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 This glabellar ridge with its bounding furrows is most distinctly marked in the embryonic Limulus [ text fig. 24] where it bears the ocelli at its anterior point. It there continues over the abdomen and gives this stage its well known trilobitic appearance. It is still more prominent in the fossil Limuli (e. g. ), than in the recent species and is therefore apparently an old character possibly inherited from the common ancestor of the merostomes.

The elevated area of the glabella manifestly served, as in Limulus, to receive the anterior portion of the heart, while the space between the carapace and the ventral membrane in front of the ocelli contained the liver. We find that the interior surface of the carapace sometimes exhibits in this region, in  and , anastomosing radiating lines similar to those seen in many trilobites (Conocephalites, Harpides, etc.), and which have been interpreted by Jaekel as liver impressions.

The edge of the carapace is bent under, forming a doublure. This is usually narrow as in Eurypterus and runs out toward the genal angles. In Stylonurus, however, and notably  [ pl. 52, fig. 10] it becomes very broad and concentrically striated. In Limulus the doublure broadens in the median part of the anterior portion into a concave triangular shield that is said to serve as an inlet to the water for respiration when the broad carapace is resting on the mud. A triangular area of like relation and relative dimensions is set off in some species of Stylonurus [ pl. 46, fig. 11] and may have had a like function.

To the doublure are attached by an open suture two plates, figured by Hall [1859. v. 3, pl. 80A, fig. 12], meeting in the median line along a suture and together forming a horseshoe-shaped organ, which toward the mouth passes gradually and by an irregular contact into the very thin membrane that surrounds the coxal segments of the legs. One of these marginal plates is shown in place in plate 5, figure 6, where the carapace is partly removed. Frequently in specimens of  not completely flattened, they have prevented the marginal portion


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 of the carapace from further sinking in and therefore appear on the compressed carapace as a very marked smooth, fiat marginal zone [ pl. 6, fig. 5]. In Pterygotus a third plate is intercalated between the two marginal plates in front of the mouth, forming an epistoma that occupies the same position as the hypostoma of the trilobites.

Limulus possesses in front of the chelicerae a wartlike node on the ventral membrane which has been shown by Patten [1894] to contain an olfactory organ. While Holm's photographs demonstrate the absence of anything similar in, it seems to us that nodes observed in specimens of Eusarcus and Stylonurus in the corresponding place may possibly indicate the presence of a like organ in these genera.

The connection of the carapace with the abdomen is accomplished by articulations near the postlateral angles, well seen in plate 6, figure 5. It is indicated by an abrupt change in the direction of the posterior margin where the truncation of the genal angle begins. Between the articulations the margin of the carapace is curved forward, so that an open slitlike space remains between the carapace and the abdomen which is occupied by a thin membrane connecting the doublures of the carapace and first abdominal segment. As Holm has pointed out, the open space indicates that the movability of the articulation between the carapace and the abdomen must have been very considerable.

Eyes. The carapace bears two pairs of eyes, the large lateral or compound eyes and the median eyes or ocelli. The lateral eyes distinctly fall into two groups by virtue of structure and position.

The first of these groups exhibits a smooth visual area which is more or less crescent-shaped and borne on an elevated ocular node between the glabella and the lateral margins. This type of eye is exemplified by Eurypterus and is also found in Dolichopterus, Drepanopterus and Stylonurus. Probably Strabops also possessed eyes of this type; Eusarcus, in regard to its eyes as well as its whole body form, is an aberrant type, for while it possesses apparently smooth bean-shaped eyes these are marginal as in those of

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Rh cannot well go on "begetting boys" where he is rooted to a crystal rock, and excludes women like a Trappist monastery. The earlier recorded belief does not cease to be a fact in evidence because a contradictory belief is produced from an extremely Europeanised set of natives, not, of course, that they adopted these ideas from Europeans. Again, at this charitably supported recent Bora there was a kangaroo dance, as all kinds of animal dances occur, whether in a totemistic connection or as "medicine-dances" to secure success in hunting. A myth is told of the institution of this dance by Baiame, "this Creator skulks in a tree" (like Zeus in the oak), and his effigy shows him sprawling in a futile effort to catch an emu. I venture to suggest that the dance being practised, an ætiological myth of the usual kind was told to explain the origin of the dance and adventure. "Baiame first danced the dance, and had the tumble." Ritual is the parent of myth, as Mr. Frazer says. In just the same way the rite with an oak-tree bride in Greece was explained by an ætiological myth about Zeus, the tree, and Hera. This did not detract from the honour of Zeus, and I ask no more licence for Australian than for Greek ritual. Both rituals contain humorous or even disgraceful incidents; both are connected with high Gods. The Eleusinia consoled and fortified Pindar and Sophocles, despite the pigs, the buffooneries, the obscenities of Baubo, and perhaps the licentious orgies, which, Mr. Matthews was told, occur in one night in the Wiradthuri rites. I don't want to "shirk" any such details, Greek or Australian, they in no way impede my argument.


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 the second group, being borne near the anterior angle of the subtriangular carapace.

The second group of eyes is typically represented by Pterygotus, and found also in the genera Slimonia and Hughmilleria. In these the visual area occupies the whole node, is marginal and faceted. In Pterygotus the immense eyes [ pl. 73] occupy the antelateral angles. The side of the somewhat globose carapace is impendent in the antelateral region so that in flattened individuals part of the lateral eyes is pressed over on the underside (particularly well seen in ); similarly in Slimonia, where the lateral eyes lie at the anterior angles of the rectangular carapace, half of the eye is on the underside [see Woodward's restoration, 1872, pl. 20]. The connection between the Pterygotus and Eurypterus eyes is afforded by that of Hughmilleria as we show in the generic discussion of that genus. While it is marginal in, the genotype, it is still submarginal in   and while it is smooth on the outside, it shows delicate facettae on the inside.

Homology of lateral eye in Pterygotus and Limulus. No observers have recorded the presence of corneal facets in the eyes of Eurypterus and Holm states that even in excellent microscopic preparations he has been unable to notice anything but an apparently smooth, uniformly thick cornea; the faceted eyes of Pterygotus, however, have been known to the earliest writers on this group of fossils. Beyond the fact that the lateral eyes of Pterygotus possess faceted corneae, nothing can be gleaned from the literature, and the figures given are equally inconclusive showing either projecting round lenses in a square meshed interstitial test or sclera [cf. Huxley & Salter Monogr. I, pl. 3, fig. 1b] or lenticular depressions with a hexagonal scleral test [Woodward, pt. 2, p. 56]. More frequently it is stated that the facets are not discernible, a fact attributed to their extremely small size.

Several carapaces of  and , their visual surfaces excellently retained, permit us to elaborate the anatomy of this type of eye with a fair degree of


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 and to demonstrate the entire homology in structure of the eyes of Pterygotus and Limulus. The visual surfaces of the specimens in question exhibit five distinct states of preservation, here illustrated by diagrams.

In states I and II the visual surface is perfectly smooth without a trace of reticulation or lenticular depressions or prominences even under condensed light and under water. Two specimens show this state in the exterior view, two more as intaglios of the exterior of the head. Among the former is one of the best preserved carapaces [ pl. 69, fig. 7] which distinctly shows the fine granulation of the surface and hence might be expected to retain also the finest details of the visual surface. The other specimens with smooth eyes are so well preserved that the corneal facets should be visible. Where the smooth surface is seen in an exterior view, the presence of the carbonaceous film indicates that the exterior of the test is actually under observation while in case II where the smooth visual surface is seen in a cast, the absence of the test proves likewise that we do not have before us an interior view of that surface.

The Second group comprises preservation states III and IV. In Case III the visual surface in an exterior view exhibits lenticular depressions in a network of squarish meshes. This is well shown in the large head [ pl. 73, fig. 1]. In case IV the visual surface is seen in a cast and provided with a system of low papillae corresponding to the depressions seen in case III. Here the test is reduced to a mere carbonaceous film.

The relation between these two states of preservation, the absolutely smooth and the papillate, is indicated in the condition V exhibited by the fine head shield in the Buffalo collection. Here is a smooth visual


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 surface showing whitish circles in a dark reticulate mass and resting on this surface patches of a smooth carbonaceous test which in this case shows but the faintest shadow of the underlying lenticular structure.

On plate 72, figure 1, we illustrate an internal mold of  from the collections of the National Museum and the external mold of the same specimen from the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences is shown on plate 72, figure 2. In this external mold the test of the lateral eye is radially wrinkled and lacks all traces of facets, while in the internal cast the eyes are finely faceted but without radiating wrinkles. In this case, there must have taken place before the entombment of the specimen a partial separation and a wrinkling of an outer smooth cornea.

We may hence conclude with entire safety that this Pterygotus at least possessed a smooth, relatively and uniformly thick cornea and below this a system of lenses.

In accordance with this conclusion the lenses were either separate from the overlying cornea or they were only papillary prolongations of its underside. If the former they have a structure like that of the holochroal eye of the trilobites; if the latter then the structure is in entire accordance with that of the eye of Limulus [see text figures 8 and 9].

The choice of the alternatives seems to be indicated by states IV and V; for both can only be explained by assuming that the lenses have been lifted out as a whole or system, leaving the sclera forming the sockets. In case III the epidermal layer into which the lenses projected is still preserved; in case IV this is lost and only the impression left. In the latter case the cornea and the attached lenses must have been lost before burial by the sediment as otherwise the papillate cast should not have been produced. It is obvious that if the lenses had been distinct and separate from the cornea, we would find, after the loss of the cornea, the majority of the lenses still embedded in the epidermal layer, while in fact in these two cases none at all are thus preserved.


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 The sole case which might be taken to exhibit separate lenses is the last (V), where a smooth faceted surface is seen. As stated before, the lenses appear as light circular spots in the brown carbonaceous test. Close examination shows that they consist of semilenticular dolomite fillings of depressions that correspond with those observed in case III. They could be taken either as demonstrating that the cornea with the papillae was lifted out of the sclera before the burial of the specimen in the sediment and thereafter the depressions filled with mud, except where patches of the cornea adhered to the eye; or as representing the filling of corneal cavities which function as lenses and are homologous to the anterior corneal cavity observed by Clarke [1888, p. 258] in the schizochroal eye of. It is obvious that the former explanation is, in view of the preservation states III and IV, by far the more plausible, especially since the presence of a continuous smooth cornea precludes the comparison with the schizochroal trilobite eye. There are besides these direct arguments for the limuloid structure of the Pterygotus eye, other facts which point, though less directly, to the same conclusion. These are the distinct continuity and at the same time strange tenuity of the large cornea of Pterygotus in contrast with the solid holochroal eye of such a trilobite as Asaphus. These characters show themselves in its wrinkling (often distinctly radiate, as in plate 72, fig. 2, more often concentric) or bursting in other specimens. That this cornea is continuous with the integument of the head is indicated by the fact that it is not divided from it by any distinct line and in macerated heads does not separate from it.

This evidence may be supplemented by two a priori reasons for similarity of eye structure in the eurypterids and Limulus: a) in all other organs these organisms have been found to agree with that ancient genus, b) the eyes of Limulus are of a remarkably primitive type such as would actually be expected in these archaic arthropods.


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 In view of this inferred structural identity in the lateral eyes of Pterygotus and Limulus, the stage of development which the latter has attained becomes a matter of interest to us here.

Packard [Am. Nat. 1880, 14:212] describes the eye of Limulus as follows:

The structure of the eye is very unlike that of any other arthropod eye. The cornea is simply a smooth convex portion of the integument, which is much thinner than the adjoining part of the chitinous skin. There are no facets, the cornea externally being structureless, simply laminated like the rest of the integument. In the internal side of the cornea are a series of solid chitinous conical bodies, separated from one another by a slight interspace and in form resembling so many minié-rifle balls; the conical ends of these solid cones project free into the interior of the body, and are enveloped in a dense layer of black pigment. Within the base of these cones are secondary shallow cuplike bodies or shallow secondary cones. It is these primary cones which, seen through the smooth convex translucent cornea, give the appearance of a faceted surface to the external eye.

All the parts thus far described except the pigment layer, are molted with the rest of the crust, and the large slender cones can be easily seen by viewing a piece of the cast-off eye; the solid cones being seen projecting from the inner surface of the cast-off cornea.

The author adds: "So far as we can ascertain, no arthropod eye is so simple as that of Limulus."

Watase [Biol. Studies, Johns Hopkins Univ. 1880, 4:287] in consequence of his investigation of the compound eyes of arthropods considers the ommatidium of the lateral eye of Limulus as making the nearest approach to the primitive condition. "It is nothing more and nothing less," he states, "than a depression in the skin, with the thickened chitinous cuticle fitting in the open cavity and acting as a lens to condense the light." We have copied two of Watase's excellent figures to illustrate this structure [ text figs. 8, 9].

In view of the close relationship clearly uniting Pterygotus with the other eurypterids, notably Eurypterus and Eusarcus, we have little reason to doubt that the lateral eyes in all were of like structure. Nevertheless,


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 there may here exist a difference from that of Pterygotus, for in the other eurypterids no facets have been observed. It is obvious that both Eurypterus and Eusarcus possessed an exteriorly smooth cornea just as Pterygotus; as to the interior of their compound eye, however, several possibilities present themselves: either the lenses were separate from the cornea and thereby lost in fossilization, not being united by the sclera as in the holochroal eyes of the trilobites; or the facets were so feebly

developed as to escape observation. There are no records as far as we are aware, either among living forms, or among the fossil merostomes, to support the former hypothesis. Numerous recent crustaceans, among them the venerable Apus, either lack the facets entirely or have them so poorly developed that they are hardly noticeable, and this fact seems well suited to shed light on the failure to detect the facets in Eurypterus and Eusarcus.

In some arthropods the crystalline cone assumes a transparent semiliquid state [see Watase, 1890, p. 147], and it may perhaps be assumed


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 that the eye of Eurypterus had advanced one step beyond that of Pterygotus leading to the separation of the lens cone into an independent crystalline cone, and that this crystalline cone had failed to become hardened. In other arthropods, as in such insects as form Grenacher's "aconous type" of the compound eye, the whole ommatidial cell may remain as a clear transparent body [Watase, ibid].

The bearing of the position of the compound and simple eyes on the habits of life of the eurypterids will be noted in another chapter.

The median eyes or ocelli, which are also frequently termed the larval or simple eyes, consist of two single, transparent spots of the integument in round pits with ringlike walls situated on a small mound or tubercle. In Eurypterus and Eusarcus the transparent spots are distinctly thickened into lenslike bodies. The ocellar tubercle is always situated on the median line of the carapace and it wanders forward and backward with the lateral eyes so that as a rule it is on a cross line connecting the posterior extremities of the lateral eyes. Exceptions are made by the genera Eusarcus, Pterygotus and Slimonia where the lateral eyes have become marginal at the front of the carapace while the ocelli remain on the middle of the carapace, thus retaining the advantage of their position at the apex of the shield. In Limulus, on the contrary, the lateral eyes have remained in the posterior half and the ocelli have wandered to the front.

As to the function of the ocelli and compound eyes, observations on other classes of arthropods which possess both groups have led to the conclusion that the two sets are complementary to each other, the compound eyes being adapted to distant sight while the ocelli are myopic, as indicated by their highly convex lenses. This specialization has been necessitated by the slight adaptability of the stiff compound lenses to different distances. The most primitive ocelli lack lenses entirely and are mere pigment spots sensitive only to intensity of light.

Appendages of cephalothorax. The cephalothorax or prosoma bears six pairs of limbs which are homologous with those of Limulus. It is this close homology and the detailed comparison which is possible between


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 the limbs of Limulus and the eurypterids that are among the strongest proofs of their intimate relationship.

The six pairs of limbs are currently divided into the preoral (the first) and postoral (the following five pairs). The preoral limbs are the chelicerae or mandibles, the postoral the walking, and burrowing or swimming legs. Besides these the mouth is surrounded by platelike appendages, functioning as lips. Those are the epistoma, endostoma and metastoma.

a The chelicerae in Limulus are small [see text fig. 10] and consist of three segments, the much compressed but relatively long basal segment and the two forming the pincers or chelae. The basal joint articulates, as Holm has pointed out, with an unpaired, lanceolate plate placed between the coxal segments of the first pair of walking legs.

The preoral appendages of the eurypterids exhibit great differentiation. They are smallest in Eurypterus, where they have been described in detail by Holm and have proved to have almost the exact structure of those in Limulus. We figure here the chelicerae of  and   [ plate 7, figure 1, and plate 12, figure 1] which verify Holm's observations. Those of Stylonurus have a like structure and similar relative size as shown by Hall and Clarke [see under ]. Eusarcus had similar chelicerae which,


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 were relatively large and had stronger chelae. The specimen of  reproduced on plate 32, retains them in their natural position. Woodward figured them, as pointed out by Laurie, in, which is an Eusarcus. In Dolichopterus and Drepanopterus they are not known. In general it may, however, be said that they were extremely similar in the genera of the Eurypterus group, viz, Eurypterus, Eusarcus and Stylonurus.

On the other hand they show extreme variation in the genera of the Pterygotus group, viz, Hughmilleria, Slimonia and Pterygotus. In Slimonia they were discovered by Laurie [1893, p. 511, pl. 1, fig. 3] and found to be very small and with strong curved pincers, but otherwise as in Limulus. Those of Hughmilleria have been fully described by Sarle. They are larger [ pl. 61, fig. 6] than in any other genus except Pterygotus, projecting beyond the margin of the carapace when extended and thus forming a transition to their condition in the latter genus. In Pterygotus they have been developed into the gigantic pincers which give that genus its fantastic aspect. Notwithstanding their great size in Pterygotus, there still prevails much doubt as to their structure. The current restoration [Zittel-Eastman's Textbook, fig. 1423] is one that would indicate a structure greatly different from that of the chelicerae of the other eurypterids. Our material fortunately sheds light on this problem and we have for this reason inserted here the following note.

The morphology and formation of the chelicerae in Pterygotus. In several specimens of  and   at our disposal, the chelicerae are so excellently preserved as to remove all doubt regarding their morphology and function. In one [ pl. 74, fig. 1] the chelicera of a large individual is perfectly preserved from the distal extremity of the chelae or pincers to the base of attachment. This shows distinctly that the organ consisted only of one unjointed long arm carrying the terminal pincers. In the second specimen the arms of both chelicerae lie side by side, while the pincers of both have swung back, one until it is subparallel with the arm. These latter


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 serve to suggest the ready reversibility of the pincers. On comparing the length of the pincers with that of the arm [specimen pl. 77, fig. 3] one finds that the pincers are as long as the uncontracted part of the arm. The contracted basal portion, which amounts to about one fifth of the length of the arm is, as our material and the drawings of the British specimens indicate, nearly always missing. In another specimen, this part contrasts by its thinness with the thicker test of the arm, which terminates abruptly at a convex line along the contracted part. One might at first glance infer the presence of an articulation at this point, but the continuance of the test and the contrast in thickness of it on the arm and of the basal contracted part show that this latter was rather of the nature of a membrane and probably a part of the epistoma, Its basal edge is ragged and obviously torn.

The corresponding lengths of the pincers and arms and the actual occurrence of pincers thrown back, demonstrate, we believe, the functional possibility and competency of the pincers to grasp food and carry it to the mouth. The crustaceans afford several instructive examples of analogous prehensile organs. One of these is the giant spider crab from Japan seen now in many of the larger museums. It possesses a pair of immensely long prehensile chelate limbs which consist of two long segments and the chelae, besides a small proximal segment. In the articulation it can be doubled in the exact middle between the two equally long segments, thus serving to bring the prey readily within reach of the masticating edges of the other limbs surrounding the mouth.

In the restorations of Pterygotus, a varying number of segments has been assigned to the chelicerae. Salter and Huxley [op. cit. pl. 15, fig. 6] gave four segments (the supposed additional basal ones not visible in the dorsal view), but Woodward doubled this number in his figure [op. cit. pl. 8, fig. 1]; and the latter is retained by Schmidt [ op. cit. p. 73, fig. 1B] and has long since entered the textbooks. While Salter and Huxley figure the chelicerae as rigidly straight, as they are indeed seen in our specimens,


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 Woodward gave them a graceful backward curvature. Schmidt again drew them nearly straight.

A perusal of the literature suggests that this conception of the manyjointed composition of the chelicerae is based on doubtful evidence. Woodward, for example, says of  [p. 37] that "three joints at least may be observed " and of  [p. 57] "there appear to be five joints in the antennae of this species, but it is seldom that their true line of articulation can be readily distinguished. Five are clearly to be seen in one of the antennae figured in the accompanying woodcut, figure 10." Schmidt states [ p. 74] "Von den Scheerenfühlern sind in meinem Material nur die letzten beiden eigentlichen Scheerenglieder vorhanden, die ersten Glieder, von denen 3–5 angenommen werden, fehlen uns bisher." Laurie [p. 516] concluded that the question of the number of segments is still unsettled, and that the markings resembling articulations on the proximal portion may be due to crumplings of the undoubtedly thin cuticle, adding: "I believe them to have consisted of three segments—a long straight proximal one, and the two distal ones which possess the toothed pincers."

Laurie's contention is corroborated by our examples of  and   and its correctness is suggested by the rigidly straight direction of the chelicerae in both the European and American species which can only mean the lack of articulation in the long arms. Finally we have also been able to convince ourselves of the presence of but three articulations in a fine specimen of one of the principal English species,, in the possession of the American Museum of Natural History. In this specimen both chelicerae show long straight well preserved basal segments without any trace of articulation in them, the whole chelicera being distinctly composed of but three segments.

Another problem in regard to the chelicerae of Pterygotus not yet solved by direct observation is their point and mode of attachment to the cephalothorax. A glance at the restorations of  by Woodward, and   by Schmidt; both reproduced in


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 Zittel's Handbook and in textbooks, will make this point clear. In the former they are represented as attached to the foremost point of the underside of the cephalothorax; in the latter they appear as inserted just in front of the mouth at the base of the epistoma. Schmidt says regarding this point [ p. 73]: "Um auf die Scheerenfühler zurück zu kommen, so hätte ich ihren Ansatzpunkt gern, wie meine Vorgänger, nach vorn an der Unterseite des Kopfes verlegt, aber die eben besprochene 3-theilige Umschlagsplatte liess eine andre Auffassung nicht zu, als ich sie oben auseinandergesetzt. An ihrer Oberflache ist nirgend ein Platz für den Ansatz der Scheerenfühler und zugleich war für diese Umschlagsplatte selbst keine andre Deutung möglich." Laurie has not critically discussed this question in his study of the eurypterids, but only suggests that there was perhaps no properly developed articulation between them and the epistoma because they are always found torn off.

While we are not in a position to offer direct evidence on this problem, or at least only such as is inconclusive, we believe in the correctness of Schmidt's inference for the following reasons. One of our specimens shows that the six appendages of one side radiate from one point, which would mean that the chelicerae were inserted directly in front of the first pair of walking legs. But aside from this observation, the fact that the attachment of the chelicerae, in Slimonia, Eurypterus and Hughmilleria, has since been fully established to be directly in front of the mouth as in Limulus, leaves little doubt that the large pincers of Pterygotus, if they are at all homologous to the minute chelicerae of those three genera, must have had the same place of insertion, viz, at the posterior end of the epistoma. We may add that the homology of the large pincers of Pterygotus with the chelicerae of Limulus, Eurypterus etc. would also suggest as an a priori conclusion, their composition of but three segments and the lack of a distinct articulation with the epistoma.

The general conclusion from the foregoing observations is that the chelicerae exhibit a remarkable identity of structure in all genera despite their great differences in relative size.


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 b Postoral appendages. Of the five pairs of postoral limbs which are frequently designated as endognaths or endognathites, the first and fifth show the greatest amount of differentiation, while the intervening three pairs, as a rule, are very much alike and are functionally uniform, mostly serving as walking legs. We find the same condition in both Limulus and the scorpions and may therefore infer that the intermediate legs retain the original condition and that differentiation most easily affected the most exposed pairs, the first and last.

Generally all legs increase in length regularly from in front backward. This condition is typically shown in the more primitive genera Drepanopterus, Eurypterus and Hughmilleria.

The legs of Drepanopterus [ pl. 54] exhibit the least differentiation of all genera, whose legs are known. All five pairs form a series of limbs which increase in length backward and are very much alike. One distinction, however, is that the first three are provided with a pair of fairly large spines on each segment, the posterior being longer than the anterior, an arrangement which was obviously of great assistance in pushing the body forward. The spines become gradually reduced backward in the series of legs; in the third pair posterior spines only are still well seen, the anterior ones being reduced to mucros. On the last pair they are all reduced to mucros. From the legs of Drepanopterus those of Stylonurus can be directly derived.

In Hughmilleria the first four pairs form continuous series of walking legs, all four being equally spiniferous and undifferentiated.

In Eurypterus the structure of the legs has been most minutely described by Schmidt and Holm in, and our large collection of   and   corroborates their excellent work. The first three pairs are thick and heavy and increase in length regularly backward. The first leg consists of seven, the second and third of eight segments each, the terminal claw included. They are convex on the upper and flat on the underside and so articulated that they can be bent only downward. The principal spines are articulated and paired, the


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 posterior one of each pair much longer than the anterior, an arrangement that also aided in pushing the body forward. The fourth pair shows a different form; it is comparatively slender, its segments are flat and lack the long spines, except the penultimate segment whose two spines, together with the terminal spine (forming a ninth segment), make a flat extension of the leg in the plane of the greatest length. Holm pointed out that this leg had its principal articulation between the basal and second segments. This fact and the form indicate that it aided in swimming, but probably had as its principal function the balancing of the animal in swimming. This differentiation of the fourth pair of legs for another function than that of walking is most distinct in the genus Eurypterus.

Dolichopterus [ pl. 40] is most nearly like Eurypterus in the character of the first four pairs of postoral appendages. They form a similar series, with the difference, however, that the fourth pair is considerably longer than the third. The first to third pairs are stouter than in Eurypterus, the spines much longer and the spines of each pair of subequal size. The fourth pair is still better adapted to its swimming and balancing function through the greater length of the leg, the greater breadth of the segments, and especially the lobelike character of the spines of the eighth segment which clearly exhibit the tendency of the leg to enlarge its lateral surface.

Stylonurus represents the extreme end of a branch that has developed through Drepanopterus. Its legs are hence to be regarded as derived from those of that genus. As restored by Woodward and by Beecher [see under Stylonurus] the first three pairs were conceived as short and spiniferous, while the fourth and fifth pairs were enormously extended, of subequal length and without spines. From the observations of the writers on the species from Otisville which exhibits the last four pairs of legs, these formed a continuously increasing series of long


text:
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 legs, giving the specimen very much the aspect of a spider crab. The first two of these were, however, furnished with a great number of paired spines or leaflike appendages of the underside. It is therefore concluded that in this group, for which the term Ctenopterus is here proposed, a distinct differentiation of the legs has taken place into three spiniferous anterior and two nonspiniferous posterior pairs. Laurie's  is a form in which a like series of at least four pairs of long legs is shown, the two foremost of which bear many long spines [see text fig. 62]. In Stylonurus proper, as represented by, the first three pairs of legs appear to have retained more of their original character, in being relatively shorter and bearing only one pair of spines on each segment. Still another type of differentiation, not represented in our rocks, is shown in  Woodward.

Eusarcus [ pl. 27] represents a distinctly aberrant line of leg development corresponding to the entirely peculiar structure of the animal. The first pair of legs is of the length and character of that of Eurypterus; the second to fourth, however, form a series that decreases in size backward, the second being the longest of the walking legs. Correlated with this marked difference from Eurypterus is the greater length of the anterior spines on each leg. It is manifest that this creature in walking carried the pointed frontal part of its head shield, on which also the lateral eyes are found, raised high above the ground.

In Pterygotus the four pairs of walking legs are simpler than in any other genus. They are of equal length, thin and nonspiniferous and were clearly for walking only, the prehensile function having been entirely transferred to the chelicerae.

It is manifest that in the genera in which the chelicerae are very small, especially in Eurypterus, the walking legs with their long curved spines were, as in Limulus, also actively engaged in grasping prey and transferring it to the chelicerae which transmitted it for mastication to the basal


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Mulock, Miss.


text:
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 segments of the legs. There is other evidence of their prehensile function. In Limulus the first pair of walking legs of the male becomes transformed at maturity into a hooklike grasping organ and in, the second pair of legs also develops in the mature male a hooked clasping organ.

The first pair of postoral appendages probably also served in most genera as a tactile organ. This is very clearly indicated in Slimonia where it is directly developed into an antenniform appendage. Its small size in Eusarcus and Stylonurus which contrasts with that of the following legs, is also evidence that it could have aided little, if at all, in walking or swimming.

The fifth pair of postoral appendages have been termed the ectognaths, ectognathites or swimming legs, because in most genera (Eurypterus, Dolichopterus, Eusarcus, Hughmilleria, Slimonia, Pterygotus) the terminal segments are flattened into a paddle-shaped organ that is currently considered as having functioned in swimming. Hall figured the swimming legs of the crab  [1861, pl. 84A, fig. 6, 7] to point out the remarkable analogy in its structure with that of the last leg of Eurypterus; and Holm has carefully worked out the characters which so excellently adapted this organ for a swimming function [1899, p. 27]. The most important of these are the sharp, knifelike edge of the anterior margins of the fourth to sixth segments, the thin blade of the seventh and eighth segments and their articulation, by which they were enabled to form a continuous oar blade at the time of the backward stroke, while in the forward stroke, the eighth segment could be turned backward on the seventh like the blade of a shears to diminish the resistance of the water. The oar blade form of the extended seventh and eighth segments is well shown on plate 4, figure 3; the reflexing of the eighth segment is


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Mulready, William


text:
User talk:Vigorous action

— billinghurst  sDrewth  11:54, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vigorous action


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 observable in many other specimens [as pl. 7, fig. 7]. The oar blade is entirely smooth, without scales or hairs. The turning of this oar into a vertical position in the backward stroke probably took place mainly between the sixth and seventh segments.

The material before us is competent to throw some very interesting light on the development of this swimming leg. Where typically developed, as in Eurypterus, it consists of the large basal segment, which is

followed by two ringlike segments, a longer subtubular segment (the fourth), and two shorter segments with triangular section, flat underside, sharply keeled anterior edge and expanded distally. These segments


text:
User talk:Dcellucci

— billinghurst  sDrewth  11:58, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dcellucci


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 were especially active in aiding the movement of the following seventh and eighth segments which form the oar blade. The seventh segment is a flat trapezoidal plate possessing on the posterior side a triangular lobe, that served as a guard to the eighth. The latter is oval and has a terminal notch, in which a minute claw is inserted that represents a ninth segment and was termed the palette by Hall, while later authors have more properly applied the term palette to the entire eighth segment.

The species which seem to us of especial interest in the explanation of the strange structure of the swimming leg are     and. The former [ pl. 26, fig. 2] shows the most primitive shape of the swimming leg known to us. This primitive character manifests itself most distinctly in the following features. Beginning at the distal end, the ninth segment is a well developed terminal claw, such as is found on the other legs, indicating that the minute ninth segment of Eurypterus is a reduced terminal claw. The seventh and eighth segments do not yet so exactly fit together into a single oar blade, the seventh being still narrower and the eighth more expanded. The triangular guard lobe of the seventh segment in Eurypterus is here represented by a long relatively narrow lobe, indicating that it originated from a broadened and flattened spine of the seventh segment. A glance at figure 26, plate 2, will show that the preceding joints also are still much more uniform in character and like those of the walking legs in Eurypterus. In  [see restoration, pl. 40] on the other hand, the ninth segment has been developed into a third element of the oar blade which thereby has become still more powerful. Here we find triangular guard plates on both the preceding, the seventh and eighth segments, which by their form still distinctly indicate their origin from spines. The lobelike projecting anterior portions of the distal edges of the seventh and eighth segmentsalso suggest a similar origin, especially if we compare them with the lobelike spines of the fourth pair of postoral limbs, already noted.

The postoral limbs performed a still further function, viz,


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Muensterberg, Hugo


text: The New Student's Reference Work/Mudfishes


text:
Wikisource:WikiProject Biographical dictionaries/Catholic Encyclopedia

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text:
User talk:Umbrellas000

— billinghurst  sDrewth  13:04, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Umbrellas000


text:
Page:Descent of Man 1875.djvu/182

is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of men; but I am about to enquire what is the value of the differences between them under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated. In determining whether two or more allied forms ought to be ranked as species or varieties, naturalists are practically guided by the following considerations; namely, the amount of difference between them, and whether such differences relate to few or many points of structure, and whether they are of physiological importance; but more especially whether they are constant. Constancy of character is what is chiefly valued and sought for by naturalists. Whenever it can be shewn, or rendered probable, that the forms in question have remained distinct for a long period, this becomes an argument of much weight in favour of treating them as species. Even a slight degree of sterility between any two forms when first crossed, or in their offspring, is generally considered as a decisive test of their specific distinctness; and their continued persistence without blending within the same area, is usually accepted as sufficient evidence, either of some degree of mutual sterility, or in the case of animals of some mutual repugnance to pairing.

Independently of fusion from intercrossing, the complete absence, in a well-investigated region, of varieties linking together any two closely-allied forms, is probably the most important of all the criterions of their specific distinctness; and this is a somewhat different consideration from mere constancy of character, for two forms may be highly variable and yet not yield intermediate varieties. Geographical distribution is often brought into play unconsciously and sometimes consciously; so that forms living in two widely separated areas, in which most

title: Page:Descent of Man 1875.djvu/182


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 which rests in the basal segments termed coxae. In correspondence with this activity these are narrow, elongate, subtriangular, armed with rows of teeth borne on the narrow end (gnathobase or mandible) and form a manducatory edge. They increase in length with each successive pair and overlap like the tiles of a roof from the front backward seen in ventral view, and thus the coxae of the last pair of legs are not covered. Their sides are furnished, with smooth gliding faces. In Eurypterus and Hughmilleria the fourth coxa possesses a circular perforation covered by a thin membrane and this is also present in Limulus. Holm first observed this, suggesting from its structure and position near the inner margin of the coxa which is exposed to the outside, that it was an auditory organ. This perforation is here figured in  [ pl. 7, fig. 6] and   [ pl. 62, fig. 5].

Patten [1894] has indicated that the spines on the anterior portion of the gnathobase of Limulus serve as gustatory organs. The inference is proper that the thick, blunt, hollow spines observable in like position in  [see Holm, op. cit. pl. 2, fig. 5–8] and other eurypterids [ pl. 16, fig. 1] had a like function.

The coxae of the second to fourth pairs of limbs of Limulus bear a small, movable appendage behind the inner end of the manducatory edge, which is also found in the scorpion. This is known as the epicoxite. It is furnished with fine bristles and small brushes and has a tactile function. Laurie discovered this articulated process in Slimonia [1893, p. 511] but was unable to determine how many and which pairs of legs bear it. Holm found epicoxites on the first to fourth pairs of the


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 walking legs of Eurypterus, but those of the first pair of somewhat diferent appearance and therefore possibly belonging to a different category of structure. We have also observed this appendage [see text fig. 12; pl. 57, fig. 3].

The coxa of the fifth pair differs in structure and size from those of the preceding legs. It corresponds in its large size to that of the entire leg which surpasses all other limbs in dimensions. It is of rhomboidal form, with a large neck on the anterior inner angle forming the gnathobase. The manducatory edge [ pl. 72, fig. 2] is made up of an upper sharp cutting portion and a lower crushing portion consisting of a row of teeth which as a rule become finer posteriorly. The neck often becomes so lengthened as to give the coxa a retortlike appearance, as in Hughmilleria and Pterygotus and especially so in Dolichopterus and Eusarcus, where the necklike extension becomes as long as or longer than the rhomboidal base. This great extension of the gnathobase in the latter two genera is clearly correlated to the great longitudinal extension of the cephalothorax and the forward position of the mouth. In Hughmilleria, Pterygotus and especially Slimonia, the similarity to a retort is still much increased by the rounding outline of the body of the coxa. In Dolichopterus and Eusarcus the immense last coxae cover more than half of the ventral side of the cephalothorax [ pl. 44]. Their form is quite characteristic in the different genera and the generic relations of detached coxae are readily recognized. While the large last coxa covers the preceding coxal segment as well as the anterior portion of the first ventral abdominal segment or operculum, the inner portion, except the chewing edge, is in turn covered by the underlip or metastoma.

The mouth, which is situated at about the middle of the ventral side of the carapace, is surrounded not only with the coxae but also by several covering liplike plates. One of these is the epistoma of Pterygotus. This was first described and figured by Huxley and Salter [Monogr. pl. 1, fig. 1]. They were, however, misled, probably by the direction of the sculpture on it, and figured it with the straight margin toward


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 of the other inhabitants are specifically distinct, are themselves usually looked at as distinct; but in truth this affords no aid in distinguishing geographical races from so-called good or true species.

Now let us apply these generally-admitted principles to the races of man, viewing him in the same spirit as a naturalist would any other animal. In regard to the amount of difference between the races, we must make some allowance for our nice powers of discrimination gained by the long habit of observing ourselves. In India, as Elphinstone remarks, although a newly-arrived European cannot at first distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him extremely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference between the several European nations. Even the most distinct races of man are much more like each other in form than would at first be supposed; certain negro tribes must be excepted, whilst others, as Dr. Rohlfs writes to me, and as I have myself seen, have Caucasian features. This general similarity is well shewn by the French photographs in the Collection Anthropologique du Muséum de Paris of the men belonging to various races, the greater number of which might pass for Europeans, as many persons to whom I have shewn them have remarked. Nevertheless, these men, if seen alive, would undoubtedly appear very distinct, so that we are clearly much influenced in our judgment by the mere colour of the skin and hair, by slight differences in the features, and by expression.

There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully compared and measured, differ much from each other,—as in the texture of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body, the capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in the convolutions of the brain. But it would be an endless task to specify the numerous points of difference. The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatisation and in liability to certain diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual faculties. Every one who has had the opportunity of comparison, must have been

title: Page:Descent of Man 1875.djvu/183


text:
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 the front. Schmidt [ 1883, p. 71] described it as a subquadrangular plate with convex anterior and concave posterior margin, lying directly in front of the mouth and a part of the doublure of the carapace, separated from the remainder by two sutures. Laurie [1893, p. 516] has shown that the scale markings on the epistoma have their convex side directed forward contrary to the almost universal rule among eurypterids and that this fact would seem to indicate that we have here a portion of the carapace bent over. At the same time he remarks that some of his specimens are fractured along quite different lines than those Schmidt observed. One of these he reproduces on plate 2, figure 10. On another [ his pl. 1, fig. 4] the "epistoma" of Slimonia is reproduced. This, however, is but the ventral marginal plate of the cephalothorax that occupies the space between the doublure of the carapace and the thin membrane surrounding the coxae and which is termed the "Randschild" by Holm. This plate in Eurypterus had been figured by Hall [pl. 80A, fig. 12] as "the lower surface of one side of the cephalic shield" and has been more fully described above. We reproduce in plate 74, figure 3 a well preserved upper lip or epistoma of.

The term endostoma has been applied by Holm [ op. cit. p. 28] to a small plate that bounds the posterior portion of the mouth. It is here figured from  [ plate 81, figure 4.]

It corresponds to the promesosternite of Limulus or of the scorpion group. To its anterior edge a thinner membrane is attached which passes inward in the direction of the throat and forms, therefore, the lower lip.

The metastoma or postoral plate is a highly characteristic organ of the eurypterids. It is large, somewhat variable in form but all its variations are derivable from the oval form seen in Eurypterus. Its size corresponds to the longitudinal extension of the last pair of coxae since it covers their inner margins and the interspace between them. Its frontal margin is always more or less emarginate, its margin bent under into a broad doublure connected with the membrane covering the interspaces of the ventral side. Holm has shown that there are traces still present of a


text:
Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1961/1982-06-30

as amended by

Provincial Executive Committees Act, No. 28 of 1962

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 65 of 1962

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1963

Provincial Councils and Executive Committees Act, No. 22 of 1963

Coloured Persons Education Act, No. 47 of 1963

Provincial Executive Committees Act, No. 64 of 1963

Indians Education Act, No. 61 of 1965

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 83 of 1965

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1965

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 37 of 1966

Second Finance Act, No. 58 of 1966

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1967

Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act, No. 50 of 1968

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 79 of 1968

Powers and Privileges of Provincial Councils Amendment Act, No. 37 of 1969

General Law Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1969

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 1 of 1971

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 93 of 1971

Provincial Finance and Audit Act, No. 18 of 1972

Provincial Affairs Act, No. 61 of 1972

General Law Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1972

Constitution and Elections Amendment Act, No. 79 of 1973

General Law Amendment Act, No. 62 of 1973

Parliamentary Service Act, No. 33 of 1974

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 48 of 1974

Second Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 77 of 1974

Exchequer and Audit Act, No. 66 of 1975

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 60 of 1976

Financial Relations Act, No. 65 of 1976

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1977

Proclamation No. R. 249 of 1977

Second Black Laws Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1978

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 99 of 1979

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 100 of 1979

Republic of South Africa Constitution Third Amendment Act, No. 28 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Second Amendment Act, No. 31 of 1980

Railways and Harbours Acts Amendment Act, No. 67 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Amendment Act, No. 70 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Fourth Amendment Act, No. 74 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Fifth Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Amendment Act, No. 40 of 1981

Republic of South Africa Constitution Second Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1981

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 99 of 1982

21. (1) (a) The State President may appoint any person to hold office during his pleasure as Deputy Minister of any specified Department of State or Deputy Minister of such other description as the State President may determine, and to exercise or perform on behalf of a Minister any of the powers, functions and duties entrusted to such Minister under any law or otherwise which may, subject to the directions of the State President, be assigned to him from time to time by the said Minister.

(b) Not more than nine persons may be appointed under this sub-section.

(c) Any reference in any law to a deputy to a Minister shall be construed as including a reference to a Deputy Minister appointed under this sub-section, and any such reference to a Minister shall be construed as including a reference to a Deputy Minister acting in pursuance of an assignment under paragraph (a) by the Minister for whom he acts.

(2) Any person appointed under this section shall before assuming the duties of his office make and subscribe before the State President or a person designated by him for the purpose, an oath in such form as the State President may determine.

(3) No person appointed under this section shall hold office for a longer period than three months unless he is or becomes a member of the House of Assembly.

(4) Any person appointed under sub-section (3) of section fourteen of the South Africa Act, 1909, and holding office immediately prior to the commencement of this Act, shall be deemed to have been duly appointed under this section, and may, subject to the provisions of this section, continue to exercise or perform any powers, duties and functions which immediately prior to such commencement could be exercised or performed by him by virtue of a determination under sub-section (3) of the first-mentioned section, as if he were authorized to exercise such powers or perform such duties or functions in pursuance of a determination made by the Minister concerned in terms of this section, but shall make and subscribe the oath required under sub-section (2) before assuming the duties of his office.

55. No person shall be capable of being elected or nominated or of sitting as a member of the House of Assembly, if he―

has at any time been convicted of any offence for which he has been sentenced to imprisonment without the option of a fine for a period of not less than twelve months, unless he has received a grant of amnesty or a free pardon, or unless such imprisonment has expired at least five years before the date of his election or nomination; or is an unrehabilitated insolvent; or is of unsound mind, and has been so declared by a competent court; or is an officer or other employee in the service of any institution, council or body contemplated in section 84 (1) (f); or

holds any office of profit under the Republic: Provided that the following persons shall not be deemed to hold an office of profit under the Republic for the purposes of this paragraph, namely―

a Minister of the Republic, or any person holding office as deputy to any Minister; a person in receipt of a pension from the Republic; an officer or member of the South African Defence Force on retired or half-pay, or an officer or member of the South African Defence Force whose services are not wholly employed by the Republic; any person who has been appointed or has become a justice of the peace under section two of the Justices of the Peace and Oaths Act, 1914 (Act No. 16 of 1914); any person appointed as appraiser under section 6 of the Administration of Estates Act, 1965 (Act No. 66 of 1965), or deemed to have been so appointed;

any person who, while the Republic is at war, is an officer or member of the South African Defence Force or any other force or service established by or under the Defence Act, 1957 (Act No. 44 of 1957); a member of any council, committee, board or similar body established by or under any law, who receives no payment in respect of his services on such council, committee, board or body in excess of an allowance at a rate not exceeding the amount determined by the Minister of Finance by notice in the Gazette from time to time for each day on which he renders such services, any reimbursement of travelling expenses and subsistence expenses incurred by him in the course of such services and an allowance in respect of entertaining by him in connection with such services;

a member of a commission of inquiry or a committee of inquiry appointed by the State President or the Administrator of a province, or a member of a Select Committee of the House of Assembly or a provincial council.

76. (1) Each provincial council shall at its first meeting after any general election elect from among its members, or otherwise, four persons to form with the administrator, who shall be chairman, an executive committee for the province.

(2) A member of the executive committee other than the administrator shall hold office until the constitution of an executive committee in terms of subsection (1) after a general election, unless he is removed from office sooner by a resolution of the provincial council.

(3) (a) The members so elected shall receive such remuneration as the State President shall determine.

(b) There shall be no differentiation as regards the remuneration determined under paragraph (a) in respect of the members of the various executive committees except to the extent that the remuneration of such members who in the opinion of the State President perform full time service may differ from the remuneration of such members who in his opinion do not perform full time service.

(4) (a) A member of the provincial council shall not forfeit his seat by reason of his having been elected as a member of the executive committee.

(b) A member of the executive committee shall not be disqualified from being elected or nominated as a member of the House of Assembly or the provincial council.

(c) A member of the executive committee who becomes a member of the House of Assembly shall cease to be a member of the executive committee with effect from the date on which he becomes a member of the House of Assembly.

(d) A member of the executive committee shall not be disqualified from being appointed as deputy-administrator under sub-section (4) of section sixty-six and any such member so appointed shall as from the termination of the appointment resume his office and functions as a member of such executive committee unless his successor has in the meantime been elected under the provisions of sub-section (1) of this section.

(5) Any casual vacancy arising in the executive committee shall be filled by election by the provincial council if in session, or, if the council is not in session, by a person appointed by the executive committee to hold office temporarily pending an election by the council.

103. A person is not qualified to be a member of the President’s Council if he―

is not at least 30 years of age; is not a member of the White, Coloured, Indian or Chinese population group; is not a South African citizen; or is a member of any legislative body other than a local institution.


text:
Author:Benjamin Apthorp Gould

Works

 * 'Investigations in Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers (1869)

title: Author:Benjamin Apthorp Gould


text:
Page:The Eurypterida of New York Volume 1.pdf/59

 bisegmented structure in the metastoma, indicating that it originated from a paired organ. He considers it homologous to the chilaria of Limulus, a pair of movable sclerites set behind the coxal segments of the last pair of legs [ text fig. 10] and remarks that the metastoma of the eurypterids certainly represents a much higher development of the organ than the chilaria of Limulus. Pocock [ 1901, p. 302] considers the metastoma as the homologue of the sternum of the scorpion but the observations of Kishinouye [1891] upon the embryo of  and those of Brauer [1895] on the embryo of the scorpion demonstrate that it represents the appendages of a distinct suppressed segment. For practical reasons we have not counted this abortive first segment of the preabdomen [see diagram p. 24].

Gaskell, in his lately published The Origin of Vertebrates, in order to derive a vertebrate prosomatic or oral chamber fully separated from the gill chambers, has assumed that the metastoma and the operculum of Eurypterus became fused [op. cit. p. 242 and our text fig. 16]. It is safe for us to say that we have no evidence in the eurypterids of any tendency toward the fusion of these organs and that it seems to us such a procedure


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 would at once have seriously interfered with the movements of the creatures in several ways; one, because the line of fusion would be directly under the important articulation between the carapace and preabdomen, and another, it could not have failed to disturb the mutual independence of two organs of entirely distinct character and rhythm of movement, namely, the coxae of the swimming legs which the metastoma closely adjoins, and the operculum with its respiratory and sexual functions.

The form of the metastoma has been found by us to be highly characteristic of the genera of the eurypterids and to be a good indicator of their phylogenetic relations. That of Eurypterus is typically oval in

outline, while those of Hughmilleria and Pterygotus show a strong tendency to become wider in the anterior half and narrower in the posterior, and at the same time more deeply emarginate in front. In Slimonia this tendency is carried to an extreme, the metastoma having become very elongate-cordate with a narrow posterior half and a deeply emarginate anterior one. In Dolichopterus and the Stylonurus branch in general, again a different tendency is developed. Here the base of the metastoma becomes rectangular, the lateral margins subparallel and the plate approaches a long rectangle, with the short front side deeply emarginate (Stylonurus) or it becomes lyrate (Dolichopterus). Finally, in Eusarcus


text:
Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1961/1982-08-27

as amended by

Provincial Executive Committees Act, No. 28 of 1962

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 65 of 1962

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1963

Provincial Councils and Executive Committees Act, No. 22 of 1963

Coloured Persons Education Act, No. 47 of 1963

Provincial Executive Committees Act, No. 64 of 1963

Indians Education Act, No. 61 of 1965

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 83 of 1965

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1965

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 37 of 1966

Second Finance Act, No. 58 of 1966

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1967

Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act, No. 50 of 1968

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 79 of 1968

Powers and Privileges of Provincial Councils Amendment Act, No. 37 of 1969

General Law Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1969

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 1 of 1971

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 93 of 1971

Provincial Finance and Audit Act, No. 18 of 1972

Provincial Affairs Act, No. 61 of 1972

General Law Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1972

Constitution and Elections Amendment Act, No. 79 of 1973

General Law Amendment Act, No. 62 of 1973

Parliamentary Service Act, No. 33 of 1974

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 48 of 1974

Second Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 77 of 1974

Exchequer and Audit Act, No. 66 of 1975

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 60 of 1976

Financial Relations Act, No. 65 of 1976

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1977

Proclamation No. R. 249 of 1977

Second Black Laws Amendment Act, No. 102 of 1978

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 99 of 1979

Pension Laws Amendment Act, No. 100 of 1979

Republic of South Africa Constitution Third Amendment Act, No. 28 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Second Amendment Act, No. 31 of 1980

Railways and Harbours Acts Amendment Act, No. 67 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Amendment Act, No. 70 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Fourth Amendment Act, No. 74 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Fifth Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1980

Republic of South Africa Constitution Amendment Act, No. 40 of 1981

Republic of South Africa Constitution Second Amendment Act, No. 101 of 1981

Constitution Amendment Act, No. 99 of 1982

 40A. (1) In this section “Walvis Bay” means the port and settlement of Walvis Bay mentioned in the Walfish Bay and St John’s River Territories Annexation Act, 1884 (Act No. 35 of 1884), of the Cape of Good Hope, and includes the territory surrounding it and bounded as described in the said Act.

(2) As from the commencement of section 2 of the Constitution Amendment Act, 1982, and notwithstanding anything to the contrary in this Act contained―

Walvis Bay shall cease to be a part of the electoral division of Green Point, and the description of that electoral division as made known by Proclamation No. 187 of 1980 is hereby amended by the deletion of paragraph (a) thereof; Walvis Bay shall under that name be an electoral division of the Republic in the province of the Cape of Good Hope, and shall continue to exist as such electoral division, separate from and additional to the electoral divisions into which the rest of the Republic and that province have been divided, as at the said commencement, in terms of section 42 read with paragraph (a) of this subsection, or are divided, at any time thereafter, in terms of that section as applied by subsection (3) of this section; the House of Assembly shall be composed of the members provided for in section 40 and a member for Walvis Bay, who shall be directly elected by persons entitled to vote at an election of such a member in Walvis Bay; and Walvis Bay shall, for the purposes of section 69 (1), the provisions of the Electoral Act, 1979 (Act No. 45 of 1979), and, unless it is clearly inappropriate, the provisions of any other law, be deemed to be delimited as an electoral division under this Act or the relevant provisions thereof, as the context may require.

(3) In the application of sections 42 and 43 of this Act with reference to a division of the Republic, after the commencement of section 2 of the Constitution Amendment Act, 1982, into the number of electoral divisions specified in subsection (1) of the first-mentioned section―

Walvis Bay shall be deemed not to be part of the Republic or the province of the Cape of Good Hope; and the voters in Walvis Bay in terms of the current voters’ list, duly corrected up to the relevant date contemplated in subsection (1) of the said section 43, shall be deemed not to be voters in the province of the Cape of Good Hope,

but a reference to the relevant particulars of Walvis Bay, together with the number of voters therein as determined for the purposes of paragraph (b) of this subsection, shall be submitted to the State President by the commission constituted under subsection (1) of the said section 42 to make the relevant division and made known by the State President as provided in section 44, as if Walvis Bay had been delimited as an electoral division by that commission.


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 the metastoma has become subtriangular or cordate in outline, the anterior portion being greatly widened and emarginate and the posterior tapering to a blunt point.

We have thus at least four distinct lines of development of the metastoma, which fully correspond to the four principal branches of the eurypterids here distinguished [see chapter on Phylogeny, p. 124] namely, that of Eurypterus, of Pterygotus, of Eusarcus and of Stylonurus.

Abdomen. The abdomen consists of 12 segments or somites. The anterior six of these are divided into separate dorsal and ventral pieces. They form the preabdomen or mesosoma which is also sometimes termed the thorax; the six posterior ones are annular and form the postabdomen or metasoma, the abdomen or tail of earlier writers. The dorsal plates of the preabdominal or mesosomatic segments are termed the tergites, the ventral pieces the sternites or Blattfüsse. Those of the postabdomen are known as caudal, postabdominal or metasomatic segments or somites.


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 struck with the contrast between the taciturn, even morose, aborigines of S. America and the light-hearted, talkative negroes. There is a nearly similar contrast between the Malays and the Papuans, who live under the same physical conditions, and are separated from each other only by a narrow space of sea.

We will first consider the arguments which may be advanced in favour of classing the races of man as distinct species, and then the arguments on the other side. If a naturalist, who had never before seen a Negro, Hottentot, Australian, or Mongolian, were to compare them, he would at once perceive that they differed in a multitude of characters, some of slight and some of considerable importance. On enquiry he would find that they were adapted to live under widely different climates, and that they differed somewhat in bodily constitution and mental disposition. If he were then told that hundreds of similar specimens could be brought from the same countries, he would assuredly declare that they were as good species as many to which he had been in the habit of affixing specific names. This conclusion would be greatly strengthened as soon as he had ascertained that these forms had all retained the same character for many centuries; and that negroes, apparently identical with existing negroes, had lived at least 4000 years ago. He would also hear, on the authority of an excellent observer, Dr. Lund, that the human skulls found in the caves of Brazil, entombed with many extinct mammals, belonged to the same type as that now prevailing throughout the American Continent.

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 The preabdomen is widest at the fourth or fifth tergite whence it usually contracts more rapidly. It formed a unit in the movements of the body, the easier articulation taking place between it and the cephalothorax on one side and at the boundary of preabdomen and postabdomen on the other. The first tergite is a narrow plate curved backward and with rounded ends. The other tergites are transverse bandlike plates, with convex anterior and concave posterior margins in the middle and the lateral ends curved slightly forward. Corresponding to this outline of the plates the middle portion of the preabdomen is elevated forming the rhachis, while the wings are often depressed or concave. This lateral portion of the segment is frequently termed the epimeral portion, epimera or pleura [ pl. 5, fig. 3]. The epimera are produced at the antelateral angle into lobes, or ears, especially distinct in Pterygotus. These "ears" have been considered as serving for the attachment of muscles but according to Schmidt they only correspond to the rounding of the postlateral angles and served merely to protect the outside of the body. The lateral and posterior margins are furnished with more or less broad doublures to which the connecting membrane is attached. The anterior margin of the tergites which is overlapped by the preceding one (except that of the first tergite) is smooth or bears only very fine ornamentation and is depressed, thus forming an articulation with the doublure of the preceding segment. In some genera, as Eurypterus, this articulation extends the whole width of the tergite; in others, as Pterygotus, only the rhachis is provided with a distinct articulation; this difference probably indicating different degrees of mobility of the preabdomen.

The posterior margin of the gliding or articulating face of the tergite is mostly bounded by a continuous transverse line of scales [ pl. 8, fig. 2].

Corresponding to the six tergites are only five ventral plates or sternites. This is due to the fact that the first two ventral segments lack the ventral sclerites, their place being taken by the large genital plate or operculum, homologous to the operculum of Limulus which bears the generative organs. The operculum of the eurypterids consists of a pair of plates meeting in


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 the median line and having a median lobe attached to them. The plates have a straight anterior margin and frequently well rounded antelateral angles. The scales form a continuous transverse line across the plates which has been erroneously considered as the suture resulting from the fusion of the two sternites. In front of the median lobe two triangular—or sometimes pentagonal—areas are marked off [ pl. 11, fig. 3] by sutures from the opercular plates in Eurypterus and Slimonia but rarely in Pterygotus. Laurie suggests that these areas may represent the paired sternite of the first abdominal segment, the remaining portions of the plates representing the appendages.

The middle lobe shows two different forms not known to Hall but which were recorded by Woodward in  and   [1863, p. 61; 1872, p. 114, f.] and attributed to sexual differences. Schmidt likewise recognized two forms of opercular appendages of sexual significance in, and Holm, by reference to Limulus, agreed with Woodward in assigning the more primitive appendage to the male and the more elaborate to the female, thus bringing out the fact that the mature males, at least in Eurypterus, are smaller than the females, as is true of Limulus. Gaskell, however, asserts [1908, p. 191] that the operculum of the eurypterids belonged to the type of Thelyphonus rather than to that of Limulus or Scorpio and as appears from his diagram [see text fig. 18] he would, on the strength of this claim, reverse the reference of the appendages to the sexes. While it may be that the elaborate opercular appendages of the eurypterids exhibit less similarity to the extremely primitive exterior genital apparatus


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 Our naturalist would then perhaps turn to geographical distribution, and he would probably declare that those forms must be distinct species, which differ not only in appearance, but are fitted for hot, as well as damp or dry countries, and for the Arctic regions. He might appeal to the fact that no species in the group next to man, namely the Quadrumana, can resist a low temperature, or any considerable change of climate; and that the species which come nearest to man have never been reared to maturity, even under the temperate climate of Europe. He would be deeply impressed with the fact, first noticed by Agassiz, that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the same zoological provinces, as those inhabited by undoubtedly distinct species and genera of mammals. This is manifestly the case with the Australian, Mongolian, and Negro races of man; in a less well-marked manner with the Hottentots; but plainly with the Papuans and Malays, who are separated, as Mr. Wallace has shewn, by nearly the same line which divides the great Malayan and Australian zoological provinces. The Aborigines of America range throughout the Continent; and this at first appears opposed to the above rule, for most of the productions of the Southern and Northern halves differ widely: yet some few living forms, as the opossum, range from the one into the other, as did formerly some of the gigantic Edentata. The Esquimaux, like other Arctic animals, extend round the whole polar regions. It should be observed that the amount of difference between the mammals of the several zoological provinces does not correspond with the degree of separation between the latter; so that it can hardly be considered as an anomaly that the Negro differs more, and the American much less from the other races of man, than do the mammals of the African and American continents from the mammals of the other provinces. Man, it may be added, does not appear to have aboriginally inhabited any oceanic island; and in this respect he resembles the other members of his class.

In determining whether the supposed varieties of the same kind of domestic animal should be ranked as such, or as specifically distinct, that is, whether any of them are descended from distinct wild species, every naturalist would lay much stress on the fact of their external parasites being specifically distinct. All the more stress would be laid on this fact, as it would be an exceptional one; for I am informed by Mr. Denny that the most different kinds of dogs, fowls, and pigeons, in England, are infested by the same species of Pediculi or lice. Now Mr. A. Murray has carefully examined the Pediculi collected in different

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Carey v. Population Services International/Concurrence Powell

Mr. Justice Powell, concurring in part and concurring in the judgment.

I agree that Population Planning Associates has standing to maintain this action, and therefore join Part I of the Court's opinion. Although I concur in the judgment of the Court, I am not persuaded that the Constitution requires the severe constraints that the Court's opinion places upon legislative efforts to regulate the distribution of contraceptives, particularly to the young.

I
The Court apparently would subject all state regulation affecting adult sexual relations to the strictest standard of judicial review. Under today's decision, such regulation "may be justified only by compelling state interests, and must be narrowly drawn to express only those interests." Ante, at 686. Even regulation restricting only the sexual activity of the young must now be justified by a "significant state interest," a standard that is "apparently less rigorous" than the standard the Court would otherwise apply. Ante, at 693 n. 15. In my view, the extraordinary protection the Court would give to all personal decisions in matters of sex is neither required by the Constitution nor supported by our prior decisions.

A
The cases on which the Court relies for its "compelling interest" standard do not support the sweeping principle it adopts today. Those cases generally involved direct and substantial interference with constitutionally protected rights. In Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), the Court invalidated a state statute prohibiting the use of contraceptives and making it illegal for physicians to give advice to married persons regarding contraception. The statute was viewed as one "operat[ing] directly on an intimate relation of husband and wife and their physician's role in one aspect of that relation," id., at 482, and "seek[ing] to achieve its goals by means having a maximum destructive impact upon that relationship," id., at 485. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973) the Court reviewed a Texas statute imposing severe criminal sanctions on physicians and other medical personnel who performed nontherapeutic abortions, thus effectively foreclosing the availability and safety of this desired service. And just last Term, in Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth, 428 U.S. 52 (1976), we invalidated Missouri's requirement of spousal consent as a state-imposed "absolute obstacle to a woman's decision that Roe held to be constitutionally protected from such interference." Id., at 71 n. 11.

The Court relies on Planned Parenthood, supra, and Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179 (1973), for the proposition that "the same test must be applied to state regulations that burden an individual's right to decide to prevent conception or terminate pregnancy by substantially limiting access to the means of effectuating that decision as is applied to state statutes that prohibit the decision entirely." Ante, at 688. But neither of those cases refers to the "compelling state interest" test. In Bolton, the Court invalidated procedural requirements of the Georgia abortion statute that were found not "reasonably related" to the asserted legislative purposes or to the "patient's needs." 410 U.S., at 194, 199. Planned Parenthood involved--in addition to the "absolute obstacle" referred to above--the Missouri requirement of prior written consent by the pregnant woman. Despite the fact that Missouri normally did not require written consent for other surgical procedures, the Court sustained this regulation without requiring any demonstration of compelling state interests. The Court recognized that the decision to abort "is an important, and often a stressful one," and the State thus constitutionally could assure that the woman was aware of the significance of the decision. 428 U.S., at 67.

In sum, the Court quite unnecessarily extends the reach of cases like Griswold and Roe. Neither our precedents nor sound principles of constitutional analysis require state legislation to meet the exacting "compelling state interest" standard whenever it implicates sexual freedom. In my view, those cases make clear that that standard has been invoked only when the state regulation entirely frustrates or heavily burdens the exercise of constitutional rights in this area. See Bellotti v. Baird, 428 U.S. 132, 147 (1976). This is not to say that other state regulation is free from judicial review. But a test so severe that legislation rarely can meet it should be imposed by courts with deliberate restraint in view of the respect that properly should be accorded legislative judgments.

B
There is also no justification for subjecting restrictions on the sexual activity of the young to heightened judicial review. Under our prior cases, the States have broad latitude to legislate with respect to adolescents. The principle is well settled that "a State may permissibly determine that, at least in some precisely delineated areas, a child...is not possessed of that full capacity for individual choice" which is essential to the exercise of various constitutionally protected interests. Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 649-650 (1968) (Stewart, J., concurring in result). This principle is the premise of our prior decisions, ostensibly reaffirmed by the plurality, ante, at 692, holding that "the power of the state to control the conduct of children reaches beyond the scope of its authority over adults." Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158, 170 (1944). Restraints on the freedom of minors may be justified "even though comparable restraints on adults would be constitutionally impressible." Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth, supra, at 102 (Stevens, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).

New York has exercised its responsibility over minors in areas falling within the "cluster of constitutionally protected choices" relating to sex and marriage. Ante, at 685. It has set an age limitation below which persons cannot marry without parental consent, N. Y. Dom. Rel. Law §§ 15, 15-a (McKinney 1964 and Supp. 1976-1977), and has established by statute the age at which a minor is legally recognized as having the capacity to consent to sexual activity, Penal Law § 130.05 (3) (a) (McKinney 1975). See also Penal Law §§ 130.25, 130.30, 130.35 (McKinney 1975). These provisions highlight the State's concern that its juvenile citizens generally lack the maturity and understanding necessary to make decisions concerning marriage and sexual relationships.

Until today, I would not have thought it was even arguably necessary to review state regulation of this sort under a standard that for all practical purposes approaches the "compelling state interest" standard. At issue in Ginsberg v. New York, supra, for example, was the question of the constitutionality on its face of a New York criminal obscenity statute which prohibited the sale to minors of material defined to be obscene on the basis of its appeal to them whether or not it would be obscene to adults. The Court recognized that "the State has an interest 'to protect the welfare of children' and to see that they are 'safeguarded from abuses' which might prevent their 'growth into free and independent well-developed men and citizens.'" 390 U.S., at 640-641, quoting Prince v. Massachusetts, supra, at 165. Consequently, the "only question remaining" in that case was "whether the New York Legislature might rationally conclude, as it has, that exposure to the materials proscribed by [the statute] constitutes such an 'abuse.' " 390 U.S., at 641. Similarly, the relevant question in any case where state laws impinge on the freedom of action of young people in sexual matters is whether the restriction rationally serves valid state interests.

II
With these considerations in mind, I turn to the specific provisions of the New York statute limiting the distribution of contraceptives.

A
New York has made it a crime for anyone other than a physician to sell or distribute contraceptives to minors under the age of 16 years. Educ. Law § 6811 (8) (McKinney 1972). This element of New York's program of regulation for the protection of its minor citizens is said to evidence the State's judgment that the health and well-being of minors would be better assured if they are not encouraged to engage in sexual intercourse without guidance. Although I have no doubt that properly framed legislation serving this purpose would meet constitutional standards, the New York provision is defective in two respects. First, it infringes the privacy interests of married females between the ages of 14 and 16, see ante, at 695 n. 18, in that it prohibits the distribution of contraceptives to such females except by a physician. In authorizing marriage at that age, the State also sanctions sexual intercourse between the partners and expressly recognizes that once the marriage relationship exists the husband and wife are presumed to possess the requisite understanding and maturity to make decisions concerning sex and procreation. Consequently, the state interest that justifies a requirement of prior counselling with respect to minors in general simply is inapplicable with respect to minors for whom the State has affirmatively approved marriage.

Second, this provision prohibits parents from distributing contraceptives to their children, a restriction that unjustifiably interferes with parental interests in rearing their children. Cf. Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S., at 639 and n. 7. "[C]onstitutional interpretation has consistently recognized that the parents' claim to authority in their own household to direct the rearing of their children is basic in the structure of our society. 'It is cardinal with us that the custody, care and nurture of the child reside first in the parents, whose primary function and freedom include preparation for obligations the state can neither supply nor hinder.' " Ibid., quoting Prince v. Massachusetts, supra, at 166. See Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, 231-233 (1972); Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510, 534-535 (1925); Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 399-401 (1923). Moreover, this statute would allow the State "to enquire into, prove, and punish," Poe v. Ullman, 367 U.S. 497, 548 (1961) (Harlan, J., dissenting), the exercise of this parental responsibility. The State points to no interest of sufficient magnitude to justify this direct interference with the parental guidance that is especially appropriate in this sensitive area of child development.

But in my view there is considerably more room for state regulation in this area than would be permissible under the plurality's opinion. It seems clear to me, for example, that the State would further a constitutionally permissible end if it encouraged adolescents to seek the advice and guidance of their parents before deciding whether to engage in sexual intercourse. Planned Parenthood, 428 U.S., at 91 (Stewart, J., concurring). The State justifiably may take note of the psychological pressures that might influence children at a time in their lives when they generally do not possess the maturity necessary to understand and control their responses. Participation in sexual intercourse at an early age may have both physical and psychological consequences. These include the risks of venereal disease and pregnancy, and the less obvious mental and emotional problems that may result from sexual activity by children. Moreover, society has long adhered to the view that sexual intercourse should not be engaged in promiscuously, a judgment that an adolescent may be less likely to heed than an adult.

Requiring minors to seek parental guidance would be consistent with our prior cases. In Planned Parenthood, we considered whether there was "any significant state interest in conditioning [a minor's] abortion [decision] on the consent of a parent or person in loco parentis that is not present in the case of an adult." 428 U.S., at 75. Observing that the minor necessarily would be consulting with a physician on all aspects of the abortion decision, we concluded that the Missouri requirement was invalid because it imposed "a special-consent provision, exercisable by a person other than the woman and her physician, as a prerequisite to a minor's termination of her pregnancy and [did] so without a sufficient justification for the restriction." Ibid. But we explicitly suggested that a materially different constitutional issue would be presented with respect to a statute assuring in most instances consultation between the parent and child. Ibid., citing Bellotti v. Baird, 428 U.S. 132 (1976). See Planned Parenthood, supra, at 90-91 (Stewart, J., concurring).

A requirement of prior parental consultation is merely one illustration of permissible regulation in this area. As long as parental distribution is permitted, a State should have substantial latitude in regulating the distribution of contraceptives to minors.

B
New York also makes it a crime for anyone other than a licensed pharmacist to sell or distribute contraceptives to adults and to minors aged 16 or over. The only serious justification offered by the State for this prohibition is that it is necessary to facilitate enforcement of the limitation on distribution to children under 16 years of age. Since the Court invalidates that limitation today, the pharmacy restriction lacks any rational justification. I therefore agree with the Court that § 6811 (8)'s limitation on the distribution of nonprescription contraceptives cannot be sustained.

But even if New York were to enact constitutionally permissible limitations on access for children, I doubt that it could justify the present pharmacy restriction as an enforcement measure. Restricting the kinds of retail outlets that may distribute contraceptives may well be justified, but the present statute even prohibits distribution by mail to adults. In this respect, the statute works a significant invasion of the constitutionally protected privacy in decisions concerning sexual relations. By requiring individuals to buy contraceptives over the counter, the statute heavily burdens constitutionally protected freedom.

III
I also agree with the Court that New York cannot lawfully prohibit all "advertisement or display" of contraceptives. But it seems to me that the Court's opinion may be read too broadly. It flatly dismisses, as justifications "classically" irrelevant, the State's contentions that the indiscriminate advertisement of contraceptive products in some settings could be unduly offensive and could be viewed by the young as legitimation of sexual promiscuity. I agree that these justifications cannot support a complete ban on advertising, but I see no reason to cast any doubt on the authority of the State to impose carefully tailored restrictions designed to serve legitimate governmental concerns as to the effect of commercial advertising on the young.


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 of Limulus than to that of Thelyphonus, we must not forget that Holm has found important corroborative evidence for his sex determination of the male in the clasping organs of the second endognathites.

Accepting the determinations of Woodward, Schmidt and Holm, the female appendage consists of two single lobes and two paired terminal

pieces. The first of the single lobes is the largest; it is pointed in front, where it extends between the pentagonal basal pieces, with which it is connected by sutures. The middle portion is found occupying the space between the lateral opercular plates which here do not meet in the median


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 line. The distal end is produced into two short pointed pieces. The second single piece underlies or is telescopically pushed into the first and is of the same or very similar form as the first. Connected with the female genital apparatus were paired internal tubular appendages first correctly recognized in. These are also well seen in specimens of  [ pl. 8, fig. 1] and   [ pl. 12, fig. 2]. In one of the representatives of the latter species [Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences] both tubes lie to one side of the median lobe [see text fig. 20] thereby indicating that they extended free into the interior of the body.

In the male the two lateral opercular plates are more regularly rectangular in outline and come into contact along the median line. The genital appendage is very small and composed only of two single pieces. No pentagonal areas are set off by sutures. The principal single appendage consists of a median piece with parallel sides exposed to the outside and two larger wings underlying the opercular plates; the second appendage is very small, triangular and adjoins the first.

In other genera, as Hughmilleria and Pterygotus, the genital appendages are clearly much simpler. In Hughmilleria only one sagittate-based lobe is found on the female operculum [ pl. 62, fig. 9, 10] and in the male a convex, broadly lanceolate lobe [ pl. 62, fig. 11].

In Pterygotus these sexual appendages are not yet clearly distinguished, but they seem to be little advanced beyond those of Hughmilleria. The female appendage in its simplest form [, see Woodward, 1869, p. 61, pl. 12, fig. 1C; Laurie, 1893, pl. 2, fig. 14] is a straight, narrow, very slightly expanding plate with a ridge down the middle and ending in a bluntly triangular point, while, where more highly developed, as in , it possesses a rhombic sagittate base, connected by sutures with the lateral opercular plates, and continued into the free club-shaped principal part with rounded extremity. In some cases, as in, [see Huxley and Salter, pl. 3] and in an unidentified form from Otisville [ pl. 78, fig. 3] the extremity was expanded into a disklike body, the whole appendage