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 induction, comprise the sum of all that can be known. The paper, which was one of the official forms issued to be left for transmission by any casual finder, had been in the first instance filled up in the customary manner, but carelessly and with a wrong date: ‘28 May 1847—H.M. ships Erebus and Terror wintered in the ice in lat. 70° 05߱′N., long. 98° 23߱ W. Having wintered in 1846–7 [a mistake for 1845–6] at Beechey Island in lat. 74° 43߱′28″ N., long. 91° 39߱′15″ W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to lat. 77° and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. Sir John Franklin commanding the expedition. All well. …’ In 1846 they proceeded to the south-west, and eventually reached within twelve miles of the north extreme of King William's Land, when their progress was arrested by the approaching winter; and there they remained. The rest of the story was written on the margin of the same form by Captain Fitzjames: ‘25 April 1848—H.M. ships Terror and Erebus were deserted on 22 April, 5 leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset since 12 Sept. 1846. The officers and crews, consisting of 105 souls, under the command of Captain F. R. M. Crozier, landed here in lat. 69° 37߱ 42″ N., long. 98° 41߱ W. Sir John Franklin died on 11 June 1847, and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this date 9 officers and 15 men.’ To which was added, in Crozier's writing, ‘and start on to-morrow, 26th, for Back's Fish River.’ And this was all. From the Eskimos McClintock learned that one of the ships sank in deep water, and that, to their grief, they got nothing from her; the other, much broken, was forced on shore, and from her they obtained the wood and iron which he saw in their possession. But there was no further news of the men. It was too certain that every soul of the party perished miserably; some earlier on King William's Land; some ‘falling down and dying as they walked,’ as an old woman told McClintock; many on the mainland by the Great Fish River. Most fortunate then in his end was Franklin, who died before this terrible fate fell on his men; died, proud in the consciousness of having seen, even if he had not fully travelled over the north-west passage, the strait separating King William's Land from Victoria Land; the strait which, if the ice would have permitted, would have led him into the known waters already explored by Dease and Simpson.

Since the finding of this written record Franklin has been recognised as the discoverer of the north-west passage, and is so styled on the pedestal of the statue to his memory erected at the public cost in Waterloo Place, London. This statue ‘gives a tolerably faithful representation of him.’ There are other statues at Hobart Town and Spilsby. A portrait painted by T. Phillips, R.A., about the time of his first marriage, has been photographed. Another portrait by John Jackson, R.A., lent by Mr. John Murray, was exhibited in the loan exhibition at South Kensington in 1868. Another portrait by Derby is engraved for Jerdan's ‘National Portrait Gallery’ (vol. ii.), and there is a capital lithograph by Negelen. A monument in Westminster Abbey, erected by his widow, was uncovered a fortnight after her death in 1875.

Franklin was a man not only of iron resolution and indomitable courage, but of a singular geniality, uprightness, and simplicity, which kindled into the warmest affection his influence over his comrades and subordinates. He left but one child, the daughter of his first wife. She married in 1849 the Rev. John Philip Gell, the head of an old Derbyshire family, who, as a young man, had been selected by Dr. Arnold's advice to be principal of the college in Hobart Town, and was long rector of Buxted in Sussex. Mrs. Gell died in 1860, leaving several children.

[Marshall's Roy. Nav. Biog. ix. (vol. iii. pt. i.) 1; O'Byrne's Nav. Biog. Dict.; Encycl. Brit. 7th and 8th editions; Richardson's Polar Regions; Sherard Osborn's Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin: this was originally published in Once a Week (October and November 1859), was afterwards republished separately, and is here referred to in the first volume of Admiral Osborn's Collected Works (1865); a Brave Man and his Belongings, printed in 1874 for private circulation: it is addressed by a niece of the first Mrs. Franklin to Franklin's grand-children and grand nephews or nieces; Beechey's Voyage of Discovery towards the North Pole in H.M. ships Dorothea and Trent; Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the years 1819–22 by John Franklin (4to, 1823); Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the years 1825–7, by John Franklin (4to, 1828); Report of the Committee appointed by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to inquire into and report on the recent Arctic Expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin (fol. 1851); Papers relative to the recent Arctic Expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin and the crews of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror (fol. 1854); Further Papers relative to the recent Arctic Expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin (fol. 1855); McClintock's Narrative of the Discovery of the fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions.]

FRANKLIN, ROBERT (1630–1684), nonconformist divine, was born in London 16 July 1630. In his ninth year he went into Suffolk to live with an aunt, and in


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 Rh (or was) sung as a Christmas carol. It does not appear in Professor Child's great collection of ballads, and its discovery is due to the personal enquiries of members of the Folk-Song Society, followed up by letters to local papers. The ballad tells how the Virgin Mary granted her Son's request to be allowed to go and play, on condition that she should "hear no tales" of Him "at night when" He "came home." His playfellows taunt Him with His lowly birth, and so, to prove His real origin rmd His powers, He makes a bridge of sunbeams over the sea, and runs across it safely. His companions trying to do the same are drowned.

Now here we have, first of all, the observation of a fact in Nature. The willow does actually decay before other trees. It "perishes at the heart" while preserving an outward appearance of soundness. Then we have an aetiological myth invented to account for this peculiar property of the willow. It is attributed to a curse laid on the tree by a Higher Power. (The particular story told is a version of an incident in the Apocryphal Gospels. I shall return to this by and by.)

Resulting from the perishable nature of the willow we

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 due course was sent to Woodbridge school. Here, as he confessed, he was too fond of sports, violent in temper, and prone to lying. He was specially trained in writing and accounts with a view to his being apprenticed in London, but his ability led to his being sent to Cambridge, where he was admitted to Jesus College. His tutor was Bantoft, whom he succeeded in the office, but he gave up tuition on proving successful in a preaching competition against a Dr. Brooks for the college living of Kirton, Suffolk. Franklin found that he was unable to subsist in comfort on his living, which only produced 50l. a year, and set up a school, which proved to be educationally successful, but a commercial failure. Through a friend's influence he was appointed to the superior living of Bramfield, but here he received nothing at all, as the former incumbent declined to retire. He then obtained the living of Blythburgh, where he remained only a short time, being presented in 1659 to the vicarage of Westhall, where he again found an incumbent, speechless from palsy, who declined to move. Franklin was allowed, however, to perform the duties of the vicar on payment of ten shillings a week to his predecessor, who at length resigned and left him in possession. In 1662 he ‘left his living rather than defile his conscience.’ He became in 1663 private chaplain to Sir Samuel Barnardiston [q. v.], but after six months went to London and suffered for nonconformity. He was first seized for preaching at Colebrooke, and was lodged in Aylesbury gaol, his goods being confiscated. On his release he took a house in London, and held religious meetings there, but refusing the corporation oath he was again imprisoned. A sermon which he preached some time afterwards in Glovers' Hall was followed by his detention for six months in Newgate. Later he was seized in his own house at Bunhill Fields, and committed to the New prison; he was released shortly, but compelled to appear every sessions, and to give bail for his good behaviour. He died in 1684. He is described by Calamy as a man of great gravity and integrity, and a plain, serious preacher. Franklin subscribed his name, among those of fellow-ministers, to ‘A Murderer Punished and Pardoned; or a True Relation of the Wicked Life and Shameful-happy Death of Thos. Savage, imprisoned, justly condemned, and twice executed at Radcliff, by us who were often with him in Newgate.’ Otherwise he only published ‘ Death in Triumph over the most desirable ones,’ a funeral sermon on Mrs. Mary Parry (1683), for, as he remarks in the preface to this publication, he had not the ‘itching humour of the scribbling age, nor any desire to appear in print.’ He left a manuscript entitled ‘Memorable Occurrences of my Life,’ which is the principal source for the facts of his career. Franklin was married.

[Calamy and Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. iii. 291; Davy's Athenæ Suffolc. i. 267.]

FRANKLYN, WILLIAM (1480?–1556), dean of Windsor, was born at Bledlow, Buckinghamshire, probably about 1480, and educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.C.L. in 1504. He took orders, and in 1514 was appointed chancellor of the diocese of Durham and receiver of the bishop's revenues. In 1515 he became archdeacon of Durham and master of the hospital of St. Giles at Kepyer, Durham. In this and the following years Franklyn was active in directing measures in border warfare with the Scotch. His headquarters were at Norham, and it was probably about this period that a grant of arms was made him in consideration of the recovery of the castle at that place by his prowess and policy. In February 1518 he was installed prebendary of Heydour-cum-Walton in the diocese of Lincoln, and before 1522 he was rector of Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, and held the prebend of Eveston, in the collegiate church of Lanchester, in the same county. On Wolsey's accession to the see of Durham he confirmed Franklyn in the chancellorship, with power of appointing justices of the peace, coroners, stewards, bailiffs, and other officers, and the chancellor made himself very useful to the bishop in devising plans for increasing the revenues of the diocese. In one of many letters addressed by Franklyn to Wolsey in 1528 he points out the neglect of certain palatine rights which might be exercised with advantage, shows how collieries and lead mines might be more profitably worked, and suggests that some one else should be appointed chancellor and he himself Wolsey's surveyor of Yorkshire, for, though the chancellorship carried the best pay, ‘I am young and can do more service thus.’ He was still chancellor under Tunstall, Wolsey's successor at Durham, but he already enjoyed marked proofs of Wolsey's favour. He received a salaried appointment as counsellor resident with Henry Fitzroy [q. v.], duke of Richmond, natural son of Henry VIII; was presented to the prebend of Stillington, Yorkshire, in February 1526, and in the same year became president of Queens' College, Cambridge, which office he held only a year and nine months. His name appears in the commission formed, October 1528, to treat for peace with James V of Scotland, and he had a hand


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 in the negotiations which led to the peace concluded 31 July 1534 at Holyrood. In May 1535 he was one of the council in the north executing the royal commission for assessing and taxing spiritual proceedings. On 17 Dec. 1536 Franklyn was by patent appointed dean of Windsor, and in 1540 he exchanged his Lincolnshire prebend for the rectory of Chalfont St. Giles, Buckinghamshire, the parsonage attaching to which he afterwards let on a lease of thirty-one years to John Storie, LL.D. [q. v.] As dean of Windsor he assisted at the christening of Edward VI and the funeral of Lady Jane Dudley, and his signature is affixed to the decree declaring the invalidity of the marriage of Henry VIII with Anne of Cleves. On 14 Jan. 1544–5 he surrendered to the crown his hospital of Kepyer and most of his benefices, and he also alienated the revenues of his deanery, some temporarily, others in perpetuity. The complaints against him on this score were so loud that after the accession of Edward VI he was compelled to resign. He retired to Chalfont St. Giles, where he died in January 1555–6, and was buried in the church. His will met with disapproval, for a grant was made to one J. Glynne of so much as he could recover of goods, chattels, and money, devised by Franklyn for superstitious purposes (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1547–80, p. 233). A large number of letters addressed by Franklyn to Wolsey, Cromwell, and others are preserved in the Record Office and the British Museum. Franklyn is described by Foxe as ‘a timorous man’ (Acts and Monuments, ed. 1847, v. 469).

[Lipscombe's Hist. of Buckinghamshire, ii. 69, iii. 232; Le Neve's Fasti Eccl. Angl. ii. 156, iii. 213, 304, 373, 685; Hutchinson's Hist. of Durham, i. 404, 407, 443, ii. 540; Brewer's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII (Rolls Ser.), passim; Wood's Athenæ Oxon. ed. Bliss, i. 389; Strype's Eccl. Mem. ii. pt. i. pp. 9, 12; Rymer's Fœdera, xii. 282, 541; Camden Miscellany, vols. iii. xxiii.; Cooper's Athenæ Cantabr. i. 141; Cole's MS. Collection, vii. 129, xiii. 125, 126, xxxii. 112, 113, xlviii. 257. In the place first cited Cole doubts the identity of Franklyn, dean of Windsor, with Franklyn, archdeacon of Durham, seemingly only because he lacked proof of it.]  FRANKS, JOHN (1770–1852), Indian judge, second son of Thomas Franks (1729–1787), of Ballymagooly, Cork, by Catherine, daughter of Rev. John Day, born in 1770, graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, B.A. 1788, LL.B. 1791. He was called to the Irish bar 1792. He went the Munster circuit, and had a good practice as chamber counsel. He ‘took silk’ in 1823. In 1825 the board of control, on the recommendation of his friend Plunket, then attorney-general, appointed him a judge of the supreme court at Calcutta. He received, as was customary, the honour of knighthood before his departure for India. He held this office till the effect of the climate on his health brought about his resignation in 1834. On his return he resided at Roebuck, near Dublin. He died 11 Jan. 1852. He was thrice married. By his first wife, Catherine, daughter of his cousin Thomas Franks of Carrig, Cork, he had two sons and three daughters. His heir was John Franks of Bally-scaddane, co. Limerick.

Franks was popular, both as advocate and judge. He was an intimate friend of Curran, and one of his executors, W. H. Curran. Curran's son, commemorates his ‘peculiar aboriginal wit, quiet, keen, and natural to the occasion, and, best of all, never malignant’ (Gent. Mag.)

[Gent. Mag. April 1852, p. 408; Graduates of Dublin, p. 208; Burke's Landed Gentry.]

FRANKS, THOMAS HARTE (1808–1862), general, was the second son of William Franks of Carrig Castle, near Mallow, co. Cork, by Catherine, daughter of William Hume, M.P. for the county of Wicklow, and aunt of Fitzwilliam Hume Dick, M.P. for Wicklow. He entered the army as an ensign in the 10th regiment on 7 July 1825, and had been promoted lieutenant on 26 Sept. 1826, captain on 1 March 1839, major on 29 Dec. 1843, and lieutenant-colonel on 28 March 1845, before he had ever seen service. During these twenty years he had been with his regiment in many parts of the world, and in 1842 he accompanied it for the first time to India. He was engaged in the first Sikh war, and the 10th regiment was one of those which were called up to help to fill the gap caused by the heavy losses at Mudkí and Firozshah. At the battle of Sobraon the 10th regiment was on the extreme right of the line, and it did its duty nobly in carrying the Sikh position in front of it. Franks was wounded, and had a horse shot under him, and he was rewarded by the Sobraon medal and by being made a C.B. In the second Sikh war Franks's regiment was the first English one to come up to the siege of Múltán, and Franks, as one of the senior officers with the besieging force, held many independent commands, and rendered most valuable services. After the siege was over he joined Lord Gough on 10 Feb. 1849, and served with great distinction at Gujrát. He was promoted colonel on 20 June 1854, and was appointed to the command of the Jalandhar brigade on 11 May 1855. He had handed over his command, and


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18 have, further, not quite a taboo, strictly so-called, but a customary prohibition. For in Herefordshire and the adjacent counties the willow may not be used as a whip for chastising children or animals; because, says one informant, our Saviour was beaten with it by His Mother,—(here we have the myth alleged as a reason for the custom); because it will stunt their growth, says another; because it will give them internal pains, says a third. Here we meet with the world-wide belief that the qualities of any given object may be imparted to another by simple contact. The scientific call that "sympathetic magic," but there is little or no magic about it in the eyes of the simple folk who hold the belief To them it is merely a natural law to be reckoned with or utilized as occasion demands. They reason, I imagine,—or their forefathers did,—on the analogy of disease. If that can be communicated by contact, why not anything else? At all events willow-rods may not be used in chastisement on the Welsh Marches, and neither (in Salop, at least) may the low-growing broom, on the same plea that it will stunt the victim's growth. The mountain-ash, sovereign against witchcraft, is there, as in Scotland, considered the proper wood for carters' whip-stocks. The popular use of the tall and slender birch is known to every one (painfully well known, it may be, to some!). The ground-ash, too, probably owes much of its credit as an instrument of punishment to its straight and noble growth, A Scottish schoolmaster migrated to Cheshire and imported with him the national attribute of his office, the tawse. Public opinion was greatly incensed by his choice of a weapon, and the village black-smith spoke out. "Hey, gaffer," he said firmly to the Dominie, "thou'st been a-'ammerin' our Tom wi' a strap


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Rh wi' a 'ole in it, 'stead of a stick, and ah wunna 'ave it. Whoy what dost think ash-plants was growed for?"

To return to the willow. If its use is forbidden for some purposes, it is prescribed for others. Its quick decay, and especially its deceptive appearance of soundness, are no doubt the reasons that it is used as the emblem of a forsaken maiden. To "wear the willow" for a false lover is a proverbial saying, and Brand tells us that in the seventeenth century a girl about to be married would send presents of willow garlands to her discarded suitors. It was used with similar symbolism in funeral rites.

Here, in the folklore of the willow-tree, we have Belief and Practice, Myth, Song, and Saying, inextricably mingled,—and this is the point I want to put before you to-night, that Folklore is not an assemblage of miscellaneous items,—it is an essential unity. You cannot separate Belief, Custom, and Myth,—(Songs and Sayings are but concrete forms enshrining these),—as matters of study. The three are interdependent, homogeneous. They are in their several ways the expression of the psychology of uncultured man; in other words, they make up the Learning of the Folk,—Folklore.

You will, however, I am sure, have already perceived the weak point in my illustration from the willow-tree. It does not involve Custom in the sense of Social Organization or Institution, and it may reasonably be asked how Folklore, under our definition of the word, can be held to include social, or, rather, institutional customs? In reply


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 20 to this question we may point to India, where the whole social fabric of Hinduism is reared on the foundation of the caste system, the main feature of which is the preservation of purity of race or caste by avoidance of contact. Or we may cite totemism with its accompaniment of exogamy. Here it is impossible to say where Belief ends and Custom begins. We can only perceive that the whole social system is moulded by obscure beliefs about the relations between the human race, the brute creation, and inanimate nature.

But it is certainly more difficult to perceive the connection between Belief and Custom in Europe, and especially in England, where the old village system has been so entirely broken up, and the old social groups disintegrated. In Ireland something of an older state of things still remains. Their agrarian system differs from ours, the ancient customs of inheritance still linger among the peasantry, and the sense of family solidarity and mutual responsibility is still strong. Penniless members of the family group quarter themselves together without ceremony on their richer brethren, and marriage continues to be a family affair, not merely the concern of the contracting parties only. There is a different tone of thought, and a corresponding difference in practice. But in England the whole trend of our social system for the past few generations has been increasingly individualistic. Individual ownership of land prevails, individual occupation, individual cultivation. Self-help is the approved principle of action in all classes. Every adult must struggle for himself, must make his own way, and marriage becomes more and more a matter for the individuals themselves alone. The influence of the traditional solidarities wanes on every hand. Yet even here, when society re-moulds itself and men gather into groups again, common belief is a factor in re-creating common action. We see Roman Catholics intermarrying among themselves, each individual Nonconformist chapel tending to become the nucleus of a social set, and


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User talk:Шинко Михаил Григорьевич

Шинко Михаил Григорьевич родился 22 июня 1961 года в городе Котовске Тамбовской области. Закончив среднюю школу №5 в 1976 г.,а годом ранее музыкальные пятилетние курсы при городском Дворце культуры по классу баян, поступил в Котовский индустриальный техникум.

authors: Шинко Михаил Григорьевич

title: User talk:Шинко Михаил Григорьевич


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Rh adherence to particular economic tenets inspiring the formation of Trades Unions. Thought still moves to action, and to common action, but the old traditional ideas have ceased to shape or colour the institutions of the country. Hence we often say that European folklore exists in a state of survival.

Now what is Survival?

Etymologically, it should mean something qui survit, which outlives its fellows, like the Wandering Jew, encountered suddenly and unexpectedly, now here, now there, in every quarter of the globe from century to century. In practice, we use the word rather to denote a relic, a dead thing cut off from its source, like a lock of hair preserved long after the head it was cut from has mouldered into dust. A survival, in the technical sense, has been defined as "a vestigial or decadent element of culture, which has ceased to be in organic relation with the prevailing form of culture," or, as it might be expressed, "has out-lasted the form of culture to which it originally belonged." If we look into the matter closely we shall find, I think, that the folklore survival consists of certain special elements of an ancient culture existing apart from the rest. Either the strong framework of Institution is wanting, or else the animating force of Belief. When the Lord Mayor offers his sword to the King at the City boundary, only to have it returned to him, the ceremony was once a living reality, the acknowledgment by a tributary ruler of his liege lord on the one hand, and on the other the proof of the sovereign's confidence in the loyalty of his vassal. Now, (though hardly to be reckoned folklore), it has become "a mere survival," an empty form, a relic of the past which no longer has any real function in the social polity of the day. The ceremony, in fact, has out-lasted the Institution to which it belonged. When we mechanically avoid walking under ladders, or throw spilt salt over the left shoulder, or turn over a coin on hearing the first


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 22 more, when we deal cards, or pass the decanter, the way of the sun,—Custom (or rather Practice) survives, Belief, Again, the Lushai, the Hausa, and the Bushman believes that the marvellous incidents in his folk-tales might, and probably did, happen,—that men were changed into beasts, and beasts spoke and acted as men. The European child listens with delight to Cinderella or Beauty and the Beast, but he does not believe that a rat could become a coachman or a beast be a transformed prince. The Story survives the Belief.

But when Belief survives, though Customs may be changed and Stories forgotten, then "the case is altered." The survival is no mere dead relic then.

Let me tell you of an incident which happened within my own knowledge, and which could probably be paralleled in any county in England. On the 2ist January, 1879, a labouring man was sent with a horse and cart from Ranton Abbey in Staffordshire to Woodcote Hall, Shropshire, a distance of fourteen or fifteen miles. On the way he had to pass over a bridge which carries the high road over the Birmingham and Liverpool Canal. The canal runs through a deep cutting between spoil-banks planted with trees, the bridge is of peculiar construction, and the whole is a rather fine bit of engineering work by Telford. It is a picturesque spot with an eerie and uncanny reputation. Well, the man returned late at night with his empty cart and tired horse, when just as he reached the bridge a black Thing with white eyes sprang out of the trees and alighted on the horse's back. (A cat, did ye say? No, it wunna no cat.) The weary horse broke into a canter; the terrified man lashed at the intruder; but to his horror the whip went through the Thing, and fell from his hand to the ground. How he got rid of the invader he never knew, but at length, his horse "all of a lather," he reached the village of Woodseaves, and there told his tale, alarming one of his hearers, (whom I know well to this day), so much


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 [ 27 ] . 'For paying the Burgeffes Wages in Money for this prefent Seffion of Affembly. . 'To empower the Veftry of the Parifh of Hanover, in the County of King George, to fell their prefent Glebe Lands, and to lay out the Money in the Purchafe of a more convenient Glebe. . ^To dock the Entail of certain Lands whereof Robert Carter, Efq; is feized, and to fettle other Lands of greater Value to the fame Ufes. . *To veft certain entailed Lands therein mentioned in Bernard Moore, Efq; in Fee- Simple, and for laying out the Value thereof in Slaves, to be fettled to the fame Ufes. . 5 To dock the Entail of certain Lands whereof Mann Page, Efq; is feized, and for fettling other Lands and Slaves of greater Value to the fame Ufes. . ''To veft certain Lands therein-mentioned in Philip Whitehead Claiborne, Gentle- man, in Fee-Simple, and for fettling other Lands and Slaves in Lieu thereof. . 'To dock the Entail of certain Lands whereof John Weft, Gentleman, is feized, and veft them in Truftees, to be fold, and lay out the Money in the Purchafe of Slaves, to be fettled to the fame Ufes. . ^ To explain and amend an Ad, entitled. An Ad for further enlarging the Town of Dumfries, in the County of Prince William. The Govemour alfo gave his Affent to the following Refolves : . A Refolve For paying the Officers Salaries for this prefent Seffion of Affembly. . A Refolve for paying Jofeph Royle, Printer, a Salary of £350 per Annum. . A Refolve For paying Mefs. John Chifwell and Thomas Walker the Sum of ;i£i5o each, for the Services therein-mentioned. And then his Honour was pleafed to clofe the Seffion with the following Speech : Gentlemen of the Council, M' Speaker, and Gentlemen of the Houfe of Burgeffes, Having given my Affent to all the Bills you have prepared for me, I fhall now difmifs you; after giving you my Affurance that I will difpofe of the Regiment agreeably to the Ad now paffed for that Purpofe. I fhall order the Accounts of the Provifion and Carriage for the Year 1760 to be got ready for Colonel Byrd to prefent to the General, as he propofes; and fhall write to Them both to endeavor to procure the Payment thereof. M' Speaker, and Gentlemen of the Houfe of Burgeffes, It is neceffary for me to explain a Part of my Condud towards your Houfe, which was the fending down all the Letters I had received from Sir Jeffery Amherit relating to this Campaign, after you had taken the Matter of his laft Letter into your Confideration. I did this to obviate a falfe and fcandalous Rumour, which has too much prevailed without Doors, that I had received a Letter from Sir Jeffery Amherft, in which he had given up our Regi- ment, as having no more Ufe for it, though I did not think proper to produce the Letter. For Fear this fhould have any Influence on your Deliberations, and obftrud your good Intentions to comply with the Defires of the General, I thought it proper to take this Step. Reports of fuch a Nature tend to alienate the Minds of his Majefty's Subjeds from him and his Government, and are of a moft pernicious Confeqtience: I therefore hope you will always difcourage and difcountenance the Authors and Propagators of fuch falfe News. And I can with Juftice appeal to yourfelves whether you have, at any Time, found me backward in communicating any Thing to you which could give you any Infight into the Bufinefs I recommended to your Confideration. Gentlemen of the Council and of the Houfe of Burgeffes, There is Nothing left for me now to do but to prorogue you, and you are accordingly prorogued to Thtirfday the lo'* of December next. ' Hening, VII, p. 476. 3 Ibid., VII, p. 478. s Ibid., VII, p. 480. 7 Ibid., VII, p. 488. » Ibid., VII, p. 471. " Ibid.. VII, p. 483. 6 Ibid., VII, p. 486. s ibid.. VII, p. 472.


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Author:Edgar Allison Peers

Works

 * Elizabethan Drama and its Mad Folk (1914)
 * The Origins of French Romanticism (1920, with M. B. Finch)
 * Studies of the Spanish Mystics (1927–30, 2 volumes)
 * Spain, a Companion to Spanish Studies (1929)
 * Spain, a Companion to Spanish Travel (1930)
 * The Pyrenees, French and Spanish (1932)
 * The Complete Works of St. John of the Cross (1934-35, 3 volumes)
 * Ascent of Mount Carmel by John of the Cross (1935)
 * The Spanish Tragedy (1936)
 * Catalonia Infelix (1937)
 * A Handbook to the Study and Teaching of Spanish (1938)
 * Spain, the Church and the Orders (1939)
 * History of the Romantic Movement in Spain (1940, 2 volumes)
 * The Spanish Dilemma (1940)
 * Redbrick University, part 1 (1943)
 * Spain in Eclipse (1943)
 * Complete Works St. Teresa of Avila (1946-51, 5 volumes)
 * A Critical Anthology of Spanish Verse (1948)
 * Redbrick University, part 1 (1945)
 * Redbrick and these Vital Days (1945)
 * First Year at the University (1946)

title: Author:Edgar Allison Peers


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124 mind that in the absence of orders I had better "march toward the guns," when Lieutenant-Colonel Dorst came riding up through the storm of bullets with the welcome command "to move forward and support the regulars in the assault on the hills in front." General Sumner had obtained authority to advance from Lieutenant Miley, who was representing General Shafter at the front, and was in the thick of the fire. The General at once ordered the first brigade to advance on the hills, and the second to support it. He himself was riding his horse along the lines, superintending the fight. Later I overheard a couple of my men talking together about him. What they said illustrates the value of a display of courage among the officers in hardening their soldiers; for their theme was how, as they were lying down under a fire which they could not return, and were in consequence feeling rather nervous, General Sumner suddenly appeared on horseback, sauntering by quite unmoved; and, said one of the men, "That made us feel all right. If the General could stand it, we could."

The instant I received the order I sprang on my horse and then my "crowded hour" began. The guerillas had been shooting at us from the edges of the jungle and from their perches in the leafy trees, and as they used smokeless powder, it was almost impossible to see them, though a few of my


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 and difficulty. I think of nothing else than working night and day. I have endured such sufferings, and I continue to endure them, that I believe that if I had the statue to make once more my life would not suffice for the task. It has been a gigantic undertaking.”

Considering the fatigue entailed, the fate which was in store for this work of art was pitiful. Erected in February 1508 in front of the façade of San Petronio, the statue of Julius II. remained there but four years. In December 1511 it was destroyed by the party of the Bentivoglio family, the enemies of Julius II., and Alfonzo d’Este bought the fragments to make a cannon.

Michael Angelo returned to Rome. Julius now imposed upon him another task, no less unexpected and still more perilous. He ordered the painter, who knew nothing about the technique of fresco painting, to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. One would have said that he took pleasure in ordering impossible things and Michael Angelo in carrying them out.

It seems that it was Bramante who, seeing Michael Angelo return to favour, brought this task upon him—a task in the carrying out of which he thought his glory would wane. The ordeal was all the more dangerous for Michael Angelo as, in the same year, 1508, his rival Raphael had commenced painting the “Stanze” of the Vatican with incomparable success. He did everything

title: Page:The Life of Michael Angelo.djvu/74


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 Rh that he stayed at Woodseaves all night rather than cross the Big Bridge to reach his home.

Well, the ghost-seer got home safely at last with his horse and cart, perfectly sober, as I was assured a few days later by his master, who was watching for his return; and the whip was picked up next day just where he reported having dropped it. A couple of days or so afterwards, the village policeman called on Mr. Bailey, the man's master, and desired him to give information of his having been stopped and robbed on the Big Bridge a few nights before, (for such was the form in which the story had reached the ears of the representative of the Law). Mr. Bailey, amused, gave him the correct version. The policeman was much disappointed. He was a local man, (which Mr. Bailey was not), and well up in the local traditions. "Oh, was that all, sir?" he said. "Oh, I know what that was. That was the Man-Monkey, sir, as always does come again at the Big Bridge, ever since the man was drowned in the Cut."

Now this cannot be called a case of mere "survival" in the ordinary technical sense. It is no mere dead relic of the past; it is a living and influential belief of the present, just as much as the Burmese belief (Folk-Lore, vol. xxi., p. 371), that "a man may turn into a tiger in the evening without any fuss," is living and influential.

So, too, with other beliefs about the lower animals. "They're coorus craiturs, bees," said an old Shropshire woman to me, years ago. "There's a luck about 'em, for sartain." Every beekeeper can give you instances of the death of bees caused by omitting to inform them of human deaths. A farmer's wife whom I knew in Staffordshire forgot this precaution at the time of her husband's death in the summer of 1892, and found in the course of the next winter that only one hive was living. This she managed to save, not by feeding it, as might be supposed, but by changing the ownership. She formally gave it to her little


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Page:Earle, Does Price Fixing Destroy Liberty, 1920, 175.jpg

Rh of more than one mind! It is, therefore, impossible of ascertainment until that has taken place.

5th. That "free competition" thus becomes a necessary constitutional, "unalienable" right of all mankind, as through it alone their other "unalienable" rights can be ascertained, protected or enforced. For men can neither measure "just compensation" nor reach that certain definition or "standard" upon which to act, without which criminal punishment can neither be just nor constitutional. And since they are entitled constitutionally to "perfect equality of value" for property taken, and clarity of "standard," if charged with crime, their property cannot possibly be taken, or their Liberty destroyed by imprisonment, through the device of forcing them on behalf of a prosecuting government to guess what they and others might agree upon; their only constitutional right and guide being what has been actually and as a fact agreed upon by free men, acting in a free market and through "free competition." "What value determines is not how much a thing is desired, but how much any one is willing to give for it.  * * *  Thus it is that there is no measure of value among men save competition or the higgling of the market, a matter that might be worth the consideration of those amiable reformers who so lightly propose to abolish competition.  It is never the amount of labor that has been exerted into bringing a thing into being that determines its value, but always the amount of labor that would be rendered in exchange for it. * * * It is not the exertion that a thing has cost in past times, that gives it value, but the exertion that its possession will in future time dispense with, for even the immediate is in strictness future. * * * The point of real value, or actual equivalence, we speak of as market value, from the old idea of the market or meeting place of those who wish to make exchanges, where competition or the higgling of the market brings out the highest bidding or the lowest offering in


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 24 boy, the dead's man natural heir. The bees were contented, and remained. Another woman, in Shropshire, more prudent, was heard telling the bees of her husband's death thus,—"Bees, bees, the poor Maister's dead, so now yo mun work for me." A member of the Folk-Lore Society, staying at West Malvern the summer before last, noticed a fine row of beehives in a cottage garden, and stopped to remark on them to the owner. After a little preliminary conversation she said,—"In some places I know they always tell the bees when there is a death in the family. Do they ever do so in this part of the country?" "Well 'm," replied the woman, "we didn't tell them when my aunt died, but when my husband's father died we did, because, you see, he was in the house." "A-ah!" ejaculated the lady, sympathetically, in the tone of one who had received new light on an important subject, "Yes, ma'"am," continued the good woman, pleased with the other's ready comprehension, "and it is surprising how they seem to understand you. They set up a loud sort of humming directly, quite a different noise to what they make at other times."

Again, when an ague-stricken girl in the Lincolnshire Fens pinned a lock of her hair to an aspen, with the petition, "Aspen-tree, aspen-tree, I prithee to shak' an' shiver i'stead o' me;" when an old woodman in the same county humbly asked leave of the elder before he ventured to cut it; when a boy in Needwood Forest shrieked with fright when someone burnt elder boughs, (which, there, are forbidden fuel), lest "the Devil should be down the chimney in a minute," (here we have a real "taboo" with its magico-religious sanction); when in the same district orders were given to refrain from burning fern, lest it should cause inconvenient rain; when hawthorn boughs are brought into the house on Ascension Day to preserve it from


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 every wind that blows, so much so that for many days afterwards I should not know in what world I was moving."

If he were thus overcome by beauty of thoughts, words or sounds, how much more so must he have been by bodily beauty!

To this great creator of admirable forms, and who at the same time was a great believer, a beautiful body was divine—a beautiful body was God Himself appearing under the veil of the flesh. Like Moses before the Burning Bush, he trembled on approaching. The object of his adoration was to him truly an idol, as he himself said. He threw himself at its feet; and this voluntary humiliation of a great man, which was painful to the noble Cavalieri himself, was all the more strange because the idol with the beautiful face was often a vulgar and despicable being like Febo di Poggio. But Michael Angelo saw nothing of this … Did he really see nothing? He had no desire to see anything; he was completing in his heart the statue he had rough-hewn.

The earliest of these ideal lovers, of these living dreams, was Gherardo Perini, whose acquainance with the sculptor dates from about 1522.


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Rh lightning, because “under a thorn our Saviour was born”; when your gardener, as in some counties, will only sow parsley on Good Friday to ensure the growth of the seed, or, as in others, declines to transplant it, lest it should cause a death in the family; —these and countless other such cases are not “survivals.” They are matters of genuine honest belief in what the people think to be actually true. Whether it be a belief in occult properties and powers, in a mysterious association with higher beings, in the historic truth of myths, or in imaginary natural laws of cause and effect, makes little difference. The point is that the belief is living and influential, prompting to action; and, alien though it may be to the culture of the more advanced classes of the nation, it is part of the native home-grown culture of the people who held it.

While we cannot, then, say that there is no living belief in European folklore, neither can we say that there is no survival in savagery. Take, for example, the ceremonial reluctance that must be shown by the bride in the marriage rites of almost every country, no matter how free an agent she may have been in her choice of a husband. Whether this actually originated in marriage by capture, or whether it be only the formal expression of natural feminine timidity, it is surely a survival nowadays, wherever women are permitted to exercise their freewill in the matter. The couvade, when it is kept up with no active belief to motive it, the taboo on speaking to a mother-in-law for which no raison d’être in existing custom has ever been discovered, are survivals from a forgotten state of things. We constantly hear of “traces” of mother-right among patrilineal peoples, and “traces” of totemism among non-totemic peoples. What are these but survivals, relics of a forgotten and unrecorded


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26 past? The most we can say is, I think, that survivals occur in the customs of savagery and predominate in those of Europe.

I need not further labour the point of the essential solidarity of folklore, whether of its component elements,—belief, custom, and story,—or of its two great phases, savage and civilized. But I think you will feel with me that it is an important point, because the way we regard the subject must affect our method of studying it. If we regard folklore not as a miscellaneous collection of items to be put together like a jig-saw puzzle, but as a whole to be examined and analysed, we shall approach it differently. We shall try to distinguish the normal and essential features of a rite or custom from variations and accretions, we shall note which of the constituent elements of folklore enter into it, and which are wanting. We shall take environment into consideration, and, if survival be present, we shall try, (as I have urged before), to discover what it is a survival from? Some time or other that survival must have fitted into its environment. What was that environment? What period, what state of society does the survival survive from? We must, (I repeat once more), discriminate between survivals from mediaeval times and survivals from totemic times, survivals of barbarism and survivals of outworn cultures.

I know that not every one is willing to admit that the latter form of survival exists, but I cannot for my own part see how it can be denied that cases of it do occur, as well as the converse, but more familiar, case of archaic survivals embedded in modern practice. How else, but as a survival from ancient or imported culture, can we account for the common use of the pentacle as a protective charm in Wales, for finding an old Indian squaw reckoning with archaic Celtic numerals used in Cumberland for counting sheep, and for hearing Jamaican negroes singing fragments of an old Enijlish ballad embedded in an


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Rh servants, in this hot July, may escape from the heat of the fire, and where the Brave Courier plays all sorts of musical instruments of his own manufacture, all the evening long. A mighty old, wandering, ghostly, echoing, grim, bare house it is, as ever I beheld or thought of. There is a little vine-covered terrace, opening from the drawing-room; and under this terrace, and forming one side of the little garden, is what used to be the stable. It is now a cow-house, and has three cows in it, so that we get new milk by the bucket-full. There is no pasturage near, and they never go out, but are constantly lying down and surfeiting themselves with vine-leaves—perfect Italian cows—enjoying the dolce far' niente all day long. They are presided over, and slept with, by an old man named Antonio, and his son: two burnt-sienna natives with naked legs and feet, who wear, each, a shirt, a pair of trousers, and a red sash, with a relic, or some sacred charm like a bonbon off a twelfth cake, hanging round the neck. The old man is very anxious to convert me to the Catholic Faith; and exhorts me frequently. We sit upon a stone by the door, sometimes, in the evening, like Robinson Crusoe and Friday reversed; and he generally relates, towards my conversion, an abridgment of the History of Saint Peter—chiefly, I believe, from the unspeakable delight he has in his imitation of the cock.

The view, as I have said, is charming; but in the day you must keep the lattice-blinds close shut, or the sun would drive you mad; and when the sun goes

title: Page:Pictures From Italy.djvu/53


text:
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 content with having bread, and live with Christ, good and poor, as I do here. For I am wretched, and yet I torment myself neither over life nor honour—that is to say over the world. I live under very great difficulties and in a state of infinite distrust. For the past fifteen years I have not had a good hour. I have done everything to support you, and never have you either recognised or believed it. God pardon us all! I am ready, in the future and as long as I live, ever to act in the same manner, provided that I am able to do so!”

His three brothers exploited him. They expected him to provide them with money and position; they helped themselves without scruple to the little capital which he had amassed at Florence; they quartered themselves upon him in Rome. Buonarroto and Giovan Simone bought the goodwill of a business, and Sigismondo land near Florence. And yet they showed no gratitude towards him; they acted as though all this was their due. Michael Angelo knew that they were taking advantage of him, but he was too proud to prevent them. The scamps did not limit themselves to this. They conducted themselves badly and, in Michael Angelo's absence, ill-treated the father. Furious threats then came from the artist. He governed his brothers, as though they were vicious boys, with the lash. Had need be, he would have killed them.

“Giovan Simone, it is said that he who does good to

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text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb

WELCKER, vĕl'kẽr, (1784-1868). A German classical archæologist and philologist. He was born at Grünberg, in Hesse-Darmstadt; studied at Giessen; was appointed teacher at the gymnasium there in 1803; and in the year 1806 went to Rome, where he remained two years as tutor in the family of Wilhelm von Humboldt, who became his warm friend. On his return from Italy, he was appointed to a professorship of ancient literature in Giessen. In 1814 he served in the War of Liberation. For political reasons he left Giessen, went the following year to Copenhagen, to edit the posthumous works of the Danish archæologist Zoëga, and accepted a chair at Göttingen in 1816. Thence he was called in 1819 to Bonn, where he remained until his death, though he resigned his chair in 1859. Welcker's studies covered a wide range, but his chief influence was exerted in the fields of Greek literature, art, and mythology. He belonged, like Böckh and his pupil K. O. Müller, to that school of German philologists who took as their aim the complete reconstruction of the ancient life, in distinction from the school of G. Hermann, who were disposed to limit the field to the language and text of the Greek and Roman writers. Welcker was thoroughly imbued with the harmony of the whole Greek conception, whether expressed in art, literature, or religion, and it was to the presentation of this as a complete whole that he devoted his efforts. Among his editions of Greek texts are the collection of the fragments of Hipponax (1817), Theognis (1826), Philostratus (1825), and the Theogony of Hesiod (1865). Of his other works may be mentioned Der epische Cyklus (1835, 1849; reprinted 1865, 1882); Die Eschyleische Trilogie Prometheus, und Nachtrag (1824, 1826); Die griechischen Tragödien mit Rücksicht auf den epischen Cyklus geordnet (1839-41); Griechische Götterlehre (1857-62). Shorter essays were collected in Alte Denkmäler (1849-64) and Kleine Schriften

(1844-67). Consult Kekulé, Das Leben Friedrich Gottlieb Welckers (Leipzig, 1880).


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 the righteous makes him better, but that kindness shown to the wicked makes him worse. Many years have I endeavoured by fair words and fair actions to lead you to an honest life, in peace with your father and we others. Yet you are ever worse. . . I might speak to you at great length; but that would only be wasting words. To bring matters to a conclusion, know with certainty that you possess nothing in the world, for it is I who, through love of God and believing that you were one of my brothers, support you. But now I am certain that you are not my brother, for if you had been you would not have threatened my father. Rather are you a brute, and I shall treat you as a brute. Know that it is the duty of him who sees his father threatened or ill-treated to expose his life for him. . . But enough on this subject! . . . I repeat that you possess nothing in the world, and that if I hear but the slightest complaint against you I shall come to teach you for squandering your property and setting fire to the house and estates which you have not earned. You are not in the position you imagine. If I come to you I shall make you acquainted with facts which will bring bitter tears to your eyes and show you on what basis you establish your arrogance … If you will endeavour to act well, to honour and venerate your father, I will assist you as I do the others, and, shortly, will procure you a good shop. But if you do otherwise I shall come and arrange your business in such a manner that you will know who you are and exactly what you possess in the world. . . Nothing more! When words are lacking I make up for them by deeds.

title: Page:The Life of Michael Angelo.djvu/80


text: Author:Robert Hallowell Richards

title: Author:Robert Hallowell Richards


text:
Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 22, 1911.djvu/41

Rh African folk-tale? Take folk-medicine for example. Old-fashioned village doctresses all over England will tell you that you should never touch a hurt or sore with the forefinger, because that finger is poisonous. The middle finger must always be used. "Any doctor will tell you so," one informant assured me; and once upon a time this was true enough. The use of the digitus veneficus was prohibited in all early medical treatises. Now it only survives among the folk.

Again,—in 1902 a man was tried at Blackburn for stealing a valuable dog, with intent to kill it, boil its body, and use the fat as an ointment for rheumatism. More recently, an Irish friend volunteered the information to me that in Connaught the fat of young puppies (known as dog-grease) was esteemed a valuable remedy for rheumatism; and only last October I saw, (and unfortunately omitted to take note of), a newspaper article on dogs in Germany, in which it was incidentally mentioned that dogs there are liable to be killed for the sake of their fat, which is used for the cure of consumption. In another English case, which occurred in 1885, a woman was found to have killed a newly-born puppy, boiled it, and given the broth to her weakly infant to strengthen it. Signor Busutil gives a recipe for the use of puppy broth in Malta as a popular remedy for the ill-effect of fright, which seems to be a common malady there.

Now if we go back to the sixteenth century and to the autobiography of Ambroise Paré, the great French surgeon, the most advanced and innovating practitioner


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 "Michelagniolo at Rome.

"Two lines more. For the past twelve years I have lived a wretched life all over Italy. I have supported every disgrace, suffered every difficulty, tormented my body with all sorts of fatigue and exposed my life to a thousand dangers solely in order to aid my house. And now that I have begun to raise it up a little, you amuse yourself by destroying in an hour what has taken years to build! . . . By the body of Christ this shall not be! For I am capable of tearing in pieces ten thousand such men as you, if that is necessary. Be wise, therefore, and do not drive one whose passions are different to yours to extremes!"

It was then Sigismondo’s turn.

"I am living here in distress and in a state of great bodily fatigue. I have no friend of any kind and do not want any . . . It is rarely that I have the means to eat to my liking. Cease to cause me anguish, for I can support no more."

Finally, the third brother, Buonarroto, employed in the commercial house of the Strozzis, shamelessly harassed him, after all the advances of money he had received from Michael Angelo, and boasted that he had spent more for him than he had received.

"I should very much like to know,” wrote Michael Angelo to him, "where your money comes from. I should much like to know if you count the 228 ducats which you took from me at the Santa Maria Nuova bank, the many other hundreds of ducats which I have sent home, and

title: Page:The Life of Michael Angelo.djvu/81


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fradelle, Henry Joseph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fraigneau, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fraizer, Alexander


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frampton, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frampton, Mary


text:
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 the difficulties and cares which I have had in supporting you. I should much like to know if you take all that into account! If you had sufficient intelligence to recognise the truth, you would not say: 'I have spent so much of my own,' and you would not have beset me here, tormenting me with your affairs, without recollecting all my past conduct towards you. You would have said: 'Michael Angelo knows what he wrote to us; if he does not do it now it is because he has been prevented by something of which we are in ignorance. Let us be patient.' When a horse runs as fast as he can, it is unwise to give him the spur, to make him run more than he is able. But you have never known me. God pardon you! He it is who has granted me the strength to do all that I have done to assist you. But you will not recognise it until I am no more."

Such was the atmosphere of ingratitude and envy in the midst of which Michael Angelo struggled—between an unworthy family which harassed him and relentless enemies who watched him and anticipated his failure. And yet, during this period, he was accomplishing the heroic work in the Sistine Chapel. But at the price of what desperate efforts! He nearly abandoned everything and fled once more. He was under the impression that he was going to die. Perhaps he would have welcomed death.

The Pope became irritated at his slowness and obstinacy in hiding his work. Their proud characters dashed against each other like thunderclouds. "One day," says Condivi, "on Julius II. asking him when he would have finished the chapel, Michael Angelo made his usual reply, 'When I am able.' The Pope, furious,

title: Page:The Life of Michael Angelo.djvu/82


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frampton, Robert


text:
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144 :Reaffirming also that States are responsible for conserving their biological diversity and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner.

 * Concerned that biological diversity is being significantly reduced by certain human activities.

 * Aware of the gênerai lack of information and knowledge regarding biological diversity and of the urgent need to develop scientific, technical and institutional capacities to provide the basic understanding upon which to plan and implement appropriate measures.

 * Noting that it is vital to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity at source.

 * Noting also that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat.

 * Noting further that the fundamental requirement for the conservation of biological diversity is the in-situ conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frampton, Tregonwell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francia, François Louis Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francillon, James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, Alban


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42 down, you must shut up all the windows, or the mosquitoes would tempt you to commit suicide. So at this time of the year, you don't see much of the prospect within doors. As for the flies, you don't mind them. Nor the fleas, whose size is prodigious, and whose name is Legion, and who populate the coach-house to that extent that I daily expect to see the carriage going off bodily, drawn by myriads of industrious fleas in harness. The rats are kept away, quite comfortably, by scores of lean cats, who roam about the garden for that purpose. The lizards, of course, nobody cares for; they play in the sun, and don't bite. The little scorpions are merely curious. The beetles are rather late, and have not appeared yet. The frogs are company. There is a preserve of them in the grounds of the next villa; and after night-fall, one would think that scores upon scores of women in pattens, were going up and down a wet stone pavement without a moment's cessation. That is exactly the noise they make. The ruined chapel, on the picturesque and beautiful sea-shore, was dedicated, once upon a time, to Saint John the Baptist. I believe there is a legend that Saint John's bones were received there, with various solemnities, when they were first brought to Genoa; for Genoa possesses them to this day. When there is any uncommon tempest at sea, they are brought out, and exhibited to the raging weather, which they never fail to calm. In consequence of this connexion of Saint John with the city, great numbers of the common people are christened Giovanni Baptista, which latter name is pronounced

title: Page:Pictures From Italy.djvu/54


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, Anne


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, Enoch


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, Francis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, George Grant


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, George William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, James Goodall


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, John (1780-1861)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, John (1811-1882)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francis, Philip (1740-1818)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francklin, Thomas


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Francklin, William


text:
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1993 : Noting further that ex-si tu measures, preferably in the country of origin, also have an important role to play.

 * Recognizing the close and traditional dependence of many indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources, and the desirability of sharing equitably benefits arising from the use of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices relevant to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components.

 * Recognizing ai so the vital role that women play in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and affirming the neea for the full participation of women at all levels of policy-making and implementation for biological diversity conservation.

 * Stressing the importance of, and the need to promote, international, regional and global cooperation among States and intergovernmental organizations and the non-governmental sector for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components.

 * Acknowledging that the provision of new and additional financial resources and appropriate access to relevant technologies can be expected to make a substantial difference in the world's ability to address the loss of biological diversity.

 * Acknowledging further that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries, including the provision of new and additional financial resources and appropriate access to relevant technologies.

 * Noting in this regard the special conditions of the least developed countries and small island States,

 * Acknowledging that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity and that there is the expectation of a broad range of environmental, economic and social benefits from those investments.

 * Recognizing that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of developing countries.

 * Aware that conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical importance for meeting the food, health and other needs of the growing world population, for which purpose access to and sharing of both genetic resources and technologies are essential.

 * Noting that, ultimately, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity will strengthen friendly relations among States and contribute to peace for humankind.

 * Desiring to enhance and complement existing international arrangements for the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components, and

 * Determined to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the benefit of present and future generations.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frankland, Jocosa


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frankland, Thomas (1633-1690)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frankland, Thomas (1717?-1784)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Franklin, Eleanor Anne


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Franklin, Jane


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Franklin, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Franklin, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Franklyn, William


text:
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 segments form a slightly expanded oar plate, the seventh being slightly longer than the eighth and bearing a large distal lobe on the inner side. The eighth segment is oval in form, its distal end distinctly acute with a small terminal subcircular ninth segment [pl. 65, fig. 8].

The coxa of the last pair of legs is probably represented by figure 1, plate 66, for these bodies show the outline of the corresponding organ in the genotype and possess a system of fine anastomosing lines characteristic of the sculpturing of. Sarle compares the shape of this coxa in  to that of an upright retort and records the presence of 18–20 sharp, slightly curved teeth on the manducatory edge. The coxa here figured exhibits a stronger neck and longer manducatory edge, but exactly the same number of teeth. Another coxa, reproduced in the preliminary paper [op. cit. pl. 8, fig. 10] also possesses a system of fine lines as shown in our figure [pl. 66, fig. 2] but is of more compact form and with shorter neck and smaller number of teeth, the first of which is longer than the rest. This is possibly the coxal joint of an endognathite.

The metastoma has not been seen well preserved in position, but we refer several metastomas to this species [pl. 66, figs. 3, 4] because they possess, on one hand, the form of that in  and on the other exhibit a peculiar striated ornamentation apparently characteristic of. These metastomas are elongate cordate, broadest anteriorly to the middle, with cordate or deeply notched anterior and an evenly rounded posterior extremity in some and a truncated one in other specimens.

The genital appendages have not been seen.

The ornamentation is most characteristic. It consists on all segments of a series of fine striae, running parallel to the anterior margin, most crowded near this margin, farther apart and fainter posteriorly, disappearing at about the middle of the segment, save on the postabdominal segments where they can be traced to near the posterior edge. Near the lateral edges of the tergites they bend sharply backward, finally coalescing with the border and gradually disappearing. On the sternites


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 another characteristic set of striae is added posteriorly of the frontal set. The second set consists of curving striae running obliquely backward and inward from the antelateral angles and lateral margins [pl. 66, fig. 10] and connected by anastomosis with the frontal parallel line. Along the lateral margins they are dissolved into a meshwork of lines. Like systems of lines appear on the metastoma, where they pass transversely across, with a slight forward convexity, and on the coxa where they strongly anastomose. The coxal segments and the metastoma were also furnished with a fine striation.

Ontogeny. The ontogeny of  is well shown in the small series of individuals reproduced on plate 64. The most interesting of these specimens is the original of figure 1 which is but 2 mm long and very distinct. This larval form is a clear representative of the nepionic growth stage. It still lacks two, possibly three, segments of the full complement of twelve. Its most important feature is the remarkable general similarity to the mature stage of the species, in the slenderness and form of body, form of carapace and eyes and position of the latter. Its most distinctive larval characters are (1) the relatively greater size of the carapace, (2) the relatively great size of the compound eyes, (3) the smaller number of segments.

The carapace in the nepionic stage attains one fourth the length of the body, while in the ephebic stage it reaches only one fifth. The head is also broader than the rest of the body while in the mature specimens the greatest width is reached in the middle part of the preabdomen. It also seems that in this and the following growth stages the head is relatively somewhat shorter in outline than in mature forms (by about one eighth of the width) and slightly more rounded in front.

The compound eyes do not differ in location from those of the mature individuals, being intramarginal and separated by a small interval from the margin, but they are markedly larger, occupying one half the length of the carapace as compared with one fourth to one fifth in the mature stage. They are likewise distinctly more prominent; at least in the specimens representing the neanic stage.


text: Author:Edward Armstrong

title: Author:Edward Armstrong


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 There are nine distinct segmental division lines in the nepionic specimen, indicating the presence of nine segments, with possibly a shorter tenth one directly behind the head. There is a slight break in the outline at the end of the third segment, the fourth setting in a little further. This feature suggests that the postabdomen was already complete and consisted of six segments, while the preabdomen possessed thus far only three to four segments. This inference is supported to some extent by the fact that the postabdominal segments already exhibit the proportions of the mature forms in their gradual narrowing and lengthening. It is therefore probable that the new segments, at least the tergites, are added in successive moltings in the preabdomen, perhaps directly behind the carapace, as in the trilobites; or in other words, that the head and tail appear first and the thorax is completed gradually.

The swimming legs are also shown in the nepionic specimen. They are relatively shorter and broader than in the mature age.

The telson spine is of the same form and proportion to the body as in the ephebic stage.

The neanic stage is represented by the originals of the figures 1–11, 13. The first two of these are fair representatives of the earliest neanic (ananeanic) stage. They still retain the nepionic proportions of the carapace while the eyes have already been reduced to about one third of the length of the carapace, but are still distinguished from the ephebic eyes by their greater prominence. The large size of the ocellar mound and the distinctiveness of the ocelli themselves are also a characteristic feature of this stage [figures 1–3]. The carapace is surrounded by a thick, flat border in these specimens, possibly the doublure of the underside, exposed by the breaking away of the upper margin. The preabdomen is complete in one of the two specimens and remarkable for its uniform width which is equal to that of the base of the head. As specimen figure 13 shows, this width still remains nearly uniform in individuals a little older, while a somewhat abrupt reduction takes place to the postabdomen at the first postabdominal segment.


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144 :Have agreed as follows:

 * The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant provisions, are the conservation of biological diversity. the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding.

 * For the purposes of this Convention:

 * "Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

 * "Biological resources' includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.

 * "Biotechnology" means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.

 * "Country of origin of genetic resources" means the country which possesses those genetic resources in in-situ conditions.

 * "Country providing genetic resources' means the country supplying genetic resources collected from in~situ sources, including populations of both wild and domesticated species, or taken from ex-si tu sources, which may or may not have originated in that country.

 * "Domesticated or cultivated species' means species in which the evolutionary process has been influenced by humans to meet their needs.

 * "Ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

 * "Ex-situ conservation" means the conservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats.

 * "Genetic material" means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity.

 * "Genetic resources" means genetic material of actual or potential value.

 * Vol. 1780, I-30619


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1993 :"Habitat" means the place or type of site where an organism or population naturally occurs.

 * "In-situ conditions" means conditions where genetic resources exist within ecosystems and natural habitats, and. in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.

 * "In-situ conservation" means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.

 * "Protected area" means a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.

 * "Regional economic integration organization" means an organization constituted by sovereign States of a given region, to which its member States have transferred competence in respect of matters governed by this Convention and which has been duly authorized, in accordance with its internal procedures, to sign, ratify, accept, approve or accede to it.

 * "Sustainable use" means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations.

 * "Technology" includes biotechnology.

 * States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

 * Subject to the rights of other States, and except as otherwise expressly provided in this Convention, the provisions of this Convention apply, in relation to each Contracting Party:

 * (a) In the case of components of biological diversity, in areas within the limits of its national jurisdiction; and

 * (b) In the case of processes and activities, regardless of where their effects occur, carried out under its jurisdiction or control, within the area of its national jurisdiction or beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, cooperate with other Contracting Parties, directly or. where appropriate, through competent international organizations, in respect of areas beyond

Vol. 1780, I-30619


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 This is the first stage in which the fine transverse sculpture lines could be recognized [pl. 64, fig. 5].

Horizon and locality. This species is one of the most common forms in the fauna of the Shawangunk grit at Otisville, N. Y.

Remarks. H. shawangunk differs from the genotype in its smaller size, somewhat broader carapace and most distinctly in the surface sculpture which is characterized by parallel, transverse striae, absent in the other species.

Pterygotus will always be historically associated with the rocks of Scotland which carried the "seraphim" of the quarrymen, the type of Agassiz's , and later afforded the material for the monographs by Huxley and Salter [1859] and by Woodward [1866]. The British rocks have altogether yielded nine species of Pterygotus, two of which,  and , are known in complete specimens. The fragments of several of these species have left no doubt that the individuals attained gigantic proportions and surpassed all other then known Merostomata in size. Schmidt's work [ 1883] on the merostomes of the Eurypterus beds of Oesel contains a very elaborate description of the Pterygotus,, and corrects several misconceptions of the preceding authors in regard to the structure of the genus. Above all it established the number of walking legs to be four pairs, Woodward having assumed but three, and it recognized the proper position of the epistoma. Ten years after Schmidt's publication


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 Laurie discovered the epicoxite and the second (female) form of the opercular appendage. The New York rocks furnished to Hall only fragments of the genus on which he based three species,,   and. The waterlime quarries at Buffalo have since afforded somewhat more extensive series of these remains, some of the specimens excellently preserved. Grote and Pitt [1877] and Pohlman [1881–86] made use of some of these, basing thereon descriptions of six alleged species, all of which have proved to belong to two forms, Hall's  and a new type, here recognized as   (Pohlman). A fossil from the same locality described by Pohlman as a Ceratiocaris, is the telson of a gigantic Pterygotus. Finally the Pittsford shale, the dark shale of the Shawangunk grit, and the Frankfort shale, have furnished representatives of other species, viz,,  ,   and  , all of them as yet very incomplete. As Hall's species  has proved to be a synonym of his , there remain out of the considerable number of proposed species of Pterygotus from the New York rocks, only eight whose differentials can now be regarded as satisfactorily determined, viz:

On this continent no Pterygoti have been found outside of New York and only two of the New York species ( and  ) are known in entire specimens, all the others being based on carapaces, chelae or telsons. The material of these two species, however, is so complete that it has allowed a detailed description of the forms and some additions to our knowledge of the structure of the genus. Among these is the demonstration of the identity of the structure of the "chelate antennae" of Pterygotus with the chelicerae of Eurypterus and their composition of but three segments (as already suggested by Laurie) instead of eight as formerly assumed; the


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148

national jurisdiction and on other matters of mutual interest, for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

 * Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities:

 * (a) Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party concerned; and

 * (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.

 * Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, in particular for the purposes of Articles 8 to 10:

 * (a) Identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use having regard to the indicative list of categories set down in Annex I:

 * (b) Monitor, through sampling and other techniques, the components of biological diversity identified pursuant to subparagraph (a) above, paying particular attention to those requiring urgent conservation measures and those which offer the greatest potential for sustainable use;

 * (c) Identify processes and categories of activities which have or are likely to have significant adverse impacts on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and monitor their effects through sampling and other techniques; and

 * (d) Maintain and organize, by any mechanism data, derived from identification and monitoring activities pursuant to subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) above.

 * Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:

 * (a) Establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity:

 * (b) Develop, where necessary, guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity:

 * (c) Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity whether within or outside protected areas, with a view to ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;


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 of the identical structure of the compound eye of Pterygotus with that of Limulus and the determination of the endostoma.

The characteristics of this genus consist in the lack of distinct differentiation of the body into preabdomen and postabdomen; the large size of the compound eyes, their marginal position and distinct facets; the presence of a distinct epistoma, the enormous development of the preoral, chelate appendages, the slenderness and lack of spines on the four pairs of walking legs, the heart-shaped, deeply emarginate metastoma and the broad telson.

Huxley and Salter placed  in a separate subgenus, Erettopterus, on account of its bilobed telson. While some have recognized this group as a distinct genus, others have not given it even subgeneric rank. Laurie states that the species with such telsons "might fairly be separated from the rest as a subgenus, were it not that the frequent absence of the tail would make such an arrangement highly inconvenient." In our view the recognition of a natural group can not be a matter of convenience, but is of necessity, when the differences are recognized as subgeneric in rank. Erettopterus is represented in our Siluric rocks by  of the Bertie waterlime,   of the Shawangunk grit and certain telsons from the Frankfort shale.

The presence of Pterygotus in the North American Devonic has been shown by Logan, Billings and Clarke, in the Grande Greve limestone (Lower Devonic), by Dawson in the Gaspé sandstone, by Clarke in the Dalhousie formation and by Whiteaves in the Upper (?) Devonic at Campbellton. All these remains from Eastern Canada are fragmentary and only those of Campbellton have justified description.

Hall. Palaeontology of New York. 1859. 3: 418*, pl. 80A, fig. 8, 8a

. Ibid. pl. 80A, fig. 6

Hall. Ibid. p. 419*, pl. 80A, fig. 9

Description. Cephalothorax. Outline of carapace or cephalothoracic shield semielliptic. In the type of the species, the carapace of a young


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 individual, the lateral margins converge but slightly forward; the anterior angles formed by the projecting eyes and the anterior margin being well rounded. In mature carapaces the lateral and anterior margins are less rounded and more nearly straight, the lateral margins subparallel. The posterior edge is slightly incurved. The surface is very gently convex, and seems to have been originally rather uniformly, but very moderately, elevated with a slight depression along the medio-anterior margin of the compound eyes. The latter are subelliptic, very prominent, project beyond the margin of the carapace and are located at the antelateral angle of the cephalothorax. Their length is nearly one half that of the lateral margin of the cephalothorax; their distance from each other is distinctly less than the length of the eye. As more fully stated in the generic description, the compound eyes are entirely smooth in their exterior view, the facets becoming visible only when the exterior layer of the cornea has become split off or on an interior view. The facets are small and squarish in shape. The ocelli are borne on a small oblong or rhomboidal tumescence, situated in a line connecting the bases of the marginal eyes, and sometimes prolonged posteriorly in a crest. The ornamentation consists of an extremely fine granulation evenly distributed over the carapace, becoming coarse between the compound eyes.

A relatively narrow doublure surrounds with uniform width the frontal and lateral margins of the cephalothorax. The doublure at the base of this shield is three times as wide; it follows the entire posterior margin, thus making the doublure ring complete.

Abdomen. The abdomen widens to the third or fourth dorsal segments, where, in mature individuals, it seems to have been wider by one fourth than the base of the cephalothorax. From this point it tapers very gradually to the telson.

Preabdomen. The first of the six tergites is shorter by one half than the following ones. It is a narrow band, rather strongly curved fonvard in the middle portion and rounded at the ends. The following tergites are relatively broad, their length amounting to one third of their width.


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 The middle portion forms a broad lobe while the pleurae or epimera are projected forward somewhat more abruptly. The fifth tergite is the widest, while the fourth and sixth tergites are about equally long; the fifth surpassing the other two but very little.

Along the posterior margin extends a broad doublure, amounting to one third the length of the tergite, bending forward at the postlateral angles, thence rapidly narrowing and ending a little behind the antelateral angle. Each anterior tergite overlapped the following one to an amount equal to the width of the doublure.

Such well developed "ears" at the antelateral angles as are figured by Woodward and Schmidt  have not been observed by us, but our evidence on this point is rather scanty and the following sternites of this species have been seen only in fragmentary condition.

Postabdomen. The five first postabdominal segments are, on the whole, simple broad rings, indicating that the original form of the postabdomen approached a conical shape with circular sections. There existed, however, a slight flattening along the lateral lines, in continuation of the pleurae or epimera of the tergites. The edge of these alae, at least in the fourth and fifth segments, is thickened and provided with a somewhat coarser sculpture. The anterior and posterior margins are practically straight with a slight protrusion of the antelateral corners. The doublure of the posterior margin is narrow.

The sixth postabdominal segment differs materially from those preceding both in shape and size. It is longer by one third to one half than the penultimate segment, possesses more convex lateral margins, which are serrate on their posterior half, and indications of a dorsal median crest extending over the posterior half.

The telson is obovate, one sixth longer than wide in mature specimens, and one fourth longer in young ones. It surpasses the ultimate segment in length by nearly one half but equals it in width. It is strengthened by a thick ridge along the middle line which runs out into a blunt


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 posterior spine. The lateral margins are smooth anteriorly, but bear on the posterior part irregular serrations, which increase in size posteriorly and along the posterior edge consist characteristically of an alternation of one large serra with three or more minute denticulations. The ventral side of the telson was apparently provided with a less prominent keel, though the evidence on this point is not very conclusive.

Appendages. The epistoma, with one of the marginal shields adhering, has been found in one example [pl. 71, fig. 3]. It is a four-sided plate, bounded by a convex anterior, a deeply emarginate posterior, and two broadly concave lateral margins. It is separated by a suture from the triangular marginal shield. Its sculpturing, consisting of crescentic scales with the convexity turned forward, is distinctly seen and verifies by its direction Schmidt's inference that the epistoma, like the marginal shields, originates from extensions of the marginal doublure of the carapace.

The preoral appendages or chelicerae have been found in only one case in connection with the body [pl. 70, fig. 1]. They are in all particulars identical with the more fully known chelicerae of the closely related, with the exception of the less prominence of the distal point of the free ramus, thereby indicating a slight approach to. Professor Hall figured a fragment of a free ramus of a chelicera on his plate 80A, figure 6, without determining its relations.

The four pairs of walking legs or endognathites are so thin and slender that they are rarely preserved. They are well seen in Hall's type of  [pl. 71, fig. 6]. Another still better preserved leg is reproduced in plate 71, figure 8. This resembles an antenna in its whiplike form and exhibits seven segments, the first two of which are short, the other long and tubular, the middle one being the longest, while of the last only a short fragment is seen. The type of  shows also traces of clublike widened coxal segments. The exact number of these we have been unable to establish. They were relatively longer and more slender than those figured in the restoration of the British forms and of.


text:
Author:Charles Stewart Loch

Works

 * Charity and Social Life
 * Charity and Social Life

Works about Loch

 * Obituary: Charles Stewart Loch

title: Author:Charles Stewart Loch


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 The swimming legs are small as in all Pterygoti; when turned back they do not reach the anterior margin of the fourth tergite.

The gnathobase is like that of ; and it probably possessed a like relation in size to the swimming leg and carapace.

In regard to the other joints of the swimming leg, we may also refer to the full description of these parts in the larger species from Buffalo, there being no specific differences apparent in these organs.

The metastoma is elongate cordate; its greatest width, which is a little beyond the middle, is about one half the length. The anterior margin is deeply emarginate, the posterior part contracted and the posterior end somewhat acutely rounded.

The endostoma has not been observed [see ].

The opercular appendages have not been preserved favorably in any of our specimens. The type of  [pl. 71, fig. 6] retains only the posterior portion of the operculum, together with the corresponding part of the opercular appendage, which indicates a short subtriangular organ that would correspond to the appendage of the male of other eurypterids. Near the broken edge the margin of an emarginate lobe is exposed and the posterior angle bears two dark spots suggestive of pores. The opercular appendage of the female has not been observed by us in this species.

The ornamentation agrees with that here described of.

Measurements. The few fairly complete specimens at our disposal are immature individuals. The specimen on plate 69, figure 2 gives the following measurements:

Length of carapace about 25 mm

Width, about 35 mm

Length of largest tergite, 11.5 mm

Width, 44.5 mm

Length of first postabdominal segment, 11 mm

Width, 39 mm


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 28 of his day, we find him obtaining from a brother surgeon at Turin an invaluable recipe for a "balm" for dressing gunshot wounds, which previously, be it remembered, had been treated with boiling oil. This "balm" was made with "young whelps just born" and earthworms preserved in Venice turpentine, boiled together in oil of lilies. Here, then, we find the newest and most approved leechcraft of that day surviving in the folk-medicine of this,—and notice that the original recipe came from Piedmont and was carried to Paris. In the same way, no doubt, it travelled to Germany, England, and Ireland, and probably whereever else soldiers fought in the making of modern Europe and surgeons dressed their wounds.

Another medical example. Here, there, and everywhere in the British Isles, first one folklorist and then another stumbles on a variant of the old toothache charm, to be written and carried about the patient, which runs somewhat as follows,—'Peter sat on a marble stone. Jesus Christ said,—'What aileth thee, Peter?' Peter saith,—'Lord, my teeth acheth so that I can neither go, lie, nor stand.' Jesus saith unto him,—'Follow me, and whosoever weareth these lines for my sake, he shall never have the toothache.' "Latin versions of this popular charm occur in Anglo-Saxon and mediaeval medical treatises as formulæ prescribed by approved authority. Here, again, the folklore remedy of the present day was the property of the learned in times past, and the medium by which it was disseminated was obviously an intrusive culture, namely the ecclesiastical culture of the Middle Ages.

Turn now to folk-literature, (if I may so call it). The same "intrusive culture" must be responsible for the currency of the myth related in the Bitter Withy ballad already referred to. The story of the Child Christ making a bridge of sunbeams and his playfellows failing to


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Rh follow Him over it, is a variant of a far less poetical one related in the Apocryphal Gospels, in which He sits, or hangs a jug, on a sunbeam, and His companions fail to do so. The part taken by the mothers of both is wanting. A French prose version of this story was rendered into Southern English rhymed verse about the year 1300. Thus we can actually trace the steps by which the story from being locked up in books and in a dead language came within the ken of the English folk. Put into ballad-form, furnished, ballad-fashion, with a dramatic plot and climax, and adapted to their own belief and practice by the quaint suggestion of the maternal anger and the whipping with willow, it has been incorporated, as we have seen, into the native traditional lore.

Nothing, in fact, illustrates the story of survival better than the history of the European ballad, as told in three recent essays by Professor W. P. Ker. Before giving you the results of his investigations, however, let me make an attempt,—a very rash attempt, I am afraid!—to state exactly what a ballad is. I should define it as a lyrical narrative poem preserved by oral tradition, of which the characteristic features are that it is composed in rhyming stanzas and has a definite plot,—just a few incidents leading up to a climax, simply narrated, with conventional epithets,—green grass, red gold, fair maids, and the like,—with the same idea repeated several times in varying phrases,


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 30 like the variations of a melody, and, lastly, in the most perfect and typical examples of the ballads, with a recurring-refrain or burden to guide the movements of the dancers. For the ballad, as the etymology of the word shows, was originally a vocal accompaniment of dancing.

Early in the twelfth century,—that great century of new impulses, new movements, new studies, and reformed institutions, when society was knitting Itself together again after the chaos of the Dark Ages,—early in that century, so Professor Ker tells us, preachers in different parts of Northern Europe began to denounce a new fashion of dancing and singing in churches and churchyards which had lately spread from France. The words of some of the caroles which they held up to reprobation have been preserved and prove to be neither more nor less than refrains, such as ballad-lovers know so well. The earliest French caroles seem to have been purely lyrical songs, without any narrative plot, and the French rondes preserve this early form to the present day; but narrative soon followed, and it was in this shape that the ballad spread to other countries.

The traditional ballad is common to France, the Peninsula (with the single exception of Castile), Piedmont, Germany, Scandinavia, and the English-speaking parts of the British Isles. It does not appear ever to have penetrated into the region of Celtic culture, and in Southern Europe it stops short at Tuscany, where the popular songs are purely lyrical. The limited and well-defined area which it covers thus makes the task of investigation fairly possible.

The place where above all others the ballad took root and


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Gerald (1487-1534)