniformity of action. If, for instance, an air-bubble form, at any period before development is complete, the film of air protects the spot from the solvent action of the water, and the picture will be darker in that place. If the picture be suffered to float with the face partially out of the water, the same thing will happen. It is desirable, therefore, to keep the face downwards until the operation is completed, and to remove air-bubbles whenever they form. It should further be remembered, in observing the depth of the picture, that it is now seen on a ground considerably degraded by the coating of India-rubber, which gives the paper a brown tint, and that when transferred to pure white paper, it will possess much greater brilliancy.

The picture, up to the present time, presents an image in which right and left are reversed. It is now necessary, therefore, to transfer it from the paper which has supported it temporarily for the purposes of manipulation, to its final resting-place, in which operation the right and left will resume their proper relations. The image may be either transferred to a sheet of cardboard, so as to require no further mounting, or to paper; in the latter case, it is simply in the position of an ordinary print, and will require subsequent mounting. Each method has certain specific advantages, but generally the transfer to paper is to be preferred.

Transferring to Cardboard.—The face of the dried print

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 Rh a headdress of the bear clan of the Nîsqá. Whether it is the only headdress he does not state distinctly, but I infer that it is. It represents the owl surrounded by small human heads, called "claw-men," probably because each head rests on a sort of claw. The legend is that a chief had a son who by constant crying irritated his father, until he drove the boy out of the house, saying: "The white owl shall fetch you." With the boy his sister went out; and the owl did fetch not him, but her, and had a son by her. When her son grew up she sent him home to her mother, telling him "to carve a headdress in the shape of an owl for use in his dance, and to sing" a song which his father, the owl, made for him. The owl and the woman then disappeared. What may be the explanation of the discrepancy between name and emblem here I do not know. A conjecture is of very little value; but it may conceivably have originated from the coalescence of two clans, the bear and the owl, of which the latter traced its descent from an owl.

But even if we were to establish the original position of the totem as ancestor, the problems offered by these interesting tribes would be very far from solved. The manitou-idea dominates not merely the conception of the totem, or crest, but the entire social life of the tribes. Some peoples eat their totem-animal as a solemn religious act: nobody thus eats his manitou. Consequently the sacrificial meal is wanting; and this, I need not remind you, is a part of the totem-superstition in its most complete form, on which great stress has been laid in anthropological speculation. More important still in this connection is the position of the secret societies, which have attained a growth exceeding anything known elsewhere. Indeed, the societies can hardly be called secret. They include women, and even children, as well as men. Their sessions are held throughout the winter, and in public; and from


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 64 the moment they begin the entire social organisation is changed. "Instead of being grouped in clans, the Indians are now grouped according to the spirits which have initiated them. All those who are protected by" one spirit "form one group; those who stand under" another spirit "form another group," and so on; "and in these groups divisions are made according to the ceremonies or dances bestowed upon the person. . . . During this period the place of the clans is taken by a number of societies, namely: the groups of all those individuals upon whom the same, or almost the same, power or secret has been bestowed by one of the spirits." This astonishing development must have results on the social life of the people which would be still more remarkable, were it not that the dances and the offices connected with them are still to a large extent hereditary or acquired by marriage. Hence the clan system, though greatly disturbed and dislocated, is not in effect altogether set aside. Only certain persons have a right to be initiated in each society. The initiations are not performed by the other members assembled in meeting, as is the case with really secret societies. The candidate goes alone into the woods, remaining there for a certain period, during which any one who finds him may kill him if he can, and thereupon may take his place. While the candidate is absent, he is initiated by the spirit. And "the object of the whole winter ceremonial is, first, to bring back the youth who is supposed to stay with the supernatural being who is the protector of his society, and then, when he has returned in a state of ecstacy, to exorcise the spirit which possesses him and to restore him from his holy madness. These objects are attained by songs and by dances." The proceeding is, in fact, an adaptation of the acquisition of the manitou by the Indians of the prairies.


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 is very evenly coated by floating, or by means of a flat camel's-hair brush, with the following preparation:

The gelatine should be melted and carefully cleared of air by long heating, and skimming the froth; after which the glycerine is added. It will at all times, of course, require melting by heat and straining through wet flannel or muslin before use; it is then applied evenly to the surface, either by floating (which is best), or with a broad camel's-hair brush, and afterwards hung up to dry. Sometimes in coating the print with the gelatine solution, there is a disposition manifested by it not to adhere on all parts of the surface of the print, but to “creep” off in certain spots. When this happens, there can be no adhesion at those points between the gelatinous coating and the pictures; consequently, the film, composing the picture, will be torn off from such places, when the rubbered Saxe paper is removed. To avoid this non-adhesion and “creeping,” it is best to coat the prints in a warm room, where the hot gelatine will not chill, nor “creep,” upon being brought in contact with the surface of the print, as it would do if the print were in a cold apartment. When dry, the print is trimmed to the required shape. A piece of stout cardboard of the required size, pure in color and fine in surface, is passed through clean water, and then drained. Upon the moistened surface the print is laid, face downwards, exactly in the position it is designed to occupy, and the card is removed to the rolling-press and placed on the polished steel plate, print-side downwards, the side on which the print is placed being in contact with the plate, and a felt blanket on the back of the card; it is now

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 Rh Postponing for awhile our consideration of these practices, let us turn to the Arunta of Central Australia as depicted by Professor Baldwin Spencer and Mr. Gillen. Striking differences at once reveal themselves in the mode of regarding the totem. The totem of British Columbia is derived from a single ancestor. Its origin, whether we accept the manitou-theory or not, is attributed to an individual. The Arunta totems, on the contrary, are none of them believed to be individual in origin. The notions held by the tribe as to birth preclude this. The theory of paternity—what we call birth in the ordinary course of nature—is unknown. Some years ago I ventured to suggest that certain archaic beliefs and practices found almost all over the world were consistent only with, and must have arisen from, imperfect recognition of fatherhood. I hardly expected, however, that a people would be found still existing in that hypothetical condition of ignorance. Yet, if we may trust the evidence before us, it is precisely the condition of the Arunta. They hold the cause of birth to be simply the desire of some Arunta of earlier days to be reincarnated. The doctrine has thus been summarised by Dr. Frazer: "They suppose that in certain far-off times, to which they give the name of 'Alcheringa,' their ancestors roamed about in bands, each band consisting of members of the same totem-group. Where they died their spirits went into the ground and formed, as it were, spiritual storehouses, the external mark of which is some natural feature, generally a stone or a tree. Such spots are all over the country, and the ancestral spirits who haunt them are ever waiting for a favourable opportunity to be born again into the world. When one of them sees his chance he pounces out on a passing girl or woman and enters into her. Then she conceives, and in due time gives birth to a child, who is firmly believed to be a reincarnation of the spirit that darted into the mother from the rock or tree." And he adds, "This is the first case on record of a tribe who believe in immaculate conception as


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 to a heavy rolling pressure, and then put aside to dry.

The quality of the cardboard and the exact condition of dampness are of considerable importance. It must be perfectly moistened all over, as, if any point or patch were omitted, the adhesion of the print in that place would not be secured. There should be an absolute film of water on the surface, so that as each part is submitted to the rolling pressure, a wave, infinitely small, however, is driven before the pressure, effectually displacing air, and securing perfect contact. It is, however, undesirable to have excess of water. There should be no delay in applying the pressure after the print has been placed in contact with the moistened surface, inasmuch as the gelatinous, although insoluble image, by absorbing moisture and becoming soft, might, under the heavy pressure, lose something in sharpness.

As each print is passed through the rolling-press, it is placed upon the last, and when the pile is completed, a weight is placed upon the whole heap. By adopting this course, the prints dry without warping or cockling; and at the expiration of about twenty-four hours the print is ready for the final operation.

This consists in removing the paper which has supported the image during the operations of developing and washing. The picture must be quite dry before the operation is attempted. A piece of clean cotton-wool is saturated with pure benzole, and the caoutchouc-coated paper which covers the print is rubbed pretty hard with it. An edge of the caoutchouc-coated paper is then gently raised with the point of a blunt knife, care being taken to commence at a black part of the picture where the film of the compound forming the image is thickest. The raised edge is then taken hold of, and pulled so as to tear it gently and steadily off the print. Instead of

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Author:Flora Lucy Margaret Grierson

Works

 * Haunting Edinburgh
 * (tr.) Pope Pius II, The Tale of the Two Lovers (1931)

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 removing the paper with an upward or lifting motion, it is better to turn it backwards, so that the strain is in a horizontal direction, as there is, in this method, less danger to the surface of the print at any point in which the adhesion in mounting is imperfect. As a general rule, especially when the benzole is used sparingly, the paper brings away with it all the India-rubber coating; but any traces remaining may be rubbed away with the finger or with a piece of India-rubber. It is best always to rub a sponge, dampened with benzole, over the surface of the picture as soon as the Saxe paper is removed, even when there are no perceptible adhering spots of varnish on the print. Under ordinary circumstances, the picture is now finished. If required for coloring, the print may be coated with plain collodion, or a suitable sizing preparation.

It is important to remember that defective manipulation in the mounting operation seriously mars the beauty of the finished picture. It is necessary that the pressure should be perfectly uniform in order to secure evenness of texture in the surface of the picture. If the transferring coating of gelatine were laid on in uneven patches or streaks, the effect of this will be apparent in patches or streaks of greater brightness or dulness of surface, the thickest parts receiving the highest pressure, and consequently having the brightest surface. Any unevenness of pressure in rolling will produce a similar result.

Transferring to Paper.—The manipulations here are very similar to those which we have just described, but are a little more easy. It is not necessary to trim the print to its proper size or shape, as this will be done in the final mounting. The mounting papers are carefully immersed in water, air-bubbles being brushed away, and then laid one upon another while in the water; they are then drawn out in a pack, and are

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 to drain for some hours, or submitted to pressure to remove the superfluous water; a perfectly even film of moisture is thus secured. The transfer is effected by laying the print face up on the steel plate of the press, and over the print is laid the moistened paper, and on that a felt blanket. The press is then “pulled.” The print is next immersed for an hour in a bath, containing five per cent, of alum, and is afterwards well washed in water and dried, after which it is uncovered as when mounted on cardboard.

By transferring to paper, it will be observed that facility is afforded for performing the last-mentioned operation, by which an additional source of stability is secured. The only possible source of deterioration in the prints produced by the method we have described, exists in the thin coating of gelatine with which the print is attached to its final support. By means of moisture and friction the print could be removed; this, it is true, is destruction, not fading or instability in its usual sense. But it is happily possible to remove even this susceptibility to injury. Although the transference of the print direct to cardboard has the advantage of making an exceedingly neat finish to the mounting (the print being slightly recessed in the cardboard), and although it has the further advantage of reducing the number of operations required to complete the picture, yet Mr. Swan greatly prefers, and almost invariably adopts, the method of transfer to paper, chiefly because this method secures the most uniform adhesion, and because it allows the gelatine (used to cause the print to adhere to the paper), to be rendered water-proof—a property not possessed by the prints mounted direct to card. One of the means used by Mr. Swan to render the gelatine insoluble is quite novel, and constitutes one of the first applications of his discovery of the property possessed by salts of the sesquioxide of

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text: Author talk:Flora Lucy Margaret Grierson