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 chromium of rendering gelatine insoluble. A solution of common alum has, to a certain extent, the power of waterproofing the prints, and generally fixture with alum is quite sufficient. Where, however, more thorough waterproofing is demanded, the prints, after transfer, should be treated with a one per cent, solution of chrome alum. Mr. Swan has shown us some prints very successfully transferred without a press. The transfer was effected with the gelatine solution ordinarily used, to which has been added one-twentieth of a ten per cent, solution of chrome alum. Prints intended for coloring in water colors should be chrome-fixed.

Mr. Swan generally adds a small proportion of a white pigment to the gelatine with which the transfer is effected, in order to give brilliancy to the whites of the picture, and to avoid the intervention of a transparent film between the under surface of the print and the paper to which it is attached.

The method of carbon printing with this tissue is better suited to the amateur than to the professional photographer. It involves more trouble than the use of the paper tissue, but the results are very beautiful; and as the photographer, in employing it, mixes his own preparations, he has certain points in color and intensity more completely under his own control than he could have in purchasing a ready-prepared tissue.

To prepare the Sensitive Collodio-Gelatine Tissue.—Take a sheet of plate-glass, free from blemishes or scratches, and clean it perfectly, finally rubbing the surface with a saturated solution of beeswax in ether. This is then wiped off with a clean cloth, leaving a scarcely

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 coating of the wax. This coating may be omitted; but it tends to facilitate the future removal of the tissue from the glass.

Now coat the glass with a plain collodion, giving a thick, tough, transparent film. The pyroxyline should be of the kind which yields a film free from opacity or opalescence. About ten grains in an ounce of solvent, consisting of equal parts of ether and alcohol, will answer the purpose. This film is, of course, suffered to dry before applying the tissue compound.

Next make a solution of gelatine and sugar, as follows:

The kind of pigment to be employed, and the proportion in which it is to be added, will depend much on circumstances, into the details of which we enter in another chapter; but it is especially important in the preparation of this kind of tissue, that the pigment employed be so finely divided that no subsidence will take place during the period the tissue compound remains in the fluid state upon the glass. The preparation in this state may be kept ready for use. It should be kept in a well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle; in hot weather it is apt to decompose if kept long. It may, if desired, be poured into a flat dish to the depth of about half an inch, and, when nearly dry, cut into shreds, and thoroughly dried; in which state it may be kept without risk of injury. When required for use after drying, it must be soaked again in eight parts of water.

The proportion of gelatine and of sugar given is that which is found to answer best under ordinary circumstances. But these proportions will be influenced by the

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 quality of the gelatine, the temperature, and varying conditions, in regard to which experience must be the guide. In very dry weather, for instance, the proportion of sugar may be increased, its chief office being to give pliancy and elasticity to the tissue, and prevent the horniness of the gelatine when perfectly desiccated.

To prepare the tissue compound for use, heat must be applied until it is quite fluid, when one part of a saturated solution of bichromate of ammonia must be added to every ten parts of the gelatinous compound, after which the whole should be strained through flannel. It is desirable, after the chromic salt has been added to the gelatine, to avoid applying a greater heat than is necessary to preserve fluidity, as excess of heat tends to produce spontaneous insolubility. About 100° Fahrenheit will generally answer the purpose. It should be further remembered that frequent and continued application of heat to gelatine destroys its setting powers, which would render the preparation useless.

The thickness of the tissue, and the proportion of the mixture necessary in forming it, depend very much on circumstances. If the tissue be too thin, the finished picture will not possess its proper depth of shade in its darkest parts, unless it has had an unusually large proportion of coloring matter. If too thick, drying is retarded, and it is intractable in mounting and other manipulations; it will also require a longer time in development. As different qualities of gelatine will produce different results, something must be left to experience in determining the amount of the tissue-compound necessary to form a given amount of tissue; as a general rule, however, it may be stated that about two ounces will be required for each superficial foot.

Immediately previous to the preparation of a sheet of tissue, the piece of “patent plate” glass should be placed

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 in a levelling stand, in a perfectly horizontal position, a spirit-level being used in the adjustment. The tissue-compound, warmed to 100°, should be strained through a piece of moist flannel or muslin, and when the compound is ready the plate should be warmed until it is of the same temperature as the compound. The proper amount is then poured on the collodionized plate, and caused to flow over its surface, a glass rod being used to spread the solution. A little care is necessary to prevent the formation of bubbles of air, which, when once formed, are not easily disengaged from the viscous solution, and, unless eliminated, result in defects in the tissue, producing white spots in the picture. The coated plate is then left on the levelling stand until it is quite set. As will easily be seen, a very little inclination will cause the coating to run into uneven waves, or to accumulate and form a greater thickness in parts, the disadvantage of which is manifest.

When once thoroughly set, the plates may be placed away in an upright position to dry. The more quickly the drying is effected, provided heat be not applied, the better. The temperature should not exceed 60° or 70° Fahrenheit, as a higher temperature may cause the gelatine to run, and form uneven waves. A very low temperature, which would retard drying, is, of course, undesirable. A damp place is especially to be avoided, as the protracted drying, caused by a damp atmosphere, materially tends to the production of a spontaneous decomposition and general insolubility of the tissue. In a dry, well-ventilated dark-room, kept at a temperature of about 60° Fahrenheit, drying will generally take place within twelve hours, and without any danger to the solubility of the tissue. It may be found desirable in damp weather to use a drying box, containing chloride

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 of calcium, sulphuric acid, or other substance having great affinity for water.

When the tissue is dry, it is ready for printing; it is, therefore, removed from the glass and placed in the pressure-frame, with the collodion surface in contact with the negative. The proper exposure is ascertained by the aid of the photometer described on another page. Before development, the tissue is coated with India-rubber solution in the same manner as the paper tissue referred to in another chapter, and is, in like manner, mounted on paper coated with India-rubber. It is then developed, washed, dried, and transferred as already described; the film of collodion, in this instance, forming the surface of the finished print.

Instead of coating the glass-plate with collodion, it may be rubbed with ox-gall, or with the solution of wax before mentioned, and coated with the sensitive tissue compound. When this is dry, it may be coated with collodion, removed from the glass, and treated in the manner already described. Or it may, instead of being coated with collodion, have a sheet of wet paper applied to it, and pressed in contact so as to adhere. It is then suffered to dry, and treated as the paper tissue in all respects, its only difference consisting in the fine surface communicated by the plate-glass, which becomes, finally, the surface of the transferred picture, and possesses a little more delicacy of effect than that produced by the ordinary paper tissue.

The process I use to make enlarged carbon prints consists of six successive operations:

1st. Choice and Preparation of the Glass.—The glass

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 must be pure white, and the surfaces flat and parallel. After cleaning it in the ordinary manner, I cover it with alcohol 30 grammes, water 8 grammes, and nitric acid 10 drops. I dry it, and throw on the surface a small quantity of dry soap powder, the excess of which I remove by gentle touches of a fine brush.

2d. Coating with Collodion.—My collodion consists of ether 150 grammes, alcohol 80 grammes, and gun cotton 6 grammes, and the glass is covered with it in the usual manner. After drying, I proceed to

3d. Application of the Sensitized Gelatine.—This preparation consists of

To this is added a sufficient quantity of some aniline color; for instance, Magenta, to give a warm tone to the picture.

This preparation is poured over the dry collodion film, and dried in a horizontal position, so that the film attains the same thickness throughout.

4th. Exposure in the Solar Camera.—The printing is done from behind. The side not coated is exposed to the image of the negative, and the time of this exposure is only half as long as that required to obtain a print on chloride of silver paper.

5th. Development.—This is simply done by repeated washings in warm water, and, when the soluble gelatine is removed, washing is continued with cold water; then the glass is dried in an oblique position.

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 6th. Mounting of the Print and Separation from the Glass.—As soon as dry the print may be retouched, if necessary. This retouching must be done by looking at it by transmitted light. To mount it I paste, by means of gelatine, one or more sheets of white on very light tinted papers or cardboard on the print, taking great care to remove all air-bubbles which may be entrapped between the paper and the moist glue. I place it under pressure, and leave it for twenty-four hours; then I cut the edges loose with a penknife, and leave it exposed to the air; when in a short time the paper spontaneously detaches from the glass, the print adhering firmly to it.

When the paper used has a proper tint in harmony with the subject, and with the carbon and Magenta color of the print, it has all the appearance of a varnished oil painting.

The author liberally offers any more information on the subject to all who desire it.

Before proceeding to manipulatory details, it is desirable to mention the mode of meeting another serious difficulty which has hitherto stood in the way of carbon printing. As the film of bichromated gelatine and carton is black, there is no darkening during exposure to indicate the progress of printing. No perceptible change is made in the film by the action of light.

In the uncertainty arising from this circumstance it has been necessary to guess the exposure, or estimate it by a consideration of the strength of the light and the

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 density of the negative. If carbon printing were to be carried out on an extended scale, it was manifest that some more accurate mode of proceeding was necessary. Mr. Swan and Dr. Vogel have met the want by the instruments described below.

Swan's actinometer consists of a small box, in which is inclosed a piece of sensitive paper, carefully screened from the action of all light except that to which the operator submits it. This box is provided with a sliding lid, in one aperture of which is fixed a small screen of glass, which has been collodionized, excited, exposed, developed, etc., so as to form a miniature negative, nearly opaque at one end, and nearly transparent at the other. Under a small section of this (of an appropriate degree of translucency), the sensitive paper is exposed to light. Another portion of the lid consists of yellow glass, underneath which the sensitive paper can be pushed, and examined without danger of injury from the light; the slightest tint of the portion upon which light has acted being readily distinguishable through the yellow glass from the white portions upon which light has not acted even. It also possesses an arrangement for bringing under the screen for exposure successive portions of the sensitive paper, as each colored portion has done its office.

The actinometer, in its most perfect form, is provided with the graduated screen, or a series of screens, each of different density, corresponding to the density of various negatives. But it may be very easily worked with one screen, in which case the screen is very translucent and is termed a unit screen; with this, several repetitions of a constant tint—and that almost the first remove from absolute white—are given in each printing—two, three, four, or more, according to the density of the negative.

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The New International Encyclopædia/Lichtenstein, Ulrich von

LICHTENSTEIN,. See .


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 These, however, are points of detail in which each operator will adopt the method which suits him best. It is assumed that the negatives will be sorted and classified; and, where it is necessary, the printing qualities of each, and the section of screen, or number of unit tints, required on the actinometer will be ascertained by one or two preliminary trials, and marked on the negative. With a simple system of classification and registration it will be easy to secure sufficiently uniform results. In some large printing establishments a similar system is pursued in silver printing. The negatives are classified, and the whole of one class being exposed at one time, it is only necessary to examine the progress of printing under one negative, which becomes practically an actinometer; and when it is completed, it is known that all the others, possessing like qualities, and having been submitted to similar conditions, are completed at the same time.

The sensitive paper for the actinometer may be prepared by almost any formula, provided uniformity be observed. Plain Saxe paper, immersed for ten minutes in a ten-grain solution of chloride of sodium, may be kept ready for use. This, when required, may be floated for two minutes on a forty-grain solution of nitrate of silver, and will be found to answer every purpose.

The apparatus is supplied with the necessary mechanical appliances for ready change and examination of the sensitive paper, and is found perfectly practical, being at once easy to use, and efficient for the purpose for which it is designed.

The photometer or actinometer used by Mr. Swan, and described above, was found to be wanting some of

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The New International Encyclopædia/Lichtwer, Magnus Gottfried

LICHTWER, , (1719-83). A German fabulist. He was born at Wurzen, studied law at Leipzig and Wittenberg, and was subsequently Canon of Saint Mauritius. His chief work is to be found in the Vier Bücher Aesopischer Fabeln (1748). There is a collection of Schriften (1828) edited by Von Pott and Cramer.


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 the advantages required, but which are entirely secured by Dr. H. Vogel's admirable invention described below.

The objects of this ingenious device is to enable the operator to judge of the proper time to expose a negative in the carbon printing process, and to determine the exposure when making negatives in the glass-room. Those who have experimented in carbon printing know the difficulty of determining the proper exposure, too short or too long a time destroying the print altogether. The use of this little instrument overcomes that. In making negatives on days when the light is variable, difficulty is often experienced in securing the proper time of exposure. This is also the case when making copies, views of interiors, and landscapes. A proper understanding and use of Dr. Vogel's photometer will be found of immense advantage in such cases. The length of exposure of any desired picture, in any desired weather, can at once be ascertained. Mr. Swan has adopted this photometer.

We shall now proceed to describe it.

It consists of a box A A, provided with a lid B B, as shown in the drawing. The lid consists of a frame, a,

by which a glass plate, b, is held; on the upper side of this glass plate is secured a series of thin strips of paper, which are arranged mathematically in layers; each lower

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 layer projecting, like steps, beyond the layer above. This step system thus produced, represents a semi-transparent medium, the transparency of which decreases by degrees towards the thicker end. Black figures upon the under side of the lower strip indicate the number of layers arranged above each such figure. The whole cover, with the paper system in it, can be folded down and fastened by the small hook, c, and is provided with a second cover of wood, to protect the glass from injury, when not in use, and to make and close the exposure.

Within the box is a sliding false bottom, D, which is, by means of a steel spring, pressed upwards against the scale described above, when the lid is closed. Upon this false bottom a number of strips of paper are placed, which have been sensitized by immersion in a saturated solution of bichromate of potash of 1 oz. bichromate to 30 oz. water.

In order to get these in place, the bottom of the box is opened, the spring removed, the false bottom taken out (and may be used as a guide to cut the strips of sensitized paper), the strips placed in the box, the false bottom dropped in upon them, the bottom closed, and the photometer is ready for use.

This must be done in the dark-room, and the fingers should be dry. Strips sensitized in this way will keep a month.

It will now be seen that when the apparatus is exposed to light that the sensitized strip changes color in proportion to the amount of light it receives, the most light passing through the spot marked 2, the next 4, the next 6, and so on, and the change will be rapid or slow, according to the intensity of the chemical action of the light. The black figures admit no light through them, and after exposure appear on the sensitized strip as light figures on a dark ground. A strip can only be

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 used once, and after use is easily removed and the one under it exposed ready for use.

In the carbon printing process the instrument is exposed to the light with the negative which is to be printed from, and when it shows six degrees, the first quarter of the negative is covered with black paper between the negative and the carbon tissue, or otherwise; when eight, the second; when ten, the third; and when twelve, the fourth. In this manner the single parts to 6, 8, 10, and 12, have been printed. The print is then developed, and notice taken of which part shows the best intensity, i.e., 6, 8, 10, or 12, and ever after, the time of exposure for that negative in the same light is established. When examining the scale it should be held to the light, and the eyes should be shielded from bright light with the hand or otherwise. № 2 will appear first, and the others with decreasing distinctness. When examining the scale hold it about eight inches from the lamp, allowing a bright light to shine perpendicularly upon the paper, and examine the latter obliquely, keeping the eyes from the flame in the direction of the figure 25.

The scale is also provided with hands and letters (omitted in our drawing), and to which attention should also be given, as they facilitate observation. Dr. Vogel does not take the highest figure visible as the copying grade, but the next one below it. For Rowell's tissue he finds for a medium negative that 11 or 12 is the proper degree, or for a dense negative 14 or 15; for Swan's, 15 ; and that it is better to take a degree more than less, i.e., better to over-expose than to do the reverse. The Photometer is equally useful in the photo-lithographic, photo-engraving, enamel, and aniline processes.

For determining the time necessary for the exposure

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 of the negative in the camera by the collodion process, Dr. Vogel gives the following directions:

While preparation is being made to take the picture, expose a plate to the light at the place where the model is to sit, one minute, timing it with the watch. Now expose the photometer for one minute in the same light, and note the degree indicated on the sensitized slip.

We believe this instrument will be found useful to every photographer, and, as we understand, it will be furnished at a low price; no doubt all who desire to progress and improve will possess themselves of one or more. Keep the glass clean above the scale. Don't touch the scale with damp fingers.

Either chromic acid alone, or various of its salts, may be used to render certain soluble organic bodies insoluble after exposure to the action of light. Practically, for a variety of reasons, the bichromate of potash, or the bichromate of ammonia, is found to answer best. Bichromate of potash, as being the cheapest, is more generally employed, otherwise bichromate of ammonia has certain advantages. It is a little more sensitive, and has been said to yield a tissue less liable to spontaneous insolubility. The latter quality, however, seems doubtful, and certainly requires verifying; as, for more than one reason, it seems probable that it will, on the contrary, produce a tissue more prone to spontaneous decomposition. In the first place, this tendency will necessarily accompany extreme sensitiveness. Mr. Swan finds that dampness in the sensitive tissue is a chief cause of the spontaneous change which produces insolubility, and as bichromate of ammonia is more greedy of water than bichromate of potash, the tissue will more

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 readily absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and thus secure the condition favorable to spontaneous change. The difference in the solubility of the two salts is the chief element of advantage in favor of the latter. Bichromate of potash is soluble in about ten times its weight of water, at 60 degrees; bichromate of ammonia is soluble in about four times its weight of water, at the same temperature.

The double chromate of potash and ammonia has been recommended as possessing certain advantages over the bichromates. M. Emile Kopp, who first suggested its use, prefers it as more convenient. Mr. Carey Lea points out that its especial advantage is found in the fact that it is less liable to spontaneous decomposition, and not seriously less sensitive to the action of light. It is not necessary to prepare the crystallized double salt, but simply to neutralize a saturated solution of bichromate of potash with liquid ammonia. The advantage of the bichromate in point of sensitiveness is however very great. It will be found advantageous, therefore, wherever the greatest sensitiveness is required, to use a bichromate in preference to a neutral chromate.

The salts of uranium have, in some instances, been proposed in place of those of chromium, but the reactions do not correspond, and practically this substitution is inadmissible.

It is important to those using chromic salts to have some knowledge of their effects on the health if used carelessly. The bichromates taken internally are active poisons, but Dr. Alfred Taylor remarks in his work on

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 poisons, that notwithstanding their extensive use in the arts, well-observed instances of poisoning by means of a bichromate are rare. Dr. Cloet, who made a careful investigation into the condition of health of the people engaged in a bichromate manufactory, states that, taken internally, it is not poisonous in such minute doses as cyanide of potassium, about fifteen grains being necessary to cause death in a healthy adult person; but it is in coming in contact with the mucous membrane, or with a slight abrasion of the skin, that its most injurious action is found,—obstinate and dangerous ulcerations, issuing occasionally in complete destruction of the part, ensuing. It is observed that when used with care, no danger whatever need be apprehended, as it is quite innocuous on the skin when there is no abrasion; no absorption of the poison taking place, except by the mucous membrane, or through a wound of some kind. The important point for photographers to observe is, to avoid contact with the bichromate where there is any scratch or lesion of the skin, and to avoid contact with the eyes or nostrils with fingers which have recently touched the chromic salt. Dr. Cloet says:

“This salt (bichromate of potash) in small doses, say a few grains, acts as a purgative; if in larger doses, say fifteen grains, it acts as a poison. A workman in a factory put some bichromate into a barrel of cider, by way of joke. The cider was rendered dark in color, but still the other workmen drank of it, and were all affected with severe colic and diarrhœa. Disease of the nostril has been produced by workmen who, having stained their fingers with the salt, have put them into the nostril.

“In transforming neutral chromate of potassa into bichromate, by means of acid, the vapor arising carries with it an infinity of pulverulent molecules of the product, which spread through the workshop. This cloud of particles is easily visible in a ray of sunlight. The molecules inspired give a bitter and very disagreeable taste to the palate; but as profuse salivation is the result, the

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 chromate is thrown off in the saliva, and has not time to inflict any permanent injury. If, however, respiration be made through the nose, the molecules are dissolved in the layer of secretion which lies on the membrane, creating a violent pricking, suffusion of tears, and irresistible sneezing. In time, the membrane begins to be thrown off, and portions of it are carried into the handkerchief used in blowing the nose; this process, when once started, goes on so rapidly, that after a period of six or eight days the septum becomes thin, permeated with openings, and is ultimately detached altogether. Snuff-takers escape this evil.

"On the skin, in its normal state, and intact, the bichromate exercises no baleful influence; the hand may, in fact, be plunged into a hot concentrated solution of the salt, without fear; the hand may also be covered with the salt for an entire day without any observed effect; but if the skin is torn or abraded, however triflingly, by the prick of a pin for example, a sharp pain is felt on contact of the salt, and if it be left in contact with the wound, the caustic character of the salt is brought out intensely, the cutaneous tissue is decomposed, and violent inflammation is established. These symptoms are accompanied with intense pain, especially in winter, when the cold is severe; the action of the salt does not cease until the cauterization has penetrated to the bone.

"When the skin is abraded, and the bichromate has produced ulceration, the best treatment is to wash the part thoroughly with a feebly alkaline water; then, if inflammatory action follows, to poultice, and afterwards freely apply subacetate of lead in solution."

Dr. Taylor recommends for cases where the poison has been taken internally, emetics and carbonate of magnesia or chalk, mixed with water into the consistency of cream.

Considerable latitude in the choice of pigments is permissible, as almost all those employed by the painter are available in preparing the tissue for printing by this process. Where especial effects, resembling artist's drawings, are required, which, in reproductions will

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 often be valuable, it is quite possible to produce them. The effect of a drawing in lead-pencil may be imitated by using graphite as the pigment; red chalk may be imitated by Venetian red; for sepia and bistre effects these pigments themselves may be used.

For most purposes, however, a fine black, either neutral, or inclining in tone to brown or purple, will be preferred. Fine lampblack, or good Indian-ink, will, in such case, generally form the basis of the coloring matter. If the color required be a pure neutral black, the addition of a blue pigment is necessary to neutralize the brown tint of Indian-ink; and, where necessary, coldness is corrected by the addition of some warm color. The selection of this color will be governed by the tint desired, and by the considerations of permanency. Many of the most beautiful tints are most fugitive. Carmine, for instance, is unstable; and some samples are injured by the action of the chromic salt. Crimson lake is a valuable color, but it is not strictly permanent. Indian red is a very powerful and very-permanent color. Venetian red is also permanent. For blue, ultra-marine is quite satisfactory as regards permanence.

In judging of colors for this purpose, it should be borne in mind, that the actual effect of color employed is chiefly seen in middle tint. It is difficult to distinguish much difference between a blue-black, a brown-black, a purple-black, a rosy-black, etc, in the extreme darks of a picture; but the tone is easily distinguished in middle tint, and, as, a rule, warm half-tones are the most pleasing. It should also be remembered that a weak picture will often look brilliant in a warm tone, whilst a vigorous print will look feeble in a cold color.

We have stated before, that by the addition of a large proportion of color to the gelatine, a vigorous print may be obtained from a feeble negative, and by the use of a

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 small proportion of color, a hard and intense negative may be made to yield soft prints. As a normal proportion, however, for good negatives, two per cent, of carbon is sufficient. Of course, the proportion of pigment required is different with different pigments, and depends upon the opacity and colorific power of the color employed. Mr. Swan prefers the use of insoluble pigments, as when the tissue is prepared with soluble colors the prints are apt to lose a little of depth and force, if they are subjected to prolonged washing.

Gelatine, as found in commerce, is a very variable substance, and is often impure. It is difficult to give a rule for its selection; but, speaking generally, the gelatine sold for culinary purposes answers well for carbon printing. Common glue is not suitable, and the best samples of gelatine used in cookery are unnecessarily expensive. Different gelatines vary considerably, both in the proportions required, and in the results they produce. Some samples of commercial gelatine, and some of glue, show a tendency to dissolve in cold water. These are unsuitable for the process. Impurities, such as alum or acid, are highly objectionable.

A scientific friend has directed our attention to a curious circumstance which he has observed in preparing a solution of India-rubber in benzole; and, as many of our readers have met with difficulties in the direction which we shall now mention, we throw out the hint here. Our friend had great difficulty in preparing a

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 solution of the gum even moderately clear, and, as he wished to have some perfectly bright for particular work, he made many experiments upon the subject. On thinking over the matter, he came to the conclusion that it is the moisture of the India-rubber which communicates the milky appearance to the benzole solution. On boiling the liquid for a minute or less, all this moisture was found to be given off in addition to a little benzole, and, on cooling, the liquid remained perfectly clear, although rather thickened. The addition of a very small quantity of water caused the resumption of the original opalescent appearance, thus proving clearly the cause of the peculiar properties of the solution.

On repeating this experiment before us, we suggested to our friend that the addition of any very hygroscopic substance which would remove the water from the liquid should produce the same result as boiling, and in a very much more simple way. A few fragments of fused chloride of calcium were, therefore, added to some of the opalescent liquid, and with the result of rendering the liquid perfectly clear after a few minutes' standing upon the salt. The chloride of calcium can then be removed, as it is quite insoluble in the benzole, and the liquid then preserved for use.

There is another fact in connection with this subject which it may be interesting to mention. When a dark-colored sample of India-rubber is used in preparing the benzole solution, the brown color may be almost completely removed by the addition of a little water to the liquid. An emulsion is then formed of a milky appearance, and which leaves, on evaporation, a film but slightly colored.—''Br. Jour.''

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User talk:Ranveig

— billinghurst  sDrewth  12:15, 19 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Thank you! --Ranveig (talk) 12:53, 23 June 2011 (UTC)

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Carbon photographs, finished as described in the chapter on Mr. Swan's process, admit of coloring in oil, water or powder colors, with the greatest facility, and without risk of damage; the manipulation is easier than that upon albumenized silver prints.

adhere very readily to the surface of these prints. By breathing on the picture, a still more adherent surface is obtained. If greater depth of tint than can be secured in one application of the colors be required, a coating of a very thin varnish may be applied after the first tinting, and on a second application of the color, considerable depth and brilliancy will be obtained.

—If, after the final transfer of the print, the gelatine employed in the operation were not rendered insoluble by a solution of alum, or the chrome salt, the use of water colors on the print would be attended with danger, as the moisture would be absorbed by the gelatine used in transferring, and this film which forms the back of the picture would be apt to be disturbed by the abrasion of the pencil. When the print is properly finished, however, according to the instructions we have already given, there is no such danger. The water colors take kindly without any preparation, washing well, and permitting tint to be worked over tint without difficulty. The surface may be rendered still more pleasant for working on by the application of any good “sizing preparation.” Nothing can be better for water colors than the carbon print so treated. The plain carbon print so treated acquires an even, clear surface, losing all gloss without any loss of depth or transparency, which is very pleasing.

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 —The best mode of preparing a carbon print for the reception of oil colors consists in sizing it with isinglass. A solution of about two per cent, of isinglass in equal parts of hot water and spirits of wine, carefully applied (not too hot) to the surface of the carbon print, with a flat camel's-hair brush, yields a surface upon which oil colors work admirably.

—In the ordinary process of retouching carbon prints, to remove small imperfections, it is only necessary to use the proper color in the usual way; but if a little gelatine, with a trace of a chromic salt, be employed with the color, or if any good "Sizing Preparation" be employed as the medium, instead of water, the color will, when dry, become insoluble, like the rest of the picture. If the retouching be effected with the same materials before transferring the print, it will, when the picture is finished, be under the image, and no inequality of surface, usually apparent after touching, will be seen. This method permits the character of a print to be considerably modified, without the manipulation being obtrusively apparent in the finished picture.

Another and very interesting method of transferring prints has been tried practically, after an idea of Mr. Swan, by Dr. Vogel. The characteristic of this method is, that a press can be dispensed with.

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 The picture, resting on caoutchouc, is immersed in a warm solution of gelatine.

As soon as all the air-bubbles have been removed, a piece of fine paper is immersed, and both the paper and the picture are removed from the dish by drawing them over the corner of the same; both are suspended and left to dry; they can then be easily trimmed, pressed on moist pasteboard, and separated by means of benzine.

Dr. Vogel has recently made the curious discovery also that carbon prints can be transferred without the use of gelatine. This process is much more simple than Swan's. The time which is gained by doing away with gelatinizing, drying, etc, etc., cannot be too highly estimated.

The operation is carried out in the Royal Academy at Berlin, in the following manner:

Common paper, as white and smooth as possible, is dipped for two minutes in cold water; it is then dried a little between blotting-paper, and the developed picture, after having been dried, is laid on it, picture side down, and smoothed over with the hand. After this, it is placed in the press, the moist sheet downwards, and on it a piece of felt. It is drawn once through the press, and suspended for drying. The rollers must work very evenly, or the pictures are apt to become wrinkled.

For small pictures, a copying press will suffice. The moist paper is placed upon blotting-paper, the picture is placed on top of this, it is pressed down a little with the hand, and then pressed in the press for about two minutes.

After drying for thirty minutes, the picture is dipped for one minute into a solution of chromate of alum, 1:300. After this, it is dried again. The time required

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 for drying at 16° Beaume, is about one hour. The separation is performed as described above. The benzine is applied on the side of the caoutchouc paper.

The conditions for the success of this process are: a soft caoutchouc paper, a good caoutchouc solution, well-sized paper, and strong pressure.

Careful drying is important, and strong rubbing in with benzine. If, however, in separating, some parts of the picture should tear, and the whole picture should be difficult to separate, then it is better to stop the separation at once, to place the picture into a glass or tin dish, to place a piece of plate-glass upon the picture in order to press it, and to pour benzine upon them until they are covered.

To avoid the evaporation of the benzine, place the dish with the pictures into a larger dish, which fill for about one-quarter of an inch with water, and now place over the dish containing the pictures, another one inverted, which will dip with its sides in the water, and prevent evaporation. The pictures remain in this for about ten minutes, when they can be easily separated.

All pictures must, on account of the caoutchouc which attaches itself to them, be rubbed off with a piece of flannel saturated with benzine.

When the picture on caoutchouc has been thickly gelatinized (12 per cent, gelatine), it will be easy to remove it from the paper as a pure film.

This circumstance led me to experiment, to transfer the carbon (pigment) picture to glass, and the experiment succeeded perfectly. For this purpose, I covered the picture resting on the caoutchouc, thickly with a solution of gelatine:

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 And I glued it in this manner to a previously-warmed plate of glass, avoiding, of course, all air-bubbles. After having left it for drying, I removed the paper with benzine, and the picture remained perfect on the glass.

It is advantageous to cover the paper on the back, after drying, with a solution of—

Dissolve off, as usual, with benzine. Should there be any difficulty in removing the picture, it is advisable to place it in benzine in the manner described above.

The transfer to porcelain (opal glass), is performed in the same manner. This gives very pretty effects, but great care must be exercised in dissolving them off.

It is self-evident, that this process is of great importance for the email and porcelain photographs.

If, to the pigment of the first gelatine sheet, an email color has been mixed, a picture will be obtained which can be burnt in.

Another interesting circumstance, I only wish to indicate. In the pictures on glass, we evidently have a carbon (pigment) positive. From this, it will be easy, by repeating the process, to produce a carbon negative.

We would thus be enabled to multiply our negatives, and to produce, instead of the perishable silver negatives, permanent ones by the carbon or pigment process.

Before proceeding further, a brief recapitulation of the causes of failure in Mr. Swan's process, and the remedies, may not be out of place.

—This, as has been said, arises chiefly from slow drying, or, long

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 keeping in a damp place. The addition of substances to give elasticity, such as glycerine, which retard the drying of the excited gelatine film, also tend to produce spontaneous insolubility. Heat, in conjunction with the moisture, increases the tendency. The use of too much bichromate of potash, or too prolonged immersion in the solution of bichromate, will produce spontaneous insolubility. Immersion in very hot water, prior to development, is at times conducive to insolubility, also drying the tissue in an impure atmosphere, and especially one vitiated by the burning of gas. Some samples of gelatine are said to become readily insoluble; but this requires confirmation.

—The same causes which will produce spontaneous insolubility, when present in less degree, cause tardy solution of the unaltered gelatine, and slow development. The more rapidly the tissue has dried, and the more horny and perfectly desiccated it appears, the more readily, as a general rule, the superfluous gelatine and pigment are removed by warm water, and complete development is effected. When the development is slow, hotter water may be employed; but care should be taken that the free soluble bichromate has first been removed by tepid water.

—If the tissue be suffered to remain too long in a saturated solution of bichromate of potash, the salt will crystallize on the surface during drying, and the tissue will be useless. The remedy, of course, is the employment of a weaker solution, or a shorter immersion in the full-strength solution.

—If the print be suffered to float to the surface of the warm water, allowing portions

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 to become dry; or if some portions of the paper forming the original basis of the gelatine, be suffered to become detached long in advance of the remainder, so that the warm water acts directly on the soluble matter in patches, the result will be uneven development, the portions last uncovered remaining darker than the rest of the print; and it will be difficult to equalize the tint, even by long-continued development.

—If, in mounting the tissue with the India-rubber solution, perfect contact in all parts be not secured, blisters will arise in the course of development, which will show as marks or defects in the finished print. They are also caused by small holes in the paper, or air which remained between the two varnished surfaces, or by want of contact in the rolling. If from the first cause, they will dry down, disappear, and do no harm. If from the second or third causes they may be pricked with a fine, sharp needle, from the back of the paper, and so rendered harmless. There is, however, once in a great while, a very refractory blister which will spoil a print, or which can only be removed by scraping, and retouching with Indian-ink, after the print is mounted. With great care in placing the two varnished surfaces together, before rolling, and care in rolling with a pretty heavy, steady pressure, the blisters may be entirely avoided.

—An over-exposed print will develop tardily, and continue, under ordinary treatment, too dark. After all the soluble chromic salts are removed, the temperature of the water may be raised, and by long soaking in hot water the depth may be reduced considerably. Mr. Swan has found that immersion for a short time in a very weak solution of chloride of lime, or of hypochlorite of soda, or in chlorine water, or

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text: Joshua (Bible)

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 of hydrogen, rapidly reduces a print, by decomposing a portion of the insoluble chromo-gelatine compound, and restoring it to its original condition of solubility. The action is, however, too energetic to be of much practical use in the reduction of over-printed pictures. Protracted immersion in hot water is the best remedy.

—An under-exposed print develops rapidly, the lighter half-tones rapidly disappearing. When this tendency is seen, quickly removing the print to cold water will arrest the progress of development, and by skilful manipulation and attention, and the after use of almost cold water (say under 80°), a brilliant print may be secured.

—When a feeble print is obtained from a good negative, it may arise either from the use of a tissue containing too small a proportion of color, or from the tissue being old and partially decomposed by slow drying. If the negative be weak, the use of a tissue containing a large proportion of color will yield a vigorous image. Increased vigor may be obtained from an ordinary sample of tissue, by sensitizing it on the paper side of the tissue only, instead of immersing the whole. Printing in direct sunshine aids in obtaining a vigorous print.

—This may arise from the use of an unsuitable negative, or from the injudicious use of too hot water on a lightly exposed print, or from the use of tissue containing an excessive proportion of color, especially in conjunction with under-exposure. Sensitizing the tissue on the prepared side will tend to produce softness, even with a dense negative.

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 —This defect arises from unequal and insufficient pressure in transferring. This unequal pressure may arise from the coating of India-rubber being uneven, or, more probably, from the coating of clear gelatine being applied in uneven streaks, or from uneven texture of blanket, or uneven pressure.

—This will arise from the face of the print being imperfectly coated with gelatine, or from the paper or board to which the print is transferred having an imperfectly moistened surface, or from not being dry when the paper is removed, or soiled by fingering or dust.

is caused by imperfect washing of the print, by which traces of soluble chromic salt are left in the image.

—This arises from the tissue having imbibed the bichromate solution unequally. If, in immersing the tissue, one portion remains dry while the rest is wet, that portion will be least sensitive, and will form a light patch in the picture. If the tissue is raised out of the bichromate in such a manner that streams of the solution run down the sheet, there will be in the print patches or streaks of a darker color, corresponding to the streams of the solution. The attachment of a strip of paper along the lower edge of the tissue, immediately after it has been hung up to dry, helps

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I don't know how to join a refence spanning on the next page.—Atelierele Albe (talk) 12:51, 19 June 2011 (UTC)


text: Judges (Bible)

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 to drain off the excess of solution, and tends to equalize the sensitiveness.

—This will happen if the bichromate solution is too warm, and the tissue kept too long immersed. During summer it is necessary to keep the bichromate solution as cool as possible, and to sensitize in the coolest place that can be procured.

—If a piece of tissue is printed under too heavy a pressure, dark spots or patches appear in the half-tones. This is most apt to occur if the tissue is limp, and the pressure of the back of the printing-frame not only strong, but uneven from coarse padding.

—This arises from the transfer process being imperfectly performed, the paper being either too wet, or too slight pressure used, or the blanket not sufficiently yielding to diffuse the pressure equally over all the surface of the print.

—This will occur sometimes after the print is entirely finished, generally only during cold weather and is caused by sudden changes of temperature from hot to cold, and vice versa, while the developed print is drying. Avoid this.

very certain that both of the varnished surfaces are perfectly dry before putting them together.

The sooner the tissue paper can be separated from the Saxe paper, in the tepid water bath, the better it will be for the picture; and, for this reason, never take into the tepid water bath more than a dozen pictures at one time,

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 Beaton. John was connected by marriage with James Learmont of Balcomie, the cardinal's avowed enemy, and it is surmised that while at Edinburgh he became acquainted with Alexander Crichton of Brunston, Norman Leslie [q. v.], and others who were engaged in the plot. The whole question of the identity of the envoy, however, is involved in doubt [see, 1513?–1547]. After succeeding to his paternal estates in 1545 he took no great share in public affairs for the next twelve years. On 14 March 1556–7 he joined Archibald Campbell, fourth earl of Argyll [q. v.], Alexander Cunningham, fifth earl of Glencairn [q. v.], Lord James Stewart (afterwards Earl of Mar and Earl of Moray) [q. v.], and John Erskine of Dun (1509–1591) [q. v.], in signing a letter to John Knox, who was then at Geneva, inviting him to return to Scotland (, History, 1846, i. 267–74). Knox accepted the invitation, but on reaching Dieppe in October he learned that the zeal of the reformers had considerably abated. He resolved to return to Geneva, but before leaving Dieppe he addressed letters of exhortation to the leading reformers and private epistles to Wishart and Erskine. On the receipt of these letters the two men called together the heads of the reforming party and urged them to immediate action. In consequence the reformers on 3 Dec. 1557 signed the ‘band,’ or first covenant, and confederated themselves under the name of the congregation for the destruction of the Roman catholic church in Scotland (cf. Harl. MS. 289, f. 7 a).

During the next few years Wishart continued one of the leading members of the congregation. When, on 24 May 1559, they met at Perth to concert resistance to the queen regent, Wishart and Erskine were deputed to assure the royal envoys that, while the members of the congregation cherished no disloyal intentions, they would firmly assert their privileges. On 4 June Wishart and Erskine had a conference at St. Andrews with Argyll and Lord James Stewart, who had been suspected of leanings towards the regent's party since the spoiling of the monasteries by the rabble in May. The result was favourable to the reformers, and Knox commenced an open onslaught on catholicism at St. Andrews, which was immediately followed by renewed iconoclastic outbreaks. Soon afterwards Wishart and William Cunningham of Cunninghamhead were appointed to negotiate with the queen regent, Mary of Guise, on the subject of liberty of worship. A second deputation, of which Wishart was one, failed to obtain more than vague promises, and they proceeded to demand the banishment of her French supporters from the kingdom. Finding it impossible to gain satisfactory assurances from her, the protestant lords met at Edinburgh in October and elected a council of authority, to which Wishart was chosen (Cal. State Papers, Scottish, 1547–63, p. 255). The members of this body drew up and subscribed a manifesto in which, in return for her duplicity, it was declared that Mary had forfeited the office of regent. In February 1559–60 he attended as commissioner the convention of Berwick, where the Duke of Norfolk, on behalf of Queen Elizabeth, agreed to support the congregation against the power of France, and terms of treaty were arranged (ib. pp. 313, 324). In April the English army reached Edinburgh, and Wishart was prominent in welcoming it and promising cordial co-operation (ib. p. 349). On 11 April he took part in a conference with the English envoys (ib. p. 357).

Wishart was named one of the commissioners of burghs in the parliament held at Edinburgh on 1 Aug. 1560 (Acts of Scottish Parl. ii. 526), and on 10 Aug. he was chosen a temporal lord of the articles (Cal. State Papers, Scottish, 1547–63, p. 458). This parliament ratified the confession of faith. The government of the state in the interval between the death of the queen regent and the arrival of Mary Stuart was entrusted to a body of fourteen chosen from twenty-four persons nominated by parliament, of whom six, including Wishart, were selected by the nobility, and eight by Mary. On 24 Jan. 1561–2 he was appointed a commissioner to value ecclesiastical property, with a view to compelling the Roman catholic clergy to surrender a third of their revenues. On 8 Feb. 1561–2 he was knighted on the occasion of the marriage of the Earl of Mar, and on 1 March he was appointed comptroller and collector-general of teinds, in which capacity he became a member of the privy council (Reg. Scott. Privy Council, ed. Burton, 1545–69, p. 21), where, however, he had sat as early as 6 Dec. 1660 (ib. Addenda, 1545–1625, p. 300). In this capacity he became paymaster of the reformed clergy, many of whom resented the scantiness of their stipends. According to Knox, the saying was current, ‘The good laird of Pittarro was ane earnest professour of Christ; but the mekle Devill receave the comptrollar’ (, Hist. ii. 311).

Wishart distinguished himself at the battle of Corrichie, near Aberdeen, on 5 Nov. 1562, by his services against the followers of the Earl of Huntly [see ,


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 for fear they might soak there too long before they could be separated, and so, possibly, give trouble.

The “hydrocarbon varnish” (or India-rubber solution), and the “transferring solution” (or benzine), are very volatile and inflammable; should be kept tightly corked, to prevent waste from evaporation; and must never be used near a naked flame or fire.

The varnish brush, to be kept soft and straight, should be suspended from a hook on the underside of the lid, in a tin brush cup, which should always contain enough of the “transferring solution” to keep the brush saturated.

Pictures technically called “vignettes,” of the size of life, or cartes-de-visite, may be made on the tissue without difficulty.

The utmost care and attention must be used not to allow the tissue to be struck by light, after it is sensitized, either before placing it under the negative or in any of the subsequent manipulations. Remember that the sensitized tissue is much more sensitive to the action of light than any silvered paper, and that any want of care, in this particular, will certainly be punished by the entire failure of the whole operation. Several, who have used the tissue, have lost many pictures by neglecting this often-repeated caution.

As many prefer ascertaining the density of the sensitizing solution by the use of a hydrometer, instead of weighing the crystallized salt, and as the hydrometers in common use, unless of high cost, are not made with much accuracy or uniformity, it is recommended that each photographer who prefers to use the hydrometer, should carefully make one sensitizing solution, as herein directed, from the crystallized salt, and ascertain its density by the particular hydrometer he has in use. By

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 this means, he may be sure of the strength of his sensitizing solution without the trouble of frequently weighing the crystals of his bichromate salt.

No definite time can be given for immersing the tissue in the sensitizing solution, because the time should vary with the season of the year and temperature. In warm weather, in summer, one minute, or even less, is sufficient; in a moderate temperature, in spring and fall, say a little less than two minutes; and in cold weather, in winter, three minutes. The only disadvantage from an unnecessary long time in the solution is, that it loads the tissue with a superfluous quantity of water, which requires too long a time to dry out or evaporate, and makes the tissue very tender. But the tissue cannot be “over-sensitized” (in the sense in which the term is used in sensitizing paper for silver printing), by too long immersion in the solution.

In making the second transfer, Mr. Swan recommends a solution composed of two ounces of gelatine, half an ounce of glycerine, and one pint of water. As it contains no sugar, it may, under some circumstances, be found preferable to the other formula.

Another sensitizing solution has been recommended, and is made by dissolving three ounces of bichromate of potash in thirty-five ounces of water, and adding strong ammonia until the solution becomes alkaline. Use litmus paper to test its neutrality, and when neutral add a quarter of an ounce of ammonia, to be sure that the solution is strongly, but not too strongly, alkaline.

It is recommended to all, to try it. It is thought, by some persons, to possess advantages over the other in rendering the tissue more flexible, and causing it to lay more closely to the negative. On the other hand, these qualities are disputed.

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Wishart , fourth ]. In the parliament held at Edinburgh on 5 June 1563 he was one of those appointed to determine who should be included in the act of oblivion for offences committed between 6 March 1558 and 1 Sept. 1560 (Acts of Scottish Parl. ii. 536).

While thus employed in state affairs Wishart did not neglect his private interests. Between 1557 and 1565 he obtained liberal grants of lands in Kincardineshire and Aberdeenshire. But his fortunes met with a sudden reverse. According to Knox, the queen hated him ‘because he flattered her not in her dancing and other things.’ In August 1565 he joined the Earl of Moray in opposing Mary's marriage with Lord Darnley, was denounced as a rebel, and compelled to fly to England, where he remained until the assassination of David Rizzio on 9 March 1565–6 and the alienation of Mary from Darnley enabled him to return. He received a royal pardon on 21 March, but he did not recover the office of comptroller, which was held by (d. 1583) [q. v.] In 1567 he joined the confederacy against the Earl of Bothwell, and on 25 July subscribed the articles in the general assembly. On 19 Nov. he was appointed an extraordinary lord of session, and in October 1568 accompanied the regent Moray to York to support his charges against Mary (Memoirs of Sir James Melville, Bannatyne Club, 1527, p. 205). He preserved his loyalty during the Earl of Huntly's rebellion in 1568 [see, fifth ], and was appointed an arbitrator in regard to the compensation to be made to those who had suffered by it (Reg. Scott. Privy Council, 1545–69 pp. 645, 665, 667, 1569–1578 p. 9). Before Moray's assassination in 1570, however, he had left his party, and attached himself to that of the Duke of Châtelherault [see ]. In 1570 he was protected from debts incurred during his term of office as comptroller by an act of the privy council (ib. Add. 1545–1625, p. 320). In February 1572–3 he was appointed in the pacification between Châtelherault and the Earl of Morton [see, fourth ] one of the arbitrators to see that the conditions were carried out north of the Tay (ib. 1569–78, p. 195). He joined [q. v.] in Edinburgh Castle, and became constable of the fortress. He was one of the eight persons by whose assistance Kirkcaldy undertook to hold the castle against all assailants, and on the capitulation to Morton in May 1573 he became a prisoner (, Hist. of Church of Scotland, Bannatyne Club, ii. 193). On 11 June he was denounced as a rebel, and his lands and goods conferred on his nephew John Wishart, ‘son to Mr. James Wishart of Balfeeth.’ He was also deprived of his judicial office, but on 18 Jan. 1573–4 he was reappointed an extraordinary lord of session, and on 20 March took his seat in the privy council (Reg. Privy Council, 1569–1578, p. 346). Wishart died without issue on 25 Sept. 1576. He married Janet, sister of Sir Alexander Falconer of Halkerton in Kincardineshire. He was succeeded in his estates by his nephew John Wishart, eldest son of James Wishart of Balfeith. In 1573 [q. v.] dedicated to Wishart his poem on Knox, ‘Ane Brief Commendatiovn of Vprichtnes.’ The English ambassador, [q. v.], had a very high opinion of Wishart, whom he described as ‘a man mervileus wyse, discryte, and godly, withowte spotte or wryncle’ (Cal. State Papers, Scottish, 1547–1563, p. 513). Wishart was one of those wittily portrayed in Thomas Maitland's squib representing a conference of the lords with the regent Moray [see under ].

 WISHART, ROBERT (d. 1316), bishop of Glasgow, belonged to the family of Wishart or Wiseheart of Pittarrow, Forfarshire, and was either nephew or cousin of William Wishart, bishop of St. Andrews and chancellor of Scotland. William Wishart was bishop-elect of Glasgow in 1270, but before he was installed he was transferred to the bishopric of St. Andrews, and Robert Wishart, then archdeacon of St. Andrews, was preferred to the see of Glasgow. No record exists of his early career, and his name first appears as bishop of Glasgow, in which office he was consecrated at Aberdeen in 1272 (Chron. Melrose). Wishart rapidly achieved a leading position among the prelates who directed affairs of state during the reign of Alexander III, and after that monarch's death on 16 March 1285–6 he was appointed one of the six guardians of the realm, the government of the land south of the Forth being


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 It has been found that good card-board sometimes answers a better purpose than the felt-cloth, in making both the transfers. It is, therefore, suggested to all to try it; but, where card-board is substituted for the felt-cloth, it is obvious that the press and rollers must be true, and work with great accuracy.

In making “vignettes,” twenty-five or thirty grains of chloride of barium may be added to every ounce of gelatine employed in the gelatine solution, which, on coming in contact with the tannin solution, will be converted into sulphate of baryta, and will give more clearness to the white background.

It is a good plan, though not very important, to filter the sensitizing solution.

The solution of gelatine should be filtered, while hot, through fine linen cloth.

It is best to make the first transfer, and develop the prints, soon after lighting, otherwise, they may sometimes become partially or wholly insoluble. As a general rule, the tissue may be lighted in the morning and the pictures developed in the evening; but, occasionally, from some unknown cause,—it has been known to occur but once in two years—the tissue, after having been lighted under a negative, will become insoluble if kept too long before being transferred and developed.

The last transfer may be made by pulling apart with the fingers, without the application of “transferring solution” or benzine, if the prints are allowed to dry twenty-four hours after the last pressure.

The clothes-pins used should always be clean.

The tissue is better dried quickly, but artificial heat must not be used to hasten it. Hang it, if possible, in a draught of air or well-ventilated room.

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The New International Encyclopædia/Sealsfield, Charles

SEALS'FIELD,. The name assumed by (1793-1864), an Austrian novelist and traveler in the United States, Mexico, and Central America, in early life secretary of a religious Order in Prague, and ordained priest. He fled in 1822 to the United States, where he traveled extensively, mainly in the Southwest. For a short time (1829-30) he was editorially connected with the Courrier des Etats-Unis. He afterwards resided mainly in Switzerland. In 1828 he published Tokeah, or The Wild Rose, and later some remarkable descriptive novels: Der Legitime und die Republikaner (1833, a rewriting of Tokeah); Der Virey und die Aristokraten (1834, rewritten as Morton, 1846); Das Kajütenbuch (1840); and the social studies Lebensbilder aus beiden Hemisphären (1835-37), Deutsch-amerikanische Wahlverwandtschaften (1835-37), and Süden und Norden (1842-43).


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 It is a good plan to take a sponge or soft brush saturated with water, and remove any adhering bichromate solution from the back of the print while it is drying, and take care not to touch the blackened surface. This will prevent the appearance of insoluble spots in developing. Thoroughly shake the sensitizing solution before using.

Don't put too many sheets in at a time.

If you make a stock solution of bichromate, keep it well corked to prevent evaporation.

Sometimes, in coating the print with the gelatine solution, there is a disposition manifested by it not to adhere on all parts of the surface of the print, but to “creep” off in certain spots. When this happens, there can be no adhesion at those points, between the gelatinous coating and the pictures; consequently, the film, composing the picture, will be torn off from such places, when the rubbered Saxe paper is removed. To avoid this non-adhesion and “creeping,” it is best to coat the prints in a warm room, where the hot gelatine will not chill nor " creep," upon being brought in contact with the surface of the print, as it would do if the print were in a cold apartment.

In preparing the moist paper to place the print upon for the final transfer, first soak it thoroughly in water, and then blot off or press off all that is free.

There is no difficulty whatever, in avoiding blisters in developing the prints; all that is required is, first, that the caoutchouc paper and solution for coating the tissue be prepared with highly volatile solvents (such as rectified benzine, and probably the very lightest of the spirit from petroleum, will answer equally well); any of the less volatile hydrocarbons remaining mixed in small

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 proportions with the lighter through imperfect rectification, are mischievous. Second, the proportion of caoutchouc in the solution and on the paper, should not be too small. Third, heavy pressure must be applied after the tissue is laid down on the caoutchouc paper: this is most important; that is to say, if the tissue and paper are laid together dry, if I may use the term. Of course, if the caoutchouc solution, or the tissue, or paper, is fluid when they are brought into contact, air can be excluded, and perfect cohesion obtained without pressure, but then a long time must be allowed for evaporation of the caoutchouc solvent. But probably the dry method will be preferred, and with that method strong pressure is indispensable, in order to avoid blisters. Fourth, in developing the prints, the paper on which they rest must be carefully handled, so as to avoid creases and rumples. Wherever a crease or incipient break in the paper occurs, there will be a blister. Fifth, avoid the use of very hot water. To that end, use tissue easily soluble; that is to say, tissue which is fresh, and that has been so quickly dried as to retain the normal solubility of the gelatine almost unimpaired.

When removed from the bichromate solution, if the back of the tissue be drawn over a glass rod the superfluous solution will be removed, and prevent insoluble spots in the print.

Never be in too great haste. Follow the given rules, and you will succeed. Cleanliness and care are quite as essential in this as in the silver process.

Remember that bichromate of potash is quite as poisonous as cyanide, and, getting it into cuts and abrasions of the skin, should be avoided.

Bubbles and blisters, in the tissue, arise from the presence of air in the pores, which suddenly expands when

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 the tissue is suddenly placed in hot water, and swells into bubbles under the film of India-rubber. If the tissue is immersed for a few minutes, first in cold water, previous to development, face up, the air is expelled by the water in minute globules, and blisters avoided.

Do not be in too great haste to separate the picture.

The immersion in water also removes the chromate from the paper, which thus becomes insensitive to light, and permits the development to be made in the daylight.

It is not found best to use a brush on the surface of the newly-developed print. It endangers the whites. Moving it dexterously back and forth in the water, face up, will remove all the superfluous carbon.

Better to gradually increase the temperature of the water during development, than to have it too hot at first, and have to decrease it. Do not, however, increase the temperature too rapidly, or uneven development and blisters will occur.

The addition of half a drachm of balsam of fir to the pint of “hydrocarbon varnish,” shaking it repeatedly during the day, will secure greater adhesive qualities.

The felt cloth used should be thick, of close texture, and soft.

Mr. W. J. Kuhns announces, that by simply washing the print with aniline colors before transferring, almost any tone or color may be given the print, and with beautiful results.

Liesegang recommends protecting the prints with a thin film of plain collodion.

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Photographic Carbon Printing may be said to have commenced with the labors of M. Nicephore de Niepce, in 1814. His pictures were produced by the action of the solar rays upon certain hydro-carbons, which were rendered insoluble in the usual menstrua, wherever they had been submitted to the influence of light.

In 1839, Mr. Mungo Ponton announced, in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, a process of producing images by the action of light on paper which had been impregnated with a solution of bichromate of potash.

M. Becquerel shortly afterwards investigated the action of chromic salts on organic substances under the influence of light, and arrived at the conclusion that the coloration and insolubility were due to the reaction which took place between the chromic acid and the sizing matter in the paper, as, on using unsized paper, the effect could only be produced in course of time. Upon this, he used another modification of the process: employing a paper sized with starch, he subsequently treated the image, obtained by the aid of the bichromate, in a weak alcoholic solution of iodine, and so obtained a blue tint. In 1852, Mr. Fox Talbot patented a method of photo-engraving, in which he availed himself of the reaction between organic matter and chromic acid under the influence of light.

In 1855, M. Poitevin announced the first carbon process. He proposed to render the reaction between a chromic salt and organic matter available in producing photographs in permanent pigments, the image being formed either of coloring matter miscible in water, or of a fatty ink.

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 Lewis Evans (fl. 1574) [q. v.] The volume now bore the title, ‘A Short Dictionarie most profitable for Yong Beginners. The seconde tyme corrected, and augmented with diverse Phrasys and other thinges necessarie thereunto added: by Lewys Euans.’ Evans addressed a dedication to Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. Purfoot's edition reappeared without change in 1581, ‘the third time corrected.’ In 1586 it was reissued with a second appendix, by Abraham Fleming [q. v.], of ‘more than six hundred rythmicall verses, wherof many be prouerbial, some heretofore found in olde authours and othersome neuer before this time seene or read in the Latine tongue, as hauing their originall grace in English.’ There was added to Evans's dedication to Leicester a Latin address by Fleming, ‘Ad Philomusos de isto Dictionariolo nunc recens aucto,’ and there were commendatory verses by Thomas Newton and S. H. This edition reappeared from Purfoot's press in 1599 and 1602. In 1608 a new edition, printed again by Purfoot, supplied a further appendix by William Clerk. In 1616 a reissue, which received final additions from an anonymous pen, bore the title, ‘A Dictionarie in English and Latine deuised for the capacity of children and young Beginners. At first set foorth by M. Withals, with Phrases both Rhythmical and Prouerbial: recognised by Dr. Euans; after by Abr. Fleming, and then by William Clerk. And now at this last impression enlarged with an encrease of Words, Sentences, Phrases, Epigrams, Histories, Poeticall Fictions, and Alphabeticall Proverbs; with a Compendious Nomenclator newly added at the end.’ This was reissued by Purfoot in 1623 and 1634. No later edition is known.

[Withals's Dictionarie in Brit. Mus. Library; H. B. Wheatley's Chronological Notices on the Dictionaries of the English Language in Philological Society's Transactions, 1865; British Bibliographer, ii. 582.]

WITHAM, GEORGE (1655–1725), Roman catholic prelate, born on 16 May 1655, was the third son of George Witham of Cliffe Hall, near Darlington, Yorkshire, by his wife Grace, daughter of Sir Marmaduke Wyvill, bart., of Constable Burton in that county (, Yorkshire Pedigrees). Robert Witham [q. v.] was his brother. George entered the English College at Douay in 1666, and subsequently proceeded to the seminary of St. Gregory at Paris to take the theological degrees. Having graduated B.D. at the Sorbonne, he taught philosophy at Douay in the vacations of 1684 and 1685. He returned to Paris, and was created D.D. at the Sorbonne on 14 Aug. 1688. He taught theology at Douay from 1688 to 1692. After serving on the English mission at Newcastle-on-Tyne he was appointed vicar-general under Bishop James Smith in the northern district. In 1694 he was sent to Rome by Bishops Leybourne, Giffard, and Smith, and he continued to reside there as agent for the English vicars-apostolic until 1703, when he was nominated vicar-apostolic of the midland district of England, being consecrated at Montefiasconi to the see of Marcopolis in partibus infidelium. In 1715 he was translated to the northern district. He died at Cliffe Hall on 16 April 1725, and was buried at the parish church of Manfield.

His brother,, D.D. (d. 1728), was educated at Douay and at the English seminary of St. Gregory at Paris. Being appointed one of the chaplains of James II, he came to London and discharged the duties of his office until the Revolution. He was created a Doctor of the Sorbonne on 25 April 1692, was superior of St. Gregory's seminary from 1699 to 1717, and died at Dunkirk on 8 Jan. 1728. He wrote ‘A Short Discourse upon the Life and Death of Mr. George Throckmorton,’ sine loco, 1706, 12mo, pp. 120, and a volume of manuscript sermons now in the possession of Mr. Joseph Gillow, who has prepared it for publication.

[Brady's Episcopal Succession, iii. 540; Catholic Mag. and Review (Birmingham, January–August 1833), iii. 73, 98; Notes and Queries, 1st ser. vii. 243, 390.]

WITHAM, ROBERT (d. 1738), biblical scholar, brother of Bishop George Witham [q. v.], received his education in the English College at Douay, where he was for several years professor of philosophy and divinity. Subsequently he was sent to England on the mission, and was much esteemed by his brethren. Upon the decease of Edward Paston [q. v.], president of Douay College, he was promoted to that dignity in 1714. Resuming his studies, he delivered lectures on divinity and was created doctor in that faculty by the university of Douay on 8 July 1692. He built a handsome church and erected a noble structure upon part of the ruins of the ancient college, and he was most diligent in promoting learning and discipline. He died on 29 May (N. S.) 1738.

He was the author of: 1. ‘Theologia,’ Douay, 1692, fol., containing the theses which he maintained on being created D.D. 2. ‘Annotations on the New Testament of Jesus Christ, in which, 1. The literal sense is explained according to the Expositions of


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 In the same year, M. Lafon de Camarsac announced his discovery of methods of producing photographs in enamel colors, in which, although very vaguely stated, are involved the elements of a carbon process.

In 1857, Dr. Phipson conceived that certain volatile oils, such as those contained in the oil known as huile de Dippel, or those which accompany naphthaline, and which blacken when exposed to the light and to the air, might be used to obtain photographs.

In September, 1857, Mr. Thomas Sutton proposed adding the finest pulverized charcoal to an albuminous solution of bichromate, so as to form a black mixture of about the consistency of common shoe-blacking, which was then applied to paper. This was to be exposed under a negative, and the unaltered material subsequently removed by repeated washings, and a carbon print produced.

Later in 1857, M. Testud de Beauregard, a gentleman who had devoted much attention to the production of photographs without salts of silver, patented a process, not differing from that of M. Poitevin in principle, but having some modifications in detail. In his specification he re-states the fact as already recognized, that if a mixture of gum or gelatine, bichromate of potash or ammonia, and an insoluble coloring matter, such as carbon, black-lead, vermilion, indigo, etc, be exposed to light, it is rendered insoluble, the coloring matter or pigment being imprisoned or retained by the mixture, and that if such exposure be effected under a negative, the portions not acted upon by light may be washed away, leaving an image in pigments.

Mr. Pouncy appears to have been the first in England

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Author:Léonce Bénédite

Works

 * (Modern French)
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 to produce carbon prints by means of photography. The earliest examples exhibited were shown at the April meeting of the London Photographic Society, in 1858: but the author declined to describe the process. An allusion to it and its results, without details, had appeared in one of the journals a few weeks earlier, viz:

MM. Henri Gamier and Alphonse Salmon, in August, 1858, laid before the French Photographic Society, a “Method of Carbon Printing,” in which paper was treated with a strong solution of citrate of iron, and after drying in the dark, was exposed under a transparent positive. The parts acted upon by light were rendered insoluble, whilst the parts protected by the dense portions of the cliché remained soluble and hygroscopic; and

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 the ancient Fathers. 2. The false Interpretations, both of the ancient and modern Writers, which are contrary to the received Doctrine of the Catholic Church, are briefly examined and disproved. 3. With an Account of the chief differences betwixt the Text of the ancient Latin Version and the Greek in the printed Editions and Manuscripts,’ [Douay], 1730, 2 vols. 8vo. This work contains a translation of the whole of the New Testament. The preface is reprinted in the appendix to ‘Rhemes and Doway’ (1855) by Archdeacon Henry Cotton [q. v.], who says that the work ‘stands in high favour with Roman catholics at present, both as to its text and its annotations.’ The annotations were reprinted at Manchester in 1813 in Oswald Syers's ‘Bible.’ A reply appeared under the title of ‘Popery an Enemy to Scripture. By James Serces, vicar of Appleby, Lincolnshire,’ London, 1736, 8vo.

[Barnard's Life of Bishop Challoner, p. 67; Cotton's Rhemes and Douay; Dodd's Church Hist. iii. 488; Horne's Introd. to the Holy Scriptures (1846), v. 109.]  WITHENS or WITHINS, FRANCIS (1634?–1704).judge. [See .]

WITHER or WITHERS, GEORGE (1588–1667), poet and pamphleteer, the eldest of three sons of George Wither, by his wife, Anne Serle, was born at Bentworth, near Alton, Hampshire, on 11 June 1588. He refers to ‘Bentworth's beechy shadows’ in his ‘Abuses stript and whipt.’ The Wither family is said to have been originally settled in Lancashire, but five generations had been settled before the poet's birth in Hampshire. The eldest branch of the family was long settled at Manydown, near Wotton St. Lawrence. Richard Wither, the poet's grandfather, who was a younger son, married a daughter of William Poynter of Whitchurch, Hampshire, and her niece (daughter of her brother, Richard Poynter) married Ralph Starkey [q. v.], the archivist. From Starkey, whose wife was thus the poet's cousin, he is said to have received some early instruction. He derived his chief education from John Greaves, rector of Colemore, whose son, John Greaves [q. v.], was the great mathematician. To his ‘schoolmaster Greaves’ Wither addressed an affectionate epigram in 1613. Subsequently he proceeded to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he spent two years, 1604–6. His tutor, according to Aubrey, was John Warner (1581–1666) [q. v.], afterwards bishop of Rochester. He took no degree, and about 1610 settled in London in order to study law. In London the greater part of his long life was spent. After joining a minor inn of court he was entered at Lincoln's Inn in 1615.

Almost as soon as Wither settled in London he devoted his best energies to literature, and proved himself the master not only of a lyric vein of very rare quality, but also of a satiric temper which could often express itself in finely pointed verse. His friends soon included the most notable writers of the day. William Browne (1591–1643?) [q. v.] seems to have been his earliest literary associate, and through Browne he appears to have made the acquaintance of Michael Drayton. The earliest volume in the title-page of which his name figured was ‘Prince Henries Obsequies or Mournefull Elegies upon his Death: with a supposed Interlocution betweene the Ghost of prince Henrie and Great Brittaine. By George Wyther’ (London, printed by Ed. Allde, for Arthur Johnson, 1612, 4to; reprinted in 1617, and with the ‘Juvenilia’ of 1622 and 1633). This was dedicated in a metrical epistle to Sir Robert Sidney (afterwards Earl of Leicester) [q. v.] The elegies are in forty-five stanzas, each forming a sonnet, and the literary promise is high throughout. Next year Wither celebrated the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth with the elector palatine in a volume of ‘Epithalamia: or Nuptiall Poems’ (London, for Edward Marchant, 1612–13, 4to, 1620, 1622; London, 1633, 8vo). The poem pleased the Princess Elizabeth, whom Wither thenceforth reckoned his most powerful patron.

Less agreeable consequences attended another literary effort of the period. In 1611 he first, according to his own account, took notice of ‘public crimes’ (Warning Piece to London, 1662), and gave proof of his quality as a satirist. No publication by Wither dated in 1611 is known, but in 1613 appeared his ‘Abuses stript and whipt. Or Satiricall Essayes by George Wyther. Divided into two Bookes’ (London, printed by G. Eld for Francis Burton, 1613, 8vo). The dedication ran: ‘To Him-selfe G. W. wisheth all happiness.’ The satires are succeeded by a poem called ‘The Scourge,’ and a series of epigrams to patrons and friends, including his father, mother, cousin William Wither, and friend Thomas Cranley. A portrait by William Hole or Holle [q. v.] is dated 1611, and erroneously gives Wither's age as twenty-one. The book was popular (there were at least five editions in 1613, and others in 1614, 1615, and 1617, the last ‘reviewed and enlarged’), but it gave on its first appearance serious offence to the authorities for


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 reasons that are not apparent. Each of the twenty satires discloses the evils lurking in abstractions like Revenge, Ambition, Lust, Weakness, and the like, and, although some of the anecdotal digressions may have had personal application, the clue is lost. Wither declared that he had, ‘as opportunity was offered, glanced in general tearmes at the reproofe of a few thinges of such nature as I feared might disparage or prejudice the Commonwealth … [but] I unhappily fell into the displeasure of the state: and all my apparent good intentions were so mistaken by the aggrauations of some yll affected towards my indeauours, that I was shutt up from the society of mankind’ (The Schollers Purgatory, Spenser Soc. pp. 2–3). Wither was committed to the Marshalsea prison, but the Princess Elizabeth is reported to have intervened on his behalf, and her intervention, supported by a poetic appeal to the king from Wither himself, procured his release after a few months. The poet's appeal was entitled ‘A Satyre: Dedicated to His Most Excellent Maiestie’ (London, printed by Thomas Snodham for George Norton, 1615, sm. 8vo; in some copies ‘written’ is found for ‘dedicated’).

Wither shed an unaccustomed lustre on the Marshalsea by penning some of his best poetry while a prisoner there. He had some hand in William Browne's pastoral poems. In the first eclogue of Browne's ‘Shepherd's Pipe’ (1614) he was introduced as an interlocutor under the name of ‘Roget,’ and to the same volume Wither contributed the second and fourth eclogues which were appended to Browne's work. In one of these Wither introduced his friends Christopher Brooke and Browne under the names of ‘Cuttie’ and ‘Willy;’ the other he dedicated ‘to his truly loving and worthy friend Mr. W. Browne.’ Fired by Browne's example, Wither straightway continued the ‘Shepherd's Pipe’ in a similar poem wholly of his own composition, which he entitled ‘The Shepherd's Hunting.’ This was published in 1615, and was described on the title-page as consisting of ‘certaine eglogues, written during the time of the author's imprisonment in the Marshalsey’ (London, printed by W. White for George Norton, 1615, 8vo; reprinted in the ‘Workes,’ 1620, and in ‘Juvenilia,’ 1622 and 1633). It was dedicated to the ‘visitants’ to his prison cell. The interlocutors were Browne, under the name of Willie, and the poet himself, under the name of Roget, a designation which he altered in editions subsequent to 1620 to Philarete. In the fourth eclogue appears, in his favourite seven-syllabled rhyming couplets (the metre of Milton's ‘L'Allegro’), his classical eulogy of the gift of poetry for the wealth and strength it confers on its possessor. In 1616 Browne lauded Wither, in company with John Davies of Hereford, in the second song of the second book of ‘Britannia's Pastorals’ (ll. 323–6); to this volume Wither contributed commendatory verses.

‘The Shepherd's Hunting’ was succeeded by another little volume of charming verse entitled ‘Fidelia,’ a poetical lament in epistolary form from a desolate maiden forsaken by her lover. It seems to have been first printed in small octavo in 1615 for private circulation. A copy of the private edition is in the Bodleian Library. The edition was published for sale under the title ‘Fidelia, written by G. W. of Lincolnes Inne, Gentleman’ (London, printed by Nicholas Okes, 1617, 12mo). In an edition ‘newly corrected and augmented,’ dated in 1619, there were added for the first time two songs, one of them the matchless lyric ‘Shall I wasting in despair’ (a new edition of 1620 was printed by John Beale for Walkley, and it reappeared in the ‘Juvenilia’).

Of literary interest, although of far smaller literary value than ‘Fidelia,’ was the poem called ‘Wither's Motto. Nec habeo, nec careo, nec curo’ (London, printed for John Marriott, 1621, 8vo), which at once reached a second edition and achieved an extraordinary popularity. There is an engraved frontispiece with a whole-length figure of the author looking towards heaven. Wither, who confusingly dates its first appearance in 1618, says that about thirty thousand copies were printed and published within a few months (Fragmenta Prophetica, p. 47). It is a fluent series of egotistical reflections on the conduct of life, intermingled with some spirited sarcasm at the expense of the mean and vicious. Its sound morality recommended it to the serious-minded, and on the strength of it John Winthrop [q. v.] took a hopeful view of ‘our modern spirit of poetry’ (, Life and Letters, 1864, p. 396). Some persons in high station deemed the poem a reflection on current politics and politicians, and Wither was for a second time ordered to the Marshalsea (Court and Times of James I, ii. 266). In the course of his examination he denied the charge of libel, and declared that Drayton had approved the poem in manuscript (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1619–23, pp. 268, 274–5). It was admitted that the Stationers' Company had refused a license for the first edition, but that the second was licensed after some passages had been struck out. Wither was liberated with-


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 when tested with powdered lampblack, plumbago, or other pigment in fine powder, and then breathed upon, the color adhered to the hygroscopic portions, forming the shadows, but not to the lights, which had been rendered insoluble by the action of light. After washing in clean water, the print was perfected.

At the same meeting, M. Gabriel de Rumine described a method of obtaining prints analogous in some respects to that of MM. Gamier and Salmon, but rather resembling the patented method of M. Testud de Beauregard. He treated paper with a solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash, and, when dry, covered the surface with black-lead. After exposure under a negative, the print was removed to a dish of boiling water, which removed the soluble portions of the gelatine and the adhering color. M. Brebisson, a few months later, proposed a similar method, applying the color after instead of before exposure.

Mr. Charles Seeley, M.A., editor of the American Journal of Photography, proposed a method with gum, carbon, and a bichromate, mixed, and applied to paper, which he found successful. On learning that M. Poitevin had anticipated this method by several years, he ceased to prosecute it.

In the following year, the Due de Luynes' prize was awarded, an event interesting in the history of carbon printing. In 1856, this nobleman had offered certain prizes for improvements in connection with photography, including one of 2000 francs ($400), for a method of producing permanent prints. A number of processes were forwarded to the Commission, consisting of modifications of silver printing processes; but these were put aside as unsatisfactory, and attention chiefly given to the methods of carbon printing, the competition being

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