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 {| width="700px" align="center" . 53. Ornamentation on posterior part of prosoma of Syntomopterus richardsoni, n. sp., holotype, PE5120; ✕ 2.5. A portion of front margin may be seen at upper left of specimen.
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 * Eurypterids of the Devonian Holland Quarry Shale of Ohio figure 53.jpg
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Two paratypes (PE5122 and PE5123) retain parts of some of the tergites, probably from the metasoma. These have the same pustular ornamentation that occurs on the prosoma. On the posterior edge


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Portal talk:Index Librorum Haliday

Conspectus Looked at Seen

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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text: Folk-Lore/Volume 28/The Belief in Charms


text: Author:James Moncrieff Grierson

title: Author:James Moncrieff Grierson


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 of each tergite, however, is a single fringe of large, crescentic, flat scales. One of the tergites measures 10.5 mm. in incomplete length.

Remarks.—This species differs greatly from all other associated forms, and can easily be distinguished from them by the distinctive ornamentation, which enables identification from small fragments. The very wide prosoma, having a length-width ratio of 5.2:10, is unusual for the Stylonuridae but recalls forms such as Erieopterus latus (Ruedemann), E. pustulosus (Hall), and E. brewsteri Woodward, of the family Eurypteridae. The diagnostic crescentic eye is, however, a structure not present in any of these. Comparison with other forms is superfluous on a species basis as the distinctive characteristics described above will separate this form from all other eurypterids.

The holotype (PE5120 a and b) and paratypes (PE5121, PE5122 and PE5123) are in the collections of Chicago Natural History Museum.

The lens of dark bituminous Holland Quarry shale in Lucas County, Ohio, was discovered by Dr. J. Ernest Carman of Ohio State University, who kindly donated his collections to Chicago Natural History Museum. I wish to thank Dr. Robert H. Denison and Dr. Eugene S. Richardson, Jr., for the opportunity of studying the eurypterids.


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 EASTER ISLAND


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234 2. Eating and drinking in the heathen temple, (a) in ignorance, (b) after being told by the priest that it is sacrilege and the table of devils, (c] as a cult of devils and in honour of idols.

5. Not only celebrating feasts in the abominable places of the heathen and offering food there, but also consuming it.

7. Anyone found serving this hidden idolatry, having relinquished Christ, and given himself up to idolatry.

19. If anyone at the kalends of January goes about as a stag or a bull; that is, making himself into a wild animal, and dressing in the skin of a herd animal, and putting on the heads of beasts; those who in such wise transform themselves into the appearance of a wild animal, penance for three years; because this is devilish.

7th cent. Laws of King Wihtraed.

Fines for offerings to devils.

8th cent. Ecgbert, Archbishop of York, Confessionale.

Against offerings to devils. Witchcraft. Auguries according to the methods of the heathen. Vows paid or loosed or confirmed at wells, stones, and trees. Gathering of herbs with any incantation except Christian prayers.

8th cent. Law of the Northumbrian Priests.

48. If then anyone be found that shall henceforth practise any heathenships, either by sacrifice or by fyrt, or in any way love witchcraft, or worship idols, if he be a king's thane, let him pay x half-marks; half to Christ, half to the king.

67. We are all to love and worship one God, and strictly hold one Christianity, and totally renounce all heathenship.

9th cent. Decree attributed to a Council of Anquira.

Some wicked women, reverting to Satan, and seduced by the illusions and phantasms of demons, believe and profess that they ride at night with Diana on certain beasts, with an innumerable multitude of women, passing over


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 {|
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1960. The fishes of the Devonian Holland Quarry shale of Ohio. Fieldiana, Geol., 11, no. 10, pp. 553–613.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935. A new eurypterid from the Upper Devonian of Pennsylvania. Univ. Mich. Contrib., Mus. Pal., 14, no. 18, pp. 291–295, 1 pl., 4 figs.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1859. Descriptions and figures of the organic remains of the Lower Helderberg group and the Oriskany sandstone. N. Y. Geol. Surv., Pal., 3, 532 pp.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1883. Description of a new species of Stylonurus from the Catskill Group. 36th Ann. Rept., N. Y. State Mus., Nat. Hist., p. 77, pl. 5, fig. 1.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1885. Note on the Eurypteridae of the Devonian and Carboniferous Formations of Pennsylvania, with supplementary note on Stylonurus excelsior. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 33, p. 420, 1885.
 * colspan="2" |, and
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1888. Trilobites and other Crustacea of the Oriskany, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill Groups. New York Geol. Surv., Pal., 7, pt. 1, 236 pp., 36 pls.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1934. Note on a new eurypterid from the Moscow shales of New York. Amer. Jour. Sci., 27, pp. 386–387, fig.
 * colspan="2" |, and
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1952a. The Dolichopterus-Strobilopterus Group in the Eurypterida. Jour. Pal., 26, no. 4, pp. 659–661, 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1952b. A Lower Devonian Pterygotus from Wyoming. Jour. Pal., 26, no. 6, pp. 997–998, 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1882. Additional notes on the fauna of the Waterlime group near Buffalo. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., Bull., 4, pp. 41–45, illus.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1919. A new eurypterid from the Devonian of New York. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State Museum. N. Y. State Mus., Bull., 227–228, pp. 88–92, figs. 29–32.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1934. Eurypterids from the Lower Devonian of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer, Phil. Soc, 73, pp. 163–167, 3 pls., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935a. The eurypterids of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 75, pp. 129–141, 4 pls., 12 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935b. A review of the eurypterid rami of the genus Pterygotus with descriptions of two new Devonian species. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 24, ser. 165, art. 6, pp. 69–72, 1 pl., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1939. Type invertebrate fossils of North America, Eurypterida. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. (cards).
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1947. A new locality for fossil fishes and eurypterids in the Middle Devonian of Gaspé, Quebec Royal Ontario Mus. Pal., Contr., 12, 4 pp.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1954. A new species of eurypterid from the Devonian of Gaspé. Canada Nat. Mus., Bull., 132, pp. 83–91, 2 pls., 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1934. Note on a new eurypterid from the Moscow shales of New York. Amer. Jour. Sci., 27, pp. 386–387, fig.
 * colspan="2" |, and
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1952a. The Dolichopterus-Strobilopterus Group in the Eurypterida. Jour. Pal., 26, no. 4, pp. 659–661, 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1952b. A Lower Devonian Pterygotus from Wyoming. Jour. Pal., 26, no. 6, pp. 997–998, 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1882. Additional notes on the fauna of the Waterlime group near Buffalo. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., Bull., 4, pp. 41–45, illus.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1919. A new eurypterid from the Devonian of New York. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State Museum. N. Y. State Mus., Bull., 227–228, pp. 88–92, figs. 29–32.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1934. Eurypterids from the Lower Devonian of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer, Phil. Soc, 73, pp. 163–167, 3 pls., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935a. The eurypterids of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 75, pp. 129–141, 4 pls., 12 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935b. A review of the eurypterid rami of the genus Pterygotus with descriptions of two new Devonian species. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 24, ser. 165, art. 6, pp. 69–72, 1 pl., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1939. Type invertebrate fossils of North America, Eurypterida. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. (cards).
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1947. A new locality for fossil fishes and eurypterids in the Middle Devonian of Gaspé, Quebec Royal Ontario Mus. Pal., Contr., 12, 4 pp.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1954. A new species of eurypterid from the Devonian of Gaspé. Canada Nat. Mus., Bull., 132, pp. 83–91, 2 pls., 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1919. A new eurypterid from the Devonian of New York. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State Museum. N. Y. State Mus., Bull., 227–228, pp. 88–92, figs. 29–32.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1934. Eurypterids from the Lower Devonian of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer, Phil. Soc, 73, pp. 163–167, 3 pls., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935a. The eurypterids of Beartooth Butte, Wyoming. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, 75, pp. 129–141, 4 pls., 12 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1935b. A review of the eurypterid rami of the genus Pterygotus with descriptions of two new Devonian species. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 24, ser. 165, art. 6, pp. 69–72, 1 pl., 2 figs.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1939. Type invertebrate fossils of North America, Eurypterida. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. (cards).
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1947. A new locality for fossil fishes and eurypterids in the Middle Devonian of Gaspé, Quebec Royal Ontario Mus. Pal., Contr., 12, 4 pp.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1954. A new species of eurypterid from the Devonian of Gaspé. Canada Nat. Mus., Bull., 132, pp. 83–91, 2 pls., 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1947. A new locality for fossil fishes and eurypterids in the Middle Devonian of Gaspé, Quebec Royal Ontario Mus. Pal., Contr., 12, 4 pp.
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1954. A new species of eurypterid from the Devonian of Gaspé. Canada Nat. Mus., Bull., 132, pp. 83–91, 2 pls., 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1954. A new species of eurypterid from the Devonian of Gaspé. Canada Nat. Mus., Bull., 132, pp. 83–91, 2 pls., 1 fig.
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * colspan="2" |
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }
 * width="10px" | || style="text-indent:-10px; padding-left:10px" | 1936. Eurypteriden aus dem rheinischen Unterdevon. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., Abh. N. F., H. 175, 74 pp., 12 pls., 10 figs.
 * }


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 Rh immense distances, obeying her commands as their mistress, and evoked by her on certain nights.

9th and 10th cent. ''Laws of Alfred and Guthrun. Laws of Edward and Guthrun.''

11. If witches or diviners, perjurers or morth-workers, or foul defiled notorious adulteresses, be found anywhere within the land; let them then be driven from the country and the people cleansed, or let them totally perish within the country, unless they desist, and the more deeply make bot.

2. If any one violate Christianity, or reverence heathenism., by word or by work, let him pay as well wcr, as wite or lah-slit, according as the deed may be.

10th cent. Laws of Athelstan.

6. We have ordained respecting witchcrafts, and lyblacs, and morth-daeds: if any one should be thereby killed, and he could not deny it, that he be liable in his life. But if he will deny it, and at the threefold ordeal shall be guilty; that he be cxx days in prison; and after that let his kindred take him out, and give to the king cxx shillings, and pay the wer to his kindred, and enter into borh for him, that he evermore desist from the like.

10th cent. ''King Edgar. Ecclesiastical Canons''.

16. We enjoin, that every priest zealously promote Christianity, and totally extinguish every heathenism; and forbid well-worshipings, and necromancies, and divinations, and enchantments, and man-worshipings, and the vain practices which are carried on with various spells, and with frith-splots and with elders, and also with various other trees, and with stones, and with many various delusions, with which men do much of what they should not.

17. And we enjoin, that every Christian man zealously


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2 and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.

In all the higher forms this process cannot be kept up indefinitely. After a while they succumb; they die. The creature is not equal to the task of indefinite self-renewal. But continuity of the life process is not dependent upon the prolongation of the existence of any one individual. Reproduction of other forms of life goes on in continuous sequence. And though, as the geological record shows, not merely individuals but also species die out, the life process continues in increasingly complex forms. As some species die out, forms better adapted to utilize the obstacles against which they struggled in vain come into being. Continuity of life means continual readaptation of the environment to the needs of living organisms.

We have been speaking of life in its lowest terms—as a physical thing. But we use the word 'life' to denote the whole range of experience, individual and racial. When we see a book called the Life of Lincoln we do not expect to find within its covers a treatise on physiology. We look for an account of social antecedents; a description of early surroundings, of the conditions and occupation of the family; of the chief episodes in the development of character; of signal struggles and achievements; of the individual's hopes, tastes, joys and sufferings. In precisely similar fashion we speak of the life of a savage tribe, of the Athenian people, of the American nation. "Life" covers customs, institutions, beliefs, victories and defeats, recreations and occupations.

We employ the word 'experience' in the same pregnant sense. And to it, as well as to life in the bare physiological sense, the principle of continuity through renewal applies. With the renewal of physical existence goes, in the case of human beings, the re-creation of beliefs, ideals, hopes, happiness, misery, and practices. The continuity of any experience, through

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Rh of the social group, is a literal fact. Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of this social continuity of life. Every one of the constituent elements of a social group, in a modern city as in a savage tribe, is born immature, helpless, without language, beliefs, ideas, or social standards. Each individual, each unit who is the carrier of the life-experience of his group, in time passes away. Yet the life of the group goes on.

The primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education. On one hand, there is the contrast between the immaturity of the new-born members of the group—its future sole representatives—and the maturity of the adult members who possess the knowledge and customs of the group. On the other hand, there is the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, but that they be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices of the mature members: otherwise the group will cease its characteristic life. Even in a savage tribe, the achievements of adults are far beyond what the immature members would be capable of if left to themselves. With the growth of civilization, the gap between the original capacities of the immature and the standards and customs of the elders increases. Mere physical growing up, mere mastery of the bare necessities of subsistence will not suffice to reproduce the life of the group. Deliberate effort and the taking of thoughtful pains are required. Beings who are born not only unaware of, but quite indifferent to, the aims and habits of the social group have to be rendered cognizant of them and actively interested. Education, and education alone, spans the gap.

Society exists through a process of transmission quite as much as biological life. This transmission occurs by means of communication of habits of doing, thinking, and feeling from the older to the younger. Without this communication of ideals,

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232 accustom his children to Christianity, and teach them the Paternoster and the Creed.

18. And we enjoin, that on feast-days heathen songs and devil's games be abstained from.

10th cent. Laws of Ethelred.

Let every Christian man do as is needful to him; let him strictly keep his Christianity.

Let us zealously venerate right Christianity, and totally despise every heathenism.

11th cent. Laws of Cnut.

5. We earnestly forbid every heathenism: heathenism is, that men worship idols; that is, that they worship heathen gods, and the sun or the moon, fire or rivers, water-wells or stones, or forest trees of any kind; or love witchcraft, or promote morthwork in any wise.

12th cent. John of Salisbury.

Mentions witches' Sabbaths.

13th cent. Galilee porches, for the use of the unbaptised and excommunicate, no longer built.

14th cent. Nider's Formicarius.

Berne infested with witches for more than sixty years.

Inquisition of Como in 1510, records that witches had existed there for more than 150 years.

Dame Alice Kyteler, tried for witchcraft, 1324. Devil appeared as a black man. Had in her possession a wafer bearing the devil's name instead of Christ's.

15th cent.

Trials of witches in Italy, France, and Germany. The characteristic features of the ritual are found.

15th cent. Decree of Innocent VIII, Generally said to be the beginning of the "outbreak" of witchcraft.

It has come to our ears. . . that many persons of


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4 hopes, expectations, standards, opinions, from those members of society who are passing out of the group life to those who are coming into it, social life could not survive. If the members who compose a society lived on continuously, they might educate the new-born members, but it would be a task directed by personal interest rather than social need. Now it is a work of necessity.

If a plague carried off the members of a society all at once, it is obvious that the group would be permanently done for. Yet the death of each of its constituent members is as certain as if an epidemic took them all at once. But the graded difference in age, the fact that some are born as some die, makes possible through transmission of ideas and practices the constant reweaving of the social fabric. Yet this renewal is not automatic. Unless pains are taken to see that genuine and thorough transmission takes place, the most civilized group will relapse into barbarism and then into savagery. In fact, the human young are so immature that if they were left to themselves without the guidance and succor of others, they could not even acquire the rudimentary abilities necessary for physical existence. The young of human beings compare so poorly in original efficiency with the young of many of the lower animals, that even the powers needed for physical sustentation have to be acquired under tuition. How much more, then, is this the case with respect to all the technological, artistic, scientific, and moral achievements of humanity!

2. .—So obvious, indeed, is the necessity of teaching and learning for the continued existence of a society that we may seem to be dwelling unduly on a truism. But justification is found in the fact that such emphasis is a means of getting us away from an unduly scholastic and formal notion of education. Schools are, indeed, one important method of the transmission which forms the dispositions of the immature; but it is only one

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Rh both sexes, deviating from the Catholic faith, do not avoid to have intercourse with devils, incubi and succubi, and that by their incantations, charms, and sorceries, they blight the marriage bed, destroy the births of women, and the increase of cattle; they blast the corn of the ground, the grapes of the vineyard, the fruits of the trees, besides causing to perish, suffocating and destroying men and women, flocks and herds and other kinds of animals, vines as well as orchard-trees, pasture, grass, corn and other fruits of the earth.

Lord Coke defines a witch as "a person that hath conference with the devil, to consult with him or to do some act." It is in this aspect only that I propose to consider the witch.

It is impossible to understand the cult without first understanding the position of the chief personage in the proceedings. He was known to the contemporary Christian judges and Christian writers as the Devil; was called by them Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, the Foul Fiend, and similar names; and was entirely identified by them with the Principle of Evil, the devil of the Scriptures. But this was very far from the point of view of the witches themselves. To them this so-called Devil was God, manifest, visible, incarnate; they adored him on their knees ; they addressed their prayers to him ; they offered thanks to him as the giver of food and the


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Rh means, and, compared with other agencies, a relatively superficial means. Only as we have grasped the necessity of more fundamental and persistent modes of tuition can we make sure of placing the scholastic methods in their true context.

Society not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication. There is more than a verbal tie between the words common, community, and communication. Men live in a community in virtue of the things which they have in common; and communication is the way in which they come to possess things in common. What they must have in common in order to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge—a common understanding—like-mindedness as the sociologists say. Such things cannot be passed physically from one to another, like bricks; they cannot be shared as persons would share a pie by dividing it into physical pieces. The communication which insures participation in a common understandmg is one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions—like ways of responding to expectations and requirements.

Persons do not become a society by living in physical proximity, any more than a man ceases to be socially influenced by being so many feet or miles removed from others. A book or a letter may institute a more intimate association between human beings separated thousands of miles from each other than exists between dwellers under the same roof. Individuals do not even compose a social group because they all work for a common end. The parts of a machine work with a maximum of coöperativeness for a common result, but they do not form a community. If, however, they were all cognizant of the common end and all interested in it so that they regulated their specific activity in view of it, then they would form a community. But this would involve communication. Each would have to know what the other was

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234 of life; they gave their children to him. The actual name by which he was known to his worshippers varies in every district; in some, each witch of the covine called him by a special name ; in others he was known by the same name to every witch within his circle. But as the records rarely extend beyond the one trial in each county or district of a county, there is no continuity in the history of any one community, and it is not possible to say whether either custom was the rule in the place in which it was practised, nor whether the name which all the witches knew was applied to the individual or to the office; whether, for example, the witches of Aberdeen always called their chiefs "Christsonday," or whether the little crippled man, whom Christen Michell saw, was the only one known by that name.

This chief or Devil was, as God incarnate, absolutely supreme over his followers; they were bound to obey his lightest command. On his side, there were certain duties to perform; he instructed the witches in magical arts, both for curing and killing; he helped them when in difficulties if they called upon him ; he presided at the Sabbaths, where he conducted the religious service; and


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Rh he often led the dance which being a fertility-rite, must be looked upon as part of an early and primitive cult. He sometimes, though not always, attended the local meetings, but as these were not so important as the Sabbaths his presence could be dispensed with.

We knew nothing as to how he was appointed and his identity was always studiously concealed, but on a few occasions we get a glimpse of a real personality; sometimes this proves to be a person of some political importance. Eg. at North Berwick where the witch-community was destroyed, root and branch, on account of their attempt on the King's life [James VI. our James I.], the evidence points to Francis Earl Bothwell as the chief or Devil. Bothwell was grandson of James V. and nephew of the Regent Moray, and in spite of the bar sinister he was practically the next male heir to the throne of Scotland had our King James died without children. Of less importance but also political is a list of suspected persons in the reign of Elizabeth; among them are several witches and "Ould Birtles the great devil." In 1649 a man named Marsh of Dunstable is identified by George Palmer, who had himself been a witch for nearly 60 years, as "the head of the whole College of Witches that hee knows in the world." Altogether I have been able to identify eight or nine men, but with more time and trouble it would be possible to identify several more.

The appearance of the devil is often given in great •detail. He was said to appear usually as a man, a bull, a goat, and a dog. As a man he was usually dressed in black, apparently garbed like the clergy of the period;


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barcroft, George


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236 but in the outlying districts of Scotland, where more primitive customs prevailed, he was clothed in green or gray, or dun-coloured garments. But it is evident that he went to the Sabbath disguised, and he was also seen in disguise at other times. In Southern France he is said to have had a face at the back of the head "like the God Janus" ; or with a goat's face in front and another goat's face under the tail. The rank of the witch in the society was shown by which face he or she was permitted to kiss at the Sabbath. That the face at the back was a mask is very certain, for all the witches agree that it was hard and cold and that the Devil never spoke from it. There are also strong indications that the face at the front was often a mask also, for whenever the Devil's voice is mentioned whether in Great Britain or France, it is said to be hollow with indistinct articulation like the sound of a voice under a mask. What may perhaps be proof of this disguise is still extant in the "Dorsetshire Ooser," a wooden mask representing a man's face with ox's horns, the jaw is movable to allow the wearer to speak; it is said to have been worn by a man wrapped in a cow's skin, who ran after the girls. Another survival which seems to point in the same direction is the so-called


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bard, Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardelby, Robert de


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardney, Richard of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardolf, Hugh


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardolf, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardsley, James Lomax


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardsley, Samuel Argent


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Bardwell, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barenger, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baret, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baretti, Giuseppe Marc' Antonio


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barff, Samuel


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6 about and would have to have some way of keeping the other informed as to his own purpose and progress. Consensus demands communication.

We are thus compelled to recognize that within even the most social group there are many relations which are not as yet social. A large number of human relationships in any social group are still upon the machine-like plane. Individuals use one another so as to get desired results, without reference to the emotional and intellectual disposition and consent of those used. Such uses express physical superiority, or superiority of position, skill, technical ability, and command of tools, mechanical or fiscal. So far as the relations of parent and child, teacher and pupil, employer and employee, governor and governed, remain upon this level, they form no true social group, no matter how closely their respective activities touch one another. Giving and taking of orders modifies action and results, but does not of itself effect a sharing of purposes, a communication of interests.

Not only is social life identical with communication, but all communication (and hence all genuine social life) is educative. To be a recipient of a communication is to have an enlarged and changed experience. One shares in what another has thought and felt and in so far, meagerly or amply, has his own attitude modified. Nor is the one who communicates left unaffected. Try the experiment of communicating, with fullness and accuracy, some experience to another, especially if it be somewhat complicated, and you will find your own attitude toward your experience changing; otherwise you resort to expletives and ejaculations. The experience has to be formulated in order to be communicated. To formulate requires getting outside of it, seeing it as another would see it, considering what points of contact it has with the life of another so that it may be got into such form that he can appreciate its meaning. Except in dealing with commonplaces and catch phrases one has to assimilate, imaginatively,

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barford, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Francis Foster


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Rh Cadi in Wales, a country where, as far as I know, the ancient ritual of the witches was never suppressed.

The two-faced deity is of great importance and of great antiquity. I am indebted to Mr. Peake and Prof. Fleure for calling my attention to a two-faced deity of ancient Britain in the Roman period, and also to the reference in Geoffrey of Monmouth, who says, speaking of Cordelia, daughter of King Lear "in the third year thereafter he died and Aganippus died also, and Cordelia, now mistress of the helm of state in Britain, buried her father in a certain underground chamber which she had bidden to be made under the river Soar at Leicester. This underground chamber was founded in honour of the two-faced god Janus, and there, when the yearly celebration of the day came round, did all the workmen of the city set hand upon such work as they were about to be busied upon throughout the year." Cordelia, according to Geoffrey, died before the foundation of Rome by Romulus; in other words the tradition of the queen and the worship of the two-faced god date back to pre-Roman Britain.

The identification of this two-faced god with Janus and the statement that the Devil or God of the witches was also two-faced like Janus should be taken together. I am not prepared to prove that the worship of Janus continued down to the 17th century, but I would call your attention to the following points:

1. Janus or Dianus is the male form of Diana, with whom the witches were accused of riding through the air and following in the dance. Diana was always the female leader of the witches.

2. Janus was an ancient indigenous god of Northern Italy before the Romans came in. His city was a ruin, hoary with age, when Aeneas arrived in Italy.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Henry


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Rh of another's experience in order to tell him intelligently of one's own experience. All communication is like art. It may fairly be said, therefore, that any social arrangement that remains vitally social, or vitally shared, is educative to those who participate in it. Only when it becomes cast in a mold and runs in a routine way does it lose its educative power.

In final account, then, not only does social life demand teaching and learning for its own permanence, but the very process of living together educates. It enlarges and enlightens experience; it stimulates and enriches imagination; it creates responsibility for accuracy and vividness of statement and thought. A man really living alone (alone mentally as well as physically) would have little or no occasion to reflect upon his past experience to extract its net meaning. The inequality of achievement between the mature and the immature not only necessitates teaching the young, but the necessity of this teaching gives an immense stimulus to reducing experience to that order and form which will render it most easily communicable and hence most usable.

3. .—There is, accordingly, a marked difference between the education which every one gets from living with others, as long as he really lives instead of just continuing to subsist, and the deliberate educating of the young. In the former case the education is incidental; it is natural and important, but it is not the express reason of the association. While it may be said, without exaggeration, that the measure of the worth of any social institution, economic, domestic, political, legal, religious, is its effect in enlarging and improving experience; yet this effect is not a part of its original motive, which is limited and more immediately practical. Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Nicholas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Richard Harris


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Thomas Foster (1766-1844)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, Thomas Foster (1794-1869)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barham, William Foster


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baring, Alexander


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8 the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc. Only gradually was the by-product of the institution, its effect upon the quality and extent of conscious life, noted, and only more gradually still was this effect considered as a directive factor in the conduct of the institution. Even to-day, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the forms of human association under which the world's work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output.

But in dealing with the young, the fact of association itself as an immediate human fact, gains in importance. While it is easy to ignore in our contact with them the effect of our acts upon their disposition, or to subordinate that educative effect to some external and tangible result, it is not so easy as in dealing with adults. The need of training is too evident; the pressure to accomplish a change in their attitude and habits is too urgent to leave these consequences wholly out of account. Since our chief business with them is to enable them to share in a common life we cannot help considering whether or no we are forming the powers which will secure this ability. If humanity has made some headway in realizing that the ultimate value of every institution is its distinctively human effect—its effect upon conscious experience—we may well believe that this lesson has been learned largely through dealings with the young.

We are thus led to distinguish, within the broad educational process which we have been so far considering, a more formal kind of education—that of direct tuition or schooling. In undeveloped social groups, we find very little formal teaching and training. Savage groups mainly rely for instilling needed dispositions into the young upon the same sort of association which keeps adults loyal to their group. They have no special devices, material, or institutions for teaching save in connection with initiation ceremonies by which the youth are inducted into full social membership. For the

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238 3. According to the Romans themselves, Janus was one of the few gods who had no counterpart in the Greek pantheon.

4. His epithets were Clusivius and Patulcius, the opener and the closer, i.e. of the womb.

5. His name, and his name only, was invoked by the Salian dancing priests, when they ran naked through the streets in the great fertility festival of the Lupercalia.

6. As the first of all gods, as the god of beginnings [hence, of course, of birth] his name was invoked before that of Jupiter himself in all prayers and invocations.

7. His priest was the Rex Sacrorum, who took precedence even of the great Flamen Dialis.

8. As Janus Quadrifrons he presided over cross-roads. It must surely be more than a coincidence that the Italian two-faced god of fertility should be the patron of cross-roads, and that the two-faced god of the witches should preside over fertility rites which were celebrated at cross-roads.

Another proof of the antiquity of the witch cult is shown by the indications that at some early period, the god of the witches was sacrificed at one of the great Sabbaths. It is not clear whether the sacrifice took place annually or only once in seven years.

In the organisation of the society, there came below the autocratic ruler one or more officers, according to the size of the community. These officers were either men


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baring, Charles Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baring, Francis (1740-1810)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Baring, William Bingham


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Andrew


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Benjamin


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Rh most part, they depend upon children learning the customs of the adults, acquiring their emotional set and stock of ideas, by sharing in what the elders are doing. In part, this sharing is direct, taking part in the occupations of adults and thus serving an apprenticeship; in part, it is indirect, through the dramatic plays in which children reproduce the actions of grown-ups and thus learn to know what they are like. To savages it would seem preposterous to seek out a place where nothing but learning was going on in order that one might learn.

But as civilization advances, the gap between the capacities of the young and the concerns of adults widens. Learning by direct sharing in the pursuits of grown-ups becomes increasingly difficult except in the case of the less advanced occupations. Much of what adults do is so remote in space and in meaning that playful imitation is less and less adequate to reproduce its spirit. Ability to share effectively in adult activities thus depends upon a prior training given with this end in view. Intentional agencies—schools—and explicit material—studies—are devised. The task of teaching certain things is delegated to a special group of persons.

Without such formal education, it is not possible to transmit all the resources and achievements of a complex society. It also opens a way to a kind of experience which would not be accessible to the young, if they were left to pick up their training in informal association with others, since books and the symbols of knowledge are mastered.

But there are conspicuous dangers attendant upon the transition from indirect to formal education. Sharing in actual pursuit, whether directly or vicariously in play, is at least personal and vital. These qualities compensate, in some measure, for the narrowness of available opportunities. Formal instruction, on the contrary, easily becomes remote and dead—abstract and bookish, to use the ordinary words of depreciation. What accumulated knowledge exists in

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Christopher (d.1549)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Christopher (1529?-1599)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Collet


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Edmond


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10 low grade societies is at least put into practice; it is transmuted into character; it exists with the depth of meaning that attaches to its coming within urgent daily interests.

But in an advanced culture much which has to be learned is stored in symbols. It is far from translation into familiar acts and objects. Such material is relatively technical and superficial. Taking the ordinary standard of reality as a measure, it is artificial. For this measure is connection with practical concerns. Such material exists in a world by itself, unassimilated to ordinary customs of thought and expression. There is the standing danger that the material of formal instruction will be merely the subject matter of the schools, isolated from the subject matter of life-experience. The permanent social interests are likely to be lost from view. Those which have not been carried over into the structure of social life, but which remain largely matters of technical information expressed in symbols, are made conspicuous in schools. Thus we reach the ordinary notion of education: the notion which ignores its social necessity and its identity with all human association that affects conscious life, and which identifies it with imparting information about remote matters and the conveying of learning through verbal signs: the acquisition of literacy.

Hence one of the weightiest problems with which the philosophy of education has to cope is the method of keeping a proper balance between the informal and the formal, the incidental and the intentional, modes of education. When the acquiring of information and of technical intellectual skill do not influence the formation of a social disposition, ordinary vital experience fails to gain in meaning, while schooling, in so far, creates only 'sharps' in learning—that is, egoistic specialists. To avoid a split between what men consciously know because they are aware of having learned it by a specific job of learning, and what they unconsciously know because they have absorbed it in the formation of

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Edmund Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Frederick


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Rh their characters by intercourse with others, becomes an increasingly delicate task with every development of special schooling.

.—It is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being. Since this continuance can be secured only by constant renewals, life is a self-renewing process. What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life. This education consists primarily in transmission through communication. Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it. That the ulterior significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution which it makes to the improvement of the quality of experience is a fact most easily recognized in dealing with the immature. That is to say, while every social arrangment is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the association of the older with the younger. As societies become more complex in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and learning increases. As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. This danger was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few centuries of knowledge and technical modes of skill.

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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, George (1776-1845)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, George Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Henry Aston


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, James


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Rh or women ; in France they are said to be minor devils, diablotins. The officers were entrusted with the management and arrangement of all the meetings, they notified the members when and where the local meetings would be held, they kept the records of attendance at the meetings and also of the ceremonials performed, they appear to have arranged for the feasts, they often led the ring in the dance or remained in the rear to make the less agile dancers keep up with the rest, they introduced the new convert, and in France they inflicted the "Devil's mark" on the newly admitted witch.

The Scotch witches and apparently originally the English witches also, were divided into companies, or covines, as Isobel Gowdie calls them. The number in a covine was thirteen, twelve witches and the officer, i.e. the Devil's dozen. Each covine was independent of any other, but several could meet for any special purpose; for example, at North Berwick there were thirty-nine witches present, three covines. All the covines of a district met together at the great Sabbaths, but as a rule each covine had its own weekly meeting, near the place of residence of the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, John (fl.1464)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, John (d.1653)


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240 greater number of the members. Among the members of the covine, and usually the youngest, was the Maiden; she was an important personage and had the place of honour beside the Devil at the local meetings and at the feasts, At the performance of any ceremonial at a local meeting, a certain number of witches—originally probably the whole covine—had to be present, and on these occasions the presence of the Maiden was imperative.

The decadence of the cult is shown by the position of this woman. In the French and early Scotch trials there is always a Reine du Sabbat or a Queen of Elfin, who occupies a prominent position. There is reason to believe, as Prof. Karl Pearson has suggested, that the woman was originally the principal personage in the ceremonial, and was a form of the mother-goddess (the vulgar expression of "the Devil's Dam" comes perhaps from this). In Scotland the Queen of Elfin becomes rarer, and the Maiden of the Covine appears to take her place, while in some localities she is merely the Officer. In England, where the whole religion with all its customs was in a decadent condition by the time the records were made, the woman is never anything but the Officer. In America, however, the chief witch had the promise to be "Queen of Hell," presumably Queen of the Assembly.

Though the discipline of each community must have varied according to the individual temperament of its successive chiefs, it seems clear that obedience could be


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, John (1708-1748)


text: 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eleutherius


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, John (1771-1849)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Matthew (1619-1698)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Matthew Henry


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Robert (d.1645)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Robert (1729?-1789)


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Rh rigorously exacted and severe punishments inflicted. Unpunctuality at the meetings or keeping the chief waiting at any time were visited with sharp rebuke, probably because of the implied disrespect. Disrespect in words, continued absence from meetings and actual disobedience were punished by beating. In Auldearne the Devil used a scourge of cords to enforce the respect due to him; but the instrument of punishment was usually said to be an iron rod. The earliest mention of such a rod is in the trial of Dame Alice Kyteler in 1324, where the Devil, whom she called Robin son of Artis, appeared carrying an iron rod. The tradition, or possibly the actual fact, was carried to America, for Deliverance Hobbs of Salem complains that when she left the witch society she was "whipped with Iron Rods."

Capital punishment was the fate of traitors, and strict precautions were taken to ensure the silence of the members and to protect the chief against spies. In an early account of trials of witches in Italy, the Inquisitor and two other ofificials watched a witch-meeting from a secret hiding-place; they were observed however, and at a signal from the Devil his followers seized them and beat them so severely that they died soon after. The Swedish children were also beaten till they died of their injuries if they ventured to say who had taken them to Blockula. Rebecca Weste in Essex was threatened with "more torments in earth than could be in hell," if she dared to


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Barker, Robert (1739-1806)


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text:
Author:Karl Pearson

Works

 * The New Werther (1880)
 * The Trinity: A Nineteenth Century Passion-play (1882)
 * Die Fronica (1887)
 * The Moral Basis of Socialism (1887)
 * The Ethic of Freethought (1888)
 * The Positive Creed of Freethought: with Some Remarks on the Relation of Freethought to Socialism. Being a Lecture Delivered at South Place Institute (1888)
 * The Grammar of Science (1892)
 * The New University for London: A Guide to its History and a Criticism of its Defects (1892)
 * The Chances of Death and Other Studies in Evolution (1897), in 2 vols.
 * National Life from the Stand-point of Science: An Address Delivered at Newcastle (1901)
 * The Ethic of Freethought (1902, 2nd edition)
 * On the Theory of Contingency and its Relation to Association and Normal Correlation (1904)
 * On the General Theory of Skew Correlation and Non-linear Regression (1905)
 * A Mathematical Theory of Random Migration (1906)
 * Studies in National Deterioration (1907)
 * An Experimental Study of the Stresses in Masonry Dams (1907), co-authored with
 * A First Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (1907)
 * A First Study of the Inheritance of Vision and of the Relative Influence of Heredity and Environment on Sight (1909), co-authored with
 * On a Practical Theory of Elliptical and Pseudo-elliptical Arches, with Special Reference to the Ideal Masonry Arch (1909), co-authored with W. D. Reynolds and William Frank Stanton
 * The Groundwork of Eugenics (1909)
 * The Scope and Importance to the State of the Science of National Eugenics (1909)
 * A Preliminary Study of Extreme Alcoholism in Adults (1910), co-authored with Amy Barrington
 * A First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring (1910), co-authored with
 * The Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring: A Reply to the Cambridge Economists (1910)
 * A Second Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring (1910), co-authored with Ethel M. Elderton
 * Nature and Nurture, the Problem of the Future: A Presidential Address (1910)
 * The Scope and Importance to the State of the Science of National Eugenics (1911, 3rd edition)
 * The Academic Aspect of the Science of Eugenics: A Lecture Delivered to Undergraduates (1911)
 * An Attempt to Correct some of the Misstatements Made by Sir Victor Horsley and Mary D. Sturge, M.D. in the Criticisms of the Galton Laboratory Memoir: A First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism, &c (1911)
 * A Monograph on Albinism in Man (1911–1913), co-authored with Edward Nettleship and Charles Usher
 * Eugenics and Public Health: An Address to Public Health Officers (1912)
 * Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eugenics. The Cavendish Lecture: An Address to the Medical Profession (1912)
 * Social Problems, their Treatment, Past, Present, and Future: A Lecture (1912)
 * The Problem of Practical Eugenics (1912)
 * Tuberculosis, Heredity and Environment (1912)
 * On the Correlation of Fertility with Social Value: A Cooperative Study (1913)
 * Mendelism and the Problem of Mental Defect, II: On the Continuity of Mental Defect (1914), co-authored with Gustav A. Jaederholm
 * A Statistical Study of Oral Temperatures in School Children (1914), co-authored with M. H. Williams and
 * The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton (1914, 1924, 1930), in 3 vols.
 * On the Handicapping of the First-born: Being a Lecture Delivered at the Galton Laboratory (1914)
 * Some Recent Misinterpretations of the Problem of Nurture and Nature (1915)
 * On the Torsion Resulting from Flexure in Prisms with Cross-sections of Uni-axial Symmetry Only (1918), co-authored with Andrew W. Young and Ethel Elderton
 * A Study of the Long Bones of the English Skeleton (1919), co-authored with Julia Bell
 * The Science of Man: its Needs and its Prospects (1920)
 * Side Lights on the Evolution of Man: Being a Lecture Delivered at the Royal Institution (1921)
 * Study of the Data Provided by a Baby-clinic in a Large Manufacturing Town (1922), co-authored with Mary Noel Karn
 * Francis Galton, 1822–1922: A Centenary Appreciation (1922)
 * Tables of the Incomplete Γ-Function (1922)
 * Charles Darwin, 1809–1882: An Appreciation. Being a Lecture Delivered to the Teachers of the London County Council (1923)
 * On the Relationship of Health to the Psychical and Physical Characters in School Children (1923)
 * On the Skull and Portraits of George Buchanan (1926)
 * The Right of the Unborn Child: Being a Lecture Delivered ... to Teachers from the London County Council Schools (1927)
 * The Right of the Unborn Child: Being a Lecture Delivered ... to Teachers from the London County Council Schools (1927)

As editor

 * The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences (1885)
 * A History of the Theory of Elasticity and of the Strength of Materials from Galilei to the Present Time (1886–1893), in 3 vols.
 * The Elastical Researches of Barré de Saint-Venant (1889)
 * A Second Study of the Statistics of Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Marital Infection (1908)
 * Treasury of Human Inheritance (1912), in 2 vols.
 * Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians (1914)
 * Tracts for Computers (1919–22).
 * Tables of the Incomplete Beta-function (1934)

title: Author:Karl Pearson


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Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 28, 1917.djvu/416

 THE KILLING OF THE KHAZAR KINGS.

BY SIR J. G. FRAZER.

a certain stage of social evolution not a few races appear to have been in the habit of putting their kings to death, either at the end of a fixed term, or on the failure of the king’s health and strength, or simply whenever a great public calamity, such as drought or famine, had befallen the country. Among the peoples who have practised this remarkable system of limited monarchy, and have elevated regicide to the dignity of a public institution, must seemingly be numbered the Khazars or Khozars, a nation of south-eastern Russia, who in the Middle Ages maintained their independence for many centuries alike against Persia and the Byzantine Empire, carried on a busy trade between the east and the west, and repelled the wave of Mohammedan conquest, which, but for their resistance, might have deluged Europe from the south-east. It is hardly too much to say that during those dark ages when the power of Christendom sank to its lowest ebb, and the power of Islam rose to its highest pitch, Europe was protected against the swelling tide of Moslem aggression by three great mountain barriers, the Caucasus on the south-east, the Balkans in the centre, and the Pyrenees on the south-west; and that the passes which led over these ranges into the heart of the continent were guarded by three peoples, the Khazars, the Byzantine Greeks, and the Spaniards. Of these three redoubtable champions of Christendom, the Khazars have long


text: Author:Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke

title: Author:Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke


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Rh appeared and even their name is now hardly known but to students of the bypaths of history.

Yet for some nine hundred years or more (190-1100 A.D.) this almost forgotten people played a great part in history on the borderland of Europe and Asia. Their home was in the spurs of the Caucasus and along the western shore of the Caspian, which took its name (Sea of the Khazars) from them; but at the height of their power they ruled over the whole of south-eastern Russia from the Dneiper to the middle Volga, together with the adjoining part of Asia along the eastern coast of the Caspian as far south as Astrabad. On the south their boundary never altered greatly; at times, indeed, it extended southward as far as the Cyrus and even the Araxes, but on that side the Khazars had to face the Byzantine and Persian empires and were for the most part restrained within the passes of the Caucasus. Their capital was Itil in the delta of the Volga, but they possessed other populous and civilized cities, such as Semender (Tarkhu), which was the older capital, and Sarkel, or the White Abode, on the Don. All the Khazar cities were centres of commerce. Indeed the Khazars have been described as “the Venetians of the Caspian and the Euxine, the organizers of the transit between the two basins; the universal carriers between East and West.” Merchants from every nation found protection, justice, and good faith in the Khazar cities. Exiled from Constantinople, the Jews sought a home among them, developed their trade, and contended with their Mohammedan and Christian rivals for the religious allegiance of the pagan people. The reigning house accepted Judaism, apparently about the middle of the eighth century; but all faiths were equally tolerated, and every man was held amenable to the authorized code and to the official judges of the religion which he professed. At the Byzantine court the khakan, or sovereign of the Khazars, was held in high honour. The Emperor


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Stein, Charlotte von

STEIN, stīn, Charlotte von, German writer, friend of Goethe (q.v.): b. Weimar, 25 Dec. 1742; d. there, 6 Jan. 1827. She was married in 1764 to the duke's master of the horse. Her friendship with Goethe was broken suddenly after his return from Italy (1788). Goethe's ‘Letters’ to her were first published in 1848-51, edited by Schott. Their almost perfect friendship for 10 years is believed to have profoundly assisted Goethe in his work. A final collection was printed by the Goethe Society in 1886. She wrote a tragedy ‘Dido’ (1867; ed. by Duntzer). Consult the ‘Life’ by Duntzer (1874).


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350 herd's club, a lamp used in farm-kitchens, a bundle of rush-lights and box for flint and steel, a candle mould, and twisted rushes for binding besoms, from Aberdeenshire ; and a meal bason for baking oatcakes, a fairy bottle, a witch bottle, an old-fashioned reel for winding yarn, and specimens of treacle-cakes from Galloway. All these objects were presented by Dr. Gregor to the Society. Dr. Gregor also gave an account of the work he had done for the Ethnographical Survey Committee in Dumfriesshire and Kirkcudbrightshire, and a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to him. Mr. J. B. Andrews exhibited and presented to the Society a number of charms he had obtained from a professional witch in Naples, consisting of (1) three cords: (a) black, to cause illness in the head, (b) red, to cause illness in the heart, and (c) white, to prevent infidelity ; (2) a lemon and a potato with nails implanted in them; (3) a padlock (till unlocked the enchanted person must obey) ; (4) a magnet which draws a lever irresistibly, and which is to be worn on the person ; (5) a horseshoe and whorl to protect against witchcraft; and (6) a small bag of fine sea-sand (when this is worn a witch must perform the impossible task of counting the grains before she can enchant the wearer). A hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Andrews. The Hon. J. Abercromby read a paper entitled "Funeral Masks in Europe ;" and Miss Burne read a paper entitled "Staffordshire Folk and their Lore;" but time did not admit of a discussion on either paper. A note on "Easter Day," by Major A. F. Mockler-Ferryman (see arite, p. 295), was read by the Secretary.


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 FUNERAL MASKS IN EUROPE. BY THE HON. J. ABERCROMBY. Just two years ago, when I happened to be at Palermo, I was taken by Dr. Pitrè to see the new Ethnological Museum, of which I believe he was also the founder. Among the many interesting objects deposited there was a series of wax ex-voto figures such as one sees everywhere in Catholic countries. But what attracted my attention most was a small wax mask of a pretty rosy-cheeked child's face, with blonde hair and delicate features. Though it was hanging on the wall beside the ex-votos, its purpose and origin were quite different. Dr. Pitrè informed me it was a specimen of a mask sometimes used at Palermo at the funeral of a child. It is placed over the face of the child with the alleged reason that the feelings of the parents may not be shocked at the sight of the ghastly pallor and other changes that death produces on the human countenance. Yet in Sicily, except under very exceptional circumstances, the interment always takes place within twenty-four hours of the decease, an interval that does not permit "decay's effacing fingers" to injure materially the lineaments of the dead. We are inclined then to suppose that the alleged reason is not original but secondary, or at any rate is only one of two original explanations. This doubt is confirmed by the fact that as often as not the mask is not laid upon the face, but merely placed in the coffin by the side of the head. Though the custom is confined to Palermo and one or two towns, being unknown in country districts, it is either a revival or a survival of a very ancient practice. On Italian soil the use of sepulchral masks can be carried back as far as the fifth century B.C., and on European soil back to about the twelfth century B.C. We have seen that the alleged reason for placing a mask


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352 on the face of the dead is to prevent the feelings of the relations from being hurt unpleasantly, and no doubt the reason is natural and genuine. But there is another way of arriving at the same result without the use of a mask. It is possible by means of rouge and cosmetics to give to a corpse the appearance of life. From the following extract from the Scotsman newspaper it would appear that this gruesome custom is practised in the United States. "The American people have a passion for looking on the face of the dead. This is partly accounted for by the fact that undertaking is a fine art. By a process I am not able to explain the artist brings up the faded colour on the cheek of the dead till the loved one seems quietly reposing. There is none of the repulsive odour almost inseparable from a Scottish funeral. With head turned slightly to the side., with a smile on the lips, with the red flush on the cheek, the dead lie resting in their narrow bed." Rather more than 200 years ago a similar usage, though less elaborate in its details, was known in Sicily. In Catanese many used to paint the faces of women when laid out after death to render them more showy. But a diocesan synod in 1668 issued an edict against the practice on pain of excommunication. In France it was customary in ancient as well as in modern times for the body of a dead king to lie in state for eight or ten days. Before the embalmment a mould was taken of the face of the deceased, and from it was made a wax impression, which was coloured after nature, to place over the face of the prince. A curious collection of these masks used to be preserved at the Abbey of St. Denis, but it was lost during the Revolution. As the masks were accurate portraits, they were utilised by the sculptor charged to make the royal statue that was eventually placed over his tomb.


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl

STEIN, Heinrich Friedrich Karl, German statesman: b. Nassau, 26 Oct. 1757; d. Kappenberg, Westphalia, 29 June 1831. He studied at Göttingen, entered the mining department of the Prussian government, became head of the mines and manufactures (1784) department in Westphalia, visited the mining districts of England in 1786, became president of the provincial chambers of Westphalia in 1796, and a minister of state in 1804. For the severity of his criticisms on the administration he was dismissed (1807), but in a few months he was recalled, with power to introduce his reforms. Accordingly he abolished serfage by edict, made military service obligatory on all classes, and rearranged the financial and administrative affairs. By means of these reforms he laid the basis of Prussia's future greatness, but in less than a year he was proscribed by Napoleon and dismissed from office. He afterward visited Saint Petersburg, and was instrumental in bringing about the coalition which crushed Napoleon. When the military struggle was over he spent his life in retirement. Consult Pertz, ‘Das Leben des Ministers Freiherrn von Stein’ (1849); Stern, ‘Stein und sein Zeitalter’ (1855); Seeley, ‘Life and Times of Stein’ (1878); Meier, ‘Die Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg’ (1881); and the popular biographies by Neubauer (1894) and Bauer (1895).


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was a Florentine citizen—of that Florence with sombre palaces, landform towers, dry undulating hills, sharply defined against a deep blue sky and covered with little black fusiform cypresses and a silver scarf of olivetrees which move like the waves of the sea—of that intensely elegant Florence where the pale, ironic face of Lorenzo de' Medici, and Machiavelli, with his large, cunning mouth, used to meet "La Primavera," and the chlorotic, pale golden-haired Venuses of Botticelli—of that feverish, proud and neurotic Florence which was the prey of every form of fanaticism, which was agitated by every form of religious or social hysteria, where every one was a free man and where every one was a tyrant, where it was so good to live, and where life was a hell—of that city of intelligent, intolerant, enthusiastic and malignant citizens, who possessed tongues that could sting and minds that were full of suspicion, who jealously spied one another and tore each other to pieces—that city where there was no room for the free mind of a Leonardo, where Botticelli ended in the deluded mysticism of a Scotch Puritan; where the goat-like visaged, ardent-eyed Savonarola ordered his monks to dance around a bonfire of works of art, and where, three years later, the pile was raised to burn the prophet.

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text:
Author:Eldon Gorst

Works

 * (Finance (in part))

title: Author:Eldon Gorst


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was born on March 6, 1475, at Caprese, in the Casentino—a rugged country of rocks and beech-trees and “pure air” which dominates the backbone of the bony Apennines. Not far away, on Mount Alvernia, St. Francis of Assisi beheld his vision of the crucified Christ.

The father —a violent, restless, “God-fearing” man—was podestat, or resident magistrate, of Caprese and Chiusi. The mother died when Michael Angelo was six years of age. They had five sons—Leonardo, Michelagniolo, Buonarroto, Giovan Simone and Sigismondo.

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text: Talk:Barack Obama speech to both Houses of the British Parliament


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terminated this herculean task, glorious but shattered. Through having to hold his head thrown back for months, whilst painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, "he injured his sight to such an extent that for a long time afterwards he could neither read a letter nor look at an object unless he held them above his head, in order to see them better."

He himself joked about his infirmities:

"Labour has given me a goitre, as water does to the cats of Lombardy . . . My stomach points towards my chin, my beard turns towards the sky, my skull rests on my back and my chest is like that of a harpy. The paint from my brush, in dripping on to my face, has made a many-coloured pattern upon it. My loins have entered into my body and my posterior counterbalances. I walk in a haphazard manner, without being able to see my feet. My skin is extended in front and shortened behind. I am bent like a Syrian bow. My intelligence is as strange as my body, for one plays an ill tune on a bent reed."

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disgust of things and of himself threw him into the Revolution, which broke out in Florence in 1527.

Up to that time Michael Angelo had shown in political matters the same indecision of mind from which he ever suffered in his life and in his art. Never did he succeed in conciliating his personal opinions with his obligations towards the Medici. This violent genius was, moreover, ever timid in action; he would not run the risk of struggling against the powerful ones of this world on the ground of politics and religion. His letters show him to have been ever anxious over himself and the members of his family, fearing to compromise himself and denying the bold words which he sometimes uttered in a first movement of indignation against some act of tyranny. At every moment he was writing to his family to tell them to take care, to keep silent, and flee at the first alarm.

"Act as you would in plague time—be the first to 70


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Stein, Mark Aurel

STEIN, Mark Aurel, British Orientalist and archæologist: b. Budapest, Hungary, 26 Nov. 1862. He was educated at the universities of Vienna, Tübingen, Oxford and London. He was registrar of the Punjab University and principal of the Oriental College, Lahore, India, in 1888-99, and in 1899 he became principal of the Calcutta Madrash. The Indian government sent him to conduct archæological investigations in Chinese Turkestan in 1900-01, and he was afterward appointed inspector of education in the Punjab. He was engaged in archæological investigations in central Asia and western China in 1906-08, and in 1909 he became connected with the archæological department of India. He received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1909. He published a critical edition, with an English translation, of Kalhana's ‘Rājataranginī, or Sanskrit Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir’ (2 vols., 1900); and is author of ‘The Sand-Buried Cities of Khotan’ (1903); ‘Ancient Khotan’ (2 vols., 1907); ‘Ruins of Desert Cathay’ (2 vols., 1912), etc.


text:
Author:George Goudie Chisholm

Works

 * Handbook of Commercial Geography
 * (in part)
 * (in part)
 * (ed.) Longman's Gazetteer of the World

title: Author:George Goudie Chisholm


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104 hero to the assembled guests. This will be encountered again in Breton VII.

In Jean de Calais X., finally, a Wallon variant, appear certain interesting changes in the fabric. The King of Calais sent his son Jean to America to trade, but the prince was shipwrecked on the coast of Portugal, and there ransomed and rescued a corpse, which was being dragged through the streets because the man had died in debt. The king scolded his son for wasting so much money, but the next year sent him to Portugal to trade. There he encountered brigands, who had captured the king's daughter with her maid, and ransomed them. On returning to Calais with his bride, he was ill received, and resolved to go back to Portugal. A young lord of Calais accompanied them and threw Jean into the sea, while he took the princess onward and obtained from her a promise of marriage in a year. Happily Jean found a plank by which he reached an island, where a crow fed him every day. At the end of a year he promised the crow half his blood for rescue, and was taken to Portugal by a flock of crows. There he was recognized, and the traitor hanged. One day the crow appeared and demanded the fulfilment of the promise. Jean was about to slay his son, when the bird explained its identity with the ghost of the dead man.

This is the only version which makes Jean a prince; and it is curious that the change should occur in a tale from a region not very remote from Calais. Most of the events of the tale take place in Portugal, however, which is an extension of the ordinary appearance of that country as the home of the heroine. The most striking peculiarity of the version is the home of the traitor, who is a lord of Calais instead of Portugal. All mention of signs is lacking, which is doubtless due to the changes just mentioned. In the matter of the appearance of the ghost as an animal the variant allies itself with II. and

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Rh VII., though it has no special likeness to them in other respects.

Basque II. is like Gaelic in general outline. Juan Dekos is sent out with a ship to complete his education. He pays all that he gets for his cargo to ransom and bury the corpse of a debtor. His father is not pleased, but sends him out again. This time he uses all his money to ransom eight slaves, seven of whom he sends to their homes, but carries one home with him. His father is still more angry, and casts him off; but Juan has a portrait of Marie Louise painted for the figure-head of his ship, and sets off with her for her own land. The lame mate pitches him overboard, and carries the lady to her father's dwelling-place, where he is to marry her after a year and a day. Juan is saved by an angel and placed on a rock. On Marie's wedding-day the angel returns, and offers to take the hero to his bride for half of the child that will be born. The angel was the soul of the dead man. So Juan arrives in time, is recognized by a handkerchief, and tells his story, which causes the burning of the mate. After a year the angel comes for his half of the babe, but when Juan starts to divide it stays his hand.

Webster, the collector of this tale, noticed its similarity to Gaelic, especially in the name of the hero, and surmised that the Basques must have borrowed it from the Celts in some way. The theory is tenable, though a comparison of the two variants shows that the Basques must either have borrowed it in a form considerably different from the Highland tale as we have it, or have altered the details largely. The first part of the story is entirely different; the hero goes on two voyages in Basque II., one only in Gaelic; the lady goes with the hero immediately in the former, he returns for her in the latter; the treachery and the signs are different; the

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106 ghost appears as an angel instead of a human being in Basque; and the promised division concerns the wife and three sons in Gaelic, a single babe in Basque. Thus, apart from the title, there is little to substantiate Webster's theory. The differences are certainly more important than those between any two versions of Jean de Calais. In some particulars, like the voyages and the portrait on the ship, Basque is more nearly normal, while in others, like the account of the treachery and the appearance of the ghost, Gaelic conforms to the ordinary form. Certainly Basque II. is to be regarded as a fairly close relative of Lithuanian II. and Jean de Calais.

In Breton VII. a normal form appears, though with some embroidery of details. A merchant's son, Iouenn Kermenou, goes out with his father's ship to trade. He pays the greater part of the proceeds of the cargo to ransom and bury the corpse of a debtor, which dogs are devouring. On his way home he gives the rest of his money to ransom a princess, who is being carried to a ravaging serpent, which has to be fed with a royal princess every seven years. He is cast off by his father when he reaches home, but is supported by an aunt and enabled to marry his lady. After a son has been born to them, he is sent out by an uncle on another ship, which by his wife's counsel has the figure of himself and herself with their child carved on the prow. He comes to her father's realm, and after some misunderstanding is sent back with two ministers of state for the princess. While returning with her, he is pushed overboard by the first minister, who is an old suitor for the lady's hand, but swims ashore on a desert island. The wife goes to court, and after three years consents to marry the minister. All this time Iouenn lives alone on his rock, but at the end is greeted by the ghost of the man whose body he buried, which appears in a very

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Rh horrible form. On condition of giving in a year and a day half of what he and his wife possess, he is taken to court by this being, where he is recognized by means of a gold chain, which the princess had given him. At the wedding feast, which takes place that day, the wife recounts a parable of how she has found the old key of a coffer just as a new one was ready, brings in Iouenn, and has the minister burned. At the end of a year and a day comes the ghost, and demands half of the child (the older one has died) that has been born to them. As the hero reluctantly proceeds to divide the child, the ghost stops him, praises his fidelity, and disappears.

It will be seen that this variant does not differ in essentials from those previously summarized, though its details exactly coincide with none of them. The order of events is normal, very like that of Lithuanian II., for example, yet it has marks of peculiarity. Chief among these are the events connected with the ransom of the lady and the parable by which she introduces her long lost husband to court. The first is a trait borrowed from the Perseus and Andromeda motive, the second is the same as the riddle in Jean de Calais IX How this latter feature should happen to appear in these two widely separated variants and nowhere else I am not wise enough to explain.

Simrock I. introduces still another complication in the way of compounds. A merchant's son on a journey secures proper burial for a black Turkish slave, thereby using all his money. His father is angry with him on his return. On his second voyage he ransoms a maiden and is cast off by his father when he reaches home. The young couple live for a time on the proceeds from the sale of the wife's handiwork, but after a little set off to the court of her father, who is a king. On the way

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User talk:173.208.50.128

Welcome

Hello, and welcome to Wikisource! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:

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You are welcome to continue editing articles without logging in, but you may wish to  [ create an account] . Doing so is free, requires no personal information, and provides several benefits. For one thing, if you continue to edit without a username, your IP address is used to publicly identify you.

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108 they meet one of the king's ships, and go aboard. The hero is cast into the sea by the captain, but is saved by a black fellow and brought back to the ship. Again he is cast overboard. When the princess arrives at home, she agrees to marry whoever can paint three rooms to her liking. The hero, meanwhile, is again saved by the black man, and in return for the promise of his first child on its twelfth birthday he is given the power of obtaining his wishes. After a year and a day he is taken to court by his friend, where by wishing he paints the three rooms, the third with the story of his life. So he is recognized. On the twelfth birthday of his first child the black man comes to him and is offered the boy, but instead of taking him explains his identity.

As far as The Grateful Dead, The Ransomed Woman, and the sacrifice of the child are concerned, this follows the normal course of events, except perhaps as to the child, of actually dividing which there is no question. Like Lithuanian II., Jean de Calais III., IV., V., and X., Basque II., and Norwegian I, it makes the hero and heroine set out for her father's court together and of their own free will. The colour of the thankful dead is a peculiar trait. Yet the element which complicates the question, as mentioned above, is the feat by which the hero obtains his wife. If I am not mistaken, this allies the variant on one side with stories of the type of The Water of Life, where the bride is gained by the performance of some task obviously set as impossible. The questions involving the relations of such motives with The Grateful Dead will occupy the next chapter, so that it needs simply to be mentioned at this point.

In Simrock II. a miller's son goes with merchandise to England. In London he pays all his money for the debts and the burial of a poor man. He is again sent to England by his father, and this time he gives his

title: Page:The Grateful Dead.djvu/124


text:
User talk:68.175.123.186

Welcome

Hello, and welcome to Wikisource! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers:

 * Help pages
 * Style Guide
 * Inclusion policy

You are welcome to continue editing articles without logging in, but you may wish to  [ create an account] . Doing so is free, requires no personal information, and provides several benefits. For one thing, if you continue to edit without a username, your IP address is used to publicly identify you.

In any case, I hope you enjoy donating your time to grow the Wikisource library that is free for everyone to use! In discussions, please sign your comments using four tildes ( ~ ); this will automatically produce your IP address (or username if you're logged in) and the date. If you need help, ask me on my talk page, or ask your question here (click  [ edit] ) and place  before your question. Again, welcome! -- George Orwell III (talk) 20:51, 1 June 2011 (UTC) A contribution from this account or ip address, which appeared to be a test edit, was removed or reverted. Please use the sandbox for this purpose. The community portal has information on contributing to this library.

title: User talk:68.175.123.186


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Page:The Grateful Dead.djvu/125

Rh whole ship to ransom a beautiful maiden. When he returns with her, he is cast off by his father, marries the girl, and lives on what she makes by her needle. He takes a piece of her embroidery with him to England, where it is seen by the king and queen, whose daughter has become his wife. He is sent for her in company with a minister, who pitches him overboard and goes on for the princess, hoping to marry her. The hero swims ashore, in the meantime, and communicates with his wife by means of a dove, which also feeds him. Finally a spirit conveys him to London, after receiving the promise of half of his first child. He obtains work in the kitchen of the castle, and sends a ring to his wife, by means of which they are reunited. At the birth of their child he refuses to give the spirit half, but offers the whole instead, whereupon ensues an explanation.

This variant is of the same type as Jean de Calais II. and VII. resembling the latter more than the former in details. The three are sufficiently unlike, however, to make any immediate relationship quite out of the question, even did not geography forbid. As in Hungarian II., Oliver, Lope de Vega, Calderon, Jean de Calais V. and VIII., and Norwegian I., the heroine is an English princess, a point of interest, but not of much importance.

Simrock VIII. differs from the above in only two points. The beginning states that a merchant while in Turkey pays the debts and burial expenses of a poor man. On his next voyage he buys three hundred slaves from the Emperor of Constantinople. Three of them he keeps at his home, one of whom he marries. The further adventures of the hero agree with Simrock II. even in names and most details, except that the hero is

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text: The Grateful Dead; the history of a folk story/The Grateful Dead and The Water of Life or Kindred Themes


text: The Grateful Dead; the history of a folk story/The Relations of The Grateful Dead to The Spendthrift Knight, The Two Friends, and The Thankful Beasts


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Steinheil, Karl August

STEINHEIL, stīn'hīl, Karl August, German physicist and astronomer: b. Rappoltsweiler, Alsace, 12 Oct. 1801; d. Munich, 12 Sept. 1870. After completing a course in law at the University of Erlangen, and courses in astronomy at Göttingen and Königsberg, he waa appointed to the chair of physics and mathematics in the University of Munich. He later entered the service of the Austrian government, becoming especially noted for his development and perfection of the telegraph system, a service which he also rendered to the Swiss government a few years later. In 1836 he built the first printing telegraph, invented an electromagnetic telegraph, the electrical clock, a special pyroscope, and brought out the first daguerreotype picture in Germany. He also invented several optical instruments, and in 1854 began the manufacture of optical, astronomical and photographic materials, and it was in his factory that the telescopes for the observatories of Upsala, Mannheim, Leipzig, etc., were made. Steinheilite or iolite, a transparent mineral, was named after him.


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 over his children, over thoe of his own pecies ; and o he was not made ruler, or monarch, by this charter.

2. That by this grant God gave him not private dominion over the inferior creatures, but right in common with all mankind ; o neither was he monarch, upon the account of the property here given him.

§. 25. I. That this donation, i. Gen. 28. gave Adam no power over men, will appear if we conider the words of it : for ince all poitive grants convey no more than the expres words they are made in will carry, let us ee which of them here will comprehend mankind, or Adam's poterity, and thoe, I imagine, if any, mut be thee, every living thing that moveth : the words in Hebrew are, חיה חךמשת Betiam Reptantem, of which words the cripture itelf is the bet interpreter : God having created the fihes and fowls the 5th day, the beginning of the 6th, he creates the irrational inhabitants of the dry land, which, v. 24. are decribed in thee words, let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind; cattle and creeping things, and beats of the earth, after his kind, and, v. 2. and God made the beats of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth on the earth after his kind : here, in the creation of the brute inhabitants of the earth, he firt peaks of them all under one general name, of living crea- tures,'


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Steinheil, Louis Charles August

STEINHEIL, Louis Charles August, Alsatian painter: b. Strassburg, 26 June 1814; d. Paris, 17 May 1885. He studied with Decaisne and painted in nearly every medium, but gave especial attention to glass painting and church decoration. In 1876 he was commissioned to execute frescoes in the cathedral of Strassburg. Among his works are ‘Saint Philomela’ (1841); ‘Mother’ (1847), Nantes Museum.


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URING the year preceding the outbreak of the Spanish War I was Assistant Secretary of the Navy. While my party was in opposition, I had preached, with all the fervor and zeal I possessed, our duty to intervene in Cuba, and to take this opportunity of driving the Spaniard from the Western World. Now that my party had come to power, I felt it incumbent on me, by word and deed, to do all I could to secure the carrying out of the policy in which I so heartily believed; and from the beginning I had determined that, if a war came, somehow or other, I was going to the front.

Meanwhile, there was any amount of work at hand in getting ready the navy, and to this I devoted myself.

Naturally, when one is intensely interested in a certain cause, the tendency is to associate particularly with those who take the same view. A large number of my friends felt very differently from the way I felt, and looked upon the possibility of war Rh


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Steinheil, Marguerite

STEINHEIL, Marguerite, French woman, central figure in a mysterious cause célèbre: b. Beaucourt, 16 April 1869. She came of a wealthy family named Japy and was married to Adolphe Steinheil, an artist. They lived in Paris, where Mme. Steinheil became prominent in a distinguished circle, including many of the most famous Parisian lights in politics, art and literature. She was on terms of intimacy with President Faure, and gossip connected her e with his sudden death, but no proof was ever produced. On the night of 30-31 May 1908 Mme. Steinheil's husband and her mother, Mme. Japy, were murdered and robbed and Mme. Steinheil herself was found bound and gagged upon a bed. She was later accused of committing the crime, but was acquitted after a sensational

trial. There were rumors of political complications, enhanced by a mysterious pearl necklace supposed to have been given her by President Faure. How much or little of truth was in the rumors and accusations rife at the time of the trial has never become known, and no light has ever been thrown upon the crime of which she was accused. After her acquittal she lived in England in retirement. Author of ‘My Memoirs’ (New York 1912).


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 with sincere horror. But I found plenty of sympathizers, especially in the navy, the army, and the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs. Commodore Dewey, Captain Evans, Captain Brownson, Captain Davis—with these and the various other naval officers on duty at Washington I used to hold long consultations, during which we went over and over, not only every question of naval administration, but specifically everything necessary to do in order to put the navy in trim to strike quick and hard if, as we believed would be the case, we went to war with Spain. Sending an ample quantity of ammunition to the Asiatic squadron and providing it with coal; getting the battleships and the armored cruisers on the Atlantic into one squadron, both to train them in manœuvring together, and to have them ready to sail against either the Cuban or the Spanish coasts; gathering the torpedo-boats into a flotilla for practice; securing ample target exercise, so conducted as to raise the standard of our marksmanship; gathering in the small ships from European and South American waters; settling on the number and kind of craft needed as auxiliary cruisers—every one of these points was threshed over in conversations with officers who were present in Washington, or in correspondence with officers who, like Captain Mahan, were absent.

As for the Senators, of course Senator Lodge