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 out undergoing formal trial. The ‘Motto’ had been defiantly dedicated ‘To anybody,’ and, falling under the notice of John Taylor (1580–1653) [q. v.] the water-poet, was good-humouredly satirised by that rhymester in ‘Et habeo, et careo, et curo’ (‘I have, I want, I care’); it was also unimpressively criticised in ‘An Answer to “Wither's Motto,” by T.G.’ [perhaps Thomas Gainsford [q. v.] Oxford, 1625.

Of equally admirable literary quality with ‘Fidelia’ was another love poem which was probably written at the same period. This was called ‘Faire-Virtve, the Mistresse of Phil'Arete. Written by himself, Geo. Wither’ (London, printed for John Grismond, 1622, 8vo; reprinted in 1633 with the ‘Juvenilia’ of that year). According to the prefatory epistle of John Marriott the stationer, this was one of Wither's earliest performances; imperfect copies had already gone abroad, and Wither had permitted the publication on condition that no author's name appeared. The poem is a rapturous panegyric (mainly in heptasyllabic rhyme) of a half-imaginary beauty.

‘Faire Virtue’ was Wither's final contribution to pure literature, and few of his later works fulfil his earlier poetic promise. Thenceforth his writings consist of pious exercises and political diatribes. Like his greater contemporary Milton, he became a convinced puritan, and he made it a point of conscience to devote his ready pen solely to the advancement of the political and religious causes with which he had identified himself. In the volume of pious poems called ‘Halelujah’ (1641) his old power seemed to revive, but nowhere else in the wide range of his religious verse did his thought or diction reach a genuinely poetic level. The long series of his religious works opened with a learned prose treatise in folio, entitled ‘A Preparation to the Psalter’ (London, printed by Nicholas Okes, 1619, folio, with the title-page engraved by Delaram, and a portrait of Wither from the same hand, which is now rarely found with the book; dedicated to Charles, prince of Wales). There quickly followed ‘Exercises Vpon the first Psalme. Both in Prose and Verse’ (London, printed by Edward Griffin for John Harrison, 1620, 8vo; dedicated to Sir John Smith, knt., son of Sir Thomas Smith, governor of the East India Company). A more ambitious venture of the same character bore the title ‘The Songs of the Old Testament. Translated into English Measures: preserving the Naturall Phrase and genuine sense of the Holy Text: and with as little circumlocution as in most prose Translations. To every song is added a new and easie Tune, and a short Prologue also’ (London, printed by T. S. 1621, 8vo; dedicated to the archbishop of Canterbury, Abbot).

Wither's reputation was now assured. Secular and religious critics were equally enthusiastic in his praises, and in 1620 his popularity was paid a very equivocal compliment. A collection of his compositions was surreptitiously issued under the title: ‘The Workes of Master George Wither, of Lincolns-Inne, Gentleman, Containing Satyrs, Epigrammes, Eclogues, Sonnets and Poems. Whereunto is annexed a Paraphrase on the Creed, and the Lords Prayer’ (London, printed by John Beale for Thomas Walkley, 1620, 8vo). Wither retorted by issuing an authentic collection of his finest works, called ‘Jvvenilia. A collection of those Poemes which were heretofore imprinted, and written by George Wither’ (London, printed for John Budge, 1622, 8vo, with an engraved title). There was a reissue of 1626 (‘for Robert Allot’). A new edition of 1633 included ‘Faire Virtue.’ It is mainly on the contents of this volume that Wither's position as a poet depends.

Anxious to secure the full profits of his growing literary work, Wither sought an exceptional mode of guaranteeing his rights in his next volume. The book was called ‘The Hymnes and Songs of the Church,’ and Orlando Gibbons supplied ‘the musick.’ The volume was divided into two parts—the first consisting of ‘Canonicall Hymnes,’ adapted from scripture and other sources, and the second consisting of original ‘Spirituall Songs’ for various seasons and festivals. Wither asserts that he was engaged on the work for three years, and he obtained by letters patent on 17 Feb. 1623 for a period of fifty-one years, not only a grant of monopoly or full copyright in the work, but also a compulsory order directing its ‘insertion’ and ‘addition’ to every copy of the authorised ‘Psalm-book in meeter’ which the Stationers' Company enjoyed the privilege under earlier patents of publishing (, iv. 12, seq.; cf., Acta Publica, xvii. 454). The volume first appeared in 1623, in at least four forms. There was a 16mo impression ‘printed for George Wither;’ another in quarto, ‘printed by the assignes of George Wither … cum Privilegio Regis Regali;’ a third in 8vo, ‘printed by the assignes of George Wither, 1623, cum Privilegio Regis Regali;’ and a fourth in folio ‘printed by the assignes of George Wither.’ The Stationers' Company regarded Wither's patent and independent method of business as a serious infringement of their privileges. Book-


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 sellers refused to bind up copies with the authorised psalter or to sell it in any shape, and warned their customers that it was an incompetent performance. Wither protested warmly, but with little avail. Unfortunately he did not carry with him the sympathy of all his fellow-craftsmen. He was still the friend of William Browne, of Richard Brathwaite, who applied to him the epithet ‘lovely’ in 1615, and of Drayton, to whose ‘Polyolbion’ (pt. ii.) he contributed in 1622 an enthusiastic commendation. But his successes were viewed with jealousy by Ben Jonson and his band of disciples. Alexander Gill the elder [q. v.] had quoted Wither's work with approval in his ‘Logonomia Anglica’ (1619), and Jonson had quarrelled in consequence with Gill, whose son retorted with violence. Jonson revenged himself by caricaturing Wither under the title ‘Chronomastix’ (that is, satirist of time) in the masque called ‘Time Vindicated,’ which was presented at court on Twelfth night 1623–4. Much sarcasm was here expended on Wither's quarrel with his printers, and finally Fame was represented as disowning him, despite the outcry of friends who deify him.

Wither vigorously stated his grievances against the booksellers in a highly interesting prose tract which he entitled ‘The Schollers Purgatory, discouered In the Stationers Commonwealth. … Imprinted for the Honest Stationers,’ 12mo. There is no mention of date or place of publication. It was probably printed abroad about 1624. In the form of an address to the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops assembled in convocation, Wither narrated with spirit the long series of wrongs which he and other authors of his day suffered at the hands of their publishers. The stationers sought to stop the publication. They moved the court of high commission to institute an inquiry. Wither was called upon to explain why he issued the volume without a license. He admitted that parts had been printed under his direction by George Wood, and boasted that the edition consisted of three thousand copies (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1623–5, p. 143).

Wither was in London during the plague of 1625, and, despite the distractions of personal controversy, penned two accounts of it. One he called ‘The Historie of the Pestilence or the proceedings of Justice and Mercy manifested an [sic] the Great Assizes holden about London in the yeare 1625.’ This remains in a folio manuscript in the author's autograph in the Pepysian Collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge. At the same time he published a second treatise on the subject, as ‘Britains Remembrancer: Containing a Narrative of the Plague lately past; a Declaration of the Mischiefs present; and a Prediction of Judgments to come (if Repentance prevent not),’ 1628, 12mo. He was still under the stationers' ban. No license was obtainable for this book, and he caused it to be printed ‘for Great Britaine’ at his own risk, and, it is said, with his own hand (Court and Times of Charles I, i. 367). John Grismond undertook to sell copies. The impression consisted of four thousand copies. There is a long preliminary address to the king in verse and a ‘premonition’ in prose. The voluminous poem is itself in eight cantos of heroic rhymes. Vivid descriptions of the plague are interspersed with much wild denunciation of the impiety of the nation and anticipation of future trouble. Mindful of Jonson's onslaught, he referred to the ‘drunken conclave’ at which Jonson had denied him the title of poet. He claimed with much self-satisfaction in later years to have clearly foretold in this volume all the future misfortunes that the country witnessed in his lifetime.

A visit to the continent seems to have followed, and Wither appears to have been received in audience by his early patroness, the Princess Elizabeth, now the exiled queen of Bohemia. To her he gratefully dedicated his next publication, ‘The Psalms of David, translated into Lyrick verse according to the Scope of the Original, and illustrated with a short Argument and a briefe Prayer or Meditation before and after every Psalme.’ This was printed in the Netherlands by Cornelius Gerrits van Breughel in 1632, and formed a thick square octavo. As early as April 1625 he had visited Cambridge in order to find a printer for the work, but had met with none to undertake it (cf. ib. i. 12). Subsequently, in January 1633–4, Wither, in continuance of the warfare with the London stationers, summoned all or most of them before the council to answer for a ‘contempt of the great seal’ in their continued defiance of his patent of 1623. The judgment of the court disallowed that part of Wither's patent which directed that his ‘Hymnes’ should be bound up with the authorised ‘Psalter’ (ib. ii. 236). Immediately afterwards he made his peace with the publishers and his relations with them were thenceforth amicable.

The plates which were originally engraved by Crispin Pass for the ‘Emblems’ of Rollenhagius, and had appeared with mottoes in Greek, Latin, or Italian (Cologne, 1613; and Arnheim, 1616), were purchased in 1634 by Henry Taunton, a London publisher, with

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66 the sole cause of the birth of every human being who comes into the world."

Let me digress here for a moment to call your attention to a passage taken from a very different work. "The Erewhonians" it runs, "believe in pre-existence; and not only this . . . ., but they believe that it is of their own free act and deed in a previous state that they come to be born into this world at all. They hold that the unborn are perpetually plaguing and tormenting the married of both sexes, fluttering about them incessantly, and giving them no peace of mind or body until they have consented to take them under their protection." I am not quoting now from an anthropological work, but from a very clever and amusing satire on English religion and social arrangements, published eight-and-twenty years ago by Mr. Samuel Butler. The author located the imaginary people whose customs he describes in the undiscovered interior lands of a British colony; and it would require very little straining of his words to suppose that the lands now found to be occupied by the Arunta were comprised in the district he had in mind.

We will leave our friends who are so positive that all (or nearly all) märchen came from India, or that the perplexing civilisations of America were derived from Asia, to reckon up the resemblances here, and to settle at their leisure whether the Arunta philosophy of birth is to be traced to Erewhon, or the Erewhonian philosophy to the Arunta. Meanwhile, we may return to the wandering bands from whom the Arunta of the present day derive their totems. I want you first to note that they are bands, and not single individuals, and next


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 practically confined to the processes of M. Testud de Beauregard, MM. Gamier and Salmon, and Mr. Pouncy.

The decision of the Commission was, that the process of MM. Gamier and Salmon and that of Mr. Pouncy were about equal in result, the latter requiring, however, an exposure of nearly four times as long as the former; but being at the same time simpler in manipulation. M. Poitevin had not entered the competition or contributed specimens; but recognizing in him the originator of all the processes of carbon printing, the Commission felt bound to acknowledge his merit. Instead, therefore, of awarding the whole amount as one prize to any individual, it was resolved to divide it, awarding a gold medal, value 600 francs, to M. Poitevin as the originator of carbon printing; a similar medal to MM. Davanne and Girard for contributions to the improvement and stability of silver prints; a silver medal, value 400 francs, to MM. Gamier and Salmon, for their carbon printing process; and a similar medal to Mr. Pouncy, for his process.

A further prize of 2000 francs, offered by the Due de Luynes for the same purpose, was awarded to M. Poitevin in 1862. In 1867 he received the prize of 8000 francs, offered for the best mechanical printing process with fatty ink, based upon photography.

Early in 1864, a suggestion for the production of carbon prints was made by Mr. Obernetter, of Munich. In his process, paper is treated with a solution of sesquichloride of iron, chloride of copper, hydrochloric acid, and water. After drying, the paper is exposed under a negative, and then developed in a solution of sulphocyanide of potassium, sulphuric acid, a little of the sensitizing mixture and water, and then washed. The image is formed of sulphocyanide of copper: if the print be exposed to an atmosphere of chlorine, the image is

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 into a chloride of copper. The prints so produced were of a chestnut brown.

We now come to another definitely-marked feature in the history of carbon printing. In all the efforts hitherto made, there was one signal defect,—the absence of perfect gradation of tone from light to dark. A certain granular grayness in patches represented half-tones in some of the processes; but the tendency was to abrupt steps from white to black, any definite approach to delicately-marked gradation being rarely obtained. This was believed to be owing to the nature of the materials employed: the notion prevailed that the finest mechanical subdivison of a pigment could not equal in delicacy the fineness of the deposit obtained by the reduction or precipitation of a metallic salt. We know now that this was not the cause of the difficulty, which was due to the mode rather than to the material, as will be seen from the explanation which follows. When the surface of a film of bichromated gelatine is exposed to light, all portions upon which light acts in the slightest degree, whether through half-tones or shadows, are rendered insoluble at that surface, the only difference being that the light penetrates deeper in the shadows, and therefore produces a thicker layer of insoluble matter. When the exposed print is placed in a solvent, the whites, having been protected from the action of light, are laid bare at once; and the water then penetrating laterally, dissolves the soluble layer underneath the thin insoluble film, which forms the half-tones; these being thus deprived of their contact with the paper, float away, leaving only the deep shadows, in which the light has penetrated quite through the film. The picture thus consists of masses of black and white, without true gradation. The only wonder is that any approach to half-tone at all was ever secured by such a mode of operating. Such gradation

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 a view to a reissue. Wither was employed by him to write illustrative verses in English. The volume appeared as ‘A Collection of Emblemes, Ancient and Moderne; quickened with Metrical Illustrations, both Morall and Divine,’ London, printed by A. M. for Henry Taunton, 1635, fol. (the only perfect copy known is in the British Museum).

About 1636 Wither retired to what he calls ‘his rustic habitation,’ a cottage under the Beacon Hill at Farnham (Nature of Man, 1636), and there devoted himself to the congenial study of theology. In 1636 he issued ‘The Nature of Man. A learned and useful tract, written in Greek by Nemesius, surnamed the Philosopher … one of the most ancient Fathers of the Church.’ The translation was not made from the Greek of Nemesius, but from two Latin versions. It was inscribed by Wither to his ‘most learned and much honoured friend John Selden, esq.’

The political crisis of the following years drew Wither into public life. In 1639 he served as captain of horse in the expedition of Charles I against the Scottish covenanters. In 1641 he was sufficiently at leisure to produce his best work as a religious poet—the interesting collection of 273 ‘hymns,’ entitled ‘Halelujah: or Britans Second Remembrancer, bringing to remembrance (in praisefull and pœnitentiall Hymns, Spirituall Songs, and Morall Odes) Meditations advancing the Glory of God, in the practise of pietie and virtue’ (London, 1641, 12mo). ‘Halelujah’ is one of the scarcest of all Wither's publications; only four copies are known, of which one is in the British Museum, and a second belongs to Mr. Huth. At the same date Wither repeated his old warning of the nation's impending peril in ‘A Prophesie written long since for this year 1641,’ London, n.d., 8vo (a reprint of the eighth canto of ‘Britain's Remembrancer’ of 1628).

In 1642 he sold such estate as he possessed and raised a troop of horse for the parliament. He placed on his colours the motto ‘Pro rege, lege, grege’ (cf. Campo-Musæ, frontispiece). On 14 Oct. 1642 he was appointed, by a parliamentary committee, captain and commander of Farnham Castle, and of such foot as should be put into his hands by Sir Richard Onslow [q. v.] and Richard Stoughton, for the defence of the king, parliament, and kingdom. But his government was of short duration. Wither knew little of military procedure, and under the advice, he declared, of his superiors he soon quitted the castle and drew away his men. He was subsequently captured by a troop of royalists, and owed his life to the intercession of Sir John Denham, who pleaded that ‘so long as Wither lived he [Denham] would not be accounted the worst poet in England.’ Wither thenceforth regarded Denham with very bitter feelings. Farnham Castle was soon reoccupied (on 1 Dec.) by the parliamentary general, Sir William Waller. Wither retained his position in the parliamentary army, became a justice of the peace for Surrey, and was promoted to the rank of major, but it is doubtful if he saw further active service. His chief energies were thenceforth devoted to procuring a livelihood. On 9 Feb. 1642–3, 2,000l. was granted him on his petition towards the repair of his plundered estate. Other payments were subsequently ordered by the parliament, but were not made.

Meanwhile he was busier than ever with his pen. In 1643 he published three tracts, all of which attracted attention. The earliest was ‘Mercurius Rusticus: or a Countrey Messenger. Informing divers things worthy to be taken notice of, for the furtherance of those proceedings which concerne the publique peace and safety;’ this was in opposition to a royalist periodical, similarly named, by Bruno Ryves [q. v.] Wither's second literary labour of 1643 was the poetic ‘Campo-Musæ, or the Field-musings of Captain George Wither; touching his Military Ingagement for the King and Parliament, the Justnesse of the same, and the present distractions of these Islands’ (London, 1643, 8vo; 1644, two editions; 1661); this was dedicated to the parliamentary commander, the Earl of Essex; in it Wither claimed to reconcile the king and parliament, while he narrated his personal difficulties. In ‘Aqua Musæ’ Wither's old opponent, John Taylor the water-poet, denounced the ambiguity of his attitude, describing him as a ‘juggling rebell.’ Taylor affirmed that he had loved and respected Wither for thirty-five years, ‘because I thought him simply honest; but now his hypocrisy is by himself discovered, I am bold to take my leave of him.’ Further aspersions on his conduct drew from Wither (also in 1643) his prose tract ‘Se Defendendo: a Shield and a Shaft against Detraction. Opposed and drawn by Capt. Geo. Wither: by occasion of scandalous rumours, touching his desertion of Farnham-Castle; and some other malicious aspersions.’

Next year Wither experienced new embarrassments. He charged Sir Richard Onslow, whom he held responsible for his misfortunes at Farnham, with sending money privately to the king. Onslow retorted by depriving Wither of the nominal command


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 by which this transformation is made, is hidden from us in the remote time when language was framed; but the same tendency may be daily observed in children. Children and savages use only nouns or names of things, which they convert into verbs, and apply to analogous mental acts.

2. But this origin of all words that convey a spiritual import, — so conspicuous a fact in the history of language,—is our least debt to nature. It is not words only that are emblematic; it is things which are emblematic. Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact. Every appearance in nature corresponds to some state of the mind, and that state of the mind can only be described by presenting that natural appearance as its picture. An enraged man is a lion, a cunning man is a fox, a firm man is a rock, a learned man is a torch. A lamb is innocence; a snake is subtle spite; flowers express to us the delicate affections. Light and darkness are our familiar expression for knowledge and ignorance; and heat for love. Visible distance behind and before us, is respectively our image of memory and hope.

Who looks upon a river in a meditative hour, and is not reminded of the flux of all things? Throw a stone into the stream, and the circles that propagate themselves are the beautiful type of all influence. Man is conscious of a


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 as was obtained appears to have been dependent upon the fact that a thin solution and an absorbent paper were employed, the bulk of the sensitive material being in absolute contact with the fibre of the paper; so that any portion, on which light had acted at all, was not readily removed from the paper. Certain it is, that the principle of washing away the unaltered material from the side opposite to that which was exposed to light is vital to the perfection of gradation in carbon printing. As the discovery of this principle has been the subject of a little misapprehension, it is interesting to trace it here to its first enunciation, and mark how its gradual recognition, and the discovery of practical means of applying it, have led to the perfection of carbon printing.

The first recognition which we find of this principle is in a paper on the use of linseed oil as a sensitive agent in photographic engraving, by M. L'Abbé Laborde, communicated to the French Photographic Society in July, 1858. In this paper, the Abbé announced his discovery that linseed oil which had been treated with litharge was sensitive to the action of light, becoming insoluble under its influence, in like manner to asphaltum. In the course of his experiments with this substance, he had discovered that the insolubility caused by the action of light commenced at the surface exposed, and gradually penetrated through the film in direct proportion to the intensity of the light. He acknowledged the loss of half-tone, although he did not suggest a mode of meeting the difficulty.

In November, 1858, Mr. J. C. Burnett, in a communication on carbon printing, pointed out the same fact still more clearly, and indicated the direction in which effort must be made in order to overcome the difficulty. After

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 speaking of the application of a mixture of gelatine, bichromate, and pigment to paper, he says:

It was at this juncture of the history of carbon printing, we learn, that Mr. Swan commenced his experiments. Without being aware of Mr. Burnett's suggestions, and prior to the publication of Mr. Blair's letter (presently to be mentioned), he attempted to obtain half-tone by coating a plate of glass with a mixture of lamp-black, solution of gum arabic, and solution of bichromate of potash. After drying the coated plate, he exposed it in the camera, with the uncoated surface of the glass turned towards the light passing through the negative and lens. The plate was then washed in water, with the view of removing, from the back of the sensitive coating, those portions which the light had not rendered insoluble. The experiment was not successful (probably in consequence of the too feeble action of the light); it shows, however, that Mr. Swan not only, ab initio, recognized the true principle upon which the production of half-tone in carbon-printing depends, but, furthermore, applied it in a very elegant manner.

Early in the following year, Mr. Blair, of Perth, made the same discovery; for it is worthy of note that in

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 each case the recognition of the fact upon which the loss of half-tone was based, seems to have been the result of independent observation. Having applied a thick coating of the sensitive gum and carbon to his paper, he noticed, after exposure, that “the outer crust was more sunned and hardened than the inner,” and that, by the time the paper was sufficiently steeped, the inner surface, which had been least sunned, was too soft, and was washed away, carrying with it the “outer crust.” It occurred to him, therefore, that if he could get the inner surface rendered insoluble first, he could overcome the difficulty. He accordingly attempted to print through the coated paper, so that the inner surface was acted upon first, leaving the soluble portions on the outer surface to be removed by washing. This gave a certain amount of success; but the exposure was long, and the print looked granular from the texture of the paper through which the light passed. Subsequently, he tried the use of waxed paper as a support for sensitive material. This lessened the exposure, and in some degree lessened the granulation; but the lights, consisting of waxed paper, were not good in color, and certain practical difficulties remaining, the method did not come into general use. The principle of securing half-tone in carbon prints was now known, but an efficient and practical mode of applying it remained unknown. To the subsequent modes of utilizing this principle, we shall refer presently.

Towards the close of 1859, M. Joubert called attention to a process of carbon printing which he styled phototype. An example, published in the journal of the Photographic Society, in June, 1860, showed that the process possessed much promise of excellence, the results far surpassing anything till then seen. That they could be printed with facility in large numbers was

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Rh phenomena of matter; but when we try to define and describe himself, both language and thought desert us, and we are as helpless as fools and savasres. That essence refuses to be recorded in propositions, but when man has worshipped him intellectually, the noblest ministry of nature is to stand as the apparition of God. It is the organ through which the universal spirit speaks to the individual, and strives to lead back the individual to it.

When we consider Spirit, we see that the views already presented do not include the whole circumference of man. We must add some related thoughts.

Three problems are put by nature to the mind; What is matter? Whence is it? and Whereto? The first of these questions only, the ideal theory answers. Idealism saith: matter is a phenomenon, not a substance. Idealism acquaints us with the total disparity between the evidence of our own being, and the evidence of the world's being. The one is perfect; the other, incapable of any assurance; the mind is a part of the nature of things; the world is a divine dream, from which we may presently awake to the glories and certainties of day. Idealism is a hypothesis to account for nature by other principles than those of carpentry and chemistry. Yet, if it only deny the existence of matter, it does not satisfy the demands of the


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 manifest from the circumstances under which the specimen was issued. The details were not published, and remain to this day the secret of the inventor.

The next step in the history of carbon printing is based upon the discovery of another effect produced on certain bodies by the action of light, and is again due to M. Poitevin. It will be noticed that the processes already described depend on the action of light in rendering a soluble body insoluble. This is the effect on asphaltum, upon a mixture of some organic bodies and a chromic salt, and upon some other substances. In the new process discovered by M. Poitevin, a body previously insoluble is rendered soluble and hygroscopic by the action of light. The first results of this process were shown to the French Photographic Society, in July, 1860, the process having been patented the month previously. The details were published in the following November. In this process a mixture of perchloride of iron and tartaric acid, ten parts of the former to four of the latter, dissolved in one hundred parts of water, is the sensitive preparation. It is poured on a plate of glass which has been previously coated with collodion or other suitable material; it is then left to dry in the dark, and becomes spontaneously insoluble. Submitted to the action of light, however, it again becomes hygroscopic. After exposure under a negative, if breathed upon, the parts upon which light has acted become moist and tacky, in degree and depth proportioned to the action of light. Finely-powdered carbon, applied with a brush, adheres to the image in greater or less proportion, just in the degree in which moisture is absorbed, thus giving an image with a just gradation of half-tone. For producing enamels, a vitreous powder has to be applied; and for

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T is essential to a true theory of nature and of man, that it should contain somewhat progressive. Uses that are exhausted or that may be, and facts that end in the statement, cannot be all that is true of this brave lodging wherein man is harbored, and wherein all his faculties find appropriate and endless exercise. And all the uses of nature admit of being summed in one, which yields the activity of man an infinite scope. Through all its kingdoms, to the suburbs and outskirts of things, it is faithful to the cause whence it had its origin. It always speaks of Spirit. It suggests the absolute. It is a perpetual effect. It is a great shadow pointing always to the sun behind us.

The aspect of nature is devout. Like the figure of Jesus, she stands with bended head, and hands folded upon the breast. The happiest man is he who learns from nature the lesson of worship.

Of that ineffable essence which we call Spirit, he that thinks most, will say least. We can foresee God in the coarse, and, as it were, distant 62


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 the production of images in printing ink, a fatty acid or a resin has to be applied. The print, if in carbon, was subsequently washed with water containing a little hydrochloric acid, and a piece of paper coated with gelatine applied to its surface, attached to which the collodion film, with the image upon it, was removed from the glass. In some cases the sensitive fluid was applied direct to the glass, and when the picture had been produced by the application of carbon to the exposed film, a coating of collodion was applied, and the whole eventually transferred to gelatinized paper. This was the first process in which a collodion film was used for the purpose of transferring the carbon picture from a glass plate to paper.

In the following November, M. Fargier brought before the French Society a process for which, in the September previous, a patent was obtained. It consisted of an ingenious combination of previously published discoveries. A plate of glass was coated with a mixture of gelatine, bichromate, and carbon, and, when dry, exposed under a negative. The exposed film was then coated with tough, plain collodion; and, after allowing the film to set, the whole was plunged into warm water. This dissolved the portion of gelatine which remained soluble, and detaching the film from the glass, removed the unaltered pigment and gelatine, leaving an image attached to the collodion film with perfect gradation of half-tone from white to black. The film was next attached to a sheet of gelatinized paper, collodion side uppermost. The results were exceedingly beautiful, far surpassing in delicacy and gradation anything which had previously been produced in carbon printing.

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 In the spring of 1863, M. Poitevin made another important advance in carbon printing, based upon his last discovery,—that soluble organic substances might be rendered insoluble by the action of metallic salts, and recover their solubility under the action of light. It will be seen that in this operation the reactions are just the reverse of those in the chromo-gelatine processes. Paper, coated with the sensitive salt and pigment combined, simply needs exposing to the direct action of light under a transparent positive, and washing in water. The dark coating forming the shadows retains its insolubility; and in the half-tones, the film being rendered soluble through a part of its thickness, is washed away in due proportion, whilst the light having penetrated quite through the film in the whites of the picture, the color is washed away entirely, leaving the bare paper.

The mode of proceeding is as follows: Five or six parts of gelatine are dissolved in one hundred parts of water with gentle heat, and to this the necessary proportion of carbon (or some inert pigment), is added, and the paper is coated with the mixture. When required for use, these are impregnated with a solution containing ten parts of perchloride of iron, and three parts of tartaric acid in one hundred parts of water. This paper is left to dry in the dark, when it becomes insoluble, even in boiling water. It is then exposed under a positive cliché, and, under the influence of light, becomes soluble, commencing at the surface of the film. A short exposure is sufficient, and the print is then immersed in warm water, which removes the soluble matter, leaving the print with its true gradations of light and shade. It is now necessary to remove the tint given by the iron salt to the paper, and this is done by washing in a dilute

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 solution of hydrochloric acid. The print is then rinsed and dried. To prevent injury to the gelatine film, which would become further soluble by the action of light, it is rendered wholly insoluble by any of the known methods, such as immersion in a solution of alum, bichloride of mercury, &c. This process has not hitherto been successfully worked.

In the same communication, M. Poitevin, mentioned another mode of carbon printing. Paper treated with perchloride of iron and tartaric acid, without pigment or gelatine, is exposed under a positive cliché. The parts treated with these salts possess the power of precipitating casein, which, after insolation, they lose. The coloring matter is therefore mixed with milk, and the exposed print immersed in it; the casein, and pigment with it, are precipitated on the protected parts, which form the blacks of the picture.

Early in 1863, Mr. Pouncy called attention to a new mode of carbon printing, which he had patented in the previous January. In the course of the summer the details were published, and were found to embrace an important new principle in carbon printing, inasmuch as the picture was formed of a fatty ink, similar to that used in ordinary mechanical printing. Thin, transparent paper, like tracing paper, was coated with a mixture of carbon or other pigment, fatty matter, such as tallow or oil, bichromate of potash, or bitumen of Judæa, or both, and turpentine, or some equivalent body. When

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Same problem, i don't know how to join a reference/footnote's text spanning onto next page. —Atelierele Albe (talk) 14:01, 19 June 2011 (UTC)


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Rh that they are believed to be the same persons as those now living, but in a previous incarnation. There is thus no tracing back to a single ancestor, and no possibility of what I have called a manitou-totem. Moreover, these bands are expressly believed to have originated from the animals and plants after which they are called. "In the Alcheringa," we are told, "lived ancestors who, in the native mind, are so intimately associated wath the animals or plants the name of which they bear that an Alcheringa man of, say, the kangaroototem may sometimes be spoken of either as a man-kangaroo or as a kangaroo-man. The identity of the human individual is often sunk in that of the animal or plant from which he is supposed to have originated." Here we are taken back to Dr. Frazer's generalisation whence we started. The mental confusion referred to is common to savages; it perpetually recurs in savage tales, not less among the Kwakiutl than among the Arunta. We may reasonably suspect that Messrs. Spencer and Gillen's volume does not contain all the folklore of the Arunta. If not, we may be sure there are other tales betraying the same confusion.

So far, therefore, as the Arunta are concerned, and putting out of sight the qualification implied in the belief that the descendants to-day are themselves the ancestors in a new incarnation. Dr. Frazer's generalisation is not contravened, while it would seem as though there is less deviation from it among the tribes of British Columbia than might be inferred from Dr. Boas' account. Returning to them at this point, it must not be forgotten that the organisation, the ceremonies, and the tales of the peoples of the


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68 coast of America are the result of many different influences which have met and crossed in that interesting region. The custom of acquiring a transfer of name and privileges by slaughtering their previous owner points to the more or less violent breaking-up of an older organisation in which great value was attached to clan-membership. It is obvious that where the clan-system is powerful such a custom would not be tolerated, and that in any society where it once got a footing it would prove a strong disintegrating force. That it has done so among these north-western tribes is evidently Dr. Boas' opinion. "In this manner," he says, "names and customs have often spread from tribe to tribe." Furthermore, he brings evidence to prove "that the present system of tribes and clans is of recent growth, and has undergone considerable changes," some of which I may add are still in progress. Not less important is it that the so-called secret societies are of novel introduction. If amid all these movements confusion had not been generated there would have been cause for wonder. Nor can we be by any means sure that the manitou-idea was always at the basis of the belief and practice of the tribes, closely as it now seems to underlie their legends and institutions, or even that any form of totemism was known to some of the tribes until a comparatively recent period. My own impression decidedly is that, whether or no totemism was anciently a part of the tribal organisation, the manitou-conception is of modern date. It is part of the individualism which is tending, not among these tribes only, to obscure the older communistic traditions. I will not say that it is useless to examine the beliefs and institutions of the British Columbian peoples, with the hope of arriving at any conclusions on the origin or early form of totemism. But I greatly doubt that any trustworthy


text:
Author:Ludwig von Pastor

Works
 History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages
 * Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters translated into English and published as:
 * (section: 1305-1590)

title: Author:Ludwig von Pastor


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 Rh can be derived from the ideas and practices now dominant.

The side of totemism on which the discoveries of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen have broken most seriously into our previous conceptions is that of social organisation. Hitherto all the totem-clans known to science had an invariable rule against marriage between men and women who belonged to the same clan and bore the same totem. This rule the Arunta totally disregard. Their marriage-regulations are founded upon a different principle. Formerly, indeed, if we may trust their traditions of the Alcheringa, the Arunta did observe the clan-system. But then they observed it in topsy-turvy fashion, for the practice was, they say, for the men and women of the same clan to intermarry. Now, however "primitive" some of the institutions of the Arunta may seem, and may indeed be, others have travelled a long way from any state capable of being so described. Progress is hardly ever, if ever, made equally on all lines. It is one of the most ordinary phenomena to find a people relatively advanced in one direction and relatively backward in another. The Arunta, I venture to think, are an instance of unequal progress. Students who hold that the traditions of the Alcheringa—that mythical time of the early ancestors of the tribes—enclose tangible facts, must also hold that the same traditions are evidence of progress. For my own part, I am slow to affirm that many grains of fact (in the sense of actual occurrences) can be extracted from such ore. Some can, of course; but the ore requires a deal of milling and washing to separate them. Still, the traditions are undeniable witness to the belief of the Arunta in their own progress. How else are we to interpret the stories of what I may term the evolution of men and women out of the rudimentary beings whom they call Inapertwa, the introduction of various rites, and the establishment of the


text: Template:UN Expert Panel on Sri Lanka

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text: Category:Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka


text: 1 Samuel (Bible)

title: 1 Samuel (Bible)


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 dry, this is exposed under a negative, with the back in contact, according to the now recognized principle of obtaining half-tone. After exposure, the unaltered matter was removed by means of turpentine or other similar solvent, leaving an image with perfect gradation, in a material analogous to printing ink. The picture thus obtained was then mounted on white or tinted paper. The chief drawbacks to this process were: first, the impure lights which resulted from the tracing paper on which it was necessary to produce the prints to secure sufficient transparency, in printing through the paper. This has, however, been overcome by adopting a transferring process in which the image is removed from tracing paper to any ground which may be chosen. The second difficulty was the long exposure, which was about three times as protracted as that necessary for silver printing on albumenized paper. Many of the results we have seen are, however, very excellent.

Later in the same year, Mr. Blair expressed a conviction as to the disadvantages of any method of producing prints on waxed, oiled, or varnished paper, and proposed a method on plain paper, in which he endeavored to compensate for the tendency to lose half-tone when the prepared surface was presented direct to the light, by the mode of preparing the paper. It was at first coated with gelatine; then, when dry, with albumen and syrup (containing a little transparent color, to give a delicate half-tint to the paper). Subsequently the surface was coated with carbon powder, which was made to adhere by moistening the back of the paper. Finally, when required for

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 use, it was floated, back downwards, on a solution of bichromate of potash. When dry, it was exposed with the face in contact with the negative. The washing away of unaltered sensitive material and color was effected by cold or warm water, and a brush, to which sometimes a little ammonia, or acetic acid, was added. Mr. Blair describes this method as giving, with care, pretty good results.

The next step in carbon printing marks an important epoch in its history: we refer to the introduction by Mr. Swan of a prepared tissue for producing the pictures, which permits exposure on one side, and washing away on the other. This step, together, with the complete system of operations connected with its use, made carbon printing practicable as a useful art. The process was first announced in the Photographic News, early in 1864, and during many succeeding months continued to occupy a large share of public attention. The results were as perfect as the most fastidious could desire, and the process was so simple in itself, and so clearly stated by Mr. Swan, that for the first time in the history of carbon printing, many experimentalists gave attention to the subject, and produced excellent pictures. As the mode of working is given in another chapter, it is not necessary to state it here.

In the course of the discussions elicited in the photographic journals by the publication of Mr. Swan's process, we learn that Mr. Davies, of Edinburgh, had, in the course of experiments in photo-lithography, produced transferred carbon prints as early as 1862; allusion to which was made in a paper read at the Edinburgh Society in February, 1863. A series of circumstances, however, prevented the publication of his process until July, 1864. He then described a method analogous to that already patented by Mr. Swan, namely, coating paper with gelatine, bichromate, and pigment; exposure

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 with the prepared surface next the negative, mounting with a solution of shellac and Venice turpentine in alcohol, or with albumen, and then coagulating; soaking until the original paper leaves the gelatine and pigment, and then developing with hot water.

It is not necessary to mention all the minor modifications of Swan's method which were proposed; nor the various suggestions which grew out of the discussion of his process. We may, however, mention one or two of the latter. Mr. Frank Eliot suggested taking advantage of M. Poitevin's last process with perchloride of iron and tartaric acid. He proposed working with black paper, coating it with gelatine and white pigment, sensitizing with the iron salts and tartaric acid; then exposing, and developing, to obtain an image in white pigment on a black ground. If any attempt were made to carry out such a scheme, it is obvious that a pigment must be found which would not decompose the iron salt or be affected by it.

During the following year, Mr. M. Carey Lea published working details of two processes, both of which were analogous to some of the earlier processes. In the first, the paper was prepared with a mixture of gelatine, glycerine, bichromate of potash, and water; and, after drying, was exposed under a positive cliché. The parts intended to form the lights become hardened and insoluble; the shadows, being protected from the light, swell and soften, but do not dissolve on immersing the print in cold water. The prints are left soaking, to remove as much of the color of the reduced chromic salt as possible from the lights; and afterwards, finely-powdered lampblack is applied, which adheres to the softened gelatine, and forms the picture. Mr. Lea points out that,

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 as in this process the lights are embodied in the shadows, and no part is washed away, there is no danger of losing the half-tones, as in some processes; and that he thinks it is possible to obtain some degree of gradation by this method.

The second process proposed by the same gentleman is avowedly for the reproduction of subjects without half-tone. In this process he employs a mixture of gum-arabic, albumen, glycerine, double chromate of potash and ammonia, powdered graphite, and water. The mixture is of the thickness of honey, and is applied to the paper with a broad brush. When dry, it is exposed under a negative of any subject in line or stipple. After exposure, the right amount of which may be ascertained by examining the back of the print, it is developed by soaking in cold water, which removes the unaltered material, leaving clean lights and good blacks.

A more recent suggestion for a method of carbon printing was made in the course of last year by Dr. Gotschalk. He observes that graphitic acid, a substance prepared by the action of nitro-sulphuric acid upon graphite, is sensitive to light, which deoxidizes it, reducing it again to the condition of graphite. Hence it was proposed to prepare paper with a solution of this body, and expose it under a negative to the action of light. The first difficulty in the way is its insolubility, or sparing solubility, in any available menstruum. The trace, dissolved by water, applied to paper, is sufficient to color the paper brown when exposed to light. A method of checking its action, or fixing the print, would also be required. No practicable application of this substance for this purpose has yet been found.

Although Mr. Swan has perfected a process for us, by

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text: Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka/Introduction


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Rh be contracted with neighbouring nations." So with the Kâfir chiefs of the Hindu Kush, who are bound to give feasts to the leading men of the tribe. And Sir Hugh Willoughby tells us of the dukes of Moscovy that "he gave to every one of his gentlemen waiters meat with his own hand, and so likewise drink. His intent thereby is, as I have heard, that every man shall know perfectly his servants." And again, "before the coming in of the meat, the emperor himself, according to an ancient custom of the kings of Moscovy, doth bestow a piece of bread upon every one of his guests with a loud pronunciation of his title and honour in this manner : 'The Great Duke of Moscovy, and Chief Emperor of Russia, John Basiliwich (and then the officer nameth the guest) doth give them bread.'" Again, each of these chiefs in Homeric times, according to the well-known savage etiquette, was entitled to the portion of honour according to his rank ; just as in former days in Scotland the chief's armour-bearer had a double portion of meat assigned to him at every meal. We have the same custom in the mess of Benjamin ; the distribution of the Kava cup in Tonga ; the joints of the sacrifice in Egypt ; and among the Australians, Fijians, Namaquas, Bechuanas, Niam-Niams, and Samoans. Postponing for the present the application of these facts,


text: Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka/I Mandate, Composition and Programme of Work


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104 let us turn to the marriage question, and in particular to the rights and responsibilities of the widow. We need not be surprised if in connection with her, we meet with survivals of primitive marriage law, because instances of this are not infrequent in Homer. Thus, we have constant references to the appropriation of captured girls as concubines, as, for instance, the familar case of Briseis. We have, again, marriage by Confarreatio in the bridal of the daughters of Menelaus, where we also mark the very primitive custom of celebrating several marriages simultaneously, which has been considered to imply a primitive pairing time. Further, we have instances of what anthropologists call Beena marriage, where the bridegroom serves for and lives with the bride in the house of her father ; connected with this we have cases of brides bestowed without dowry in return for special services rendered. More primitive still is the secret co-habitation of Zeus and Hera. We hear of no law of exogamy ; in fact, Hector seems to taunt Paris with bringing a wife from abroad ; and the neglect of the usual prohibited degrees is shown in the cases of brother and sister, and nephew and aunt marriage. This will prepare us for finding traces of primitive law in the case of the widow, with whom we are here more immediately concerned. It may be said that in regard to her, there are at least three stages in the evolution of early


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Rh custom. There is, first, the case where on the death of her husband the temporary right of exclusive possession vested in him ceases, and she again comes to be at the disposal of the clan. A familiar development of this appears in the Hindu custom of the Nyoga. Next we have the institution of the Levirate, and lastly, as the outcome of this, the disposal of the widow's hand by the decree of the associated clansmen. What here specially concerns us is the Levirate and its development. In this case, the widow is usually made over to the younger brother of her late husband, or, if that arrangement be impracticable, to some more distant relation or kinsman. But as this is of primary importance for our present purpose, there is ample evidence that in many cases the Levirate is compulsory, and that the necessary pressure on the widow is exercised either by her parents or by the kinsfolk of her late husband. Thus, at the present day in Northern India, among most of the menial castes who preserve the primitive custom with most care, the bride, who is always purchased, generally out of the common stock of the family, is regarded as a chattel of the family. If her late husband's younger brother be of suitable age and unmarried, she is, as a matter of course, made over to him by a decree of the Panchâyat or tribal council ; if this be found impossible, she is taken over by some other clansman, usually a widower. But in this case the rule of the Levirate is so far recognised that in some cases the new husband is compelled to repay to the Levir the bride-price, and other expenses incurred at the first marriage. We meet a later development of the same rule in


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106, where the functions of the tribal council were imposed on the Laird. The old laws lay down — "Na widow sould be compelled to marie gif sche please to live without ane husband ; but sche sould give securitie that sche sail not marie without consent of her lord, gif sche holds of ane other than the king." And in Benbecula, we are told, when a tenant dies, MacNeill provides the widow with a husband. I would, however, lay special stress on the fact that the widow is not allowed to select her second husband. In most cases the disposal of her hand rests with the kinsfolk of her late husband. Even in historical times in Greece, the second marriage of the widow was arranged according to the will and testament of her first husband ; her own wishes being consulted as little as in the case of virgins ; and, as it will be remembered that Penelope is represented to have been a Spartan maiden, it is even more to the present purpose to point out that the Levirate prevailed at Sparta.

We are now, I venture to think, in a position to examine the case of Penelope in the light of the foregoing facts. The Homeric Greeks, as we know, usually purchased their brides, or, what amounts to much the same thing, the bride was given by her father in return for services rendered, without demand of the bride-price ; or, again, as a prize for some special skill or valour, as Odysseus by one form of the legend won his wife in a foot-race. However he may have acquired her, she would be considered as a chattel, and her fate after the death of her husband would rest with her


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Rh parents or with the kinsmen of her deceased lord. Greek law in fact never recognised the independence of the woman. "A woman, whether maiden, wife, or widow, was always under guardianship, always at the disposal of another. Her own sons, if two years past the age of manhood, would be her guardians, supposing she were left a widow without any other Κύριος." We know from the poem that her parents proposed to exercise their authority over her. She herself tells her disguised husband that her parents were instant with her to marry. That the same kind of compulsion on the part of her kinsfolk may have been the basis of the story, in its current form, I think there are strong reasons for suspecting. This much, however, is noticeable, that though Penelope represents that her parents were pressing her to choose a husband, Homer nowhere tells us that Odysseus was plan-ning or executed any vengeance upon them, though, of course, he might fairly have blamed them as he did blame the Suitors. It is possible, on the one hand, that Homer used only so much of the primitive tradition as suited his artistic purpose ; or, on the other hand, that in his time the parental control had taken the place of that hitherto exercised by the kinsfolk. The one being familiar and the other archaic, the latter was more easily modified to suit the exigencies of the plot. Who, then, were the Suitors ? We are told that they were "all the noblest that are princes in the Isles, in Dulichium and Same and wooded Zakynthus, and as many as lord it in rocky Ithaca." From Dulichium came fifty-two ; from Same twenty-four ; from Zakynthus twenty ; and twelve were lords in Ithaca. The information in the Odyssey is not sufficient to fix exactly the limits of the realm of Odysseus or the dominions of his immediate kinsfolk.


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Rh underlie the Saga of the Wooing of Penelope. I do not fear that any member of this Society will accuse me of impiety in thus attempting to dissect one of the noblest pieces of romantic literature. This method does, I believe, enable us in a useful way to realise the place which the poems of Homer occupy in the development of folk-tradition. It tends to corroborate the conclusion which can be reached by other roads that they mark a comparatively recent stage, and that a vast space of time lies between them and the beginnings of the great folktale cycles, to which, as I conceive, they were so largely indebted. This is exactly what is suggested by the archaeological evidence. Homer habitually and wisely utilises old material. Sometimes, if we may venture to say so, he almost deliberately modifies the old stories and rites to adapt them to the taste or knowledge of his age, or to enhance the dramatic interest of his narrative. In the process some of them have become so changed as to be almost unrecognisable, but the gain is ours in the dignity, interest, and pathos which his treatment of them adds to his subject. Folklore has thus, I conceive, its place, though it may be an humble one, beside philology, archaeology, and literary criticism in contributing to the discussion of the tangled problem of the origin and development of this great body of poetic imagination. If in some cases it may be said that we are tempted to overstate the evidence, and to read between the lines of the poems more than they really contain, this is only to say that a method of enquiry may, in the main, be sound, though some of the incidental suggestions with which it is accompanied may not stand the test of criticism.


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Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka/II Historical and Political Background to the Conflict

II. Historical and Political Background to the Conflict
24. After almost three decades of brutal armed conflict, on 19 May 2009, the Government of Sri Lanka declared its victory over the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The final stages of the war gave rise to numerous allegations of violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law, about which the Panel has been tasked to advise the Secretary-General. It is not the role of the Panel to dissect the complex and contested political history of Sri Lanka. Nonetheless, in order to place the final stages of the war in its relevant political and social context, the Panel found it necessary to consider some elements of the history of the conflict.

25. The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is an island State situated in the Indian Ocean, 18 miles off the south-eastern coast of India. Sri Lanka is an ethnically, linguistically and religiously diverse country of 21 million people, of which 74 per cent are Sinhalese, speak Sinhala and are overwhelmingly Buddhist; 18 per cent are Tamil, speak Tamil and are mostly Hindu (comprised of Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils, 13 per cent and 5 per cent respectively); 7 per cent are Muslim, comprised of Moors and Malays who practice Islam and are largely Tamil-speaking; and 1 per cent belong to small ethnic communities including the Burghers and Veddahs, among others. Christians account for a small percentage of some communities.

26. Sri Lanka gained independence from the British in 1948, after four centuries of colonization, first by the Portuguese, then the Dutch and finally the British. Sri Lanka has been governed, since independence, by an elite group comprised of members of different ethnic communities, within a majoritarian Sinhala State, in which Sinhalese dominate. Strong indicators of democracy, including universal franchise, a multi-party system and a vibrant electoral process, combined with important human development achievements, such as high literacy rates both for men and women and low infant mortality, contrast sharply with Sri Lanka’s long history of war.

A. Ethnicity and politics
27. The armed conflict in Sri Lanka was the violent reflection of deepening divides along political and ethnic lines. It played out as a struggle for the existence of the Sinhalese and Tamil peoples.

1. The rise of ethno-nationalism
28. After independence, political elites tended to prioritize short-term political gains, appealing to communal and ethnic sentiments, over long-term policies, which could have built an inclusive state that adequately represented the multicultural nature of the citizenry. Because of these dynamics and divisions, the formation of a unifying national identity has been greatly hampered. Meanwhile, Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism gained traction, asserting a privileged place for the Sinhalese as the protectors of Sri Lanka, as the sacred home of Buddhism. These factors resulted in devastating and enduring consequences for the nature of the state, governance and inter-ethnic relations in Sri Lanka.

29. By the 1970’s, young Sinhalese from the south, disillusioned by exclusion on class grounds, on the one hand, and young Tamils from the north, disillusioned by exclusion on ethnic grounds, on the other, reacted separately to the emerging State, turning to militancy and launching armed revolts against the State. The State treated these movements primarily as a threat to national security, rather than addressing the underlying political issues, meeting challenges to state power with repression, including disappearances, unlawful killings and torture.

30. In the wake of discriminatory state policies and anti-Tamil violence in the 1950s, the Tamil struggle for rights, which began as Gandhian-style non-violent protests, increasingly gave rise to Tamil militancy and armed revolt, with a central demand for a separate State. A number of Tamil politico-militant groups, including the LTTE, emerged in the 1970’s, as the discourse shifted from accommodation to separatism. Violent repression of Tamils by Sinhala nationalists increased in intensity, alongside increasing attacks by Tamil armed groups against the security forces. Elements in the Government encouraged, or in some cases sponsored, episodes of anti-Tamil violence in 1977, 1979, 1981 and 1983. This violence culminated in the 1983 anti-Tamil attacks, which were the most extensive. Sinhalese mobs were transported in Government buses and used official voter registration lists to identify and target Tamils. Thousands of deaths resulted, together with large-scale displacement, destruction of Tamil property and migration of Tamils abroad. The Government asserted that the attacks occurred in response to the LTTE’s killing of 13 Sri Lankan soldiers in the northern district of Jaffna. Thus, 1983 is commonly regarded as the start of the war between the Government and the LTTE, although violence by both sides predates that year.

2. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
31. As repression of Tamils intensified after the 1983 communal riots, the Tamil community became increasingly militarized and the number and ranks of militant groups swelled, taking advantage of the conducive environment for training and organizing in Tamil Nadu. The LTTE began as a Tamil liberation movement and eventually became the most disciplined and most nationalist of the Tamil militant groups, emerging as the dominant force espousing a separatist agenda in the mid-1980s. During this period, the LTTE adopted increasingly violent tactics, using violence to silence other Tamil groups, while asserting itself as the self-appointed, sole representative of the Tamil people. Its elusive leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran, demanded absolute loyalty and sacrifice and cultivated a cult-like following. Internal dissent was not tolerated; those suspected of working or cooperating with the Government were labelled traitors and often killed. LTTE violence directed against Tamils caused deep fear and suspicion within the Tamil community.

32. The LTTE pioneered modern suicide bombing, which it used against military, political and civilian targets. LTTE suicide bombers, both men and women, were responsible for the deaths of Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (1991) and Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa (1993) as well as numerous Sri Lankan ministers and members of parliament, and moderate Tamil political leaders. It also carried out suicide attacks, often with large numbers of civilian casualties, on economic and religious targets. The LTTE pursued exclusionary politics, expelling Muslims from their homes in the north in 1990 and massacring Sinhalese and Muslims living in villages bordering areas it controlled. Violence, threats and fear were increasingly used by the LTTE to control the Tamil population. The LTTE was also known for its forced recruitment and use of child soldiers, including boys and girls. Its tactics led to the organization’s proscription in numerous countries, including Canada, the European Union, India, the United Kingdom and the United States; its proscription intensified after 11 September 2001.

33. From the 1990s until May 2009, the LTTE controlled large parts of northern and eastern Sri Lanka, the exact contours of which shifted over time as Government forces and the LTTE vied for territorial control. It operated and sought to project itself as a de facto State. To this end, the LTTE developed a well-structured international strategy and, in the territory it controlled, established its own police, jails, courts, immigration department, banks and some social services. It also developed a sophisticated military, with ground, air and naval capacities, and used both guerrilla and conventional tactics, supported by an extensive intelligence apparatus.

34. The Sri Lanka Tamil diaspora, with a population of close to one million scattered across the globe, has grown since the 1980’s, as large numbers of Tamils sought refuge abroad from violence and repression by the State, while others sought better economic opportunities. The diaspora has played a crucial role throughout the war, with segments providing uncritical support to the LTTE, through crucial funding and advocacy, consistently denying any wrongdoing by the LTTE throughout the conflict. Not all support has been voluntary, however. The LTTE extended its tactics, including extortion, beyond the shores of Sri Lanka, into countries with large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, using these to impose its narrative of the Tamil aspiration for a homeland and the means for achieving it. It was also intolerant of any criticism and allowed no space for the voices of victims of LTTE violence.

B. Erosion of the rule of law and human rights
35. Sri Lanka’s 1978 Constitution asserts the unitary nature of the State and vests extensive, centralized powers in an executive president, who serves as Head of State, Head of Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces; in addition the President may head any ministry at his or her discretion. Currently, President Mahinda Rajapaksa heads five ministries: Defence, Finance and Planning, Ports and Aviation, Transport, and Highways. The Constitution also establishes presidential powers to appoint the heads and judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeals. Further, there are no restrictions on presidential appointments of close family members, and in drawing on such options, the current Government has faced criticism of nepotism.

36. Extended periods under emergency rule, using constitutionally-permitted emergency regulations, further strengthened presidential powers, as have the increased politicization of state institutions, including the judiciary, and the weakening of independent checks and balances. Emergency rule has been in place from 1983 until 2001, with a brief hiatus in 1989, and again from 2005 to the present. Among other things, the Emergency Regulations currently in force, along with the 1979 Prevention of Terrorism Act, provide extraordinary powers to the State and limit jurisdiction of the courts to check abuses of power and rights violations. Other laws also greatly weakened the State’s duty to pursue serious violations of rights, in particular the Indemnity Act, No. 20 of 1982 (applicable between August 1977 and 16 December 1988). This measure barred legal proceedings against any minister, civilian or military official, or person acting under their direction in respect of any act, whether legal or illegal, undertaken in good faith to enforce the law or otherwise serve the public interest. By formalizing impunity, the Indemnity Act set a dangerous precedent.

37. These measures helped to create an enabling environment for human rights violations to occur, including disappearances, unlawful killings and torture, which have gone largely unpunished, despite formal legal and constitutional protections against such abuses.12 Gender-based violence, including rape, sexual harassment and sexual exploitation, has also occurred despite legal protection. A number of presidential commissions of inquiry into the persistent pattern of enforced disappearances and other grave violations of human rights have, in some cases, served important fact-finding functions. None, however, has led to justice for victims or addressed the systematic nature of violations. In this sense, then, commissions of inquiry have not been an effective tool for combating impunity, establishing the truth or achieving justice.

38. Efforts to strengthen state institutions and ensure their independence led to the passage of the 17th Amendment in 2001. Aimed at providing a constitutional check on presidential power, it created an independent constitutional council to oversee appointments to commissions on police, elections, human rights, bribery, finance and public service. In addition, the Council was to approve appointments of high judicial officials, the Judicial Service Commission and the Attorney-General, among others. The amendment proved to be relatively ineffective, however, as recent presidents were able to disregard it without serious consequence. In September 2010, Parliament approved the 18th Amendment, which nullified the 17th Amendment, eliminating its measures for independent checks and balances, and abolished presidential term limits.

39. The human rights of all citizens have suffered as a result of almost three decades of war, the degradation of independent institutions and the weakening of the rule of law. As the Government prepared for its final offensive against the LTTE, there was a further erosion of human rights, and several measures led to greater limitations on the space for independent news coverage, dissent and even humanitarian action. Beginning in 2006, the Defence Secretary issued increasingly restrictive guidelines for journalists reporting on military operations, making it an offence to depict operations in negative terms. Further pressures on the media, including a number of high profile assaults, disappearances and killings, led to greater self-censorship. Threats directed at local activists and journalists emanated from unidentified sources, causing some to leave the country. An increase in visa denials and revocations kept international staff and NGOs insecure and, in some cases, may have compromised their positions.

C. Towards the final stages of the war
40. At least three additional factors were significant in setting the scene for what would become the final stages of the war.

41. The first was a short-lived peace process, which commenced in 2000, when the Government of Sri Lanka and the LTTE requested Norway to serve as facilitator. The Parties agreed to a Ceasefire Agreement (CFA) in February 2002 and undertook a number of confidence building measures, including through the creation of a Sub-Committee on Gender to engage women from the LTTE and women from the South appointed in the process, before beginning face-to-face talks. The process was supported by the international community through the Tokyo Conference on Reconstruction and Development (2003), which monitored political progress through the Tokyo Co-Chairs (European Union, Japan, Norway and the United States). The Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM), an autonomous international organization created by the Parties to the CFA, monitored on-the-ground violations until January 2008, when the Government disbanded it and formally abrogated the CFA. The LTTE had unilaterally abrogated the CFA in April 2003. After that, and with renewed hostilities in 2006, the CFA largely existed in name only, but its continued formal existence ensured the on-going international presence of the SLMM.

42. Thus, this peace process soon joined the list of earlier peace-making efforts that failed to resolve the protracted conflict due to extremism on both sides, which remained the driving force for continued ethnic polarization and intolerance. Ultra Sinhalese nationalists protested from the beginning against the signing of the CFA; in addition, the LTTE decision to abrogate the agreement in April 2003 and its unilateral proposal to establish an Interim Self-Governing Authority in the north-east further intensified Sinhala-nationalist protests and galvanized a deeply nationalist coalition of political parties – the United People’s Freedom Alliance (UPFA). The UPFA narrowly won the 2005 elections, led by current President Rajapaksa, and provided the political support for the prosecution of the final war.

43. Secondly, in March 2004, the LTTE’s Eastern Commander, Vinayagamoorthy Muralitharan, commonly known as Colonel Karuna, broke away from the LTTE, taking with him some 5,000 combatants. He later established the Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Palikal (TMVP), a registered political party, which maintains a paramilitary section and became a member of the ruling UPFA. The breakaway had a devastating impact on the LTTE. Given Karuna’s place in the LTTE leadership, he had deep knowledge of the highly secretive organization, which the Government used effectively in preparing for the final offensive. In addition, the TMVP paramilitary forces, as well as members of other former Tamil militant groups, who were disaffected from the LTTE, were deployed by the Government in the military campaigns against the LTTE and used in intelligence operations among Tamil civilians.

44. Thirdly, international factors were also important. Initiatives by the United States and other Western Governments to collaborate with frontline States fighting terrorist organizations and their trans-national networks, as part of the “global war on terror”, had serious implications for the LTTE. Already listed by many countries as a terrorist organization, the LTTE was increasingly isolated, both domestically and internationally. Its assassination in 2005 of Sri Lanka’s Foreign Minister, who was Tamil, may have dealt a final blow to the organization’s international image. The Government of Sri Lanka worked within this environment to forge partnerships with other States in its final offensive against the LTTE.

45. After the 2005 elections, both the Government and the LTTE had promised to honourthe terms of the CFA; nonetheless, both Parties continued their military provocations until a full-scale armed confrontation began again in August 2006. When the LTTE closed the sluice gates to the Mavil Oya reservoir, which provided irrigation water for thousands of farmers in the Government-controlled area of the Eastern Province, the Government deployed thousands of troops in an offensive to wrest the Eastern Province from the LTTE. Aided by the Karuna faction, the Government took full control of the Eastern Province in July 2007, for the first time in nearly two decades.

46. The military victory by Government forces in the Eastern Province and, by January 2008, in some parts of the Northern Province, left the LTTE only in control of large parts of the Vanni region. Specifically, of the four districts in the Vanni region, the LTTE was in full control of Kilinochchi, which was its de facto capital, and Mullaittivu. It also controlled the northern part of Vavuniya, north-western Mannar, and small strips in the Jaffna peninsula.

47. Encouraged by the military victory in the Eastern Province, and after nearly two years of strategic preparations, the Government declared a full military operation on 16 January 2008. The United Nations Secretary-General, the Tokyo Co-Chairs and other Member States warned that the Government’s decision to abrogate the CFA and pursue a military solution would have devastating consequences, while at the same time recognizing the Government’s right to undertake counter-terrorism operations on its territory. By mid-February 2008, as the LTTE accelerated suicide attacks across the island, the impact of the war on civilians outside the embattled areas had reached alarming proportions. Aerial bombardment and deep penetration operations of Government forces were also increasingly affecting civilians within the embattled areas. In September 2008, the Government began its final military offensive, moving against Kilinochchi.


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 transactions of which the piece of wood is a relic (see post, p. 280). Mr. Hartland also exhibited three miniature vases, supposed to be votive, from Lake Chapala in Mexico, presented to him for the Society by Prof. Starr of Chicago, and read extracts, explanatory of the exhibits, from a paper by Prof. Starr on "The Little Pottery Objects of Lake Chapala, Mexico," published by the University of Chicago in the Bulletin of the Department of Anthropology. The following books, which had been presented to the Society since the last meeting, were laid on the table, viz:—

Le Folklore de l'Ile de Kythnos, by Henry Hauttecœur presented by the Author; Transactions of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion', 1896-7, presented by the Society; and a pamphlet entitled I Pretesi Sacrificii Humani, by Antonio de Nino. Dr. Winternitz read a paper entitled "Witchcraft in Ancient India;" and in the discussion which followed Messrs. Crooke, Hartland, Jacobs, and Clodd, Miss Mary Kingsley, and the President took part. Papers entitled "Tobit and Jack the Giant Killer," by Mr. F. Hindes GommeGroome [sic], and "A further instalment of Folklore from the Hebrides," by Rev. M. McPhail, and "Kitty Witches," and "Christ's Half-dole: An East Anglian Fishing Custom," by Mr. W. B. Gerish, were also read. The meeting concluded with hearty votes of thanks being accorded to Dr. Winternitz for his paper and to Dr Maclagan and Prof. Starr for the objects so kindly presented by them respectively to the Society.


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30 soul within or behind his individual life, wherein, as in a firmament, the natures of Justice, Truth, Love, Freedom, arise and shine. This universal soul, he calls Reason: it is not mine, or thine, or his, but we are its; we are its property and men. And the blue sky in which the private earth is buried, the sky with its eternal calm, and full of everlasting orbs, is the type of Reason. That which, intellectually considered, we call Reason, considered in relation to nature, we call Spirit. Spirit is the Creator. Spirit hath life in itself. And man in all ages and countries, embodies it in his language, as the. It is easily seen that there is nothing lucky or capricious in these analogies, but that they are constant, and pervade nature. These are not the dreams of a few poets, here and there, but man is an analogist, and studies relations in all objects. He is placed in the centre of beings, and a ray of relation passes from every other being to him. And neither can man be understood without these objects, nor these objects without man. All the facts in natural history taken by themselves, have no value, but are barren, like a single sex. But marry it to human history, and it is full of life. Whole Floras, all Linnaeus' and Buffon's volumes, are dry catalogues of facts; but the most trivial of these facts, the habit of a plant, the organs, or work,


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Rh the photograph of 1856 and the sketch of 1860. The late Sir Richard Owen, who was my informant about all that concerns the folklore connected with the Richmond tree, at once perceived this, and pointed it out to me when I showed him the series of photographs of the tree from six different points of view. These photographs, two of which are given in Plates V. and VI., were taken by me in September, 1891, for the purpose of exhibiting some of them at the Folklore Congress of that year. The learned Professor told me it had more than once been said to him that the tree was a sucker or offshoot from the roots and not a part of the original ash. He could not, he said, be dogmatic upon the subject himself, as he was ignorant about vegetable growth, so had to bow to superior knowledge; but the tree—"my dear old tree," as he always called it—had certainly never been from under his eyes since 1852, when he came into residence at Sheen Lodge. At first, and for many years after, it was entire, supporting a few good branches on a noble base. The larger part of it fell or was blown down in 1875, leaving what still remains, which to his personal knowledge had stood there ever since. These are, as nearly as I can recall them from memory. Sir Richard Owen's own words. How completely he had the tree under his daily observation will be seen by Plate V., which gives the ash in front and Sheen Lodge in the background.

A few days before writing these notes I called on Mr. Sawyer, the superintendent of Richmond Park, who has always lived in the park, his father having held the post he now holds. Naturally Mr. Sawyer knows a great deal about the trees under his care. He remembers the Shrew Ash when it was entire as in Plate IV., and has a lively recollection of one occasion when a cow somehow thrust her head into the fissure, and in her struggles to remove it caught her horns over the bar, and by it was firmly held until he happened to come up and with some difficulty released her. Mr. Sawyer confirms all that has been said


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Rh or noise of an insect, applied to the illustration of a fact in intellectual philosophy, or in any way associated to human nature, affects us in the most lively and agreeable manner. The seed of a plant,—to what affecting analogies in the nature of man, is that little fruit made use of, in all discourse, up to the voice of Paul, who calls the human corpse a seed,—"It is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual body." The motion of the earth round its axis, and round the sun, makes the day, and the year. These are certain amounts of brute light and heat. But is there no intent of an analogy between man's life and the seasons? And do the seasons gain no grandeur or pathos from that analogy? The instincts of the ant are very unimportant, considered as the ant's; but the moment a ray of relation is seen to extend from it to man, and the little drudge is seen to be a monitor, a little body with a mighty heart, then all its habits, even that said to be recently observed, that it never sleeps, become sublime.

Because of this radical correspondence between visible things and human thoughts, savages, who have only what is necessary, converse in figures. As we go back in history, language becomes more picturesque, until its infancy, when it is all poetry; or all spiritual facts are represented by natural symbols. The same symbols are found to make the original elements


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Author:James Paton

Works

 * Editor and part-author of Scottish National Memorials (1890)

Contributions to EB9

 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.
 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.
 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.
 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.
 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.
 * Co-authored with William Dittmar.

Contributions to EB1911

 * (in part)

title: Author:James Paton


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32 of all languages. It has moreover been observed, that the idioms of all languages approach each other in passages of the greatest eloquence and power. And as this is the first language, so is it the last. This immediate dependence of language upon nature, this conversion of an outward phenomenon into a type of somewhat in human life, never loses its power to affect us. It is this which gives that piquancy to the conversation of a strong-natured farmer or back-woods-man, which all men relish.

A man's power to connect his thought with its proper symbol, and so to utter it, depends on the simplicity of his character, that is, upon his love of truth, and his desire to communicate it without loss. The corruption of man is followed by the corruption of language. When simplicity of character and the sovereignty of ideas is broken up by the prevalence of secondary desires, the desire of riches, of pleasure, of power, and of praise,—and duplicity and falsehood take place of simplicity and truth, the power over nature as an interpreter of the will, is in a degree lost; new imagery ceases to be created, and old words are perverted to stand for things which are not; a paper currency is employed, when there is no bullion in the vaults. In due time, the fraud is manifest, and words lose all power to stimulate the understanding or the affections. Hundreds of writers may be found in every


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 which he still held of the militia in the east and middle division of the county, and contrived his removal from the commission of the peace (August 1644). Wither denounced Onslow with virulence in his ‘Justiciarius Justificatus,’ and complaint was made to the House of Commons. The book was referred for examination to a committee on 10 April 1646, and on 7 Aug. it was voted to be ‘false and scandalous.’ Wither was directed to pay a fine of 500l., and the book was burned at Guildford by the hangman (, p. 218). Subsequently, Wither states, the house discharged him ‘both from the said fine and imprisonment without his petitioning or mediation for it’ (Hist. MSS. Comm. 14th Rep. pt. ix., Onslow Papers, pp. 476–7).

Wither pursued his literary labours undismayed. In a flood of further tracts and poems he warned the House of Commons or the nation of coming danger in the Cassandra-like spirit of his ‘Britain's Remembrancer’ (cf. Letters of Advice to the Electors, 1644, prose; Some Advertisements for the New Election of Burgesses; Speech without Doors, 9 July 1644; Vox Pacifica, a long poem in four cantos, 1645, with a woodcut map of England, Scotland, and Ireland as frontispiece; Speech without Doors Defended, 1646; Opobalsamum Anglicanum, 1646; Major Wither's Disclaimer: being a Disavowment of a late Paper, entituled ‘The Doubtfull Almanack’ [prose], lately published in the name of the said Major Wither, 1646, 4to, prose; What Peace to the Wicked? 1646, 4to, a poem in short rhyming couplets, printed in double column, denouncing the clergy for the dissensions of 1645).

All his old prophecies of calamity were repeated in his tedious poem, ‘Prosopopœia Britanica: Britain's Genius, or Good-Angel, Personated; reasoning and avissing, touching the Games now playing, and the Adventures now at hazard in these Islands; and presaging also some future things not unlikely to come to passe,’ London, 1648, 8vo. This work and ‘Britain's Remembrancer’ were the publications which Wither regarded as of greatest value among all his publications (cf. Fides Anglicana, p. 53; Furor Poeticus, p. 30).

In 1647 he issued two poems in the interests of peace. One was ‘Carmen Expostulatorium: or a timely Expostulation with those, both of the City of London and the present Armie, who have either endeavoured to engage these Kingdomes in a Second Warre, or neglected the prevention thereof.’ The other was ‘Amygdala Britannica: Almonds for Parrets; a dish of stone fruit: partly shel'd and partly unshel'd.’

Wither's private anxieties grew year by year more acute, and he often varied his comments on public events by long petitions to the House of Commons describing his personal embarrassments. ‘A Single Siquis, And a quadruple Quere,’ in verse [1648], which was presented to members of parliament in their private capacities, opens with a reference to Cromwell's victory over the Scots at Preston on 17 Aug. 1648, but it dealt mainly with its author's pecuniary distress. A like appeal, called ‘The Tired Petitioner,’ appeared about the same time, on a single sheet, as well as ‘Verses presented to several Members of the House of Commons, repairing thither the 23rd of December 1648 … with an imprinted petitioner therto annexed.’ His contemporary tracts, ‘The true state of the case betwixt the King and Parliament;’ ‘The Prophetical Trumpeter Sounding an Allarum to Britaine’ (London, n.d., 8vo); ‘Carmen Eucharisticon,’ on Michael Jones's victory in Ireland (1649, 4to), touched less personal topics. Of somewhat ambiguous import was ‘Vaticinium Votivum, Or Palæmons Prophetick Prayer. Lately Presented Privately to His now Majestie in a Latin Poem; and here Published in English; Trajecti. Anno Caroli Martyris primo’ [1649], 8vo, with portrait of Charles II.

After the king's death Wither constituted himself the panegyrist of the new form of government. Some doubt exists as to his responsibility for the sympathetic prose tract on recent political history, called ‘Respublica Anglicana,’ 1650, 4to, although assigned on the title-page to ‘G. W.’ But he described himself ‘A faithful servant to this Republik,’ in ‘A Timelie Cavtion, comprehended in thirty-seven Double Trimeters, occasioned by a late rumour of an intention suddenly to adjourn this Parliament, and superscribed to those whome it most concernes. September 10, 1652.’ In a postscript he not unjustly calls the publication ‘Wither'd leaves’—a play upon words which he frequently repeated. To a mystical tract in verse called ‘The dark Lantern’ he added ‘A Poem concerning a Perpetuall Parliament,’ 1653, 8vo. Other lucubrations of the time were of a more exclusively religious temper (cf. ‘Three Grains of Spiritual Frankincense,’ 1651, 12mo, dedicated to President Bradshaw; ‘A Letter to the Honourable Sir John Danvers, knight,’ at end of a ‘Copy of a Petition from the Governor and Company of the Sommer Islands,’ 1651, 4to; ‘The British Appeals, with Gods Mercifull Replies,’ printed for the author, 1651, 8vo, two editions). ‘Westrow Reviv'd’ (1653) was an elegy on Thomas Westrow, a well-to-do neighbour to whom Wither had been under pecuniary obligations. Praises


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Rh long-civilized nation, who for a short time believe, and make others believe, that they see and utter truths, who do not of themselves clothe one thought in its natural garment, but who feed unconsciously on the language created by the primary writers of the country, those, namely, who hold primarily on nature.

But wise men pierce this rotten diction and fasten words again to visible things; so that picturesque language is at once a commanding certificate that he who employs it, is a man in alliance with truth and God. The moment our discourse rises above the ground line of familiar facts, and is inflamed with passion or exalted by thought, it clothes itself in images. A man conversing in earnest, if he watch his intellectual processes, will find that a material image, more or less luminous, arises in his mind, cotemporaneouscontemporaneous [sic] with every thought, which furnishes the vestment of the thought. Hence, good writing and brilliant discourse are perpetual allegories. This imagery is spontaneous. It is the blending of experience with the present action of the mind. It is proper creation. It is the working of the Original Cause through the instruments he has already made.

These facts may suggest the advantage which the country-life possesses for a powerful mind, over the artificial and curtailed life of cities. We know more from nature than we can at will 3