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 CHAPTER VII HOW MORGAN THE BUCANEER SACKED OLD PANAMA

HERE are three sundry places where this citie (Old Panama) may without difficulty be taken, and spoyled by the Pirates. . . . And forasmuch as the most part of these people (the citizens) are marchants, they will not fight, but onely keepe their owne persons in safetie, and save their goods; as it hath bene sene heretofore in other places of these Indies. . . . Therefore it behooveth your majestie to fortifie these places very strongly."

So wrote Baptista Antonio, an Italian surveyor who had been sent by Philip II of Spain to report on his cities in the West Indies in 1587. Of the three ways he mentioned by which pirates could come to attack Old Panama, one was through the Darien country to the east, and nothing was done to prevent it. The second was by way of Nombre de Dios, but that town was already being abandoned for Porto Bello, healthier and strongly fortified with stone castles. The third route was up the Chagres, and the King did build a small wooden castle, called Fort San Lorenzo, to protect the mouth of the river. But nothing was done at Old Panama.

Yet with a little strengthening here and there, it could have been made a formidable place to attack. The sea Rh

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202 Denny was in a feverish state of excitement, was perspiring, prancing- about with his cane, never still, and laboring under some severe mental agitation.

"Alone, Fairbanks?" he projected, in a startling, breathless kind of a way.

"They've all gone to bed but myself," answered Ralph.

"Can I come in?"

"Surely, and welcome."

Denny thumped into the little parlor. He mopped his brow prodigiously, loosened his collar, fidgeted and fumed, and after looking cautiously around put his finger mysteriously to his lips with the hoarsely-whispered injunction:

"Secret as the grave, Fairbanks!"

Ralph nodded, with a smile indulging the whim or mood of his good loyal friend, who he knew was given to heroics.

"What's the trouble?" he asked.

"Bardon."

"I fancied so," said Ralph.

"Came right up here to see you," explained Denny. "Forgan sent me."

"The foreman?" murmured Ralph, in some surprise.

"Yes. You are not to report in the morning."

"Does Mr. Forgan say so?"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Page:Congressional Government.djvu/306

 his fellows. Is Congress rated for corrupt or imperfect or foolish legislation? It may urge that it has to follow hastily its Committees or do nothing at all but talk; how can it help it if a stupid Committee leads it unawares into unjust or fatuous enterprises? Does administration blunder and run itself into all sorts of straits? The Secretaries hasten to plead the unreasonable or unwise commands of Congress, and Congress falls to blaming the Secretaries. The Secretaries aver that the whole mischief might have been avoided if they had only been allowed to suggest the proper measures; and the men who framed the existing measures in their turn avow their despair of good government so long as they must intrust all their plans to the bungling incompetence of men who are appointed by and responsible to somebody else. How is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping?

Moreover, it is impossible to deny that this division of authority and concealment of responsibility are calculated to subject the government to a very distressing paralysis in moments of emergency. There are few, if any, important steps that can be taken by any one branch of the govermnent without the consent or coöperation of some other branch. Congress must act through the President and his Cabinet; the

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Rh "Strictly. You are not to come near the roundhouse for a good many days. They've got it in for you, and Tim Forgan and I are going to rout 'em, horse and harness!"

"Rout whom?"

"Bardon and Farrington."

Ralph started at this mention of his capitalist enemy.

"Mr. Farrington?" he repeated.

"Yes, old Farrington."

"What has he got to do with it?"

"Everything," declared Denny expansively—"everything! The company is going to lay you off."

"Very well," commented Ralph quietly.

"Pending an investigation of the smash up of this afternoon."

"I apprehended it."

"Do you know what that means?" cried Denny, growing excited—"red tape. Do you know what red tape means? Delay, bother, no satisfaction, tire you out, get you out, throw you out! They catch weasels asleep, though, ha! ha! when they try it on two old war-horses like Tim and me!"

Big Denny hugged himself in the enjoyment of some pleasing idea not yet fully expressed.

"Here's the program," he went on: "the

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204 came to Forgan. He'd got hold of the smashed roundhouse wall incident, and he had hold of the freight smash-up to-day. Said an example must be made, system must be preserved, at least a report to headquarters, and an investigation."

"What did Mr. Forgan say?" inquired Ralph.

"Listened—solemnly, didn't say a word."

"Oh!"

"Until Bardon asked him bluntly to lay you off."

"And then?"

"Refused—point-blank. Bardon left in a huff, with a threat; Tim gave me my point. I followed him. Well, soon as he gets back to Springfield he's going to get an order over Forgan's head to lay you off."

"Can he do it?"

"He won't do it."

"Why not?"

"For a simple reason."

"Which is?"

"We block his game. Have you got pen, ink and paper in the house?"

"Yes."

"Fetch it out."

Ralph wondered a little, but realized that he was in the hands of loyal friends.

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Rh "Now then, you write," directed Denny. "Mind you, Forgan is in this with me. You write."

"Write what?"

"Your resignation from railroad service."

"Whew!" exclaimed Ralph, putting down the pen forcibly.

"Looks hard, does it?" chuckled Denny.

"Why—yes."

"You'll do it, just the same," predicted the big watchman. "That resignation goes to headquarters. That ends Ralph Fairbanks, wiper, doesn't it?"

"I suppose it does—it looks very much like it!" added Ralph vaguely.

"It baffles Mr. Inspector Bardon, who drops the matter, beaten."

"But I've got to work for a living," suggested Ralph, in a half-troubled way.

"All right, we've fixed that—that's another section of the same game. Write out your resignation, and I'll tell you something interesting. Good!"

With complacency and satisfaction the watchman folded up and pocketed the resignation that Ralph wrote and handed him with evident reluctance.

"That settles the fact that Ralph Fairbanks is

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206 not a discharged employee!" chuckled Denny. "Now then, sign that."

The watchman had produced two papers. In astonishment Ralph recognized one as a check drawn in his favor by the railroad company for twenty dollars.

The other was a receipt witnessing that he had been reimbursed for time, damage to wearing apparel and railroad expenses the night he had discovered the stolen brass fittings. In brackets was the notation: "Special Service work."

"But I only spent thirty-five cents for car fare, and the suit of clothes I soaked is as good as ever," declared Ralph.

"You do as you're told, Fairbanks," directed Denny, with a magnanimous wave of his hand. "Now then, we, Tim and I and Matthewson, the road detective, estimate you had better keep active hands off railroading for about two weeks. In the meantime, Matthewson says you can take a run between here and Dover."

"That's where the stolen stuff, and horse and wagon, and Ike Slump and the tramp were started for," said Ralph.

"Exactly. They did not arrive. Matthewson's men have failed to discover the least trace of the layout after leaving Stanley Junction."

"Does he expect me to?"

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 and his Cabinet must wait upon the will of Congress. There is no one supreme, ultimate head—whether magistrate or representative body—which can decide at once and with conclusive authority what shall be done at those times when some decision there must be, and that imnediately. Of course this lack is of a sort to be felt at all times, in seasons of tranquil rounds of business as well as at moments of sharp crisis; but in times of sudden exigency it might prove fatal,—fatal either in breaking down the system or in failing to meet the emergency. Policy cannot be either prompt or straightforward when it must serve many masters. It must either equivocate, or hesitate, or fail altogether. It may set out with clear purpose from Congress, but get waylaid or maimed by the Executive.

If there be one principle clearer than another, it is this: that in any business, whether of government or of mere merchandising, somebody must be trusted, in order that when things go wrong it may be quite plain who should be punished. In order to drive trade at the speed and with the success you desire, you must confide without suspicion in your chief clerk, giving him

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Rh "Who can tell—he wants you to try. Has considerable faith in your abilities—as we have. He gives you two weeks at ten dollars a week. Here's your credentials—pass on any hand car, freight train, box or gondola, passenger coach, smoker or parlor car, locomotive, freight, switch or passenger, on the Great Northern and all its branches."

Ralph caught his breath short and quick. This remarkable dovetailing of events and prospects was rather exciting.

Having got rid of his budget of intelligence, Big Denny subsided somewhat. He had something more on his mind, however, and he began in a more serious way:

"And now, Fairbanks, for the real milk in the cocoanut."

"You don't mean to say this isn't all?"

"Scarcely. We might have taken care of you in a less complicated way, only that we made a certain discovery."

Ralph looked interested and expectant.

"It was this: Bardon, the inspector, Bardon, the ex-spy, is connected with Mr. Gasper Farrington."

Ralph said nothing. He recalled, however, the threat of the crafty old capitalist. His enemy had started in to use his influence.

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208 "Yes," declared Denny, "Bardon went straight to Farrington's house. When he left there he went to find some old-time cronies at the Junction Hotel. I had a friend listening to some of his boastful talk. We know at this moment that Gasper Farrington offers him five hundred dollars to get you discharged and away from Stanley Junction."

"Which he won't do!" said Ralph very positively.

"Not while Tim and I are on deck," declared Denny as positively. "Listen, Fairbanks: before Saturday night Forgan will see the master mechanic, before the following Wednesday the master mechanic will see the division superintendent, before the following Saturday the president of the road will have in his possession your full and complete record, beginning with your heroic conduct at the fire at the yards, the rescue of little Nora Forgan, the discovery of the stolen fittings, the saving of the show car to-day, and your general good conduct and efficiency in the service."

Ralph flushed at the hearty encomiums of this loyal old friend.

"In another week," continued Denny, rolling the words over in his mouth and sprawling out with a sense of the keenest enjoyment, "we

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Rh guarantee, Tim and I, a letter, something like this: 'Mr. Ralph Fairbanks: Dear Sir: Please come back to work.'"

"I'll thank you," said Ralph, with bright, glad, shining eyes. "My old place again—as wiper."

"Not much!" negatived Big Denny, looking bigger than ever as he rose to the full magnitude of his final declaration—"as switch towerman for the Great Northern Railway at sixty dollars a month!"

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text: Ralph of the Roundhouse/Chapter 25

title: Ralph of the Roundhouse/Chapter 25


text:
Author:Edward Shrapnell Smith

Works

 * (Heavy Commercial Vehicles)

title: Author:Edward Shrapnell Smith


text:
Page:EB1922 - Volume 32.djvu/552

 the microphone, has no motion imparted to it, and the sound heard is a minimum. If, however, the diaphragm faces the sound source, there are, apparently, differences in the pressures on the two sides (probably in both amplitude and phase), and a small differential vibration takes place, with consequent sound in the receiving telephones. Actually, as the hydrophone is rotated through 360° about a vertical axis, two maxima and two minima of sound intensity are observed. In this form, therefore, the instrument is what is called bi-directional, i.e. it is unable to distinguish between sources in front and behind. The desirability of obtaining a uni-directional instrument led to the introduction of the so-called baffle-plate, the behaviour of which has not yet been explained satisfactorily in terms of orthodox theory. The essential characteristics of a baffle appear to be that it should be made of non-resonant material and have air cavities within it. Such a plate, fixed at a small distance (which has to be determined by trial) from one face of a bi-directional hydrophone, transforms it into a uni-directional instrument. A single sound maximum is now obtained upon rotation, occurring when the sound source and the baffle plate are on opposite sides of the diaphragm; and a single minimum, this when the baffle lies between the sound source and the diaphragm. The " edge-on " minima, observed when the baffle is absent, now disappear.

Binaural Listening. The principles underlying this method of direction-finding have been described already. In the present case the main difference is that the sound receivers have to be submerged hydrophones. It has been found to be equally necessary for success that these should be as completely as possible non-resonant. The simplest arrangement used in practice was two rubber cavities placed several feet apart horizontally, and joined by separate equal tubes to the two ears. The device could be rotated about a vertical axis, usually passing through the hull of the operating ship. As in the case of air listening, compensators were often used in order to avoid the necessity of rotating heavy apparatus. An arrangement much preferred was to tow two or more fish-shaped hydrophones in known positions (about 12 ft. apart) behind the ship. Here electrical transference of the acoustic disturbances had to be adopted, and this necessitated great care in the choice of the microphones and telephone receivers so as to avoid selective resonance. (The behaviour of microphones in this respect was often unsatisfactory, and telephone earpieces, or magnetophones, were frequently substituted for them. This results in diminished sensitivity, but the binaural effects are much improved.) The telephone receivers delivered the sound into the compensator, and the phase difference was measured in the usual way; allowing, of course, for the difference of speed of sound in the sea and in the air channels of the compensator. In using a compensator with two sound-receiving units only, there remains an ambiguity of estimated direction, i.e. one cannot distinguish between the angles θ and π + θ. The introduction of a third unit, so that the three form a triangle of known dimensions, the units being capable of use in pairs with the compensator ensures the correct choice between the alternative angles.

Other Methods of Direction-finding. Several other methods of perception of direction, not easy to classify, have found application in practice. One of these consisted in fitting in the shell of a ship, on opposite sides, two diaphragms with microphones attached, arranged so that the hydrophones thus formed were of as nearly as possible equal sensitivity. These were listened to alternately by means of a reversing switch. The ship, on account of its considerable size, was capable of giving a marked sound shadow. Thus the starboard hydrophone would give greater response than that on the port side if the sound source were to starboard, and vice versa. By steering the ship so that the responses were equal, it could be inferred that the course was directed towards the cause of the sound. The limitations of the method were mainly those arising from local noises; and the speed had to be small while listening took place.

In other cases large numbers of sound receivers, usually simple diaphragms whose function was to transfer the vibrations from the sea to the air inside, were inserted in the ship's hull. Good results were obtained by an arrangement of this kind, called the Walser gear, in which the sound receivers were disposed at regular intervals on a large bulge, in the shape of a spherical segment, incorporated in the hull on either side towards the bows. The system acted as a sound lens, a sound focus occurring at a point where the "sound paths" by alternative routes were equal. Application of the laws of geometrical optics enabled the relation between the position of the focus and the direction of incidence of the sound wave on the ship's side to be determined.

Sea Sound-Ranging. The methods hitherto mentioned for perceiving sound direction would all fail when the sounds are abrupt in character, because they all require an appreciable time for carrying out the necessary tests. To determine the position of an exploding submarine mine or torpedo we require, therefore, a different device. A suitable method is one identical in principle with that practised on land. The main variations in applying the device to the sea are that the microphones must be in submerged hydrophones, and that a correct knowledge of the velocity of sound in sea water must form the basis of the calculations. Ordinary non-directional hydrophones of the type first mentioned have proved to be quite sufficiently sensitive. Indeed, the greatness of the distances at which explosions in the sea have given unmistakable impressions on the recording film has been surprising. Small detonators serve at distances of several miles, while the explosion of 40 lb. of gun-cotton is operative more than 100 m. from the receiving hydrophones. Many experiments have been carried out by the British Admiralty with hydrophones disposed in suitable positions on the East coast of Britain, and the installations promise to be useful, not only for locating mine and torpedo explosions in circumstances of war, but also for navigational and surveying purposes. A ship in fog, for example, could ascertain its position by exploding (with due notification by wireless to the sound-ranging station) a small charge near itself in the sea; the station could within a few minutes inform the ship again by wireless of its position.

Sea sound-ranging has necessitated the accurate redetermination of the velocity of sound in sea water. This has been accomplished by the inverse of the process just mentioned, viz. by exploding charges in the sea, and measuring by the recording string galvanometer the time intervals between the reception of the first shock by hydrophones submerged in accurately known positions. The observed velocity depends on several factors, including tidal flow, temperature, and salinity, which vary from place to place. The following table gives some of the results obtained, corrected to a standard salinity corresponding to a specific gravity of 1.-026 and a temperature of 10°C.:

The effect of tide, apparently, has not been allowed for. It would amount, at most, to a few feet per second.

The acoustics of public buildings have recently been put on what approximates to an exact scientific basis, largely as a result of the work of W. C. Sabine (Frank. Inst. J., 179, p. i, 1915). For good hearing three conditions are necessary and sufficient. The sound heard must be loud enough; the simultaneous constituents of a mixed sound must preserve their relative intensities; and the successive sounds must remain distinct and in the correct order, and be free from extraneous noises. The extent to which these conditions are fulfilled depends on the construction of the auditorium, its shape, its dimensions, and the materials of which it is composed. In already finished buildings radical alterations of the first two are not often feasible, but great improvements can be secured solely by suitable changes in the internal features.

The main difficulty arises from what has been called reverberation, due to the multiple reflection of sound at different parts of the room. If the reverberation is prolonged, it means that the rate of absorption of the sound is slow. Thus, in a lecture room at Harvard, where these experiments were commenced, the rate of absorption was so small that a single spoken word continued to be audible for 55 seconds. Successive syllables thus had to be heard and appreciated through a loud mixed sound due to the reverberation of many previous syllables, and the conditions of hearing were intolerable. Great reduction of the multiple echoes constituting reverberation can be made by increasing the rate of absorption of sound. It is apparent that, in the space of several seconds, the sounds travelling at 1,100 ft. per sec. will have suffered many successive reflections, and will, therefore, have penetrated to practically all parts of the room. The sound will have become diffuse radiation, and absorbing material introduced almost anywhere will be equally effective in reducing reverberation. An open window proves to be a complete absorber, in the sense that it permits the egress of the maximum possible quantity of sound radiation (cf. the properties of a small aperture in an isothermal enclosure in heat radiation). The introduction of cushions, carpets, wall hangings and people also largely diminishes reverberation, because of their considerable absorbing powers. Sabine has made a systematic study of the coefficients of sound absorption of various materials by the inverse method of measuring their effect in reducing the duration of reverberation. Typical results are given in the following table. These apply to the frequency an octave above middle C.

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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Morte d'Arthur

MORTE D'ARTHUR. This great English collection of Arthurian romances, written before 1470 by Sir Thomas Malory, as one of the cardinal books whose influence has reached beyond any mere personal fame. Personally, indeed, Malory has remained almost unknown. Even the probability that this 15th century gentleman and soldier served with Richard, Earl of Warwick, pattern of chivalry, was recovered only 25 years ago; but 400 years have proved the vitality of his book. After inspiring the conduct of noble English youth for generations, it was reinterpreted in Tennyson's most papular poem, ‘The Idylls of the King’; and, surviving so unusual a competition, it is still reprinted, read and loved. Yet as a translation, in great part from known French sources, it is not in our modern sense original. Therefore the reasons for its fame are the more significant as going to the roots of permanent literary interest. The first reason, of course, is style. Writing in the early days of English prose, Malory has the dignity and ease of such early historians as Froissart; but his even and leisurely pace does not preclude the force of direct diction. This rare combination of dignity with simplicity has been sufficient to preserve his work without any great strength of structure, any compelling movement of the whole. The ‘Morte d'Arthnr’ is not composed as a whole, not planned to lead us on stage by stage to a culmination. True, the closing books are felt as the tragic conclusion of Arthur's chivalry in a world of violence; but with many of the preceding stories it has no specific connection. Rather Malory worked as the mediæval romancers from whom he drew had worked before him. Collecting all the well-known stories — and a few less well known — that had come to be associated with the great name of Arthur, he used them much as he found them; and he told each for itself. Though he sometimesæ suggests complication of plot or development of character, he never worked for these in the ways of the modern novelist. The Renaissance had but touched England; and its literary ideas, even if they had been prevalent, would hardly have moved so thorough a mediævalist as

Malory. He turned away from the actual wars of the Roses to the legendary wars of Arthur's knights because of his intense sympathy with the ideals of a passing chivalry. He is far more mediæval than Chaucer. Though in style he has his own distinction, in composition he is the typical mediæval transmitter.

Every one of the stories that he thus brought together has a long history. Many of them reach far back into folklore. Most of them before they came to him had been told over and over again. The successive versions, their relations, their combination, the transference of a tale from Gawain to Percival and then to Galahad, the building up of a cycle of Grail stories and the attaching of this to the Arthurian cycle — all these have claimed much scholarly investigation and still offer problems as difficult as they are significant. But of this Malory was no more aware than the thousands of readers who have gone to him, not for history or folklore, nor for psychology or drama, but for the solace and inspiration of high adventure.

Beginning with the perennial story of the prince wondrously born and sent in the nick of time to claim the crown, right wrong, and establish a kingdom of justice, courtesy, and honor, he ends with the traditional hope that the same king, though in his stricken age borne away to the Isle of Avilon, may yet return to reign. Only to the latter books belongs properly the title ‘Morte d'Arthur,’ which is borne also by several mediæval poems. Between the young prince smiting the stone with his miraculous sword and the old king fighting his last battle against treason in the dim West, what a store of quests and deliverances, what a goodly array. Balen and Balan still show a primitive wildness in spite of the faint hint of the coming Grail; and the fairies, though crowded to the back of the stage by the stir of chivalry, still peep from their Celtic twilight. Morgan le Fay is dangerous in revenge. The Lady of the Lake gives the magic sword, and to her at the last it returns. Merlin the wizard, after all his triumphs of wisdom and skill, “was assotted and doted on one of the ladies of the lake.” But these are only old echoes. The stories are of chivalry; of Beaumains, youth proving its unconquerable force; of Tristram and Iseult, the immortal lovers, and Guenever, the queen mistress who drew the peerless Lancelot across steel and fire and even across loyalty; of Gawain, his earlier fame tarnished but still the courteous; of a hundred good knights who sought wild paths and frightful risks and stiff battles because they must make life an adventure.

Following these old adventures with adventurous hearts, readers have always been glad that they are numerous, and have not missed in the thronging of Malory's stories that unity which he did not seek. From the conquest of Rome to the earliest adventures of Lancelot, from Beaumains to Tristram, Malory goes leisurely, but always with zest; and by the way he pauses for yet other stories. The ‘Morte d'Arthur’ is a storehouse of romance. And above all the other quests, above the errant fitting throng, shines the supreme quest of the Holy Grail, the great romance of the Mass. Malory's aim, then, was not that modern literary distinction which comes from

originality of composition; it was to make men love the high things that he loved. His work was to him the handing on of the great traditions of chivalry. Caxton, who printed it in 1485, well calls it a “noble and joyous book.”


text: Author:Charles Sears Baldwin

title: Author:Charles Sears Baldwin


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Morten-Müller

MORTEN-MÜLLER, mōr'tĕn-mūl'lĕr, Norwegian painter: b. Holmestrand, Christianiafiord, 29 Feb. 1828; d. 1911. He began to Study art in Düsseldorf (1847) first under Tidemand and Eude, and later as a pupil in the academy under J. W. Schirmer. He removed to Stockholm in 1850, but in 1866 opened an art school in Christiania under government patronage. He returned to Düsseldorf in 1871 and devoted himself to setting forth the wild scenery of his native country in a series of vast canvases. Fiord, valley and mountain height are represented with fine imaginative yet truthful line and color. The most noteworthy of his landscapes are ‘Norwegian Landscape’ and ‘Entrance to Hardangerfiord’ (both in the National Gallery of Christiania); ‘A Fir Forest’ (in the Gallery at Hamburg); ‘Romsdalfiord,’ with historical figures put in by Tidemand (1876); ‘Start of the Fishing-boats by Night’; ‘Waterfall and Pine Forest’ (1879); ‘Fisherman's Cot in Christianiafiord’ (1880); ‘Woodland Lake by Moonlight’ (1892). His works combine romantic picturesqueness with color power of startling realism. In 1874 he was appointed court painter and member of the Stockholm Academy.


text:
Author talk:Frances Elizabeth Fryatt

I have found Miss France Elizabeth Fryatt, Member original of the Cincinatti Ladies pottery club founded in 1878. She is connected to pottery and China. (see this link not securized).
 * Yes and in that article it says that she wrote for PSM. Good get!

F. E. Fryatt write some article for Harper's Magazine between 1878 and 1882, one over pottery. In the scan of the toc of Harper's Magazine vol. 62 the author is identified as Miss F. E. Fryatt. Be carefull, Harpers database don't make difference if two or more author have the same name.--ChanurBe (talk) 12:06, 21 May 2011 (UTC)

US census
Daughter of Horatio N Fryatt (teabroker) Various ages given for age of Fryatt. 1850 states as age of ten, 1870 states age of 28, 1880 states 34, 1900 states age of 50.

title: Author talk:Frances Elizabeth Fryatt


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Müller, Morten

MÜLLER, Morten. See.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Müller, Victor

MÜLLER, Victor, German historical painter: b. Frankfort, 29 March 1829; d. Munich, 21 Dec. 1871. Beginning his artistic career at the Frankfort art school, he continued it at Antwerp and ultimately went to Paris (1849), where he stayed for 11 years,

studying the methods and manner of Couture, Delacroix and Courbet. He settled in Munich in 1865, and for the castle of Kronberg in the Taunus painted a series of scenes from the history of Baron Hartmuth von Kronberg. He also produced his famous ‘Hero and Leander.’ Following these works came ‘Hamlet with Horatio in the Churchyard’; ‘Ophelia’; ‘Romeo and Juliet,’ and his last and unfinished work, ‘Faust on a Stroll.’ Among his other works are ‘Wood Nymph’; ‘Tannnhäuser in Venusberg’; ‘A Scene from Les Misérables.’ His last finished picture was a ‘Flower Girl.’ All of his works are distinguished by a certain literary or poetic character which appeals to the fancy like a strain of lyric music, although the coloring sometimes runs in its vividness to the verge of extravagance.


text:
Author:Walter Coventry Summers

Works

 * A Study of the Argonautica of Valerius Flaccus (1894)
 * Select Letters of Seneca (1910)
 * (in part)
 * (in part)

title: Author:Walter Coventry Summers


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Müller, Wilhelm

MÜLLER, Wilhelm, German poet: b. Dessau, 7 Oct 1794; d. there, 30 Sept. 1827. He studied at Berlin, but the war of 1813 called him from his books, and he was present as a volunteer in the Prussian army at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen, Hanau and Kulm. In 1814 he returned to his studies at Berlin. His journey to Italy (1819) produced his ingenious work ‘Rom, Römer und Römerinnen’ (1820), and on his return to Germany he became teacher of Latin and Greek in the newly-established school at Dessau, where he was also appointed ducal librarian. In 1824 appeared his ‘Gedichte aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines reisenden Waldhornisten.’ His ‘Lieder der Griechen’ (1821-24) celebrate the awakening of an oppressed nation, its struggle and its victory. His ‘Lyrische Spaziergänge’ (Leipzig 1827) displays the same truth to nature, freshness and fire and the same harmony of language which characterizes his other poems. Many of his poems imitate with utmost perfection the true German Volkslied. Several of the ‘Müllerlieder’ are familiar through Franz Schubert's remarkable musical settings. His ‘Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17. Jahrhunderts’ (1822-27) is a valuable collection of the best lyric poems of that period. His works were collected in five volumes (1830). He was the father of Prof. Max Müller, the well-known philologist. A critical edition of his works appeared at Berlin in 1906. Consult Hako, B., ‘W. Müller, Leben und Dichten’ (Berlin 1908).


text:
Author:James Montgomery Stuart

Works

 * The History of Free Trade in Tuscany
 * Reminiscences and Essays

title: Author:James Montgomery Stuart


text:
Page:EB1922 - Volume 32.djvu/553

Other measurements indicated that an audience gave an absorption equal to 44% of that due to an equal area of complete absorber, thus accounting for the improved hearing conditions known to exist in well-filled buildings.

The absorption of sound can thus be adjusted with precision, but it must not be carried too far, otherwise the sound intensity is too much diminished. The ear is able to disregard, or even to take advantage of, reverberation which is not too prolonged, and the extent of absorption has to be adjusted to the appropriate amount. Too many apertures such as open windows or doors must be avoided.

Sabine has also made examination of the exact manner in which sound is reflected in an auditorium by constructing scale models of the latter, and photographing the sound waves at various instants after creation, using the beautiful method due to Toepler (Annalen der Physik, 127, p. 556) and elaborated by R. W. Wood (Physical Optics, 2 ed., 1911, p. 94). By this means the positions of the sound waves, both incident and reflected, are capable of observation at all instants and at all points in the model room, and they provide data upon which can be based correct architectural construction from the acoustic point of view.

Absolute Measurement of Sound. A. G. Webster (Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc.. 5, p. 173, 1919) has advanced to a considerable extent the methods of absolute measurement. For this purpose it is impossible to rely upon audition, handicapped as it is by the vagaries of the ear. What is required is a reliable mechanical device, the performance of which is constant, to record the sound vibrations with sufficient magnification. Webster has made an exhaustive study of the properties of various materials, and has constructed from those most suitable for the purpose two instruments which he has called the phone and phonometer respectively. The phone provides a means of creating a simple tone of intensity and frequency which are under control and capable of exact measurement. The phonometer is an instrument for measuring absolutely the vibrations received by it. It consists of the combination of a diaphragm and a resonator, both of which are adjustable in frequency. The motion of the diaphragm is observed by making it a reflector and part of a Michelson interferometer, so that the amplitude is measured in terms of the wave-length of suitable monochromatic light. In practice the interference fringes are photographed on a moving film upon which they appear as wavy lines. Against this instrument, which is regarded as a standard, other portable phonometers can be calibrated, these depending on the simpler process of the deflection of a beam of light set into angular oscillation by the receiving diaphragm. With such instruments, and also with D. C. Miller's phonodeik (referred to later) L. V. King has carried out an elaborate investigation on the propagation of sound in air and fog-signal efficiency (Phil. Trans.. 218, p. 211, 1919) in the region near Father Point, Quebec. King, in this paper; also describes a modification of the siren called the diaphone, used as a standard source of sound in his research.

Analysis of Sound. Webster's phonometer described above is a resonant instrument, and, therefore, unsuitable for the analysis of mixed sounds. Much progress has been made, however, in the analysis of such sounds, using non-resonant recorders, for example, D. C. Miller's phonodeik. This instrument, which depends on the motion imparted to a tiny mirror by the operation of a vibrating diaphragm, is described in Miller's Science of Musical Sounds (1916), where also will be found the results of the analysis of various sounds. Similar work has been carried out by C. V. Raman, in relation to the vibrations of bowed strings and instruments of the violin family (Indian Assoc. for Cultivation of Science, Bull. No. 15, 1918). In these cases the sound record is of the ordinary type and consists of the trace on a moving photographic film of a spot of light vibrating at right angles to the motion of the film, thus forming a transverse wave. Records of a different type have recently been obtained (A. O. Rankine, Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., 32, p. 78, 1919) in which the sounds are caused to vary the intensity of a narrow beam of light, which gives on a moving film a line image perpendicular to the motion. The record thus consists of a negative film of varying transparency along its length. It is not so suitable as transverse records for direct analysis of the component frequencies, but it has the advantage that it admits of reproduction of the sound by means of a selenium cell, such as is used in phototelephony. This arrangement constitutes a novel type of phonograph operated by light, first invented by Ernst Ruhmer in 1900, but hitherto little known. (A. O. R.) SOUTH AFRICA (see 25.463). On the conquest of German S.W. Africa by the Union forces in 1915 the whole of S. Africa, except for the Portuguese possessions S. of the Zambezi came under British administration. Excluding the Portuguese territory (for which see and ), S. Africa was in 1921 divided politically as follows:—

1. The Union of S. Africa, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire formed in 1910 and consisting of the former colonies of the Cape, Natal, Orange River (Free State) and Transvaal.

2. The S.W. Protectorate (ex-German S.W. Africa), administered under mandate as an integral part of the Union.

3. The native protectorates of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland, administered by the British Colonial Office.

4. Rhodesia, consisting of two separate administrations, S. Rhodesia and N. Rhodesia; both under the rule of the British S.A. Company.

Area and Population—Including both Rhodesias the area of S. Africa is approximately 1,650,000 sq.m., of which some 125,000 sq.m. are Portuguese. The total pop. in 1921 was little over 11,000,000 of whom some 700,000 lived in Portuguese territory.

The following table shows the white population in the Union and in Rhodesia at the censuses of 1911, 1918 and 1921:— The increase per cent, in the Union in the period 1911–21 was 19.23, masculinity (the number of males to 100 females) decreased from 115.92 to 106.14.

The next table gives particulars of area and pop. of British South Africa at the 1911 census:—

Area Sq. m. Pop. 1911 White Native and Coloured Total Union of S. Africa: Cape Province Transvaal Province Natal Province (includes Zululand) Orange Free State Province Total Union Territories: S. Rhodesia N. Rhodesia Total Rhodesia Protectorates: Bechuanaland Basutoland Swaziland Total Protectorates Total British S. A. 276,995 111,196 35,371 50,392 582,377 420,562 98,114 175,189 1,982,588 1,265,650 1,095,929 352,985 2,564,965 1,686,212 1,194,043 528,174 473,954 1,276,242 4,697,152 5,973,394 148,575 290,000 23,606 1,497 747,471 821,102 771,077 822,599 438,575 25,103 1,568,573 1,593,676 275,000 10,293 6,536 1,692 1,411 1,083 123,658 402,434 98,876 125,350 403,845 99,959 291,829 4,186 624,968 629,154 1,204,358 1,305,531 6,890,693 8,196,224

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 THE TWELFTH EDITION

PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDS to ZULOAGA

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD.

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC. 1922

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Vol 29 Index (DNB00)


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Letters from Alexander Henry Haliday to Hermann Loew, 1867

23rd October 1867 Mr dear Dr Loew I received from you, by post, a short time since, a printed sheet, on Diptera with imperfect or deficient wings,—which, I hoped, might be the harbinger of a letter from you. Bur none having come since, I will no longer delay acknowledging it, and thanking you for your remembrance of me. I hope that your continued activity in science is a good augury of the state of your health, and that the serious illness of last year, with its lingering effects, has quite passed away, and left you restored at least to your ordinary measure of strength, and exemption from pain. I have much reason to be thankful for my continued recovery, after nearly three years of disability, that seemed rather hopeless. I have been able to take a fair proportion of bodily exercise this summer, without having undertaken any distant journey. And if I don’t feel myself capable of enduring the same fatigue, or mounting the same heights, as when I visited Monte Rosa in 1862, the lapse of time is enough to account for it, without repinings. When one writes ?? for the first cipher of one’s years, it is to be expected that the acme of vigour is pretty far past. I had one pleasant excursion, of three days, with the English chaplain of the Baths of Lucca, and his wife; all on horseback, each with saddlebags, or other epitome of baggage, slung at the saddlebow, and a squire on an ass,—otherwise not at all like Sancho Panza. We took up our quarters at Boscolungo, the pass of the Apennines between Pistoia  and Modena, lying upwards of 4000 feet above the sea, among fine woods of fir (A. excelsa and A. picea),beech and other mountain trees. This used to be a favourite retreat of mine from the heat of midsummer, in the first years of my residence in Italy; but I had not been able to visit it for the three years preceding the present one The - ascent of Grande. This, though the highest peak, is an outlying one from the general chain of the Central Apennine; so we had first the descent of 1000, and then an ascent of 4000 feet to make. The heat of summer had dried up the short herbage on the slope of the mountain most obvious for ascent, so that it was dangerously slippery, and we had to choose a longer and more rugged path winding half round the mountain. The weather was magnificent, and there was but one thing to be missed in the grand panorama from the summit. A seafog,beyond the headland of Piombino, obscured the Mediterranean with the islands Elba, Corsica etc. But on that side the wild serrated coast of the Apuane Alps Alps was distinctly drawn and before us, from the one extremity where it first rises out of the Lunigiana valley  valley, to the other where it ends in the half detached group of the Pisan mountains [understood as the whole extent of the mountainous system dividing, Pisa and Lucca] “whereby the Pisans cannot see Lucca”. At the other side we had, undiscovered by fog, the expanded plain of the Romagna & Lombardy, with its ramified system of broad river channels, bounded by the long line of the Adriatic. The third day, we returned home by another pass La Foce 300 feet higher than that of Boscolungo;—the first two or three miles of descent from which, on the Tuscan side,  ( the road  itself   here  but a precarious bridle - path )  present  the  grandest   views  I  know in  the Apennines. But then I had no opportunity of comparison with the nucleus of  that - chain

the Abruzzi, now an inaccessible region to tourists, the name of Shepherd and Brigand being there convertible, and the people more savage than their own wolfhounds. One other excursion I made after this, at the beginning of the present month, having been obliged to defer it so long, by the violence of the rains about the time of equinox. This was a visit to Major O Pirazzoli at Imola, with whom then I proceeded to Ravenna, here we spent three days, chiefly in its “immemorial wood” , and on the Adriatic shore which bounds it for 25 miles, or more—and which  had not tracked before, though seen several times from Cassione Of the city itself, and its early Christian remains of art, I took but a cursory view, reserving them rather for, I hope, a future visit, in company with my relations Signor and Signora Pisani. This had been planned for the present year, but was defeated by the accident that befel [sic] my cousin in the spring, as she had not yet fully regained the use of the broken limb. But if I was disappointed somewhat in the remains of art, it was not so with the fir wood. I can now better enter into Lord Byron’s longing memories of his solitary rides in those forest glades, —“Sweet hour of Twilight, in the Solitude of the Pine forest and the silent shore” etc.—after seeing the grand old trees, with the open, elastic, short sward, that clothes the bibulous sandy soil, the gift of the sea, inviting the pressure of the foot, or of horses’ hoofs —The underwood, itself evergreen as the forest, being cheerfully juniper, but gay with the flaming berries of Pyracanthia, hips of the wild rose, and coral red bunches of barberry, is no impediment, from the way it grows in small clumps or detached bushes. But there is much monotony in the vegetation; almost the only flowers, at that season, were Gypsophila and Diplotaris; and on the open coast the vegetation was so parched, that disappointed in reaping any entomological harvest (Pirazzoli, I believe, did not add one species or even any desirable capture to his  Coleoptera) we renounced the intention of proceeding (25 miles farther on, along the coast ) to the famed  valleys �(in reality lagoons) of  Comacchio. The weather indeed was almost  wintry, and unfavourable to our hunts. I was able  to verify the presence, on the Adriatic Coast also, of a few Diptera, I had met with on the Mediterranean previously and  two pretty   and I think undescribed  species of Ephygrobia and Anopheles pictus, of which I found two specimens in the  rice grounds.It is only since may return home, that having to go to Leghorn  on business, I found a couple of hours to spare for the shore, and though there also the withered state of the vegetation was impropitious [letter ends]

Etna & the environs of Catania; that  part of Sicily as yet free of brigandage and the Cholera , it is to be hoped , will  not continue a third year ;  though it is rife  at present about Catania.This on the suppostion that I find myself improved  in pedestrian powers, & fit for the mountainside; of which I have had no trial since 1863. It is just possible I have an earlier opportunity to make the experiment, as F. Walker, also intends visiting the Exposition, at Paris, the end of this month, wished to proceed on to Mt. Blanc, and asked me to meet him at Courmayeur ,on the Italian side. I was on my way thither in 1862, but turned back from Aosta, when I found myself nearly reduced to depend on horseback for my movements, from the effects of my nightly descent of the mountainside, & solitary bivouac beside the Lys glacier, too happy that I escaped with my limbs whole. However in a later [assuming this is the next page] letter Mr Walker expresses a doubt whether he will be able to go further than Paris, his elder brother being at present unwell. In the autumn, before the vintage, which promises to be early this year, (perhaps the end of August, or beginning of September), Iintend to join O. Pirazzoli (who has retired from military service, & resides at Imola ) in an Entomological visit to the pinewood of Ravenna, and the lagoons of Comacchio. I have done little good, collecting, this summer, having been so much on one spot. I have not nearly replaced what perished (of my first two years’ collecting) during the following illness, when I could not attend to the presentation of my collection. In particular, I have not met again with a new genus allied to Gymnopa but with nearly the structure of fore feet of an Ochthera; of which I had two specimens, taken on the sandy seashore near Viariggio. Nor have I left a specimen of my namesake, I mean the Chalcid which A. Forster honoured me by naming generically from my surname. Happily the barbarism dies a natural death, as I was able to assure myself, by comparison with the typical specimen (N. American) in British Museum, that it is identical with Metapelma (Westwood). I see you have characterized a second species of Attica, from the Salterns of ____ imagine it is the species (the only one of the genus) which occurs here,—and which I met with twenty years since in the Salterns of Lymmington, (works in existence since the times of Roman dominion in England) along with A. pygmaea, but easily distinguishable by its much more dusky colours. I had intended in my Maremma excursion to have examined the Salterns of Mortaiolo, inland salt springs. I went thither for the purpose, & had to sleep on the train; but the manager, to whom I had a letter of introduction, being absent, I found I should have had to sacrifice a day, writing for his return which was not worth my while. But I took, in that neighbourhood, a specimen which seems to be a link between Ephydra and Parydra. At the borax works of Me Cerboli, I found little to interest me entomologically. Only, whe [illegible],charged with boracic acid (of some unoccupied sources) was so hot, fresh busting from the steamy mumbling soil, that it was almost painful to the hand, there were the blood red larvae of a Chironomus swimming about with the usual wriggling motion; while a little lower down, where the pools were cooled down to blood heat by exposure to the air and the influx of cold water, these same larvae were chiefly on the underside of stones & wrapped in a blanket of mud , as if the climate were too cold for them.The species of which I took only a few, I have not determined ; my books as I said, not being freely accessible. Dolichopidae now beginning to appear in grater number ; and I have taken within the last few days both [letter ends]

in which the late C. Passerini  had found it plentifully now converted into a suburban garden, with not an old tree left;—and scarcely any but copse-wood remaining within walking distance of the town; and this, on trial, did not reward me with anything worth naming. Indeed the only species of interest, I can particularize as the fruit of this excursion, was Rhynchites ruber, a single specimen. The few remaining cork trees of Follonica seemed to be peopled only by the usual Cynipidae of other species of Quercus. In the sands of the coast I found what will be a new genus next to Astaeia, of which it has the neuration of wing; but this I had found before nearer home. Cyrtosia did not occur. I should probably have done better, had I made this visit, to the Maremma, the beginning of May; which I was on the point of doing; but at the last I consented, instead, to accompany a friend, who speaks no Italian, to Rome, taking the coast line of railway, so as to see the Maremma district in passing, which I proposed to visit. At Rome I spent four days putting him through a course of monuments, churches & galleries; which was very hard work;—remained as many more, after his departure, to see some relations and friends in the city; had not time for the country, only took one walk, the last evening, for about two miles up the bank of Tiber, which I found, on this occasion, singularly inanimate. Returning to Florence by another (the Perugia) line, I stopped for half a day to visit the falls of Terni  for the first time; swept by the battlefield of lake Piediluco  under the first rays of the morning sun; and spent a few hours in Florence, where I had not been since it was constituted  the Capital of Italy. Then came the trouble of moving a pretty large family, from the house in town, where we had passed the winter months, to the half finished country house, where we intend to remain henceforth, both summer and winter. It is situated on the slope of one of the hills that encircle Lucca, looking southwards over the city and its irriguous plain, and being perhaps six hundred feet higher,overlooks the fogs and frosts of the lowlands, which scarcely ever arise so high. While it is backed by hills as high again, which shelter us from the “Tramontano” and “Grecale”, the most formidable of the winds. I have scarcely moved from home since. I had hoped to have spent a week at the Baths of Lucca (16 miles Italian district) at the same time with E. Von Bruck & F. Piccioli; but the latter was recalled from the Gombo (a good locality on the coast, near Pisa, where he spent a fortnight with the Von Brucks) by business of the Museum, and was unable to rejoin them during their stay at the Baths, whither  I went past one May to see E.V.B. They were very successful at the Gombo, and E.V.B. afterwards at the Baths, collecting minute Coleoptera Pselaphidae etc. and E.V.B. gave me there a specimen of the new Anophthalmus, of the Tana a Termini,  a cave of the limestone, that D.E.P. Wright  Captain E. Bland & I explored in vain, for similar purpose, in 1863. E. P. Wright is now in the Seychelles islands, for an exploration of their natural history; but he was very unfortunate as setting out, the ship that carried out his Books of reference, instruments etc, having been lost in the storms of last spring. The loss of time, by this disaster, will be irreparable, as his stay is limited strictly by the obligation of being home, at Dublin, for the Zool. lectures of the winter session in the University; and those islandrocks will not afford supplies of material, or workmen, to replace the missing articles with temporary substitutes. I expect he will be able to see us, on his return road, in near October; and I hope to get him to come out here, next year, to join me in a visit to [letter ends …] I had he luck, for the first time, to find the female of that species, with the same form of femora , and with the silvery annuli  of palpi and tarsi  much more marked  than in the male. I have  too  been able by the past summers collecting to replace nearl all that I had lost of my first two years spoil, in the intervening three, when I was too unwell to give any attention to the preservation of them.In particular, I regret not to have found again the small Scatella with a signal “speculum”, or definite thickening of the middle of the costal vein;—nor the n. g. allied to Gymnopiella (Mosillus), but approaching -  in the enlargement of variolous sculpture of the face,—and Ochthera in the form of the forelegs. In the Hymenoptera I have been a little, and just a little, more successful. However I got again, this autumn, Rondani’s Pegophila meridionalis, which he had only from Malta through Dr.Schembri. It appears here only after the autumnal equinox, for a few days, and in small number. The genus is a good one, in my opinion, and most nearly allied to -. I regret greatly that, at the distance we are from each other, it is so difficult to effect any interchange of other things than writings. I sent, in a treble letter to J. Gray of the British Museum, not very long ago, some choice specimens;—the letter never came to his hands;—and I can hardly replace its contents;—so that, even for the little that could be sent in that way, the prospect is not encouraging. By the bye, would you kindly let me know, referring to date of letter, what exactly I did write about a second species of Epidapus I presume it must have been based on a sight of a Sciara  that occurs with rudiments of wings or none  but which I have not found destitute of halteres. Having consulted your paper in the Zeitschrift - Geranomya, Tachypeza etc. I must reexamine the species I considered as -  Zett. as I think I find the same, here, in similar situations (riverbed, and dripping banks). I know nothing of what C. Rondani has been doing latterly. Several late notes of mine, written with the desire to have seen him at Parma, where I crossed the Apennine, have remained unanswered. Yet I cannot find he was among the Italian visitants to Paris, in the course of the summer, so I must suppose him to have been spending all his vacation in the country, and, if returned to Parma, to have found so much to occupy him in his official duties, and in preparation for the press, that he has found no leisure to write to me again. As to Bellardi, I am afraid I must give up all hope of his correspondence again. The only brief note, I have had from him this year, was on a matter purely of his own concerns, though he excused himself by overwhelming occupations, and promised to write when he had more leisure. From A. CostaI have not heard of the results of the month he spent collecting (May-June) in the Terra d’Otranto. He had the fixed intention of going to Paris, after the University session; and I begged him to let me know in time, that I might have given him a rendezvous at Leghorn, on his way going or returning. So, you see, I am left pretty much alone to my Dipterological studies. Even Winnertz has left me a long time without a reply to my letter. But I suppose him to be absent on one of his usual journeys, and that I shall hear from him, soon after he returns to Crefeld.M. Bigot does not seem as active as he once was, in these matters;—I sent him, however, a tiny note, not long ago, to stir him to remembrance. I was much disposed, at one time, to write a half serious remonstrance to him, and to my good friend Dr Sichel, for suffering their names to appear as countenancing the publication of Dr. R. Desvoidy’s posthumous works on Diptera. It is hard work, at best,to keep the Augean stable [ tolerably clean, without pitchforking into it volumes of rubbish at once. And now, I have given you a pretty large dose of written gossip, with as little as may be of information or interest in scientific view—not having materials. I have not yet found room, in this unfinished house, to set out my books, and the part of my collections that I got from Dublin early in the summer, so as to be available for study. But now that the time for out of door exercise and collecting is pretty well past, [letter ends]  Of Italy, which is occupying a great portion of my time at present, sending circulars out, writing letters etc. In the course of this month I hope it will be formally and legally constituted and  before I start  for next summer's visit (if it takes place) to Sicily, I may see the first part of the journal out. How long it may be live is another consideration. The existing scientific journals of Italy lead but a languishing life;—and the heads of the young are full of politics (to little good in many cases), and to the sacrifice of literary & scientific studies. I wish I could induce you in charity to give us aid in the first instance with some essay, out of the superfluity of your materials, for the Italian Fauna, I believe you have better means to do so than any resident entomologist in the country;—and certainly would do it incomparably better. The journal is intended to be devoted to the Italian Fauna, not including notices of the species of western & southern Europe which may be looked for here—I am afraid however, from what you say of your engagements, that I must not hope for much until your intended retirement from official duty takes place. I hope the severity of the winter has not been unfavourable to your health—Here it has been productive of numberless cases of catarrh & bronchitis—from which I myself have escaped nearly free. And now,though snow & frost alternate in general, yet there are mid days often bright & mild as spring, and before long there may be expected to gain the upper hand—The unusual severity of the season has however driven insects to their retreat in an unusual degree.—for example, a few days since, I swept a bed of


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 the power to ruin you, because you thereby furnish him with a motive for serving you. His reputation, his own honor or disgrace, all his own commercial prospects, hang upon your success. And human nature is much the same in government as in the dry-goods trade. Power and strict accountability for its use are the essential constituents of good government. A sense of highest responsibility, a dignifying and elevating sense of being trusted, together with a consciousness of being in an official station so conspicuous that no faithful discharge of duty can go unacknowledged and unrewarded, and no breach of trust undiscovered and unpunished,—these are the influences, the only influences, which foster practical, energetic, and trustworthy statesmanship. The best rulers are always those to whom great power is intrusted in such a manner as to make them feel that they will surely be abundantly honored and recompensed for a just and patriotic use of it, and to make them know that nothing can shield them from full retribution for every abuse of it.

It is, therefore, manifestly a radical defect in our federal system that it parcels out power and confuses responsibility as it does. The main purpose of the Convention of 1787 seems to have been to accomplish this grievous mistake. The “literary theory” of checks and balances is

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 a consistent account of what our coustitution-makers tried to do; and those checks and balances have proved mischievous just to the extent to which they have succeeded in establishing themselves as realities. It is quite safe to say that were it possible to call together again the members of that wonderful Convention to view the work of their hands in the light of the century that has tested it, they would be the first to admit that the only fruit of dividing power had been to make it irresponsible. It is just this that has made civil service reform tarry in this country and that makes it still almost doubtful of issue. We are in just the case that England was in before she achieved the reform for which we are striving. The date of the reform in England is no less significant than the fact. It was not accomplished until a distinct responsibility of the Ministers of the Crown to one, and to only one, master had been established beyond all uncertainty. This is the most striking and suggestive lesson to be gathered from Mr. Eaton’s interesting and valuable history of Civil Service in Great Britain. The Reform was originated in 1853 by the Cabinet of Lord Aberdeen. It sprang from the suggestion of the appointing officers, and was carried through in the face of opposition from the House of Commons, because, paradoxically enough, the Ministry had

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 at last come to feel their responsibility to the Commons, or rather to the nation whom the Commons represented.

Those great improvements which have been made in the public service of the British empire since the days of Walpole and Newcastle have gone hand in hand with the perfecting of the system now known as responsible Cabinet government. That system was slow in coming to perfection. It was not till long after Walpole’s day that unity of responsibility on the par of the Cabinet—and that singleness of responsibility which made them look only to the Commons for authority—came to be recognized as an established constitutional principle. “As a consequence of the earlier practice of constructing Cabinets of men of different political views, it followed that the members of such Cabinets did not and could not regard their responsibility to Parliament as one and indivisible. The resignation of an important member, or even of the Prime Minister, was not regarded as necessitating the simultaneous retirement of his colleagues. Even so late as the fall of Sir Robert Walpole, fifty years after the Revolution Settlement (and itself the first instance of resignation in deference to a hostile parliamentary vote) we find the King requesting Walpole’s successor, Pulteney, ‘not to distress the Government by making too

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 safe, are at length melted to thin, vertical, knife-edged blades, the upper portion being most exposed to the weather; and since the exposure is greatest in the middle, they at length curve downward like the cables of suspension bridges. This one was evidently very old, for it had been weathered and wasted until it was the most dangerous and inaccessible that ever lay in my way. The width of the crevasse was here about fifty feet, and the sliver crossing diagonally was about seventy feet long; its thin knife-edge near the middle was depressed twenty-five or thirty feet below the level of the glacier, and the upcurving

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 ends were attached to the sides eight or ten feet below the brink. Getting down the nearly vertical wall to the end of the sliver and up the other side were the main difficulties, and they seemed all but insurmountable. Of the many perils encountered in my years of wandering on mountains and glaciers none seemed so plain and stern and merciless as this. And it was presented when we were wet to the skin and hungry, the sky dark with quick driving snow, and the night near. But we were forced to face it. It was a tremendous necessity. Beginning, not immediately above the sunken end of the bridge, but a

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 little to one side, I cut a deep hollow on the brink for my knees to rest in. Then, leaning over, with my short-handled axe I cut a step sixteen or eighteen inches below, which on account of the sheerness of the wall was necessarily shallow. That step, however, was well made; its floor sloped slightly inward and formed a good hold for my heels. Then, slipping cautiously upon it, and crouching as low as possible, with my left side toward the wall, I steadied myself against the wind with my left hand in a slight notch, while with the right I cut other similar steps and notches in succession, guarding against losing

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 balance by glinting of the axe, or by wind-gusts, for life and death were in every stroke and in the niceness of finish of every foothold. After the end of the bridge was reached I chipped it down until I had made a level platform six or eight inches wide, and it was a trying thing to poise on this little slippery platform while bending over to get safely astride of the sliver. Crossing was then comparatively easy by chipping off the sharp edge with short, careful strokes, and hitching forward an inch or two at a time, keeping my balance with my knees pressed against the sides. The tremendous abyss on either

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 hand I studiously ignored. To me the edge of that blue sliver was then all the world. But the most trying part of the adventure, after working my way across inch by inch and chipping another small platform, was to rise from the safe position astride and to cut a step-ladder in the nearly vertical face of the wall,—chipping, climbing, holding on with feet and fingers in mere notches. At such times one's whole body is eye, and common skill and fortitude are replaced by power beyond our call or knowledge. Never before had I been so long under deadly strain. How I got up that cliff I never could tell. The thing seemed

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 many changes in the midst of a session;’ and Pulteney replying that he would be satisfied, provided ‘the main forts of the Government,’ or, in other words, the principal offices of state, were placed in his hands. It was not till the displacement of Lord North’s ministry by that of Lord Rockingham in 1782 that a whole administration, with the exception of the Lord Chancellor, was changed by a vote of want of confidence passed in the House of Commons. Thenceforth, however, the resignation of the head of a Government in deference to an adverse vote of the popular chamber has invariably been accompanied by the resignation of all his colleagues.” But, even after the establishment of that precedent, it was still many years before Cabinets were free to please none but the Commons,—free to follow their own policies without authoritative suggestion from the sovereign. Until the death of the fourth George they were made to feel that they owed a double allegiance: to the Commons and to the King. The composition of Ministries still depended largely on the royal whim, and their actions were hampered by the necessity of steering a careful middle course between the displeasure of parliament and the ill-will of His Majesty. The present century

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title: Congressional Government/Chapter 6


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 38? UTo&n JKtttr STICKEEN. Narrow 121110, 60 cents, net. Postage 8 cents. OUR NATIONAL PARKS With Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, gilt top, $1 75, net. Postage 17 cents. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Boston and New York

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 had run far on towards the reign of Victoria before they were free to pay undivided obedience to the representatives of the people. When once they had become responsible to the Commons alone, however, and almost as soon as they were assured of their new position as the servants of the nation, they were prompted to even hazardous efforts for the reform of the civil service. They were conscious that the entire weight and responsibility of government rested upon their shoulders, and, as men regardful of the interests of the party which they represented, jealous for the preservation of their own fair names, and anxious, consequently, for the promotion of wise rule, they were naturally and of course the first to advocate a better system of appointment to that service whose chiefs they were recognized to be. They were prompt to declare that it was the “duty of the executive to provide for the efficient and harmonious working of the civil service,” and that they could not “transfer that duty to any other body far less competent than themselves without infringing a great and important constitutional principle, already too often infringed, to the great detriment of the public service.” They therefore determined themselves to inaugurate the merit-system without waiting for the assent of parliament, by simply surrendering their power of appointment in the various

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 departments to a non-partisan examining board, trusting to the power of public opinion to induce parliament, after the thing had been done, to vote sufficient money to put the scheme into successful operation. And they did not reckon without their host. Reluctant as the members of the House of Commons were to resign that control of the national patronage which they had from time immemorial been accustomed to exercise by means of various crooked indirections, and which it had been their pleasure and their power to possess, they had not the face to avow their suspicious unwillingness in answer to the honorable call of a trusted Ministry who were supported in their demand by all that was honest in public sentiment, and the world was afforded the gratifying but unwonted spectacle of party leaders sacrificing to the cause of good government, freely and altogether of their own accord, the “spoils” of office so long dear to the party and to the assembly which they represented and served.

In this country the course of the reform was quite the reverse. Neither the Executive nor Congress began it. The call for it came imperatively from the people; it was a formulated demand of public opinion made upon Congress, and it had to be made again and again, each time with more determined emphasis, before

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 Congress heeded. It worked its way up from the convictions of the many to the purposes of the few. Amongst the chief difficulties that have stood in its way, and which still block its perfect realization, is that peculiarity of structure which I have just now pointed out as intrinsic in the scheme of divided power which runs through the Constitution. One of the conditions precedent to any real and lasting reform of the civil service, in a country whose public service is moulded by the conditions of self-government, is the drawing of a sharp line of distinction between those offices which are political and those which are non-political. The strictest rules of business discipline, of merit-tenure and earned promotion, must rule every office whose incumbent has naught to do with choosing between policies; but no rules except the choice of parties can or should make and unmake, reward or punish, those officers whose privilege it is to fix upon the political purposes which administration shall be made to serve. These latter are not many under any form of government. There are said to be but fifty such at most in the civil service of Great Britain; but these fifty go in or out as the balance of power shifts from party to party. In the case of our own civil service it would, I take it, be extremely hard to determine where the line should

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 be drawn. In all the higher grades this particular distinction is quite obscured. A doubt exists as to the Cabinet itself. Are the Secretaries political or non-political officers? It would seem that they are exclusively neither. They are at least semi-political. They are, on the one hand, merely the servants of Congress, and yet, on the other hand, they have enough freedom of discretion to mar and color, if not to choose, political ends. They can wreck plans, if they cannot make them. Should they be made permanent officials because they are mere Secretaries, or should their tenure depend upon the fortunes of parties because they have many chances to render party services? And if the one rule or the other is to be applied to them, to how many, and to which of their chief subordinates, is it to be extended? If they are not properly or necessarily party men, let them pass the examinations and run the gauntlet of the usual tests of efficiency, let errand-boys work up to Secretary-ships; but if not, let their responsibility to their party be made strict and determinate. That is the cardinal point of practical civil service reform.

This doubt as to the exact status in the system of the chief ministers of state is a most striking comnentary on the system itself. Its complete self is logical and simple. But its

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 complete self exists only in theory. Its real self offers a surprise and presents a mystery at every change of view. The practical observer who seeks for facts and actual conditions of organization is often sorely puzzled to come at the real methods of government. Pitfalls await him on every side. If constitutional lawyers of straitlaced consciences filled Congress and officered the departments, every clause of the Constitution would be accorded a formal obedience, and it would be as easy to know beforehand just what the government will be like inside to-morrow as it is now to know what it was like outside yesterday. But neither the knowledge nor the consciences of politicians keep them very close to the Constitution; and it is with politicians that we have to deal nowadays in studying the government. Every government is largely what the men are who constitute it. If the character or opinions of legislators and administrators change from time to time, the nature of the government changes with them; and as both their characters and their opinions do change very often it is very hard to make a picture of the government which can be said to have been perfectly faithful yesterday, and can be confidently expected to be exactly accurate to-morrow. Add to these embarrassments, which may be called the embarrassments of human nature,

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 other embarrassments such as our system affords, the embarrassments of subtle legal distinctions, a fine theoretical plan made in delicate hair-lines, requirements of law which can hardly be met and can easily and naturally be evaded or disregarded, and you have in full the conception of the difficulties which attend a practical exposition of the real facts of federal administration. It is not impossible to point out what the Executive was intended to be, what it has sometimes been, or what it might be; nor is it forbidden the diligent to discover the main conditions which mould it to the forms of congressional supremacy; but more than this is not to be expected.

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Fitzgerald  colonel of the so-called Kildare regiment, but induced Reynolds to take his place. The latter alleges that three months after his appointment he learned the intention of the conspirators to begin the rising by murdering eighty leading noblemen and dignitaries, and that to save their lives he gave the authorities information which led to the arrest, on 12 March 1798, at Oliver Bond's house, of the Leinster provincial committee. He does not state whether Fitzgerald was cognisant of the intended murders, but anxious for his escape he had on the 11th given him a vague warning and urged flight, whereupon Fitzgerald expressed a desire to go to France that he might induce Talleyrand to hasten the invasion. Owing perhaps to Reynolds's warning, Fitzgerald was not at Bond's meeting; but being told there was no warrant against himself was about to enter his own house, then being searched by the police, when Tony, on the look-out, gave him timely notice. So far from distrusting Reynolds, Fitzgerald, while in concealment, sent for him on the 14th and 15th, the first time to propose taking refuge in Kilkee Castle, the property of the Duke of Leinster, then occupied by Reynolds. Reynolds objected to the plan as unsafe, and next day took him fifty guineas and a case of pocket pistols. Reynolds clearly gave no information of these interviews, and Lord-chancellor Clare, if not other members of the Irish government, was also desirous of an escape. Fitzgerald, however, remained in or near Dublin, paid two secret visits, once in female attire, to his wife, who had prudently removed from Leinster House, walked along the canal at night, and actively continued preparations for a rising fixed for 23 May. The authorities were therefore obliged in self-defence to take more serious steps for his apprehension, and on 11 May they offered a reward of 1,000l. Madden gives reasons for thinking that the F. H. or J. H. (the first initial was indistinctly written in the original document from which he copied the entry) to whom on 20 June the sum was paid, was John Hughes, a Belfast bookseller, one of Fitzgerald's so-called body-guard. However this may be, the authorities knew that on the 19th he would be at Murphy's, a feather dealer. Fitzgerald, having dined, was lying with his coat off on a bed upstairs, and Murphy was asking him to come down to tea, when Major Swan and Ryan mounted the stairs and entered the room. After a desperate struggle, in which Ryan was mortally wounded, Fitzgerald was captured. Shot in the right arm by Major Sirr, who had also entered the room, his wound was pronounced free from danger, whereupon he said, 'I am sorry for it.' He was taken first to the castle and then to Newgate. Inflammation set in; his brother Henry and his aunt (Lady Louisa Conolly) were allowed to see him in his last moments, and on 4 June he expired. His remains were interred in St. Werburgh Church, Dublin, and Sirr, forty-three years later, was buried a few paces off in the churchyard. A bill of attainder was passed against Fitzgerald, but the government allowed his Kilrush estate, worth about 700l. a year, to be bought by Ogilvie at the price of the mortgage, 10,400l., and in 1819 the attainder was repealed. Fitzgerald was of small stature (Reynolds says 5 feet 5 inches, Murphy 5 feet 7 inches), and Moore, who once saw him in 1797, speaks of his peculiar dress, elastic gait, healthy complexion, and the soft expression given to his eyes by long dark eyelashes. He left three children: Edward Fox (1794-1863), an officer in the army; Pamela, wife of General Sir Guy Campbell; and Lucy Louisa, wife of Captain G. F. Lyon, R.N.

 FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1770?-1807), Irish insurgent leader, born at Newpark, co. Wexford, about 1770, was a country gentleman of considerable means. At the breaking out of the insurrection in 1798 he was confined in Wexford gaol on suspicion, but on being released by the populace, commanded in some of the engagements that took place in different parts of the county during the occupation of the town, exhibiting, it is said, far better generalship than the commander-in-chief, [q. v.] Madden commends his humanity to the prisoners that fell into his hands at Gorey. At the battle of Arklow he commanded the Shemalier gunsmen. He afterwards joined in the expedition against Hacketstown, and surrendered upon terms to General Wilford in the middle of July. With Garrett, Byrne, and others he was detained in custody in Dublin until the ensuing year, when he was permitted to reside in England. He was, however, re-arrested on 25 March 1800, imprisoned for a while, and then allowed to retire to Hamburg, where he died in 1807. In person Fitzgerald is described as a 'handsome, finely formed man;' he was besides a speaker of great eloquence.  FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809–1883), poet and translator, born at Bredfield House, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, on 31 March


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 1809, was the third son of John Purcell, who, on the death of his wife's father in 1818, took the name and arms of Fitzgerald. In 1821 Fitzgerald was sent to King Edward the Sixth's Grammar School at Bury St. Edmunds, under the charge of Dr. Malkin. In 1826 he entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, and took his degree in 1830. He made life-long friendships with his schoolfellows, James Spedding and [q. v.], and with his college contemporaries, W. M. Thackeray, W. H. Thompson, afterwards master of Trinity, and John Allen, afterwards archdeacon of Salop. The three brothers Tennyson were also at Cambridge at the same time, but he did not know them till a later period. With Frederic, the eldest, he kept up a correspondence for several years, and the laureate dedicated to him his poem 'Tiresias,' but, as Fitzgerald died just before it was published, their long friendship is further commemorated in the touching epilogue. Carlyle was a friend of a later date, but firm and true to the last. Fitzgerald spent the greater part of his life in Suffolk. His youth was passed at Bredfield, where he was born, and where he lived, with the exception of a short sojourn in France, till about 1825. His home was then for some time at Wherstead Lodge, near Ipswich, till 1835, when the family removed to Boulge Hall in the adjoining parish to Bredfield, and for several years Fitzgerald occupied a small cottage close by the park gates. Here his chief friends were George Crabbe, the son of the poet and vicar of Bredfield, and Bernard Barton, the quaker poet of Woodbridge, whose daughter he afterwards married. He had no liking for the conventional usages of society, and was therefore somewhat of a recluse. But he was by no means unsocial, and to those whom he admitted to his intimacy he was the most delightful of companions. His habits were extremely simple; his charity large and generous, but always discriminating; his nature tender and affectionate. He lived at Boulge till about the end of 1853, and then settled for a time at Farlingay Hall, an old farmhouse just outside Woodbridge, where Carlyle visited him in 1855. About the end of 1860 he went to live in Woodbridge itself, taking lodgings on the Market Hill, and there he remained till, at the beginning of 1874, he removed to his own house, Little Grange, which he had enlarged some years before, and where he continued till his death. His chief outdoor amusement was boating, and the great part of each summer was spent in his yacht, in which he cruised about the neighbouring coast. But he gradually withdrew from the sea, and after the death of his old boatman in 1877, the river had no longer any pleasure for him, and he was driven to console himself with his garden. On 14 June 1883 he died suddenly while on a visit at Merton Rectory, Norfolk, and was buried at Boulge.

Beyond occasional contributions to periodical literature Fitzgerald does not appear to have published anything till he wrote a short memoir of Bernard Barton, prefixed to a collection of his letters and poems, which was made after the poet's death in 1849. In 1851 was issued 'Euphranor, a Dialogue on Youth,' which contains some beautiful English prose. In 1852 appeared 'Polonius: a Collection of Wise Saws and Modern Instances,' with a preface on proverbs and aphorisms. Both these were anonymous. In 1853 he brought out the only book to which he ever attached his name, 'Six Dramas of Calderon, freely translated by Edward FitzGerald,' but the reception it met with at the hands of reviewers, who did not take the trouble to understand his object, did not encourage him to repeat the experiment. He consequently never issued, except to his personal friends, the translations or adaptations of 'La Vida es Sueño' and 'El Mágico Prodigioso.' These translations never professed to be close renderings of their originals. They were rather intended to produce, in one who could not read the language from which they were rendered, something of the same effect as is conveyed by the original to those familiar with it. On this principle he translated the 'Agamemnon' of Æschylus, which was first issued privately without date, and was afterwards published anonymously in 1876. A year or two before his death he completed on the same lines a translation of the 'Œdipus Tyrannus' and the 'Œdipus Coloneus' of Sophocles. But the work on which his fame will mainly rest is his marvellous rendering of the 'Quatrains' of Omar Khayyám, the astronomer poet of Persia, which he has made to live in a way that no translation ever lived before. In his hands the 'Quatrains' became a new poem, and their popularity is attested by the four editions which appeared in his lifetime. But when they were first published in 1859 they fell upon an unregarding public, as heedless of their merits as the editor of a magazine in whose hands they had been for two years previously. His Persian studies, which were begun at the suggestion of his friend, Professor Cowell, first led him in 1856 to translate the 'Salámán and Absál' of Jámí. After this he was attracted to Attar's 'Mantik-ut-tair,' and by 1859 he had made a kind of abridged translation of it, which he


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Fitzgerald called the 'Bird Parliament;' but it remained in manuscript till his death.

Fitzgerald was a great admirer of Crabbe's poetry, and, in order to rescue it from the disregard into which it had fallen, he condensed the 'Tales of the Hall' by liberal omission and the introduction of prose in place of the more diffuse narrative in verse. The preface to these 'Readings in Crabbe,' in which he pleaded for more attention to a neglected poet, was the last work on which he employed his pen. An edition of his collected writings, with selections from his correspondence, is now (1889) in the press, under the editorship of the writer of this article. [Fitzgerald's Collected Works, ed. W. Aldis Wright, LL.D.]  FITZGERALD, ELIZABETH, called the  (1528?–1589), was youngest daughter of Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth earl of Kildare [q. v.], by his second wife, Lady Elizabeth, fourth daughter of Thomas Grey, marquis of Dorset. Born apparently about 1528 at her father's castle at Maynooth, she was brought to England by her mother in 1533, when her father was involved in his son's treasonable practices. Her father was executed in 1534, and she lived with her mother at Beaumanoir, Leicestershire, the liouse of her uncle, Lord Leonard Grey. In 1538 she entered the household of the Princess Mary at Hunsdon, and when that establishment was broken up in 1540, she transferred her services to Queen Catherine Howard at Hampton Court. At Hunsdon Henry Howard, earl of Surrey [q. v.], first saw her. He renewed his acquaintance with her at Hampton, and began about 1540 the series of songs and sonnets, first printed in Tottel's 'Miscellany' (1557), in which he extolled her beauty and declared his love for her. One sonnet, in which he refers to the Florentine origin ascribed to the Geraldine family and to the Lady Elizabeth's education, is entitled 'Description and Praise of his love Geraldine.' Although many others describe the course of his passion, the lady is only mentioned by name in this one poem. Surrey at the time of composing these sonnets was a married man, his wife being Lady Frances, daughter of John Vere, fifteenth earl of Oxford. This marriage took place in 1534, and a first child was born in 1536. Surrey's relationship with Lady Elizabeth would seem to have been wholly Platonic, and an imitation of Petrarch's association with Laura. According to Nashe's romance, called 'The Unfortunate Traveller, or the Life of Jack Wilton' (1594), Surrey while in Venice consulted Cornelius Agrippa as to the welfare of his ladylove, and saw her image in a magic mirror. When he arrived in Florence he challenged to combat all who disputed his mistress's loveliness. Drayton utilised these stories in his beautiful poetical epistle of 'The Lady Geraldine to the Earl of Surrey,' first published in his 'Heroicall Epistle,' 1578. Sir Walter Scott has also introduced the first episode into his 'Lay of the Last Minstrel' (canto vi. stanzas xvi-xx.) Although these reports were widely disseminated in the seventeenth century, there seems no foundation for them. They are to all appearance the outcome of Nashe's imagination. In 1543 Lady Elizabeth, who was then no more than fifteen, married Sir Anthony Browne (d. 1548) [q. v.], a widower aged sixty. The poverty-stricken condition of her family perhaps explains this union, which Surrey has been assumed to deplore in his later verse. The wedding was attended by Henry VIII and his daughter Mary, and a sermon was preached by Ridley. Surrey was executed in 1547, and Lady Elizabeth's husband died in 1548. About 1552 she became the third wife of Edward Fiennes de Clinton, earl of Lincoln (1512-1585) [q. v.] She would seem to have been greatly in her second husband's confidence, and the facsimile of a letter (dated 14 Sept. 1558), written partly by her, acting as her husband's secretary, and partly by himself, is printed by the Rev. James Graves in the 'Journal of the Archæological and Historical Association of Ireland' (1873). Clinton died in 1585, and made his wife executrix of his will, but she appears to have been on bad terms with the children of her husband's second marriage. She died in March 1589, leaving no issue, and was buried by her second husband in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, where she had already erected an elaborate monument to his memory. Her sister Margaret was chief mourner, and sixty-one old women, numbering the years of her life, followed her to the grave. A fine portrait by C. Ketel, showing a lady with auburn hair, of very attractive appearance, is at Woburn Abbey. A copy belonging to the Duke of Leinster is at Carton, Maynooth. An engraving by Scriven was published in 1809, and Mr. Graves gives a photograph from the original painting in the journal noticed above. [Rev. James Graves in Archaeological and Historical Association of Ireland, 1873, pp. 560 et seq. publ. Kilkenny Archæolog. Soc.; Tottel's Miscellany, 1557, reprinted by Arber; Poems of Surrey and Wyatt, ed. Dr. Nott, 1815; Nashe's works, ed. Grosart, vol. v.; Duke of Leinster's Earls of Kildare, 1858, pp. 126-9.]