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 ment, for nearly all the office-holders transferred their services to the new administration. A considerable section of the people dissented, and the president gave expression to the views of the malcontents by a protest against the annexation, while at a meeting of the late executive it was resolved to send Mr. Kruger and Dr. Jorrisen to London to lay the case of the non-annexationists before the colonial office. On their way through Cape Town the delegates had an interview with Frere, who gave them little encouragement, being convinced that they only represented a small and politically mischievous minority. Lord Carnarvon, acting on the opinions of Frere and Shepstone, returned an unfavourable answer to the memorial. In April 1878 the Boers despatched a second embassy to London, armed with a petition against annexation, signed by 6,591 qualified electors out of a total of 8,000. Considerable suspicion existed at the colonial office as to the way in which their signatures had been obtained, and Sir Michael Hicks Beach, the new colonial secretary, returned a similar answer to that given by Lord Carnarvon. A deputation to Frere in July 1878 met with no better success.

Meanwhile Cetewayo, who had been installed on the Zulu throne by Sir Theophilus Shepstone on the death of his father Panda in 1872, was beginning to threaten the Transvaal. An old controversy about a piece of disputed land lying between Zululand and the Transvaal furnished a ready excuse for gratifying his warlike instincts. The Boers asserted that this ground had been given them by Cetewayo in payment for the rendition of two of his half-brothers who had fled to the Transvaal for refuge, and that the gift had been confirmed by Panda, the king. Cetewayo replied that the grant had never been ratified by his father, and was therefore invalid. After the annexation, a commission decided, without going very thoroughly into the merits of the question, that as the gift made by Cetewayo was not shown to have been confirmed by the king, it must be held to be null and void. By the direction of the government, Frere went to Natal to revise the proceedings of the commission. He satisfied himself that, though the finding was technically correct, it was in equity too favourable to the Zulus. The position was one full of difficulty. Had he reversed the award, the Zulus would have regarded the act as one of hostility, while to confirm it absolutely was to leave the white settlers on the territory at the mercy of Cetewayo. Frere therefore confirmed the finding of the commission, with the proviso that the lives and properties of the white settlers should be strictly respected and secured to them.

Cetewayo had already taken umbrage at the arrival of troops in Natal, caused by the threatening attitude of the Zulus. A reassuring answer was returned to a message sent by him; and this was accompanied by the award of the commission as modified by the high commissioner. Frere at the same time reiterated the demand for satisfaction for certain outrages committed on British subjects, and asked for assurances that Cetewayo would carry on his government in the spirit of the promises he had made when he was crowned by Sir Theophilus Shepstone. Frere specially demanded full satisfaction for the murder of two black women and for the detention of two English surveyors. He further required that the king should introduce a settled form of government into the country; should abolish the existing military system; should put a stop to the compulsory celibacy insisted on in certain regiments in the army; should receive a British resident at his capital; and should protect missionaries and their converts. Thirty days were given to Cetewayo to consider these terms, and, as at the end of that time no answer was received from him, Frere, considering that the use of that suasion which had been enjoined upon him by the English government was no longer possible and must yield to force, placed the matter in the hands of General Thesiger. It was this which constituted the disobedience to orders of which Frere was afterwards accused, and on this point Sir Henry Taylor, who was no mean authority on such matters, gives his verdict against him in a judicial letter addressed to Lord Blachford, and published in his ‘Correspondence,’ 1888. It must be admitted that the outrages complained of would not under other circumstances have been considered of an unpardonable nature. Cetewayo had already declared that he was unable to find the murderers, and had offered to make a money recompense to the relations of the murdered women. The surveyors thought so little of their detention that they made no complaint of the treatment they had received for a week after the event. Frere, in fact, had other reasons. ‘The die for peace or for war,’ he said, ‘had been cast more than two years ago,’ when the Zulus assumed their existing hostile attitude. It only remained, therefore, for General Thesiger to take such measures as he might deem advisable to protect Natal against the expected invasion of the Zulus. He had under his command about seven thousand men, many of whom were raw recruits, and more than half of whom were Kaffirs, while the Zulu hosts numbered forty-


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 four four thousand warriors. He had to decide between standing on the defensive behind the Tugela, or to cross the river and carry the war into the enemy's country. The Tugela, which was unusually high, was an obstacle to the Zulus; but Thesiger was unwilling to trust to the protection of so uncertain a barrier, and he determined, therefore, to advance into Zululand. The campaign began with the catastrophe at Isandlwana (22 Jan.) and ended triumphantly at Ulundi (4 July). Frere's responsibility ended when General Thesiger crossed the Tugela (11 Jan.) But he was not the man to throw off all participation in measures because his responsibility in them had ceased. When the news of Isandlwana reached Natal, he was still on the spot, and he exerted himself to the utmost to calm the panic which took possession of the settlers in anticipation of the momentarily expected invasion of the victorious Zulus. He directed measures for the defence of the colony, and appealed to England for reinforcements. So soon as he learned that fresh troops were on their way, he started for the Transvaal, whence disquieting rumours had reached him of the attitude of the Boers. Already the Boer forces were collected in camp, and every day it was expected that they would take the field. Accompanied by a small staff and an escort of twenty-five men, Frere rode 350 miles, a part of the way being through Zulu territory, to the Boer camp. He had left his escort at the frontier, and presented himself at the gate of the encampment, attended only by his staff (12 April). In spite of opposition and threats he rode into the camp, and invited the ringleaders to meet him in Pretoria to talk over their grievances. These he found to be genuine and great. The promises made by Sir T. Shepstone, ‘upon the strength of which the inhabitants of the late republic were willing to give a peaceable trial to the new order of things,’ had not been fulfilled, and the Boers found that they had given up their independence in exchange for delusive benefits. On condition that the Boers dispersed, Frere undertook to represent their complaints to the English government, and to urge the fulfilment of the promises which had been made to them.

Meanwhile in England the time for the general election was approaching. Many causes combined to make the Zulu war a favourable subject for attack. Frere was unsparingly assailed. The government met this by a despatch censuring Frere for his conduct in relation to the Zulu war, and announced what they had done in the House of Commons before informing the high commissioner of the fact. By this strange and happily unusual course it happened that a Reuter's telegram first made Frere aware of the reflections which had been cast upon his character. Fortunately he had already come to terms with the Boers before the arrival of the telegram. In striking contrast with the estimate formed of his conduct of affairs by English politicians, the inhabitants of the districts through which he passed on his return to the Cape vied with each other in doing honour to one who was ready to sacrifice himself for the good of his country, and who was willing to risk his life to save his countrymen from the horrors of war. His journey southward was one continued ovation, and on arriving at Cape Town his horses were taken from his carriage and he was drawn by the populace to Government House. But bad news was awaiting him. On 1 June the Prince Imperial had met his death in Zululand, and almost at the same time the news arrived that Frere had been superseded in the office of high commissioner by Sir Garnet Wolseley, who was on his way to take command of the forces in South Africa. Frere, who remained governor of the Cape, was officially informed that this arrangement was intended to last for six months only, but when at the end of the Zulu war Wolseley was succeeded by Sir George Pomeroy Colley [q. v.], the same high office was continued to him to the exclusion of Frere. Many of Frere's friends were surprised that the slights thus put upon him did not cause him to resign his post. But Frere had not gone out to Africa for his own advantage, and so long as he believed he had work to do and power to do it, he felt bound to remain at his post. ‘What,’ asked a friend, ‘will remain when you are superseded in the midst of your great work?’ ‘My integrity,’ was the answer.

In the following spring Mr. Gladstone directed much of his oratory in Midlothian against Frere's conduct in South Africa, and charged him with having advocated an invasion of Afghanistan. In a remarkably temperate and able paper Frere urged on the colonial secretary the justice of contradicting this statement, for his position as an official rendered him unable publicly to justify himself. The contradiction, however, was not given, and it was left to Frere after his return to England to reply to the charges in a correspondence with Mr. Gladstone.

In July 1880 Frere was recalled, and he returned to England to find that the exigencies of party strife had estranged from him men who sat on both sides of the speaker's chair. Conscious of his integrity he was able to regard with comparative indifference the coldness with which he was

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 350 and Travel), now invested with a mournful interest as her last utterance. In March, 1900, she went to South Africa, with no definite work, but hoping to do some good, and thence perhaps go to the West Coast again. Nursing the sick Boers near Cape Town, she was cut off by fever on June 3rd, only two months after landing, and, to crown her life of unselfish self-sacrifice, was buried at sea by her own desire. Her frank fearlessness, her sincerity, and tender heart, her modesty, illumined by delightful humour, made up a rare character, whose influence was far-reaching, and was most precious to her friends.

"A woman of genius, whose lovable and guileless nature, whose powers of tender sympathy and generous insight were only equalled by her daring as a traveller and explorer, and by her gifts as a writer—Mary Kingsley, the heir and sustainer of a great name, one of the ablest of that remarkable band of wandering writers, men and women, who are the eyes and ears to-day of our nascent Empire, who are bringing home to England ' that weary Titan,' her tasks, her faults, her problems—endowed with humour, with vision, with that light and laughing temper which sends home the shafts of knowledge and of feeling, and with a passion for justice which was in its roots also a passion for England—Mary Kingsley has gone from us. To the service of those poor feverstricken prisoners from Paardeberg she has given her life, so precious, so full still of unexhausted power—flung it away, some people might contend, in an enterprise and a service that others with gifts less rare and less irreplaceable might have rendered. But!—it is from such waste that our wealth flows—from such giving that our hearts, sore as they may be, are shamed and fired afresh. These true knights-errant of intelligence and pity, who think no travail of mind and body too great to face, if only they may come at the truth and tell it—who wander, suffer, laugh, and learn—who make a new wisdom, often in the teeth of the old, which becomes the wisdom of their fellows—it is of them that we may say —

,

At the Women Writers Dinner, 1900.

By kind permission of the Editors of the "Churchwoman"


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 received by politicians. With outwardly unruffled content he settled down quietly to the life of an English gentleman, and, as had always been his wont, used his best endeavours to do good to those about him. To raise the fallen, to instruct the ignorant, and to help the needy were objects which he had pursued throughout his career, and it came, therefore, as a familiar employment when he found himself advocating from platforms in England the claims of charitable institutions, educational establishments, and religious societies. During this period he was chosen for the third time president of the Royal Asiatic Society. The last letter he penned was one resigning this office. In his last year the university of Edinburgh conferred on him the degree of LL.D. On 29 May 1884 Frere died, after an illness of some weeks' duration. He was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. His wife, a son, and four daughters survived him. The son, Bartle Compton Arthur, succeeded as second baronet. A statue of Frere was erected on the Thames Embankment by public subscription, and unveiled by the Prince of Wales in 1888.

To those who merely knew Frere as an acquaintance, his unvarying kindness and chivalrous courtesy will probably be considered as his leading characteristics; but those who had a deeper knowledge of his character will recognise that these outward graces were but the reflection of the brave, constant, unselfish, and religious nature of the man. Repeatedly he risked his life in the cause of duty, and it is not too much to say that in everything he did his last thought was of himself.

Frere was not an author in the sense of having written any large independent works. He, however, published separately a number of lectures delivered before societies, papers from scientific journals, speeches, and letters. Among the most important of these were: ‘Report on the Nature and Effects of the “Thugg Duty,”’ 1838?; ‘The Scinde Railway,’ 1854; ‘Correspondence with the Revs. Gell and Matchett relative to certain Inscriptions on the Wall of a Shop in Hyderabad,’ 1858; ‘A Letter … on the reorganisation of the Indian Army,’ 1858; ‘Indian Missions,’ 1870; ‘Christianity suited to all Forms of Civilisation,’ 1872; ‘Eastern Africa as a Field for Missionary Labour,’ 1874; ‘On the impending Bengal Famine,’ 1874; ‘Correspondence relating to the Recall of Sir Bartle Frere,’ 1880; ‘The Union of the various portions of South Africa,’ 1881; ‘Afghanistan and South Africa: a Letter to the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone … regarding portions of his Midlothian speeches,’ 1881. He wrote also a memoir of his uncle, Hookham Frere, which is prefixed to the ‘Works of J. H. Frere,’ and an introduction to ‘Old Deccan Days,’ written by his daughter, Miss Mary Frere. He contributed several articles to ‘Macmillan's Magazine’ on Zanzibar, the Banians, and the Khojas, an article to the ‘Quarterly Review’ on Turkey and Salonica, and two articles to the ‘Fortnightly Review’ on the future of Zululand and the abolition of slavery in India and Egypt.

In religious opinions Frere was a strong churchman. But he was no bigot, and on several occasions he checked missionaries in their too zealous efforts to assert Christianity in defiance of the beliefs and prejudices of the natives of India.

[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, obituary notice, 1884; Celebrities of the Day—Life of Sir Bartle Frere, 1882; Sir Bartle Frere's Speeches and Addresses, 1870; Proceedings of the Legislative Council of India, vol. vi. 1860; Report of the Bombay Bank Commission, 1869; Parliamentary Papers, South Africa; Recreations of an Indian Official, 1872; Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. iii.; Miss Colenso's History of the Zulu War, 1880; Greswell's Our South African Empire, 1885; Nixon's Complete Story of the Transvaal, 1885; private letters. A life by Sir W. W. Hunter is in preparation.]

FRERE, JAMES HATLEY (1779–1866), writer on prophecy, born in 1779, was the sixth son of John Frere, F.R.S. [q. v.], of Roydon, Norfolk, and Beddington, Surrey, by Jane, daughter and heiress of John Hookham of London (, Landed Gentry, 7th ed., i. 689). He married, 15 June 1809, Merian, second daughter of Matthew Martin, F.R.S., of Poets' Corner, Westminster (Gent. Mag. vol. lxxix. pt. i. p. 579), by whom he had five sons. He died at the residence of his third son, the Rev. John Alexander Frere, Shillington vicarage, Bedfordshire, on 8 Dec. 1866 (ib. 4th ser. iii. 124). His biblical studies were deemed worthy of notice by G. S. Faber, S. R. Maitland, and other well-known divines. He also took an interest in educational questions, and about 1838 introduced a phonetic system for teaching the blind to read. He had the advantage of having his plan carried out by a very clever blind man, who suggested several important changes. His characters consist of straight lines, half circles, hooked lines, and angles of forty-five degrees, together with a hollow and solid circle. He also invented the ‘return’ lines—that is to say, the lines in his book are read from left to right and from right to left alternately, the letters themselves being reversed in the return lines.


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The New International Encyclopædia/Lange, Thomas

LANGE, (1829-87). A Danish novelist, born at Copenhagen. He studied theology, but was not ordained, and afterwards devoted himself to literature. His first writings were published anonymously, and attracted little attention. It was not until Eventyets Land (1863) appeared that he was fitly appreciated. Later works gave him a place not much inferior to that of Goldschmidt in Danish literature. His works include: Aaen og Havet (1870); Romantiske Skildringer (Romantic Descriptions, 1872), his masterpiece; De lyse Nætter (1875); Et Symposion (1877); and Nyt Liv (1879).


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 318 and asked which baby. She told him it was hers, and that by sitting on a stone and eating the cake he had blessed the child.

Another time he met a man in a lane who said, "What have I done to you that you should put it on me?" He thought the man rather mad and took no notice, but the man continued his questioning, and finally Mr ...... asked him what he meant. The man replied, "Are you not the man who put the evil eye on me?" Mr ...... answered that he had not seen him before, didn't want to see him again, and had certainly not put the evil eye on him as he hadn't one to put. The man was going away quite satisfied when ...... called him back and asked what he would have done if he found that he had put the evil eye on him, and was informed that the man was quite prepared to go for him.

On another occasion Mr asked to find out the local belief in the means generally practised in Cornwall to recall a lost lover, and found out that the magic was to burn some of the lover's clothes. On asking the eftect that this drastic remedy had on the lover he was informed that he was "darned angry" when he returned.

He also related various cases of witches living entirely on their reputation as such, and frightening the locals into giving them presents of fish, etc. There was also a witch in the "Admirals Hard" (a landing stage in Plymouth), who on being asked a cuie for one suffering from consumption, told that the cause was that the evil eye had been put on the patient by someone who was the next hunchback that they would see. The next hunchback they saw was the worthy schoolmistress at, who in consequence, and in spite of her worthiness, was boycotted.

(Collected by the late, V.C.)

(Cf. vol. xxvi. p. 2S4).

We take the following details from communications kindly sent us by two correspondents.—.

Copies of the letter of our Lord to Abgarus, King of Edessa, are often found pasted on cottage walls in the south of England to preserve the house from witchcraft, and are also worn by


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The New International Encyclopædia/Lange, Thor Næve

LANGE, (1851—). A Danish author, born in Copenhagen. About 1877 he went to Moscow as Danish consul. His works include admirable translations from Greek, Old French, and Russian, and he made a good translation of Longfellow's “Golden Legend” (3d ed. 1891). He also compiled Skildringer fra den russiske Literatur (1886). His original volumes include: En maaned i Orienten; Flygtize Skizzer (1887); Skitser og Phantaseir (1890); and a collection of his poems, Gennem farret Glas (1894).


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 Although useful in enabling uneducated persons to read in a short space of time, Frere's system was found to vitiate pronunciation. In 1871 it was in use at only three home institutions. He devised a cheap method of setting up and stereotyping his books. ‘The letters, formed of copper wire, are laid on a tin plate, previously washed over with a solution of zinc; when heat is applied to the under-surface, the letter becomes soldered on to the plate, and such plates produced extremely good printing’ (, Encyclopædia, new edit., ii. 226). Both T. M. Lucas of Bristol and William Moon of Brighton adopted this system of stereotyping. Aided by Miss Yates of Fairlawn, Frere was enabled to have ‘The Book of the Prophet Isaiah’ printed from embossed metallic plates according to his method, 4to, London, 1843–9. His other works are: 1. ‘A Combined View of the Prophecies of Daniel, Esdras, and S. John, shewing that all the prophetic writings are formed upon one plan … Also a minute explanation of the prophecies of Daniel; together with critical remarks upon the interpretations of preceding commentators, and more particularly upon the systems of Mr. Faber and Mr. Cunninghame,’ 8vo, London, 1815 (2nd edit., same year). 2. ‘On the General Structure of the Apocalypse, being a brief introduction to its minute interpretation,’ 8vo, London, 1826. 3. ‘Eight Letters on the Prophecies relating to the last times; viz. The seventh vial, the civil and ecclesiastical prophetic periods, and the type of Jericho,’ 8vo, London, 1831. 4. ‘Three Letters on the Prophecies … in continuation of eight letters published in 1831,’ 8vo, London, 1833; 2nd edit., with a prefatory address, 8vo, London [1859]. 5. ‘The Art of Teaching to Read by Elementary Sounds,’ 12mo, London, 1840. 6. ‘A Letter to Lord Wharncliffe, in reply to the allegations made by the London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, against the Phonetic Method of Instruction,’ 8vo, London, 1843. 7. ‘“The Harvest of the Earth,” prior to the vintage of wrath, considered as symbolical of the Evangelical Alliance … Also a letter to Dr. Wolff,’ &c., 12mo, London, 1846. 8. ‘The Great Continental Revolution, marking the Expiration of the Times of the Gentiles, A.D. 1847–8. In reply to a Letter from a Member of a Society of Prophetic Students. To which is added a Reprint of a Letter addressed to the Rev. Dr. Wolff on the expiration of the Times of the Gentiles A.D. 1847, and of other occasional papers, illustrative of the present period,’ 8vo, London, 1848. 9. ‘Preface to the Second Edition of the Great Continental Revolution, containing Remarks on the progress of Prophetic Events during the year 1848–9,’ 8vo, London, 1849 (printed separately, for the convenience of purchasers of the first edition). 10. ‘Notes, forming a brief Interpretation of the Apocalypse,’ 8vo, London, 1850. 11. ‘Directions for Teaching the Blind to Read on the Phonetic Principle,’ 8vo [London, 1851]. 12. ‘Grammar [embossed] for the Blind on the Principle of the Combination of Elementary Sounds,’ 4to, London, 1851.

[Horace Frere's Pedigree of the Family of Frere, 4to, 1874; Brit. Mus. Cat.; Ripley and Dana's American Cyclopædia, ii. 719; Encyclopædia Britannica (9th edit.), iii. 826–8.]  FRERE, JOHN (1740–1807), antiquary, of Roydon Hall, Norfolk, and Finningham, Suffolk, born on 10 Aug. 1740, was the eldest son of Sheppard Frere of Roydon, by his wife Susanna, daughter of John Hatley of London and Kirby Hall, Essex. He belonged to an old family settled in Norfolk and Suffolk. His grandfather, Edward Frere, was a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and a staunch adherent of Bentley the master. Frere was scholar and fellow of Caius College. He was second wrangler (Paley being senior), and graduated B.A. 1763, M.A. 1766. He became high sheriff of Suffolk in 1766, was a vice-president of the Marine Society in 1785, and was elected M.P. for Norwich in 1799. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society 20 June 1771, and was an active member. He published, in the ‘Archæologia’ for 1800 (xiii. 204), a paper ‘On the Flint Weapons of Hoxne in Suffolk,’ and showed discernment in assigning these stone implements (some of which, presented by him, are still in the collection of the Society of Antiquaries) ‘to a very remote period indeed, even beyond that of the present world’ (cp., Ancient Stone Implements, p. 517). Frere also contributed to the ‘Gentleman's Magazine’ and other publications. His son, John Hookham Frere [q. v.], used to regret that more of his father's occasional papers had not been preserved. Frere was intimate with Richard Gough. His brother-in-law, Sir John Fenn, left him his library. Frere died at East Dereham, Norfolk, on 12 July 1807. A painted portrait of him is in the possession of Mr. J. T. Frere of Roydon Hall. He married, in 1768, Jane, only child of John Hookham of Beddington, a rich London merchant. This lady, besides a fortune and good looks, had ‘rare gifts of intellect and disposition.’ They had seven sons and two daughters. The eldest son was John Hookham Frere, the author and diplomatist [q. v.] The fourth, fifth, and sixth sons,


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  [q. v.], [q. v.], and [q. v.], are also separately noticed. The seventh son, Temple (1781–1859), rector successively of Finningham, Roydon, and Burston, became canon of Westminster 3 Nov. 1838.

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769–1846), diplomatist and author, eldest son of [q. v.] of Roydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk, by his wife Jane, only child of John Hookham of Beddington, Surrey, a rich London merchant, was born in London on 21 May 1769, and in 1785 went from a preparatory school at Putney to Eton, where he formed his lifelong friendship with Canning. In the following year the two friends joined with ‘Bobus’ Smith and some other schoolfellows in starting the ‘Microcosm,’ the first number of which appeared on 6 Nov. 1786, and the last on 30 July 1787. It ran through forty numbers, which were subsequently published in a collected form, with a dedication to Dr. Davies, the head-master. Frere contributed five papers to this periodical (Works, ii. 3–22). From Eton he went to Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. At college he gained several prizes for classical composition, but was prevented by illness from going in for honours. He was fellow of Caius from 1793 to 1816, and in 1792 obtained the members' prize for the Latin essay; the subject was ‘Whether it be allowable to hope for the improvement of morals and for the cultivation of virtue in the rising state of Botany Bay’! On leaving the university Frere entered the foreign office and at a bye-election in November 1796 was returned for the pocket borough of West Looe in Cornwall, which he continued to represent until the dissolution in June 1802; but no speeches of his are reported in the volumes of ‘Parliamentary History’ for that period. In 1797 he joined with Canning in the publication of the ‘Anti-Jacobin, or Weekly Examiner,’ the first number of which appeared on 20 Nov. in that year. Gifford was the editor, and many of the pieces were written in concert by Canning, Ellis, and Frere. Jenkinson, afterwards the Earl of Liverpool, Lord Mornington, Chief-baron Macdonald, and Pitt were also among the contributors. Frere's contributions are collected in his ‘Works’ (ii. 57–161). Besides other pieces, he wrote the greater part of the ‘Loves of the Triangles,’ an amusing parody of Dr. Darwin's ‘Loves of the Plants,’ and shared with Canning the authorship of ‘The Friend of Humanity and the Knifegrinder,’ and with Canning and Ellis that of the ‘Rovers, or the Double Arrangement.’ After a brilliant career of eight months the ‘Anti-Jacobin’ was brought to a close on 9 July 1798. On 1 April 1799 Frere succeeded his friend Canning as under-secretary of state in the foreign office. In October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary at Lisbon, and in September 1802 was transferred to Madrid, where he remained for nearly two years. In August 1804 Frere was recalled ‘in consequence of circumstances having occurred that made it impossible for him any longer to communicate personally with the Prince of Peace’ (Pitt's Speeches, 1806, iv. 383). The ministry, however, signified their approval of his conduct by granting him a pension of 1,700l. a year, and on 14 Jan. 1805 he was sworn a member of the privy council. In June 1807 the Duke of Portland appointed him envoy and minister plenipotentiary at Berlin, but owing to the treaty of Tilsit the mission had to be abandoned. On 4 Oct. 1808 Frere was sent out to Spain as minister plenipotentiary to the Central Junta. Affairs on the Peninsula were then in a very critical state, and his position as the British minister was one of heavy responsibility. In November Napoleon commenced his march upon Madrid. Sir John Moore, the commander of the British forces in the north of Spain, was inclined to retreat through Portugal. Frere, however, confident that Napoleon might be anticipated, urged Moore to advance upon Madrid, or, if retreat was inevitable, to retire through Gallicia. Moore yielded, and, after the disastrous retreat to Corunna, Frere was greatly blamed for the advice he had given. Though Ponsonby's motion in the House of Commons, on 24 Feb. 1809, for an inquiry ‘into the causes, conduct, and events of the late campaign in Spain,’ was defeated by 220 to 127 (Parl. Debates, xii. 1057–1119), the government determined to recall Frere, and on 29 April 1809 the Marquis of Wellesley was appointed ambassador to the court of Spain. Frere left in August, having been created ‘Marquez de la Union’ by the Central Junta, ‘as a mark of their acknowledgment of the zeal with which he had laboured to promote the friendly union and common interest of the two countries.’ With his second mission to Spain Frere's public career ceased. He afterwards declined the post of ambassador at St. Petersburg, and twice refused the offer of a peerage. On the death of his father in 1807


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 Frere succeeded to Roydon Hall and the other family estates in the eastern counties. On 12 Sept. 1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager countess of Erroll, the widow of George, fourteenth earl of Erroll, and a daughter of Joseph Blake of Ardfry, county Galway. In 1818 his wife became ill. After trying many changes of climate for the benefit of her health they went to Malta, where they took up their permanent residence. Here he amused himself with literary work, translating Aristophanes and Theognis, and learning Hebrew and Maltese. In August 1827 Canning died. Talking over the loss of his friend to his niece two years afterwards, Frere said: ‘I think twenty years ago Canning's death would have caused mine; as it is, the time seems so short, I do not feel it as I otherwise should’ (Works, i. 209). His wife died in January 1831, and in November of that year Sir Walter Scott paid him a visit. Frere still continued to reside at Malta. He died at the Pietà Valetta on 7 Jan. 1846, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and was buried beside his wife in the English burial-ground overlooking the Quarantine Harbour. A portrait of Frere by Hoppner was exhibited in the third Loan Collection of National Portraits in 1868 (Cat. No. 235). At Holland House, where he was a frequent visitor, there is a portrait of him by Arthur Shee, as well as a bust executed by Chantrey in 1817. As a diplomatist Frere is now almost forgotten, and it is only by the few that he is remembered as a brilliant wit and a sparkling writer of humorous poetry. His translations of Aristophanes cannot fail to be the most lasting memorials of his genius, and the manner in which he has successfully caught the spirit of the original comedies places him in an almost unique place as a translator. His metrical version of the ‘Ode on Æthelstan's Victory’ appeared in the second edition of Ellis's ‘Specimens of Early English Poets’ (1801, i. 32–4). It was written by Frere when at Eton, and is a remarkable example of the skilful adoption of the language and style of another period. Mackintosh, in his ‘History of England,’ says that it ‘is a double imitation, unmatched, perhaps, in literary history, in which the writer gave an earnest of that faculty of catching the peculiar genius and preserving the characteristic manner of his original which, though the specimens of it be too few, places him alone among English translators’ (i. 50). Scott, too, declares, in his ‘Essay on Imitations of the Ancient Ballad,’ that it was the only poem he had met with ‘which, if it had been produced as ancient, could not have been detected on internal evidence’ (Poetical Works, 1830, iii. 21). Three of Frere's translations from the ‘Poem of the Cid’ were printed as an appendix to Southey's ‘Chronicle of the Cid’ (1808, pp. 437–68). In 1819 Frere formed one of Byron's ‘cursed puritanical committee’ which decided against the publication of the first canto of ‘Don Juan.’ Though one of the original projectors of the ‘Quarterly Review,’ Frere's only contribution to it was an article on ‘Mitchell's Translations of Aristophanes,’ which appeared in the number for July 1820 (pp. 474–505). It is signed ‘W,’ for Whistlecraft, and is a very early instance of a reviewer signing his contribution. Indolent, and unambitious for literary fame, Frere cared only for the appreciation of cultivated judges. Several of his productions were privately printed, and have become exceedingly rare.

He was the author of the following works: 1. ‘Prospectus and Specimen of an intended National Work, by William and Robert Whistlecraft of Stowmarket in Suffolk, Harness and Collar Makers. Intended to comprise the most interesting particulars relating to King Arthur and his Round Table’ (cantos i. and ii.), London, 1817, 8vo; second edition, London, 1818, 8vo. This revival in English poetry of the octave stanza of Pulci, Berni, and Casti attracted great attention at the time. Byron, writing to Murray from Venice in October 1817, says: ‘Mr. Whistlecraft has no greater admirer than myself. I have written a story in eighty-nine stanzas in imitation of him, called “Beppo”’ (, Life, 1847, p. 369). 2. Cantos iii. and iv. (of the same work), London, 1818, 8vo. The four cantos were also published together in 1818 under the title of ‘The Monks and the Giants Prospectus and Specimen,’ &c.; fourth edition, London, 1821, 12mo; another edition, Bath, 1842, 8vo. 3. ‘Fables for Five-Years-Old,’ Malta, 1830, 12mo. 4. ‘The Frogs,’ London, 1839. Frere says: ‘The greater part of this play [‘The Frogs’] had been printed upwards of twenty years ago, having been intended for private distribution; an intention to which the writer adheres, being unwilling to cancel what had been already printed and in part distributed.’ 5. ‘Aristophanes. A Metrical Version of the Acharnians, the Knights, and the Birds, in the last of which a vein of peculiar humour and character is for the first time detected and developed’ (anon.), London, 1840, 4to. These three plays, each of which are separately paged, were privately printed for Frere at the government press in Malta in 1839, and were afterwards published by Pickering in England in 1840 under the above title. Reprinted as No. 37 of Morley's ‘Universal Library,’ London, 1886, 8vo. In Coleridge's


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 will, dated September 1829, the following interesting passage occurs: ‘Further to Mr. Gillman, as the most expressive way in which I can only mark my relation to him, and in remembrance of a great and good man, revered by us both, I leave the manuscript volume lettered “Arist. Manuscript—Birds, Acharnians, Knights,” presented to me by my dear friend and patron, the Right Hon. John Hookham Frere, who, of all men I have had the means of knowing during my life, appears to me eminently to deserve to be characterised as ὁ καλοκἀγαθός ὁ φιλόκαλος.’ 6. ‘Theognis Restitutus. The personal history of the poet Theognis, deduced from an analysis of his existing fragments. A hundred of these fragments, translated or paraphrased in English metre, are arranged in their proper biographical order with an accompanying commentary, with a preface in which the suggestion of Mr. Clinton, as to the true date of the poet's birth (viz. in Olymp. 59), is confirmed by internal evidence’ (anon.), Malta, 1842, 4to. Reprinted (but without the introduction and the synopsis of historical dates) in the volume of Bohn's Classical Library containing ‘The Works of Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis,’ London, 1856, 8vo. 7. ‘Psalms,’ &c. (anon.), London [1848?], 4to.

[The Works of the Right Hon. John Hookham Frere in Verse and Prose, with memoir by Sir Bartle Frere, his nephew, 1874; Quarterly Review, cxxxii. 26–59; Edinburgh Review, cxxxv. 472–501; North American Review, cvii. 136–66; Fraser's Mag., new ser. v. 491–510; Contemporary Review, ix. 512–33; Macmillan's Mag., xxvi. 25–32; Professor Morley's Introduction to Frere's Aristophanes, 1886, p. 5–8; Princess Marie Liechtenstein's Holland House, 1874; Ann. Reg. 1846; Gent. Mag. 1846, new ser. xxv. 312–14, 338; Lowndes's Bibl. Manual (Bohn); Grenville Library Cat.; Brit. Mus. Cat.]  FRERE, PHILIP HOWARD (1813–1868), agriculturist, the eldest son of William Frere [q. v.] by his wife Mary, daughter of Brampton Gurdon Dillingham, was born in 1813. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1836 was placed among the senior optimes in the mathematical, and in the first class in the classical tripos. In the following year he was elected a fellow of Downing College, and in 1839 became tutor and bursar. The endowments of Downing consisted almost entirely of agricultural lands, the management of which devolved on the bursar, and Frere's previous residence on his father's estate at Balsham, Cambridgeshire, rendered him admirably suited to the post. He travelled much in Europe, and became a good linguist. His combination of a knowledge of agriculture and foreign languages led to his appointment as editor of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society’ in 1862, when the council determined to raise the standard of their publication. He conducted the journal with success, contributing papers on agricultural subjects till his death at Cambridge in May 1868. Frere married in 1859 Emily, daughter of Henry Gipps, canon of Carlisle Cathedral, and vicar of Crosthwaite, Keswick, and left issue.

[Information from the Rev. W. H. Frere; Journal of the Royal Agricultural Soc.]  FRERE, WILLIAM (1775–1836), law-serjeant and master of Downing College, Cambridge, the fourth son of John Frere [q. v.] of Roydon, Norfolk, and younger brother of John Hookham Frere [q. v.], was born 28 Nov. 1775. He was sent to Felstead and Eton, and in 1796 obtained a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge. In the same year he was elected to the Craven scholarship, and subsequently won several university honours, among them the senior chancellor's medal. He graduated fifth senior optime in 1798. In 1800 he became fellow of the newly founded Downing College. He was called to the bar, and joined the Norfolk circuit in 1802. He was serjeant-at-law in 1809, and three years later was elected master of Downing College, his appointment being unsuccessfully contested at law. He was made recorder of Bury St. Edmunds in 1814, and in 1819 became vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He resided for a considerable part of each year on an estate which he bought at Balsham, Cambridgeshire. He proceeded LL.D. at Cambridge 1825, and D.C.L. at Oxford 1834. In 1826 he finally quitted the bar. He edited, with additions, Baron Glenbervie's ‘Reports of Cases,’ 1813, and the fifth volume of the ‘Paston Letters’ from the manuscript of Sir John Fenn [q. v.], his uncle. Some Latin and Greek verse by Frere was published with W. Herbert's ‘Fasciculus Carminum stylo Lucretiano scriptorum,’ 1797. He died 25 May 1836. He married in 1810 Mary, daughter of Brampton Gurdon Dillingham. His son, Philip Howard, is separately noticed. During Frere's time, chiefly through his wife, Downing College was a social centre at Cambridge.

[Information supplied by the Rev. W. H. Frere; Gent. Mag. 1836, ii. 214.]  FRESTON, ANTHONY (1757–1819), divine, born in 1757, was the son of Robert Brettingham of Norwich, and nephew of Matthew Brettingham [q. v.], the architect of Holkham, the Earl of Leicester's seat in Nor-.


text:
Author:Sara Payson Willis Parton

Novels

 * Ruth Hall (1854)
 * Fanny Ford (1855)
 * Rose Clarke (1855)

Children's books

 * Little Ferns for Fanny's Little Friends (1853)
 * The Play-Day Book (1857)
 * The New Story Book for Children (1864)

title: Author:Sara Payson Willis Parton


text:
The New International Encyclopædia/Langebek, Jakob

LANGEBEK,, (1710-75). A Danish historian, born at Skjoldborg. He first studied Danish history, and it was by critical articles on contemporary writers in this field that he attracted attention. He founded a society for the study of the language and history of

in 1845, and was its perpetual archivist. His works consist of valuable contributions on his favorite subject to the journals, and to the Danske Magazin (1845-52), which he edited and nearly all of which he wrote himself; and Scriptores ''Rerum Danicarum Medii Œvi. . .'' (1772-74), which was completed by Suhm, Schoening, and others from original papers, in 1878. He also collected material for a Danish dictionary. A collection of his letters was published in 1895.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frederick, Colonel


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frederick Louis


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freebairn, Alfred Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freebairn, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freeburn, James


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Page:Folk-lore - A Quarterly Review. Volume 23, 1912.djvu/26

 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

.

years, the average length of a generation, have passed since this Society was founded. We have thus attained the period of fullest maturity, and we should have prepared ourselves for the serious work of life. If by this time we have not put away childish things, and have not adopted scientific methods of investigation, our labour has been in vain, and we cannot justify our claims to take a place in the ranks of those older branches of learning whose position in the world of knowledge is assured. The special subject on which I venture to address you this evening is the relations of folklore to those sciences with which it is most closely associated.

But before discussing questions such as these, my first duty is to express our feelings of sorrow at the loss of those fellow-workers who have recently passed away. Four of these were members of the service to which I have the honour to belong; three of them were personal friends. Sir A. Lyall will be remembered for that exceptionally profound appreciation of the religious problems of the East which is displayed in his essays on the philosophy of Hinduism and the popular religion of Berar; Sir D. Ibbetson for his investigations into the folklore and beliefs of the Panjab peasantry; Sir H. H. Risley for the foundation of the Ethnographical Survey of India, his classical


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 Rh work on the Tribes of Bengal, and his valuable report on the Census of India completed in 1901 under his superintendence; and W. Irvine, the historian of the later Moghul Empire, for his admirable edition of the Storia do Mogor by Niccolao Manucci, in which he made an important contribution to our knowledge of Indian beliefs and usage. Mr. W. G. Aston, a valued contributor to our Proceedings, was the author of standard works on the Shintoism of Japan; Dr. J. Beddoe devoted a long life to investigating the ethnology of Great Britain and Ireland; and Professor A. H. Keane did much to popularise the study of anthropology.

It is with much pleasure that we congratulate Sir E. B. Tylor, the leader of the English school of folklore, Sir Laurence Gomme, Sir A. J. Evans, and Sir B. C. A. Windle on the honour which has been conferred upon them; and we address a message of hearty goodwill to our German colleagues on the celebration of the centenary of the first publications of those classical works on the folklore, tradition, custom, and ritual of the Teutonic people which entitle the brothers Grimm to rank as the founders of this branch of research in Europe.

Since the foundation of our Society we have steadily advanced our frontiers. It is perhaps fortunate that in the earlier stages of its career we hesitated to restrict its studies by a precise definition of aims and methods. It was certainly a happy inspiration when in 1846 Mr. Thoms invented the term Folklore to designate "that department of the study of antiquities and archaeology which embraces everything relating to ancient observances and customs, to the notions, beliefs, traditions, superstitions, and prejudices of the common people." But in the stage which we have now reached this definition is inadequate, and in popular estimation gives an imperfect idea of the work on which we are engaged. In the first place, it limited our enquiries to the people of these islands; secondly, it connotes the stage


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Author:Niccolao Manucci

Works

 * A Pepys of Mongul India, 1653-1708; being an abridged ed. of the "Storia do Mogor" of Niccolao Manucci, tr. by William Irvine (abridged ed. prepared by Margaret L. Irvine) (1913)

title: Author:Niccolao Manucci


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 16 of collecting isolated facts which it was incumbent upon us to undertake at the outset of our career, not the arrangement and co-ordination of recorded material to which our efforts are now specially directed. Our annual collection of papers announces itself as "a Review of Myth, Tradition, Institution, and Custom," a programme which sufficiently describes the present scheme of our work. In our early days we had some misgivings whether our objects and methods were really scientific. These doubts have long ago been dispelled. While much of our attention is concentrated on the problems of Comparative Religion, in that sense of the term which implies a survey of the beliefs of backward races throughout the world in relation to those surviving among the less cultured classes in our own and other civilised communities, our work has come to be regarded by general consent as truly scientific, and commends itself to the ever-increasing attention of all thinking men. Our first duty obviously was to collect the popular beliefs, cults, institutions, and customs which survive in this country. To secure this, one of the primary objects of our incorporation, we are engaged, besides other special work, on the compilation of a series of volumes of County Folklore, in which the material scattered through a wide and often fugitive literature will find permanent record. For eight English counties this work is now complete; in others, including parts of Scotland and Ireland, it is in active progress. As a further step in this direction, we are about to issue, for the guidance of collectors, a comprehensive Handbook, which we owe to the learning and literary skill of Miss C. S. Burne, assisted by experts in various branches of the subject. A still more ambitious scheme, now in progress under the charge of Mr. H. B. Wheatley, is a new edition of the classical work on British folklore, the Observations on Popular Antiquities by John Brand. We may expect that our new edition of this work will fully represent the great advance of knowledge since


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Rh Brand's book was last edited, in an adequate way, by Sir H. Ellis in 1813. When this important work is complete we trust that we shall have, to a large extent, discharged our obligations in connection with British folklore, and shall have laid the foundations of further systematic research.

We are sometimes warned that the time for collection has passed away, and that the pseudo-culture of the present generation has destroyed the few remains of genuine folk-belief in these islands. Much undoubtedly has been lost, and is now past recovery. But I venture to think that much more of the ancient tradition than is generally believed will reward the patient enquirer. The remarkable fact about the lore of the folk is its extreme vitality. It may not be openly expressed, because an ignorant minority brands it as vulgar or unscientific. But this amorphous group of beliefs, deep rooted in the hearts of our people, never entirely disappears, and fragments of it crop up in the most unexpected places.

Only last year, in a Worcestershire village, a woman foolish enough to marry a man much her senior was branded a witch, and was obliged to insert an advertisement in the local newspapers threatening legal proceedings against her traducers. I heard lately of another woman in Gloucestershire who has acquired a like uncanny reputation because she is in the habit of keeping two pigs,—one white, the other black. A young singer who recently made her debut on the stage informs the public through the halfpenny press that she owes her success to her manager's gift of a lucky shilling just before her first performance. Mr. Lovett, out of his great store of specimens, has on more than one occasion demonstrated at our meetings that countless varieties of charms and mascots are used by all classes of society; and we lately heard of a Jew applying to a London coroner for a piece of the rope used by a suicide for a charm because, as Mr. Hartland recently


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 18 taught us, the feeling with which self-murder is regarded suggests a manifestation of the shock given to the collective mentality of the group by the tragical death of one of its members. In a suit recently decided in the Wandsworth County Court the Judge refused to cancel the lease of a house reputed to be haunted, on the ground that, the existence of ghosts not being recognised by the law, no pranks alleged to have been played by them could be held to justify the breach of a specific contract. "We suspect," sagely remarks a writer in The Times, that the result of a few such cases so determined would be to diminish the number of ghost stories now afloat and accepted."

We have thus to deal with a class of beliefs which seriously affect the lives of considerable sections of our people. In this fact lies one justification for our studies. A second is to be found in the value of such beliefs from the historical standpoint. It is needless to reopen the vexed question,—How far can the evidence of folklore be used by the historian? But we must bear in mind that the most backward races, the Veddas, for instance, have no mythology, no tribal tradition, no stories of the origin of man, no accounts of their own beginnings. Even people in a somewhat higher stage of culture display a strangely monotonous uniformity in their explanations of phenomena and of the origin and destiny of the human race. This mental inertia, lack of curiosity and imagination, are at once the result and the cause of stagnation in culture.

Myth, then, is the record, often the only record, of man's groping in the darkness, of his successive attempts to solve the riddles of the universe and of his own mind. It is something more than the excuse of a stupid man for his lack of understanding. In other words, myths embody the results of his accumulated experiences, and a race destitute of myth is necessarily unprogressive. In all primitive


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 Rh groups custom is practically the only guide to conduct, and folklore, which is essentially the record of custom, is sometimes evidence of the highest value as a test of the rate of custom evolution.

It is inevitable that during the growth to maturity of a progressive science it should be compelled to revise its methods, to correct more than one misapprehension, and to discard many tentative explanations of the problems which it attempts to solve. We have no reason to feel discouraged if we find that our theories fail to withstand criticism. Some of us, perhaps, are inclined to look deeper into the millstone than the nature of the millstone allows. But theory-making is the best sign of vigorous life in any science, and, even if a theory prove to be mistaken, it serves at least to call attention to a problem, and the evidence collected in support of it remains at the service of some more successful theorist in the future. Speculation marks the healthy stage when we are passing from the "unanimity of the ignorant" to the "disagreement of the enquiring."

One of the chief misapprehensions against which we are bound to protest is the attempt to confuse the spheres of Comparative Religion and Comparative Theology. The former aims at comparing the beliefs of savage or barbaric tribes with those current in the lower strata of civilised nations; the latter uses these facts for purposes of speculation, to refute or support the theological or dogmatic schemes of some other religion. In the course of a discussion which followed the recent Universal Races Congress anthropologists were invited, as a class, to express some definite opinion on the nature of soul and body and their inter-relations. To this appeal Dr. Haddon gave the obvious reply that this is the business of the psychologist, theologian, or moral philosopher, not of the anthropologist; and that most anthropologists are content


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 20 with the humbler task of ascertaining what the peoples think about such things, leaving it to somebody else to draw his own inferences from the facts.

A second misapprehension arises from the vague use of the term "primitive" as applied to the lowest stage of culture with which we are acquainted. It is necessary to state clearly that no phase of human culture of which we possess adequate knowledge is "primitive" in the true sense of the term. The Arunta of Australia, with their elaborate social organisation, are as little primitive as palæolithic man with his artistic carvings and paintings. In both cases evolution has progressed through unnumbered ages. When, then, we speak of "primitive" culture we simply mean that, in comparison with modern civilisation, it is in some directions imperfectly developed.

During its course our ship has been forced to discard much of its cargo. Few students of folk-tales, for instance, now believe that they are modern, or at least historical in origin; that the distinctively savage incidents embedded in them do not constitute the very core of the narrative, but are later accretions; that our European tales are derived from a single centre, whether India or any other. The cult of the sainted dead is no longer held to account for all, or most, savage deities. We are coming to see that no single explanation applies to the varied forms of the totemic complex, and that the totem sacrifice, except within certain restricted areas, is no longer the only key to the evolution of ritual. Few of us are now prepared to deny that backward races possess a comparatively high mental and ethical standard, and present knowledge, instead of emphasizing the kinship of the savage with the higher animal, diminishes the gap between him and civilised man, the real distinction being that the one expends his intellectual energy in directions which the other regards as unimportant.

The replacement of the meteorological by the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freind, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freind, Robert


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freind, William (1669-1745)


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Rh method of interpreting myth is, again, a notable mark of progress. The result has been to discredit the study of nature mythology, and in particular of solar mythology. But this neglect of conceptions which must have deeply impressed early man, as they now impress savage and barbaric races, is unjustifiable. Though we may reasonably refuse to connect all or most of our folk-tales with the dawn or the dairy, solar myths supply the only interpretation of the Vedic and other systems, products of an advanced, not of a primitive, society, and of more than one folk-tale cycle, like that of Cúchulainn, who is regarded by some writers as the Celtic sun-hero. When once the mythologists agree to set their house in order, as the modern school is endeavouring to do to-day, a reaction is sure to set in.

Meanwhile our attention is at present concentrated on the study of ritual. The best justification of this change of method lies in the fact that, except in the esoteric cults which form an important element in savagery, it is easier to ascertain what men do in relation to their gods, than what they think about them. But the status of ritual is infinitely varied. Sometimes, as among the Todas, its rank growth smothers the tribal beliefs and legends. Sometimes it survives because it is taken under the patronage of some higher religion, as in the case of the Lenten Carnival at Viza, which is purely a cult of Dionysus. Or, again, ritual practically disappears, as among the Torres Straits tribes, owing to culture contact. Among the peasantry of Europe and elsewhere its vitality is due to its close connection with social observances, like the spring and harvest celebrations. On the other hand,


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Freind, William (1715-1766)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fremantle, Thomas Francis


text: Category:1444 works

title: Category:1444 works


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fremantle, William Henry


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, George Russell


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, Gilbert James


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, John


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, Nicholas


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22 myth is exceedingly flexible and readily adapts itself to changes in the consciousness of primitive groups, while even in the more advanced culture the mythopæic faculty is active, and, by the personification of powers, qualities, or attributes, may create a new ritual or even a new group of deities.

When, therefore, we insist upon the vitality of ritual we must not forget that its efficacy varies with the intent accompanying it; that in some cases it has become merely automatical, and is practised when its original significance has been forgotten, and, though in form it may persist unchanged, the intent may vary among unrelated groups. It is as dangerous to discuss rites torn up by the roots from the environment to which they belong, as to compare a series of myths similar in outward form but reflecting different primary conceptions.

The rites connected with the dead are especially persistent, because they are adapted to meet some of the most urgent necessities, the placating of the friendly, the scaring of the malignant, ghost. Our attention has recently been called to a remarkable series of rites performed at the funeral of a gypsy named Isaac Heron, who died at Sutton-on-Trent about a year ago. We observe with a shock of surprise that a distinctly savage ritual was performed in our midst. It includes the belief in the infective taboo of the corpse; the destruction of the movable property of the dead man by fire or by immersion in water; the light kept burning near the corpse; the taboo of all food in contact with it, and the refusal to cook in its neighbourhood; the funeral feast preceded by a fast and eaten at a distance from the scene of death. One remarkable custom, that connected with the dressing of the body, needs further examination before it can be described or discussed.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, Peter


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/French, William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frend, William


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Rh The future progress of the science of folklore depends, as I have already said, upon our relations with, and the help which we can receive from, those sciences with which it is most intimately associated,—psychology, sociology, and ethnography or ethno-geography.

The recent developments in experimental psychology and the improved appliances now available for field-work have done much to extend our knowledge of savage mentality. They help us, for instance, to understand the aptitudes which in different races initiate varied artistic attainments, the differences of sense acuity, powers of memory, association, faculties mental and physical,—all considerations of importance in the study of the growth and transmission of folk-beliefs.

As an example of the service which experimental psychology can confer on folklore I may refer to a paper by Dr. C. S. Myers on the uniformity of belief among savage races and the peasantry of Europe. Hitherto we have been in the habit of assuming that we are entitled to compare the beliefs and customs of the European peasant with those current among savage tribes. But this, though accepted as an axiom, remained unverified, and some critics have not failed to take advantage of this flaw in our armour. Dr. Myers now provides an answer which, with certain reservations, may be accepted. As the result of experiments among the people of Torres Straits he concludes that the mental characters of the majority of the peasant class throughout Europe are essentially the same as those of savage communities, and that the differences which do exist are the result of environment and individual variability.

At the same time, we must remember, firstly, that the observations upon which these conclusions are based are limited in extent; secondly, that we must hesitate to assume more than a general uniformity in savage life as a


text: Page:An account of the English colony in New South Wales.djvu/24


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, Bartholomew


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Page:The Life of Michael Angelo.djvu/130

 thinks that he has robbed you of me does not benefit by his great crime because of his great fear. The fulness of pleasure, which extinguishes desire, is a less joy to lovers than misery, which is full of hope."

We must try to imagine what the sack of Rome and the fall of Florence meant to the men of those days: the bankruptcy of justice—the most terrible of cataclysms. Many never recovered from it. Men like Sebastiano del Piombo became laughingly sceptical.

"I have reached such a point that, for all I care, the world may come to an end. I laugh at everything … It does not seem to me that I am still the Bastiano I was before the sack. I cannot recover myself."

Michael Angelo thought of committing suicide.

"If ever it is permissible to kill oneself, it would indeed be just that this right should belong to the one who, though full of faith, lives in slavery and misery."

His mind was thoroughly upset. In June 1531 he


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, Henry Bartle Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, James Hatley


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, John (1740-1807)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, John Hookham


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, Philip Howard


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Frere, William


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24 whole, or more particularly in the case of the peasantry of Europe.

The casual observer of any type of savage culture is naturally led to emphasize points of agreement in adjacent groups or individuals, and to neglect the differences by which they are distinguished. But the trained field-worker, as he pursues his investigations, is forced to recognise that beneath a specious level of uniformity there are important individual distinctions, which become apparent only as the result of long-continued study.

Long ago Darwin taught us that "savages, even within the limits of the same tribe, are not nearly as uniform in character as has often been asserted." M. Lévy-Bruhl has recently urged that primitive thought is of a wholly different order from that of civilised man. For instance, death is to the savage not "the unique and catastrophic event it seems to us, but merely a condition of passing from one existence to another, forming but one of a number of transitions which stand out as the chief memories of his life." Hence Mr. Marett judiciously warns us that this "homogeneity of primitive culture, however, must not be made the excuse for a treatment at the hands of psychology and sociology that dispenses with the study of details and trusts to an a priori method. By all means let universal characterization be attempted, . . . but they must at least model themselves on the composite photograph rather than the impressionist sketch."

When we consider psychology on the theoretical side, the case is somewhat different. On many of the questions which interest us the oracle gives an uncertain response. Thus, on the question whether magic did or did not precede


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 fell ill. Clement VII. tried in vain to appease him. Through his secretary and Sebastiano del Piombo he advised him not to overwork himself, to show restraint, to work at his ease, to take a walk now and then, and not reduce himself to the state of a labourer. In the autumn of 1531 they feared for his life. One of his friends wrote to Valori: "Michael Angelo is extenuated and emaciated. I spoke about him recently with Rugiardini and Antonio Mini, and we came to the conclusion that, unless he is seriously looked after, he will not live long. He works too much, eats little and badly, and sleeps still less. For the past year he has been racked with pains in his head and heart." Clement VII. grew alarmed, and, on November 21, 1531, issued a brief forbidding Michael Angelo, under pain of excommunication, to work at anything else than the mausoleum of Julius II. and that of the Medici, in order to husband his health and thus be able "to glorify Rome, his family and himself all the longer." He protected him against the importunities of men like Valori and the rich beggars who, according to the custom of those days, came to beg for works of art and imposed fresh commissions upon him. "When they ask you for a picture," he wrote to him, "you ought to attach your brush to your foot, make four strokes, and say, 'the picture is painted.' " He interposed between


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44 honour of a St. Nazaro. One of the Albaro young men brought two large bouquets soon after breakfast, and coming up-stairs into the great sala, presented them himself. This was a polite way of begging for a contribution towards the expenses of some music in the Saint's honour, so we gave him whatever it may have been, and his messenger departed: well satisfied. At six o'clock in the evening we went to the church—close at hand—a very gaudy place, hung all over with festoons and bright draperies, and filled, from the altar to the main door, with women, all seated. They wear no bonnets here, simply a long white veil—the "mezzero;" and it was the most gauzy, ethereal-looking audience I ever saw. The young women are not generally pretty, but they walk remarkably well, and in their personal carriage and the management of their veils, display much innate grace and elegance. There were some men present: not very many: and a few of these were kneeling about the aisles, while everybody else tumbled over them. Innumerable tapers were burning in the church; the bits of silver and tin about the saints (especially in the Virgin's necklace) sparkled brilliantly; the priests were seated about the chief altar; the organ played away, lustily, and a full band did the like; while a conductor, in a little gallery opposite to the band, hammered away on the desk before him with a scroll; and a tenor, without any voice, sang. The band played one way, the organ played another, the singer went a third, and the unfortunate conductor banged and banged, and flourished his scroll on some principle

title: Page:Pictures From Italy.djvu/56


text:
Author:Ella Young

Works

 * Celtic Wonder-Tales (1910)
 * The Rose (1938)

title: Author:Ella Young


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzcharles, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzclarence, Adolphus


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzclarence, George Augustus Frederick


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzcount, Brian


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgeffrey, Charles


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgeffrey, Henry


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Edward (1763-1798)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Edward (1770?-1807)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Elizabeth


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, George (1611-1660)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, George Robert


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Gerald (d.1204)


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Gerald (d.1398)


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 one strikes the other, if a single mind, if a single will governs two hearts, if a soul in two bodies has become eternal, bearing both to heaven on the same wings, if Cupid with a single golden shaft pierces and burns the heart of both at once, if one loves the other and neither loves himself, if both centre their pleasure and their joy in attaining the same end, if a thousand thousand loves are not a hundredth part of the love and faith which binds them, could a movement of vexation ever shatter and untie such a bond?"

This forgetfulness of self, this ardent gift of his whole being, which melted in that of the beloved one, was not always characterised by this serenity. Sadness once more got the upper hand, and the soul, possessed by love, struggled and moaned.

"I weep, I burn, I am consumed, and my heart nourishes itself on its troubles…."

"You who have taken from me the joy of living," he says elsewhere to Cavalieri.

To these over-passionate poems, Cavalieri, "the gentle and beloved lord," opposed his calm and affectionate coldness. Secretly he was shocked by the exaggeration of this friendship. Michael Angelo made excuses:


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text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Fitzgerald, Gerald (d.1513)


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Safety in House-Drainage


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Gourds and Bottles


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Darwinism and the Christian Faith III


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/The Teaching of Psychology


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text: Index:The Days Work (1899).djvu

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Rh of his own: apparently well satisfied with the whole performance. I never did hear such a discordant din. The heat was intense all the time. The men, in red caps, and with loose coats hanging on their shoulders (they never put them on), were playing bowls, and buying sweetmeats, immediately outside the church. When half-a-dozen of them finished a game, they came into the aisle, crossed themselves with the holy water, knelt on one knee for an instant, and walked off again to play another game at bowls. They are remarkably expert at this diversion, and will play in the stony lanes and streets, and on the most uneven and disastrous ground for such a purpose, with as much nicety as on a billiard-table. But the most favourite game is the national one of Mora, which they pursue with surprising ardour, and at which they will stake everything they possess. It is a destructive kind of gambling, requiring no accessories but the ten fingers, which are always—I intend no pun—at hand. Two men play together. One calls a number—say the extreme one, ten. He marks what portion of it he pleases by throwing out three, or four or five, fingers; and his adversary has, in the same instant, at hazard, and without seeing his hand, to throw out as many fingers as will make the exact balance. Their eyes and hands become so used to this, and act with such astonishing rapidity, that an uninitiated bystander would find it very difficult, if not impossible, to follow the progress of the game. The initiated, however, of whom there is always an eager group looking on, devour

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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Customs and Arts of the Kwakiool


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Lines of Progress in Agriculture


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text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Fallacies in the Trades-Unions Argument


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 "My dear lord, do not be irritated by my love, which is addressed only to what is best in you, For the spirit of the one ought to be enamoured of the spirit of the other. That which I desire, that which I learn in your beautiful face, cannot be understood by ordinary men. He who wishes to understand it must first of all die."

And certainly there was nothing immodest in this passion for beauty. But the secret of this ardent and agitated love (yet for all that chaste) was nevertheless disquieting and deluded. To these morbid friendships—a despairing effort to deny the nothingness of his life and create the love for which he craved—there fortunately succeeded the serene affection of a woman, who could understand his old child, alone and lost in the world, and bring to his bruised soul a little peace, a little confidence, a little reason, and melancholy acceptance of life and death.

It was in 1533 and 1534 that Michael Angelo's friendship for Cavalieri reached its height. In 1535 he began to know Vittoria Colonna.

She was born in 1492. Her father was Fabrizio Colonna, Lord of Paliano and Prince of Tagliacozzo.


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 Her mother, Agnese di Montefeltro, was daughter of the great Federigo, Prince of Urbino. Her family was one of the noblest in Italy, one of those in whom the luminous spirit of the Renaissance was in the highest degree manifest. At seventeen years of age she married the Marquis of Pescara, Ferrante Francesco d'Avalos, a great general and the conqueror of Pavia. She loved him, but her love was not returned. She was not a beautiful woman. The medals on which she is represented show that she possessed a virile, self-willed and rather hard face, with a high forehead, a long, straight nose, a short, morose, upper lip, a slightly protruding lower lip, a tightly-shut mouth and a prominent chin.


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 Filonico Alicarnasseo, who knew her and wrote her life, leaves one to understand, in spite of his care in the use of words, that she was ugly. "When she was married to the Marquis of Pescara," he says, "she applied herself to the development of her mental gifts; for, as she did not possess great beauty, she instructed herself in literature, in order to feel assured of that immortal beauty which, unlike the other, never fades." She was passionately intellectual. In a sonnet she herself says that "coarse senses, powerless to form the harmony which produces the pure love of noble souls, never awakened in her either pleasure or suffering. …" And she adds: "Bright flame, raise my heart so high that base thoughts offend it." She was in no way made to be


text: Popular Science Monthly/Volume 33/July 1888/Botany as it May Be Taught


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 loved by the brilliant and sensual Pescara, but, as the mocking Cupid sometimes ordains, she was made to love and suffer through it.

She did, in fact, suffer cruelly through the infidelity of her husband, who deceived her in his own house to the knowledge and in the sight of all Naples. Nevertheless, on his death in 1525, she was inconsolable. She sought refuge in religion and poetry. She led a claustral life, first at Rome, then in Naples, but without renouncing in the early days thoughts of the world. She sought solitude merely in order to be able to absorb herself in the recollection of her love and celebrate it in verse. She was in relations with all the great writers of Italy—with Sadoleto, Bembo, and Castiglione, who entrusted the manuscript of his "Cortegiano" to her; with Ariosto, who celebrated her in his "Orlando"; with Paul Jove, Bernardo Tasso and Lodovico Dolce. From 1530 her sonnets were read over the whole of Italy and secured her a position of unique glory among the women of her period. Having retired to Ischia, she was indefatigable, in the solitude of the beautiful island and amidst the harmonious sea, in singing of her transfigured love. But from 1534 religion occupied her entire attention. The spirit of Catholic reform—the free religious spirit which then tended to regenerate the Church without running the risk of a schism—took possession of her. Whether she knew Juan de Valdès in Naples is unknown,


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 but she was overwhelmed by the sermons of Bernardino Ochino of Sienna; she was the friend of Pietro Carnesecchi, Giberti, Sadoleto, the noble Reginald Pole, and of the greatest of these reforming prelates, who constituted in 1536 the Collegium de emendandâ Ecclesiâ—namely, Cardinal Gaspare Contarini, who tried in vain,


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is, next to a marine engine, the most sensitive thing man ever made; and No. .007, besides being sensitive, was new. The red paint was hardly dry on his spotless bumper-bar, his headlight shone like a fireman's helmet, and his cab might have been a hard-wood-finish parlour. They had run him into the round-house after his trial—he had said good-bye to his best friend in the shops, the overhead travelling-crane—the big world was just outside; and the other locos were taking stock of him. He looked at the semicircle of bold, unwinking headlights, heard the low purr and mutter of the steam mounting in the gauges—scornful hisses of contempt as a slack valve lifted a little—and would have given a month's oil for leave to crawl through his own driving-wheels into the brick ash-pit beneath him. .007 was an eight-wheeled "American" loco, slightly different from others of his type, and as he stood he was worth ten thousand dollars on the Company's books. But if you had bought him at his own valuation, after half an hour's waiting in the darkish,

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  echoing round-house, you would have saved exactly nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine dollars and ninety-eight cents.

A heavy Mogul freight, with a short cow-catcher and a fire-box that came down within three inches of the rail, began the impolite game, speaking to a Pittsburgh Consolidation, who was visiting.

"Where did this thing blow in from?" he asked, with a dreamy puff of light steam.

"It 's all I can do to keep track of our makes," was the answer, "without lookin' after your back-numbers. Guess it 's something Peter Cooper left over when he died."

.007 quivered; his steam was getting up, but he held his tongue. Even a hand-car knows what sort of locomotive it was that Peter Cooper experimented upon in the far-away Thirties. It carried its coal and water in two apple-barrels, and was not much bigger than a bicycle.

Then up and spoke a small, newish switching-engine, with a little step in front of his bumper-timber, and his wheels so close together that he looked like a bronchobronco [sic] getting ready to buck.

"Something 's wrong with the road when a Pennsylvania gravel-pusher tells us anything about our stock, I think. That kid 's all right. Eustis designed him, and Eustis designed me. Ain't that good enough?"

.007 could have carried the switching-loco round the yard in his tender, but he felt grateful for even this little word of consolation.

"We don't use hand-cars on the Pennsylvania," said

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 the Consolidation. "That—er—peanut-stand is old enough and ugly enough to speak for himself."

"He has n't bin spoken to yet. He 's bin spoke at. Hain't ye any manners on the Pennsylvania?" said the switching-loco.

"You ought to be in the yard, Poney," said the Mogul, severely. "We 're all long-haulers here."

"That 's what you think," the little fellow replied. "You 'll know more 'fore the night's out. I 've bin down to Track 17, and the freight there—oh, Christmas!"

"I've trouble enough in my own division," said a lean, light suburban loco with very shiny brake-shoes. "My commuters would n't rest till they got a parlour-car. They 've hitched it back of all, and it hauls worsen a snow-plough. I 'll snap her off someday sure, and then they 'll blame every one except their fool-selves. They 'll be askin' me to haul a vestibuled next!"

"They made you in New Jersey, didn't they?" said Poney. "Thought so. Commuters and truck-wagons ain't any sweet haulin', but I tell you they're a heap better 'n cuttin' out refrigerator-cars or oil-tanks. Why, I've hauled—"

"Haul! You?" said the Mogul, contemptuously. "It 's all you can do to bunt a cold-storage car up the yard. Now, I—" he paused a little to let the words sink in—"I handle the Flying Freight—e-leven cars worth just anything you please to mention. On the stroke of eleven I pull out; and I 'm timed for thirty-five an hour. Costly-perishable-fragile-immediate—that 's me! Suburban traffic's only but one degree better than switching. Express freight 's what pays."

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 "Well, I ain't given to blowing, as a rule," began the Pittsburgh Consolidation.

"No? You was sent in here because you grunted on the grade," Poney interrupted.

"Where I grunt, you'd lie down, Poney: but, as I was saying, I don't blow much. Notwithstandin', if you want to see freight that is freight moved lively, you should see me warbling through the Alleghanies with thirty-seven ore-cars behind me, and my brakemen fightin' tramps so 's they can't attend to my tooter. I have to do all the holdin' back then, and, though I say it, I 've never had a load get away from me yet. No, sir. Haulin' 's one thing, but judgment and discretion's another. You want judgment in my business."

"Ah! But—but are you not paralysed by a sense of your overwhelming responsibilities?" said a curious, husky voice from a corner.

"Who 's that?" .007 whispered to the Jersey commuter.

"Compound—experiment—N.G. She 's bin switchin' in the B. & A. yards for six months, when she wasn't in the shops. She's economical (I call it mean) in her coal, but she takes it out in repairs. Ahem! I presume you found Boston somewhat isolated, madam, after your New York season?"

"I am never so well occupied as when I am alone." The Compound seemed to be talking from half-way up her smoke-stack.

"Sure," said the irreverent Poney, under his breath. "They don't hanker after her any in the yard."

"But, with my constitution and temperament—my work lies in Boston—I find your outrecuidance—"

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 "Outer which?" said the Mogul freight. "Simple cylinders are good enough for me."

"Perhaps I should have said faroucherie," hissed the Compound.

"I don't hold with any make of papier-mâché wheel," the Mogul insisted.

The Compound sighed pityingly, and said no more.

"Git 'em all shapes in this world, don't ye?" said Poney. "that's Mass'chusetts all over. They half start, an' then they stick on a dead-centre, an' blame it all on other folk's ways o' treatin' them. Talkin' o' Boston, Comanche told me, last night, he had a hot-box just beyond the Newtons, Friday. That was why, he says, the Accommodation was held up. Made out no end of a tale, Comanche did."

"If I'd heard that in the shops, with my boiler out for repairs, I 'd know 't was one o' Comanche's lies," the New Jersey commuter snapped. "Hot-box! Him! What happened was they'd put an extra car on, and he just lay down on the grade and squealed. They had to send 127 to help him through. Made it out a hotbox, did he? Time before that he said he was ditched! Looked me square in the headlight and told me that as cool as—as a water-tank in a cold wave. Hot-box! You ask 127 about Comanche's hot-box. Why, Comanche he was side-tracked, and 127 (he was just about as mad as they make 'em on account o' being called out at ten o'clock at night) took hold and snapped her into Boston in seventeen minutes. Hot-box! Hot fraud! that's what Comanche is."

Then .007 put both drivers and his pilot into it, as the

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