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Rh which was the mixed matter we have already seen. It may have been in some ways good for the monarchy, to be checked and challenged by an institution which at least kept something of the old freshness and freedom of speech. It was almost certainly bad for the parliament, making it yet more the ally of the mere ambitious noble, of which we shall see much later. It also led the Lancastrian House to lean on patriotism, which was perhaps more popular; to make English the tongue of the court for the first time, and to re-open the French wars with the fine flag-waving of Agincourt. It led it again to lean on the Church, or rather, perhaps, on the higher clergy, and that in the least worthy aspect of clericalism. A certain morbidity which more and more darkened the end of mediævalism showed itself in new and more careful cruelties against the last crop of heresies. A slight knowledge of the philosophy of these heresies will lend little support to the notion that they were in themselves prophetic of the Reformation. It is hard to see how anybody can call Wycliffe a Protestant unless he calls Palagius or Arius a Protestant; and if John Ball was a Reformer, Latimer was not a Reformer. But though the new heresies did not even hint at the beginning of English Protestantism, they did, perhaps, hint at the end of English Catholicism. Cobham did not light a candle to be handed on to Nonconformist chapels; but Arundel did light a torch, and put it to his own church. Such real unpopularity as did in time attach to Rh


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Rh the old religious system, and which afterwards became a true national tradition against Mary, was doubtless started by the diseased energy of these fifteenth-century bishops. Persecution can be a philosophy, and a defensible philosophy, but with some of these men persecution was rather a perversion. Across the channel, one of them was presiding at the trial of Joan of Arc.

But this perversion, this diseased energy, is the power in all the epoch that follows the fall of Richard II., and especially in those feuds that found so ironic an imagery in English roses—and thorns. The foreshortening of such a backward glance as this book can alone claim to be, forbids any entrance into the military mazes of the wars of York and Lancaster, or any attempt to follow the thrilling recoveries and revenges which filled the lives of Warwick the Kingmaker and the warlike widow of Henry V. The rivals were not, indeed, as is sometimes exaggeratively implied, fighting for nothing, or even (like the lion and the unicorn) merely fighting for the crown. The shadow of a moral difference can still be traced even in that stormy twilight of a heroic time. But when we have said that Lancaster stood, on the whole, for the new notion of a king propped by parliaments and powerful bishops, and York, on the whole, for the remains of the older idea of a king who permits nothing to come between him and his people, we have said everything of permanent political interest that could be traced by counting all the bows of Barnet or all the lances Rh

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Rh of Tewkesbury. But this truth, that there was something which can only vaguely be called Tory about the Yorkists, has at least one interest, that it lends a justifiable romance to the last and most remarkable figure of the fighting House of York, with whose fall the Wars of the Roses ended.

If we desire at all to catch the strange colours of the sunset of the Middle Ages, to see what had changed yet not wholly killed chivalry, there is no better study than the riddle of Richard III. Of course, scarcely a line of him was like the caricature with which his much meaner successor placarded the world when he was dead. He was not even a hunchback; he had one shoulder slightly higher than the other, probably the effect of his furious swordsmanship on a naturally slender and sensitive frame. Yet his soul, if not his body, haunts us somehow as the crooked shadow of a straight knight of better days. He was not an ogre shedding rivers of blood; some of the men he executed deserved it as much as any men of that wicked time; and even the tale of his murdered nephews is not certain, and is told by those who also tell us he was born with tusks and was originally covered with hair. Yet a crimson cloud cannot be dispelled from his memory, and, so tainted is the very air of that time with carnage, that we cannot say he was incapable even of the things of which he may have been innocent. Whether or no he was a good man, he was apparently a good king and even a popular one; yet we think of him vaguely, and not, I fancy, Rh


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Rh untruly, as on sufferance. He anticipated the Renascence in an abnormal enthusiasm for art and music and he seems to have held to the old paths of religion and charity. He did not pluck perpetually at his sword and dagger because his only pleasure was in cutting throats; he probably did it because he was nervous. It was the age of our first portrait-painting, and a fine contemporary portrait of him throws a more plausible light on this particular detail. For it shows him touching, and probably twisting, a ring on his finger, the very act of a high-strung personality who would also fidget with a dagger. And in his face, as there painted, we can study all that has made it worth while to pause so long upon his name; an atmosphere very different from everything before and after. The face has a remarkable intellectual beauty; but there is something else on the face that is hardly in itself either good or evil, and that thing is death; the death of an epoch, the death of a great civilization, the death of something which once sang to the sun in the canticle of St. Francis and sailed to the ends of the earth in the ships of the First Crusade, but which in peace wearied and turned its weapons inwards, wounded its own brethren, broke its own loyalties, gambled for the crown, and grew feverish even about the creed, and has this one grace among its dying virtues, that its valour is the last to die.

But whatever else may have been bad or good about Richard of Gloucester, there was a touch Rh


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Rh about him which makes him truly the last of the mediæval kings. It is expressed in the one word which he cried aloud as he struck down foe after foe in the last charge at Bosworth—treason. For him, as for the first Norman kings, treason was the same as treachery; and in this case at least it was the same as treachery. When his nobles deserted him before the battle, he did not regard it as a new political combination but as the sin of false friends and faithless servants. Using his own voice like the trumpet of a herald, he challenged his rival to a fight as personal as that of two paladins of Charlemagne. His rival did not reply, and was not likely to reply. The modern world had begun. The call echoed unanswered down the ages; for since that day no English king has fought after that fashion. Having slain many, he was himself slain and his diminished force destroyed. So ended the war of the usurpers; and the last and most doubtful of all the usurpers, a wanderer from the Welsh marches, a knight from nowhere, found the crown of England under a bush of thorn. Rh


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30 life may have produced a new view of the divine world and a new type of cultus,—this is all that we can at present safely predicate.

If the beliefs of the prehistoric age must remain vague and uncertain, when we reach the historical period our indebtedness to Celtic tradition is supported by ample evidence. In what has been called the "Celtic fringe," (where, by the way, the bulk of the population is of Iberian, not Celtic origin), the spirit of imagination and romance has produced a wealth of tradition and folk-tale, a vivid realisation of a life beyond the grave, a more intimate association of man with the spirit world, than exists among the English people. How far this is due to race or religious and political influences we are unable to say. But, in any case, the work done under the auspices of this Society in the Celtic and Arthurian field by the late Mr. Nutt and by workers still among us, like Sir J. Rhys, Miss Hull, and Miss Weston, is a branch of our studies which we can regard with satisfaction.

This leads us to the controversy which for some years enlivened our Proceedings,—that between the Traditionalists and the Casualists, the advocates of the vertical as opposed to the lateral transmission of tales and beliefs. Recently the question has assumed another form, which is lucidly described by Dr. Rivers in his address at the last meeting of the British Association. He tells us how he, a believer in the evolutionary theory of the British school, was, by his studies in Melanesia, converted to the German doctrine of the monogenetic origin of culture, and how he finds that even the conception of mana was introduced by a higher race into those islands. As regards folk-tales, most of us are now prepared to admit that incidents, particularly those of an abnormal or savage type, are survivals from a primitive stage. But when we find a definite seriation of


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Rh incidents, and, more particularly when an apparently alien incident occupies in all the variants a fixed place in the sequence, we agree that the tale, as a whole, was imported from some single original centre, wherever that may be. If the new theory of transmission ultimately prevails, it may help us to substitute for the doctrine of the race transmission a different conception, that of local evolution controlled by the clash and contact of peoples, if we recognise that such clash and contact is the true seed-bed of folklore. The meeting of two groups, each with its own stock of beliefs and tradition, necessitates, if one is to understand the other, the creation of myth and legend. Thus, the clash of Christianity on paganism in western Europe has proved one of the most fertile sources from which our existing folklore has originated.

I have dwelt this evening specially upon folklore in its scientific aspect. It remains for us to endeavour to establish anthropology on its psychical side as the central unifying science which will systematize those with which it is most intimately associated. We start on our early middle age with bright hopes for the future. We have done much to improve our methods. We are learning to generalize with more caution, to practise what a great writer on sociology called "animated moderation," to admit that the laws of evidence control our Proceedings no less than those of the Courts of Justice. Folklore, in short, is gradually coming into its kingdom, and it is no longer compelled, like the priest-king of the Arician grove, to fight periodically for its life. We trust that in the new quarters which we have obtained through the generosity of the Provost and Committee of University College we may enter on a new career of prosperity. We have now secured excellent accommodation for our library, accessions to which will be gratefully received. Our association with a great educational centre will, we trust, bring the study of the folk beliefs and usages of mankind more prominently


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Avot/Chapter 5/4

Introduction
This Mishnah continues lists of ten things.

Hebrew Text
עֲשָׂרָה נִסִּים נַעֲשׂוּ לַאֲבוֹתֵינוּ בְמִצְרַיִם וַעֲשָׂרָה עַל הַיָּם.

(עשר מכות הביא הקדוש ברוך הוא על המצריים במצרים ועשר על הים.)

עֲשָׂרָה נִסְיוֹנוֹת נִסּוּ אֲבוֹתֵינוּ אֶת הַמָּקוֹם בָּרוּךְ הוּא בַמִּדְבָּר, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (במדבר יד): "וַיְנַסּוּ אֹתִי זֶה עֶשֶׂר פְּעָמִים וְלֹא שָׁמְעוּ בְּקוֹלִי."

English Translation
 Ten miracles were performed for our ancestors in Egypt, And ten [miracles were performed] at the [Reed] Sea.

(Ten plagues did the Holy One, blessed be He, bring upon the Egyptians in Egypt, And ten [plagues did God bring] at the [Reed] Sea.)

[With] ten trials did our ancestors test the Holy One, Blessed be He, in the Wilderness, As it is said (in Numbers 14:22): “Yet have they tested Me these ten times, And have not hearkened to My voice.”

Explanation
For commentary on Mishnah Avot 5:4, see, for example:
 * Rabbi Menachem Schneerson
 * Rabbi Dovid Rosenfeld

משנה אבות ה ד


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Avot/Chapter 3/6

Introduction
This Mishnah presents sayings of Rabbi Chalafta ben Dosa, the leader of Kfar Chananiah.

Hebrew Text
רַבִּי חֲלַפְתָּא בֶּן דּוֹסָא אִישׁ כְּפַר חֲנַנְיָה אוֹמֵר: עֲשָׂרָה שֶׁיּוֹשְׁבִין וְעוֹסְקִין בַּתּוֹרָה, שְׁכִינָה שְׁרוּיָה בֵּינֵיהֶם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (תהלים פב,), "אֱלֹהִים נִצָּב בַּעֲדַת אֵל."

וּמִנַּיִן אֲפִלּוּ חֲמִשָּׁה? שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (עמוס ט,), "וַאֲגֻדָּתוֹ עַל אֶרֶץ יְסָדָהּ."

וּמִנַּיִן אֲפִלּוּ שְׁלֹשָׁה? שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (תהלים פב,), "בְּקֶרֶב אֱלֹהִים יִשְׁפֹּט."

וּמִנַּיִן אֲפִלּוּ שְׁנַיִם? שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (מלאכי ג,), "אָז נִדְבְּרוּ יִרְאֵי ה' אִישׁ אֶל רֵעֵהוּ וַיַּקְשֵׁב ה' וַיִּשְׁמָע וְגוֹ'."

וּמִנַּיִן אֲפִלּוּ אֶחָד? שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (שמות כ,), "בְּכָל הַמָּקוֹם אֲשֶׁר אַזְכִּיר אֶת שְׁמִי אָבוֹא אֵלֶיךָ וּבֵרַכְתִּיךָ."

English Translation
 Rabbi Chalafta [ben Dosa] of Kfar Chananiah said: [When] ten sit together and occupy themselves with Torah, The Divine Presence rests among them, As it is said (in Psalm 82:1): “God stands in the congregation of God.”

And from where [can one learn that the Divine Presence rests] even [among] five? As it is said (in Amos 9:6): “And He has founded His band upon the earth.”

And from where [can one learn that the Divine Presence rests] even [among] three? As it is said (in Psalm 82:1): “In the midst of the judges He judges.”

And from where [can one learn that the Divine Presence rests] even [with] two? As it is said (in Malachi 3:16): “Then they who feared the Lord spoke one with another, And the Lord hearkened, and heard.”

And from where [can one learn that the Divine Presence rests] even [with] one? As it is said (in Exodus 20:20 (20:21 in NJPS)): “In every place where I cause My Name to be mentioned I will come to you and bless you.”

Explanation
For commentary on Mishnah Avot 3:6, see, for example:
 * The Maharal
 * Rabbi Menachem Schneerson
 * Rabbi Dovid Rosenfeld

משנה אבות ב ב


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Avot/Chapter 3/1

Introduction
This Mishnah presents sayings of Akavia ben Mahalalel, who lived in the time of Hillel.

Hebrew Text
עֲקַבְיָא בֶּן מַהֲלַלְאֵל אוֹמֵר: הִסְתַּכֵּל בִּשְׁלֹשָׁה דְּבָרִים, וְאֵין אַתָּה בָּא לִידֵי עֲבֵרָה:

דַּע: מֵאַיִן בָּאתָ, וּלְאָן אַתָּה הוֹלֵךְ, וְלִפְנֵי מִי אַתָּה עָתִיד לִתֵּן דִּין וְחֶשְׁבּוֹן.

מֵאַיִן בָּאתָ? מִטִּפָּה סְרוּחָה.

וּלְאָן אַתָּה הוֹלֵךְ? לִמְקוֹם עָפָר רִמָּה וְתוֹלֵעָה.

וְלִפְנֵי מִי אַתָּה עָתִיד לִתֵּן דִּין וְחֶשְׁבּוֹן? לִפְנֵי מֶלֶךְ מַלְכֵי הַמְּלָכִים הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא.

English Translation
 Akavia ben Mahalalel said: Keep in mind three things, And you will not come into the hands of sin:

Know: From where you came, And to where you are going, And before Whom you will have to give an account and a reckoning.

From where did you come? From a putrid drop.

And to where are you going? To a place of dust, worms, and maggots.

And before Whom will you have to give an account and a reckoning? Before the King of kings, the Holy One, Blessed be He.

Explanation
For commentary on Mishnah Avot 3:1, see, for example:
 * The Maharal
 * Rabbi Yanki Tauber


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Nezikin/Tractate Avot/Chapter 3/2

Introduction
This Mishnah presents sayings of Rabbi Chanina the Deputy High Priest and Rabbi Chanania ben Tradyon.

Hebrew Text
רַבִּי חֲנִינָא סְגַן הַכֹּהֲנִים אוֹמֵר: הֱוֵי מִתְפַּלֵּל בִשְׁלוֹמָהּ שֶׁל מַלְכוּת , שֶׁאִלְמָלֵא מוֹרָאָהּ, אִישׁ אֶת רֵעֵהוּ חַיִּים בְּלָעוֹ.

רַבִּי חֲנַנְיָא בֶּן תְּרַדְיוֹן אוֹמֵר: שְׁנַיִם שֶׁיּוֹשְׁבִין וְאֵין בֵּינֵיהֶן דִּבְרֵי תוֹרָה, הֲרֵי זֶה מוֹשַׁב לֵצִים , שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (תהלים א,): "וּבְמוֹשַׁב לֵצִים לֹא יָשָׁב."

אֲבָל שְׁנַיִם שֶׁיּוֹשְׁבִין וְיֵשׁ בֵּינֵיהֶם דִּבְרֵי תּוֹרָה, שְׁכִינָה שְׁרוּיָה בֵּינֵיהֶם , שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (מלאכי ג,): "אָז נִדְבְּרוּ יִרְאֵי יְיָ אִישׁ אֶל רֵעֵהוּ וַיַּקְשֵׁב יְיָ וַיִּשְׁמָע וַיִּכָּתֵב סֵפֶר זִכָּרוֹן לְפָנָיו לְיִרְאֵי יְיָ וּלְחֹשְׁבֵי שְׁמוֹ."

אֵין לִי אֶלָּא שְׁנַיִם. מִנַּיִן שֶׁאֲפִלּוּ אֶחָד שֶׁיּוֹשֵׁב וְעוֹסֵק בַּתּוֹרָה, שֶׁהַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא קוֹבֵעַ לוֹ שָׂכָר? שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (איכה ג,): "יֵשֵׁב בָּדָד וְיִדֹּם כִּי נָטַל עָלָיו."

English Translation
 Rabbi Chanina, the Deputy High Priest, said: Pray for the welfare of the government, For were it not for the fear of it, One person would eat the other alive.

Rabbi Chanania ben Tradyon said: [When] two sit together and there are no words of Torah [spoken] between them, This is a session of scorners, As it is said (in Psalm 1:1): “[Happy is the man who has] not. . . sat in the seat of the scornful.”

But [when] two sit together and there are words of Torah [spoken] between them, The Divine Presence rests with them, As it is said (in Malachi 3:16): “Then they who feared the Lord spoke one with another, and the Lord hearkened and heard, and a book of remembrance was written before Him, for them who feared the Lord and who thought upon His Name.”

[The Mishnah asks:] I have no [Scriptural support for the proposition that the Divine Presence rests with them] except [with] two. From where [is there proof that] even [when there is only] one [person studying Torah], The Holy One, Blessed be He, determines a reward for him? As it is said (in Lamentations 3:28): “Though he sits alone and [meditates] in silence, yet he takes [a reward] to himself.”

Explanation
For commentary on Mishnah Avot 3:2, see, for example:
 * The Maharal
 * Rabbi Menachem Schneerson
 * Rabbi Dovid Rosenfeld

משנה אבות ג ב


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Tamid/Chapter 5/1

Hebrew Text
אמר להם הממנה: "ברכו ברכה אחת," והן ברכו.

קראו עשרת הדברים, "שמע," "והיה אם שמוע," "ויאמר."

ברכו (את העם) שלש ברכות: "אמת ויציב," ועבודה, וברכת כהנים.

ובשבת מוסיפין ברכה אחת למשמר היוצא.

English Translation
 The superintendent said to them: “Say one blessing,” And they blessed.

They recited the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:2–13 (20:2–14 in NJPS) or Deuteronomy 5:6–17 (5:6–18 in NJPS)), “Hear, [O Israel. . .]” (Deuteronomy 6:4–9), “And it shall come to pass, if you hearken. . .” (Deuteronomy 11:13–21), “And the Lord spoke. . .” (Numbers 15:37–41).

They blessed the people with three blessings: “True and enduring” [the blessing that follows the Shema prayer in the morning prayer service], Avodah [the blessing that many Jews say as part of the Amidah prayer calling for Divine acceptance of the Temple service], And the Priestly Blessing (Numbers 6:24–26).

And on the Sabbath, they added a blessing for the [priestly] watch that was leaving.

Explanation
In the Babylonian Talmud, the discussion of Mishnah Tamid 5:1 begins on Babylonian Talmud Tamid 32b.

The three passages — “Hear, [O Israel. . .]” (Deuteronomy 6:4–9), “And it shall come to pass, if you hearken. . .” (Deuteronomy 11:13–21), “And the Lord spoke. . .” (Numbers 15:37–41) — are often referred to collectively as “the Shema,” a prayer that observant Jews recite twice daily.

משנה תמיד ה א


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Tamid/Chapter 5

Mishnah 1

Mishnah 2

Mishnah 3

Mishnah 4

Mishnah 5

Mishnah 6

משנה תמיד ה


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Translation:Mishnah/Seder Kodashim/Tractate Tamid

Chapter 1 – Plain translation of complete chapter
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Chapter 2 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 4 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 5 [[Image:25%.svg]]

Chapter 3 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 4 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 5 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 6 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 7 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 8 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 9 [[Image:25%.svg]]

Chapter 4 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]]

Chapter 5 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 4 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 5 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 6 [[Image:25%.svg]]

Chapter 6 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]]

Chapter 7 – Plain translation of complete chapter
 * mishnah 1 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 2 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 3 [[Image:25%.svg]] – mishnah 4 [[Image:25%.svg]]

משנה מסכת תמיד


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 A

EDITED BY

WILLIAM LUTLEY SCLATER, M.A., F.Z.S.

The Ibis - title page illustration.jpg

VOL. III. 1921.

ELEVENTH SERIES.

He prayeth well, who loveth well Both man and bird and beast.

PUBLISHED BY THE

BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION

AND SOLD BY

WHELDON & WESLEY, LTD., 28 ESSEX STREET, STRAND,

LONDON, W.C. 2.

1921.

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 ÔḌIKAL AND OTHER CUSTOMS OF THE MUPPANS.

BY F. FAWCETT.

(Read at Meeting, June 1st, 1910.)

Muppans are a hill-tribe of Wynaad, Malabar. They live by cultivation and by collecting jungle produce. Their villages usually consist of a few huts of rude construction, but I have seen one in which there were about twelve in sets of four as near to each other as the uneven surface of the ground allowed. The huts, with the exception of a roof of grass thatch, are constructed entirely of bamboos, which, for the walls, had been opened out flat and, as it were, woven. As there is no plastering of mud, these dwellings must be very cold and comfortless in the monsoon. Each one is merely a covered-in room about twelve to fourteen feet in length and about eight feet high to the top of the ridge of the roof. The doors of some of the huts face south, while in Malabar generally houses never face the south,—the unlucky quarter where the dead are buried or burned.

Like most jungle people the men are familiar with the bow and arrow, but they are not regular hunters. On one occasion I saw a number of boys playing a game called Chôrâyyi, the players standing in a row and shooting with small bows and unfeathered arrows at a roughly-fashioned disc of bark which a man, standing some twenty yards in front and a little to the right of the row of boys, threw in front of them. The man threw the disc overhand, and,


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 32 before the rising generation of intellectual men, and will convince them of its utility in the promotion of other branches of learning. The same object is now being attained by the establishment of Anthropological Societies at Oxford and Cambridge under the charge of Mr. Marett and Professor Haddon. We are prepared to admit on very favourable terms members of these societies as associates in the Folk-Lore Society, an offer which will, we trust, be widely accepted. When much of the literature of our day is forgotten, the philosophical historian of the thirtieth or fortieth century will seek in the novels of George Eliot or Thomas Hardy, the poems of William Barnes, the sketches of Richard Jefferies, and last, but not least, in our publications, for a living picture of rural thought and life in our times. We may reasonably hope that some of the enthusiasm with which the wild life of the countryside is now being studied will in time be directed to the not less interesting traditional lore of our peasant classes. The study of folk-music, folk-dances, folk-games, when they come to form a part of our system of popular education, will do much to restore that gaiety of life which Merry England once enjoyed, and will prove a remedy for that pessimism, with its accompanying taste for sensational amusements, which is one of the evils of the present time.

To us who have drunk from the fountain, folklore appeals more on the artistic and imaginative side. It has opened to us a new world of romance and beauty. Like the voice of the nightingale, it

We may say of it,—to use the words which one of the friends whose untimely loss I have commemorated prefixed to his last and greatest book,—"In good sooth, my masters, this is no door. Yet it is a little window, that looketh upon a great world."


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Author:Lucien Lévy-Bruhl

Works

 * History of modern philosophy in France: with portraits of the leading French philosophers (1899)
 * The philosophy of Auguste Comte; 1903
 * Ethics and moral science, 1905
 * Primitive mentality, 1923
 * Primitives and the supernatural, 1935

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 Michael Angelo and the heirs of Julius II., who were becoming threatening. In 1532 a fourth contract was signed between the representatives of the Duke of Urbino and Michael Angelo on the subject of the mausoleum, the latter promising to make a new model of the monument, very reduced in size, to complete it in three years, and to pay all the expenses, as well as 2000 ducats, in view of what he had already received from Julius II. and his heirs. "It will suffice," wrote Sebastiano del Piombo to Michael Angelo, "if a little of your odour (un poco del vostro odore) is found in the work." Sad conditions, since, in signing them, Michael Angelo was confessing to the failure of his great project, and had to pay into the bargain! But, in truth, from year to year it was the failure of his life, the failure of life itself, to which Michael Angelo subscribed in each of his despairing works.

After the project for the monument of Julius II., it was that for the tombs of the Medici which came to nothing. On September 25, 1534, Clement VII. died. Michael Angelo—fortunately for him—was then absent from Florence. For a long time past he had lived there in a state of anxiety, for Duke Alessandro de’ Medici hated him. But for the respect which this prince had for the Pope he would have had the sculptor killed.


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 Rh Guy Fawkes at Ramsgate.—The notes in the March number of on “Guy Fawkes on the South Coast”, bring back to my memory that some fifty years ago it was a custom at Ramsgate to eat certain specially-prepared cakes on November 5th. They were like muffins as to size and shape, and were cut open for the reception of some treacle to be eaten with the cakes. At the same town boys personated Guy Fawkes, and not lay figures, as is usual in most places.

.

Burial of Teeth with Body in Cornwall.—An aged woman, known in the village as old Fanny, died at Mawgon, in North Cornwall, nine years ago. Mrs. Perrin, the Rector’s wife, wrote a touching little account of her, called Told for a Memorial, which was published, I believe, by the Religious Tract Society. Fanny was a devoted Churchwoman, and took great interest in Foreign Missions for which she saved out of her scanty pittance. But she firmly believed that every tooth she possessed (she preserved all she lost in a box for the purpose) must be buried with her against the Day of Resurrection. She exacted a promise from the good clergyman and his wife that the teeth should be placed in her coffin. Mrs. Perrin told me the story herself, and regretted that most unfortunately she and Mr. Perrin had chanced to be travelling at the time of Fanny’s death, and that they had not been in time to fulfil their promise about the teeth. Fanny firmly believed that her resurrection body would not be perfect without the teeth, as far as I could make out, but I had the impression that there was a special virtue in the things themselves. Excuse my troubling you with this story of the old Cornish woman, but I thought it might be of interest.

8, Balcomhe Street, Dorset Square.

Folk-lore Items from Český Lid, iii (Prag, January 1894).

P. 212. Village costumes, with pictures.

230. Going from house to house with the Mumming Girls (Lucka, pl. Lucky). Three to six girls of 12-14 years are clothed in white, their faces covered in a thin veil, to keep their faces from being seen and themselves from seeing. One holds a child swaddled up, the second has rags or a scrubbing-brush, the third a birch, the fourth a basket or bundle of apples, the fifth a brush for whitewashing. With them goes a sixth dressed up as a priest, holding a book and a sprinkler. They come quietly and unexpectedly in the twilight, into a room. They give greetings, but these are unintelligible. The nurse finds a stool, and sits upon it, taking the child in her arms and imitating its


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, That the Resolution of Congress passed in 1783, respecting an Equestrian Statue of General Washington, be carried into immediate execution, and the the Statue be placed in the centre of an Area to be formed in front of the Capitol.

Resolved, That a marble monument be erected by the United States in the Capitol at the City of Washington, in honor of General Washington, to commemorate his services and to express the regrets of the American People for their irreparable loss.

Resolved, That the President of the United States be requested to give such directions as may appear to him proper for carrying into effect the preceeding resolutions, and that for the present the sum of one hundred thousand dollars be appropriated for these purposes.


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 188 we could raise a few coppers for gunpowder and crackers, so much the better. I don't remember that we ever made this an occasion for a demonstration against any local "little tyrant of our fields." It was, I think, purely an historical celebration. We were, I am afraid, a terrible lot of bigots. The only Roman Catholic in the village (whom I knew afterwards to be a most estimable man) was looked upon as—and indeed was—a complete outsider. I don't think he had an intimate in the place. "Puseyites" were only one degree less abhorrent. Curiously enough, though Wesleyanism was rife, "Ranters" were almost as bad as Puseyites. The way to heaven was indeed a strait one in those days.

.

Epworth, April 28th, 1903.

At Bedford Guys are very popular, as one of my own family can testify.

The following passage relates to Chichester, and is given in A Tour through Great Britain, by A Gentleman, 2nd edition, MDCCXXXVIII., p 204 (the author, it is considered, being Defoe):

"They have a Story in this City, that whenever a Bishop of that Diocese is to die, a Heron comes and sits upon the Pinacle of the Spire of the Cathedral; and that this accordingly happened when Dr. Williams was Bishop. At which Time, a Butcher standing at his Shop Door, in the South-street, seeing it, ran in for his Gun, and being a good Marks-man shot the Heron, and kill'd it, at which his Mother was very angry, and said. He had kill'd the Bishop; and the next Day, they say. News came to the Town, that Bishop Williams was dead; this Story, odd as it is, was affirm'd by many of the Inhabitants."

.

[If we may accept Defoe, and Defoe writing anonymously at that, as a trustworthy authority on items of folk-belief, then the connection between the fisher-bird and the Bishops of Chichester may possibly be found in the story recorded by Bede, to the effect that it was St. Wilfrid, the first Bishop of the South Saxons, who taught them the fisherman's craft.—.]


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Letting Children be Children

“I don’t know why grown-ups find it so difficult, it’s really very simple. There should be another button on the remote control like the red button so that if you see something that isn’t right on television then you can press it to tell them you don’t like it. And if more than a thousand people press it then the programme is automatically cut off”. So said the enthusiastic 10-year-old at a research presentation from a group of children to the Review team. “It’s really very simple.”

When Sarah Teather MP, the Minister of State for Children and Families, approached me to lead an Independent Review of the Commercialisation and Sexualisation of Childhood I was delighted to be asked, but I was under no illusions that it was likely to be very simple.

Previous reviews of these issues have been led by eminent academics and practitioners. I am neither, but took on this task as someone who is passionately interested in supporting family life, not only through my job as Chief Executive of Mothers’ Union, a charity supporting parents and children in 83 countries of the world, but also as a parent and grandparent.

We live in a society that is changing at what is, for many, a bewildering rate. Increased levels of wealth have created strong commercial pressures on every one of us, whether or not we have participated in that affluence. Society also seems to have become more openly sexualised; the rapidly changing technological environment has its benefits in so many ways but has also made the seamier side of humanity inescapable.

If adults need to be emotionally and otherwise well adjusted to deal with this environment; so much more so do children.

I wanted to understand the nature of these pressures on our children and young people. I wanted to understand, too, why so many parents seem to lack confidence in their ability to help their children navigate this commercial and sexualised world. Most of all I wanted to bring forward some clear and straightforward suggestions to address these issues and ensure we provide the right sort of support for parents and children alike. 2

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Foreword by Reg Bailey So what would be a good outcome from this Review?

Firstly, that parents feel that I have listened to their concerns and that they will be taken seriously. Parents recognise that they should be the ones to set the standards that their children live by, but in some things they need more support. In particular, parents need businesses and others to work with them and not against them.

However, parents also need to accept the challenge to them and recognise that for children to be children, parents need to be parents.

Secondly, whilst many businesses and broadcasters are doing a good job in working with parents and only selling things for and to children that are appropriate for them, there are those who are not. I hope that they would recognise that they need to step up and be as good as the best, and they need to be more proactive in encouraging feedback and complaints. When it comes to inappropriate advertising and marketing, I want all businesses to play fair when selling to children and not take advantage of gaps in the regulation, especially regarding new media. It seems to me that there is enough goodwill for this to happen without legislation.

Thirdly, I hope that our regulators will work consistently to connect with parents, and recognise that parents should have a much larger say in what is appropriate or desirable for their children to see and hear.

In this Review, I make a series of recommendations; they take a largely consensual approach to the issues raised. To me, it is obvious that this is the best course. Nevertheless, I recognise it is also the most difficult.

And consensus comes most easily when a mature and constructive debate takes place to achieve a holistic approach to the issues raised by the Review; it is not enhanced by the prurient approach that has sometimes characterised the wide media coverage of these issues. By contrast, I have appreciated the maturity of the arguments put forward by the contributors to the Review. I believe my faith in those contributors to deliver on the recommendations will not be misplaced.

It may be that there will be those who argue that greater regulation and legislation is needed to deal with the issues raised. In my view, that would further disempower parents from taking the responsibility for their children upon themselves.

Finally, whilst it seems that the recommendations place responsibility for our children and young people on parents, businesses, broadcasters, other media, regulators and government; I believe it does not absolve any of us as responsible adults from creating the right sort of environment that allows our nation’s children to be children. That way we all create and own a better society. 3

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To the Sun

 * To the sun, a 1848 poem by Anne Lynch Botta
 * To the Sun, a 1912 poem by Clark Ashton Smith

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Letting Children be Children I want to take this opportunity to acknowledge the very real contribution made by previous reviewers: Professor David Buckingham and his team, Professor Tanya Byron, and Dr Linda Papadopoulos. It is upon their foundations that much of this present Review is based; and their constructive comments to me have been invaluable.

Patrick Barwise, James Best, Agnes Nairn, Sue Palmer, and Stewart Purvis have been the best of critical friends, fearless in their questioning, yet supportive and challenging. I thank them for all their efforts in this task. I have also greatly valued the support and encouragement of Rachel Aston, Laura Bedwell, Fleur Dorrell, and Fiona Thomas.

Thanks are due to the excellent team at the Department for Education: Louisa Ellisdon, John Hubbard, Joanna Leavesley, Gillian Machin, Catherine May, Helen Ralphson and Victoria Saunders, under the able leadership of Henry Watson, for their great commitment and energy. I have taken a team approach to conducting the Review, and this report is written from the perspective of us as a team.

Finally, I want to thank all those who contributed to the Review and, in particular, all those parents and children who have been so thoughtful and constructive in providing evidence. The children and young people who carried out research on their own initiative through the Office of the Children’s Commissioner for England were especially impressive, and show so clearly that if we as parents can create the right environment in which our children can thrive, the future of all of us will be the better for it.

They make me believe it really is simple!

4

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 REVIEWS.

is an acknowledged master in fields of Oriental and semi-Oriental history and literature, unfamilar to or neglected by most Western students. His present investigations form a valuable supplement to Dr. P. Hagen's discussion of the Oriental element in the Grail romances. Personally, I have read them with pleasure and profit. Yet they seem to me to bear only upon secondary and comparatively unimportant factors in the Grail problem, and if I discuss them in some detail it is rather in view of what I regard as an unsound method of investigating romantic legend, than because I think Professor Wesselofsky has done much to elucidate the origin and early development of the Grail cycle. Briefly, he regards the Christian origin of the legend as undoubted, its localisation in Britain as comparatively late; and he finds the sources of the Grail romances in legends of the Christian-Jewish diaspora in Palestine, Syria, and Æthiopia. The parallels he adduces illustrate chiefly Robert de Borron's Joseph d'Arimathie, and the early portion of the Grand St. Graal.

At the very outset he is compelled to make an admission of which the import seems to escape him. Syriac legends are postulated, and their direct transference into French is in some cases explicitly, in others implicitly, involved in his arguments. But versions presupposing a Greek intermediary are also used. Yet, as he admits, no single trace of the Grail legend in its


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 ""There is a need for such a huge cultural shift away from consumerism that I feel powerless as an individual to act."

Parent, Call for Evidence response"

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Letting Children be Children

The origins of this Review lie in the commitments made to deal with the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood by both the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties in their 2010 Election Manifestos, which became a commitment of the Coalition Agreement:

"…strong and stable families of all kinds are the bedrock of a strong and stable society. That is why we need to make our society more family-friendly, and to take action to protect children from excessive commercialisation and premature sexualisation... We will crack down on irresponsible advertising and marketing, especially to children. We will also take steps to tackle the commercialisation and sexualisation of childhood."HM Government, 2010

Commercialisation and sexualisation are issues where, to date, the media have often been leading the debate. Academics, including through the recent government reviews, have collected the evidence, investigated the complex issues and presented the range of views in a considered way. However, as the assessment led by Professor David Buckingham 6

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To the Queen (Tennyson)

 * "To the Queen" in Idylls of the King (unsourced edition)
 * "To the Queen" in The Complete Poetical Works of Tennyson ed. Frederick Page (pub. Oxford University Press, 1953)

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 Rh [The manor and castle of Duffield, situated in the Forest or Frith of Duffield, were held at the date of Domesday Book by Henry de Ferrers, ancestor of the Ferrers, Earls of Derby; the last of whom forfeited his estates in the Barons' Wars, 1266, after which they became part of the royal Duchy of Lancaster. Duffield was an immense Saxon parish; the church of which is mentioned in Domesday, and has, says Dr. J. C. Cox (Churches of Derbyshire, iii., 133), "the interesting and rare dedication to St. Alkmund; but certain modern directories have ascribed it to All Saints; and the mistake has unfortunately gained currency in the district." Kedleston, which "marches" with Duffield, was granted by Henry de Ferrers shortly after the Conquest to Richard de Curzon, the lineal ancestor of the present owner, Lord Scarsdale. Kedleston Church, a very small cruciform building, was probably built by the first Curzon, temp. Henry I., and is dedicated to All Saints (Cox, op. cit.). Kedleston Park is not mentioned in Shirley's Deer Parks. It is a remarkable thing that the Duffield men should have made Kedleston Wake-day (which the first Sunday in November would be) the occasion of hunting in Kedleston Park, even though only squirrels were the object of the chase. Cf. Miss Peacock on the shooting-rights annually claimed in Lincolnshire (ante, p. 89); and the license to take wood claimed by the Oxfordshire bonfire-builders (pp. 174, 176). The uncommon armorial bearings of the Curzons, argent, on a bend sable, three popinjays or, collared gules, with a popinjay as crest, may be noted. Can local correspondents add any further particulars? a, as to the date of the enclosure of Kedleston Park and the terms of the grants to the Curzons (N.B., the Survey of Woods and Forests in Duffield Frith, 2 Eliz., may be seen in the Record Office); b, as to the circumstances of any of the squirrel-hunts noted by Mr. N. W. Thomas, Folk-Lore, xi., 251, or of others; c, as to hiring-customs with reference to the dates of these hunts, which could only take place when a number of the men of the district happened to be making holiday. Mr. Jewitt's communication also seems to call for evidence as to effigy-burning in the Celtic parts of our islands.—.]

In South Notts when I was young we used always to have a Guy as well as a bonfire, and what is true of our village applies also I believe to most of the villages round. We used sticks, straw, and what old clothes we could get, to make and dress the Guy, and if


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The Cuckoo

 * The Cuckoo, a traditional English folk ballad (The cuckoo is a pretty bird, she sings as she flies)
 * The Cuckoo, a poem by William Lisle Bowles (The bee is humming in the sun)
 * The Cuckoo, a poem by Margaret Casson (Now the sun is in the west)
 * The Cuckoo, a poem, part of the forgery called Manuscript of Dvůr Králové
 * The Cuckoo, a poem by John Logan (Hail, beauteous stranger of the grove)
 * To the Cuckoo, a poem by William Wordsworth (Not the whole warbling grove in concert heard)
 * To the Cuckoo, a poem by William Wordsworth (O Blithe New-comer! I have heard)

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 folk. While a child Anthony took the name of Freston, in pursuance of the will of his maternal uncle, William Freston of Mendham, who died in 1761, and devised to him his estates in Norfolk and Suffolk. He matriculated at Oxford as a commoner of Christ Church, 26 Dec. 1775, and proceeded B.A. in 1780 (, Alumni Oxon. ii. 497). Having married a Cambridge lady, the widow of Thomas Hyde, he removed in 1783 to Clare Hall in that university, where he was incorporated B.A., and commenced M.A. the same year (Graduati Cantabr. edit. 1826, p. 119). In 1792 he was licensed to the perpetual cure of Needham, Norfolk, in his own patronage, and in 1801 he was presented by a college friend to the rectory of Edgworth, Gloucestershire. Dr. Huntingford, bishop of Gloucester, appointed him rural dean of the deanery of Stonehouse. He died on 25 Dec. 1819.

His works are: 1. ‘Provisions for the more equal Maintenance of the Clergy,’ 1784, 12mo (anon.). 2. ‘An Elegy,’ 1787, 4to. 3. ‘Poems on Several Subjects,’ 1787, 8vo. 4. ‘A Discourse on Laws, intended to show that legal Institutions are necessary, not only to the Happiness, but to the very Existence of Man,’ London, 1792, 4to. 5. ‘Address to the People of England,’ 1796, 8vo (anon.). 6. ‘A Collection of Evidences for the Divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ,’ London, 1807, 8vo. 7. ‘Six Sermons on some of the more important Doctrines of Christianity; to which are added five Sermons on Occasional Subjects,’ Cirencester, 1809, 8vo.

[Annual Biog. v. 444; Biog. Dict. of Living Authors, p. 122; Davy's Athenæ Suffolcenses, iii. 100; Gent. Mag. xc. pt. i. 279.]  FREVILLE, GEORGE (d. 1579), judge, of a family settled at Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire, from the reign of Edward II, was the second son of Robert Freville and Rose Peyton (see MSS. Coll. Arms, c. 41; Inquis. p. m. Cambr. 6 Edw. VI). He was educated at Cambridge, and studied common law at Barnard's Inn, and afterwards became a member of the Middle Temple, where he was reader in 1558, performing his duties by Edmund Plowden, his deputy, and again in Lent 1559. On the death of his elder brother John without issue in 1552, he succeeded to the family estates. On St. Matthias day 1552 he was elected recorder of Cambridge, and admitted to office 25 March 1553. He was in the special commission of oyer and terminer issued for Cambridgeshire 8 Aug. 1553, when indictments for high treason were found against the Duke of Northumberland and other adherents of Lady Jane Grey. By patent, 31 Jan. 1559, though not yet a serjeant, he was created third baron of the exchequer. He obtained the royal permission to retain his office of recorder of Cambridge, but the town refused to submit to this. On 28 April 1564 he became second baron, and in May 1579 he died, and was succeeded by Robert Shute 1 June.

[Foss's Lives of the Judges; Cooper's Athenæ Cantabr. ii. 407; Annals of Cambr. vol. ii.; Dugdale's Orig. Jurid.; Baga de Secretis; Mem. Scacc. Mic. 405 P. and M. r. 56.]  FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588–1664), archbishop of York, was the eldest son of the Rev. John Frewen [q. v.], rector of Northiam, Sussex. The family appears to have been originally of Worcestershire, as Richard Frewen, the father of John Frewen, was son of Roger Frewen, who was buried at Hanley Castle in 1543, and grandson of Richard Frewen, bailiff of Worcester in 1473. Accepted Frewen was born at Northiam, and baptised there 26 May 1588. A ruinous old house called ‘Carriers,’ opposite to Brickwall Park, is traditionally reported to have been the birthplace of the future archbishop. It is supposed that John Frewen, his father, rented it from John White of Brickwall from 1583, when he was presented to the living of Northiam, till he removed to the church-house about 1592. According to Anthony à Wood, Frewen was educated at the free school at Canterbury, and thence removed in 1604, when barely sixteen years of age, to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he became a demy, took his B.A. degree 25 Jan. 1608, and M.A. 23 May 1612. He was elected fellow in the latter year, and, according to the same authority, became divinity reader in the college. In 1617 in the college books we find leave given by the president and authorities for ‘a year's absence to Mr. Frewen, acting as chaplain to Sir John Digby, ambassador in Spain.’ Sir John was created Lord Digby in November 1618. Frewen appears to have accompanied him on a mission from King James to the Emperor Ferdinand in Germany in 1621. On 24 Dec. 1621 another year's absence was granted by the president and authorities to Frewen to act as chaplain to Lord Digby, who was accredited a second time as ambassador to the court of Spain. Lord Digby in 1622 was created Earl of Bristol. Frewen was at Madrid when Prince Charles arrived on his romantic visit, and, seeing the attempts to pervert him to the Romish faith, preached before him from the text 1 Kings xviii. 21, ‘How long halt ye between two opinions? If the Lord be God, follow Him, but if Baal, then follow him,’ urging him to be steadfast in the doctrines of the church of England.


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 The prince was much struck with the sermon, became attached to Frewen, and presented him with a miniature of himself, which is still in the possession of the family. On his accession to the throne the king appointed him one of his chaplains, putting him into the list with his own hand. In 1625 he was made canon of the tenth stall in Canterbury Cathedral, and vice-president of his college in the same year. In 1626 he was unanimously elected president of Magdalen on 24 Oct., and on 16 Dec. compounded for his D.D. degree, having taken that of B.D. 8 July 1619. In 1628 and 1629 he was vice-chancellor of Oxford, and on 13 Sept. 1631 installed dean of Gloucester. In 1635 he was made rector of Standlake in Oxfordshire, and also of Warnford in Hampshire, both livings being in the gift of his college. In 1638 and 1639, at the request of Archbishop Laud, the chancellor, he again discharged the office of vice-chancellor. In 1642 he was mainly instrumental in sending the university plate to the king at York, and lent 500l. to Magdalen College to present to the king towards the expenses of the war. On this the parliament ordered him to be arrested, but he withdrew, and did not return to Oxford till the king came there after the battle of Edgehill, at the end of that year.

Upon Frewen's appointment to the presidentship of Magdalen he made great alterations in the chapel. He paved the inner chapel with black and white marble, put up a new organ, stained windows, and new stalls, all which improvements were probably mainly at his own expense. ‘In 1631,’ says Calamy (Nonconformists' Manual, ii. 27), ‘Dr. Frewen, president of Magdalen, changed the communion-table into an altar, the first that was set up in the university since the Reformation.’ This created much sensation, and was inveighed against by several preachers at St. Mary's, when the matter was brought before the king and council, and the preachers banished the university. Dr. Williamson (formerly fellow of Magdalen), principal of Magdalen Hall, received a public and sharp rebuke for countenancing the factious parties. On 17 Aug. 1643 Frewen was nominated to the see of Lichfield and Coventry, and in April 1644 was consecrated in Magdalen College Chapel by John Williams, archbishop of York, assisted by four other prelates. On 11 May he resigned the presidentship. In 1652 his estate was declared forfeited for treason against the parliament, but by mistake he was designated Stephen Frewen. A similar error in his christian name enabled him to escape on a more perilous occasion, when Cromwell had offered 1,000l. to any one who would bring him dead or alive. Being again described in the proclamation as Stephen Frewen, he got away to France, where he remained till the fury of the times was abated, when he returned and lived very privately. There is an apocryphal story in the ‘Ballard MSS.,’ xl. 110 (Bodleian Library), which probably refers to this period. The writer of the letter mentions an old house on Banstead Downs, which was occupied by a lady whose husband had fled to the continent on account of the civil troubles. The lady is said to have kept a kind of boarding-house, to which many ladies resorted. A clergyman, whose name was concealed, frequently preached to them. Notes were taken of his sermons by several of the ladies, and entered into a common note-book. The lady of the house made frequent journeys to London, taking with her bundles of manuscripts, which were supposed to be meant for the press. One of the ladies showed the notes to a gentleman, who made much use of them in his household. When the ‘Whole Duty of Man’ was published, this gentleman procured the book, and was surprised to find it exactly coincided with the notes in his possession. The mysterious clergyman at Banstead was discovered to have been Frewen, who was at that time supposed to be beyond sea. The story, however, has been ably confuted, and especially by Ballard himself in his memoir of Lady Pakington (Memoirs of several Ladies of Great Britain, p. 320), and the archbishop's noted aversion to female society would alone render the tale improbable.

After the Restoration he was nominated to the archbishopric of York, elected on 22 Sept. 1660, confirmed at Westminster in Henry VII's Chapel 4 Oct., and enthroned by proxy at York 11 Oct. In 1661 he was chairman of the Savoy conference. We have no official account of the conference from the bishops' side; but Richard Baxter describes Frewen as a mild and peaceable man, and one who took no active part in the proceedings.

Frewen died at Bishopthorpe 28 March 1664, and was buried under the east window of York Minster, where a sumptuous monument with a Latin inscription is erected to his memory. He was never married, and is said to have been ‘so perfectly determined to preserve the chastity of his character as not to suffer a woman servant in his family.’ The reason given for this, in a sixpenny pamphlet published in 1743 by Thomas Frewen of Brickwall, fourth in descent from the archbishop's brother Stephen, was ‘fuit filius utero matris viventis excisus, which created in him so great an horror of that action that I believe it to have been his


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 reason for living and dying a bachelor.’ Frewen of Brickwall published this pamphlet to vindicate the archbishop's memory from the misrepresentations of Francis (whom, by the bye, he strangely calls Richard) Drake in his ‘Eboracum, or History and Antiquities of York Cathedral and City.’ Mr. Thomas Frewen also published a small volume of the archbishop's Latin speeches at Oxford when president of Magdalen and vice-chancellor. This is also dated 1743, and both pamphlets are dedicated to Edward Butler, LL.D., president of Magdalen and M.P. for the university. The archbishop died wealthy, and bequeathed the bulk of his fortune to his youngest brother Stephen, an eminent trader in London. Stephen Frewen (1600–1679) conveyed twenty-seven thousand guineas of the archbishop's money in specie in his carriage to London after the prelate's funeral; but the money which he deposited with Sir Robert Vyner, the banker, was lent to Charles II, and lost by the closing of the exchequer. Stephen Frewen purchased Brickwall House, near Northiam, and other large estates in Sussex and other counties, and was ancestor of the present proprietor of Brickwall.

By his will the archbishop bequeathed to Magdalen College, ‘my mother, that gave me my breeding, five hundred pounds, to be employed as my gift to the honour of the college, in some public way approved of by my worthy friend Gilbert [Sheldon], at the present time Lord Bishop of London; as also I forgive unto it five hundred pounds lent it by me, pecuniis numeratis, in a time of necessity;’ to every bishop of the kingdom a ring with this inscription, ‘Neque melior sum quàm patres mei,’ no one to be under the value of 30s.; to the Bishop of Rochester (Warner) a ring once Bishop Jewel's; to every servant a year's wages, besides their due. Dr. Chamberlayne, in his ‘State of England,’ p. 190, assures us that Frewen's benefactions, besides abatements to tenants, amounted to 15,000l.

FREWEN, JOHN (1558–1628), puritan divine, descended from an old Worcestershire family, was born in 1558. He is stated to have been baptised on 1 July 1560. His grandfather, Roger Frewen, and his father, Richard Frewen, were both possessed of property in Hill Croome and Earls Croome in Worcestershire. He was ordained priest by Bullingham, bishop of Gloucester, 24 June 1582, and in November of the following year was presented by his father to the rectory of Northiam, Sussex. On his becoming resident at Northiam it is supposed that Frewen occupied a house known as ‘Carriers,’ situated about two hundred yards south of the present rectory-house, and then the property of his friend and neighbour, John White of Brickwall. His first publication is entitled ‘Certaine Fruitfull Instructions and necessary doctrines meete to edify in the feare of God: faithfully gathered together by Iohn Frewen,’ 18mo, London, 1587. Of this work, which is dedicated to ‘M. Tho: Coventry,’ father of the lord keeper, very few copies are known. Two years later Frewen published another manual with the title ‘Certaine Fruitfull Instructions for the generall cause of Reformation against the slanders of the Pope and League,’ 4to, London, 1589 (, Athenæ Oxon. ed. Bliss, iv. 823). In 1593 Frewen bought the Church House at Northiam, where he and his descendants continued to reside until the purchase of Brickwall, the present seat of the family. Church House still remains in the family. In 1598 he edited, and wrote the preface to, a pamphlet of eighty-eight pages, entitled ‘A Courteous Conference with the English Catholickes Romane, about the six articles ministered unto the Seminarie Priests,’ 4to, London. This loyal and excessively rare treatise had been left in manuscript by John Bishop, a recusant papist, a native of Battle, Sussex. Its design is to show the unlawfulness of revolting from the authority of the civil magistrate on account of religion. Frewen's uncompromising puritanism brought him at length into collision with some of his chief parishioners. At the Lewes summer assizes in 1611 they preferred a bill of indictment against him for nonconformity, but the grand jury ignored the bill, and Frewen vindicated himself in eight successive sermons, published as ‘Certaine Sermons on the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 verses of the Eleventh Chapter of S. Paule his Epistle to the Romanes. Preached in the parish church of Northiam, in the county of Sussex,’ 12mo, London, 1612. Copies are of comparatively rare occurrence. Exactly two hundred and fifty years later Octavius Lord, the then rector of Northiam, a descendant in the female line of Frewen, ‘re-preached’ them by request on eight successive Sundays in the same pulpit. In 1621 Frewen published his ‘Certaine choise grounds and principles of our Christian Religion, … wherein the people of the parish of Northiam, in the county of Sussex, have been catechized and instructed for the settling of their hearts and mindes in the


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Author:Michael Bruce

Works

 * Behold, the Mountain of the Lord
 * To the Cuckoo
 * Tragedy of Sir James the Rose
 * Poems on several Occasions, by Michael Bruce (1770), edited by John Logan
 * Lochleven and other Poems, by Michael Bruce; with Life of the Author from original sources (1837), edited by William Mackelvie
 * The Works of Michael Bruce (1865), edited by Alexander Balloch Grosart

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 mysteries of Salvation,’ 12mo, London. Frewen's persecutors still continued to annoy him, and he was compelled to appeal to the ecclesiastical court at Lewes, 30 July 1622, when it was deposed that one Robert Cresswell of Northiam, ‘gentleman,’ had on 26 June 1621, on the open highway, insulted the rector, ‘calling him old Fole, old Asse, old Coxscombe.’ Cresswell was, after due citation, excommunicated. In 1627 Frewen sat for his portrait to [q. v.], and the picture is still preserved among the fine series of family portraits in the banqueting-room at Brickwall. ‘It is a half-length, and represents the old puritan in full canonicals, except that he wears a very broad-brimmed hat. His right hand rests upon a Geneva bible, open at 2 Kings, chapter xxiii.—a favourite passage with the puritans, as it describes Josiah's zeal for religious reformation; his left hand grasps a skull.’ The expression of the countenance is both benign and acute. It has been engraved by Scriven (, Cat. of Engraved Portraits, ii. 161). On 1 June of the same year, ‘being aged and weake in bodie,’ he made his will (registered in P. C. C. 38, Barrington). He died towards the end of April 1628, and was buried in the chancel of his own church on the following 2 May. He was married three times. By his first wife, Eleanor, who died in 1606, he had six sons: (1588–1664) [q. v.], Thankfull (1591–1656), purse-bearer and secretary of petitions to Lord-keeper Coventry, who suffered for his loyalty during the civil war and Commonwealth (cf. his will, P. C. C. 110, Ruthen; Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1660–1, p. 63, where he is described as ‘clerk of appeals and clerk of the crown in chancery’); John (1595–1654), his father's successor in the rectory of Northiam; Stephen of Brickwall, citizen of London, master of the Skinners' Company, and fined for alderman of Vintry Ward; Joseph; and Mary, wife of John Bigg of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1607 he married Helen Hunt, probably daughter of Richard Hunt of Brede, Sussex, and by her had Benjamin, citizen of London; Thomas, a captain in Cromwell's army for invading Ireland, and founder of the family at Castle Connel, near Limerick (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1649–50, p. 573); and Samuel. The second Mrs. Frewen died in 1616, and Frewen married, on 29 July 1619 at St. Antholin's, Budge Row, London, a third wife, Susan Burdon, who survived him many years (Parish Register, Harl. Soc. p. 54).

In addition to his published writings he left a large unfinished work in manuscript, entitled ‘Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion;’ it consisted of seven books, of which two only (the fourth and fifth, of 95 and 98 folio pages respectively) have been preserved.

 FREWEN, THOMAS, M.D. (1704–1791), physician, was born in 1704. He practised as a surgeon and apothecary at Rye in Sussex, and afterwards as a physician at Lewes, having obtained the M.D. degree previous to 1755. He became known as one of the first in this country to adopt the practice of inoculation with small-pox. In his essay on ‘The Practice and Theory of Inoculation’ (Lond. 1749) he narrates his experience in three hundred and fifty cases, only one having died by the small-pox so induced. The common sort of people, he says, were averse to inoculation, and ‘disputed about the lawfulness of propagating diseases’—the very ground on which small-pox inoculation was made penal a century later (1842). The more refined studies of our speculative adepts in philosophy, he says, have let them into the secret that the small-pox and many other diseases are propagated by means of animalcula hatched from eggs lodged in the hairs, pores, &c. of human bodies. In 1759 he published another short essay on small-pox, ‘Reasons against an opinion that a person infected with the Small-pox may be cured by Antidote without incurring the Distemper.’ The opinion was that of Boerhaave,, and others, that the development of small-pox after exposure to infection could be checked by a timely use of the æthiops mineral. Frewen's argument was that many persons ordinarily escape small-pox ‘who had been supposed to be in the greatest danger of taking it,’ and that the æthiops mineral was irrelevant. His other work, ‘Physiologia’ (Lond. 1780), is a considerable treatise applying the doctrines of Boerhaave to some diseases. One of his principles is: ‘Wherever nature has fixed a pleasure, we may take it for granted she there enjoins a duty; and something is to be done either for the individual or for the species.’ He died


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 {|
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 * 4 || Interior view of female opercular appendage. Original of Hall's figure, pl. 81, fig. 6 [see diagram, text fig. 123]. The outlines of the paired terminal appendages of the operculum (3 in diagram) and of the paired appendages of the second sternite (shaded in diagram, marked c) are seen; a, line along which the principal median appendage is broken, b, lateral flanges, × 2
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 * 5 || Appendages of a cephalothorax, showing their proportions. The chelicerae are not preserved. The walking legs are seen from the underside and exhibit the bases of the smaller spines. The balancing legs are mostly broken away, and only the coxae preserved of the swimming legs. Natural size
 * }

All figures are from photographs. The originals are from the Bertie waterlime at Buffalo, Erie co, N. Y. Those of figures 1, 3 and 4 are in the American Museum of Natural History, that of figure 2 in the State Museum and of figure 5 in the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences


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The figures are from photographs. All specimens are from the Bertie waterlime at Buffalo, Erie co., N. Y. The originals of figures 1 and 2 are in the museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, that of figure 3 in the State Museum


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 pp. 95–101). There is a fourteenth-century life in Lansdowne MS. 436. It is not improbable that St. Frideswide, a member of the royal house of Mercia, should have founded a monastery at Oxford in the eighth century (, Oxford, p. 5). The belief that English kings feared to enter the city is curious, for Oxford was a favourite place for holding meetings of the witan in the eleventh century, and King Harold died there in 1040. It lingered late, for it is noted that Henry III ‘defied the old superstition which was commonly repeated’ by worshipping at the saint's shrine in 1264 (, iv. 143), and it was said that Edward I refrained from entering Oxford in 1275 from fear of the legend (ib. p. 264). The relics of St. Frideswide were translated on 12 Feb. 1180 (ib. p. 39). Wood says that Henry II was present at the ceremony (Annals, i. 166, comp. , ''Descript. Cat''. i. 460); the church was within the walls. A second translation was performed on 10 Sept. 1289 to a new and splendid shrine erected near the old shrine (''Ann. Osen''. iv. 318). Probably at a later date the shrine was removed to the north aisle. The shrine was destroyed in 1538. Some bones, said to be those of St. Frideswide, were in the church in the reign of Mary, for in 1557 Pole considered that wrong had been done to the saint by burying Catherine Cathie, once a nun, the wife of Peter Martyr, near the virgin's sepulchre. Catherine's bones were accordingly cast out. In Elizabeth's reign Catherine's bones were reburied and were mixed with the relics of the saint, both being laid in the same receptacle, with the epitaph, ‘Hic jacet religio cum superstitione’ (Monasticon, ii. 141;, vi. 36–8). St. Fridewide's monastery came into the hands of secular priests or canons probably during the Danish wars of the ninth century, and was held by them when the Domesday survey was made (Domesday, f. 157 a). The condition of the house was in bad repute, and in 1111 or 1121 Roger, bishop of Salisbury, established there a convent of regular canons of St. Augustine under Guimund as the first prior (Gesta Pontificum, p. 316). The convent was suppressed in virtue of a bull obtained by Wolsey from Clement VII, and bearing date 15 Sept. 1524, which was confirmed by the king 5 Jan. 1525. In July Henry granted the site and lands to Wolsey for the foundation of ‘Cardinal's College.’ The society was refounded by the king in 1532 under the name of ‘King Henry VIII's College in Oxford.’ Lastly, in 1545, the collegiate church was made cathedral, and called the church of ‘Christ and the B. Virgin Mary,’ and was again founded in the November of the next year as the ‘Cathedral church of Christ,’ the old college becoming the house of Christ Church. St. Frideswide's day is 19 Oct., on which she is supposed to have died (, Collectanea, i. 342), and for which there is an office in the Sarum Breviary. Under the year 1268 Wood observes that after the translation of the saint it was the custom for the chancellor and scholars in the middle of Lent and on the festival of the Ascension to go in procession to the church of St. Frideswide as the mother-church of the university and town, and there worship (Annals, i. 272).

[Parker's Early Hist. of Oxford, pp. 86–104 (Oxf. Hist. Soc.); Acta SS. Oct. viii. 533 sq.; William of Malmesbury, Gesta Pontificum, p. 315 (Rolls Ser.), and Gesta Regum, i. 297 (Engl. Hist. Soc.); Ann. de Osen., Chron. T. Wykes, Ann. Monast. iv. 39, 143, 264, 318; Robert of Gloucester, ii. 545 (Hearne); Dugdale's Monasticon, ii. 134–75; Leland's Collectanea, i. 342 (Hearne); Wood's Annals, Hist. and Antiq. of Oxford, i. 166, 272 (Gutch); Hardy's Descript. Cat. i. 460 (Rolls Ser.); Leonard Hutten's Antiq. of Oxford, Elizabethan Oxford, pp. 51–61 (Oxf. Hist. Soc.); Boase's Oxford, pp. 4, 9, 38 (Historic Towns Ser.); Froude's Hist. of England, vi. 36–8 (ed. cr. 8vo); Dict. of Christian Biog. ii. 563.]

FRIEND, JOHN (d. 1696), conspirator, was the eldest son of John Friend, a brewer, who resided in the precinct of St. Katharine's, near the Tower of London (, Pedigrees of the Knights, Harl. Soc. pp. 398–9; will of John Friend, the elder, P. C. C. 141, Mico). He followed his father's business. He built the ‘stately brewhouse’ called the Phœnix in the Minories, and amassed considerable wealth. For a while he maintained a fine country residence at Hackney. In 1683 he was appointed a commissioner of excise (, Book of Dignities, p. 502). As colonel of the Artillery Company Friend, on occasion of their feast, 26 June 1684, had the honour of entertaining the Duke of York and Prince George of Denmark ‘at a banquett in a fair large tent’ in the Artillery Ground (, Relation of State Affairs, 1857, i. 312). Though avowedly a protestant he remained a faithful adherent of James II, by whom he was knighted 3 Aug. 1685. After the revolution he was expelled from the artillery company at a meeting held in February 1689–90 (ib. ii. 13), and lost his seat at the board of excise. However, by a treasury order dated 18 Dec. 1690, he was relieved from the payment of excise duties (Cal. State Papers, Treas. 1556–1696, p. 148). James sent him a colonel's commission to raise a regiment of horse against the day when the French


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Frith During this year, while in London, Frith made the acquaintance of Tyndal, whom he assisted in translating the New Testament into English (Biog. Brit.) His success in promulgating the views of the reformers was such that the authorities of the university caused him and some of his friends to be imprisoned in the fish cellar of the college. In 1528 he was released at the request of Cardinal Wolsey, on condition that he should not go more than ten miles from Oxford. He went abroad, however, and resided chiefly at the newly founded university of Marburg, where he made the acquaintance of several reformers, particularly of Patrick Hamilton, a translation of whose ‘Places’ was his first publication. He also assisted Tyndal in his literary labours. He appears to have lived abroad about six years, and during this period to have married and had children. There is evidence that while he was in Holland the king (Henry VIII) was ready to provide for him if he would renounce his opinions, but, although in considerable poverty, he refused, and even wrote a work on the doctrine of purgatory, directed against the writings of Bishop Fisher, Sir Thomas More, and Rastell. About the middle of 1532 he returned to England, leaving his wife and family in Holland, and proceeded to Reading, where he either had business, on which he and Tyndal laid some stress, with the prior of Reading, or had expectation of receiving some relief from him. On his arrival at Reading he was set in the stocks as a rogue and vagabond, and only released at the intercession of Leonard Cox [q. v.], the schoolmaster of that town. Frith then went to London. A warrant for his arrest on a charge of heresy was issued by Sir Thomas More, the lord chancellor, and Frith endeavoured to remain in concealment. His movements were, however, closely watched; he was arrested at Milton Shore in Essex when endeavouring to escape to Holland, and conveyed to the Tower. While there he so gained the confidence of the keeper that he was occasionally allowed to leave the prison at night to ‘consult with godly men,’ and to stay at the house of Petit, a wealthy merchant and member of parliament, who was subsequently imprisoned for favouring the views of the reformers. During his imprisonment Frith formulated his views upon the sacrament. He held (1) That the doctrine of the sacrament was not an article of faith to be held under pain of damnation; (2) that Christ's natural body having the properties of our bodies, except as to sin, it was not agreeable to reason that it could be in two or more places at once; (3) that it was not right or necessary to understand Christ's words in the literal sense, but only according to the analogy of scripture; (4) that the sacrament ought only to be received according to the true and right institution of Christ, and not according to the order then used. After the succession of Sir Thomas Audley to the chancellorship, the rigour of Frith's imprisonment was much softened, and it is evident from manuscripts that the authorities were disposed to treat him with much leniency. A tailor named William Holt, under pretence of friendliness for Frith, obtained a copy of his views on the sacrament, and carried it to More, who printed a tract against Frith's opinions. Frith procured a written copy with considerable difficulty, but did not see a printed copy until his examination before the Bishop of Winchester. While in strict confinement, he wrote an able reply, when one of the royal chaplains attacked Frith in a sermon preached before the king. Frith was then, by the king's orders, examined before Audley, the Duke of Suffolk, the Earl of Wiltshire, Bishops Stokesley and Gardner, and Archbishop Cranmer, when, notwithstanding the arguments and persuasions of Cranmer, he remained firm. On the way to Croydon to be examined before the archbishop he was offered the means of escape, but declined to accept them. As Frith refused to recant, the matter was left to the determination of the Bishops of London, Winchester, and Chichester, before whom he appeared at St. Paul's on 20 June 1533. He continued to deny the doctrines of transubstantiation and purgatory, and, having subscribed to his answers, was condemned by the Bishop of London to be burnt as an obstinate heretic. Frith was now handed over to the secular arm and confined in Newgate. Although loaded with chains so that he could neither quite lie down nor stand upright, he occupied himself in writing continually until, on 4 July, he was conveyed to Smithfield and there publicly burnt. He died with great courage, reaffirming his beliefs at the stake. All contemporary writers agree as to his extraordinary abilities, his great learning, his unaffected piety, and his simple life. He was the first of the English martyrs who maintained the doctrine of the sacrament which was subsequently adopted in the Book of Common Prayer.

Frith's chief works are: 1. ‘Fruitful Gatherings of Scripture,’ 12mo, being a translation of Patrick Hamilton's ‘Places,’ n.d. [1529?], printed by William Copeland. This is printed in Foxe's ‘Acts, &c.’ 2. ‘A Pistle to the Christen Reder; the Revelation of Anti-Christ: Anthithesis wherein are compared togeder Christe's Actes and oure Holye


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The original of figure 2 is in Columbia University, the others are in the State Museum


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Originals in the State Museum


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 Father the Popes,’ 1529, 8vo, black letter; printed by Hans Luft at Malborow (Marburg) in Hesse. This, one of the first anti-papistical books in English, was published under the pseudonym of Richarde Brightwell. The ‘Revelation of Anti-Christ’ was a translation from the German, whether of a book or manuscript, and by whom, is not known. 3. ‘A Disputacion of Purgatorye, diuided into thre bokes: the fyrst boke is an answer unto Rastel, which goeth aboute to proue Purgatorye by Naturall Phylosophye; the second boke answereth unto Sir Thomas More, which laboureth to proue Purgatorye by Scripture; the thyrde boke maketh answere unto my Lorde of Rochestre, which leaneth unto the Doctoures,’ without printer's name, date, or place, but believed to be printed at Marburg in 1531, 12mo; reprinted in London, 1533. This was a reply to Bishop Fisher (? title), More's ‘Supplycacion of Soulys in Purgatory’ (printed in 1529?), and J. Rastell's ‘Boke of Purgatory’ (1530), and was prohibited by proclamation in 1534 (, Ecc. Mon., ed. 1822, i. 418), as were all Frith's works in the reign of Mary (, Parker, ed. 1821, i. 418). 4. ‘A Letter unto Faithfull Folowers of Christ's Gospell,’ no printer's name or place (1532?); reprinted in the collected edition of 1573. 5. ‘A Myrrour or Glasse to Knowe Thyselfe,’ no printer's name, black letter (written in the Tower), 1532?, 8vo; reprinted in 1626 by Boler and Mylbourne, London, as ‘A Mirrour or Glasse to Know Thy Selfe: a briefe instruction to teach a person willingly to die.’ 6. ‘A Boke made by John Fryth, prysoner in the Tower of London, answerynge to M. More's Letter which he wrote agaynst the fyrst lytle Treatyse that John Ffryth made concernynge the Sacramente of the Body and Bloode of Christ,’ printed by Conrade Willems, Munster, 1533, 8vo; reprinted in 1546 by R. Jugge, London; by the same, 1548 (newly corrected); and 1548 by Scoloker & Seres, London (now newly revised), all in black letter. 7. ‘A Myrroure or Lookynge Glasse wherein you may beholde the Sacramente of Baptisme described,’ printed by John Daye, 1533, 8vo, black letter; republished in 1554 as ‘Behold the Sacrament of Baptism described,’ answered by More after Frith's death. 8. ‘Another Boke against Rastell, named the Subsadye or Bulwark to his Furst Boke made by John Frithe, Presoner in the Tower,’ without printer's name, date, or place, 12mo, 1533?, black letter. 9. ‘The Articles wherefore John Frith he Dyed, which he wrote in Newgate the 23 day of June 1533,’ London, 1548, 12mo, black letter. 10. ‘His Judgment upon Will Tracey of Todington in Glocestershire, his Testament,’ 1531 (printed 1535), title from Wood's ‘Athnenæ Oxon.’ i. 74 (ed. 1813).

A volume, ‘Vox Piscis, or the Book Fish,’ containing three treatises: ‘A Preparation to the Cross,’ ‘A Mirrour or glasse to know thyselfe,’ and ‘A Brief Instruction to teach a person willingly to die,’ was said to have been found in a codfish in Cambridge market in 1626, was subsequently printed by Boler and Mylbourne, and is stated in the preface to be by Frith. Ussher (Letters, Nos. 100, 101) ascribes it to Richard Tracie (see, Worthies, Gloucestershire, ed. 1811, i. 384). ‘An Admonition or Warning that the Faithful Christians in London &c. may auoid God's Vengeance,’ &c., Wittonburge, 1554, N. Dorcaster, 8vo, although it bears the name of John Knokes, is believed to be by Frith. ‘The Testament of Master W. Tracie, Esquire, expounded both by W. Tindall and John Frith,’ &c., 1535, printed at Antwerp without printer's name, in black letter, is also partially by Frith.

Frith's works were published by Foxe in 1573 as ‘The whole Works of W. Tyndall, John Frith, and Doct. Barnes, three worthy Martyrs and principall Teachers of this Church of England, collected and compiled in one tome together, beying before scattered, and now in print here exhibited to the Church. To the prayse of God and profite of all good Christian readers,’ London, fol., black letter. Another edition was published by Russell in 1631.

 FRITH, MARY (1584?–1659), commonly known as, was the daughter of a shoemaker in the Barbican. The anonymous author of ‘The Life and Death of Mrs. Mary Frith’ (1662) states that she was born in 1589, and that she died in her ‘threescore and fourteenth year.’ If she was born in 1589, she could not have been in her seventy-fourth year when she died. Malone gives 1584 as the date of her birth. It is stated in a note in Dodsley's ‘Old Plays,’ 1780, xii. 389, on the authority of a manuscript letter in the British Museum, that she died at her house in Fleet Street 26 July 1659, and was buried in the church of St. Bridget's; this date of death is also given in ‘Smyth's Obituary’ (Camd. Soc.) p. 51. Cunningham says that


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Originals (Sarle's cotypes) are from the Pittsford shale, Pittsford, Monroe co., N. Y., and in the State Museum


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Originals (Sarle's cotypes) are from the Pittsford shale, Pittsford, Monroe co., N. Y., and in the State Museum


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Originals of figures 1–6 are in the State Museum, that of figure 7 is in the collection of Chicago University (no. 12905)


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Originals (Sarle's cotypes) of figures 1 and 2 in the museum of Chicago University (nos. 12907 and 12906); those of figures 3–8 in the State Museum


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The figures are from photographs. Originals are from the Bertie waterlime, Buffalo, N. Y.; that of figure 1 is in the State Museum, of figure 2 in the museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences


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All figures are from photographs. Originals of figures 1, 2, 4, 5, 8–10 are in the State Museum, that of figure 3 is in the American Museum of Natural History and those of figures 6 and 7 in Columbia University


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All originals are from the Shawangunk grit, Otisville, Orange co., N. Y., and are in the State Museum


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All specimens are from the Shawangunk grit at Otisville, Orange co., N. Y., and are in the State Museum


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The figures are from photographs. The original of figure 1 is in the museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences; that of figure 2 in the National Museum


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All figures are from photographs, of which the originals are in the museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences


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The originals of figures 1 and 3 are in the museum of Chicago University, that of figure 2 in the State Museum


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February

 * "February", a poem by Thomas Henry Kendall
 * "February", a poem by Sara Teasdale
 * "February", a poem by Karel Toman

title: February


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 manner as hare, is undoubtedly excellent. The tails of some of the largest varieties, which I have run down with my dogs, weighed from eleven to fourteen pounds each, consisting of masses of sinew, which yield a large quantity of gelatine when boiled.

The Dingo, or Native Dog, of New South Wales, is the only beast of prey in that country, and is keenly hunted by the settlers, as it frequently worries sheep, and sometimes seizes new dropped calves, which I have myself known these dogs to do at the MacLeay river. The animals of the colony are so well known that it is scarcely necessary to describe the Dingo; it is rather more than two feet high, and about two feet and a half in length; its head nearly resembles that of the fox, with a muzzle furnished with whiskers, and short erect ears; its colour is of a light reddish brown, its tail rather brushy, resembling that of the fox. Many of these dogs have been brought to England, but no kindness seems able to conquer their savage nature, and make them assume the habits of the domestic dog. A few years ago, a friend of mine brought home with him from the colony of Van Diemen's Land, one of these wild dogs; he kept it fastened up at his residence at Clapham, but it one day broke its chain and escaped, and although it was secured again before many hours had elapsed, yet it had, in the mean time, worried a pet flock of sheep, belonging to a gentleman who resided in the vicinity, and killed several of them. A good many years


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March

 * "March", a poem by Elizabeth Akers Allen
 * "March", a poem by Martha Julia Elliott
 * "March", a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 * "March", a poem by Thomas Henry Kendall
 * "March", a poem by Mary Noel McDonald
 * "March", a poem by Clara Augusta Jones Trask

title: March


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All figures are from photographs. The original of figure 1 is in the American Museum of Natural History (no. 8538/1); that of figure 2 in the museum of Chicago University (no. 12909) and that of figure 3 in Columbia University


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December

 * "December", a poem by Thomas Henry Kendall
 * "December", a poem by Edith May
 * "December", a poem by Clara Augusta Jones Trask

title: December


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January

 * "January", a poem by Thomas Henry Kendall
 * "January", a poem by Clara Augusta Jones Trask
 * "January", a poem by Agnes Louisa Storrie

title: January


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July

 * "July", a poem by Hattie Howard
 * "July", a poem by Jennette Fothergill
 * "July", a poem by Thomas Henry Kendall
 * "July", an essay by Alice Meynell in The spirit of place, and other essays (1899)
 * "July", a poem by Clara Augusta Jones Trask

title: July


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 ago, a female of this species was sent as a present to Mr. Nepean from Captain Philip. From its fierceness and agility, it had greatly the advantage of animals much superior to it in size; for a very large fox-dog being put to it, in a moment it seized him by the loins and would have put a period to his existence, had not some one been at hand. With the utmost facility it could leap on the back of an ass, and was once very near worrying one to death, having fastened on it so firmly that the creature was not able to disengage itself without assistance; it has likewise been known to run down both deer and sheep. This dog would not eat dressed meat; I am not, however, aware, whether the numerous specimens of this animal now in the Zoological Gardens, and Menageries, are equally particular in this respect.

The tenacity of life in the Australian dingo is most wonderful. The saying, that a cat has nine lives would be much more applicable to this animal, for I have known instances in which dingos have been badly wounded by ball or buck-shot, worried and torn by dogs, and to all appearance killed; and yet the moment their bodies were abandoned they would become resuscitated and limp off into the brushes. The dingo affords good sport if hunted like the fox. In the more prosperous times of the


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The original is in the possession of Dr Mark E. Reed, Buffalo, N. Y.


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 colony two or three well organized hunts existed in different parts of New South Wales, such as the Sydney hunt and the Bathurst hunt, where the riders appeared in regular costume. A very fine, much admired kangaroo-dog of ours, a beautiful brindled animal, possessing all the good qualities of the greyhound, with superior power, was remarkably successful in pulling down the dingo: on one occasion he killed no less than three in one day, besides several kangaroos, on the sea coast near Mount Taolkungaia to the northward of Port Macquarie.

The Emu is also hunted with dogs; this bird is most frequently met with in the interior country beyond the eastern and western waters. Dogs that are accustomed to hunt the emu, invariably seize that bird by the neck, and dispatch it in a moment; but young dogs, or dogs unaccustomed to this sport are often seriously injured, if they attempt to seize the emu by the flank or leg, as it can give a most powerful kick, sufficiently strong to break the leg of a horse. The flesh of the emu resembles a beef-steak, being very juicy and succulent.

There are no birds in Australia to be shot with dogs, with the exception of quails, and some of the aquatic birds in the reedy swamps and lagoons, such as ducks, moor-fowl, and snipes. The varieties of quail in New South Wales, are, the 'Coturnix Australis,' which is rather larger than the English quail, and more resembles the partridge in the colour


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The original is in the museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences


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Richardson, John

 * articles in the Dictionary of National Biography:

title: Richardson, John


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 of its plumage; the 'Coturnix pectoralis,' which is almost identically the same as the English species; and the 'Turnix velox' which is rather smaller. In the district of Port Macquarie, and at the MacLeay river, quails were particularly abundant. I remember that on one occasion, Mr. T— of Port Macquarie, shot no less than thirty brace in a few hours, on the cultivated alluvial plain at our squatting station at the MacLeay river.

There are several varieties of ducks in New South Wales, such as the brown duck (Anas superciliosa), which is rather larger than the English wild duck; the wood duck, which occasionally perches on trees; the large green-headed shieldrake, the white-headed or Rajah shieldrake, the Australian shoveller, &c.

It is worthy of remark how wary the Australian ducks become after they have been shot at a few times, so much so that it is impossible to approach sufficiently near in a boat, to the large flocks of ducks which alight on the estuaries of the rivers, to reach them with a common gun. As I employed a large punt-gun for this purpose, I however made great havoc among them at the MacLeay river; but there is more sport in shooting ducks among swamps and reedy lagoons with water spaniels. These swampy lagoons are also resorted to by wild geese, and several varieties of moor-fowl and water-rails, among which is a beautiful blue bird with scarlet bill and legs, and as large as a fowl. This bird can only take very short flights, and is easily taken by


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 the blacks, who, when the reeds are dry, set fire to them, in order to dislodge these birds, and thus kill great numbers.

One of the best birds for the table is the brush-turkey; it lives solely in dense brushes, and is about equal in size to a guinea fowl. Its plumage is dark-coloured, and it has a naked head and neck resembling that of a turkey. The manner in which the eggs of this bird are hatched is very singular. It collects an immense quantity of leaves and rotten sticks, and forms with them an enormous nest of several feet in diameter and of a conical shape. In this mass of decomposing vegetation, several of these birds lay their eggs, which are excessively large in proportion to the bird itself, as they are much superior in size to the eggs of the goose or common turkey. These eggs are carefully buried in the nest, and become hatched by the heat generated by the decomposition of the leaves, &c. of which the nest is composed. The brush- turkey is a foolish bird, very easily shot, and which consequently soon becomes scarce, as the banks of the rivers become occupied by settlers. The stupidity of the brush-turkey may be judged of, from the fact, that one evening, when my tents were pitched in the brush, on the banks of Kinchela creek, a turkey ran right across the fire, and was caught by the men. It also frequently falls a prey to the dingo.


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Author:John Whitly Dixon

Works

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 * (in part)
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 * (in part)
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title: Author:John Whitly Dixon


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 CHAPTER X

Y first recollection of skunks is a rather painful one. During my childhood I lived at the outpost of civilisation and many of the wild animals in our vicinity were trapped for their pelts.

A canny old woodchuck had been foraging in our neighbourhood for some time. The little the old fellow took to keep soul and body together certainly wouldn't bankrupt even the humblest landlord and the pleasure of the old woodchuck's company wasn't considered at all. The plaintiff was simply "red eyed" for the woodchuck's skin, so a trap was set to catch the offender.

A cruel trap it was with yawning steel jaws hungry for the blood of the poor little trespasser.

The next morning my little brother came home in a great state of excitement conveying between gasps of hurried breaths that a "Terrible big 101

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