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  [Nichols's Literary Anecdotes, i. 288, 377, ii. 367, v. 85, 86–90, 99, 100, 101, 105, ix. 257, 592; Wood's Antiquities of Oxford (Gutch), iii. 460–1, app. pp. 156, 292, 302; Welch's Alumni Westmonasterienses (1852), passim; Monk's Life of Bentley (1833), i. 88–91; Todd's Deans of Canterbury (1793), pp. 220–1; Pote's History and Antiquities of Windsor Castle (1749), p. 413; Chalmers's Biog. Dict. (1814), xv. 115–16; Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ (1854), ii. 531, iii. 365, 407, 496; Chester's Westminster Abbey Registers (1876), pp. 73, 80, 279, 308; Gent. Mag. vii. 253, 631, ix. 217, 438, xxi. 380; Catalogue of Oxford Graduates (1851), p. 245; Watt's Bibl. Brit.; Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. ii. 192; Brit. Mus. Cat.]

FREIND, WILLIAM (1669–1745), divine, brother to Robert Freind [q. v.] and John Freind [q. v.], was admitted king's scholar at Westminster in 1683, and was thence elected to a Westminster studentship at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1687. He took the degree of B.A. in 1691, and of M.A. in 1694. In 1714 he succeeded Robert Freind as rector of Turvey, Bedfordshire, a living then in the gift of the Earl of Peterborough, and in 1720 he was instituted rector of the southern mediety of Woodford by Thrapston, Northamptonshire. He won a prize of 20,000l. in a lottery on 14 Feb. 1745, but in October 1742 he is described by Mrs. Pilkington as being a king's bench prisoner for debt, who officiated on Sundays in a chapel attached to the Marshalsea. Mrs. Pilkington says that he had ‘once lived in grandeur,’ and was ‘only undone by boundless generosity and hospitality.’ It is known that in 1720 he was associated with Alexander Denton, esq., in giving 200l. to the living of Biddlesden, Buckinghamshire, and with Archdeacon Franks in giving the same sum to the living of Ampthill, Bedfordshire, in order to enable them to obtain grants from Queen Anne's Bounty. His wife, too, who was buried at Burnham, Buckinghamshire, in 1721, is praised in an inscription in the church for her liberality to the poor. He is described in his father's epitaph at Croughton, Northamptonshire (which is proved by its contents to have been written between 1711 and 1728), as ‘lord of the manor of Hitcham, Bucks.’ This manor was certainly the property of John Freind in 1700 and 1728, so that possibly William Freind bought it from John and resold it after squandering his money. From the fact that John Freind by a will made in March 1727 left him 100l. a year, we may conjecture that he was already impecunious at that period. He died on 15 April 1745, whether in prison or not is not quite certain. Mrs. Pilkington wrote ‘death has released him,’ but Bishop Newton says ‘he would have died a prisoner in the Fleet if his old schoolfellow, the Earl of Winchilsea, when he was at the head of the admiralty, had not made him chaplain to a ship of one hundred guns.’ He was still rector of both Turvey and Woodford when he died. A mythical story seems to have grown up to the effect that he won two great lottery prizes, but his daughter Anne on her marriage to Bishop Smalridge's son is called (2 May 1730) ‘Miss Freind, daughter to him who got the great prize.’ He published ‘The Christian Minister absolutely necessary to be in every family, containing Rules and Instructions for the behaviour and conduct of a Christian,’ and about 1736 an advertisement appeared announcing the approaching publication of the first weekly number of ‘The Sacred Historian, or the History of the Old and New Testament methodically digested in a regular narrative, by the Rev. W. Freind, M.A., brother to the late famous Dr. Freind, the physician.’

[Nichols's Lit. Anecd. v. 85, 90–2, 697; List of Queen's Scholars of Westminster; Oxford Cat. of Grad.; W. Harvey's Hist. of the Hundred of Willey, p. 199; Bridges's Northamptonshire, ii. 268; manuscript rate-books in Woodford parish church; Mrs. Pilkington's Memoirs, ii. 229–31; Browne Willis's Hist. of Buckingham, p. 156; Ecton's Thesaurus, 2nd ed., p. xvii; Lipscomb's County of Buckingham, iii. 218; Bedfordshire Poll, 1714–15; Bishop Newton's Works with Life, 4to, p. 125; Rawlinson MS. J., 4to, v. 418; Gent. Mag. xv. 220.]

FREIND, WILLIAM (1715–1766), dean of Canterbury, baptised in Westminster Abbey, 10 March 1714–15, was the son of Robert Freind (1667?–1754) [q. v.], head-master of Westminster School, by Jane, daughter of Samuel de L'Angle, prebendary of Westminster (, Registers of Westminster Abbey, p. 80). Admitted on the foundation at Westminster in 1727, he was elected to a studentship at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1731, and matriculated 22 June of that year (B.A. 30 April 1735, M.A. 8 June 1738). A Latin ode from his pen on the death of Queen Caroline was printed in the Oxford collection of verses on that event in 1738. On 4 April 1739 he received institution to the valuable rectory of Witney, Oxfordshire, on the resignation of his father, whom he also succeeded as prebendary of Westminster, 17 Oct. 1744. In the last-named year he became one of the royal chaplains in ordinary. In 1747 he was appointed rector of Islip, Oxfordshire, and held that living along with Witney. He accumulated his degrees in divinity, 6 July 1748 (Oxford


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I am, unfortunately, unprovided with any authentic information respecting the annual expense hitherto attendant on the cultivation of the vine in New South Wales, and the average quantity of wine that has been obtained from any given extent '

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 Rh In the first year of Italian liberty the Rua was turned into a poHtical burlesque and " came forth " to grace a Republican festival. After this time it was no longer accompanied by the Ceri of the other Guilds, and the pageant became a poor and shabby affair. In September, 1 90 1, it was restored with great magnificence; eighteen boys took the place of the wooden or plaster statues, and fairs and general rejoicings celebrated the occasion. The great expense connected with its progress, from the necessity of taking down the telephone and telegraph wires on the route, will prevent the " coming forth " of the Rua being an annual ceremony but it will probably be brought out occasionally to do honour to distinguished visitors. The name Rua is said to refer to the wheel of the Carroccio of the Paduans, brought back in triumph by the valiant citizens of Vicenza in the thirteenth century, but there is no reliable foundation for this statement.

The "Macchina Triomphale" or Cero, of Santa Rosa at Viterbo.

In September, 1901, "the city of the beautiful fountains" was by no means an agreeable residence. No rain had fallen for two months; the heat, stench and noise were insupportable; for, in addition to the crowds assembled to do honour to the local patroness, and enjoy the Opera and the Giostra which celebrated the occasion, the Count of Turin, the Commander of the Italian army, had made the town his headquarters for the summer manœuvres.

I have at present no satisfactory account of the Viterbo festival, and can only describe what I saw myself. Towards dusk on the evening of September the 3rd the


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 Rh from Romanesque to Baroque. In other respects it resembles the account given of the Ruala.

The "Gigli," or Lilies, of Nola.

At Nola, beloved of the archæologist for the beauty of its ancient Greek pottery, and interesting to the student of mediaeval history as the home of the first church-bell, an annual festival resembling in many respects the Florentine pageant of San Giovanni is still celebrated on the 22nd and 23rd of June. Numerous slender towers, each about forty feet high, made of gesso, or stucco, on a wooden framework and surmounted by figures of the Madonna and patron saints, are carried through the streets on the shoulders of red-clothed bearers, who, undismayed by their burdens, perform remarkable evolutions, eight of the towers having been seen to dance a quadrille in the piazza. Each tower is composed of seven diminishing platforms built up round a mast and supported on a square base, on which is stationed a band of musicians who all play furiously and all different tunes. Above are boys, who scatter confetti on the crowd. On each tower are the insignia of a trade, the bakers, coppersmiths, and so forth, showing that the Lilies like the Ceri of Vicenza are the property of the different Guilds. With the towers comes a car, the property of the clog-makers, which is in form like a ship. Its commander is a ferocious Turk, its freight a silver statue of St. Paulinus. The procession is accompanied by the Bishop and clergy bearing the Host and relics. As the day wears on a fury of excitement possesses the whole populace, bells are rung, fireworks exploded, and linked dances similar to those performed by Greek peasants at Easter-time are a conspicuous and noteworthy feature of the day's proceeding. The tradition of the inhabitants as to the origin of their popular festival is of no very ancient date. They associate it


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The New International Encyclopædia/Lange, Samuel Gotthold

LANGE, (1711-81). A German poet. He was born at Halle, the son of the pietist Joachim Lange (1670-1744), who was famed as the author of the Halle Grammars. The son studied theology at Halle, and there became acquainted with Pyra, with whom he wrote Thyrsis' und Damons freundschaftliche Lieder (1745), attacked Gottsched, whom they had both ardently followed before, and opposed the use of rhyme in poetry. His strongest claim to fame is the feeble version of Horace's Odes (1752), which Lessing criticised and, when roused by Lange's fling that the critic's works because of their small format were only ‘Vademecums,’ overpowered with the brilliancy of his Vade Mecum für Lange (1754).


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 Plate XXII. THE SHIP OF NOLA. To J ace p.ji.a^%.


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 o GO m D O O Q _J < D ^


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 REVIEWS.

This valuable work deals historically rather than descriptively with the native races—Bushmen, Hottentots, and Bantu; but for all that, there is much information for the anthropologist, especially with regard to the Bushmen. An especially valuable feature is the map showing Mr. Stow's conclusions as to lines of tribal migration, which, if criticisable in detail, is none the less of the highest importance. As was to be expected, a great antiquity is assigned to the Bushmen, both on a priori grounds and because their traditions, no less than their rock-paintings and carvings, bear evidence in favour of their prior occupancy of the soil. The Hottentots, in Mr. Stow's view, were relatively few in number—not more than 40,000 in all—and came from the north-east, striking the Atlantic on the west coast and then working their way southwards to the Cape of Good Hope, where they were found by sixteenth-century voyagers no very long time after their migration had been arrested by the waves of the ocean. Mr. Stow holds that the Bushmen, no less than the later invaders, came from the north, but in their case he can assign no cause and no date for the migration; the Hottentots, however, were, he conceives, forced southward by the pressure of the Bantu, who themselves eventually came southward in their wake in successive waves.


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 ], taking part in these extended operations, and more particularly in the capture of a number of the enemy's gunboats at Languelia on 26 Aug. 1795, in the capture of the Unité corvette on 20 April 1796, in the evacuation of Leghorn on 27 June 1796 (the success of which Sir John Jervis officially attributed to Fremantle's ‘unparalleled exertions’), and in the capture of Elba on 10 July 1796. He was then sent to Algiers to arrange some matters with the dey, and to Smyrna in charge of convoy, returning in time to assist in the capture of Piombino on 7 Nov., and to be left as senior officer in those waters when Jervis drew down to Gibraltar.

The Inconstant being ordered home, Fremantle exchanged on 1 July 1797 into the Seahorse, one of the inshore squadron off Cadiz, under Nelson, and Fremantle himself was with Nelson in the barge on the 10th, the occasion on which, as Nelson afterwards wrote, ‘perhaps my personal courage was more conspicuous than at any other period of my life’ (, i. 11). A few days later the Seahorse was one of the ships detached with Nelson to Teneriffe, where, in the attack on Santa Cruz on the morning of the 25th, Fremantle was severely wounded. On rejoining the fleet Nelson hoisted his flag on board the Seahorse for a passage to England, the wounded admiral and captain being both together taken care of by Mrs. Fremantle, who had accompanied her husband, and under her kindly nursing both were convalescent when the ship arrived at Spithead on 1 Sept. In August 1800 Fremantle was appointed to the Ganges of 74 guns, in which, in the following year, he went up the Baltic and took a full part in the battle of Copenhagen. When the war was renewed in 1803 he again had command of the Ganges in the Channel, and in May 1805 was appointed to the Neptune. In her he joined the fleet off Cadiz and shared in the glories of Trafalgar, the Neptune being the third ship in the weather line, the Téméraire alone coming between her and the Victory. After the battle Fremantle remained under the command of Collingwood till December 1806, when he returned to England, having been appointed to a seat at the admiralty. In the following March, however, he was appointed to the William and Mary yacht, in which he continued till his promotion to flag rank on 31 July 1810. A month later he was appointed to a command in the Mediterranean, and in April 1812 was sent into the Adriatic in charge of the squadron employed there. During the next two years he was engaged in a series of detached but important and curiously interesting operations, including the capture of Fiume on 3 July 1813 and of Trieste on 8 March 1814. When, shortly after this, he left the Adriatic, he was able to write: ‘Every place on the coasts of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, and Friuli had surrendered to some part of the squadron under my orders, the number of guns taken exceeded a thousand, and between seven hundred and eight hundred vessels were taken or destroyed during my command.’ Fremantle's services were recognised not only by his own government, which nominated him a K.C.B., but also by the governments of our allies. He was made a baron of the Austrian States, a K.M.T., and K.S.F. In 1818 he was nominated a G.C.B. and appointed to the command-in-chief in the Mediterranean, but held it for little more than eighteen months, dying at Naples on 19 Dec. 1819.

Independent of his actual achievements in war, Fremantle had among his contemporaries a distinct reputation as a disciplinarian. The excellent gunnery order of his ships has been already referred to; what is even more remarkable is that in the very first years of the century, when in the Ganges, he inaugurated a system of petty courts of inquiry formally held by the officers for the examination of defaulters. He wrote of it in his note-book as having worked most satisfactorily, but added that he had felt obliged to give it up in deference to the opinion of his brother-officers. It was not till after the lapse of more than sixty years that the admiralty prescribed the somewhat similar system which remained in force for some time, till the reform of courts-martial and the abolition of flogging seemed to render it no longer necessary.

By his wife, Elizabeth daughter of Richard Wynne of Falkingham, Lincolnshire—she died 2 Nov. 1857—Fremantle had a numerous family. The eldest son, Thomas Francis, was created a baronet in 1821, in acknowledgment of his father's services, and in 1874 was raised to the peerage as Lord Cottesloe [see Supplement]. Another son, Admiral Sir Charles Howe Fremantle, G.C.B., served with distinction in the Crimean war, was afterwards commander-in-chief at Plymouth, and died in 1869.

[James's Naval History, ed. 1860; Gent. Mag. 1820, vol. xc. pt. i. p. 87; Nicolas's Despatches and Letters of Lord Nelson (see index at end of vol. vii.); Foster's Peerage; private journals, &c., kindly communicated by Rear-admiral Hon. E. R. Fremantle, C.B.]  FREMANTLE, WILLIAM HENRY (1766–1850), politician, youngest son of John Fremantle of Aston Abbots,


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 Buckinghamshire, was born 28 Dec. 1766. At an early age he entered the army, and attained the rank of captain of infantry. He was on the staff of the Duke of Wellington, and in 1782 he went to Ireland as aide-de-camp to the lord-lieutenant, the Marquis of Buckingham. Subsequently he was appointed private secretary to his excellency, and he officiated in that capacity until the Marquis of Buckingham retired from the Irish viceroyalty. The intimate knowledge which Fremantle acquired of Irish affairs caused him to be named resident secretary for Ireland in 1789, and he remained in Dublin until 1800, when the resident Irish secretaryship was abolished. Fremantle had rendered valuable service during a very critical period. At a later date he held the office of deputy teller of the exchequer. When the administration of ‘All the Talents’ was formed by Lords Grenville and Grey in 1806, Fremantle was appointed joint secretary to the treasury, and entered parliament as one of the members for Harwich. He quitted office with Lord Grenville. He was M.P. for the Wick Burghs from 1808 to 1812. In the latter year he was elected for Buckingham, and retained the seat until 1827, when he resigned it in favour of his nephew, Sir T. F. Fremantle, bart. For the fifteen years during which he sat for Buckingham, Fremantle took part in all the principal debates in the House of Commons, acquiring considerable reputation as a speaker. He invariably acted with Lord Grenville's party, and he was a cordial supporter of catholic emancipation and other political and social reforms. When the mutiny at Barrackpore occurred in 1825, and the conduct of Lord Amherst, governor-general of India, was severely criticised in parliament, Fremantle defended the suppression of the mutiny. In 1822 Fremantle joined the government of Lord Liverpool. He was created a privy councillor and was one of the commissioners of the India board. This office he held for four years, 1822–1826, when George IV appointed him treasurer of the royal household. He became high in favour with the king, to whom he had long been personally known. After performing special services in connection with the visits of several European sovereigns, Fremantle received the honour of knighthood 31 Oct. 1827, with the grand cross of the Guelphic order of Hanover. Upon the accession of William IV, Fremantle was reappointed treasurer of the household, and the king further nominated him deputy-ranger of Windsor Great Park. He was thus brought into constant relations with the court, and was much esteemed by the sovereign. When the king died, in 1837, Fremantle retired from the household, but retained his position of deputy-ranger of Windsor Park under the rangership of Prince Albert. The park was much improved during his term of office, which continued until his death on 19 Oct. 1850.

Fremantle married, 12 Jan. 1797, Selina Mary, only daughter of Sir John Elwill, bart., and widow of Felton Lionel Hervey, grandson of John Hervey, first earl of Bristol. Lady Fremantle died 22 Nov. 1841 at Brighton. By her first husband she had five children.

[Gent. Mag. and Ann. Reg. 1850; Windsor and Eton Express, 26 Oct. 1850; Foster's Peerage, s. v. ‘Cottesloe.’]  FRENCH, GEORGE RUSSELL (1803–1881), antiquary, was born in London in 1803. After being privately educated he became an architect, and was for many years surveyor and architect to the Ironmongers' Company. French was an accomplished scholar, and devoted his leisure to antiquarian researches. He was long an active member of the council, and subsequently one of the vice-presidents, of the London and Middlesex Archæological Society. In 1841 French published an elaborate account of the ancestries of Queen Victoria and of the Prince Consort; and in 1847 his ‘Address delivered on the sixth anniversary of the College of the Freemasons of the Church.’ He next traced the royal descent of Nelson and Wellington from Edward I, king of England, and published in 1853 the tables of pedigree and genealogical memoirs in connection therewith. In 1861–9 he prepared and issued a ‘Catalogue of the Antiquities and Works of Art exhibited at Ironmongers' Hall.’ French published in two parts the result of a careful series of Shakespearean investigations, under the title of ‘Shakespeareana Genealogica’ (1869). The first part consisted of an identification of the dramatis personæ in Shakespeare's historical plays, from ‘King John’ to ‘King Henry VIII,’ accompanied with observations on characters in ‘Macbeth’ and ‘Hamlet,’ and notes on persons and places belonging to Warwickshire alluded to in several plays. The second part consisted of a dissertation on the Shakespeare and Arden families and their connections, with tables of descent. French, who was a temperance reformer, published in 1879 a work entitled ‘Temperance or Abstinence,’ in which he discussed the question from the scriptural point of view. French died in London on 1 Nov. 1881.

[City Press, November 1881; Athenæum, 12 Nov. 1881; French's Works.]


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 COLLECTANEA.

is the custom of the children in this neighbourhood (Leytonstone, Essex) on the festival of St. James, July 25th, and on the few following days, to erect little structures of clinkers or rubbish on the edges of the pavement, to which they attract attention by their persistent appeals to "Please to remember the grotto."

During the past grotto season (1904) I invited several of the older boys into the garden and watched them construct one of their edifices.

The Size varies; roughly perhaps it is some two feet across, eighteen inches deep, and eighteen inches high.

The Structure consists of floor, back, side-walls and roof; the front is left partly open. The roof is formed by placing sticks across the walls and then piling stones upon them, the general form of the roof being that of a dome.

Flowers. The outside of the structure is ornamented with flowers pushed in between the crevices.

Materials. If possible, shells—oyster shells for choice—are procured, but generally, as a matter of fact, the clinkers and stones are used.

Candle. The first halfpenny given by the passer-by is spent in purchasing a candle, which is put in the grotto and lighted.

The Date for making these grottoes did not seem to them clear. " t is grotto time now," said one, "we see others building them"; "We keep a note-book with the time for peg-tops, leap-frog and grotto time," said others.

Reason for Building. None of them knew of any reason for their erection; no one had ever seen it elsewhere; they had all done it at school, having seen others.


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 FRENCH, GILBERT JAMES (1804–1866), biographer of Samuel Crompton, was born 18 April 1804 at Edinburgh, where his father is said to have been a ‘manufacturer.’ He received a fair education, and was apprenticed to a draper. He migrated from Edinburgh to Sheffield, and thence to Bolton, where he settled and ultimately developed a considerable trade in the textile fabrics of all kinds worn by clergymen and otherwise used in the services of the church. He cultivated a taste for archæology, especially for ecclesiology, and formed an extensive library. In July 1840 there appeared a communication, signed with his initials, in the ‘Gentleman's Magazine,’ containing a sketch of the story of [q. v.], with indications of its resemblance to that of Henry Bertram in ‘Guy Mannering,’ to which no reference is made in Scott's introduction. The sketch was reproduced in ‘Chambers's (Edinburgh) Journal’ for 7 March 1841. French expanded this communication in a pamphlet ‘printed for presentation’ in 1855, and entitled ‘Parallel Passages from Two Tales, elucidating the Origin of the Plot of “Guy Mannering.”’ To consecutive numbers of the ‘Bolton Chronicle,’ commencing 26 April 1856, he contributed a series of letters, which he collected and again ‘printed for presentation’ only in the same year as ‘An Enquiry into the Origin and Authorship of some of the Waverley Novels.’ Here French developed, with new facts and illustrations, the old theory, revived by W. J. Fitzpatrick in 1856, that Scott's brother Thomas and his wife, Mrs. Thomas Scott, were the virtual authors of the earlier Waverley novels. In 1852 French zealously promoted the establishment of the Bolton Free Library, and being president in 1857–8 of the Bolton Mechanics' Institution he delivered to its members several lectures, two of which, on ‘The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton [q. v.]’, were expanded into the meritorious biography published in 1859. He contributed generously to the support of Crompton's surviving son when old and poor, and he raised a subscription of 200l., with which a monument was erected over Crompton's grave in the Bolton parish churchyard. French died at Bolton 4 May 1866. He was a member of the London Society of Antiquaries, and a corresponding member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. He read several papers before the Archæological Association of Great Britain and Ireland, which appeared in their ‘Transactions.’ The following are those of his writings not already referred to which are in the Library of the British Museum:
 * 1) ‘Practical Remarks on some of the Minor Accessories to the Services of the Church,’ 1840.
 * 2) ‘The Tippets of the Canons Ecclesiastical,’ 1850.
 * 3) ‘Hints on the Arrangement of Colours in Ancient Decorative Art;’ 2nd edit. 1850.
 * 4) ‘Bibliographical Notices of the Church Libraries at Turton and Gorton, bequeathed by Humphrey Chetham,’ 1855 (vol. xxxviii. of the Chetham Society's publications).
 * 5) ‘Remarks on the Mechanical Structure of Cotton Fibre,’ 1857.
 * 6) ‘An Attempt to Explain the Origin and Meaning of the Early Interlaced Ornamentation found on the Ancient Sculptured Stones of Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man,’ 1858.
 * 7) ‘Decorative Devices for Sunday Schools,’ 1860.

FRENCH, JOHN, M.D. (1616?–1657), physician, born at Broughton, near Banbury, Oxfordshire, in or about 1616, was the son of John French of Broughton. In 1633 he was entered at New Inn Hall, Oxford, where he took the degrees in arts, B.A. 19 Oct. 1637, M.A. 9 July 1640 (, Fasti Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. 495, 515), then ‘entred on the physic line, practised his faculty in the parliament army by the encouragement of the Fiennes, men of authority in the said army, and at length became one of the two physicians to the whole army, under the conduct of sir Tho. Fairfax, knight. On 14 April 1648, at which time the earl of Pembroke visited this university, he was actually created doctor of physic, being about that time physician to the hospital called the Savoy. … He died in Oct. or Nov. in sixteen hundred fifty and seven, at, or near, Bullogne in France, being then physician to the English army there’ (, Athenæ Oxon. ed. Bliss, iii. 436–7).

French was the author of:
 * 1) ‘The Art of Distillation, or a Treatise of the choicest Spagyricall Preparations performed by way of Distillation, being partly taken out of the most select Chymicall Authors of severall Languages, and partly out of the Authors manuall experience; together with the Description of the chiefest Furnaces and Vessels used by ancient and moderne Chymists: also a Discourse of divers Spagyrical Experiments and Curiosities, and of the Anatomy of Gold and Silver with the chiefest Preparations, and Curiosities thereof, and Vertues of them all. All which are contained in six Books,’ 4to, London, 1651 (2nd edit., ‘to which is added, The London Distiller … shewing the way … to draw all sorts of Spirits and Strong-Waters,’ &c., 2 pts. 4to, London, 1653–52; 3rd edit., ‘to which is added Calcination and Sublimation: in two books,’


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 :: 2 pts. 4to, London, 1664; 4th edit., 2 pts. 4to, London, 1667). In 1760 J. Wood of Bradford had received such benefit by using the waters according to the rules laid down in this treatise that he judged fit to republish it as ‘A Pocket Companion for Harrogate Spaw,’ 12mo, Halifax, 1760, ‘that it might be of use to others.’ French may be the ‘J. F.’ who edited, with a preface, ‘The Divine Pymander of Hermes Mercurius Trismegistus in xvii. Books. Translated … out of the Original into English by that learned divine Doctor Everard,’ 12mo, London, 1650 (another edit., 12mo, London, 1657). He also translated ‘The New Light of Alchymy, and a Treatise of Sulphur, by Michael Sandevogius, with Nine Books of Paracelsus of the Nature of Things; with a Chymical Dictionary explaining hard Places and Words, met withal in the Writings of Paracelsus,’ 4to, London, 1650; from J. R. Glauber, ‘A Description of New Philosophical Furnaces, or A New Art of Distilling, divided into five parts. Whereunto is added a Description of the Tincture of Gold, or the true Aurum Potabile; also the First Part of the Mineral Work … Set forth in English by J. F. D.M.,’ 5 pts. 4to, London, 1651–2; from H. C. Agrippa, ‘Three Books of Occult Philosophy … Translated … by J. F.,’ 4to, London, 1651.
 * 1) ‘The Yorkshire Spaw, or a Treatise of four famous Medicinal Wells, viz. the Spaw, or Vitrioline-Well; the Stinking, or Sulphur-Well; the Dropping, or Petrifying-Well; and St. Mugnus-Well, near Knaresborow in Yorkshire. Together with the causes, vertues, and use thereof,’ 8vo, London, 1652 (another edit., 8vo, London, 1654).

FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604–1678), bishop of Ferns, born in 1604 in the town of Wexford, was educated for the priesthood in the Irish secular college at Louvain, and constituted president of the college. In the reign of Charles I he returned to Ireland, and was appointed parish priest of his native town. He sat as a burgess for Wexford in the general assembly of the confederate catholics at Kilkenny. During the rebellion he was ‘a violent enemy to the king's authority, and a fatal instrument in contriving and fomenting all the divisions which had distracted and rent the kingdom asunder’ (, Writers of Ireland, ed. Harris, p. 166). He took an active share in the deliberations of the first supreme council of the confederates, and was a bitter opponent of the Marquis of Ormonde. He was consecrated to the see of Ferns in or before 1646, in which year he signed a document of the confederate catholics as ‘Bishop of Ferns’ (, Episcopal Succession, i. 377). In 1646 he also became chancellor and chairman of the congregation of the catholic clergy convened at Waterford by the papal nuncio, Rinuccini, and he soon became one of the leaders in the new confederate council which the nuncio had formed. In 1647 he and Nicholas Plunket were sent to Rome to solicit the assistance of Innocent X, but the mission ended in complete failure.

On French's return to Ireland in 1648 the supreme council had just concluded a treaty of peace with Inchiquin. The confederates had by this time been brought to the very brink of ruin, and, while Rinuccini was fulminating excommunications against the council, the council and a great majority of the representatives openly defied him. French deemed it prudent to agree to the peace of 1648, although it had been disapproved by the nuncio, and he induced many to accept it. Subsequently he changed his mind, and in 1650 he attended the ecclesiastic assembly held at Jamestown, and signed the famous declaration condemning the proceedings of Ormonde. In 1651 he was sent to Brussels to obtain the assistance of the Duke of Lorraine, and he offered to constitute that prince the lord protector of Ireland; but the negotiations were broken off in 1652. At Paris he attempted to wait on Charles II, who refused to see him.

From France he went to Spain, and officiated as coadjutor to the Archbishop of Santiago de Compostella in Galicia till 1666, when he removed to San Sebastian with the intention of proceeding to Ireland, as Father Peter Walsh had procured from the Duke of Ormonde a license for his return. But French was unwilling to accept this favour unless he could win the good opinion of the duke, to whom he wrote a long letter justifying the actions of the assembly at Jamestown. This conduct so incensed the duke that he countermanded his license, and ordered Peter Walsh to notify its revocation to his friend. French proceeded to France, and it was probably at this period that he became coadjutor to the Archbishop of Paris. He next went to Flanders, where, through the good offices of the internuncio, Airoldi, he thoroughly reconciled himself to the court of Rome, which till then was displeased with him because he had promoted the peace of 1648, although soon afterwards he was one of the chief infringers of it. Soon afterwards he became coadjutor to D. Eugene Albert Dallamont, bishop of Ghent, in which city he


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 Rh The observance of this custom seems fairly general in the London district. Grotto building has been observed in recent years at Barnet, Hoxton, Islington, in the North of London; and at Hammersmith in the West, besides Leytonstone in the East. Also some fifty years ago, my landlady, then a child in the (at that time) well-to-do suburb of the Old Kent Road, S.E., used herself to make these grottoes, using for the purpose oyster-shells, which were procured from a fishmonger and most carefully cleaned, and greeting the passers-by with the following jingle:—

Chambers's Book of Days mentions this custom of grotto-making under July 25th, and gives an illustration representing a child standing by one of these grottoes and begging from a lady passing by. His account is that in London, on the first few days of the oyster season, children make piles of these shells with a candle stuck in the top to be lighted at night, while the children whine out " mind the grotto "—a demand for a penny, professedly to keep up the candle. Neither Ellis's Brand's Antiquities, nor Hone's Every Day Book have anything on the subject.

All whom I interrogated were quite ignorant of the fact that they were assisting unconsciously to perpetuate an interesting custom which has probably been handed down for more than 500 years; and of the real import of candle and flowers. For these grottoes are almost certainly imitations of shrines to St. James of Compostella, which were erected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in London (and perhaps at other places in England) for the benefit of those poorer folk who could not aff"ord the expense of the long pilgrimage to Spain and yet wished to pay their devotions to the perhaps most popular saint of that day (cf. Brewer, Dictionary of Phrase and


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 died on 23 Aug. 1678. His remains were interred in the cathedral, where a splendid monument, with a Latin epitaph, describing his virtues, his learning, and his patriotism, was erected to his memory (, Hibernia Domenicana, p. 490 n.).

His works are: 1. ‘A Course of Philosophy,’ in Latin, 1630. Manuscript in Archbishop Marsh's library in Dublin. 2. ‘Querees propounded by the Protestant partie, concerning the peace in generall, now treated of in Ireland …’ Paris, 1644, 4to. 3. ‘The Polititian's Catechisme for his Instruction in Divine Faith and Morall Honesty. Written by N. N.,’ Antwerp, 1658, 12mo. This may be reckoned even more rare than the ‘Unkinde Desertor’ and ‘Bleeding Iphigenia.’ 4. ‘Protesta y suplica de los Catolicos de Irlanda y de la Gran Bretaña. Al … Principe de la Iglesia, el Cardenal Julio Mazerino, y al … Señor D. Luys Mendez de Haro y Sotomayor, Conde-Duque de Olivares,’ Seville, 1659, 4to, translated from the Latin. This protest is so rare that it appears to be unknown to the most diligent collectors of Irish tracts (Bibl. Grenvilliana, i. 257). 5. ‘In nomine sanctissimæ Trinitatis vera descriptio moderni status Catholicorum in regno Hiberniæ, et preces eorum, ad Sanctissimum Dominum Clementem Papam nonum,’ Cologne [1667], 8vo. The author's name, as designated by F. E. N. F. D. on p. 28, is ‘Fernensis Episcopus, Nicolaus French, Doctor,’ vide p. 26. 6. ‘A Narrative of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale of Ireland. Whereby the just English adventurer is much prejudiced, the ancient proprietor destroyed, and publick faith violated: to the great discredit of the English Church and government (if not recalled and made void), as being against the principles of Christianity and true Protestancy. Written in a Letter by a gentleman in the Country to a nobleman at court,’ Louvain, 1668, 4to. This tract is extremely rare. It was reprinted, with some additions, under the title of ‘Iniquity Display'd, or the Settlement of the Kingdom of Ireland, commonly call'd The Act of Settlement … laid open,’ 1704, 4to. 7. ‘The Dolefull Fall of Andrew Sall, a Jesuit of the Fourth Vow, from the Roman Catholick Apostolick Faith; Lamented by his Constant Frind …’ 1674, 8vo, published under the initials N. N. There is an account of this work in ‘Catholicon: or the Christian Philosopher,’ 1818, v. 85–93. Sall replied to the attack in his ‘True Catholic Apostolic Faith,’ 1676. 8. ‘The Bleeding Iphigenia, or an excellent preface of a work unfinished, published by the authors frind, with the reasons of publishing it,’ no title-page, 1675, 8vo, published under the initials N. N. The Bleeding Iphigenia is Ireland. The author, lamenting Andrew Sall's abjuration of catholicism, inquires into the cause of persecution in Ireland and England. 9. ‘The Vnkinde Desertor of Loyall Men and True Frinds,’ 1676, 8vo. The ‘unkinde desertor’ is intended for a portrait of the Marquis of Ormonde. French's statements led to the Earl of Clarendon writing his ‘History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in Ireland,’ in defence and justification of the marquis's conduct.

A collection of his ‘Historical Works,’ edited by Samuel H. Bindon, was published at Dublin in 2 vols., 1846, 12mo, forming part of Duffy's ‘Library of Ireland.’ Vol. i. contains the ‘Bleeding Iphigenia,’ the ‘Settlement and Sale of Ireland,’ letters, &c., and vol. ii. the ‘Unkinde Desertor.’

[Bellings's Hist. of the Irish Confederacy, vol. i. pref. p. viii, ii. 215; Carte's Life of Ormonde; Clarendon's Hist. of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in Ireland; Clarendon State Papers, ii. 141; Cox's Hibernia Anglicana; De Burgo's Hibernia Domenicana, pp. 490, 657, 686–8, 692, 693, 695, 699, suppl. 861, 880, 881, 884, 895, 921; Gilbert's Contemporary Hist. of Affairs in Ireland (1641–52), i. 157–8, 168, 184–6, 288, 707, 716, 766, ii. 51, 106, 152–3, 196–8, 203, 290, 365, iii. 4, 5, 10, 178, 275, 301; Bibl. Grenvilliana; The Huth Library, ii. 553; Killen's Eccl. Hist. of Ireland, ii. 40, 81, 114; McGee's Irish Writers, p. 131; Moran's Spicilegium Ossoriense, pp. 390, 417, 438, 449, 454, 459, 475, 489, 499, 510; Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. vii. 45, 3rd ser. viii. 724; Rinuccini's Embassy in Ireland, translated by Hutton; Shirley's Library at Lough Fea, p. 116; Cat. of Library of Trin. Coll. Dublin, iii. 318; Walsh's Four Letters on Several Subjects to Persons of Quality; Walsh's Vindication of the Loyal Formulary on Irish Remonstrance.]

FRENCH, PETER (d. 1693), missionary, a native of Galway, studied divinity in Ireland and in the south of Spain, and became a friar of the order of St. Dominic. Going to Spanish America, he laboured for thirty years as a missionary among the Indians of Mexico, great numbers of whom he converted from idolatry. He wrote in the Mexican language ‘A Catechism or Exposition of the Christian Faith,’ but whether it was printed does not appear. Returning to his native country, he was employed on the mission until his death, which took place in Galway in 1693.

[Quétif and Echard's Scriptores Ordinis Prædicatorum, ii. 735, quoting John O'Heyn's Epilogus Chronologicus exponens Conventus et Fundationes Ordinis Predicatorum in regno Hiberniæ, Louvain, 1706, p. 24; Ware's Writers of Ireland, p. 295; Hardiman's Galway, p. 254.]


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 of ground. An eminent French authority has given a statistical account of the average quantity of wine furnished by various vineyards throughout France, and the expenses attendant on its production. I have taken from his account those two vineyards which are most widely different in the comparative quantity of wine yielded by them, viz. Grève, and St. Emilien:—

The comparative expenses attending the production of the wine—was,

Which would be at the rate of £5. 5s. for St. Emilien, and £4. 10s. for Grève to the English acre.

It is, however, worthy of remark, that the smaller the quantity of wine that is obtained from a vineyard, the better will be the wine, and vice versâ; thus the choicer vineyards of France yield a much smaller quantity of wine than the ordinary ones; the best Medoc wines, for instance, only averaging six barriques to each arpent of ground, whilst some inferior vineyards yield thirty barriques to the arpent. Mr. Busby states that the vintage through-out France yields, one year with another, two hundred and forty-seven gallons to the acre. This quantity is, however, very much below that yielded in those central and western districts of France,


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 where I resided for some time, and I am inclined to think that this estimate must include those extensive tracts of country in the southern parts of that kingdom, where the vines are planted at very wide intervals apart, and the intermediate spaces between the rows cultivated for wheat, barley, buck- wheat, sainfoin, &c.

The greater portion of the French vineyards are planted on poor soils, which would be unfit for any other purpose; and notwithstanding the superior delicacy and value of the wines of France beyond those of any other country, the climate of that kingdom is not, by any means, so well adapted for the vine as that of warmer countries, for besides the loss and damage incurred by frosts, the frequent hailstorms, which are peculiarly prevalent in France, do a great deal of mischief.

The Spanish vineyards round Xeres appear to yield from three to eight hundred gallons to the acre, the average quantity in the larger vineyards being about six hundred gallons for the acre.

In the excellent little treatise on the cultivation of the vine by Mr. Busby, which was published some years ago in Sydney, that gentleman observes, that Mr. William Macarthur made from an acre of vines, only five years old, two hundred and fifty gallons of wine, although a great portion of the grapes was unfortunately destroyed by a hailstorm; and he expected to make double that quantity the next year, and all other years, when unvisited by


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182 Fable, 24th ed., under heading "Grotto"). It would be interesting to know whether the custom is confined to the London district or whether it is observed elsewhere in England. And also whether there was a shrine set up in the city of London itself, or whether there were several shrines set up in the villages just outside, which lay on the great main roads leading to London.

The shell connected with Saint James the Great was the scallop-shell, Pecten Jacobaeus. The children's use of the oyster-shell is probably due to the fact that it roughly resembled the scallop-shell in shape, and also was at this time easily procurable because of the commencement of the oyster season. For the legend of St. James the Greater and his connection with Spain, with Compostella, and with the scallop-shell, see the Lives of the Saints.

(Ante, p. 131.)

the spring of the year 1904 I had occasion to visit Florence on business, and, by a fortunate coincidence, my visit extending over Easter, I was able, for the first time, to witness the wellknown annual ceremony of the "Scoppio del Carro."

The "Carro," as it is called, resembles in form rather a Catafalque, or Funeral Urn, being a sombre grey-brown erection, foursided, and diminishing in size alike towards the summit and the base. The lines were marked out by wreaths of fireworks, in pink


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 FRENCH, WILLIAM, D.D. (1786–1849), master of Jesus College, Cambridge, was the son of a rich yeoman at Eye in Suffolk. He was sent to Ipswich grammar school, where the Rev. Mr. Howarth was head-master, and he afterwards entered Caius College, Cambridge. After a successful college career he came out in 1811 as second wrangler, the senior being Thomas Edward Dicey of Trinity, the two being bracketed equal as Smith's prizemen. Soon after French was elected fellow and tutor of Pembroke College, and in 1814 took his M.A. degree. He was only thirty-four years old in 1820 when he was appointed master of Jesus College by Dr. Sparke, bishop of Ely, in whose family he had been private tutor. In the following year he was made D.D. by royal mandate, and served the office of vice-chancellor, a position which he filled again in 1834, when he also acted as one of the syndics appointed to superintend the building of the Fitzwilliam Museum. He was presented by the lord chancellor to the living of Moor Monkton, Yorkshire, in 1827, and became a canon of Ely in 1832. He discharged his various functions with urbanity and integrity. His mathematical attainments were of the highest order, and to classical scholarship he added a considerable acquaintance with oriental languages. He took a distinguished part in the translations made by himself and Mr. George Skinner of the Psalms and Proverbs. He managed the affairs of his college so as greatly to improve its finances, and his name is connected with the remarkable restoration of Jesus College Chapel, begun under his direction by his gift of coloured glass for the eastern triplet. His published works are: He died at Jesus Lodge, Cambridge, on 12 Nov. 1849, in his sixty-third year, and was buried at Brockdish in Norfolk four days later.
 * 1) ‘A new Translation of the Book of Psalms from the original Hebrew, with Explanatory Notes by W. French, D.D., and George Skinner, M.A.; a new edition, with corrections and additions, 8vo, London, 1842. ‘A judicious and excellent work for review’ (see British Critic, ix. 404).
 * 2) ‘A new Translation of the Proverbs of Solomon from the original Hebrew, with Explanatory Notes by W. French, D.D., and George Skinner, M.A.,’ 8vo, London, 1831.

FREND, WILLIAM (1757–1841), reformer and scientific writer, was born on 22 Nov. 1757 at Canterbury, being the second son of George Frend, one of its principal tradesmen, an alderman, and twice its mayor. His mother was buried in the cloister yard, Canterbury, on 7 Feb. 1763, and his father married at the cathedral, on 25 Sept. 1764, Jane Kirby, who proved a kindly mother to her stepchildren (Canterbury Cath. Registers, Harl. Soc., pp. 95, 145). He was educated at the king's school in that city until 1771, and among his companions were his cousin Herbert Marsh, afterwards bishop of Peterborough, and Charles Abbott, afterwards Lord Tenterden. His father destined him for business, and he was sent to St. Omer to learn the French language, and then to a mercantile house in Quebec, where he remained for a few weeks, during which time he served as a volunteer at the beginning of the troubles with the American colonies. On his return home he expressed a wish to enter the church, and on the recommendation of Archbishop Moore he was entered as a minor pensioner at Christ's College, Cambridge, on 18 Dec. 1775, when Paley was one of the college tutors. After gaining various college prizes he took the degree of B.A. in 1780, being second wrangler and Smith's prizeman, and thus secured the favour of Dr. Caryl, master of Jesus College, by whose advice he migrated thither as a pensioner on 24 May 1780. Through the same interest Frend was elected foundation scholar on 6 June 1780 and fellow on 23 April 1781, from which year he also held the office of tutor. At the close of 1780 he was admitted deacon in the church of England, and advanced to the priesthood in 1783, when he was presented to the living of Madingley, near Cambridge, where he officiated zealously until June 1787. During this period of his life the post of tutor to the Archduke Alexander of Russia was offered to him, but the position was declined, although accompanied with a salary of 2,000l. per annum, a suitable establishment, and a retiring pension of 800l. a year for life. In 1787 he became a convert to unitarianism. He published his ‘Address to the Inhabitants of Cambridge’ in favour of his new creed, and he exerted himself very vigorously in support of the grace introduced into the senate house on 11 Dec. 1787 for doing away with subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles on taking the degree of M.A. For these offences he was removed by Dr. Beadon from the office of tutor by an order dated 27 Sept. 1788, and his appeal from this ejectment was dismissed by the visitor, the Bishop of Ely, by a decree dated 29 Dec. 1788. To relieve his mental anxiety and to deliberate calmly on the future, he took, in company with an old schoolfellow called Richard Tylden, a lengthy tour in France, the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland. When he returned home he resumed the study


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 of Hebrew, which his travels had interrupted, and became so proficient as to be deemed ‘in the opinion of learned Jews better versed in that language than any English christian of his day.’ Priestley devised in 1789 a plan for a new translation of the scriptures, and through 1790 Frend was engaged on translating the historical books of the Old Testament. He also became very intimate with Robert Robinson, the learned dissenting minister of Cambridge, who died in 1790, and he corrected the press of Robinson's posthumous volume of ‘Ecclesiastical Researches.’ In 1793 he wrote a tract, printed at St. Ives but sold at Cambridge, entitled ‘Peace and Union recommended to the Associated Bodies of Republicans and Anti-republicans,’ in which he denounced many of the existing abuses and condemned much of the liturgy of the church of England. On 4 March certain members of the senate met on the invitation of the vice-chancellor, Dr. Isaac Milner, at his lodge in Queens' College, resolved that Frend should be prosecuted in the vice-chancellor's court, and deputed a committee of five to conduct the proceedings. On 23 April a summons was issued by that official requiring Frend's presence in the law schools on 3 May to answer the charge of having violated the laws and statutes of the university by publishing the pamphlet. After several sittings and a long and able defence, the vice-chancellor and heads gave their decision on 28 May that the authorship had been proved and that Frend had offended against the statute ‘de concionibus.’ Gunning, in his ‘Reminiscences’ (i. 280–309), reprints an account of the trial, and, while condemning the tone of the pamphlet, describes the proceedings as a party move and vindicates the tract from the accusation of sedition. He adds that the vice-chancellor was biased against the accused, and that the undergraduates, among whom S. T. Coleridge was conspicuous, were unanimous in his favour. Two letters from Dr. Farmer to Dr. Parr on this trial are in Parr's ‘Works’ (i. 447–8), and in the same set (viii. 30–2) is a long letter from Frend on the treatment which Palmer of Queens', another reformer, had just received. Frend was ordered to retract and confess his error, and as he declined was ‘banished from the university’ (30 May). An appeal against the sentence followed, but it was unanimously affirmed by the delegates on 29 June, and on 26 Nov. 1795 the court of king's bench discharged a rule which Frend had obtained for restoring him to the franchises of a resident M.A. The master and fellows of Jesus College decided, on 3 April 1793, that in consequence of this pamphlet he should not be allowed to reside in the college until he could produce satisfactory proofs of good behaviour. He thereupon appealed to the visitor, but on 13 July the appeal was dismissed, nor was he more successful in his application to the king's bench for a mandamus requiring the visitor to hear and determine the appeal. In spite of these proceedings he enjoyed the emoluments of his fellowship until his marriage, and remained, while he lived, a member of his college and of the senate of the university. Many years later, in 1837, Frend furnished Crabb Robinson with some anecdotes about his trial, and said that the promoters wished to expel him from the university, but that he demanded a sight of the university roll, when on reference to the original document it was discovered that an informality existed which made his expulsion invalid. On leaving Cambridge he came to London, and maintained himself by adding the profits of teaching and writing to his fellowship. In 1806 he exerted himself actively in the formation of the Rock Life Assurance Company, to which he was appointed actuary. A severe illness in 1826 compelled him to tender his resignation, which was accepted in the ensuing year, and an annuity of 800l. per annum was conferred upon him. His health subsequently recovered, and he resumed his active life until 1840, when he was attacked by paralysis, under which he lingered with almost total loss of speech and motion, though with the ‘smallest possible decay of mind or memory.’ He died at his house, Tavistock Square, London, on 21 Feb. 1841. As a unitarian and a whig he gloried in the spread of the opinions which he advocated. All reformers, such as Burdett and Horne Tooke, were numbered among his friends, and he maintained an active correspondence with the chief supporters of radicalism. He was frequently consulted by Palmer in support of his claim for a public grant for his services in improving the transmission of letters. Frend thought that the rate of postage should be reduced to a fixed charge of 2d. or 1d., and drew up a statement to that effect which reached a member of Peel's cabinet, but nothing came of it at that time. Disinterested benevolence and chivalrous assertion of his opinions were the leading traits in his character. He had been a pupil of Paley, and among his own pupils were E. D. Clarke, the traveller, Copley (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), and Malthus; he was himself the last of ‘the learned anti-Newtonians and a noted oppugner of all that distinguishes Algebra from Arithmetic.’ In 1808 he married a daughter of the Rev. Francis Blackburne, vicar of Brignall in Yorkshire,


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  to Madrid in 1802 and Berlin 1805, and in 1807 became secretary of embassy at Constantinople, and witnessed the discomfiture of Mr. Arbuthnot and Admiral Duckworth. In 1808 he returned to Spain as secretary of embassy, and acted as minister plenipotentiary ad interim at Seville from November 1809 to January 1810, and at Cadiz from 29 Jan. to 2 March. Gazetted secretary of embassy at Constantinople in March 1811, he and his chief, Robert Liston, did not proceed to their post till the following year, when in June they relieved Stratford Canning [q. v.] from his responsibility as minister plenipotentiary. From 1815 to 1817, and again from 1820 to 1821, Frere took charge of the embassy at the Porte as minister plenipotentiary ad interim, but in August 1821 he finally retired on a pension, which he enjoyed for thirty years, till his death in Old Burlington Street, London, 29 May 1851, aged 74. He was a useful public servant of ordinary abilities.

FRERE, HENRY BARTLE EDWARD, commonly called  (1815–1884), statesman, belonged to a family associated for centuries with the eastern counties of England. His grandfather, [q. v.], was second wrangler in Paley's year (1763), was elected M.P. for Norwich, and at his death left seven sons, of whom [q. v.] was the eldest. Edward, the second son, was father of Henry Bartle Edward Frere. Edward Frere (1770–1844) married, 28 July 1800, Mary Anne, eldest daughter and coheiress of James Greene, esq., M.P. for Arundel in 1759, and had by her nine sons and five daughters. Henry Bartle was the sixth son. Born at Clydach, Brecknockshire, on 29 March 1815, he was sent at an early age to the grammar school at Bath. In the narrow range of subjects there taught Frere gained distinction, and he entered Haileybury in 1832. In this college he showed capacity for a wider scope of study. At the end of the first term he stood second on the list of scholars, and during the following term he gained the highest place, which he retained until the end of his course. In 1834 he received his appointment to a writership in the Bombay civil service. At this time the normal length of the voyage to India was from four to five months. But Lieutenant Waghorn's successful journey by Egypt having shown that the bowstring is shorter than the bow, Frere applied to the court of directors for permission to find his way to India by the same road. After some hesitation the directors granted the request, having learned that Lord William Bentinck proposed to send a steamer to Suez, which on its return voyage was to meet at Socotra a vessel carrying the mails to Bombay. In May 1834 the young civilian sailed from Falmouth, but on arriving at Malta found that the steamer was not expected at Suez until August. He was thus enabled to spend a month with his uncle Hookham Frere, then living in Malta on account of his wife's health. There he studied Arabic under the guidance of the well-known Dr. Wolfe, who on his departure vouched for him that he knew enough Arabic ‘to scold his way through Egypt.’

Frere finally left Malta in a Greek brigantine for Alexandria, where he joined four other travellers who were taking the same route. He journeyed with them laboriously to Cairo, and thence to Thebes and Carnac, whence they struck across the desert on camels to Kosseir, on the Red Sea. Here, following the example of Waghorn, they embarked in open boats and reached Mocha, viâ Yambo and Jeddah. At Mocha they engaged passages for Bombay in an Arab dhow laden with pilgrims. After many dangers and a narrow escape from starvation they landed at Bombay on 23 Sept. The very unorthodox manner of arrival on Indian soil placed Frere under the necessity of proving his identity. He quickly settled down to the study of Hindustani, Marathi, and Gujarati, and, having in 1835 passed in all these languages, was appointed assistant to the collector at Poona. He devoted himself with characteristic zeal to his duties, and showed the same enthusiasm when subsequently detached to assist [q. v.] in investigating the system of land assessment of Indapore. Thoroughly to carry out the work it was necessary to investigate the extent and nature of each holding, and the result of this minute investigation was to prove that the assessments were much too high, and to convict the native collectors of extortion and oppression in collecting the land taxes.

In those days native officials were still frequently imbued with the traditions of oriental misgovernment. Many of their victims instead of complaining threw up their holdings and drifted elsewhere. Large tracts in the district were thus left uncultivated, and other farms were only imperfectly cropped. Frere and his companions proposed thoroughgoing remedies. They recommended that the rate of the land assessment should be reduced to sums easily payable by the cultivators, that security of tenure should be granted to every holder of land, and that more strenuous efforts should be made to check corruption


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 By Olive Custance

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 on the part of the native officials. These recommendations were acted upon, and a most beneficial change produced. The people regained confidence. The spare land was eagerly taken up, and the district became one of the most prosperous in India. The obvious effects of this policy led to its wide extension throughout the Bombay presidency, as well as to Sind, Mysore, and Berár. Frere's zeal and ability thus gained for him promotion to the post of assistant revenue commissioner. This office he held until 1842, when he was appointed private secretary to Sir George Arthur [q. v.], the newly arrived governor of Bombay. Frere's new duties entailed considerable responsibility, more especially because Arthur had no experience of Indian administration. Upon Sir Charles Napier's annexation of Sind, the governor had to co-operate in the consolidation of the province. He was ably supported by Frere, who thus early gained an insight into the administration of the presidency. On 10 Oct. 1844 Frere married Miss Catherine Arthur, the second daughter of the governor, and shortly afterwards went home on sick certificate. On his return to India after an eighteen months' leave, he served for a time as assistant commissioner of customs, and was then appointed political resident at the court of the rajá of Sattara. The position of Sattara was defined by a treaty made on the conquest of the Marathá territory in 1818. Pertâb Sahib, the then rajá, a descendant of Sivaji, who established the Marathá power in 1644, was the nominal ruler, but for several generations the imperial authority had been allowed to fall into the hands of the peshwas or mayors of the palace. By the treaty of 1818 the greater part of the southern Marathá territory was annexed by the East India Company, Sattara being especially reserved for the rajá. Four years later the district was handed over to him, and a resident was appointed to his court. From being a mere puppet in the hands of the peshwa he had thus become a reigning sovereign. But he had grown disaffected to his benefactors, and had been at last sent as a state prisoner to Benares. Shahjí, his brother, was appointed to succeed him. Frere was nominated to Sattara during the reign of Shahjí, and for two years and a half he devoted his energies to improving the condition of the people. He directed especial attention to the improvement of the roads and the means of irrigation, and it was at his instigation that a tunnel, the first ever constructed in India, was made connecting a fertile valley with the town of Sattara. In 1847 Pertâb Sahib died, having adopted an heir who was inclined to put forward pretensions to the rajáship. Meanwhile Shahjí was in bad health, and having no male issue was desirous of adopting a son and successor. In the beginning of April 1848 the rajá told Frere of his intention. He hoped that the government would sanction a handsome provision from the Sattara revenues for the support of the child whom he might take under his protection, and begged Frere to obtain the consent of the government to his adopting a member of the Bhonslay family as his son. Frere agreed to submit the rajá's request to the government, but warned him that the previous sanction of the court of directors might be necessary. This warning did not prevent the rajá from making the adoption a few hours before his death. Frere, who was absent at the time, having left at the rajá's earnest request to press his wishes on the government, hastened back to Sattara at the risk of his life, for the people were fanatically excited at the political position, and without the escort which the governor wished him to take. For nine months he administered the province, being careful in the meantime to avoid recognising in any way the adopted son. By the old treaty of 1818 the government of India had definitely ceded Sattara to the rajá, his heirs and successors, and Frere was of opinion, therefore, that they were in honour bound to recognise the title of the adopted son to the throne. This was strongly the opinion also of Mountstuart Elphinstone [q. v.] and Captain Grant Duff, the negotiators of the treaty, and of Sir George Clerk, the governor of Bombay, but the governor-general and the majority of his council took an opposite view. Lord Dalhousie recorded it as his strong and deliberate opinion that ‘the British government is bound not to put aside or to neglect such rightful opportunities of acquiring territory or revenue as may from time to time present themselves,’ and therefore should not give effect to the device of the Hindoo law for sustaining the succession by adoption. These views were supported by a majority in the court of directors, and Sattara was consequently annexed as British territory. Though Frere had not hesitated to urge officially an opposite opinion, he was selected as the officer most competent to discharge the duties of commissioner in the newly annexed province. In the exercise of his new powers he promoted cultivation by introducing cotton seed from New Orleans and sugar canes from Mauritius. He reformed the sanitary condition of the towns and villages, and provided them with abundant supplies of good water. He established suitable encampments for pilgrims, inaugurated municipal boards, introduced a system of popular education,


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 and provided for the preservation of ancient monuments. He held that an essential condition of progress was the full power of the people to appeal to principles of justice. The judicial system of British India was, he considered, ‘too refined and elaborate, and too difficult of access for general utility in ordinary cases.’ ‘A system of law,’ he wrote, ‘is to the social system of a country as the skin rather than the clothing to the animal frame; not only an appendage which may be made to fit, but one which must grow with the frame and accommodate itself naturally to the peculiarities and even the deformities of the body to which it belongs.’

In 1850 the chief commissionership of Sind, vacant by the resignation of Mr. Pringle, was in the appointment of the government of Bombay. The territory, nearly as large as England and Wales, was bordered on the west by some of the most turbulent tribes in existence; the inhabitants were idle and debauched, and in the case of the Sayyids violent and revengeful; and the country was still in the throes of annexation. An important party in the Bombay council desired the appointment of a military man accustomed to deal with turbulent populations; but Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general, deemed a civilian better fitted for the post. Lord Falkland, the governor of Bombay, decided to appoint Frere, and his colleagues threatened to resign if the appointment were not ratified. In a minute on the subject Lord Falkland wrote: ‘The commissionership of Sind requires an union and balance of qualification which, in my opinion, are not possessed in a like degree by a member of the civil service senior to that gentleman [Frere], who is a civilian of sixteen years' standing, and whose firmness of purpose, mild disposition, and conciliatory manners cannot but insure for him in the exercise of his official functions the ready co-operation and respect of the military authorities.’ Never was a forecast more happily fulfilled. Frere found his province distracted by factions and the people grossly ignorant. The dispossessed amirs claimed the sympathy of their former dependents as victims of foreign usurpation. Frere's first care was therefore to deprive the amirs of claims to commiseration by pensioning them off. Twenty-two families were thus treated, and by timely courtesy and consideration were converted into loyal supporters of the British government. He next turned his attention to the development of the province. He improved the harbour at Karàchi and gave municipal institutions to that and nineteen other towns. He established a library and museum at Karàchi, and, after the manner of Warren Hastings, ordered every deputy-collector in the province to forward each season specimens of the raw products of their districts for exhibition in the museum. He improved and multiplied the roads and canals, built bungalows, baths, and places of shelter for travellers, and caused a topographical survey to be made of the province. He established village schools, a written language, and a judicial code. He built barracks for the troops and opened recreation grounds for the public. He thus gradually converted the people into an industrious and law-abiding peasantry. His attention was equally demanded by the political condition and social requirements of the tribes on the western frontier. He might either ignore them or endeavour to impress upon them a recognition both of the strength and amiable intentions of the British government. The first course would save immediate trouble, but in case of an outbreak in India would leave Sind exposed to a possibly hostile force on the frontier. It is needless to say that Frere adopted the second alternative. He opened relations with the khan of Khelat and established fairs at Sukkur and Karàchi, to which the frontier tribes were invited. The institution of these fairs is in accordance with the best traditions of oriental policy. The Chinese have long held similar gatherings on the Tibetan frontier, and with most beneficial consequences. The tribes mixed in the bazaars with the Sindis, and learned to respect the justice of English rule and the weight of English power. In Frere also they found a firm and just governor. With an even hand he punished the predatory hillman and the overbearing British subject. In cases of outrages committed by the tribesmen he demanded from the chiefs the rendition of the culprits alone and abstained from all retaliatory measures on the tribe generally. The consequence of this policy was that the culprits became outcasts among their own people, and in some instances surrendered to the British authorities, finding themselves cut off from the society of their fellow-men. At the end of five years, spent in teaching the native races industry and forethought, and in introducing into their midst the arts of civilised life, Frere came to England (1856) for the benefit of his health. After a well-earned rest of a year he returned to his post and was met on his landing at Karàchi in May 1857 with the news of the mutiny. Frere recognised the vitally serious nature of the outbreak, and at once called for a return of the British forces in Sind. It appeared that for the control of this vast territory there were only 1,350 sabres, four native infantry regiments, one Belooch


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 battalion, three batteries of artillery, one European regiment, and a depôt of another. But Frere felt that when the Punjab was in danger this force was too large a one to be kept in Sind. His rule had been so successful that he could answer for the internal peace of the province, and he felt that, as he afterwards wrote, ‘when the head and heart are threatened, the extremities must take care of themselves.’ He therefore at once sent off his only European regiment to Mooltan, and by so doing secured this strong fortress during the worst days of the mutiny; at the same time he despatched a steamer to intercept the 64th and 78th regiments, which were on their way to Sind from the war in Persia, and to order them on to Calcutta. As the mutiny spread he directed a battery of artillery and a detachment of the 14th native infantry to march to the support of General Roberts at Guzerat. He further sent a portion of the remaining corps of Europeans into the south Marathá country, and the Belooch battalion to the further help of Sir John Lawrence in the Punjab. The removal of these several regiments left Frere only 178 European bayonets in Sind. And they were enough, though mutinies broke out at Shikarpur, Hyderabad, and Karàchi. Without exception these outbreaks were put down at once, and so slight a hold did the poison of disaffection get in Sind that at Karàchi the leaders in the revolt were tried by a court-martial composed of native officers, who dealt out exemplary punishments to the accused. But Frere was able to do more than give away the force he already had. He was able to create regiments, and when all natives were generally distrusted he raised troops who were as loyal as Europeans throughout the crisis. In the midst of all the work which was thus thrown upon him he found time to visit the khan of Khelat, and thus laid the foundation of an alliance which finally led up to the cession of Quetta and to the frontier treaty negotiated by Sir F. Goldsmid in 1872. Nor did he shrink from protesting with all the force of his influence and knowledge against the proposal of Sir John Lawrence to retire from Peshawur. While that fortress, Lahore, and Mooltan were in our possession, we were, he held, ‘lords of the Punjab,’ and he maintained that it would be better to stand at Peshawur a siege like that of Jellalabad than retire from it. He had time also to review in his own mind the acts of the Calcutta government, and a memorandum he then wrote on the constitution of the Indian army is as thoughtful and comprehensive as if written in the most peaceful leisure. Throughout the anxieties of the time he never for an instant relaxed his efforts for the development of the province. In April 1858 he turned the first sod of the railway from Karàchi to Kotri; in the same year the Oriental Inland Steam Company commenced to run steamers between Karàchi and Mooltan, and in the following year the Eastern Narra canal was opened.

Frere's great services were recognised by men on the spot. ‘From first to last,’ wrote Sir John Lawrence, ‘from the first commencement of the mutiny to the final triumph, that officer [Frere] has rendered assistance to the Punjab administration just as if he had been one of its own commissioners. … The chief commissioner believes that there is no civil officer in India who, for eminent exertions, deserves better of his government than Mr. H. B. E. Frere.’ In England the value of his services was also cordially recognised. His name was especially mentioned in the vote of thanks passed by both houses of parliament.

In 1859 Frere received for the second time the thanks of both houses of parliament for his services during the mutiny, and at the same time he received the knight commandership of the Bath. He was in the same year appointed a member of the council of the governor-general. Up to that time the members of the council had always been chosen from the Bengal services, and the tradition was broken for the first time in Frere's favour. The news of his promotion came like an announcement of disaster to the people of Sind. From Shikarpur to Karàchi came expressions of deep regret from both native and foreign residents. From being a comparatively desolate and barren country it had become under his rule a fruitful and well-watered land. Trade had been developed and fostered, and the revenue had risen in eight years from twenty-three to forty-three lakhs of rupees. Six thousand miles of road were opened out and the Rohree supply channel was constructed, which irrigated many thousand square miles of territory. He gave proprietary rights and fixity of tenure to landowners who had previously held their possessions only at the will of their rulers. He secured to the people generally the enjoyment of their lives and property. He improved the postal service of the province and issued for use in Sind the first postage-stamps ever printed in India.

Frere, from being an almost independent ruler, now became a unit in a body whose deliberations were criticised on all sides, and whose decisions he could only affect to the extent of his influence and vote. Frere had always kept his mind open to the great problems of Indian policy, and was not unprepared to face the enormous difficulties of his


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 new office. The finances were in terrible disorder. During 1859–60 the expenditure had exceeded the income by 9,000,000l., and the enormous addition to the military budget entailed by the mutiny appeared even likely to increase; the antagonism between the races was extreme, the whole military organisation unhinged. The disorder of the finances had induced the English government to appoint James Wilson [q. v.] to undertake the reform of the exchequer. From the first Frere worked cordially with Wilson, though not always agreeing with him in details. He heartily supported the steps he adopted for the reduction of expenditure, and especially turned his attention to the cost of the army, which threatened to become an uncontrollable burden. After all possible reductions the imposition of new taxes became necessary, and Frere supported Wilson in introducing the new income tax, which was strenuously opposed by large sections of the native community. The main credit for this and other financial measures of the time must of course belong to Wilson. Frere, however, did much of the work, and had charge of the exchequer in the interval between Wilson's death and the appointment of his successor, Laing. He again discharged the same duties for six months during the enforced absence of Laing from illness. A short experience of the governor-general's council convinced him that a radical change was necessary in both the supreme and local governments. The council, as it was then composed, was in his opinion manifestly insufficient for the work it had to do. The official section of the community was alone represented, to the exclusion of the mercantile classes and the natives. In the presidencies this anomaly was even more apparent. Bengal was governed by three hundred foreigners, all of whom were crown officials. The consequent bitterness of feeling was a continual irritant. Frere's strong sense of justice revolted against this inequality, and in season and out of season he urged on the authorities the necessity of reform. He held, with Lord Canning, that the existing executive councils should be supplemented by legislative bodies, in which the non-official classes of the presidencies should be represented. He urged strongly also the justice of employing native gentlemen in the administration of affairs. The equity and wisdom of these reforms were, when set forth, so apparent that they were successfully carried out, and the benefits resulting from them are now universally acknowledged even by those who at the time were opposed to them. The advocacy of these measures, which originated with Lord Canning, was ably conducted by Frere, who was at this time Lord Canning's confidential and trusted adviser on all matters connected with India. It was due also to Frere that the unreasonable unpopularity of Lord Canning was greatly abated. He was able to enter into explanations on points of Lord Canning's administration impossible for Canning himself, and his genial hospitality to Europeans and natives served to break down prejudices and restore confidence in a way that no official acts or complacence could ever have done. In 1860 he accompanied Lord Canning on a visit to the north-west provinces, on which occasion the governor-general invested Scindia, Holkar, the nizam, and others with the Star of India as a reward for services rendered during the mutiny. Frere also introduced measures for the encouragement of the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and indigo, and promoted in every way in his power the extension of roads and the construction of irrigation works.

In 1862 Frere was appointed governor of Bombay. Upon hearing this news Canning wrote: ‘I do not know when I have read anything with such unmixed pleasure. God grant you health and strength to do your work in your own noble spirit and energy.’ By the European community in Bombay it was recognised as a compliment that one of the foremost men in India should have been sent to rule over them, and by the natives his appointment was ‘hailed with heartfelt satisfaction.’ One of the first measures he carried out was to throw down the ramparts of Bombay, which stood as barriers against the sea breezes, and covered a space of ground daily becoming of more value. The sanitary advantages gained to the town by the demolition of these useless works became at once apparent, and as a financial measure it more than exceeded the expectations formed. The land fetched in the market 180 rupees a square yard, and on part of it were erected rows of public offices, designed by Gilbert Scott, which were then incomparably the finest modern buildings in the East. Municipal institutions, which always held a prominent part in Frere's administration, early gained his attention, and to him is due the municipality which now governs the city, and which in the first year of its existence was instrumental in reducing the death rate by two thousand. He established the Deccan College at Poona, as well as a college for instructing natives in civil engineering. He commenced the buildings of the Bombay University, and instituted English and vernacular schools in various parts of the presidency. He founded schools for the female children of soldiers


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 OBITUARY.

MARY HENRIETTA KINGSLEY.

Born 1862, died 1900.

one has fallen a victim to the war in South Africa whose loss has more keenly struck all who knew her, men and women alike, with a sense of being irreparable, nay national, than Mary Kingsley, daughter of Dr. George Kingsley (a naturalist and traveller himself), and niece to Charles and Henry. The blood of a gifted family ran in her veins, and she knew that their spirit stirred in her. Her training was not that of school or college, but that of home lessons and home influence. Books of all kinds, but especially scientific, abounded in the house, piles lay on the chairs and overflowed on to the floor, while the walls were covered with curiosities brought by the traveller from many lands, every one of which had its tale. The rambling garden at Highgate (where the present writer first knew her), the cocks and hens, her mother's pet cats and dogs, were part of her daily care as she grew up, together with all kinds of household duties. An eager student of natural history, and especially following her father's favourite study of fishes and their ways, geography and literature were not neglected in her education, and she learned German with pleasure, but not much French. When the father came home for a few months in the year the usual lessons were cast aside, but much quiet reading still went on. The doctor's brilliant talk had its unconscious influence upon his daughter; while contact with friends of scientific pursuits added to her knowledge. She took up works on ethnography and anthropology, studied philosophy, mathematics, and electricity, and helped her mother in good works.

About 1884 the family removed to Cambridge, where Mary enjoyed the society of learned and scientific men and women; and new vistas of study and of friendship opened up before her. But in 1888 her mother's ill-health became serious, and she devoted herself with much ability to nursing the invalid, while soon afterwards her father's health began also to cause anxiety. These responsibilities weighed heavily, and when in 1892 the death of both parents within two months set her free, the rebound was great. To


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 and for the orphans of natives, and he developed the system of grants in aid, which insured the existence of many of these struggling institutions. He promoted the improvement of the harbour of Bombay, co-operated in establishing direct telegraphic communication with England, and lent support to the railway from Bombay to Rajputana, Delhi, and other parts. The development of these excellent works was chiefly due to Frere. But the circumstances of the time contributed largely to their success. The American war had suddenly raised the price of cotton and thrown an enormously increased business into the hands of the Bombay growers and merchants. The sudden inrush of wealth produced a feverish desire for speculation. Many new companies were started, and their shares rose to enormous premiums. One of the most rational undertakings was the ‘Back Bay Company,’ which undertook the reclamation of the land covered by the shallow water of the bay. The shares advanced to an absurd price. On the condition that a site should be provided on the reclaimed land for the terminus of the Baroda Railway, the Bombay government took four hundred shares. The government of India refused to sanction this transaction, and the shares on which 200,000l. had been paid up were sold in the market for 1,060,000l. When high mercantile authorities were carried away by this excitement, it is not surprising that Frere should have partially adopted their view, or that the directors of the Bank of Bombay, among whom were always two ex-officio members of the government, should have sanctioned advances to individuals whose business profits at the time were admitted to be enormous. At length the bubble burst. In June 1865 the restoration of peace in America caused the price of cotton to fall as suddenly as it had risen; a panic followed, and the speculative companies collapsed. The market was instantly flooded with paper, and the bank authorities, becoming alarmed, called in their advances. The history of the bank during this period was one series of disasters. In 1863, at the beginning of the speculating mania, a new charter was conferred upon the bank, and this charter unfortunately omitted several checks and safeguards which had been enforced under the older act of 1840. The choice of secretary was made unwisely, and under the weak administration of this gentleman, and the careless supervision of the directors, the conduct of the business of the bank was mainly conducted by a native broker named Premchund Roychund, who drew unlimited advances for himself and his friends without either offering or being asked for the proper security. Rumours of the reckless conduct of the bank managers were current in London and Calcutta before they reached the ears of Frere on the spot. Twice Sir Charles Wood, the secretary of state for India, wrote warning Frere of the state of things, and the Indian government repeatedly addressed him on the same subject. On receipt of Sir Charles Wood's letters Frere gave the government directors stringent orders to see that the charter was on all points complied with, and, with a view to checking the superabundant speculation, he brought in a bill for the abolition of ‘time bargains,’ and forbade the members of the civil service to gamble in shares. But the inquiries of the Calcutta government as to the condition of the bank did not receive so ready a response, and it was not until a commission was appointed that the government of Bombay consented to allow the required information, which they regarded as unduly inquisitorial, to be given. Nothing, however, that was done was able to check the ruinous career of the bank. Having been of late managed on the Scottish system, it had been customary to make advances on personal security only. Finding, however, when the crash came, that it was impossible to recover at once the moneys lent out, the directors demanded securities for the amounts, and were compelled in many instances to receive as such the shares of wrecked companies. Though the failure of the bank was staved off for a time, it came at last. In January 1866 a petition was presented for winding up its affairs, when it was found that 1,889,933l. of the paid-up capital was lost. The ruin wrought by this failure was widely spread. Frere's conduct during the crisis has been adversely criticised; but the crash was inevitable. No individual action could have averted it.

Throughout this trying period Frere never relaxed from his philanthropic labours. With the able help of Lady Frere he inaugurated female education at Bombay. During the five years that Frere was at Bombay, Government House was freely thrown open to native gentlemen and their wives.

In 1867 Frere, having been appointed a member of the Indian council, returned to England. The crown conferred on him the order of G.C.S.I., and Oxford gave him the honorary degree of D.C.L. He became a member of the council of the Geographical Society, of which he was appointed president in 1873, and in 1872 he was elected president of the Asiatic Society. The university of Cambridge conferred on him the degree of LL.D. in 1874. But it was in matters directly


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 affecting the government of India that his main interest was centred, and in various papers in periodicals and letters to the ‘Times’ he urged on the public the views which his deep insight into Indian character had enabled him to form. He took a statesmanlike view of our intercourse with Afghanistan, as appeared from a letter to Sir John Kaye which was much misrepresented in the party controversies of later times.

Stanley's visit to Dr. Livingstone had called public attention to the slave traffic in Africa, and Frere was sent by the foreign office in 1872 to Zanzibar to negotiate a treaty with the sultan, Sayd Burgash, for the suppression of the trade. The sultan undertook to do his utmost to put a stop to slavery in his dominions. On his return from this mission Frere was sworn in as a member of the privy council. The freedom of the city was conferred upon him (1874), and constituencies vied with each other to induce him to represent them in the House of Commons. His position on the Indian council, however, made it impossible for him to stand as a candidate. In 1875 he accompanied the Prince of Wales to Egypt and India, and by his knowledge of Indian society and Indian personages proved himself a most useful ‘guide, philosopher, and friend.’ A baronetcy and a G.C.B. awaited him on his landing in England (24 May 1876).

The successful confederation of the British colonies in North America with the Dominion of Canada had suggested to Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, the idea of carrying out a similar system of confederation in South Africa. There was much to be said for the scheme in theory, and of all men Frere was best fitted by his successful dealing with similar difficulties in India to undertake such a work, had it been then practicable. It might reasonably be expected that he would be able to induce the inhabitants of South Africa to join a confederacy which would give to the inferior races all the protection and advantages of English rule, while preserving to them their national existences. Accordingly in 1877 Frere was appointed governor of the Cape and high commissioner for the settlement of native affairs in South Africa. But on landing at the Cape, Frere found that he had been set down at the very waters of strife. In the Cape parliament party feeling had reached a pitch which was well-nigh becoming dangerous to the state; the Transkei Kaffirs under Kreli were threatening the eastern colonies; the annexation of the Transvaal by Sir Theophilus Shepstone, which was publicly proclaimed twelve days after Frere's arrival at the Cape, was giving rise to agitation and unrest, and the Zulus were mustering armies which threatened the peace of Natal. As at the close of the first session of parliament the Kaffir affair presented itself as the most pressing question of the hour, Frere went to King William's Town and across the Kei at the risk of his life, with the intention of meeting Kreli to discuss the question in dispute, and explain the good will of the British government. Kreli made no response to this overture, and subsequently suddenly attacked the Fingoes, who were under British protection, in revenge for an outrage committed on some of his followers in a drunken brawl. The white settlers became alarmed with good reason. In their interest, as much as in that of the Fingoes, it became imperatively necessary that peace with the Kaffirs should be restored as speedily as possible, and Frere placed the matter in the hands of Sir Arthur Cunynghame, the general commanding. Meanwhile the conduct of some of the leading members of Frere's cabinet became openly and unconstitutionally obstructive. The position, complicated by the alarm of a savage war, was intolerable. Frere dismissed his cabinet, and Sir Gordon Sprigg, the leader of the opposition, accepted the seals of office as premier. From this time the war progressed favourably, first under Sir A. Cunynghame, and afterwards under General Thesiger, and a peace was finally brought about in 1878, after a trying succession of bush fights and rough skirmishes.

Tranquillity having been thus restored, Frere returned to Cape Town after an absence in Kaffraria of seven months. By the Sand River convention of 1852 the British government had guaranteed to the Boers the management of their own affairs, and engaged to respect their territory. The republic, however, had become greatly disorganised; the laws were not enforced, and the taxes had fallen into arrears. In 1876 the public debt amounted to 300,000l.; the confusion was chaotic, and neighbouring tribes were becoming dangerous. Sir Theophilus Shepstone was sent by the English government to report on the condition of affairs in the Transvaal. He came to the conclusion that the continued existence of the republic was dangerous to the welfare of ‘her majesty's subjects and possessions in South Africa,’ and in virtue of the power given to him formally annexed the state in April 1877. No resistance to this measure was made by the Boers. The president, Mr. Burgers, ordered the people to be loyal to their new ruler, and directed the state secretary to hand over the keys of the government offices to Sir Theophilus Shepstone. Little change was necessary in the personnel of the govern-


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 Rh recover tone and health she took a trip to the Canaries, and came back strengthened and full of new ideas and plans, having shown her daring and courage even on this short voyage. In 1893 she started for West Africa, alone, notwithstanding the fears of friends; she knew herself, and felt full of life and hope. Her aims were to collect specimens, principally fish and insects, and to see and know native man away from the haunts of civilization. After some months she returned, with a large collection including many new species, and with much information gathered through difficult journeys and extraordinary adventures, conquered by her cheerful energy. In December, 1894, she went out again to West Africa, exploring many new regions, making close acquaintance with the natives, their customs, laws, and fetish. Here her tact, her sympathy, and fidelity to her word, brought her a rich harvest of knowledge as well as of anthropological specimens. Returning early in 1896 she published the first-fruits of her journeys in Travels in West Africa, 1897, which (though she acknowledged it to be "a word-swamp of a book"), took the world by storm with its racy humour, vivid picturesqueness, and serious feeling. The interest in West Africa was awakened, and she found a new power by means of speech and lecture, which she used in making known the trader and the native, their deeds, their spirit, and their true needs. The Chambers of Commerce recognised her valuable efforts, she was made a member of the Anthropological Institute, and did not spare herself in spreading the truth through many channels, academic, literary, and charitable. Among these may be named the Hibbert Lecture (1897) on "African Religion and Law," and a paper read at the British Association, Bristol, 1898, on "Property among the Peoples of the True Negro Stock." The Folk-Lore Society is indebted to her, not only for her paper on "The Fetish View of the Human Soul" (Folk-Lore, viii., pp. 138-151), read at a meeting in February, 1897, when she exhibited and explained the very interesting collection of folklore objects which she had brought back from West Africa, but also for the valuable introduction to Mr. Dennett's Folklore of the Fjote, and for her ready and inestimable help in seeing that work through the press. In 1899 the important volume West African Studies more carefully elaborated her views on certain points. She also undertook the Story of West Africa (1899), and in the spring of the present year brought out the Memoir of her father (prefixed to Notes on Sport