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 28 Normans may be taken as an example—the under-folk, ever find it hard to forget.

Change of meaning, then, regarded simply as a transvaluation, may in general be figured as a transverse movement or transference from one interest to another on the same plane of culture. Moreover, since each major interest can be conceived as made up of a number of minor interests similarly juxtaposed—ritual and dogma, for instance, being comprised in religion, dance and song in art, and so on — such a mode of representation may be indefinitely extended. It remains to note that, while we thus characterize the process from the standpoint of value, it is quite open to us to describe it simultaneously from a different standpoint, namely, that of cause. Let me, without attempting to be exhaustive, give a few examples of such causal ways of viewing change of meaning. Thus sometimes we can account for it as a process of modernization. Old songs are accommodated to new instruments. A mummers' play makes room for a popular hero of the day. Unfamiliar animals give way to familiar; as in my own part of the world, where a monstrous dog that still haunts the countryside can be proved by a place-name to have succeeded a werewolf. Under the same head, too, might be brought the far-reaching effects in the way of the reinterpretation of custom that are produced by the introduction of a new calendar. Again, there is the somewhat analogous process of acclimatization, when proximity in space, instead of proximity in time, enables new meanings to triumph over old. Thus the remarkable bird-cult of Easter Island, which Mr. and Mrs. Scoresby Routledge have recently made known to us, now centres round the Sooty tern or "Wideawake," thanks to the fact that this species alone is locally abundant. It is a fair deduction, however, from the thick-hooked beak and gular pouch of certain of the birdlike figures sculptured on the rocks, that we have here to do with an immigrant rite originally inspired by the


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 Rh. But I must content myself now with having called attention to change of meaning as a main object of research for the student of folklore. To discuss its causes and conditions in detail would carry me altogether too far. A general principle, however, in regard to such causation may be laid down provisionally; namely, that within the domain of folklore the accompanying process of readaptation is always subconscious. A breach in the continuity of tradition having somehow come about, the tissue spontaneously repairs itself, partly by the assimilation of fresh matter, and partly by the coalescence of such elements as survive. Conscious renovation occurs only at a higher level of culture. On the other hand, its ulterior effects will often be noticeable in the nether region of folklore, where most of the material used for patching was acquired at second-hand and has known better times.

Having up to this point tried to keep apart in thought the two types of transvaluation severally described as change of standing and change of meaning, we may now go on to note how, in practice, it is quite possible for these processes to occur together. Indeed, the presumption is that, when a custom has come down in the world, it must likewise have suffered deflection of meaning by the way, as when the festival of a saint declines into a rustic pastime. Equally instructive, however, for purpose of illustration, and at the same time perhaps less obvious, is a twofold movement characteristic of the converse process of revival. It consists in depragmatization conjoined with devulgarization. Folk-institutions are constantly liable to interference from above. Even folk-beliefs cannot be given free expression if they are to escape the assaults of the educated reformer. Hence the trend of cultural degeneration is towards a final rally of the decadent

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 30 values under the banner of some unpractical interest—one that, as it were, but dreams of the past—such as festivity, song, or story. Of course such an interest has, and always has had, a specific content of its own. Its matter is never a mere detritus-heap of derived oddments. A good wonder-tale or a good dance has been prized for its own sake ever since there were men and women and children in the world. At the same time, the aesthetic tradition of the folk tends to be the residuary legatee of all other expiring interests. Memory and fancy can still play with thoughts that no longer bear directly on the day's work.

Now, possibly, the sense of beauty depends more on innate predisposition than on education; so that what its selective influence preserves is likely to make equal appeal to all ranks, at any rate among those of the same race. Be this as it may, it is certain that the unconscious art of the folk can develop into art of the conscious and refined order, and must do so if the latter is to be truly national in type. Of course such a process of devulgarization is bound to involve innovation in no small degree. The change will be partly of a technical kind, as, for instance, by way of elaboration and synthesis; but partly also in respect to meaning and spirit, as notably by elevation of the moral tone. Here, then, we have a good instance of the complexity of cultural transvaluation when its movements up, down, and across are followed through a considerable tract of history. A solemn ritual, let us say, is disestablished and descends to the underfolk, the "pagans," deviating from its original meaning as it drops. But the grave of religion is the seed-bed of art. First the popular tradition adopts surviving elements such as lend themselves to imaginative treatment. Then constructive genius readapts the rude material conformably to some high moral purpose. Whereupon the cycle of change is complete; the downward way being compensated by the upward way, the falling rain by the reascending vapour.


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 Rh This must suffice as a rapid survey of a vast subject. My purpose throughout has been purely methodological, namely, to call attention to the essential nature of the supreme object of our research. I have insisted that the student of folklore must ever keep in touch with the movement, the vital thrust, of present reality, instead of approaching history in the spirit of a sexton. But it would exceed my aim no less than my powers to put this principle into practice, by appending a commentary on the European crisis. At most, then, let me acknowledge the eventfulness of the times in a few parting observations. The war is changing all values. So thorough a shuffling must rearrange every card in the pack. Men will come out of this struggle for liberty either less equal or more equal than before. If the cause of equality succeed—if the philosophy, or rather the religion, of the future be that men, though undoubtedly unequal on a mechanical and functional view of society, are nevertheless equal in a spiritual and vital sense—then we may expect the gradual correction of that disparity of social level that hitherto has confined the folk within a narrow world of their own. Spiritual equality, however, is not to be achieved by the bare recitation of a creed. There must be practical realization of the truth that the final cause of the state is not to manage affairs but rather to educate. Shall we say, then, that by education the folk must be abolished in the interest of the people?

To the members of the Folklore Society, however, it may not appear at the first blush that "'tis a consummation devoutly to be wish'd." They will be apt to say in their hearts: No pheasant, no sport; no folk, no science of folklore. I can assure them that survivals, which Tylor, the inventor of the term, identifies with superstitions, are not confined to the folk, as anyone knows who is making a collection of the superstitions resuscitated among all classes by the


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 32 present war. Besides, the moral of the present discourse is that our interest must not be restricted to the retrograde movements of the cultural life. We must get over our prejudice against revival as a tampering with our museum specimens; and may even assist, as only those who have knowledge of the facts can do effectively, in the rehabilitation of the simple life, so that it shall be homely, and yet not boorish. The nation can afford to recapture something of its primitive innocence. Two-thirds of education, it is said, are completed in the nursery. So let a nursery of the mind be created for the people out of the aesthetic tradition of the folk, which can be so readapted that all, whether hand-workers or brain-workers, may find nurture therein, as children are taught by playing.

Now our educational experts tell us that more science is the need of the time. It may be so; but more science must not mean less literature. Physical science by itself would but make us the slaves of a world-machine. We need letters also to keep us humane. The thinking and reasoning powers must not be cultivated at the expense of the emotions; and, whereas the former are exercised on abstractions, the latter develop only in association with concretes. These concretes are but symbols; the intrinsic or original meaning of any one of them is as nothing in comparison with its value as a rallying-point of the associations whereby a sentiment is sustained. Bunting is bunting, but the flag is a nation's pride and hope. But associations are of slow growth. The symbols of a people cannot be replaced suddenly, any more than stately trees can be replaced by saplings. Indeed, wholesale deforestation may be the prelude to utter ruin of the land. Thus in the garden of literature it is well to deal tenderly with venerable timber, though it stand, not in tidy rows, but wherever nature planted it. Even so, then, let us be tender with the old themes embodied in our national folklore. Here, despite a certain litter of dead wood, is


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 Rh many an ancient heart of oak still full of the movement of life—a movement hidden during the dead season and revealed but in a power of sheer endurance, yet, as often as spring calls, becoming manifest in an access of fresh efflorescence and increase.


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 brawl, is possible (Harl. MS. 6395, quoted by, Who was Jack Wilson? 1846). But these coincidences are not of sufficient weight to establish identity. On the other hand, there is a letter of 21 Oct. 1622 from Mandeville to the lord mayor and aldermen, soliciting for John Willson the place of one of the servants of the city for music and voice, vacant by the death of Richard Balls (Remembrancia, viii. 48, 121), and a list of musicians for the ‘waytes,’ 17 April 1641, records the same name. It is unlikely that Wilson commenced his career by these city appointments, which may be presumed to have been enjoyed by a humbler namesake, John Wilson, actor and singer.

The Playfords published airs and glees by Wilson in (1) ‘Select Ayres,’ 1652; (2) ‘Catch that catch can;’ and (3) ‘Pleasant Musical Companion,’ 1667. In Clifford's ‘Collection’ (2nd edit. 1664) are the words of (4) Wilson's ‘Hearken, O God;’ (5) ‘Psalterium Carolinum, the devotions of His Sacred Majestie in his solitude and suffering, rendered in verse by T. Stanley, and set to musick for three voices and an organ or theorbo,’ 1657; (6) ‘Cheerful Ayres or Ballads, first composed for one single voice, and since for three voices,’ Oxford, 1660, 3 vols. This was the first attempt at music printing at Oxford. In manuscript there are at the British Museum many of Wilson's songs in Additional MS. 29396, most of which is said to be in the handwriting of Ed. Lowe; an Evening Service in G (vol. v. of Tudway's ‘Collection’) and nine songs and part-songs in Additional MSS. 10337 and 11608; and at the Bodleian Library music to several ‘Odes’ of Horace and to passages in Ausonius, Claudian, Petronius Arbiter, and Statius. Among Wilson's compositions was the air ‘From the fair Lavinian shore,’ from which (and Savile's ‘The Waits’) Sir Henry Bishop compounded the popular glee ‘O, by rivers.’

[Burney's Hist. of Music, iii. 389; Hawkins's Hist. ii. 582; Grove's Dict. iv. 462; Cheque-book of the Chapel Royal, p. 13; Abdy Williams's Degrees of Music, pp. 36, 82; Davey's Hist. pp. 279, 284, et seq.; Cal. State Papers, Dom. Charles I and Charles II; will in Westminster Act Book, fol. 86; Notes and Queries, 3rd ser. ii. 171, viii. 418, 6th ser. x. 455; Coll. Top. et Gen. vii. 164; authorities cited.]  WILSON, JOHN (1627?–1696), playwright, the son of Aaron Wilson, a native of Caermarthen, who has, however, been claimed as of Scottish descent, was born in London in 1627.

The father, (1589–1643), matriculated from Queen's College, Oxford, on 16 Oct. 1607, as ‘cler. fil. æt. 18.’ He graduated M.A. in 1615, and D.D. on 17 May 1639. He was collated rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, in December 1625, was appointed chaplain to Charles I and installed archdeacon of Exeter in January 1634; in this same year he became vicar of Plymouth (St. Andrew's), to which benefice he was instituted by Charles I. He and his flock quarrelled over temporalities, and he took proceedings in the Star-chamber, but failed to prove the alleged encroachments. The corporation, nevertheless, thought it wise to surrender the right of presentation to the king, who regranted it under conditions. When the civil war broke out, the vicar was sent prisoner by the townsfolk to Portsmouth; he died at Exeter in July 1643, bequeathing to his son an unswerving faith in the greatness of royal prerogative (see, Plymouth, p. 241; Lansd. MS. 985, f. 31; , Novum Repert. p. cliv).

John Wilson matriculated from Exeter College on 5 April 1644, aged 17, but did not proceed to a degree; he was admitted of Lincoln's Inn on 31 Oct. 1646 (Register, i. 254), and was called to the bar from that inn about 1649. His plays made his name known to the courtiers, and his high views on the subject of the prerogative commended him to James, duke of York, who recommended him for a place to James Butler, first duke of Ormonde. He may have accompanied Ormonde to Ireland in 1677; in any case, he was appointed about 1681 to the office of recorder of Londonderry, and in 1682 he issued from a Dublin press his ‘Poem. To his excellence Richard, Earl of Arran, lord deputy of Ireland.’ Two years later he dedicated to Ormonde ‘A Discourse of Monarchy, more particularly of the Imperial Crowns of England, Scotland, and Ireland … as it relates to the Succession of His Royal Highness James, Duke of York,’ London, 8vo. Early in the following year he was ready with ‘A Pindarique to their Sacred Majesties James II and his Royal Consort Queen Mary, on their joynt Coronation at Westminster, April 23, 1685,’ London, folio. James probably mentioned his deserts to Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, and there is a suggestion that Wilson was employed by the new viceroy during 1687 in the capacity of secretary. His loyalty was equal to every strain, and in 1688 he produced his erudite and casuistical ‘Jus regium coronæ, or the King's Supream Power in Dispensing with Penal Statutes’ (London, 1688, 4to), which he dedicated ‘to the Honorable Society of Lincoln's


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 Inn.’ A second part was projected, but never appeared. He probably retained the recordership until the siege of Derry (April–August 1689), during which period, in the absence of mayor and sheriff, the office must have been a dead letter. It is evident that Wilson shortly afterwards went to Dublin with a view to joining James there, and that, counting upon the ultimate triumph of the Jacobite cause, he stayed there for one or two years. He is said to have written his tragi-comedy of ‘Belphegor’ in that city during 1690. He may have returned to London to see it produced at Dorset Garden in the October of that year. Langbaine, writing in 1699, states that he died ‘near Leicester Fields about three years since.’ There is a somewhat obscure reference to John Wilson in (Buckingham and Rochester's?) ‘The Session of the Poets, to the Tune of Cock Laurel.’

Wilson was the author of two prose comedies of merit, besides a five-act tragedy in blank verse and a tragi-comedy. Like the Shadwells in the next generation, he was a follower of ‘the tribe of Ben.’ He was a scholar, and his plays are full of adaptations from the antique comedy; but as a delineator of rascality, if rarely original, he is always vigorous and often racy, with a strong masculine humour. His plays in order of production are: 1. ‘The Cheats: a Comedy,’ London, 1664, 4to (1671, 4to; 3rd edit. 1684; 4th edit. 1693, with a new song). This excellent farcical comedy was written in 1662 (so we are told in ‘The Author to the Reader,’ dated Lincoln's Inn, 16 Nov. 1663), and performed with great applause by Killigrew's company at Vere Street, Clare Market, in 1663. Lacy played Scruple, the nonconformist minister, who in his fondness for deep potations ‘too good for the wicked: it may strengthen them in their enormities,’ strikingly anticipates the Shepherd in ‘Pickwick.’ Both this character and Mopus the astrological quack are strongly suggestive of Jonson throughout. The time appears not to have been quite ripe for the breadth of the satire, for in a letter to John Brooke, dated 28 March 1663, Abraham Hill remarks, ‘The new play called “The Cheats” has been attempted on the stage; but it is so scandalous that it is forbidden’ (Familiar Letters, p. 103). The piece is just mentioned by Downes in his ‘Roscius Anglicanus.’ 2. ‘Andronicus Commenius: a Tragedy,’ London, 1664, 4to. The history is derived from the ‘Cosmography’ of Peter Heylyn [q. v.], and coincides with the narrative given in the forty-eighth chapter of Gibbon. An anonymous play of little merit upon the same subject, written in 1643, had been published in 1661. The passage between Andronicus and Anna, the widow of his victim Alexius (act iv. sc. iii.) seems to have been inspired by the famous scene in ‘Richard III.’ The play was dedicated (15 Jan. 1663–4) ‘To my friend A. B.’ 3. ‘The Projectors: a Comedy,’ London, 1665, 4to. This comedy of London life was licensed for the press by L'Estrange on 13 Jan. 1664–5, but Genest doubts if it were ever acted. It betrays more clearly than Molière's ‘L'Avare’ its debt to their common original, the ‘Aulularia’ of Plautus; Sir Gudgeon Credulous again bears considerable resemblance to Fabian Fitzdottrell in Jonson's ‘The Devil is an Ass,’ while the She-Senate scene between Mrs. Godsgood, Mrs. Gotam, and Mrs. Squeeze is strongly reminiscent of the ‘Ecclesiazusæ’ of Aristophanes. The fault of the play resides, not in the characters, which are excellent, especially the Miser, Suckdry and his servant Leanchops, but in the dearth of incident. There appears to be no connection between ‘The Projectors’ and ‘L'Avare,’ which was hastily written in 1668 and ‘transplanted’ many years later by Henry Fielding (‘The Miser,’ February 1733). 4. ‘Belphegor, or the Marriage of the Devil: a Tragi-comedy,’ London, 1691, 4to; the British Museum has a second copy with a slightly variant title-page. Licensed by L'Estrange on 13 Oct. 1690, this play was probably performed at Dorset Garden at the close of 1690. The scene is laid in Genoa, and the story, which appears in the ‘Notti’ of Straparola, was derived by Wilson from the English version of Machiavelli, published in 1674 (ii. 165).

A collected edition of Wilson's dramatic works was edited by Maidment and Logan for their series of dramatists of the Restoration in 1874 . Besides his four plays and the tracts mentioned above, Wilson brought out in 1668 ‘Moriæ Encomium, or the Praise of Folly. Written originally in Latin by Des. Erasmus of Rotterdam, and translated into English by John Wilson,’ London, 12mo.

[Wilson's Works, with Memoir, in Dramatists of the Restoration, 1874; Langbaine's Lives and Characters of the English Dramatick Poets, 1712, p. 149; Watt's Bibl. Britannica; Halliwell's Dict. of Old English Plays, 1860; Genest's Hist. of the English Stage, i. 34, 489, x. 138–9; Downes's Roscius Anglicanus; Ward's English Dramatic Lit., 1898, iii. 337–40; Baker's Biographia Dramatica; Foster's Alumni Oxon. 1500–1714; Notes and Queries; Masson's Milton, vi. 314, 365–6; Hazlitt's Bibl. Handbook and Collections and Notes; Poems on Affairs of State, 1716, i. 210–11; Advocates' Libr. Cat.; Brit. Mus. Cat.]


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Wilson WILSON, JOHN (d. 1751), botanist, was born at Longsleddal, near Kendal, Westmorland, and began life as a journeyman shoemaker, or, according to another account, as a stocking-maker. Being asthmatic, however, he required an outdoor life, and acted as assistant to Isaac Thompson, a well-known land surveyor of Newcastle-on-Tyne, while his wife carried on a baker's shop. Probably in connection with this last trade he obtained the nickname of ‘Black Jack.’ He possibly learnt his botany in part from John Robinson or FitzRoberts of the Gill, near Kendal, a correspondent of Ray and Petiver; but with ‘uncommon natural parts’ he made himself ‘one of the most knowing herbalists of his time’ (Newcastle Journal, 27 July 1751), and is said at one time to have earned 60l. a year by giving lessons in botany once a week at his native place and at Newcastle, many pupils coming to him from the south of Scotland. It is recorded of him that, being anxious to possess Morison's ‘Historia Plantarum,’ he determined to sell his cow, almost the sole support of his family, but a lady in the neighbourhood, hearing of the circumstance, gave him the book. This anecdote and the character of his work show that Wilson must have acquired a knowledge of Latin. In 1744 he published ‘A Synopsis of British Plants, in Mr. Ray's Method: … Together with a Botanical Dictionary. Illustrated with several Figures’ (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 8vo). This book is based upon, but not a mere translation of, Dillenius's edition of Ray's ‘Synopsis Stirpium Britannicarum’ (1724), but is the first systematic account of British plants in English, and shows considerable original observation and thought (, Sketches of the Progress of Botany, ii. 264–9). The introduction of the artificial Linnæan system led to Wilson's work being overlooked; but Robert Brown, in his ‘Prodromus Floræ Novæ Hollandiæ’ (p. 490), dedicated the convolvulaceous genus Wilsonia ‘in memoriam Johannis Wilson auctoris operis haud spernandi.’ The descriptions of trees, grasses, and cryptogams, which were to have formed a second volume, were left in manuscript, which, in 1762, it was, according to Pulteney (op. cit. p. 269), proposed to publish. Wilson died at Kendal on 15 July 1751, the last three or four years of his life having been spent in so debilitated a state of health as to entirely unfit him for work.

 WILSON, JOHN (1720–1789), author of ‘The Clyde,’ son of William Wilson, farmer and blacksmith, was born in the parish of Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire, on 30 June 1720. He was educated at Lanark grammar school till the age of fourteen, when the death of his father and the straitened circumstances of his family constrained him to teach for a living. In 1746 he was appointed parish schoolmaster of Lesmahagow, whence he was invited in 1764 to superintend the education of certain families in Rutherglen, near Glasgow. In 1767 he was appointed master of the Greenock grammar school, a stipulation of his engagement being that he was to forsake ‘the profane and unprofitable art of poem-making.’ Referring to this in 1803 as a survival of the puritanical covenanting spirit, Scott writes, ‘Such an incident is now as unlikely to happen in Greenock as in London’ (Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, ii. 176 n.) Wilson, burning his manuscripts, faithfully observed the conditions of his appointment, though conscious of passing ‘an obscure life, the contempt of shopkeepers and brutish skippers’ (Letter to his son, 21 Jan. 1779). He was a diligent and popular teacher, retaining office till two years before his death, which took place at Greenock on 2 June 1789.

Wilson married, on 14 June 1751, Agnes Browne, by whom he had nine children. James, the eldest son, becoming a sailor, was killed in 1776 in an engagement on Lake Champlain, his heroism on the occasion prompting government to bestow a small pension on his father. A daughter Violet, wife of Robert Wilson, a Greenock shipmaster, supplied matter for Leyden's memoir, 1803.

In 1760 Wilson printed ‘A Dramatic Sketch,’ which he afterwards elaborated into ‘Earl Douglas,’ and issued along with ‘The Clyde’ in 1764. From an imperfectly amended and enlarged copy Leyden published the final version of ‘The Clyde’ in ‘Scotish Descriptive Sketches,’ 1803. The dramatic poem is important mainly as an exercise, exhibiting in its two forms the author's skill and copiousness of expression and his growing sense of style. ‘The Clyde’ is distinctly meritorious. Its heroic couplets are dexterously managed, its historical allusions are relevant and suggestive, and its descriptive passages reveal independent outlook and genuine appreciation of natural beauty. It is, in Leyden's words, ‘the first Scottish loco-descriptive poem of any merit.’


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 WILSON, JOHN (1741–1793), judge, born at The How, Applethwaite, in Westmorland, on 6 Aug. 1741, was the son of John Wilson, a man of property in the parish. He was educated at Staveley, near Kendal, and entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, on 29 Jan. 1759, graduating B.A. in 1761 as senior wrangler, and M.A. in 1764, and being elected to a fellowship on 7 July 1764. While still an undergraduate he is said to have made an able reply to the attack on Edward Waring's ‘Miscellanea Analytica’ by William Samuel Powell [q. v.], master of St. John's College (, Lit. Anecd. ii. 717). He entered the Middle Temple in January 1763, and, after being called to the bar in 1766, he joined the northern circuit in 1767, and soon acquired a considerable practice. He was patronised by John Dunning (afterwards first Baron Ashburton) [q. v.], and in his turn he befriended John Scott (afterwards Lord Eldon) (, Life of Lord Eldon, 1846, i. 88). On 7 Nov. 1786 he was appointed by Thurlow to fill the vacancy in the court of common pleas occasioned by the death of Sir George Nares [q. v.], and on 15 Nov. he was knighted. On the retirement of Thurlow he was made a commissioner of the great seal on 15 June 1792, and held that office until 28 Jan. 1793, when Lord Loughborough became lord chancellor. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 13 March 1782. He died at Kendal on 18 Oct. 1793, and was buried in the church, where a monument was erected to his memory, with an inscription by his friend, Richard Watson (1737–1816) [q. v.], bishop of Llandaff. On 7 April 1788 he married a daughter of James Adair [q. v.], serjeant-at-law. By her he had a son and two daughters.

WILSON, JOHN (1800–1849), Scottish vocalist, son of John Wilson, coach-driver, was born in Edinburgh on 25 Dec. 1800. At the age of ten he was apprenticed to a printing firm, and was subsequently engaged with the Ballantynes, where he helped to set up the ‘Waverley Novels.’ During the building of Abbotsford he was often chosen as one of the armed messengers who had to ride weekly to Tweedside with money to pay the workmen. He conceived an early liking for music, studied under John Mather and Benjamin Gleadhill of Edinburgh, and was a member of the choir of Duddingston parish church during the ministry of John Thomson (1778–1840) [q. v.], the painter. For some time he was precentor of Roxburgh Place relief church, where his fine tenor voice drew great crowds, and from 1825 to 1830 he held the same post at St. Mary's Church, Edinburgh. After this he devoted himself entirely to music teaching and concert giving. He studied singing in Edinburgh under Finlay Dun [q. v.], and afterwards in London under Gesualdo Lanza [q. v.] and Crivelli, taking harmony and counterpoint lessons from George Aspull [q. v.] In March 1830 he appeared in Edinburgh as Harry Bertram in ‘Guy Mannering,’ and was subsequently engaged in other operas—notably in Balfe's, in some of which he created the principal part—at Covent Garden and Drury Lane. His acting was, however, somewhat stiff, and he abandoned the stage to become an exponent of Scottish song; in that character he appeared before the queen at Taymouth Castle in 1842. His Scottish song entertainments, both in this country and in America, were an immense success, and brought him a large fortune. He died of cholera at Quebec on 8 July 1849. David Kennedy [q. v.], the Scottish vocalist, restored his tomb there, and made a bequest for its permanent preservation. Wilson published an edition of ‘The Songs of Scotland, as sung by him at his Entertainments on Scottish Music and Song,’ London, 1842, 3 vols.; and ‘A Selection of Psalm Tunes, for the use of the Congregation of St. Mary's Church, Edinburgh’ (1825), in which appears the popular tune ‘Howard,’ generally attributed to him, although it is anonymous. He composed several songs, notably ‘Love wakes and sleeps,’ and at his entertainments introduced many which, though unclaimed, are understood to be his own.

WILSON, JOHN (1785–1854), author, the ‘Christopher North’ of ‘Blackwood's,’ and professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, was born at Paisley on 18 May 1785. His father, John Wilson (d. 1796), was a manufacturer of gauze, who had made a fortune in business; his mother, Margaret Sym (1753–1825), a lady of remarkable dignity of manners and imperious strength of character, was descended in the female line from the Marquis of Montrose. He was the fourth child but eldest


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Eurypterids are rarely encountered in the Mazon Creek area, although the number of known specimens has increased gradually since the first report of the holotype of Adelophthalmus mazonensis by Meek and Worthen in 1868. In 1948 (p. 17), Kjellesvig-Waering reported on seven more specimens. Up to the present, however, only these eight specimens have been reported in the literature, all of them representing one species, Adelophthalmus mazonensis (Meek and Worthen).

The purpose of this notice is to record new morphological and biometric data on twenty-three hitherto unreported specimens of A. mazonensis (Meek and Worthen), and to describe two new eurypterids previously unknown in the Mazon Creek fauna. One of these, a very unusual eurypterid of the family Stylonuridae, is described as a new species of the new genus Mazonipterus, and the other is represented by fragments of a specimen belonging to Mycterops, a peculiar genus previously reported in Pennsylvanian beds of Pennsylvania, Belgium and Holland.

The complete list of Mazon Creek eurypterids is as follows:

Acknowledgments.—I am particularly indebted to Dr. Eugene S. Richardson, Jr., as solely through his co-operation I have been able to locate the specimens of Mazon Creek eurypterids, which are in the hands of private collectors residing principally in the Chicago area. It is mainly through the ceaseless efforts of these avid collectors that the bulk of the Mazon Creek fauna has been revealed to science. I am also indebted to Dr. Willard P. Leutze, who told me about the important specimen PE 6263, which was at that time in the private collection of Mr. Bruce Bell, of Flossmoor, Illinois; Mr. Bell has since presented it to Chicago Natural History Museum. Mr. Jerry Herdina, whose remarkable collection of Mazon Creek eurypterids was kindly lent for description, particularly deserves acknowledgment. Acknowledgments are also due to Messrs. 85


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the most part, save incidentally, we have hitherto been concerned with education as it may exist in any social group. We have now to make explicit the differences in the spirit, material, and method of education as it operates in different types of community life. To say that education is a social function, securing direction and development in the immature through their participation in the life of the group to which they belong, is to say in effect that education will vary with the quality of life which prevails in a group. Particularly is it true that a society which not only changes but which has the ideal of such change as will improve it, will have different standards and methods of education from one which aims simply at the perpetuation of its own customs. To make the general ideas set forth applicable to our own educational practice, it is, therefore, necessary to come to closer quarters with the nature of present social life.

1. .—Society is one word, but many things. Men associate together in all kinds of ways and for all kinds of purposes. One man is concerned in a multitude of diverse groups, in which his associates may be quite different. It often seems as if they had nothing in common except that they are modes of associated life. Within every larger social organization there are numerous minor groups: not only political subdivisions, but industrial, scientific, religious, associations. There are political parties with differing aims, social sets, cliques, gangs, corporations, partnerships, groups bound closely together by ties

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Rh of blood, and so in endless variety. In many modern states, and in some ancient, there is great diversity of populations, of varying languages, religions, moral codes, and traditions. From this standpoint, many a minor political unit, one of our large cities, for example, is a congeries of loosely associated societies, rather than an inclusive and permeating community of action and thought.

The terms society, community, are thus ambiguous. They have both a eulogistic or normative sense, and a descriptive sense; a meaning de jure and a meaning de facto. In social philosophy, the former connotation is almost always uppermost. Society is conceived as one by its very nature. The qualities which accompany this unity, praiseworthy community of purpose and welfare, loyalty to public ends, mutuality of sympathy, are emphasized. But when we look at the facts which the term denotes instead of confining our attention to its intrinsic connotation, we find not unity, but a plurality of societies, good and bad. Men banded together in a criminal conspiracy, business aggregations that prey upon the public while serving it, political machines held together by the interest of plunder, are included. If it is said that such organizations are not societies because they do not meet the ideal requirements of the notion of society, the answer, in part, is that the conception of society is then made so "ideal" as to be of no use, having no reference to facts; and in part, that each of these organizations, no matter how opposed to the interests of other groups, has something of the praiseworthy qualities of "Society" which hold it together. There is honor among thieves, and a band of robbers has a common interest as respects its members. Gangs are marked by fraternal feeling, and narrow cliques by intense loyalty to their own codes. Family life may be marked by exclusiveness, suspicion, and jealousy as to those without, and yet be a model of amity and mutual aid within. Any education

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 Konecny, Michael Moore, and Harry C. Witmer for the loan of their specimens. For the loan of other specimens used in this study I wish to thank the United States National Museum, through Dr. G. Arthur Cooper and Dr. Henry B. Roberts; the Museum of Comparative Zoology, through Dr. Harry B. Whittington and Dr. Donald Baird; the Princeton University Museum, through Dr. B. F. Howell; and the Peabody Museum, through Dr. Carl O. Dunbar. Mr. Matthew Nitecki, of the Walker Museum, University of Chicago, kindly lent the specimen of Adelophthalmus mansfieldi (C. E. Hall) shown in figure 51. My wife, Virginia Kjellesvig-Waering, has been of constant and most valued assistance, particularly in photographing the specimen of Mazonipterus cyclophthalmus.


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96 given by a group tends to socialize its members, but the quality and value of the socialization depends upon the habits and aims of the group.

Hence, once more, the need of a measure for the worth of any given mode of social life. In seeking this measure, we have to avoid two extremes. We cannot set up, out of our heads, something we regard as an ideal society. We must base our conception upon societies which actually exist, in order to have any assurance that our ideal is a practicable one. But, as we have just seen, the ideal cannot simply repeat the traits which are actually found. The problem is to extract the desirable traits of forms of community life which actually exist, and employ them to criticize undesirable features and suggest improvement. Now in any social group whatever, even in a gang of thieves, we find some interest held in common, and we find a certain amount of interaction and coöperative intercourse with other groups. From these two traits we derive our standard. How numerous and varied are the interests which are consciously shared? How full and free is the interplay with other forms of association? If we apply these considerations to, say, a criminal band, we find that the ties which consciously hold the members together are few in number, reducible almost to a common interest in plunder; and that they are of such a nature as to isolate the group from other groups with respect to give and take of the values of life. Hence, the education such a society gives is partial and distorted. If we take, on the other hand, the kind of family life which illustrates the standard, we find that there are material, intellectual, æsthetic interests in which all participate and that the progress of one member has worth for the experience of other members—it is readily communicable—and that the family is not an isolated whole, but enters intimately into relationships with business groups, with schools, with all the agencies of culture, as well as with other similar groups, and that it plays a due part in the

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Rh political organization and in return receives support from it. In short, there are many interests consciously communicated and shared; and there are varied and free points of contact with other modes of association.

I. Let us apply the first element in this criterion to a despotically governed state. It is not true there is no common interest in such an organization between governed and governors. The authorities in command must make some appeal to the native activities of the subjects, must call some of their powers into play. Talleyrand said that a government could do everything with bayonets except sit on them. This cynical declaration is at least a recognition that the bond of union is not merely one of coercive force. It may be said, however, that the activities appealed to are themselves unworthy and degrading—that such a government calls into functioning activity simply capacity for fear. In a way, this statement is true. But it overlooks the fact that fear need not be an undesirable factor in experience. Caution, circumspection, prudence, desire to foresee future events so as to avert what is harmful, these desirable traits are as much a product of calling the impulse of fear into play as is cowardice and abject submission. The real difficulty is that the appeal to fear is isolated. In evoking dread and hope of specific tangible reward—say comfort and ease—many other capacities are left untouched. Or rather, they are affected, but in such a way as to pervert them. Instead of operating on their own account they are reduced to mere servants of attaining pleasure and avoiding pain.

This is equivalent to saying that there is no extensive number of common interests; there is no free play back and forth among the members of the social group. Stimulation and response are exceedingly one sided. In order to have a large number of values in common, all the members of the group must have an equable opportunity to receive and to take from others. There must be a large variety of shared

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 A

MALAYALAM AND ENGLISH

DICTIONARY

BY Rev. H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.

Part I: The Vowels

MANGALORE


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This rare eurypterid was previously known from the holotype and seven specimens (Kjellesvig-Waering, 1948, p. 17). To this number can be added data from twenty-three specimens. Eighteen of these specimens were collected during ten years of intensive search by Jerry Herdina, of Berwyn, Illinois, and form part of his extensive collection. It includes the largest carapace known (see fig. 44).

Twenty-two of the specimens discussed here are from the spoil heaps of the abandoned strip mines of the Peabody Coal Company in Will and Grundy Counties, Illinois (Richardson, 1956). Several beds of coal have been exploited in these mines, but it is probable that the concretions bearing the famous Mazon Creek fauna (including these eurypterids) are derived from the Francis Creek shale member of the Middle Pennsylvanian (Westphalian C) Carbondale formation overlying Coal 2. The remaining specimen, from the Chiefton strip mine a few miles south of Terre Haute, in Vigo County, Indiana, is slightly younger. Spoil heaps of this mine are at present yielding large numbers of ironstone concretions to the same industrious collectors who have recovered so many fine specimens from the Illinois locality. According to Dr. Charles E. Wier, Head of the Coal Section of the Indiana Geological Survey, the concretion-bearing bed in the Chiefton mine lies above Coal VII, and is thus in the Shelburne formation (also Westphalian C).

The measurements of the holotype given by Clarke and Ruedemann (1912, p. 226) are erroneous as to the width of the carapace, which is given as 53.0 mm. This appears to be a typographical error, as the correct dimension is 43.0 mm, across the base of the carapace.

The new morphological data include the structure of the important ventral shield of the carapace, definite outlines of the spatulate plates of the Type A operculum, and the presence of the alimentary canal. Measurements of all carapaces are recorded for biometric comparisons. In this connection it should be noted that the condition of preservation of the carapace is of great importance


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98 undertakings and experiences. Otherwise, the influences which educate some into masters, educate others into slaves. And the experience of each party loses in meaning, when the free interchange of varying modes of life-experience is arrested. A separation into a privileged and a subject-class prevents social endosmosis. The evils thereby affecting the superior class are less material and less perceptible, but equally real. Their culture tends to be sterile, to be turned back to feed on itself; their art becomes a showy display and artificial; their wealth luxurious; their knowledge overspecialized; their manners fastidious rather than humane.

Lack of the free and equitable intercourse which springs from a variety of shared interests makes intellectual stimulation unbalanced. Diversity of stimulation means novelty, and novelty means challenge to thought. The more activity is restricted to a few definite lines—as it is when there are rigid class lines preventing adequate interplay of experiences—the more action tends to become routine on the part of the class at a disadvantage, and capricious, aimless, and explosive on the part of the class having the materially fortunate position. Plato defined a slave as one who accepts from another the purposes which control his conduct. This condition obtains even where there is no slavery in the legal sense. It is found wherever men are engaged in activity which is socially serviceable, but whose service they do not understand and have no personal interest in. Much is said about scientific management of work. It is a narrow view which restricts the science which secures efficiency of operation to movements of the muscles. The chief opportunity for science is the discovery of the relations of a man to his work—including his relations to others who take part—which will enlist his intelligent interest in what he is doing. Efficiency in production often demands division of labor. But it is reduced to a mechanical routine unless workers see the technical, intellectual, and social relationships involved in what they do, and engage

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 A

MALAYALAM AND ENGLISH

DICTIONARY

BY

Rev. H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.


text: Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography/Ternaux, Henry


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The Dictionary of the Malayalam Language by Dr. H. Gundert which will be issued in parts, will consist of about 1000 pp. Royal 8°.

It is calculated that the work will be complete in five parts, and be finished by the end of 1872.

Price to subscribers, registering their names for the entire work—Rs. 12. 8. 0, or per each part Rs. 2. 8. 0. Single parts will not be sold.

A higher rate will be charged to non-subscribers.

Thirteen copies will be given to parties subscribing for twelve.

Subscriptions will be registered by the Publisher at Mangalore and at the Stations of the Basel German Mission in Malabar, viz: Cannanore, Tellicherry, Chombala, Calicut, Codacal, Palghat.

C Stolz, Publisher. Mangalore,
 * March 1871.


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Rh in their work because of the motivation furnished by such perceptions. The tendency to reduce such things as efficiency of activity and scientific management to purely technical externals is evidence of the one-sided stimulation of thought given to those in control of industry—those who supply its aims. Because of their lack of all-round and well-balanced social interest, there is not sufficient stimulus for attention to the human factors and relationships in industry. Intelligence is narrowed to the factors concerned with technical production and marketing of goods. No doubt, a very acute and intense intelligence in these narrow lines can be developed, but the failure to take into account the significant social factors means none the less an absence of mind, and a corresponding distortion of emotional life.

II. This illustration (whose point is to be extended to all associations lacking reciprocity of interest) brings us to our second point. The isolation and exclusiveness of a gang or clique brings its antisocial spirit into relief. But this same spirit is found wherever one group has interests 'of its own' which shut it out from full interaction with other groups, so that its prevailing purpose is the protection of what it has got, instead of reorganization and progress through wider relationships. It marks nations in their isolation from one another; families which seclude their domestic concerns as if they had no connection with a larger life; schools when separated from the interest of home and community; the divisions of rich and poor; learned and unlearned. The essential point is that isolation makes for rigidity and formal institutionalizing of life, for static and selfish ideals within the group. That savage tribes regard aliens and enemies as synonymous is not accidental. It springs from the fact that they have identified their experience with rigid adherence to their past customs. On such a basis it is wholly logical to fear intercourse with others, for such contact might dissolve custom. It would certainly occasion reconstruction. It is a

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 . 44. Carapace of Adelophthalmus mazonensis (Meek and Worthen) from the Herdina collection (H-6); × 1.3. This is the largest specimen that has been found.


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Author:Hermann Gundert

Works

 * A Malayalam and English Dictionary (transcription project)

title: Author:Hermann Gundert


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100 commonplace that an alert and expanding mental life depends upon an enlarging range of contact with the physical environment. But the principle applies even more significantly to the field where we are apt to ignore it—the sphere of social contacts.

Every expansive era in the history of mankind has coincided with the operation of factors which have tended to eliminate distance between peoples and classes previously hemmed off from one another. Even the alleged benefits of war, so far as more than alleged, spring from the fact that conflict of peoples at least enforces intercourse between them and thus accidentally enables them to learn from one another, and thereby to expand their horizons. Travel, economic and commercial tendencies, have at present gone far to break down external barriers; to bring peoples and classes into closer and more perceptible connection with one another. It remains for the most part to secure the intellectual and emotional significance of this physical annihilation of space.

2. .—The two elements in our criterion both point to democracy. The first signifies not only more numerous and more varied points of shared common interest, but greater reliance upon the recognition of mutual interests as a factor in social control. The second means not only freer interaction between social groups (once isolated so far as intention could keep up a separation) but change in social habit—its continuous readjustment through meeting the new situations produced by varied intercourse. And these two traits are precisely what characterize the democratically constituted society.

Upon the educational side, we note first that the realization of a form of social life in which interests are mutually interpenetrating, and where progress, or readjustment, is an important consideration, makes a democratic community more interested than other communities have cause to be in

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Rh and systematic education. The devotion of democracy to education is a familiar fact. The superficial explanation is that a government resting upon popular suffrage cannot be successful unless those who elect and who obey their governors are educated. Since a democratic society repudiates the principle of external authority, it must find a substitute in voluntary disposition and interest; these can be created only by education. But there is a deeper explanation. A democracy is more than a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience. The extension in space of the number of individuals who participate in an interest so that each has to refer his own action to that of others, and to consider the action of others to give point and direction to his own, is equivalent to the breaking down of those barriers of class, race, and national territory which kept men from perceiving the full import of their activity. These more numerous and more varied points of contact denote a greater diversity of stimuli to which an individual has to respond; they consequently put a premium on variation in his action. They secure a liberation of powers which remain suppressed as long as the incitations to action are partial, as they must be in a group which in its exclusiveness shuts out many interests.

The widening of the area of shared concerns, and the liberation of a greater diversity of personal capacities which characterize a democracy, are not of course the product of deliberation and conscious effort. On the contrary, they were caused by the development of modes of manufacture and commerce, travel, migration, and intercommunication which flowed from the command of science over natural energy. But after greater individualization on one hand, and a broader community of interest on the other have come into existence, it is a matter of deliberate effort to sustain and extend them. Obviously a society to which stratification into separate classes would be fatal, must see to it that intellectual

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102 are accessible to all on equable and easy terms. A society marked off into classes need be specially attentive only to the education of its ruling elements. A society which is mobile, which is full of channels for the distribution of a change occurring, anywhere, must see to it that its members are educated to personal initiative and adaptability. Otherwise, they will be overwhelmed by the changes in which they are caught and whose significance or connections they do not perceive. The result will be a confusion in which a few will appropriate to themselves the results of the blind and externally directed activities of others.

3. .—Subsequent chapters will be devoted to making explicit the implications of the democratic ideas in education. In the remaining portions of this chapter, we shall consider the educational theories which have been evolved in three epochs when the social import of education was especially conspicuous. The first one to be considered is that of Plato. No one could better express than did he the fact that a society is stably organized when each individual is doing that for which he has aptitude by nature in such a way as to be useful to others (or to contribute to the whole to which he belongs); and that it is the business of education to discover these aptitudes and progressively to train them for social use. Much which has been said so far is borrowed from what Plato first consciously taught the world. But conditions which he could not intellectually control led him to restrict these ideas in their application. He never got any conception of the indefinite plurality of activities which may characterize an individual and a social group, and consequently limited his view to a limited number of classes of capacities and of social arrangements.

Plato's starting point is that the organization of society depends ultimately upon knowledge of the end of existence. If we do not know its end, we shall be at the mercy of accident

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260 is not a mere inexactitude, not a mere error of expression. It involves a falsehood as serious and as misleading as if we were to say that killing is the same thing as murder. The execution of a murderer or the destruction of the enemy by a soldier is not murder. And there is the same difference between the proceedings which, being regarded by a community as magical, are condemned by it, and the proceedings which are approved by it and are by us falsely called magical. The modus operandi is doubtless the same in the two cases, just as the modus operandi—the use of a revolver for instance—may be the same in the case of a soldier and a criminal. But from the similarity in the modus operandi nothing whatever can be inferred as to the moral value of the act or the agent. The proceeding in the one case is magical or murderous, while in the other case it is not. And it is the difference between the two sets of proceedings which is of cardinal importance, not the similarity in the modus operandi. If then we are to bear in mind this difference and keep its importance constantly in view, it will be well to reserve the term "magic" exclusively for the proceedings which excite the disapproval of the community. It will be well also to bear in mind that the disapproval is evoked by the results which "magic" is intended or supposed to produce, rather than by any theory as to the source from which the magician's power comes: whether the power be inherent in the magician or not, its supposed effects are resented by the community.

If we once clearly grasp the fact that magical proceedings are those which are disapproved and resented by the community, it becomes evident that it is impossible to speak consistently of "an age of magic," meaning thereby an age in which magic alone was believed in. The impossibility reveals itself when we turn to the Australian black-fellows who are supposed to be in "the age of magic." Amongst them we find indeed the magic


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Rh and caprice. Unless we know the end, the good, we shall have no criterion for rationally deciding what the possibilities are which should be promoted, nor how social arrangments are to be ordered. We shall have no conception of the proper limits and distribution of activities—what he called justice—as a trait of both individual and social organization. But how is, the knowledge of the final and permanent good to be achieved? In dealing with this question we come upon the seemingly insuperable obstacle that such knowledge is not possible save in a just and harmonious social order. Everywhere else the mind is distracted and misled by false valuations and false perspectives. A disorganized and factional society sets up a number of different models and standards. Under such conditions it is impossible for the individual to attain consistency of mind. Only a complete whole is fully self-consistent. A society which rests upon the supremacy of some factor over another irrespective of its rational or proportionate claims, inevitably leads thought astray. It puts a premium on certain things and slurs over others, and creates a mind whose seeming unity is forced and distorted. Education proceeds ultimately from the patterns furnished by institutions, customs, and laws. Only in a just state will these be such as to give the right education; and only those who have rightly trained minds will be able to recognize the end, and ordering principle of things. We seem to be caught in a hopeless circle. However, Plato suggested a way out. A few men, philosophers or lovers of wisdom—or truth—may by study learn at least in outline the proper patterns of true existence. If a powerful ruler should form a state after these patterns, then its regulations could be preserved. An education could be given which would sift individuals, discovering what they were good for, and supplying a method of assigning each to the work in life for which his nature fits him. Each doing his own part, and never transgressing, the order and unity of the whole would be maintained.

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 in biometric studies; therefore the state of preservation is given with each specimen. The dimensions of these carapaces are as follows:

The ventral shield (fig. 46) comprises a broad plate, not unlike that of Hughmilleria, but without trace of any sutures except a longitudinal one dividing the plate into two halves, longitudinally, along the anterior. This suture is present in Hughmilleria (Størmer, 1934, fig. 2). A very narrow, raised, marginal rim surrounds the carapace. A small, deep, triangular indentation occurs at the middle of the anterior of the shield to receive the triangular process at the anterior of the carapace, thereby forming a locking device for the ventral shield.

The ventral shield is ornamented with very fine semi-lunar scales that point away, or radiate, from the position of the mouth (see also fig. 45). It was almost entirely preserved in specimen PE 6263 and partly preserved in specimens H-2 in the Herdina collection and PE 3347.

Specimen PE 5094 (a male, Type A) has the eyes located on the carapace, 4.9 mm. from the anterior margin, 7.7 mm. from the


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104 It would be impossible to find in any scheme of philosophic thought a more adequate recognition on one hand of the educational significance of social arrangements and, on the other, of the dependence of those arrangements upon the means used to educate the young. It would be impossible to find a deeper sense of the function of education in discovering and developing personal capacities, and training them so that they would connect with the activities of others. Yet the society in which the theory was propounded was so undemocratic that Plato could not work out a solution for the problem whose terms he clearly saw.

While he affirmed with emphasis that the place of the individual in society should not be determined by birth or wealth or any conventional status, but by his own nature as discovered in the process of education, he had no perception of the uniqueness of individuals. For him they fall by nature into classes, and into a very small number of classes at that. Consequently the testing and sifting function of education only shows to which one of three classes an individual belongs. There being no recognition that each individual constitutes his own class, there could be no recognition of the infinite diversity of active tendencies and combinations of tendencies of which an individual is capable. There were only three types of faculties or powers in the individual's constitution. Hence education would soon reach a static limit in each class, for only diversity makes change and progress.

In some individuals, appetites naturally dominate; they are assigned to the laboring and trading class, which expresses and supplies human wants. Others reveal, upon education, that over and above appetites, they have a generous, outgoing, assertively courageous disposition. They become the citizen-subjects of the state; its defenders in war; its internal guardians in peace. But their limit is fixed by their lack of reason, which is a capacity to grasp the universal.

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Rh which works mischief, but we do not find that magic alone is believed in. They have their ceremonies, which they perform for the good of the community; but those ceremonies, being for the good of the community, are clearly different from the magic which works harm to the community or its members. The modus operandi is doubtless much the same in the two cases; but as killing is not the same thing as murder, so the ceremonies are not the same thing as magic, even though the modus operandi be the same. Amongst the Australian black-fellows therefore we find magic, but we do not find "an age of magic," meaning thereby an age in which magic alone is believed in—for we find them also practising ceremonies which are just as much, or just as little, like magic as killing is like murder.

Again, the same herb may be used for murderous or for medicinal purposes. But that fact would not warrant us in inferring that an age of medicine was preceded by an age of poison. The herb itself is neither medicinal nor murderous: it is the use it is put to that makes it so. Its use for medicinal purposes is approved, and for the purpose of murder is condemned by the community. But there is no ground for imagining that herbs of this kind were used originally for none but harmful purposes, and only in a later age came to be used for purposes of medicine. So too there is no ground for supposing that originally the only rites practised were magical, that is, were rites practised with evil intent. On the contrary, tribes amongst whom magic is practised are tribes that also have ceremonies which they do not regard as magical—ceremonies of which they as thoroughly approve as they thoroughly condemn magic. And the difference between what they approve and what they condemn is a real difference, not a mere question of terminology. To us it may seem a mere matter of words whether their ceremonies for ensuring the food supply are or are not to be called magical. But to


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 . 45. Carapace of Adelophthalmus mazonensis (Meek and Worthen) from the Herdina collection (H-2), showing the outline of the ventral shield; × 2.8. The scales on the ventral shield point outward (see fig. 46).


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 INTRODUCTION

was a near relative, perhaps a grandson, of the famous orator, Dio Chrysostom, after whom he took the names Dio and Cocceianus, and like him was a native of Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator, who served as governor of Cilicia and of Dalmatia. It is now established that the correct order of Dio's names, if we follow the normal Roman usage, is that just given, his praenomen being unknown. The common Greek order, however, was Δίων δ Kάσσιος, and this order has become so thoroughly familiar to English readers that it bids fair to remain the popular usage.

The few details known regarding Dio's life are derived from casual statements occurring in his history. The date of his birth has been variously placed between 155 and 164 A.D., according to the time assumed for his admission to the senate. We learn that he was with his father during the latter's governorship of Cilicia, and that after his father's


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 . 46. Schematic drawing of the ventral shield of Adelophthalmus mazonensis (Meek and Worthen) based on specimens H-2, PE 6263 and PE 3347.

margin and 3.8 mm. from the lateral margins. They are 2.8 mm. in length, 1.8 mm. in width, 6.7 mm. apart at the front, and 8.6 mm. apart at the back. The ocellar mound is located on the carapace 8.2 mm. from the anterior margin, 6.8 mm. from the posterior margin, and 9.3 mm. from the lateral margin; diameter, 0.8 mm.

Another well-preserved specimen (H-3) has the eyes located on the carapace, 4.2 mm. from the anterior margin, 7.3 mm. from the posterior margin, and 3.7 mm. from the lateral margins. The lateral eyes are 3.7 mm. in length, 2.0 mm. in width, 5.6 mm. apart at the front, and 7.3 mm. apart at the back. The ocellar mound is located on the carapace, 8.5 mm. from the anterior margin, 5.5 mm. from the posterior margin, and 9.0 mm. from the lateral margins. In an uncrushed condition, the ocellar mound is nearly round and measures approximately 1.3 mm. in diameter.

The largest carapace (H-6) has eyes that are 6.8 mm. in length and 4.5 mm. in width.

Although the details of the Type B operculum are known (Kjellesvig-Waering, 1948, p. 23, pl. 1, fig. 6), those of Type A are mainly known from an inconclusive outline given by Meek and Worthen (1868a, pp. 19–22), as the holotype is a dorsal impression and the shape of the operculum could only be surmised by its reflection through the mesosoma. Little can still be added to Meek and Worthen's original interpretation except to reveal that the


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262 the black-fellows the difference between proceedings which are used for a good end and proceedings which are used for evil purposes is not a merely verbal difference. It is for them, and it is, as I suggest, in fact, a real difference—as real as the difference between killing and murder. The modus operandi may be the same in killing as in murder, but that does not make the one proceeding the same as the other, nor does it show that the difference between the two is merely verbal.

To speak then of an "age of magic" is to imply one of two things. Either it implies an age in which evil is always, and good is never, aimed at—and such an age there has never been. Or else it implies an age in which man was not conscious of the difference between proceedings aimed at an end that he thought good and proceedings directed to an end which he felt to be evil—and such an age there has never been. Proceedings directed to an end felt to be evil are themselves evil and are magical.

What then are we to say of proceedings aimed at an end felt to be good? Can we say of them that, if they are not to be called magical, they must be termed religious? The moment we ask this question we find ourselves face to face with the difficulty of defining rehgion. We may with Sir James Frazer define or describe religion as involving belief in personal beings superior to man; and then we cannot class the ceremonies which in Australia are conducted for the good of the community either as religion or as magic. Religious they are not, if religion implies belief m personal beings superior to man, and if in the Australian intichiuma ceremonies there is no reference to any such beings. Magical they are not, for the essence of the connotation of magic is that its purpose is condemned by the community as evil. Dr. Marett in the Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics suggests that what he calls "determinate religion"—by which he


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 . 47. Well-preserved specimen (male; Type A) of Adelophthalmus mazonensis (Meek and Worthen), PE 5094; × 1.5. The underlying mesial appendage was developed to reveal the lateral lobes of the operculum shown on figure 48.

lobes are large, ear-shaped, and very similar to those of Type B (see fig. 48). This is an important morphological structure, as the operculum of Adelophthalmus mansfieldi (C. E. Hall) is quite different with regard to the spatulate lobes. The Type A mesial appendage of A. mazonensis, although not clearly preserved, is considerably larger than in A. mansfieldi. The operculum of A. mansfieldi is given here for comparison (see fig. 51). This is James Hall's hypotype (1884, fig. 4), which remains the only known well-preserved Type A operculum of the genus Adelophthalmus.

A very poorly preserved specimen, PE 6174, paradoxically represents the only specimen in which the alimentary canal is preserved. This is preserved from the second tergite to about the ninth, and appears to be thickest in the area occupied by the fourth, fifth, and


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 Mr. Henry Lee from the joint committee appointed to prepare and report measures in honor of the memory of General George Washington, reported the following resolutions,

Resolved, that the resolution of Congress passed in 1783 respecting an Equestrian Statue of General Washington be carried into immediate execution; and that the statue be placed in the centre of an area to be formed in front of the Capitol.

Resolved, that a marble monument be erected by the united States in the Capitol at the City of Washington, in honor of General Washington to commemorate his services and to express the regrets of the American people for their irreparable loss.

Resolved, that the President of the United States be requested to give such directions as may appear to him proper for carrying into effect the preceding resolutions; and that for the present the sum of one hundred thousand dollars be appropriated for these purposes.


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Rh means the belief in personal beings superior to man—was preceded by and evolved out of what he speaks of as "nascent religion." And the intichiuma ceremonies would, I suppose, be in Dr. Marett's view an instance of "the stage of cult or ritual (if so it may be termed)" which may be spoken of as "nascent religion." The Archbishop of Upsala regards these ceremonies as "nascent religion." He quotes (Das Werden des Gottesglaudens, p. 194) the following passage from Messrs. Spencer and Gillen, and asks the reader to decide for himself whether what is described in the passage is or is not religion. The passage (from The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, p. 33), cf. pp. 177 ff.), runs as follows:

"Attention may be drawn to one striking feature of savage life, so far as the men are concerned. During his early years, up till perhaps the age of fourteen, the boy is perfectly free, wandering about in the bush, searching for food, playing with his companions during the daytime, and perhaps spending the evening watching the ordinary corroborees. From the moment of his initiation however his life is sharply marked out into two parts. He has first of all what we may speak of as the ordinary life, common to all the men and women, and associated with the procuring of food and the performance of corroborees, the peaceful monotony of this part of his life being broken every now and again by the excitement of a fight. On the other hand, he has what gradually becomes of greater and greater importance to him, and that is the portion of his life devoted to matters of a sacred or secret nature. As he grows older he takes an increasing share in these, until finally this side of his life occupies by far the greater part of his thoughts. The sacred ceremonies which appear very trivial matters to the white man are most serious matters to him. They are all connected with the great ancestors of the tribe, and he is firmly convinced that, when it comes to his turn to die, his spirit part will finally


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 son, being one of a family of ten. His youngest brother, James Wilson (1795–1856) [q. v.], is noticed separately. John received his first education in the grammar school of Paisley and in the manse of Mearns, and in 1797 proceeded to Glasgow University, where he was especially influenced by Jardine, the professor of logic, and Young, the professor of Greek. He obtained several prizes in logic, and his career as a student was in general highly creditable to him, though he was still more distinguished as an athlete. ‘I consider Glasgow College as my mother,’ he wrote, ‘and I have almost a son's affection for her.’ From Glasgow he migrated to Oxford, where he became a gentleman commoner at Magdalen College, and matriculated on 26 May 1803. He had previously, in May 1802, afforded an indication of the direction which his thoughts were taking by addressing a long letter, partly reverential, partly expostulatory, to Wordsworth, who returned the boy an elaborate answer, inserted in his own memoir, and reprinted, with Wilson's letter, in Professor Knight's editions of his works. At Oxford ‘he was considered the strongest, the most athletic and most active man of those days, and created more interest among the gownsmen than any of his contemporaries.’ He also studied methodically, and obtained considerable distinction in the schools, besides winning the Newdigate prize in 1806 (with a poem on ‘The Study of Greek and Roman Architecture’). He made many university friends (among them Reginald Heber and Henry Phillpotts), but none whose acquaintance appears to have been especially influential upon his life. During the vacations he wandered over Great Britain and Ireland, associating with characters of all descriptions; but the story related by the Howitts of his having actually married a gipsy is entirely devoid of foundation. In fact his deepest concern during the whole of his Oxford residence was his tender attachment to the lady he celebrates as ‘Margaret,’ ‘an orphan maid of high talent and mental graces,’ which came to nothing from the violent opposition of his mother. Heartbroken from sorrow and disappointment, Wilson went up for his B.A. examination in the Easter term of 1807, under the full conviction that he should be plucked, but on the contrary passed ‘the most illustrious examination within the memory of man.’ He graduated M.A. in 1810. He had already purchased a cottage and land at Elleray on Windermere, and thither he betook himself to lead the life of a country gentleman, not at the time contemplating the pursuit of any profession.

The first four years of Wilson's life at Elleray were divided between improvements to his estate, outdoor recreation, and the composition of poetry. ‘The Isle of Palms’ and other pieces were written by 1810, and published at the beginning of 1812. He also contributed letters to Coleridge's ‘Friend’ under the signature of ‘Mathetes.’ On 11 May 1811 he had married Jane Penny, the daughter of a Liverpool merchant and ‘the leading belle of the lake country,’ who had removed to Ambleside to be near her married sister. The union was most fortunate; but four years afterwards a calamity overtook Wilson by the loss of his property (estimated at 50,000l.) through the dishonesty of an uncle who had acted as steward of the estate. Wilson, so fearfully excitable when the affections were in question, bore the loss of fortune with magnanimity, and even contributed to the support of the delinquent uncle. The blow was indeed in great measure broken by the hospitality of his mother, who received him and his family into her house; nor was he even obliged to relinquish Elleray, though he removed from it for a time. He was called to the bar at Edinburgh in 1815, but made little progress in a profession in which neither taste nor ability qualified him to excel; of the few briefs which came to him he afterwards said, ‘I did not know what the devil to do with them.’ He cultivated literature to better purpose, following up ‘The Isle of Palms’ with ‘The City of the Plague’ and other poems (1816). In 1815 he made a pedestrian highland tour in company with his wife, in those days an almost unparalleled undertaking for a lady. Encouraged by Jeffrey, who had reviewed ‘The City of the Plague’ very kindly, Wilson contributed an article on the fourth canto of ‘Childe Harold’ to the ‘Edinburgh,’ but was almost immediately afterwards caught in the vortex which swept the literary talent of Scottish toryism into the new tory organ, ‘Blackwood's Magazine,’ established in April 1817. Up to this time periodical literature in Scotland had been a whig monopoly: all the loaves and fishes had been on one side, and all the pen and ink on the other. This was now to be altered, and although Wilson was not in reality a fierce, much less a bitter or intolerant, partisan, the vehemence of his temperament and the unwonted strength of his language sometimes made him appear the very incarnation of political ferocity.

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 wood [q. v.] himself, and that, contrary to the general belief at the time, neither Wilson nor Lockhart was ever entrusted with editorial functions. The first six numbers had appeared as ‘The Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,’ under the nominal conduct of James Cleghorn [q. v.] and Thomas Pringle [q. v.] The endeavours of these gentlemen to make themselves something more than editors by courtesy speedily estranged them from Blackwood; they seceded to the rival publisher Constable, and Blackwood organised a new staff, of which Wilson and John Gibson Lockhart [q. v.] were the most conspicuous members. Seldom has so great a sensation been produced by a periodical as that which attended their first number (October 1817), overflowing with boisterous humour and at the same time with party and personal malignity to a degree to which Edinburgh society was utterly unused. Besides attacks on Coleridge and Leigh Hunt, able and telling, but disgraceful to the writers, the number contained the renowned ‘Chaldee Manuscript’ (afterwards suppressed), which was in fact a satire, in the form of biblical parody, upon the rival publisher and his myrmidons. The authorship was claimed by James Hogg [q. v.], the ‘Ettrick Shepherd;’ but Professor Ferrier authentically states that, although Hogg conceived the original idea, not more than forty out of the 180 verses are actually from his pen. It may be added that the British Museum possesses a proof-sheet with numerous additions suggested in manuscript by Hogg, not one of which was adopted.

‘Blackwood,’ now fairly launched, pursued a headlong and obstreperous but irresistible course for many years. Wilson's overpowering animal spirits and Lockhart's deadly sarcasm were its main supports, but ‘The Leopard’ and ‘The Scorpion’ were powerfully assisted by the ‘Ettrick Shepherd,’ by William Maginn [q. v.], and Robert Pearse Gillies [q. v.] No one but Blackwood himself, however, can bear a general responsibility; his correspondence with Wilson in the latter's life shows how invaluable he was to his erratic contributor, and also what friction often existed between them. The attacks on Keats and Leigh Hunt, applauded at the time, were in after days justly regarded as dark blots on the magazine. Wilson assuredly was not responsible, and may even be deemed to have atoned for them by the enthusiastic yet discriminating encomiums of Shelley in the articles he wrote at this time, under the inspiration, as now known, of De Quincey, an old associate in the lake district. These were days of fierce exasperation on all sides, and much allowance should be made for the attitude of ‘Blackwood,’ which was nevertheless disapproved even in friendly quarters. Jeffrey was driven to renounce all literary connection with Wilson; and Murray, though the publisher of the tory ‘Quarterly,’ gave up his interest in the magazine. An unprovoked attack by Lockhart on the venerable Professor John Playfair [q. v.] was especially resented. Wilson's temperament continually carried him beyond bounds. His correspondence with Blackwood reveals him as at least once in a condition of abject terror at having committed himself, not from any fear of personal consequences, but from the perception that he had spoken in a manner impossible to justify of men whom he really revered.

During 1819 Wilson left his mother's roof and removed with his wife and family to a small house of his own in Ann Street, where Watson Gordon was his immediate neighbour, and where he also enjoyed the society of Raeburn and Allan. Next year the chair of moral philosophy in Edinburgh University fell vacant, and Wilson, who had no obvious qualification and many obvious disqualifications, was elected by the town council over the greatest philosopher in Britain, Sir William Hamilton, by twenty-one votes to nine, given him on the one sufficient ground that he was a tory [see art. ]. Having so freely assailed others, his own reputation was not likely to pass unassailed through the excitement of the contest. His wife ‘could not give any idea of the meanness and wickedness of the whigs if she were to write a ream of paper;’ and Wilson found it necessary to get not only his literature but his morals attested by Mrs. Grant of Laggan as well as Sir Walter Scott. Opinion on the other side is summed up by James Mill, when he says, writing to Macvey Napier, ‘The one to whom you allude makes me sick to think of him.’ The appointment was certainly an improper one, but turned out much better than could have been expected. ‘He made,’ says Professor Saintsbury, ‘a very excellent professor, never perhaps attaining to any great scientific knowledge in his subject or power of expounding it, but acting on generation after generation of students with a stimulating force that is far more valuable than the most exhaustive knowledge of a particular topic.’ It is only to be regretted that his professorship was not one of English literature. There he would have been entirely at home; his geniality, magnanimity, and ardent appreciation of everything which he admired would have found an eager response from


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264 return to his old alcheringa home, where he will be in communion with them until such time as it seems good to him to undergo reincarnation."

If then we are to regard the intichhima ceremonies as typical of the stage of cult or ritual which may be spoken of as "nascent religion," and if in such ceremonies there is, as Sir James Frazer holds, no reference to personal beings regarded as superior to man. it is clear that we can no longer suppose the essence or distinguishing mark of religion to consist in the assumption that the course of nature and of human life is controlled by personal beings superior to man. On the one hand we have narrowed the denotation of magic and have limited it, in accordance with the conception of those who believe in it, to proceedings intended for the harm of the community or its members. On the other hand, we have extended the denotation of religion until it embraces all ceremonies or rites practised by the community for the good of the community. Now, in this way we do get rid of the necessity of assuming that in the evolution Of man. there was a stage in which magic was known to man and religion was not. But we only get rid of it at the cost of extending and attenuating our notion of religion until it no longer contains any reference to a personal god or gods. Now, this it may seem at first we cannot possibly do. Religion, it may be said, implies at least belief in a personal god or gods. But to say that, is in effect to say that what I believe in is religion, and what other people believe in—if it differs from my belief—is not religion. Now that view, however common and however firmly held, is not scientific. From the point of view of science all forms of religion alike are forms of religion. We may and indeed we must have a provisional definition of religion, a working hypothesis to go upon. But we may and indeed we must also be prepared to amend our definition—for it is ex hypothesi but a provisional


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 his young auditors; while the diffuseness and extravagance of diction which so greatly mar his critical writings would have passed unnoticed in an oral address.

For some years Wilson's more elaborate efforts in ‘Blackwood’ belonged to the department of prose fiction. Most of the ‘Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life’ appeared in the magazine prior to their collective publication in 1822. ‘The Trials of Margaret Lyndsay’ was published in 1823, and ‘The Foresters’ in 1825. These were all works of merit, but are little read now, and would scarcely be read at all but for the celebrity of their author in other fields. It was not until 1822 that Wilson found where his real strength lay, and began to delight the public with his ‘Noctes Ambrosianæ.’ The idea of a symposium of congenial spirits is as old as Plato, and Wilson's application of it had been in some measure anticipated by Peacock. But Plato's banqueters keep to one subject, while Wilson's range over interminable fields of discussion, usually suggested by the topics of the day. As Plato created a Socrates for his own purposes, so Wilson embodied his wit and wisdom, and, more important than either, his poetry, in the ‘Ettrick Shepherd,’ a character for which James Hogg undoubtedly sat in the first instance, but which improved immensely upon the original in humour, pathos, and dramatic force; while the dialect is by common consent one of the finest examples extant of the classical Doric of Scotland. Wilson himself, as ‘Christopher North,’ acts in a measure as prompter to the Shepherd; yet many splendid pieces of eloquence are put into his mouth, and he frequently enacts the chorus, conveying the broad common-sense of a subject. The literary form, or rather absence of form, exactly suited Wilson. Here at last was a great conversationalist writing as he talked, and probably few books so well convey the impression of actual contact with a grand, primitive, and most opulent nature. The dramatic skill shown in the creation of the ‘Shepherd,’ though it has been much exaggerated, is by no means inconsiderable: the other characters, Tickler (Mr. Robert Sym, Wilson's maternal uncle), ‘the opium eater,’ De Quincey, and Ensign O'Doherty, are comparatively insignificant. The original idea of the ‘Noctes’ seems to have been Maginn's, and between 1822 and 1825 they were the work of so many hands that Professor Ferrier has declined to include these early numbers in Wilson's ‘Works.’ After this date until their termination in 1835 they are almost entirely from his pen. Their conclusion was probably thought to be necessitated by the death of Hogg, who could no longer appear before the world as a convivial philosopher. But a blow was impending upon Wilson himself which must have destroyed his power of continuing a work the first requisite of which was exuberant animal spirits. In 1837 he lost his wife, and was never the same man again. For nearly twenty years he had been enriching ‘Blackwood,’ wholly apart from the ‘Noctes,’ with a torrent of contributions—critical, descriptive, political—so representative of the general spirit of the periodical as fully to warrant the erroneous inference that he was its conductor. The death of William Blackwood in September 1834 was a severe blow to him, but he ‘stood by the boys,’ and his relations with them continued to be much the same as they had been with the father, troubled by occasional suspicions and misunderstandings, but on the whole as consistently amicable as was possible in the case of one so wayward and desultory. ‘He was,’ Mrs. Oliphant justly says, ‘a man for an emergency, capable of doing a piece of superhuman work when his heart was touched,’ but not to be relied upon for steady support. In some years the abundance of his contributions was amazing, and in 1833 he wrote no fewer than fifty-four articles for the ‘Magazine.’ Among the most remarkable of his contributions before the death of Blackwood were a series of papers on Homer and his translators, abounding in eloquent and just criticism; similar series of essays on Spenser and British critics, and the memorable review of Tennyson's early poems, bitterly resented by the poet, but which, in fact, allowing for ‘Maga's’ characteristic horseplay, was both sound and kind. Of a later date were some excellent papers entitled the ‘Dies Boreales,’ his last literary labour of importance, and an edition of Burns.

Wilson's spirits had greatly waned after the death of his wife, and his contributions to ‘Blackwood’ became irregular, but he was unremitting in his attention to the duties of his professorship, and continued to fill the conspicuous place he held in Edinburgh society until 1850, when his constitution gave manifest signs of breaking up. In 1851 he resigned his professorship, and a pension of 300l. was conferred upon him in the handsomest spirit by Lord John Russell, the object of so many bitter attacks from him. Wilson exhibited the same spirit by recording his vote at the Edinburgh election of 1852 for his old political opponent Macaulay. This was his last public appearance. On 1 April 1854 at his house in Gloucester


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Rh for our working hypothesis we must always be prepared to substitute one that works better. But the point to which the Science of Religion has been brought by Dr. Marett's article in the Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, and by Dr. Söderblom's book on the growth of the belief in God, is precisely whether Sir James Frazer's description of religion is absolute and final, or whether it is merely a working hypothesis which can now be improved—or rather a provisional definition which must now be amended and extended. If it be amended and extended, then we may be able to include under it the intichiuma ceremonies at one end; but the question which will probably arise in most minds is whether at the other end the belief in personal beings may not disappear from the definition. For if it does disappear, then it cannot possibly be a definition.

The difficulty thus raised might be serious, if it arose only when we were seeking for a definition of religion. But, so far from arising only then, it appears with just the same force whenever we attempt to define anything whatever that develops or evolves. The difference between the acorn and the full-grown oak tree is as great as that between the intichiuma ceremonies and a polytheistic or a monotheistic form of religion. But though no description we can give of the oak will describe the acorn, the fact remains that the oak grows out of the acorn, or that the acorn becomes an oak by a process of continuous growth. And the process is not only one of continuity but of change—of change in continuity and of continuity in change. No one imagines that the oak is preformed in the acorn—that if we take the acorn to pieces we shall find an oak inside. And it would be just as unreasonable to imagine that if we dissect one stage of religion we ought to find, preformed in it, the stages which later are to evolve from it. The fact that we do not find in an acorn an oak-tree preformed does not in the least shake the