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port every five years. To it there must be referred all requests to establish new foundations. It controls the election of superiors, and must be asked for permission if re-election is desired. It is a general supervising body and intervenes whenever there is disorder. Dis- pensations are obtained from it; complaints and quarrels must be sub- mitted to it. In economic matters an Order exercises freedom of management only in a limited degree, beyond which evety change in economic status is contingent upon Rome's permission.

In the missionary Orders the competency of the Congregation of the Orders is often hard to distinguish from that of the Congregation of the Missions. Every Order as a whole is subordinate to the Con- gregation of the Orders, to which all its inner business must be re- ferred; and it is dependent upon the Congregation for the Missions only in so far as its missionary activities are concerned. The boundary- line between the two is often difficult to find.

The examination of a new religious Rule is entrusted to a special group of councillors. The foundation of a new congregation is per- mitted only when there is reason to believe that the effort rests upon a substantial basis. It must survive a time of probation, in which it is to prove its worthiness, and is then removed very gradually from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in which the foundation is made and placed directly under the control of the Pope. Decades may still go by, however, before a preliminary endorsement is trans- formed into a final recommendation. Every monastic society en- deavours to become exempt i. e. to be wholly removed from the control of the episcopal authority. Larger religious societies are customarily represented at the Congregation by a procurator-general. The older Orders enjoy honorary rights in the Curia; not only are one or more of their members recipients of the Cardinal's purple, but they are entrusted in accordance with custom with important positions. Thus the General of the Dominicans and three other members of his Order always belong to the Holy Office. The magister palatii, who is a member of important Congregations, the supreme censor of books, and papal court theologian assigned the duty of reading through the Pope's sermons before these are delivered, is also always a Domini- can. A Franciscan is consultor of the Holy Office, a Capuchin is Papal court preacher, a Servite is the confessor of the Papal "family,"

THE

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 PROPAGANDA 433

and a bishop appointed from the Augustinian Order is sacristan of the Palace. One o the most important offices held by the Jesuits is in the College of the Penitentiaries.

The Divine task of the Church to "go and teach all nations" is confided to the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), which is an especial part of the Con- gregation for the Missions. It is in control of all territories which are not organized into dioceses having full rights. That means most of the earth's surface. Before the reform of the Curia, the Prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda had sole authority in the territory, to the exclusion of the other Congregations and indeed partly of the Pope himself. He was not incorrectly termed the "Red Pope." The reform deprived him of important territories the British Isles, Holland, Luxembourg, Newfoundland, Canada and the United States, in all of which ecclesiastical conditions had long since been so settled that the term "missionary region" could no longer be applied to them. In 1917 Pope Benedict XV also took away from the Propaganda the subdivision for Oriental rites and made of this an independent Con- gregation. The Congregation of the Orders also extended its rights to include the missionary Orders, and so the Propaganda retained absolute control only of the purely missionary societies and seminaries. The oflices 1 entrusted with the faith and canon law became, as their nature implied, qualified to control the whole Church. Therewith the supreme power of the Propaganda had been reduced to a bearable degree. Nevertheless it still has the right to legislate and administer the tremendous world of the missions in an almost sovereign way, and manages by reason of its systematic work and its well-co-ordinated strength to make energetic inroads into peoples of other faiths. A small group of courageous souls first sets foot on new missionary ground, and then nuns and other missionary priests follow. The boundaries of the new foundation are fixed in advance. If it seems likely to succeed it is elevated to the rank of an Apostolic Prefecture. Later on, as Church life and charitable activities grow, the mission becomes an Apostolic Vicarate, the superior of which is similar in rank to a coadjutor bishop. Finally, when it is certain that the founda- tions will prosper in an orderly way, that the district can maintain

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THE CURIA itself with its own energies and its own means, and that it needs neither missionary priests nor subsidies, it becomes an established bishopric inside the great hierarchical system. Thus one may say that the Propaganda is, as it were, the Church's botanical garden — a term that indicates sufficiently well how significant it is and how great an amount of work it accomplishes.

Spreading the faith in countries where the political situation is difficult is sometimes entrusted to the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and sometimes missionary activity as such involves political measures. For good reasons the Propaganda desires that missionaries who serve one folk group or territory shall be of different nationalities; but every state tries with all the means at its disposal to establish a monopoly of its own missionaries, realizing that a country which has been Christianized by missionaries speaking its language thereby becomes a fertile field for its trade and its policy. Accordingly the Prefect of the Propaganda is an important political personage whom statesmen and diplomats surround jealously.

It is very surprising to learn that a considerable portion of Europe belongs to the terræ missionis, for this term includes the diaspora i. e., Protestant countries with a scattered Catholic population. The three Scandinavian kingdoms are Apostolic Vicarates, and the diaspora regions of North and Central Germany were only recently — the final change took place when the Concordat with Prussia was signed in 1929 — transformed from Apostolic Vicarates and Prefectures into dioceses, in so far as they were not incorporated in older dioceses. Therewith there finally ended a situation whereby the Catholics of Hamburg, Saxony, Mecklenburg and Holstein were made to live under the same ecclesiastical authorities who supervise the newly converted Zulus and Bantus.

When the reigning Pope dissolved the administration of the Oriental Church from the Congregation of the Missions this was looked upon as an act of respect to the ancient rite of the East and as a grant to the Uniat Greek Church of equal rank with the Latin Church. The Pope gave this measure especial significance by himself taking the presidency of the new Congregation for the Oriental Church, and thus giving it a rank next to that of the Holy Office and equal to that of

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 ORIENTAL INSTITUTE 435

the Congregation of the Consistory. As a matter o fact only the Holy Office is its superior; and it is as true to say of it that in so far as the Oriental Church is concerned it "incorporates all other Congrega- tions/* as it was formerly correct to say as much of the Propaganda. The unconditional recognition of the Oriental rite is in itself nothing new, since there has always been preserved a custom that during the Pope's Pontifical Mass the Epistle and Gospel are first sung in Latin, and are then repeated in the Greek tongue by Greek bishops who participate in the service at the altar in robes prescribed by their rite. Pius XI commemorated the Council of Nice with a Pontifical High Mass sung in St, Peter's according to the Greek rite. Today, when Russian Orthodoxy is tottering, the Curia strives harder than ever be- fore to reach an understanding with the non-Uniat Eastern Churches, the more than hundred million belonging to which are numerically so much stronger than the six million Uniats. A commission in the Congregation for the Oriental Churches is entrusted with the special conditions which prevail in the land of the Soviets.

The Oriental Institute in Rome, founded by Pope Benedict XV, is an institution of theological study which is open not only to students of the Uniat Churches, but also to those of the non-Uniat Churches a magnificent expression of freedom of thought which is new in Roman practice. In addition there are a number of national colleges to which others are being circumspectly added. The Oriental Church, despite its relative numerical weakness is harder to govern than the whole of Europe. There are four rites the Greek, Armenian, Syrian and Coptic and in addition numerous variations of each. The decadent forms of the Greek rite in Hungary and Poland are sponsored by nearly two-thirds of the Uniat Churches, the other third being divided into a number of small and even infinitesmal groups. The highest officials are seven Patriarchs, Rome confirms their elec- tion and can, when necessity arises, bring gentle pressure to bear on a Patriarch who ought to retire. Yet on the whole these higher shep- herds, all of whom wear magnificent tides, have kept much of the independence and power of the ancient Patriarchs. The most difficult thing in so far as relationships with the Latin Church are concerned is not the use of the vernacular liturgy, or the administration of com-

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 THE CURIA

munion in two forms, but the marriage of priests. Until the present Rome has compromised in cases of acute difficulty, but the compromises have all been in favour of the other side.

Another Congregation, essentially different in character from the others, is the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, which is political in scope and is very intimately associated with the Secretariate of State as the organ of Papal policy. It does not legislate, administer or adjudge; it is "only an advisory body which places its decisions and reports at the disposal of the Pope." Its Prefect is the Secretary of State, and its members are the highest officials of his office. It is composed of the most able statesmen of the Curia, and in all ques- tions that come under its jurisdiction it is the Pope's right hand and probably more. It is true that there is no legal definition of its powers. As need arises the Pope refers problems to it through the Secretary of State who also has no absolute right to do anything, being merely a Secretary, though of course a very powerful, very dominating secre- tary, who is the alter ego of the Pope, He is an ex-officio member o every other Congregation, so that he may be informed of everything that happens and may by reason of the fact that he surveys the whole scene assist each separate Congregation when matters of importance arise. He is a foreign minister and almost a premier. After nepo- tism had declined, this position was created as a substitute boon for the Cardinal's nephew; but since Consalvi's time and that of his energetic successors in office it has gradually come to exercise an influence of a far-reaching kind. The Cardinal-Secretary of State is chosen by the Pope himself, since no intimate co-operation would be possible unless there were personal agreement and boundless confidence on both sides. Every day the Secretary of State appears in the morning as the first to talk to the Pope and discuss matters with him. He may deliver important despatches throughout the day and even at night. There- fore he lives as close as possible to the Papal apartment, now residing in the first story of the same wing just below the Pope's chambers. The Vatican carriage is at his disposal. He is the Papal representative in so far as current relationships of a diplomatic kind are concerned, and he also gives the official dinners, which etiquette will not allow the Sovereign Pontiff to attend. The visits of princes, which arc

PAPAL

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 NUNCIOS 437

always paid first to the Pope and then to the Secretary, arc repaid by the second in the Pope's name. He goes out of office when his master dies; and as a general rule the confidential relationship is maintained throughout the Pope's life. It is seldom that a Pontiff takes over, to- gether with the ideas of his predecessor, their living exponent as Pius XI so graciously did.

The first division of the Secretariate of State is entrusted with the conferring of positions and titles, and above all with the correspondence with the nuncios. These diplomatic representatives of the Pope in foreign countries were not only recognized at the Congress of Vienna, but were honoured with the right to take precedence over other diplo- mats of the same rank. They are ambassadors, diplomats of the first class. The inter-nuncios are regarded as legates, and are diplomats of the second class. They are given by way of assistance an uditorc whose rank is that of a secretary to the legation and a private secretary. In addition to what might be termed their secular diplomatic office, the nuncios are also expressly given an ecclesiastical right of supervision over the country into which they are sent that transcends that of even an archbishop. At this point the Curialistic hierarchy comes into conflict so sharply and painfully with the apostolic hierarchy that Rome has often had to act sternly to end the resistance. The great nuncia- tures ar* looked upon as positions occupied by men who may later on be cardinals; but a cardinal cannot be a nuncio, and if the red hat should come to a Papal diplomat while he is still in office, he must carry on as a pro-nuncio until relieved of his duties. A number of Popes have risen from among these ambassadors of the Church. As is well-known, Pius XI was Papal nuncio to Poland; and as the Papal commissioner during the plebiscite in Upper Silesia his neutral at- titude brought down so much hatred and criticism from both sides that a whole year later, when he ascended the Papal throne, there was a trying situation to deal with in both Poland and Germany. The tradition that any nuncio may become a "crowned prince of the Church" is naturally a great boon in so far as regard for their position and for their official wishes is concerned. It goes without saying that the Curia takes great pains to choose these diplomats carefully, know- ing full well that not only the Concordats but the whole of the mani-

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fold relationships between Church and State must be entrusted to the skill of these hands. Though the appointment is reserved to the Pope himself, the nominations are made by the Secretary of State, who thus comes to have more influence upon the appointments of cardinals and bishops than is officially accorded to him.

When knots appear in the smooth yarn of diplomatic intercourse or when tasks of far-reaching importance transcend the' ordinary routine e. g., a Concordat is to be signed and put in force the second division of the Secretariate of State, the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, steps in. It may also be appealed to for an opinion concerning the change of a diocese as was the case some years ago in Germany. If the matter under discussion is within the official jurisdiction of another Congregation, or if it is adjudged that such a Congregation could throw light on the problem, mixed sessions are resorted to i. e., the cardinals of the other Congrega- tion who are familiar with the situation are invited to the discussion. It is always the Secretary of State himself who determines how the advisory Council is to be composed, and who then also summarizes the findings and reports on them to the Pope. The Pope then renders a decision but of course cannot help being guided by the material which has been placed before him. Nevertheless one has less reason here than elsewhere to speak of a ruler who i? ruled, for at this point the mystical element enters the faith of the Church and the suc* cessors of Peter in the direct illumination and guidance of God, which transcends the limits to which critical and reflective investigation can go. The Pope feels that the keys of Heaven are in his hands; and he knows that the shield of his divine Master is held over him to ward off all assaults of the enemy. This is the mystery of his calling, and in its presence one can only be silent.

The third division of the Secretariate of State is a bureau, ^ mem- bers of which are chiefly laymen and which is employed for the most part in drawing up the briefs. These are short Papal letters, scaled or rather stamped with the Fisherman's ring, which are the usual form in which important decisions of the Congregation arc made known. Thus every utterance of importance passes finally through the hands of this all powerful central office. It means the closest possible com- bination of information and control.

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 PENITENTIARY 439

The Church lays claim, by reason of its divine foundation, to a code of law independent of the state, and this makes necessary the existence of Papal courts. Among these a particular importance attaches to the Penitentiary. This is an organization in control of consciences, a court of confession and penance, the head of which is the Cardinal Grand Penitentiary, who is assisted by six councillors chosen for their ripe scholarship. The Penitentiaries of great cathedrals have all the powers of a bishop in so far as giving absolution is concerned, but they are not members of the Confessional Court. Canon law speaks o "reserved sins," from which only the Pope or the bishop, who may be represented by the Penitenriaiy, can absolve: the slanderous denuncia- tion of a priest in certain grave matters is a sin reserved to the Pope; then there are murder, abortion, arson, etc. A second sin quite re- cently reserved to the Pope characterizes the sharp opposition to Rome to heretical philosophical nationalism. A confessor who knowingly absolves an insubordinate member of I' Action Franfaise, can secure pardon for this grave sin of priestly disobedience only from the Pope. The simple father-confessor can be the mediator of this absolution if he appeals to the bishop or directly to the Penitentiary. When a doubtful matter arises which he does not himself feel able to settle, he likewise follows the same course. The name of the penitent is not revealed, since it is an inviolable law that the secret of the confessional must be strictly guarded. Only the sin itself is clearly described. Release from vows, conflicts of conscience which arise in marriage, , or as the result of the acquisition of ill-gotten goods, a conflict between one's oath as a state official and one's duty as a Catholic, and disparity between what one owes to human society and to the Church these are examples of other matters than grave offences which are brought before the forum of the highest court of conscience. The confessor is sent the absolution or decision in Latin, and this he then reads to the penitent in the confessional. Afterward the communication is torn up, for not a trace must remain of the matter discussed in this secret tribunal. Every case is settled for the individual conscience in foro interne, and it is impossible to appeal to precedent. The Peni- tentiary is in charge of a real office of grace: it gathers together again souls that have strayed from the flock. Not infrequently something which a Congregation would have had to decide in the negative by

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reason of the principle involved can be quietly answered in the affirma- tive through the means of grace, thus bringing comfort to a beleaguered conscience. The law must be inflexible, but the quality of mercy is not strained, it droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven.

The two courts which decide conflicts in foro externo are the ancient Papal courts of the Rota and Signatura. The Sacra Romana Rota is the regular court of appeals to which one turns after the first tribunal, i. c., die bishop, has reached a legal decision. The episcopal office confers upon the incumbent a share both of the highest power to ab- solve and of ecclesiastical jurisdiction since Christ's word concerning loosening and binding was addressed to all the Apostles, The Rota can also be appealed to as the court of the first instance, but only upon the special recommendation of the Signatura, which acts as a kind of court of cassation controlling and completing the Rota, for the reason that a direct appeal to the Rota would involve a circumvention of the apostolic right of the bishop. To the Rota there are brought "all civil and criminal cases which reach the Curia and are to be disposed of by due process of canon law." In addition to clerical disputes, there figure here also the complaints brought by laymen against religious persons or associations, since these enjoy immunity from the civil courts in many countries with which Concordats have been signed. The purely lay cases brought before the court consist almost exclusively of annulment cases. The court is comprised of ten uditore, the senior member being the dean. Each case tried is laid before three uditore; and only in difficult cases does the group meet as a whole. The Rota has a rule, which is common to the Congregations, that the decision asked for must always be phrased clearly and succinctly. Thus for example such cases as these are referred to it as a court of appeal: Is the first decision to be confirmed or changed; is the nullity of the marriage contracted certain? The parties appear personally, or can so appear, only in the first session, excepting in few rare cases when they may appear a second time. All they can do is to draw up the question precisely. From that point forward the trial proceeds in writing. Short written sentences are printed, submitted, exchanged, answered. The uditort first set down their opinions in writing and then discuss them in a secret session at which neither the parties nor the counsel for the defence is present. The verdict is as succinct as the

OTHER

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE CURIA 441

question, but when it is made public there is appended a reason. In this respect the Rota deviates from the Congregations, which add noth- ing to the laconic formula in which their decision is rendered. It is possible to appeal again to the Rota itself, which will try a case under different aditore if new arguments are introduced. Or one may ap- peal to the Signatura Apostolica, the highest ecclesiastical court from whose decision there is no appeal. Accordingly the eleven judges of the Signatura are all Cardinals. The causes majores, which are expressly placed outside the jurisdiction of the Rota, are either decided by the Pope in person or are turned over to the Signatura. Occasion- ally, it is true, they may be referred to a Congregation.

Thus a very modest role is assigned to the canonical courts when one compares their work with that done by the extensive offices of administration. Before the reform of Pope Pius, the courts had almost nothing to do. Today their competencies are still not always clearly defined, and there is a tendency to dispose of quarrels and penalties in the regular administrational routine. The first decision here rests with the bishop, who will prevent as long as he can a dispute from being brought to court. But if something is once introduced as a problem to be settled in the way of administrational routine, it cannot be turned over to the court until a decision has been reached one way or the other. Whenever a matter is referred to the Curia, whether it concerns a congregation or a court, knowledge of the right way to proceed and of die authorities in question is of the greatest importance. If one congregation has handed down a verdict, no other can render an opinion in the same case. Even if the first verdict were kept secret and the matter were then referred to a second congregation which would render another decision, the procedure would be invalid in canon law. A great number of lawyers and agents are credited to the Curia as councillors to the petitioners and as representatives of the parties to the suit. Success depends to no little extent as it does every- where in the world upon the choice of a good attorney. Patience is always required. The Curia goes along at an even pace, not pretending to be at all in a hurry. The weight of responsibility and of work to be done grows heavier the higher the station of those in authority, and finally becomes oppressively burdensome. But the lower officials have as a rule only three hours of work a day; and they

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enjoy many holidays and long vacations. The method is really ad- mirable, and the Curia proceeds always with noble, superior calm and self-assurance. This is not surprising when one remembers that here is an institution which, as a Russian has said, "usually thinks in centuries, often in generations, but only under the pressure of extraor- dinary circumstances in years, and never in shorter spans of time."

Apart from the Secretariate of State the offices of the Curia are four purely executive bodies. Once they were of great importance, but they no longer are. Thus the Apostolic Chancellery publishes the Bulls, those documents inscribed on parchment to which a leaden seal is affixed, in which the decisions of the Pope and of the Consistorial Congregation are made public. For some decades past the mediaeval leaden seal has been replaced, as a rule, with a red stamp. The Secretariate for Briefs i. e., princely briefs and Latin briefs does what its name implies. The Pope's letters are drawn up in that solemn, conventional Latin which is the official public language of the Curia as a whole. The Dataria bestows the benefices of the Holy See, examines the applicants, and supervises the successful incumbents. The Apostolic Camera, which administers the worldly goods of the Holy See, has little to do now; but at the Pope's death its presiding official, the Cardinal-Chamberlain or Cameralingo, is in charge of the temporal ruling authority of the Pope for the short time during which the See is vacant. But there still exists today an "Administration of the Property of the Holy See." This is a commission comprised of four members, all of them Cardinals, among whom the Secretary of State is one. The lower officials are laymen. For a long time the Popes themselves have been accustomed to live in monastic simplicity, but the expenditures for the Curia and the Court are large. Probably half of the money is supplied by the interest on the remnant of the Papal fortune. A part is derived from taxes and fees, but the greater part of what remains to be collected is derived from the Peter's pence, the voluntary offerings of the faithful, France was once the greatest donor, then it was Germany, and now it is the United States. Pius X fearlessly swept away old injustices and misuses of money. His suc- cessors have faithfully kept the Roman administration of finance, which caused past times so much trouble, clean and healthy.

The. ecclesiastical interest in the sciences is served by permanent

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 AND DEMOCRACY 443

Papal Commissions which meet in die Vatican. One supervises Biblical studies, another the interpretation of the Codex Juris canonist, a third (comprised o Benedictines) is entrusted with the study and editing of the Vulgate, and a fourth deals with Russian questions. The newest Commission, founded by Pope Pius XI, fosters Christian archaeology and an institute affiliated with this is supervised by a German scholar. The renowned Vatican Library is carefully watched over, especially now that a librarian wears the tiara. The Vatican missionary expedition of 1925 gave rise to a Museum in the Lateran Palace for missionary and ethnological study, At the head of this there is an anthropologist who belongs to the Society of the Divine Word.

A structure of harmonious proportions, simple and majestic alike, the Curia compels even its enemies to pay it respect. But it is not what its adulators would make of it, an ideal co-ordination of antago- nistic forms of government. It is rather the purest incarnation of absolutism, being bolstered up not only by Divine right, as was the old idea of the monarchy, but by the consciousness of representing God's kingdom on earth. The structure of the hierarchy rests, it is true, on the soil of the believing laity, but it is as if it hung from heaven with chains by reason of its faith in the imparting of the Holy Ghost to the one consecrated Head. No secular form of the state can be compared with this kingdom of Christian souls. The Church also has its aristocracy in the College of Cardinals, but this is basically dif- ferent from the hereditary nobility because it is always renewed from below according to the democratic principle. The parliamentarism of the Church, on the other hand, is completely undemocratic: one will, one power, flow from above downward through organs chosen and guided; and the will and the co-government of the masses below never move upward through freely elected representatives, without whom democracy and parliamentarism are inconceivable. Demo- cratic renewal from below is, however, nothing excepting natural neces- sity, for the absolute electoral monarchy of the Church cannot dispense with the mothers who from out of the laity send successors into its celibate hierarchical organization.

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 LIST OF POPES

Peter, 67? Linus, 67-79? Anacletus, 79-90? Clement, 90-00? Evaristus, 99-107? Alexander, 107-116? Sixtus, 116-125? Telesphorus, 125-136? Hyginus, 136-140? Pius, 140-155? Anicetus, 155-166? Soter, 166-174 Eleutherius, 174-189 Victor, 189-198 Zephyrinus, 198-217 Calixtus, 217-222 (Hippolytus, 217-235) Urban, 222-230 Pontian, 230-235 Anterus, 23^-236 Fabian, 236-250 Cornelius, 251-253 (Novatian, 251-258?) Lucius I, 253-254 Stephen I, 254-257 Sixtus II, 257-258 Dionysius, 259-268 Felix I, 269-274 Eutychian, 275-283 Caius, 283-296 Marcellinus, 296-304 Marcellus I, 308-309 Eusebius, 309-310 Melchiades, 311-314 Sylvester I, 314-335 Marcus, 336 Julius I, 337-352 Liberius, 352-366 (Felix II 355-365) Damasus I, 366-384

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(Ursinus, 366-367) Siricius, 384-399 Anastasius I, 399-402 Innocent I, 402-417 Zozimus, 417-418 Boniface I, 418-422 (Eulalius, 418-419) Celestine I, 422-432 Sixtus III, 432-440 Leo I, the Great, 440-461 Hilary, 461-468 Simplicius, 468-43

Felix II (III), 483-492 Gdasius I, 492-496 Anastasius II, 49^-498 Symmachus, 498-514 (Laurentius, 498-505) Hormisdas, 514-523 John I, 523-526 Felix III (IV), 526-530 Boniface II, 530-532 (Dioscorus, 530) John II, 532-535 Agapitus I, ^35-536 Sflverius, 530-537 Vigflius, 537-5)5 Pelagius I, 556-561 John III, 561-574 Benedict I, 575-579 Pelagius II, 579-590 Gregory I, the Great^ 590-604 Sabinianus, 604-606 Boniface III, 607 Boniface IV, 608-615 Deusdedit, 615-618 Boniface V, 619-625 Honorius I, 625-638 Severinus, 640 John IV, 640-642 Theodore I, 642-649

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CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF POPES

Martin I, 649-653

Eugenius I, 654-657

Vitalian, 657^672

Adeodatus, 072-676

Domnus, 676-678

Agatho, 678-681

Leo II, 682-683

Benedict II, 684-685

John V, 685-686

Conon, 686-687

Sergius I, 687-701

(Theodore, 687)

(Paschal, 687-692?)

John VI, 701705

John VII, 705-707

Sisinnius, 708

Constantine I, 708-715

Gregory II, 715-731

Gregory III, 731-741

Zachary, 741-752

(Stephen, 752)

Stephen II, 752-757

Paul I, 757-767

(Constantine II, 767-768)

(Philip, 768)

Stephen III, 768-772

Adrian I, 772795

Leo III, 795-816

Stephen IV, 816-817

Paschal I, 817-824

Eugenius II, 824-827

Valentine, 827

Gregory IV, 827-844

(John, 844)

Sergius II, 844-847

Leo IV, 847-855

Benedict III, 855-858

(Anastasius, 855)

Nicholas I, the Great, 858-867

Adrian II, 867-872

John VIII, 872-882

Marinus I, 882-884

Adrian III, 884-885

Stephen V, 885-891

Formosus, 891-896 Boniface VI, 896 Stephen VI, 896-897 Romanus, 897 Theodore II, 897 John IX, 898-900 Benedict IV, 900-903 Leo V, 903

Christophorus, 903-904 Sergius III, 904-911 Anastasius III, 911-913 Landus, 913-914 John X, 914928 Leo VI, 928 Stephen VII, 929-931 John XI, 931-935 Leo VII, 936-939 Stephen VIII, 939-942 Marinus II, 942-946 Agapitus II, 946-^955 John XII, 955-^064 Leo VIII, 963-965 Benedict V, 964 John XIII, 965-972 Benedict VI, 973-974 (Boniface VII, 974) Benedict VII, 974-983 John XIV, 983-984 Boniface VII, 984-985 John XV, 985-996 Gregory V, 996-999 (John XVI, 997-998) Sylvester II, 999^-1003 John XVII, 1003 John XVIII, 1003-1009 Sergius IV, 1009-1012 Benedict VIII, 1012-1024 (Gregory, 1012) John XIX, 10241032 Benedict IX, 1032-1044 Sylvester III, 1045 Gregory VI, 1045-1046 Clement II, 1046-1047 Damasus II, 1048

CHRONOLOGICAL

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 LIST OF POPES

447

Leo IX, 1049-1054 Victor II, 1055-1057 Stephen IX, 1057-1058 Benedict X, 1058-1059 Nicholas II, 1059-1061 Alexander II, 1061-1073 (Honorius II, 1061-1072)^ Gregory VII, 1073-1085 (Clement III r 1084-1100) Victor III, 1086-1087 Urban II, 1088-1099 Paschal II, 1099-1118 (Theoderich, 1100-1102) (Albert, 1102) (Sylvester IV, 1105-1111) Gelasius II, 1118-1119 (Gregory VIII, 1118-1119) Calixtus II, 1119-1124 Honorius II, 1124-1130 (Celestine II, 1124) Innocent II, 1130-1143 (Anaclete II, 1130-1138) (Victor IV, 1138) Celestine II, 1143-1144 Lucius II, 1144-1145 Eugenius III, 1145-1153 Anastasius IV, 1153-1154 Adrian IV, 1154-1159 Alexander III, 1159-1181 (Victor IV, 1159-1164) (Paschal III, 1164-1168) (Calixtus III, ii6&-ii79) (Innocent III, 1179-1180) Lucius III, 1181-1185 Urban III, 1185-1187 Gregory VIII, 1187 Clement III, 1187-1191 Celestine III, 1191-1198 Innocent III, 1198-1216 Honorius III, 1216-1227 Gregory IX, 1227-1241 Celestine IV, 1241 Innocent IV, 1243-1254 Alexander IV, 1254-1261

Urban IV, 1261-1264 Clement IV, 1265-1268 Gregory X, 1271-1276 Innocent V, 1276 Adrian V, 1276 John XXI, 1276-1277 Nicholas III, 1277-1280 Martin IV, 1271-1285 Honorius IV, 1285-1287 Nicholas IV, 1288-1292 Celestine V, 1294 Boniface VIII, 1294-1303 Benedict XI, 1303-1304 Clement V, 1305-1314 John XXII, 1316-1334 (Nicholas V, 1328-1330) Benedict XII, 1334-1342 Clement VI, 1342-1352 Innocent VI, 1352-1362 Urban V, 1362-1370 Gregory XI, i37~i37* Urban VI, 137^1389 (Clement VII, 1378-1394) Boniface IX, 1389-1404 (Benedict XIII, 1394-1424) Innocent VII, 1404-1406 Gregory XII, 1406-1415 Alexander V, 1409-1410 John XXIII, 1410-1415 Martin V, 1417-1431 (Clement VIII, 1424-1429) (Benedict XIV, 1424-?) Eugenius IV, 1431-1447 (Felix V, 1439-1449) Nicholas V, 1447-1455 Calixtus III, 1455-M5 8 Pius II, 1458-1464 Paul II, 1464-1471 Sixtus IV, 1471-1484 Innocent VIII, 1484-1492 Alexander VI, Pius III, 1503 Julius II, 1503-1513 Leo X, 151 3-1 5 21

448

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CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF POPES

Adrian VI, 1522-1523 Clement VII, 1523-1534 Paul III, 1534-1549 Julius III y 1550-1555 Marcellus II, 1555 Paul IV, 1555-1559 Pius IV, 1559-1565 Pius V, 1566-1572 Gregory XIII, 1572-1585 Sixtus V, 1585-1590 Urban VII, 1590 Gregory XIV, 1590-1591 Innocent IX, 1591 Clement VIII, 1592-1605 Leo XI, 1605 Paul V, 1605-1621 Gregory XV, 1621-1623 Urban VIII, 1623-1644 Innocent X, 1644-1655 * Alexander VII, 1655-1667 Clement IX, 1667-1669

Clement X, 1670-1676 Innocent XI, 1676-1689 Alexander VIII, 1690-1691 Innocent XII, 16911700 Clement XI, 1700-1721 Innocent XIII, 16211724 Benedict XIII, 17241730 Clement XII, 1730-1740 Benedict XIV, 1740-1758 Clement XIII, 1758-1769 Clement XIV, 17691774 Pius VI, 17751799 Pius VII, 1800-1823 Leo XII, 1823-1829 Pius VIII, 1829-1830 Gregory XVI, 1831-1846 Pius IX, 1846-1878 Leo XIII, 1878-1903 Pius X, 19031914 Benedict XV, 1914-1922 Pius XI, 1922

INDEX

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Abelard, 150, 156-7.

Abraham, 11.

Acasius, patriarch of Constantinople, 64.

Action Française, 382, 439.

Adalbert of Tuscany, 100-1, 123.

Adelheid of Burgundy, 100, 101.

Aeschylus, 22.

Agilulf, 71.

Agnes, German empress, 114, 118, 119, 121, 128.

Agnes de Méran, French queen, 173.

Aiguillon, Emmanuel-Armand, 311.

d'Ailly, Pierre, 215, 217, 220,

Aistulf, 79, 80.

Alaric, 57.

Alba, duke of, 276.

Alberich of Spoleto, 99, 100, 101.

Alberti, Leo Battista, 230.

Albigensian heresy, 178 et seq.

Albornoz, Cardinal, 210-11.

Albrecht I, German king, 196, 201.

Albrecht of Brandenburg, 248.

Aldobrandini, Olimpia, 298.

d'Alembert, 311-12, 318.

Alexander the Great, 23.

Alexander II, Pope, 121, 122, 123, 124.

Alexander HI, Pope, 162, 163-4, 165, 166,

170.

Alexander IV, Pope, 188. Alexander V, Pope, 217. Alexander VI, Pope, 236-9, 241, 245, 254,

295.

Alexander VII, Pope, 300. Alexander VIII, Pope, 304, 305, 307, Alexander I, Russian czar, 352. Alfonso n, prince of Naples, 237. Alfred the Great, English king, 95, 103. Ambrose, 49.

Arfaclcte II, anti-pope, 148, 151, 152, Anagnani, treaty of, 165. Anastasius II, Pope, 65. Ano of Cologne, archbishop, 120, 122, 123. Anselm, English primate, 137. Antioch, 14, 15, 1 8. Antonelli, Cardinal, 358, 359 360, 363,

389.

Aquinas. See Thomas Aquinas. Aranda, Pedro, 311, 316. Arduin of Ivrea, 109. Arianism, 51, 54 et seq. t 64, 65. Aristotle, 22, 23, 230. Arius, 54 et seq. Arnold of Brescia, 150, 154, 157-8, 160,

170, Arnulf, German king, 97.

449

Asiarta, Paul, 82.

Athanasius of Alexandria, 49, 55-6.

Attila, 63, 64.

Audiences, papal, 408-9.

Augustine, St., 49, 50, 53-4, 56-61, 69, 8x,

131, 156, 186, 304, 310. Augustus, Roman emperor, 1-2, 4, 23, 81. Augustus n, Saxon king, 312. Avars, 87.

Averroists, 204, 227. Avignon, 199, 207, 209, 224 et seq. d'Azeglio, 356, 357.

Bacon, Francis, 311.

Balbo, Cesarc, 356, 357,

Bandinelli, Roland, 161. See also Alex- ander IH, Pope.

Barbarossa, Frederic, 148, 158-67, 178, 182.

Barnabas, 14, 15.

Basel, Council of, 217, 223-4, 231, 273, 391.

Basil, archbishop of Caesarea, 51.

Bayle, Pierre, 156, 303.

Beatification, process of, 423 et seq.

Beatrice of Tuscany, 118.

Beauregard, Pere, 318.

Becket, Thomas a, 163, 164.

Bellannine, Robert, 293, 366.

Belloy, archbishop, 329.

Benedict V, Pope, 102.

Benedict VII, Pope, 105.

Benedict VIII, Pope, 109, in-ia.

Benedict IX, Pope, 113, 114.

Benedict XI, Pope, 199-

Benedict XII, Pope, 207.

Benedict XUI, anti-pope, 216, 220-1, 3x0.

Benedict XIV, Pope, 312-13, 317, 354.

Benedict XV, Pope, 375-6, 389, 406, 416, 421, 433, 435-

Benedict of Nursia, St., 52, 109, 429.

Benevent, treaty of, 161.

Benzo, bishop of Alba, 120, 122.

Beranger of Friuli, 97, 98, 99, 101.

Beranger of Ivrea, 100, 101.

Bernard of Clairvaux, St., 148-58, 186,, 227, 250.

Bernier, Abb, 327, 328.

Bernini, i, 294.

Berno of Cluny, 109.

Berthier, 323.

Birgitta, St., 208-9, 212.

Bismarck, 370-3.

Boabdilla, Nicholas, 267.

Boccaccio, 209, 210.

Bonaparte, Jerome, 334.

450

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THE VATICAN

Bonaparte, Joseph, 334, 335.

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 323, 324, 325-9,

33*-43 344- Boniface, St., 77-9, 83. Boniface VIC, anti-pope, 105, Boniface VHI, Pope, 192-4, 195, 196, 197,

198-9, 200, 201. Boniface IX, Pope, 215, 222. Borgia family, 236 ft seq., 242. Borromeo, Charles, 277-8, 279, 288. Bosco, Don, 423.

Bossuet, French bishop, 299, 301-2. Bramantc, i, 243. Broglie, Victor de, 357. Brownson, Orestes, 353. Brunhilde, Franconian queen, 72. Bruno, Giordano, 291-2. Bruno, St., 103, 137-8. Buchner, Max, 91. Byzantium, 76, 86, 93.

Cadorna, 364, 369.

Cadulus, 122.

Caesarini, Cardinal Giuliano, 223, 224.

Caligula, Roman emperor, 17.

Calixtus I, Pope, 39, 41, 42.

Calixtus II, Pope, 136, 142-3* *44> 148-

Calixtus III, anti-pope, 164, 165.

Calixtus III, Pope, 231.

Callicles, 23.

Calvin, John, 187, 259, 285.

Campanclla, 295.

Campeggio, papal legate, 257.

Canisius, Peter. See Peter Canisius.

Cano, Melchior, 311.

Canonization, process of, 423 et scq.

Canossa, 118, 132, 133.

Capponi, Gino, 356.

Caracalla, Roman emperor, 39.

Carafia, Carlo, 276, 277, 278.

Carloman, 77, 78.

Carnesccchi, Pietro, 283.

Carrafa, Cardinal Gian Pietro, 262.

Carranza, archbishop of Toledo, 283.

Carthusians, 137-8.

Carvajal, Cardinal, 231,

Cassiador, 68-9, 226.

Castcl Gandolpho, 406.

Castellesi, Hadrian, 238.

Catherine of Aragon, 257.

Catherine of Siena, Sti, 212, 213, 214,

216, 250.

Catherine II of Russia, 318, 352. Cavour, Camillo, 356, 357, 360, 362, 363. Celestinc HI, Pope, 167, 169, 173. Celestine IV, Pope, 184. Celestinc V, Pope, 190-1, 192, 193, 195,

196.

Centius, 105, 128. Centre Party, German, 361, 370-1, 373.

Chalcedon, Council of, 63.

Charles I of Austria, 426.

Charles II of Naples, 190.

Charles III, king of Spain, 316.

Charles IV, German emperor, 209, 210, 212, 213.

Charles V, German emperor, 228-9* 55> 256, 261, 277.

Charles VI, French king, 215-16.

Charles VIII, French king, 228, 237, 241.

Charles X, French king, 349.

Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont, 358, 360.

Charles of Anjou, 188, 189, 190, 191, 194.

Charles of Luxembourg, 208.

Charles of Valois, 201.

Charles the Bald, 95, 96, 97.

Charles the Fat, 97.

Chartreuse, 137-8,

Chateaubriand, Rene* de, 347.

Chieregati, 254.

Chigi, nuncio to Germany, 299.

Choiseul, Etienne-Francois dc, 3x1.

Christian of Maycnce, 159.

Clairmont, synod of, 138.

Claudius, Roman emperor, 5.

Clement I, Pope, 28.

Clement II, Pope, 114.

Clement in, anti-pope, 133, 134, 136.

Clement III, Pope, 166, 169.

Clement IV, Pope, x88.

Clement V, Pope, 199, 200-1.

Clement VI, Pope, 208-10.

Clement VII, anti-pope, 214, 2x5.

Clement VII, Pope, 254-7, 259, 283.

Clement VIII, Pope, 291, 292.

Clement EX, Pope, 300-1.

Clement X, Pope, 301, 307.

Clement XI, Pope, 304, 310.

Clement XII, Pope, 310, 313.

Clement XIII, Pope, 313.

Clement XIV, Pope, 317-19*

Clement of Alexandria, 33.

Clovis I, king of Franks, 66.

Cluny, Abbey of, 103, 106, 109 et seq n 113, 1x6, n8, 125, 127.

Cobenzl, Count, 327, 328.

Coligny, Admiral, 285.

Colombjni, Prussian charg d'affaires, 3x9,

Colonna, 190, 195, 196, 197, 221, 237-8, 405.

Colonna, Sciarra, 198, 206-

Colonna, Vittoria, 260.

Columba, Irish missionary, 72.

Congregations, Roman: Holy Office, 416- 21 ; of Studies, 422-3; of Rites, 423-6; of Ceremonials, 426; of Sacramental Dis- cipline, 426; Consistorial, 427; of Coun- cils, 429; of Religious, 429; Propagation of the Faith, 433; Oriental Churches,

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434-5; Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Af- fairs, 436.

Conrad II, German emperor, 112, 113.

Conrad III, German emperor, 153, 155.

Conrad IV, German emperor, 186.

Conrad of Gelnhausen, 215.

Conradin, 186, 188, 190.

Consalvi, Ercole, Cardinal, 324-9, 331, 334, 339> 342, 344> 345, 346, 348, 389-

Constance, Council of, 217-23, 273, 367,

39L Constance, wife of Henry VI, 166, 167,

168.

Constantine Copronymus, 86. Constantinc the Great, 20, 45, 47, 48, 49,

55, 80, 81, 88, 90, 121. Constantinople, siege of, 174. Contarini, Caspar, 261, 262. Conti, 169. Cornelius, 15. Cornelius, Pope, 42, Cornelius Tacitus, 28. Coton, Auger, 305. Cotta, house of, 119. Councils of Church, Ecumenical: Nice, 55,

86, 87; Chalcedon, 63; Lateran, 141,

143, 176, 179; Lyons, 185, 189; Vienne,

201; Constance, 217-23, 273, 367, 391;

Basel, 217, 223-4, 231, 273, 391;

Lateran, 243, 244; Trent, 261-5, 275-9,

286, 391, 415; Vatican Council, 365

 * K4-, 372.

Courts, Roman, 439 et seq. Crequi, duke of, 300. Crescentius, 105, 106, 109, in. Cristina of Sweden, 299. Crusades, 137-9, *45, *47 148, 155, *59

166-7, ^S, 174, 176, 180, 182, 183,

194, 196, 229, 231, 232, 283. Cunigunde, German empress, xix. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, 39, 41, 42-4.

Damasus I, Pope, 56, 61.

Damasus II, Pope, 114.

Daniel the prophet, 9, 10.

Dante, 119, 170, 191, 196, 200, 202-3,

204, 209, 227, 229, 279-80, 354. Decius, Roman emperor, 39, 41. Desiderius, 82.

Dioclesian, Roman emperor, 45, 47. Dionysius, 39, 49- DoelHnger, 366, 367. Dominic Guzman, St., 180-2. Dominicans, 178 et seq. t 417, 430, 432. Domitian, Roman emperor, 28. "Donation of Constantine," 230. Donatists, 52-4, 116. Dschem, Prince, 236. Dunstan, 103.

Eastern Churches, 37-8, 55, 63, 65, 90-1, 99, 1 17 189, 224, 280, 285, 352, 388, 412, 433, 434-6.

Eckhardt, Master, 205-6.

Edward III, English king, 174, 213.

Edward Vn, English king, 409.

Elias, 9, 10.

Elizabeth, English queen, 283, 286.

England, first missions to, 72-3.

Enzio, 184, 1 86.

Erasmus of Rotterdam, 252-3, 258.

Eskill of Lund, archbishop, 161.

Eugene HI, Pope, 154, 158, 160.

Eugene IV, Pope, 223, 224, 225,

Euscbius, 50.

Falconieri, Juliana, 426.

Felix V, anti-pope, 224-5.

Ferdinand of Spain, 235, 242-3, 277.

Ferrini, 423-4.

Fesch, Cardinal, 331, 332.

Fichte, 383.

Fisher, John, 260.

Foix, Gaston de, 242.

Formosus, Pope, 97-8.

Fra Angelico, 230.

Francis I, French king, 228-9, 244, 255,

257.

Francis de Sales, St., 293. Francis of Assisi, 177, 180-2. Francis Xavier, 267, 269, 295. Franciscans, 178 et seq^ 430, 432. Frangipani, 141. Frankfort, Council of, 87. Franks, 72, 75, 76 et seq., 82, 86, 95 Frederic n, German emperor, 167, 169,

Frederic HI, German emperor, 201, 230. Frederick the Great, 310, 312, 318, 356. Frederic of Aragon, 195. Frederic of Austria, 218, 219. Frederic of Sicily, 201. Frederick William IV, 351. Freemasonry, 309, 313. Fulda, 103.
 * 75 I77 181, 182-6, 193.

Galileo, 235, 292, 297, 418. Gallicanism, 301 et scq. f 309, 334-6. Gallitzin family, 350. Garibaldi, 356, 360, 363. Gebhard of Eichstatt, 117, 118. Gelasius I, Pope, 64-5. Gelasius n, Pope, 141-2. Genseric, 64.

George of Albania, Prince, 231. Gerbert, Benedictine scholar. See Sylves- ter II, Pope. Gerbert, Pcre, 349-

Gcrson, Jean Charlier de, 215, 217, 220. Ghibellines, 139, 184, 188, 189, 190, 201.

452

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THE VATICAN

Gibbon, Edmund, 226.

Giobcrti, Vincenzo, 356, 357, 359-

Giotto, 177.

Gnostic heresy, 35 et scq. t 55, 179.

Godfrey o Lorraine, 118.

Godfrey of Tuscany, 121, 122.

Goerres, Jacob-Joseph, 350, 351.

Goethe, 226.

Goths, 57, 64, 65, 66.

Goyan, Georges, 282.

Gratian, Roman emperor, 50, 56.

Gregory I, Pope, 56, 67-74, 75, 78, 86, 124.

Gregory II, Pope, 78.

Gregory III, Pope, 77, 79, 235.

Gregory V, Pope, 106, 107.

Gregory VI, Pope, 113, 114-

Gregory VII, the Great, Pope, 114, u7-3

138, 158, 168, 170, 171, 194, 22 6, 235. Gregory VIE, Pope, 166. Gregory IX, Pope, 169, 181, 183, 184, 187. Gregory X, Pope, 188-9. Gregory XI, Pope, 212-13. Gregory XH, Pope, 216, 220. Gregory XHI, Pope, 284-6, 289. Gregory XV, Pope, 294. Gregory XVI, Pope, 349, 354- Guelph of Bavaria, Duke, 136. Guelphs, 138-9, 153, 165, 167, 184, 186,

199, 212, 256.

Guiscard, Robert, 121, 134, 135, Guise, Francis de, 285. Gustavus Adolphus, 296, 299.

Hadrian, Roman emperor, 26, 81.

Hadrian I, Pope, 82, 86, 87, 88.

Hadrian H, Pope, 96.

Hadrian IV, Pope, 160, 161, 162.

Hadrian VI, Pope, 253-4.

Halinard, archbishop of Lyons, 116.

Hegel, 381.

Henry I, English king, 151.

Henry n, English king, 163, 164.

Henry HI, English king* 174.

Henry VIH, English king, 242, 257-8, 259,

260, 261.

Henry n, French king, 275. Henry m, French king, 288. Henry IV, French king, 287, 290, 291. Henry n, German emperor, 111-12. Henry HI, German emperor, 113-14, 115,

116-17, 118, 119* Henry IV, German emperor, 118, 121-3,

127-35, 136, 138, 139- Henry V, German emperor, I39-4 1, *43>

144.

Henry VI, German emperor, 166-8. Henry VII, German emperor, 182, 184. Henry VHI, German emperor, 201, 202. Henry of Langenstein, 215. Henry the Lion, Saxon king, 165, 166.

Heraclitus, 22, 32.

Herod Antipas, 8.

Hieronymus, 218, 220.

Hildebrand. See Gregory VII, the Great.

Hildegarde, Empress, 90.

Hildegarde of Bingen, 215.

Hildesheim, 103.

Hinkmar, 93, 96.

Hippolytus, anti-bishop, 42.

Hoflaeus, German Jesuit, 311.

Hohenstaufens, 158, 166, 168, 171, 184,

187, 188, 194, 202. Holbein "the Younger," 258, 260. Holy Roman Empire, 75, 89. Honorius II, anti-pope, 121, 148. Honorius III, Pope, 169, 180, 182. Hontheim, Nicholas von, 316. Horace, 3.

Hucbert of St. Maurice, 92. Hugh Capet, 106. Hugh of Provence, 99, 100. Hugo, abbot of Cluny, 116, 132. Hugo Candidas, Cardinal, 128. Huguenots, 285, 288, 289, 296, 302, 305. Humbert, Burgundian cardinal, 116, 123. Hunyadi, regent of Hungary, 231. Huss, John, 218, 219, 220, 223, 233,

Iconoclasts, 77, 86.

Ignatius Loyola, 262-72, 282, 288, 295.

Ignatius of Antioch, 30.

Index, Roman, 418-21.

Ingeborg, French queen, 173.

Innocent II, Pope, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154.

Innocent III, Pope, 168, 169-82, 187, 194,

276. Innocent IV, Pope, 169, 170, 184-6, 187,

188.

Innocent VI, Pope, 210. Innocent VIII, Pope, 235, 236. Innocent X, Pope, 297, 298, 299, Innocent XI, Pope, 301, 302, 303-4* 310. Innocent XII, Pope, 304, 305. Inquisition, 150, 181, 182, 186-7, 200, 230,

234-5, 262, 268, 376, 277, 283-4 ^91-2,

297, 417.

Irenaeus of Lyons, 38. Irene, Empress, 86. Isabella of Spain, 235. Isidore of Seville, 91-2. Islam, 76, 95, 138, 194. Ivan the Terrible, czar o Russia, 286. Ivo, bishop of Chartres, 141*

Jacopone di Jodi, 193, 195, James, St., 14, 18. James I, English king, 282. James II, English king, 304. Jansenism, 300, 304, 306-8, 309, 310, 312, 412,

INDEX

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453

Jansenius, Cornelius, 304, 306.

Jeanne d'Arc, 221.

Jeremiah, 9.

Jerome, St., 61.

Jerome of Dalmatia, 49.

Jesuits, 262 et scq., 275, 277, 278, 282, 284-5, 286, 289, 293, 295, 300, 305-I9 327 344-5. 349. 352, 353'4 3$i, 4". 430-1.

Jesus Christ, i, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, ix, 13-14, 24,

Joachim di Fiore, 178, 203.

Joanna of Naples, 209.

John, St., the evangelist, 14, 31.

John I, Pope, 65.

John HI, Pope, 104-5.

John V, Pope, 98.

John VIH, Pope, 97.

John X, Pope, 99.

John XII, Pope, 100-2,

John XIV, Pope, 105.

John XV, Pope, 105, 106.

John XVI, anti-pope, 106.

John XIX, Pope, 113.

John XXII, Pope, 204-7.

John XXIII, Pope, 217, 218-20.

John of Burgundy, 2x8.

John of the Cross, St., 295.

John of Jandun, 203.

John Sansterre, Plantagenet king, 172,

173-4-

John the Baptist, 7, 8, 9, 10. Jos, king of Portugal, 313-14. Joseph II of Austria, 319-22. Josephine, Empress, 332. Juan Capistrano, St., 231. Julian the Apostate, 49. Julius H, Pope, 233> 241-3, *45 *52, 254,

256.

Julius in, Pope, 275, 278. Justin, Byzantine emperor, 65. Justinian, Byzantine emperor, 66, 67, 81. Juvenal, 3.

Kaunitz, 319, 321.

Kettcler, bishop of Mayence, 367, 370.

Knights of Malta, 254.

Knights Templar, 151, 200-1.

Kruedener, Frau von, 352.

Ktdturkampi, 370-3.

Lacordaire, Perc, 349.

La Fayctte, 326.

Lafranc of Bee, English primate, 123, 137.

Lambert, king of Italy, 97, 98.

Lammenais, 347, 348, 349.

Lamoriciere, General, 362.

Langton, Stephen, Cardinal, 173, 174.

Las Casas, 295.

ka$ Cases, Emmanuel, historian, 341.

Lateran Councils, 141, 143, 176, 179,

243-4-

Lavallette, Father, 315. Lavardin, Charles-Henri, 303. Leibnitz, 299.

Leo I, Pope, 56, 61-4, 125, 169. Leo III, Pope, 87-90, 131. Leo IV, Pope, 91. Leo Vin, Pope, 102. Leo IX, Pope, 1 15-17, 153, 392. Leo X, Pope, 236, 244, 248, 250, 253, 254,

260, 288, 391. Leo XH, Pope, 348, 354. Leo Xin, Pope, 177, 364-6, 371-7, 383,

399, 420.

Leo III, Byzantine emperor, 85. Leopardi, 356. Lepanto, 284. Lc Tellier, 305. Lianez, Diego, 267, 274. Liberius, Pope, 55, 56". Liebnitz, 235.

Liutprand, Lombard king, 77. Lollards, 218.

Lombards, 67, 70 et uq* t 82, 134, 153, 185. Lothar III, 148.

Lothar IV, 92-3, 96, 157, 160. Louis n, German emperor, 96. Louis VTI, king of France, 155. Louis Vm, French dauphin, 174. Louis IX of France, St., 194, 195. Louis Xn, king of France, 237-8, 243. Louis XIV, king of France, 288, 300, 301,

302, 303.

Louis XV, king of France, 315. Louis XVI, king of France, 287. Louis XVin, king of France, 348. Louis Philippe, king of France, 349. Louis the German, 95. Louis the Pious, 90, 91. Loyola. Sec Ignatius Loyola. Lucius IH, Pope, 166, 187. Ludovici, Lodovico, 294. Ludwig of Bavaria, 205, 206, 207, 208. Luitprand of Cremona, bishop, 99. Luther, Martin, 222, 229, 235, 245-53, 259. Lyons, Council of (1245), z $5> T ^9-

Macaulay, quoted, 378.

Machiavelli, 204, 243.

Madcrna, 294.

Magna Charta, 174.

Maidalchini, Olimpia, 297-8.

Maintenon, Madame de, 302.

Maistrc, Count Joseph de, 345, 347, 348,

350, 352.

Majazet, Sultan, 236. Malagrada, Jesuit missionary, 314. Mallinckrodt, 370. Malmsbury, 103.

454

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THE VATICAN

Manfred, 186, 188.

Manichcans, 60, 62, 63, 179, 181.

Mantua, synod of (1064), 122.

Manzoni, Italian writer, 356.

Marcellus II, Pope, 276.

Marcian, 63.

Marcilius o Padua, 203, 205, 206.

Marcion, 35 et seq

Marco Polo, 188.

Marcus Aurelius, 37.

Maria Louisa of Austria, 339.

Mariana, 282.

Mark, St* the evangelist, 6, 14*

Marozia, 99, 100.

Martcl, Charles, 76, 77, 78.

Martin, SL, 226.

Martin IV, Pope, 190.

Martin V, Pope, 221-3.

Mathieu, Cardinal, 400.

Mathilda of Tuscany, 118, 128, 132, 133,

136, 139. *4i 160, 175. Mattheus Rubeus, 184. Matthew, St., the evangelist, i, 10, 130. Maultasch, Duchess Margareta, 208. Maurice of Saxony, 275-6. Mauritius, 71. Maxentius, 45.

Maximilian, Emperor, 242, 243. Mazarin, Cardinal, 288, 297, 302. Mazzini, 356, 357* 358, 359, 360. Medici, 234, 244, 254. Medici, Catherine de, 257, 285. Medici, Cosimo de, 230. Medici, Guiliano, 234. Medici, Lorenzo, 234, 236. Meersen, treaty of, 95. Mdanchthon, 259, 262. Mendicant orders, 178 et seq. Mengs, Raphael, 312. Merovingians, 77, 78, 79. Mctternich, Prince, 345, 349, 354, 358. Michaelangelo, I, 227, 240, 243, 244, 260,

287.

Miollis, General, 334, 335> 33$, 337- Moehler, German historian, 350, 351, 366, Mohammed, 76-7, 138. Monophysites, 64, 65. Montalembert, Count, 349, 362-3. Montanists, 116, 157. Montespan, Madame de, 301. More, Thomas, 258, 260, 295. Moses, 9, 10, 21. Murat, General, 326, 336, 342.

Nantes, Edict of, 288, 302-3. Napoleon. See Bonaparte. Napoleon HI, 362, 363. Narni, Giralamo de, 294. Nero, Roman emperor, i, 18, 20. Newman, John Henry, 352.

Nice, Councils of, 55 86, 87.

Nicholas I, Pope, 92-4.

Nicholas II, Pope, 120, 121.

Nicholas III, Pope, 189-90.

Nicholas IV, Pope, 190.

Nicholas V, Pope, 225-31.

Nicholas I, czar of Russia, 353*

Nicholas of Clemanges, 215.

Nicholas of Cusa, Cardinal, 224, 225, 230.

Nietzsche, 226.

Nilus, St., 107.

Noailles, archbishop of Paris, 307.

Nogarct, William, 196, 197, 198-9, 201.

Normans, 95, in, 123, 127, 128, 134,

161-2, 164, 1 68. Novalis, 345. Novation, 42.

Ockham, 205, 206, 207, 247.

O'Connell, Daniel, 352.

Odo, abbot of Cluny, no.

Offices, Roman, 437-8,* 442 et scq+

Origen, 33, 45-

Orsini, 189, 190, 198, 199, 238, 405.

Otto I, the Great, German emperor, 100,

101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107. Otto II, German emperor, 105. Otto III, German emperor, 105, too", 108. Otto IV, German emperor, 168, 175-7. Otto of Wittclsbach, x6x. Ottocar, 64. Oudinot, Marshal, 360.

Pacca, Cardinal, 335, 336, 337-8, 342.

Pacci, 234.

Palma, Monsignor, 359.

Parentucelli, Thomas. See Nicholas V, Pope.

Pascal, Blaise, 306, 307.

Pascal II, Pope, 136, 139-41.

Pascal IH, anti-pope, 162, 164.

Patterson, Betsy, 334.

Paul, St., i, 5-6, 13, 14, 15, 16", *8, 19,

31, 36.

Paul III, Pope, 259-60, 268, 273, 275, 295. Paul IV, Pope, 276-7, 278. Paul V, Pope, 292, 293-4, Pavia, synod of, 112. Pelagius I, Pope, 60. Pclagius H, Pope, 69. Pepin, Prankish king, 77, 78, 79, So, 8x,

83, xoi.

Peter, Roman prefect, 105. Peter, St., i, 6-n, 13, 15-20. Peter Canisius, St., 283, 419. Peter Darm'en, 1x7, 118-19, 120, 123, 124,

139, 250. Peter Faber, 267. Peter of Amiens, 138. Peter of Aragon, 190,

INDEX

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455

Peter of Maroni, 190-1.

Peter of Pisa, Cardinal, 152.

Peter of Venea, 186.

Petrarch, 207, 208, 209, 227, 229.

Petrucci, Cardinal, 245.

Philip I, French king, 123.

Phillip II, king of Naples, 276.

Philip II, Spanish king, 286, 287-8, 290.

Philip III, Spanish king, 291.

Philip Neri, 288, 295.

Philip of Swabia, 168, 175.

Philippe I, le Beau, Austrian archduke,

194, 195, 196, 197-8, 199, 200-1. Philippe VI, of Valois, 207. Philippe Auguste, king of France, 172-4. Phocas, 71.

Photius, patriarch of Byzantium, 93, 97. Piacenza, synod of, 138. Piccolomini, Aeneas Silvius. See Pius n.

Pope.

Pierleoni, 148, 151, 152. Pius, bishop, 36.

Pius II, Pope, 225, 226, 231-3, 284. Pius in, Pope, 238. Pius IV, Pope, 277-8, 279. Pius V, Pope, 283-4, 288. Pius VI, Pope, 319, 320-4, 333, 338. Pius VII, Pope, 324-5* 329 330-43, 345

346, 348, 356. Pius VIII, Pope, 349. Pius IX, Pope, 357-71, 372, 406. Pius X, Pope, 375, 389, 399* 47 4*6, 4o,

426, 442.

Pius XI, Pope, 400, 403, 406, 437. Platina, 232-3. Platmus, 28.

Plato, 20, 22, 32, 33, 37, 230. Polanco, 272. Pole, Reginald, 260-1. Polignac, 349, Polycarp, 36, 38. Pombal, Sebastian-Joseph, 311, 313-14*

3*5> 3*7.

Pompadour, Madame, 315. Pompcy, 3.

Pooza di San Martino, Count, 363-4. Poppca, 1 8. Porcaro, 231. Posscvin, Antonio, 286. Propagation of the Faith, 294, 295, 433. Pulcharia, Empress, 63. Puzyna, Polish cardinal, 399.

Quesnel, Janscnist leader, 307.

Racine, Jean, 306.

Radct, French general, 336-7*

Radetfky, 360.

Rampolla, Cardinal, 373-4-

Raphael, 64, 240, 243.

Ravenna, 65, 67.

Reichenau, 103.

Reichensberer, 370.

Reinald von Dassel, 159, 161, 163, 164.

Reformation, 228 et seq.

Religious orders, 429 et seq.

Renaissance, 225, 226 et seq.

Riario, Girolamo, 233, 234.

Riario, Pietro, 233.

Ricci, Lorenzo, 315, 316, 319.

Richard of Aversa, 121.

Richard the Lion-Hcarted, 167, 173,

Richard the Norman, 121.

Richelieu, Cardinal, 288, 295-6, 302*

Rienzi, Cola di, 209, 210, 211, 231.

Robert, French king, 106.

Robert of; Geneva, 212, 213.

Robert of Naples, 201, 204.

Roderic of Toledo, archbishop, 176.

Rodriguez, Simon, 267.

Roger II, Norman king, 151, 152, 153, 155*

157, 161.

Romulus, Roman emperor, 64, Roothaan, John Philip, 353. Rosmini, 356, 357, 359. Rossi, Count Pellegrino, 359, Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, 156. Rovere, Giuliano dclla, 236, 237, 238, 241.

See also Julius II, Pope. Rovere family, 233, 235, 237. Rudolph of Habsburg, 188, 189. Rudolph of Swabia, 133. Rupprecht, German emperor, 213.

Sailer, German bishop, 345, 350.

Saint-Cyran, 304-5, 306,

Saint Gall, 103.

Saladin, 166, 167.

Saldanha, Cardinal, 314*

Salmeron, Alfonso, 267," 274.

Salvian, 50.

Samuel, the prophet, 21.

San Germane, treaty of, 183.

Santa Rosa, 360.

Saracens, 91, 95, 97, 99, in.

Sarpi, Paolo, 292-3.

Savonarola, 237, 239-41.

Schinner, Cardinal, 243.

Schlick, Caspar, 225.

Schloremer, 370.

Sergius IE, Pope, 99, 100.

Servetus, 187.

Severin, bishop, 51.

Sforza, Ascanio, 236.

Sforza family, 237, 243.

Siccardi, 360.

Sigismund, German emperor, 217, 218,

219-20, 221, 223-4, 225. Sixtus n, Pope, 43-4. Sixtus IV, Pope, 233-4, 235.

456

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THE VATICAN

Sixtus V, Pope, 287, 288-91, 296, 391, 415-

Sobicski, Jean 303.

Soderini, 243.

Sonnenfcls, 317.

Sophocles, 22, 23, 33.

Spc, Count, 235.

Squillace, 311.

Staupitz, 247.

Stephen, St., 13.

Stephen I, Pope, 39, 43*

Stephen II, Pope, 79, 80.

Stephen HI, Pope, 82, 83, 9*1 390-

Stephen VI, Pope, 98.

Stephen IX, Pope, 118-19, 120.

Stephen Barthori, king of Poland, 286,

Stephen of Hungary, 108.

Suarez, 282.

Suger, abbot, 150.

Swiss Guard, 410.

Sylvester I, Pope, 55, 90. 9*

Sylvester II, Pope, 103, 106-9, in.

Sylvester III, Pope, 113, 114.

Taine, Hippolyte, 226.

Talleyrand, 327* 333-

Tancred of Lecce, 167.

Tanucci, Bernardo, 311, 317-

Tauler, 247*

Tertullian, 39-41* 53, I57

Tetzel, 248.

Thaddeus of Suessa, 185.

Theodelinda, 71,

Theodora, Empress, 66.

Theodora, "the Younger," 99, 105,

Theodora "Synatrix," 99.

Theodore II, Pope, 98.

Theodoric, king of Goths, 64, 65-6,

Theodosius I, Emperor, 48, 50, 56.

Theophano, 105, 106,

Theophylact, Count, 99.

Theresa of Avila, 295.

Theresa of Lisieux, St, 423.

Thietbcrga, 92, 93, 96.

Thomas Aquinas, 157, 178, 248, 361,

371-2.

Thomasius, 235, Tillemant, 306, Titus, 21.

Tocquevillc, Alexis de, 357. Trent, Council of, 261-5, 275-9, 2 ^6, 391,

415. Tuscany, Counts of, 98-100, 109.

Ugolino, See Gregory IX. Urban II, Pope, 136-7, 138. Urban III, Pope, 166. Urban IV, Pope, 188. Urban V, Pope, 211, 212. Urban VI, Pope, 214, 215. Urban VIE, Pope, 296-7, 306.

Valerian, Roman emperor, 39.

Valla, Laurentius, 230.

Vandals in Rome, 61, 64, 65.

Vasa, Gustav, 286.

Vatican Council, 365 ft seq., 372.

Vatican Library, 230, 290, 296, 312, 443,

Vauban, Marshal, 303.

Verdun, treaty of, 91.

Veuillot, Louis, 350.

Vibert. See Clement HI, anti-pope.

Victor I, Pope, 38.

Victor II, Pope, 118.

Victor in, Pope, 136.

Victor IV, anti-pope, 152, 162-

Vlctor Emmanuel II, of Italy, 360, 362,

363, 364-

Vido of Spoleto, 97, 99. Vienne, Council of, 201* Tigilius, Pope, 66, 70. Villani, 189-90. Vincent Ferrer, 214, 221. Visconti, 188, 224.

Vogelweide, Walther von dcr, 169, 176. Voltaire, 311, 312, 318, 356.

Waldes, Peter, 179.

Walrada, 92, 93, 96.

Ward, Mary, 270.

Wenccslaus, German emperor, 2x3,

William I, German emperor, 373.

William II, German emperor, 373, 409.

William I Norman conqueror, 123, 161,

163*

William H, son of Conqueror, 137* William of Orange, 303, William H of Sicily, 167, Willibrord, 83.

Winckelmann, John-Joachini| 3ix Windthorst, 370, 373. Worms, concordat of, 122, 137, 128, 143,

 * 45-

Wyclif, 213, 214, 218. Wynnfrith. See Boniface, St

Zacharias, Pope, 77, 78, 79-

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since Henry Ford's attention was attracted to a contrivance called "a silent gas engine." A German named Otto was the inventor, and a description of the primitive affair in an English magazine caught the eye of the Michigan farm boy, who had now become a machinist in Detroit. He got a chance to repair an Otto engine at the Eagle Iron Works in 1885. The dissection of that single-cylinder machine, run by illuminating gas, marked the start of patient investigations which were to launch the era of motor transport. It marked, also, the beginning of the fifty years which we of today appraise as the period most productive of scientific achievement in the world's history.

Along with the gasoline engine, the automobile and good roads, our generation has seen the conquest of the air, the development of radio and motion pictures, the increase of safeguards for sea travel, the perfection of farming machinery, the upheaval of autocratic governments, and, perhaps most important of all, the spread of education through which the minds and hearts of men are diverted into new channels of thought and feeling. Progress in invention and industry has withstood wars and panics, has defied the periodic hysterias afflicting humanity in their wake.

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2 In the foreground of this progress has evolved the Ford idea, at first an enthusiast's dream in a scoffing world, slowly proving its soundness by years of painstaking research, growing into a vast manufacturing structure, and finally typifying the motor age as a corner stone of our modern industrial system.

Looking backward to the year 1885, one finds it difficult to realize the changes that have come about in the half century. Kings then ruled by "divine right" over a large portion of the earth. Queen Victoria was in her forty-eighth year on the British throne, Alexander III had been Russia's czar for half a decade, a Manchu emperor reigned in China, the Hapsburgs overlorded Austria, Wilhelm II had yet three years to fret before becoming the German Kaiser. In the United States the first term of President Grover Cleveland was just beginning. General U. S. Grant died in that summer. Franklin D. Roosevelt was three years old, Benito Mussolini a year younger. P. T. Barnum was running "the Greatest Show on Earth." The Nestor of the stage was Edwin Booth, and among the bright stars were Lester Wallack, Sir Henry Irving, Joseph Jefferson, Sarah Bernhardt, Helena Modjeska, William H. Crane, and John Drew, while the younger actors behind the footlights included Richard Mansfield, Ada Rehan, Eleonora Duse, Kate Claxton, and Lily Langtry.

Hadfield's invention of manganese steel and Parsons's steam turbine were the wonders of the past twelve-month. Only sixteen years earlier the last spike of the first transcontinental railway had been driven into a  Utah desert, and twenty-one years had gone since the

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 development of the open-hearth process, the birth of the age of steel.

The incandescent electric light was but six years old. For household and street lighting, illuminating gas had been one of the wonders of modern ingenuity until  Thomas A. Edison, in 1879, completed the long series  of experiments which resulted in his vacuum bulb containing a filament that emitted, when electrified, a light  brighter and more serviceable than any hitherto known. Edison's interminably careful methods were exemplified by this most famous of his inventions. He spent years trying out materials for a filament, discarding platinum  because of its cost, and almost abandoning carbon because it blew itself to pieces if electrified in contact with  air. On discovering that the carbon would burn in a vacuum without destroying itself, he had the problem  well-nigh solved. There yet remained a vast amount of detail, however, before perfection could be reached. Hundreds of materials were used for filament before the inventor decided that bamboo was the best. Thereupon he sent men all over the world to find the most superior  bamboo. The Japanese variety was chosen after the search had cost $100,000. For years that fiber was used satisfactorily, until it was supplanted by a more  economical filament made by squirting a solution of cellulose through glass jets into alcohol. When the alcohol coagulates, the hardened cellulose is carbonized by heat. There can be no doubt that prior to the motor age Edison's incandescent lamp was the invention which most vitally affected the everyday life of the everyday man.

In the autumn of 1885 the first electric street railway

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 in the United States was opened in Baltimore. Even this visible marvel in transportation was regarded by the public as an achievement of limited possibilities. The idea that a horseless vehicle with no tracks beneath it would ever travel over the open road was too much for the imagination of all save a few dreamers. The "horseless carriage," of which visionaries had talked for hundreds of years, was still as distant, so far as the average man could see, as it had been when Leonardo da Vinci invented the wheelbarrow.

But Henry Ford and the other creative scientists of the day were not average men. In Ford's mind the engine that would be strong enough and light enough  to propel a vehicle for passengers or freight was imminent. He was not the only inventor who worked toward the goal; but he was a lone pioneer, for only in the vaguest way did he know what the others were doing in the early stages of his experiments. Of course, as he learned in later years about the discoveries of chemists and mechanics here and abroad, he studied  their findings, accepted the principles that proved valuable, and rejected ideas that failed to accord with his  own conclusions. He gave credit where credit was due, never hesitating to acknowledge the achievement of a competitor. That he succeeded beyond his rivals was due to an open mind as well as to untiring persistence.

When Ford began to tinker with the Otto engine, not a yard of good road, as we understand the term today, had been laid in America. Desultory efforts to improve city streets included the building of a short asphalted pavement in Newark, N. J., in 1870. Two years afterward a brick surface was used in Charleston,

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 W. Va., and in 1879 a part of Pennsylvania Avenue, in Washington, D. C., was bedded with asphalt. Bicyclists became vocal in their demand for better roads in 1880, but in the ensuing decade the public officials who interested themselves in road improvements were rarities. The subject was regarded with the same skepticism which greeted any other innovation. It was not until 1892 that modern concrete was used for one side

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 of a square in Beliefontaine, Ohio, and only in 1908 was the first mile of rural concrete built in Wayne County, Michigan. Incidentally, Henry Ford was a member of the county's Board of Road Commissioners in 1906-07.

But that is getting ahead of our story. When Ford developed his first definite plan of building an automobile, he thought of a car which would run on the rough roads of Detroit and its vicinity. If he visioned a six-lane concrete highway, he was dreaming as far into the future as Jules Verne dreamed when he forecast the undersea boat.

The idea of gas engines was old, but Otto's effort to put one on the market was the first sign that anybody  considered them of practical use. Ford studied the contraption

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 at odd moments in the next two years, mostly at night in his home shop, when he had finished a day's  work on his regular job. He read everything within reach on scientific topics, including the tale of Gottlieb  Daimler's petroleum-burning engine which was attached to a bicycle, causing great astonishment among  the inhabitants of Mannheim, Germany. Doubtless he scanned, without much attention, the newspaper  columns of 1886 chronicling the Chicago anarchist  riots, Steve Brodie's leap from the Brooklyn Bridge, the  Charleston earthquake, and the unveiling of the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, and in the next year the theater fires of Paris and Exeter with their hundreds of victims, and the drowning of nearly a million  Chinese in the Hoang-ho River floods. It is not recorded whether he heard until afterward that Panhard and Levassor bought the French rights of Daimler's invention and in 1887 actually built a motorcar, which was an object of mirth rather than serious interest among the Parisians.

About the time this equipage was clattering over the boulevards, Ford built an engine on the Otto four-cylinder plan, with a one-inch bore and a three-inch  stroke, operated by gasoline, and somewhat lighter in  weight than the original. Soon afterward he returned to his father's farm, rigged up a workshop for further  experiments, and married Miss Clara J. Bryant. They began their life together in a small cottage, a few  months before his twenty-fifth birthday, in 1888. When he was not cutting timber, he worked on gas engines.

In the year 1888 the first pneumatic tire was produced

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 by Dunlap, and New York had its famous March blizzard, which could not have held much interest to  the young inventor, reared in a region of heavy snows. Probably he gave not a thought to the tragedy of the Austrian Crown Prince Rudolph, whose death by  suicide or murder has been a historic puzzle from that  day to this. Certainly he did not know that the next year, 1889, was distinguished by the birth of Richard  E. Byrd, explorer and flyer, though he may have given  passing notice to the inauguration of President Benjamin Harrison, the Johnstown flood, the opening of  Oklahoma for settlement, and the admission of four  new states: the Dakotas, Washington, and Montana. In 1890 he started to construct a double-cylinder engine,  after having built various experimental engines, and decided that for transportation a single-cylinder was impracticable because its flywheel weighed too much.

At first he planned to put the double-cylinder engine on a bicycle, but figured out that with the gas tank and  necessary controls it was too heavy. Moving his workshop to the shed in the backyard of a modest city house, when he accepted a $45-a-month job as engineer and  machinist with the Edison Illuminating Company of  Detroit, he continued experimenting in his "leisure"  hours. He has said that in the years of testing and planning he was never doubtful of succeeding, and that his young wife was even more confident in the future of  the gasoline-driven automobile. He called her "The Believer."

In the two-year interval before he completed his first car, minor inventions pointing toward the automobile  were reported, but none that appreciably influenced

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 Ford's activities. He stuck to his last and knew little of what was happening outside his daily routine. In the year 1890 the new states of Idaho and Wyoming were  admitted into the Union, the People's party held its first convention in Kansas City, the McKinley tariff law  went into effect, Chief Sitting Bull was killed in the  Sioux war, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands acquired a ten-year-old queen, Wilhelmina. In 1891 a bomb thrower blew himself to pieces when trying to kill Russell Sage in New York, and his identity as a New

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 Englander named Norcross was established through a button, the only whole thing left intact about him after the explosion. Another happening of that year was New Jersey's establishment of the first Highway Department in the country.

Random discussions of good roads had gained sufficient headway by this time to attract the attention of railway operators. One rail executive was quoted as declining to deliver material to a road contractor on the ground that he did not wish to encourage such competition. Perhaps he had just heard that in 1892 the Massachusetts Legislature voted to initiate the country's  second Highway Department, an example soon followed  by six other states.

In the early spring of 1893, a few weeks after Grover Cleveland started his second term in the White House,  a motorcar moved through a Detroit street with Henry  Ford on its single seat. He had built the automobile in the previous autumn, but months of testing were  needed to make it run satisfactorily. It looked like an old-fashioned buggy. In his autobiography, My Life and Work, the inventor has described the car as follows: "There were two cylinders with a two-and-a-half-inch bore and a six-inch stroke set side by side and over the rear  axle. I made them out of the exhaust pipe of a steam engine  that I had bought. They developed about four horsepower.  The power was transmitted from the motor to the counter-  shaft by a belt and from the countershaft to the rear wheel  by a chain. The car would hold two people, the seat being  suspended on posts and the body on elliptical springs. There  were two speeds one of ten and the other of twenty miles  an hour obtained by shifting the belt, which was done by"

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 a clutch lever in front of the driving seat. Thrown for- ward, the lever put in the high speed; thrown back, the low  speed; with the lever upright the engine could run free. To start the car it was necessary to turn the motor over by hand with the clutch free. To stop the car one simply released the clutch and applied the foot brake. There was no reverse, and speeds other than those of the belt were obtained by the throttle. I bought the ironwork for the frame of the carriage and also the seat and the springs. The wheels were twenty-eight-inch wire bicycle wheels with rubber  tires. The balance wheel I had cast from a pattern that I made, and all of the more delicate mechanism I made my-  self. One of the features that I discovered necessary was a compensating gear that permitted the same power to be applied to each of the rear wheels when turning corners. The machine altogether weighed about five hundred pounds. A tank under the seat held three gallons of gasoline which  was fed to the motor through a small pipe and a mixing  valve. The ignition was by electric spark. The original machine was air-cooled or, to be more accurate, the motor  simply was not cooled at all. I found that on a run of an hour or more the motor heated up, and so I very shortly  put a water jacket around the cylinders and piped it to a  tank in the rear of the car over the cylinders.

An April rain had soothed Ford's neighbors to sleep when he bounced out of his yard on the eventful night  in 1893, but such were the noises of his strange vehicle  that the inhabitants were aroused forthwith. Faces appeared at all the windows roundabout. Mrs. Ford stood on the front steps, watching her husband as he vanished  jolting and clattering into the farther reaches of Bagley  Avenue.

For a long time the gasoline buggy was the only

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 automobile in Detroit. The police and the owners of frightened horses viewed it with suspicion. Wherever it appeared, traffic was blocked and curious pedestrians  gathered to ask questions. The owner was obliged to tether the car to a lamp-post if he left it unattended,  for somebody was always ready to take a chance at  running it. At last he had to get a special permit from the mayor, thus acquiring, as he has related, "the dis-  tinction of being the only licensed chauffeur in  America."

For the first performances of his automobile Henry

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 Ford happened to choose an eventful year. History, both scientific and political, was busy in the making  through 1893. Edison invented his motion-picture ma- chine. A peculiarly fitting coincidence of the year was the establishment of the Federal Office of Road Inquiry  by Congressional order. Few if any of the Solons in Washington knew Henry Ford. None of them, in all probability, believed in horseless vehicles, nor indeed  were the lawmakers of the nation or the states destined  to show any faith in useful motor transport during that  decade. The Federal Office of Road Inquiry and the new State Highway departments were due to the bicycle  craze rather than the coming of motors. However, the

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 movement for good roads began to find support at just the right time to aid in developing the motorcar,  Toward the end of the year there was another spurt of  concrete paving in Bellefontaine, the Ohio town which  was for a long time the only community interested in  the sort of road surface the whole country would  eventually demand.

The year's record of notable events included the deaths of ex-President Rutherford B. Hayes, James G.  Blaine, and Edwin Booth. Mayor Carter Harrison, Sr., of Chicago was assassinated. Two kings who now occupy their thrones were born, Carol of Rumania and  Prajadhipok of Siam, and the motion-picture star, Mary  Pickford. The World's Fair was opened in Chicago that year.

With omens of progress on all sides, Ford probably regarded the depression of '93, if he thought about it at  all, as a passing phase which would be superseded by  better and better times. In the miracle story of the Ford car optimism has been the keynote, from the gasoline  buggy to the V-8. No panic could be so fearsome, no depression so disastrous, no war so terrible, that the Ford  forecast failed to register a tide of rising prosperity. And behind the optimism was a continuing faith that the power of machinery and engineering must relieve  mankind of drudgery and afford time for the enjoyment of life. While Henry Ford had not formulated in the two-cylinder epoch all his economic theories of later  years, he was committed from boyhood to a supreme  belief in the adequacy of science for maintaining the  world's progress. The only delay in moving forward, as he demonstrated in his early experiments, was the

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 caution which must temper a true scientist's enthusiasm.

With such caution, but with a background of complete confidence, he proceeded to build engine after engine,  car after car; eagerly though he sought to improve his  product, he threw away no old ideas until study and  tests proved the value of the new. His gasoline buggy of 1893 was as carefully planned and built, in view o  the experience then available, as the more elaborate  automobiles of later decades.

He ran this first car a thousand miles, sold it for two hundred dollars, because he needed the money, and  after a few years bought it back to keep as a curk).

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 By

ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

Garden City, New York

Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc.

1934

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text: Does Price Fixing Destroy Liberty?/Annotated/The Uncertainty of the Act


text: Author:Daniel Dulany Addison

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Author:William Lindsay Alexander

Works

 * A Moral Philosophy
 * (tr.) A Commentary on the Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians by Billroth in The Biblical Cabinet (1837–8)
 * A System of Biblical Theology
 * (with Alexander James Grieve)

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 being not then created, was not contained under any of thoe names ; and therefore, whether we undertand the Hebrew words right or no, they cannot be uppoed to comprehend man, in the very ame hitory, and the very next veres following, epecially ince that Hebrew word ךמש which, if any in this donation to Adam, ch. i. 28. mut comprehend man, is o plainly ued in contraditinction to him, as Gen. vi. 20. vii. 14, 21, 23. Gen. viii. 17, 19. And if God made all mankind laves to Adam and his heirs by giving Adam dominion over every living thing that moveth on the earth, ch. i. 28. as our author would have it, methinks Sir Robert hould have carried his monarchical power one tep higher, and atisfied the world, that princes might eat their ubjects too, ince God gave as full power to Noah and his heirs, ch. ix. 2. to eat every living thing that moveth, as he did to Adam to have dominion over them, the Hebrew words in both places being the ame.

§.28. David, who might be uppoed to undertand the donation of God in this text, and the right of kings too, as well as our author in his comment on this place, as the learned and judicious Ainworth calls it, in the 8th Palm, finds here no uch charter of monarchical power, his words are, Thou hat made him, i. e. man, the Son of man, a little lower than the angels ; thou madet him to have dominion over the works of thy hands ; thou hat put all things


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Author:William Hanna

Works

 * Life of Dr Chalmers (1849-52), in 5 vols.
 * Wycliffe and the Huguenots (1860)
 * Martyrs of the Scottish Reformation
 * Last Day of our Lord's Passion (1862)
 * The Forty Days after the Resurrection (1863)
 * The Earlier Years of our Lord (1864)
 * The Passion Week (1866)
 * Our Lord's Ministry in Galilee (1868)
 * The Close of our Lord's Ministry (1869)
 * The Resurrection of the Dead (1872)

As editor

 * Posthumous Works of Dr. Chalmers, in 9 vols.
 * Essays by Ministers of the Free Church of Scotland (1858)
 * Idea of the Church (1860), by Charles Hodge
 * Letters of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen (1877)

Contributions to EB1911

 * (in part)

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 1531. Supreme irony! Nobody understood them. A Giovanni Strozzi, seeing the formidable "Night," composed such epigrams as the following:

"Night, whom you see so sweetly sleeping in this stone, was by an Angel carved, and since she sleeps, she lives: if you believe me not, awake her, and she will speak."

Michael Angelo replied:

"Sleep is dear to me, but dearer still to me it is to be a stone, while shame is shameless and while crimes bear sway. To neither see nor hear is my good fortune, therefore rouse me not, but speak low."

"Is all heaven deep in slumber," he cries in another poem, "since a single being has appropriated the wealth of so many men?"

And the enslaved Florence replies to his moans:

"Be not troubled in your holy thoughts. He who


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Transfer Recommendation for Guantanamo Detainee, Shai Jahn Ghafoor, ISN US9A-00363DP

S E C R E T // X !

Memorandum for Commander, United States Southern Command, 3511 NW 91st Avenue, Miami FL 33172.

Subject: (S) Transfer Recommendation for Guantanamo Detainee, Shai Jahn Ghafoor, ISN US9A-00363DP

1. (S) Personal Information: Shai Jahn Ghafoor is an Afghan national born in 1969 (age 33) in Karabagh, Afghanistan. Detainee has been diagnosed with latent tuberculosis but is otherwise in good health.

2. (FOUO) Detention Information: On 9 September 2001, subject detainee, a farmer and day labourer in , , Afghanistan, was forcibly conscripted by the to work as a s supply driver in , , . Detainee drove a pickup truck carrying foodstuffs and miscellaneous supplies from a bazaar outside of Taloqan to within two miles of the frontlines in the Takhar province. Detainee did not transport ammunition or weapons and saw no foreign troops in the area where he dropped off the supplies. After Taliban forces surrendered to the in  on 26 November 2001, detainee was transported from the the  near Konduz through  to the. Detainee was transferred to U.S. forces in December 2001 and subsequently transported to Guantanamo Bay Naveal Base, Cuba on 11 June 2002 because of detainee's knowledge of Taliban recruitment and travel routes, and of details regarding Sheberghan Prison. Detainee has been cooperative, but considers the information obtained from and about him as neither valuable nor tactically exploitable.

3. (S) Assessment: Based on current information, detainee ISN: US9AF-00363DP is assess as being neighter affiliated with al-Qaida nor a Taliban leader. Moveover, based on the detainee folder, the knowledgeability brief, and subsequent interrogations by JTF Guantanamo, the results of which are available on the JTF Guantanamo detainee database, the detainee has no fruther intelligence value to the United States and will not be seen for further intelligence purposes. Subject detainee has not expressed thoughts of violaence or made threats towards the U.S. or its allies during interrogations or in the course of his detention. Based on the above, detainee does not pose a future threat to the U.S. or its interests.

4. (S) Recommendation: In view of the foregoing, I recommend subject detainee be considered for transfer or release to the control of another government.

5. (C) Coordination: JTF Guantanamo notified the of this recommendation on 18 January 2003.

CF: CITF-GTMO


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Author:Charles Frederick Close

Works

 * (Projections (in part))

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xviii

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ID you ever look at an old Indian Rhino dressed in his coat of mail like a knight of old, and think that he is the funniest looking antique you ever saw?

He has an old warrior's spirit, too. He is ready to charge at a second's notice anything that threatens the lady of his choice or his own peace of mind, and annihilate the offender with a thrust from his terrible sword. Such are the ways of this gallant soldier. Captain Rhino is every inch a military man. Cowardice is an unknown quantity to him, while action, strength and bravery are his chief characteristics. Thus fortified, he wages deadly warfare on marauders and enemies.

Nature created him with a sword on his nose: so he was properly equipped with a suitable weapon from the start. His thick, hairless skin lies on his massive body in huge folds like plate 67

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68 armour, and looks like a coat of mail. When dried, the skin is used for shields and other implements of warfare.

His head is massive and set with small pin-like eyes which are not particularly useful as far as their seeing powers are concerned.

His sense of smell is so keen that he depends on it to locate an intruder rather than on his eyesight, which is limited in comparison. His feet are round and massive with short toes bound together, each toe being encased in a hoof-like nail. The central or third toe is the largest, but the weight of the great body is supported by a thick sole pad.

All told, Captain Rhino is a formidable looking customer, and a fellow we wouldn't care to encounter on a dark night. He has the speed of a race horse, which is remarkable for such a cumbersome creature.

One baby at a time is customary in Rhino families. Baby Rhino is a jolly little chap, full of pranks, playful, affectionate and fond of tricks. He makes a fine pet and since prehistoric days has been kept in captivity. I don't think they

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Rh could be successfully domesticated. They are too temperamental for that sort of thing.

Life is full of joys to the little baby Rhino. Wallowing in the soft black mud during the hot days, rising with father and mother at dawn and breakfasting on twigs, shrubs and sweet green grass is delightful and when the sun gets too hot, to wander through the dark cool forest and get acquainted with the wonderful sights and sounds of that leafy, mystical world.

The baby precedes his mother when out for a walk, mother Rhino encouraging him by a gentle push with her horn.

The eminent scientist, Karl Schilling, tells of a baby Rhino he captured in Africa. The baby was brought up by an African goat, was sweet tempered and affectionate and loved his foster mother; the little creature was so gentle he travelled the entire distance from the interior of Africa to the coast on foot. They travelled by night and rested by day to avoid the fierce glare of the sun.

After reaching port, the baby Rhino accompanied by his goat nurse, was shipped to

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70, Germany, for Carl Hagenbeck's zoological gardens. They arrived safely and were the delight of the visitors. When displeased, the little Rhino voiced his protest by shrill squeals and fought wickedly. The Rhino's disposition is sluggish and inoffensive. He browses like a goat and does not graze as do cows and sheep. He is extremely keen of smell. When scenting an enemy, they immediately prepare for the offensive. With a snort, old Rhino makes off with the speed of a race horse, with loud puffs and deep, laboured grunts he covers ground like a locomotive; and woe betide the intruder if the old warrior catches him.

The strength of the Rhino is phenomenal. He breaks down thickets and small trees in his travels like straws. Rocks don't bother him in the least, and he travels splendidly over rough ground.

A favourite position of the huge beast is sitting on its haunches for relaxation and observation. He looks like some giant hog of old in the position. Poison insects are troublesome to this great pachyderm (thick-skinned animal).

The sting of the tsetse fly is deadly to him.

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Rh There is no better fighter than old Rhino. Even the young will charge when danger threatens.

The only way to capture a baby is to kill the mother first; but the baby often surprises the slayer by charging like an infuriated demon. Baby Rhino is no coward. He is ready to avenge his mother without hesitation. His courage is splendid and we must respect him.

The Rhinoceros is a relic of another age. There are five species of Rhinoceros—three are Indian and two are African.

The Indian species differ from the African in having the skin arranged in folds and in keeping the incisor teeth through life and having but one nose horn (except the Sondiac). The feet of all species are alike.

The Indian Rhino is the largest of the Asiatic species. Some of them range from five to five and one-half feet high and ten to eleven long. The single nose horn rarely exceeds one foot. The skin is hairless and thick.

The Java Rhino is smaller, lightish grey in colour and found from Burmah to Bengal, Java and Borneo.

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 Ranging over the same territory, except Java, is the Sumatran or Sondiac Rhino, two horns, a rough blackish coat, covered with a coat of long, thin, bristling hair.

The African species consists of the common white, and the white square nosed, long horned varieties and the black, horned, and black long lipped. Lions and leopards give this old veteran a wide berth. No creature cares to encounter him when it can be avoided.

So we'll say good-bye to our gallant old warrior and hope he'll be spared to us down through the ages to come.

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 CHAPTER VII

ON'T you think it's a wonderful fact that our great shaggy-coated Bears are born almost as hairless and naked as a new-born human infant? And this great, hulking beast weighs at birth about three-quarters of a pound!

Here are the dimensions of a baby Russian brown Bear taken when he was two days old: Length, head and body, 9¾ inches; tail, ½ inch; height, 5 inches; hind foot, 1⅛ inches by ⅞ of an inch; weight, 15 ounces. (Hornaday.)

This cub was born January 17th, which is about the time baby Bears are generally born.

There are two cubs in each litter.

At an early age a soft, downy covering appears which in due time develops into a massive shaggy coat. A new-born Bear looks like a little pink-skinned pig. 75

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76 Little Bears are born in the base of hollow trees, in deep ravines, and under big rocks. They live on the ground and after they are weaned eat everything from an antelope steak to a grasshopper. They are exceedingly fond of honey, berries, frogs, fish, snakes, insect larvae, and green vegetables.

The chief article of diet of Alaskan Bears is salmon. While camping in Alaska one summer, I chanced to surprise an old female with her two cubs sitting on the river bank fishing. She hooked the salmon deftly with her long, sharp claws as they swam up the river to spawn. She piled up her freshly caught salmon in the same manner a country boy piles up cordwood. She made a neat job of it while the cubs wrestled in the sunshine nearby.

Bear cubs are about the most merry hearted youngsters I know of. I think they are even more playful than monkeys and far more charming to look at.

An Alaskan Indian guide presented me with two little black bear cubs he had captured while hunting. They were about three months old and

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