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User:Notafly/Alexander Henry Haliday/British Entomology : Hymenoptera

Folio 764. [Allantus flavipes] “I cannot speak with certainty regarding the trophi, not having examined them sufficiently, but I must not omit to notice a remarkable departure from the typical structure, which Mr. Haliday has pointed out to me in a species allied to Selandria, with very short palpi, containing only 5 and joints instead on 6 and 4. Mr. Haliday has only seen the males which he took at Holywood and has named them seminigra, and perhaps Brachythrops may be considered an appropriate generic name”.

Folio 388 [Stilpnus dryadum]. DRYADUM Haliday ‘s Mss Curtis Guide, Gen. 488 289 In the cabinet of Mr. Haliday”. This genus Mr. Haliday says seems more allied to Hemiteles than to any of the other Ichneumonidae, indeed they can only by distinguished by the areolet, or a little difference in the length of the aculeus. The males of Stilpnus and of some species of Atractodes are also very similar. I have not heard of any of the species being bred from the pura, and when my guide was published, one only was known to inhabit these islands but since that period the following have been detected in England and Ireland and I am indebted to A.H. Haliday, Esq., for specimens, as well as the loan of the example figured. S. gagates Grav ……… June and August, Ireland, Mr. Haliday. S.dryadum Hal. Curt. Brit. Ent. pl.388 Black, shining: antennae straw colour at the base, the first joint sometimes with a black spot on the upper side : wings with the stigma and nervules pale brown, yellowish at the base: abdomen in the male with a pale ochreous band at the anterior margin of the second and third segments; female with a broad ochreous stipe down the back of the second, third and fourth segments, a spot at the tip of the petiole (which has a channel down the middle), and the margin of the second segment pale ochreous. Legs ochraceous, tips of tarsi blackish. Obs. Sometimes the abdomen of the female is entirely black and this sex has only fourteen joints in the antennae. Both sexes of this new species were taken in Galway Ireland, by Mr. Haliday. S.blandus Grav. Rare, taken by Mr. Haliday in Ireland.

Folio 399 [Tryphon varitarsus] “Mr. Haliday has discovered two new species, one T. aurifluus (the type of his proposed sub-genus Cteniscus) occurs on willows from July to September, the other he has named T. curtisii, and says, “The only specimen I have seen belongs to the same type as well as T. sexlituratus and about three species besides in my cabinet”. For the following observations I am indebted to the same gentleman and I am sorry I can only give an abridgement of them. “T.varitarsus I have sent a specimen of, to illustrate Gravenhorst ‘s notes on this species: he errs in supposing it the effect of accident; 3 out of 4 specimens occur thus affected. I subjoin extracts from my notes on the subject, with a sketch of the larvae (for such they are, and not eggs) in different stages. The Tryphons occur in August and Sept. on Willows and Ragwort, and I have found as many as 18 larvae attached to one insect: at first they are all of a smooth pear-shaped and shining opaque waxy tint (fig.B); in a few days they appear as represented at C, which is the underside: at this stage its voracious powers develop themselves and I find the oldest generally making a meal of his next neighbour, who is soon sucked to the skin. I observed two motions in the mouth, one an opening and shutting of the mandibles, the other a general dilation and contraction of the membrane of the mouth. Beyond this they show little signs of life while attached to the oviduct, but on being removed, which is easily done without injuring them, the darker ones have a slight jerking motion”. Folio 536 [Pezomachus hopei] “The two that I have bred, P. festinans Fab. and P. vagans Oliv. hatched from the cocoons of two species of Microgaster and with the latter appeared another parasite, a species of Hemiteles, and Mr. Haliday in the Ent.Mag. mentions two, so that 3 or 4 different Ichneumonidae were produced from the same cocoons. The most remarkable fact relating to these little animals is the great apparent excess of females; I have in my cabinet upwards of 20 species and only know the male of one (P. festinans) and Mr. Haliday says he has seen hundreds of the female of P. fusciatus yet he has never met with a male”.

Folio 464 [Mesochorus sericans] SERICANS Haliday's Mss - Curt. Guide, Gen 508. In the cabinet of Mr. Haliday”. “Mr. Haliday has observed to me, in a letter, that this genus affords two strongly marked divisions. 1. With the interior brachial cell of the lower wings emitting a single nervure from its inner angle. 1. M.tipularius Grav. 2 964 332. Curt. Guide 508 332. In larch plantations, Galway. Mr. Haliday. 2. M.splendidulus Grav. Very rare at Belfast but common in Galway. 3. M.olerum Hal. Length 1~a line Black, lower part of face,or bit of eyes, posterior margin of second segment of abdomen, a spot at the base of the third, and the legs ochreous, tips of tibiae and tarsi fuscous. Found on turnips by Mr. Haliday. 4. M.fulgurans Hal. Length 34 lines. Ochroeus, tips of antennae and eyes dark : abdomen ferruginous ochre stigma pallid. Taken in shady ravines in Ireland. 5. M. basalis Curtis ........... 6. M.sylvarum Hal. Length 3 lines. Black, orbit of eyes and mouth pale yellow, mesothorax and scutellum ferruginous the former with 3 black spots and a brownish spot sometimes on the back of the abdomen legs ochreous, tips of tarsi fuscous. Abundant on trees in hedge-rows particularly ash and oak, Mr. Haliday. II Interior brachial cell of the lower wings emitting 2 nervures from its inner angle. 7. M. sericans Hal. - Curt. Brit. Ent. p. 363 ?. Black with a dull blueish bloom, and clothed with pale pubescence; Face and mouth yellow, underside of antennae ochreous brown, an ochreous dot at the angles of the basal joint of the body, and a scutiform spot at the margin of the 2nd and the base of the 3rd of the same colour; the posterior margin of the latter and the tip of the abdomen ochreous: wings stained yellow, the nervures and stigma pale brown: legs ochreous, thighs reddish, tips of the posterior and of their tibiae blackins; posterior tarsi brown, the others brown only at their tips.

Folio 407 [Lampronota crenicornis] In the Cabinets of Mr. Haliday and the Author. crenicornis Hal. MSS – Curtis’s Guide, Gen. 511. Black, glossy, slightly pubescent: antennae simple in the female, geniculated towards the middle in the male, the 5th joint notched on the outside towards the apex and the 6th at the base (1?): head finely, thorax more coarsely punctured: post scutellum and base of the abdomen rugose: ovipositor scarcely so long as the body (6). Wings rich yellowish, iridescent; areolet none, stigma and nervures piceous. Legs reddish ochre, posterior tibiae and tarsi and the tips of the other tarsi brown. In the cabinets of Mr. Haliday and the Author ‘. 14a L. crenicornis Hal. Curt. Brit. Ent. pl. 407 male ‘Mr. Haliday says “it was found from the early part of August to the middle of September, and another species with similar antennae of the same figure etc., occurred in a pinewood : it differs in having the coxae black, the hind tibiae and tarsi dusky and it is larger”. I am indebted to Mr. Haliday for specimens of the remarkable insect figured, and he considers it to be almost osculant between Lampronda and Phytodietus: from the former it differs only in the cleft abdomen of the female and the deep thoracic sutures”

Folio 660 [Euceros albitarsus]

2. Hal. MSS I regret having no description of this insect which was taken I believe in Ireland by Mr. Haliday.

Folio 476 [Leiophron apicalis] In the Cabinets of Mr. Walker, Mr. Haliday and the Author. This genus was established by Nees von Esenbeck - who placed it between Perilitus (which follows Aphidius) and Bracon; and Mr. Haliday in his learned essay on the Parasitic hymenoptera locates it between the same groups. Our Leiophrons are easily distinguished from the other Ichneumones minuti ………………………….” Mr Haliday calls his division A PYGOSTYLUS, of which Crypus sticticus Flab. is the type; it is characterised by “the radial areolet just touching apex of the wing”.” a Abdomen sessile Type L. mitis Haliday ‘s MSS..

Folio 512 [Rogas balteatus] BALTEATUS Hal MSS. Curt Guide Gen 555. Opake ferruginous-ochre, pubescent: antennae longer than the insect, black as well as the head, the hinder part of the eyes ferruginous: Thorax inclining to rufous, black beneath, a black dot on each scapular and a spot of the same colour at the apex of the scutellum; post scutellum coarsely and thickly punctured, black with a bilobed rufous spot behind: abdomen punctured, with an elevated line down the back, the apical portion black, excepting the base of the 3rd segment: nervures brown, base of stigma ochreous: tips of hinder thighs and tibiae and all the tarsi brown, the latter black at the apex. In the cabinet of Mr. Haliday. This genus contains a considerable number of species many of which have been added by Mr. Haliday, who has kindly presented me with several together with a list of them. 10. R. dispar Hal. The sexes are very dissimilar in shape and colour, the male being slender, the female having a white ring round the middle of the antennae which are black, rufous at the base.On larches in Autumn, Mr. Haliday. 3. testaceus Fab. Taken in Ireland by Mr. Haliday as well as No.8. 12. balteatus Hal. Curt. B.E. pl 512 Taken near the harbour of Donaghadee by Mr. Haliday. 8. nobilis Hal “Black, shining, pubescent, mouth collar and legs reddish. Ferruginous, apex of posterior thighs and tibiae, and all the tarsi black; abdomen rugose, rufous, 1st segment with a black spot at the base, posterior portion smooth shining black with golden pubescence”.

Folio 289 [Chaenon anceps] Chaenon Hal. MSS. anceps Hal. MSS. Black shining. Mandibles castaneous, black at the extremity. Postpectus rugose, pilose with a groove down the middle. Abdomen ochreous, with an abbreviated black mark at the base on the back where it is deeply and coarsely furrowed; in the female the superior edge is black towards the apex. Wings iridescent with a yellow tinge. Stigma and nervures brown. Legs ferruginous ochre. Tarsi and tips of hinder tibiae fuscous; in the female the hinder thighs excepting the base, the tibiae and tarsi are blackish. In the cabinets of Mr. Haliday and the Author. Since the genus Alysia was illustrated the present group has been discovered by Mr. Haliday, to whose liberality I am indebted for the species I possess; and Mr. F. Walker has favoured me with his collection, to enable me to arrange and give slight characters of the whole. The species have been taken by the former gentleman in Ireland, from July to September, in moist meadows, and by the latter near Southgate as early as the end of June The length of the antennae is probably only a sexual character, and I suspect the species depart considerably from the type, in the form of the female abdomen, and one is destitute of wings. 1. C. anceps Curt. Brit. Ent. pl. 289. July, amongst long grass in drains. 2. C. gracilis Hal.—Slender, black; legs testaceous, 4 posterior thighs piceous, tarsi fuscous. Nearly as large as No. 1. 3. C. elegans Hal.—Probably a small var. of No. 2. 4. C. viduus Hal.—Black, abdomen piceous, anterior thighs beneath and tips of coxae ochreous. 5. C. obscurus Curtis —Similar to No. 4. but smaller: legs ochreous, 4 posterior thighs and tibiae, except at the base, piceous,tarsi fuscous. 6. C. similis Curt.—Smaller; the legs brighter. 7. C. affinis Hal.—As large, and more robust, than No. 2 anterior thighs and tibiae ochreous. 8. C. fuliginosus Curt.—Like No. 7, with a rufous spot on the body; the anterior thighs and tibiae, and the coxae and tibiae of intermediate legs, ochreous. 9. C. cingulatus Hal.—As small as No. 6: abdomen pale piceous, ochreous in the centre, legs ochreous, thighs and apex of tibiae of 4 posterior and tarsi, fuscous. 10. C. rufinotatus Curt.—More robust, the black and ochre more bright ; antennae, excepting the basal joint, ochreous. 11. C. brevicornis Hal.—Antennas short, ochreous at the base : abdomen piceous, ochreous in the centre : legs bright ochre, apex of 4 posterior thighs, tips of hinder, tibiae, and tarsi piceous. 12. C.apterus Curtis .—The smallest. Wings none. Testaceous; head, extremity of antennae, apex of abdomen, and tips of tarsi, blackish

Folio 383 Aphidius cirsii In the Cabinet of Mr. A. H. Haliday.

These little insects are parasitic, and live in the female Aphides : we sometimes see their horny bronzed cases sticking to the leaves of roses and other plants, with a round hole on one side and the lid frequently hanging like a door on its hinges, as represented in Harris's Exposition, tab. 18. f. 10. from these some of the little Ichneumons or their minuter

destroyers have escaped, for these again have their parasites as we learn from Geoffroy, who states that a Cynips destroys the larvae of the Ichneumon des Peucerons (Aphidius), and from his description I think it may be my Ceraphron Carpenteri (folio 249 2 No. 10), which I there stated had been bred from the Aphides by the late Mr. Carpenter. I am indebted to Mr. Haliday for a valuable monograph containing 19 species of Aphidii ; and Mr. F. Walker tells me he thinks he has about 50. It being therefore impossible to give specific characters of the whole, I shall avail myself of Mr. Haliday's paper, and give his admirable divisions. a Wings with 3 cubital areolets (Div. 1. Nees). Radial areolet terminating at the apex. Head small, rather globose. Antennae shorter than the body of 11 joints in both sexes. Aculeus short compressed, a little curved upwards. aa Wings with one cubital cell effuse to the margin, distinct from the anterior of the disc (Div. 3. Nees). Wings very ample, the radial areolet effuse, including the whole apex. Antennae and legs long and extremely slender. Head small globular narrowed to the back. Palpi long and slender. Mr. Haliday has described 4 species of the first division, and 3 of this, but has given no names, and I have none of them. aaa Wings with the anterior cell of the disc and inner cubital confluent and sometimes both together open to the margin (Div. 2. Nees). Head more transverse than in the other divisions. Radial cell terminating at the apex, its interior nervure often vanishing before the apex. a. Valves of the aculeus compressed, straight or curved upwards, black (Antennae longer in the males, varying in the number of joints, more numerous in the same sex : middle cell complete or open only to the exterior cubital one). This division contains A. Pini Hal., the males taken on the larch in Aug. the females on the Pinus sylvestris in Sept. —infulatus Hal. on the larch in Aug.—pictus Curt, on the Scotch fir, Sept.—dimidiatus Curt.—Rosae, Hal.?—picipes Nees, infests the Aphides of Hieracium ?—fumatus Hal. b. Valves of the aculeus incurved, broad, generally securiform, pale, f Anus beneath unarmed. 1. The middle areolet defined posteriorly. Contains two unnamed species. 2. The middle areolet entirely effuse to the margin (species very minute). Contains two species, and probably A. basalis Curtis’ s Guide. ft Anus beneath in female armed with 2 diverging horns recurved at the end, longer than the aculeus which lies between them. Middle areolet effuse. Antennae in the females of 1 1 joints, rather thicker towards the apex. Contains A. letifer Hal. —A. minutus Curt.—A. constrictus Hal., and another. The insect figured may be the I. Aphidum Linn.: but as the specific name has been converted into one for the genus by Nees ab Esenbeck, I have given it the name of ' Cirsii ' from its being said to be parasitic on the Aphis Cirsii, so named from its inhabiting Cirsium arvense Lam., the Carduus arvensis of this Work, PI. 296. Folio 341 [Galesus fuscipennis]

Galesus Hal. MSS., Curtis.—Psilus Panz., Jur.—Diapria Lat. Antennae inserted on the edge of a large cup formed by the projection of the face, very pubescent and pilose, as long as the body, geniculated, filiform in the male and 14-jointed, basal joint the longest curved and angulated on the inside, 2d and 3d joints the shortest and slenderest, the remainder robust and oblong, the terminal joint long and conical (1) : shorter clavate and 12- jointed in the female, the 2d and 3d joints being rather longer than the following, suboval, 4th and 5th ovate, the following moniliform, increasing in size to the terminal joint, which is long and conical (1 a). Labrum} subcordate, ciliated with long hairs (2). Mandibles approximating, rstriform, porrected, long and slightly pilose, bent and pointed at the apex, the inside very much sinuated, with a tooth towards the apex (3). Maxillae externally corneous, terminated by 2 thin semioval plates, lying close together, one producing a series of bristles, the other ciliated. Palpi rather long and slender, attached apparently to a minute scape, 5-jointed, 1st and 2nd joints nearly of equal length, 3d short oblong, 4th and 5th dilated, the former at the apex, the latter is the longest and truncated obliquely (4). Mentum lozenge-shaped, anterior margin rounded, beyond which extends a fleshy labium. Palpi biarticulate, basal joint slender and clavate, 2d rather longer, robust, pilose (5). Trophi deflexed (If) forming a rostrum beneath the head which is oval, the crown elevated in front with a short horn on each side the face sloping inward to the clypeus. Eyes lateral small and oval. Ocelli 3, placed on the fore part of the crown of the head, very large ( I *, underside of the head of a female, 1! the same in profile). Neck distinct. Thorax broader than the head, elongate-ovate, the sutures very strongly marked: squamulae very large and covering the base of the superior wings. Scutellum emarginate at the apex the angles acute. Petiolus robust and fluted. Abdomen elongate-ovate rather conical at the apex in the female, basal joint with a deep channel at the base and covering the whole body, excepting the apex. Wings iridescent, pubescent and ciliated, superior very large, narrow at the base, rounded at the apex, with a short subcostal nervure, a transverse curved callous nervure near the base and several nervures indicated only, and no cells : inferior wings small and narrow. Legs rather short and slender : coxae long : thighs short and incrassated : tibiae, anterior very slender at the base and robust at the apex, producing a long curved and acute spine, dilated below the apex : tarsi 5-jointed, basal joint long, curved at the base and beautifully pectinated in the anterior pair, terminal joint shorter than the basal one: claws acute: pulvilli membranous (8, afore leg).

fuscipennis Curtis's Guide, Gen. 570. No. 1. In the Cabinets of Mr. Walker and the Author.

Galesus is characterized by the peculiar form of the antennae, and by the remarkable head and distinct petiole ; and it may be observed that the Psili of Jurine, which are the Diapriae of Latreille, vary from our genus in having the third joint of the antennse long. In dissecting this insect, the curious scales which cover the base of the superior wings attracted my notice; they are thin and moveable, and may be used in closing the large wings, which for want of strong nervures, probably require their assistance. The dilated spine at the apex of the anterior tibiae, and the beautiful pectinated basal joint at the tarsi, although common in the Hymenoptera, are seldom more developed. I have now little doubt that they are for the purpose of cleaning the antennae ; few insects are without a spine to the anterior tibiae, and the basal joint of their tarsi is generally hollowed out inside, if it be not always pectinated in this order.

Three species only have been discovered ; Mr. Haliday thinks the third may be a small variety of the second. 1. G. fuscipennis Curtis Brit. Ent. pl. 341. male. Smooth, black and shining, partially covered with yellowish pubescence : antennae as long as the wings in the male, with the fourth and following joints elongated: eyes castaneous: ocelli pale : scutellum rugose : petiole with five very elevated longitudinal lines: wings pale, fuscous, yellowish towards the base, superior, with two white, and two or three brownish longitudinal lines on each ; a callous spot below the apex of the subcostal nervure, and the curved one near the base, yellowish brown : base of thighs, tibiae, and tarsi castaneous, the hinder tibiae with a dark spot below the middle and the tips of the tarsi black. The male figured I took in Norfolk many years since, and Mr. F. Walker finds it amongst grass in woods near Southgate, in June and July. 2. G. cornutus Panz. 83. 11. female. Antennae shorter than the wings in the male, having the fourth and following joints subovate, excepting the apical one (f. 1.): wings very pale, yellowish-luscous: petiole with five faint elevated lines : base and tips of the thighs castaneous, all the tibiae blackish in the middle, the hinder pair and the tarsi castaneous only at the base. Males taken in February and April, in shady places ; and females beginning of July, on the sea-shore at Holywood, by Mr. Haliday. 3. G. claviger Hal. MSS. Curtis's Guide, No. 3. Length three quarters of a line and one and a quarter. Male undiscovered : females very similar to the last, with which they were taken by Mr. Haliday.

Folio 380 [Cinetus dorsiger]

dorsiger Haliday's MSS. Ochreous shining, slightly pubescent: antennae brown, base ochreous : eyes, margins of the ocelli and disc of the thorax and scutellum black : abdomen pellucid, dirty white, excepting towards the apex : wings iridescent, the nervures brown. In the Cabinet of Mr. Holiday,

Belyta and Cinetus are so much connected, and the females are so similar, that until we have the sexes of the different species it will be difficult to determine whether the genera ought to be separated or united. Jurine distinguishes Cinetus by the triangular costal cell, and the antennae of the males are 14-jointed, those of the females 15-jointed. Since the plate was engraved I have availed myself of Mr. Haliday's papers, and I have scarcely any doubt that the fig. 1 a, belongs to Jurine's genus Belyta; I have therefore not incorporated the characters of this sex in the generic description, but I strongly suspect some of the females have antennae very similar to the figure above alluded to. The following species have been already detected in Britain, although only one has ever been recorded, except in the Guide, and there is no figure of the genus, I believe, in any work, British or foreign. 1. C. rubecula Hal.—Curt. Guide, Gen. 573. 1. 2. C. bicornis Ste. 2b C. armatus Hal. Male 1 and 2/3 line long; black, shining and slightly pilose, tip of the 1st and base of the 2nd joint of antennae castaneous, angles of postscutellum very acuminate. Wings fuscous, nervures piceous. Legs ferruginous, base of coxee, middle of thighs and of 4 anterior tibiae and tarsi at the apex piceous. 3. C. gracilis Curt. 2 and 1/4 line long : similar to No. 2 but more slender ,the 3rd joint of antennae is strongly sinuated, the base of abdomen castaneous, the legs are entirely ochreous and the open stigma is elongated. June, Bexley, Kent. 4. C. gracilipes Curt. 2 and 1/4  lines long : black shining ; peduncle slender, as long as the abdomen : wings slightly yellow, nervures ochreous, antennae and legs ferruginous ochre, the former fuscous at the apex, posterior thighs castaneous. 5. C. fuliginosus Curt.1 and 1/2 line long : similar to No. 4; the abdomen much narrower, and oval. Wings dusky, nervures piceous. 6. C. Cantianus Curt. 1 line long : black, shining : wings transparent, the open stigma elongated : legs ferruginous brown, antennae castaneous at the base, submoniliform in the female. 7. C. Vigil Hal. 8. C. maurus Hal. 9. C. Numida Hal. 10, C. nigripennis Hal. April, Holywood. 12. C. ruficornis Curt. Female 1 and 1/2 line long: robust, black and shining, angles of postscutellum produced ; peduncle short and thick:wings yellow, the open stigma elongated, nervures piceous : antennaeand legs rufous ochre, the former moniliform. 13. C. maculatus Hal. 14. C. dorsiger Hal.Brit. Ent.pl. 380. The male figured was taken on an oak by A. H. Haliday, Esq. in the county of Galway, Ireland. 17. C. Cursor Curt. Female. Similar to No. 12. in size and colour, but having very short and imperfect wings ; the base and tip of the abdomen are ferruginous. 18. C, Mirmillo Hal. 19. C. dryinoides Hal. 20. C. astutus Hal. No. 11. (bicolor Jur.) of the Guide, and probably 14, 15, and 16, ought to be arranged under Belyta.

Folio 744 [Proctotrupes areolator]

Order Hymenoptera. Fam. Proctotrupidae. Type of the Genus, Ichneumon gravidator Linn. Proctotrupes Lat., Hal., Curt.Codrus Jur. Esen.Bassus Fab. Antennae inserted in the middle of the face, remote, not so long as the body, filiform, or slightly thickened towards the apex, pubescent, 13-jointed, basal joint elongate-ovate, stout, 2nd small, cup-shaped, 3rd the longest, the remainder gradually decreasing in length, the apical joint a little longer than the penultimate, the apex somewhat conical (1). Labrum transverse, semiovate, hairy (2). Mandibles rather slender, slightly curved, not very acute (3). Maxilla terminating in a short irregular hairy divided lobe, dilated externally. Palpi 5-jointed? longish and hairy, basal joint short, indistinctly articulated, 2nd long stout and clavate, 3rd similar but a little longer, 4th the longest clavate, slenderer than the preceding, 5th rather shorter and attenuated (4). Mentum oblong, rounded at the base. Labium very short and rounded. Palpi moderate, hairy, clavate, triarticulate, basal joint longish, 2nd short, 3rd stout, elongate-obovate (5). Head short and broad, face suborbicular : eyes lateral prominent and oval : ocelli 3 in triangle. Thorax narrower than the head and very long : collar compressed : scutel semiglobose : metathorax long narrow and rounded behind. Wings pubescent, iridescent : superior with a large stigma and a very small m.arginal areolet, or a somewhat triangular cell ; costal and subcostal nervures parallel, a discoidal cell and 2 longitudinal nervures are also faintly traced (9) ; inferior wings nerveless. Abdomen as long as the thorax and a little thicker, attached by a short thick petiole, 6-jointed, ovateconic, the apex furnished with 2 short appendages in the male, attenuated in the female ; ovipositor considerably shorter than the body, incurved (7) composed of 2 strong sheaths, ciliated and slightly hooked at the apex (a), inclosing a slender lanceolate sheath {b), which contains 2 valves (c), that are curved and pointed, and these are confined by the apex of the sheath which forms a cap, into which they fit, besides these there is a long broader membranous filament with a rib in the centre (m). Legs rather slender, hinder long : coxae, hinder with a spur at the internal apex : thighs slightly clavate
 * tibiae simple, spurred at the apex : tarsi long slender and 5-

jointed, basal joint the longest and stoutest, 4th not much shorter than the 5th : claws rather long and slender : pulvilli distinct. Areolator Hal.—Curt. Guide, Gen. 575, no. 6.—ephippium no. 17, Shining piceous-black, disc of thorax and scutel rufous : metathorax clothed with pale hairs, rugose, with a ridge down the middle : petiole short, dilated towards the apex, striated as well as the base of the following segment ; ovipositor incurved, half as long as the abdomen, ferruginous ; antennae much shorter than the body, brown, 4 or 5 of the basal joints ochreous : wings yellowish, a little fuscous towards the apex, costal nervures and stigma piceous, marginal areolet elongate-trigonate, the other nervures faint ; legs ferruginous-ochre, tips of tarsi fuscous.

It was the opinion of Latreille and Esenbeck that Proctotrupes is allied to Helorus (pl. 403), and Mr. Haliday considers that it connects Diapria (Psilus) and Ceraphron (pl. 249). I must confess I expected to find it related to Cynips, and being unable to enter upon its affinities, I shall pass on to an examination of the ovipositor, which offers some peculiar characters. In the Ichneumonidae this organ is either porrected or elevated, but in Proctotrupes it is deflexed. Like that family, however, it has 2 sheaths inclosing a compound oviduct composed of 3 pieces, as shown in Pimpla (pl. 214. f. 6), but in Proctotrupes these are acuminated, and the lateral ones have their points securely fixed in the central one, the apex of which forms a cap for them : the most remarkable part of the structure, however, is an additional valve a little longer than any of the others, rather broad and membranous, with a thickened rib down the middle, the apex rounded (fig. m.) never having seen more than 5 pieces in any ovipositor including the sheaths, I cannot at present determine its functions. I rejoice to see that Mr. Haliday has commenced publishing Monographs on the Oxyuri, as they will enable those engaged in the study of these minute Hymenoptera to derive every advantage from his elaborate investigations. The following sections and species form his 1st fasciculus.

A. Metathorax rugose. Both sexes winged. B. Claws of anterior feet with appendages. I. niger Panz. 85. 9? 2. ater Esen. 2. 359. 8. 3. ligatus Esen. 359. 9.—basalis, minor, monilitor of Guide,vars, 4. brevicomis Guide, 575. 14. 5. longicornis Esen. 358. 7. B.B. Claws entire. C. Petiole conspicuous. D. Sides of prothorax roughish. 6. gravidator Linn.—campanulator Fah.—Ahr. 5. 16.— brevipennis Lat.? Gen. Crust. 4;. pi. 13.f 1. 7. gladiator Hal. p. 10. n. 7. 8. bicolor Hal. 10. 8. D.D. Sides ofprothorax very smooth. E. Scutel of mesothorax smooth. 9. elongatus Hal. 11.9. 10. pallipes Jur. pl. 1 3. gen. 46 ? 11. viator Hal. 12. 11. 12. curtipennis. Guide., 575. 8. 13. calcar Hal. 12. 13. 14. fuscipes Guide, 575. 10. E.E. Scutel of mesothorax bisulcated. 15. areolator Hal—Curt. B. E.pl. 744. ? .—ephippium Guide n. 17. This is the most variable of all the species, the thorax being sometimes piceous. Mr. Walker gave it me many years since. C.C. Petiole concealed. 16. aculeator Hal. 14. I6 17. Laricis Hal. 14. 17. On larch-trees infested with Aphides. 18. parvulus Esen. 360. 10. Females gregarious in boleti, infesting the larvae of Mycetophila in the autumn. A.A. Metathorax smooth. 19. apterogynus Hal. 15. 19.

Folio 206 [Dryinus cursor]

Order Hymenoptera. Fam. Proctotrupidae Nob.. Oxyuri Lat.. Type of the Genus Dryinus formicarius Lat. Dryinus Lat., Leach.—Gonatopus Klug. Antennae remote, slightly geniculated and clavate, pilose, inserted between the eyes at the base of the nasus, 10-jointed, basal joint long, subclavate, 4 following increasing in diameter, the 3d joint being a little the longest, 5th the shortest, the 6th and remainder turbinate, robust, of equal length, excepting the terminal joint which is conical and longer (1). Labrum undetected. Mandibles remote, quadridentate, externally pilose (3). Maxillae small, terminated by a pilose lobe, scarcely cleft. Palpi very long and slender, 6-jointed, basal joint small, 2d twice as large, the remainder nearly of equal length, being rather long slender and pilose (4). Mentum long, dilated anteriorly. Labium very small, concealed. Palpi remote, short, triarticulate, basal joint short, 2nd the largest, 3rd not larger than the 1st, rhomboidal (5), Head subtrigonate. Eyes large. Ocelli 3, in triangle. Thorax not broader than the head, the prothorax sometimes elongated. Abdomen not larger than the thorax, peduncled, conical and acuminated. Wings iridescent, pubescent, superior with a costal and marginal cell, the nervure of the latter from the angle sometimes indistinct, 2 nervures running from the base to the apex intersected transversely before the middle ,stigma large, inferior wings nerveless, lobed at the base (9). Legs long. Thighs incrassated, especially the anterior in some and attenuated to the apex. Tibiae spurred, anterior short. Tarsi long 5 -jointed, anterior with the basal and terminal joints long of equal length, the latter being robust, producing at the base a horny lobe, the analogue of a 2d claw, extending to the 2d joint, the 3 intermediate small (8) .- basal joint the longest in the other feet. Claws ; anterior feet with one only, which is very long, reflexed and slightly produced towards the base. Pulvilli porrected and very long (8) ; the other feet with 2 small claws very much dilated at the base and a large Pulvillus (8 b, hind foot). Obs. The above description is from D. Cursor, the following from D. bicolor. Apterous like a neuter ant. Head very large. Ocelli very minute. Thorax very long slender, binodate. Abdomen 6- jointed (6), Tibiae, anterior long, the Tarsi 4-jointed, basal and terminal joints long, intermediate very short. Claws 2, very long and unequal, spined internally. Pulvilli large (8 a fore foot).

Cursor Hal. MSS. Black, shining, slightly pubescent. Antennae slightly ferruginous at the base. Head and metathorax dull, the former minutely, the latter coarsely punctured. Legs ochraceous. Thighs, tibiae and basal joint of tarsi of 4 posterior legs piceous. Wings hyaline, slightly stained yellow ; nervures and stigma ochreous. In the Cabinets of Mr. Haliday and the Author.

Nature, ever fertile in her resources, having dispensed with one claw in the anterior feet of the males (at least in the species of which there were duplicates to examine),—to supply the deficiency, has produced the base of the terminal joint exactly as if a second claw was bent back as in the apterous sex, and soldered to that joint ; it would appear therefore that the means of capturing their prey are curtailed ; but the power to retain it is probably increased. Like the genus Proctotrupes, the abdomens are acuminated, which give them all the appearance of females. The following species (with the exception of the first and last) were taken by Mr. Haliday in Downshire near the Bay of Belfast, " on grass in open groves and the adjacent meadows, from the 4th of June to the middle of August. " When in the net they ran with uncommon activity, the chelate ungues remaining reflected on the tarsus." A. Prothorax elongated. 1. D. formicarius Lat. H. N. 13. 228.—Gen. Crust. 1. 12. f 6. —The female has been taken I believe at Ripley, Surrey, in Aug. B. Prothorax short. 1. Legs of nearly equal size. 2. D. Cursor Brit. Ent. pl. 206. 3. D. rapax Hal. MSS.—The size of D. Cursor. Black, shining, antennae and legs ferruginous-ochre, the former long and black in the middle, the apex of the posterior thighs as well as of the intermediate and posterior tarsi black ; stigma and nervures ochreous. 4. lucidus Hal. MSS.—Smaller than the last; black shining; antennae not longer than the thorax, fuscous except at the base, which is ochreous, as well as the legs, the posterior thighs fuscous at their apex ; nerves of the wings very obscure. 2. Anterior legs incrassated. 5. D. crassimanus Hal. MSS.—Like D. rapax, but more robust, the antennae shorter. 6. D. fulviventris Hal. MSS.The size of D. lucidus; black, abdomen fuscous-ochre, black at the base, and a dark spot towards the apex ; antennae and legs yellowish piceous, apex of the former ochreous, the posterior thighs dark at their tips, 4 posterior tarsi and stigma dirty yellowish white. 7. D. bicolor Hal. MSS.—Apterous, black, prothorax pale and dirty ochre, anterior margin brown ; antennae at their base and legs pale ochreous fuscous, anterior thighs at their base, middle thighs beneath, a stripe on the anterior tibiae and the apex of the 4 posterior tarsi piceous. Taken in moss on a bank in Ireland, April 1826. I cannot conclude without acknowledging my obligations to Mr. Haliday for the handsome manner in which he has allowed me to be the medium of communicating his valuable researches, as well as for his liberality in supplying me with specimens to illustrate this remarkable genus. Folio 720 [Bethylus fulvicornis]

I must confess that after great pains I am unable to satisfy myself as to the affinities of Bethylus, but I believe it to be most nearly allied to Ceraphron, fol. 249. Latreille places it amongst his Proctotrupii in the Gen. Crust., and says the antennas are 13-jointed in both sexes, that the maxillary palpi are 6-jointed, and the labial 3- or 4-jointed ; in his Fam. Nat. he includes it in his tribe Oxyuri, under the same section as Dryinus. Nees ab Essenbeck says the antennae are 14-jointed in the males, that the maxillary palpi are 6- and the labial 4- jointed. Jurine considers the antennae to be 13-jointed in one sex and 12-jointed in the other. Now it is very remarkable that none of my specimens agree with any of the above characters, the antennas being all 12-jointed, and the palpi 5- and 2- jointed; how these incongruities are to be reconciled I know not. There are as great differences of opinion respecting the species ; for whilst some describe several, others view them as mere varieties : from the different situations in which I have found them, and from the variety of colour in their antennae and legs, I shall distinguish them as species. Mr. Haliday has ascertained that the Bethyli secrete the larvae of Lepidoptera in broken reeds which occur on sand-hills, for the purpose, it is presumed, of supporting their larvae. The perfect insects are much attached to Syngenesious flowers, sallows, roses, grasses, &c. 1 must not omit to observe, that Epyris cannot be included with the Bethyli. 1. cenopterus Panz. 81. 14. " Base of antennae and legs fuscous- testaceous: wings opake, somewhat nerveless : 1 line." 2. punctatus Lat. Hist. Nat, 13. 229. " Second and a few following joints of antennae, and apex of tibiae and tarsi fulvous: superior wings obscure, with a fine white nervure trifid at its extremity. April,off rushes on the beach at Covehithe, Suffolk : June,off a hedge near Windsor, and in Yorkshire. 3. fuscicornis Jur. tab. 13, Gen. 43. Black, flagellum of antennae, tibiae, and tarsi testaceous: I and 3/4 to 2 lines. Off bushes Coomb Wood and Shooter's Hill in June. 4. fulvicornis Curt.B. E. pl. 720. Black, shining : very minutely shagreened, with a few scattered punctures, excepting the abdomen, which is very glossy, with a slight chalybeous tinge : head with an elevated longitudinal ridge between the antennae, which are bright ochreous, as well as the mandibles : superior wings yellowish, with a large yellowish- brown space beyond the middle, through which runs a white line, nervures and stigma brown, 2 basal cells perfect: inferior wings iridescent: legs ochreous, anterior thighs with a brown patch above, the others piceous as well as their tibiae, excepting the base and apex ; tips of tarsi and claws brown. August, on sand-hills. Sandwich, on the coarse grass, and in pits not uncommon. 5. formicarius Panz. 97. IG. " Black, middle of antennae, tibiae, and tarsi pale, stigma obsolete : 1 and 1/2 line." August, Scotland. 6. Syngenesiae Hal. Wings short.

Folio 317 [Spaasion frontale]

Sparasjon was unknown as a British insect until I had the good fortune to capture a specimen at Black Gang Chine in the Isle of Wight, the 16th of August 1828, but I have never been able to meet with it there since. The 12-jointed antennae, and the minute 2nd joint of the maxillary palpi, are sufficient to distinguish Sparasion from Ceraphron, to which it is closely allied on the one hand ; but whether it be so nearly related to Bethylus on the other, I am not able at present to determine. The membranous appendage also to the maxilla?, ciliated along its concave margin, I have never observed in any other insect that I have dissected. I shall here take the opportunity of observing, that with very few exceptions, I shall limit myself to the illustration of those genera of the minute Hymenoptera which have been established by Latreille, so that a very considerable number of those recorded in my " Guide" will not be published in this work; by which means the Student will be put in possession of the leading characters, to enable him to extend his investigations further if he chooses, and this work will not be carried to an inconvenient length. I beg however to acknowledge my obligations to my esteemed friends Mr. Haliday and Mr. F. Walker for their generous and valuable assistance and I hope they will be induced to give naturalists the benefit of their researches in the two families they have so successfully studied, by publishing the characters of the genera and species of these minute but beautiful tribes, of which Mr. Haliday has made most admirable dissections, and Mr. Walker has formed a collection embracing at least 700 British species. The minute Hymenoptera are best collected by beating into, and sweeping with, a net made of fine gauze, and Mr. Haliday recommends me to collect them into quills, and afterwards to empty their contents into hot water, by which means their wings are naturally expanded ; then by introducing a card under them to take them out of the water, arranging the legs and wings when necessary with a camel's hair pencil, and leaving them upon the card till they are dry, they may afterwards be taken off with a penknife, and gummed upon the points of small pieces of drawing- or card-paper of a long triangular form.

Folio 249 [Ceraphron Halidayi] Order Hymenoptera. Fam. Proctotrupidae Nob.Oxyuri Lat. Type of the Genus Ceraphron sulcatus Jur. Ceraphron Jur., Spin., Lat., Leach. Antenna inserted near to the mouth, longer in the male than female, geniculated, 11 -jointed in both sexes, pubescent, and attenuated in the male, the basal joint the most robust, not so long as the 3rd, 2nd very small, 3rd the longest, the remainder slightly decreasing in length to the last (1) ; filiform or subclavate in the females, the basal joint the longest, 2nd as long as the 4th, the 3rd long, the remainder slightly decreasing in length to the last, which is elongate-oval (1, a). Labrum undetected. Mandibles slender, bent, bifid and slightly pilose (3). Maxillae short, membranous, horny only on the outside, terminated by a broad rounded lobe. Palpi very long and exserted, 5-jointed, 3 first joints nearly of equal length, the 1st slender, 2nd and 3rd dilated, subovate, 4th and 5th very slender, the former nearly as long as the latter which is the longest (4). Mentum elongated, horny, the angles emarginate to receive the Palpi, which are not longer than the lip, clavate and apparently triarticulate, the 2 first joints very minute, the 3rd ovate, pilose. Lip large rounded and pubescent (5). Head suborbicular, frequently depressed. Eyes remote. Ocelli 3, Thorax ovate or oblong ; prothorax transverse and not suddenly nar' rowed. Scutellum, elongate-conic ; postscutellum sometimes toothed in the centre. Abdomen attached by a broad and very short peduncle, ovate-conic, composed of 7 joints, the 1st striated at the base and frequently covering more than half the body. Wings pubescent, anterior with a thickened costal nervure, terminated {in the type) by a large stigma, producing a curved branch. Thighs sometimes a little thickened. Tibiae spurred. Tarsi 5-jointed, the basal joint long. Claws and Pulvilli distinct (8, a fore leg). Obs. The dissections are taken from a male of C. Dux, nob., excepting fg. 1, a, which is the female antenna of the same species

Halidayi Nob. Male black, shining. Antennae as long as the wings, 11 -jointed, basal joint large ochreous, 2nd globose, the 4 following producing each, a long clavate branch pilose at the apex, the 3rd and 4th joints very short, 5th and 6th longer, 7th the longest, slightly branched at the apex, the remainder more robust, subovate, the 8th being slightly produced on the internal side, the 11th elongate ovate. Head transverse, large, punctured. Eyes large remote. Ocelli distinct. Thorax punctured, with 3 lines on the back meeting at the scutellum. Abdomen very smooth and shining, tinged with ochre and slightly furrowed at the base. Wings hyaline, iridescent, pilose, basal half of the costa thickened, the stigma large semiorbicular, producing a curved branch, all fuscous. Legs ochraceous ; thighs, middle pair fuscous above ; posterior pair of legs fuscous. Female unknown. In the Cabinet of Mr. Haliday.

So little are these minuter Hymenoptera understood, that this genus has never been recorded even as British ; and it is remarkable that only one species has ever been described by continental writers. I have now seen upwards of sixty species taken by Mr. Haliday, Mr. F. Walker, and myself. It is evident that they do not vary in figure and character less amongst themselves, than they do from the typical form, as will be shown by the following divisions with which Mr. Haliday has kindly furnished me. The insect dissected I preferred to the type, not only because it is the largest of the genus, but from my being acquainted with the sexes. Div. 1. Antennas 11-jointed; wings with the stigma subtrigonate or suborbicular. The Antennae shorter, the scape longer and the apex incrassated in the females. 1. C. Dux Nob. Length two lines, breadth three. Black, shining, base of tibiae and tarsi ferruginous. Superior wings with a fuscous cloud. Mr. Haliday, Ireland. 2. opacus Hal. MSS. Mr. Haliday, Ireland. 3. cimicoides Hal. MSS. m. Sept. Holywood, Downshire. 4. rufiscapus Nob. Norfolk. 5. rufipes Nob. Norfolk. 6. nitidus Nob. Mr. Walker. 7. sulcatus Jur.pl.l4f. 24th July,pales,Hampstead Heath. 8. puliciformis Nob. 9. crispus Hal. MSS. Aug. Holywood. 10. Carpenteri Nob. Black, head and thorax pubescent, body shining; apex of thighs, tibiae and tarsi ochreous. Antennae in the male similar to those of the same sex in Eurytoma abrotani. I have the pleasure of naming this curious insect after Thomas Carpenter, Esq. who bred it from female Aphides. 11. elegans Nob.. Mr. Walker. 1 2. Halidayi Nob. pl. 249. This beautiful little insect I have dedicated to A. H. Haliday, Esq. a zealous advocate of Entomology, whose knowledge of these beautiful tribes is only equalled by the liberality with which it is imparted to others for the advancement of science. It was taken the 8th of Aug. near Holywood. 13. gracilis Nob. Mr. Haliday. Div. 2. Apterous. 14. C. ruficollis Hal. MSS. May, Kensington Gardens. 15. Rubi Nob. e. Aug. upon bramble leaves, near Heron Court, Hants. 16. melanocephalus Hal. MSS. June, Oct. Shady groves. Div. 3. Wings with a linear branch, but no stigma. 1 7. longipennis Nob. Mr. Haliday and Mr. Walker. Div. 4. Antennae 10-jointed. 18. C. ferrugineus Hal. MSS. July 8, Holywood. 19. discolor Hal. MSS. Aug. Sept. Holywood. 20. nubilipennis Nob. Mr. Walker and Mr. Haliday.


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Rh concern with these technical subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to seeming a general training of mind. Literature, art, religion, when thus dissociated, are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose.

.—The conception that the result of the educative process is capacity for further education stands in contrast with some other ideas which have profoundly influenced practice. The first contrasting conception considered is that of preparing or getting ready for some future duty or privilege. Specific evil effects were pointed out which result from the fact that this aim diverts attention of both teacher and taught from the only point to which it may be fruitfully directed—namely, taking advantage of the needs and possibilities of the immediate present. Consequently it defeats its own professed purpose. The notion that education is an unfolding from within appears to have more likeness to the conception of growth which has been set forth. But as worked out in the theories of Froebel and Hegel, it involves ignoring the interaction of present organic tendencies with the present environment, just as much as the notion of preparation. Some implicit whole is regarded as given ready-made and the significance of growth is merely transitory; it is not an end in itself, but simply a means of making explicit what is already implicit. Since that which is not explicit cannot be made definite use of, something has beto [sic] be found to represent it. According to Froebel, the mystic symbolic value of certain objects and acts (largely mathematical) stand for the Absolute Whole which is in process of unfolding. According to Hegel, existing institutions are its effective actual representatives. Emphasis upon symbols and institutions tends to divert perception

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Abraham

 * Abraham, a play by Hrotsvitha (10th century)
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price
 * "Abraham" in Pearl of Great Price

title: Abraham


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80 from the direct growth of experience in richness of meaning. Another influential but defective theory is that which conceives that mind has, at birth, certain mental faculties or powers, such as perceiving, remembering, willing, judging, generalizing, attending, etc., and that education is the training of these faculties through repeated exercise. This theory treats subject matter as comparatively external and indifferent, its value residing simply in the fact that it may occasion exercise of the general powers. Criticism was directed upon this separation of the alleged powers from one another and from the material upon which they act. The outcome of the theory in practice was shown to be an undue emphasis upon the training of narrow specialized modes of skill at the expense of initiative, inventiveness, and readaptability—qualities which depend upon the broad and consecutive interaction of specific activities with one another.

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 1613. His great-great-grandfather, Sir William Willoughby of Parham, was nephew of William Willoughby, ninth baron Willoughby de Eresby, whose daughter Katharine, duchess of Suffolk, married as her second husband Richard Bertie, and was mother of Peregrine Bertie, eleventh baron Willoughby de Eresby [q. v.] Sir William was created first baron Willoughby of Parham in Suffolk on 20 Feb. 1546–7, and died in August 1574. His son Charles, second baron, is frequently confused (e.g. in indexes to Cal. State Papers, Dom., Cal. Hatfield MSS., and Leycester Correspondence) with his cousin, Peregrine Bertie; he was grandfather of William, third baron Willoughby of Parham, who died on 28 Aug. 1617, and was succeeded by his eldest son Henry. Henry died about 1618, when little more than five years old, and the title passed to his younger brother, Francis (, Peerage, ed. Brydges, vi. 613).

In 1636 Francis Willoughby complained of partiality in the levying of ship-money in Lincolnshire; in 1639 he answered with a great lack of zeal the king's summons to serve against the Scots; in the summer of 1640 his name was attached to some copies of the petition of the twelve peers to the king which led to the calling of the Long parliament. Though not at all conspicuous among the opposition, it is evident he was disaffected to the government (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1636–7, 1638–9 p. 435, 1640 p. 641). When the breach between the king and the parliament widened, Willoughby was appointed by the latter lord-lieutenant of the district of Lindsey in Lincolnshire, and, in defiance of the king's direct orders, put into execution the militia ordinance (Lords' Journals, iv. 587, v. 115, 127, 155). He was given command of a regiment of horse under the Earl of Essex, but arrived too late to take part in the battle of Edgehill (, Army Lists, p. 48;, Memorials, i. 187). On 9 Jan. 1643 he was made, by a special ordinance, lord-lieutenant and commander-in-chief in Lincolnshire ({{sc|Husband}, Ordinances, 1643, p. 834). On 16 July 1643 he surprised Gainsborough and took prisoner the Earl of Kingston, but was immediately besieged there by the royalists. Cromwell and Sir John Meldrum [q. v.] defeated the besiegers (28 July) and threw some powder into the town, but Willoughby was obliged to surrender on 30 July (Mercurius Aulicus, 27 July–3 Aug. 1643; Life of Col. Hutchinson, i. 217, 223;, Cromwell, letters xii. xiv.). A few days later he was forced to abandon Lincoln also, and to retire to Boston, which he expected to be unable to hold. ‘Without we be masters of the field,’ he wrote to Cromwell, ‘we shall be pulled out by the ears one after another’ (cf. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 1899, p. 53). Lincolnshire was added to the eastern association on 20 Sept. 1643, and recovered by Manchester's victory at Winceby on 11 Oct. Willoughby joined Manchester just before the battle, and captured Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire on 14 Nov. 1643 (, God's Ark, pp. 44, 67). In March 1644 he took part in Sir John Meldrum's abortive attempt to capture Newark, and the ill success of the siege was freely attributed to the refusal of Willoughby's men to obey Meldrum (A Brief Relation of the Siege of Newark, 1643, 4to).

Willoughby's military career closed in a series of quarrels. On 22 Jan. 1644 Cromwell complained to the House of Commons of the license which Willoughby tolerated among his troops (, Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion, p. 580; Mercurius Aulicus, 2 April 1644). Angry at this, and at his supersession by Manchester, Willoughby sent Manchester a challenge, for which, as a breach of privilege, he was obliged to ask the pardon of the House of Lords (Lords' Journals, vi. 405, 409, 413). He succeeded in getting Lieutenant-colonel Bury censured and Colonel Edward King committed to Newgate for their criticisms of his conduct as a general; but King was released by order of the House of Commons (ib. vi. 528, 531, 557, 571–6, 595, 600, 605, 612). In consequence of these personal slights he became bitterly dissatisfied. ‘We are all hasting to an early ruin,’ was his view of public affairs in 1644. ‘Nobility and gentry are going down apace’ (Hist. MSS. Comm. 4th Rep. p. 268;, ii. 366). In December 1645 parliament voted that the king should be asked to make Willoughby an earl, and employed him as one of its commissioners to the Scottish army (, i. 541, 548). Clarendon describes him as of great esteem among the presbyterians, ‘though not tainted with their principles’ (Rebellion, xi. 35). In 1647 he was one of the leaders of that party in parliament, and on 30 July 1647, after the secession of the independent members of the two houses, he was elected speaker of the lords in place of Manchester (, vi. 652). When the independents and the army triumphed, he was one of the seven lords impeached on 8 Sept. 1647, and remained for four months in prison. On 19 Jan. 1648 the lords released the accused peers on the ground that no charge had been presented against them. Articles of impeachment were sent up to the House of


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Vinci, Leonardo da

VINCI, vēn'chē, Leonardo da, Italian painter and sculptor: b. Vinci, Tuscany, 1452; d. Castle Cloux, France, 1519. He was the illegitimate son of Piero da Vinci, a prominent notary of Florence, and a woman of the lower class. By his father he was turned over to his grandparents at Vinci, who seem to have taken a great interest in him and to have attended to his education. When he grew older his father took him to his own house and there he lived with the other children, apparently on an equality with them and received, with them, an excellent education. He proved a good student and gradually developed an ardent desire for knowledge of every kind. But he was not a bookworm. His wonderfully keen intellect enabled him to acquire information with very little effort; and his remarkable musical and social gifts made him one of the most popular young men in Florence, then the intellectual centre of Italy and the peculiar home of art. There was nothing more natural, given his remarkable talents in so many directions, than that he should have learned to paint, an art which was then taught to children as music is to-day. Among his first teachers was Andrea de Verrocchio. Little is known about his early studies in pointing and sculpture, at which he seems to have worked with as much earnest endeavor and interest as at his studies in the natural sciences, in the latter of which he excelled all his companions. At the age of 20 he became a member of the Painter's Guild of Florence, then one of the most notable organizations of the age. The dates and facts concerning his early work are as few and as doubtful as the information respecting his youthful studies. It is certain that he was already a master painter in 1478 and that he was then employing others in the business of producing pictures. Much legend and tradition

have collected about this period of his career and numerous existing pictures, some of them completed and others unfinished, and others of them parts of larger works, have been attributed to him without sufficient evidence of a really trustworthy character. It is known that on this latter date he was requested by the Signorina of Florence to paint a certain picture for the Saint Bernard Chapel, in the Public Palace, but what this picture was or whether any of those put forward as it are really the picture in question, or his work at all, is very doubtful. That Da Vinci had advanced well in his art and made the most of his social talents seems certain for we find him in 1482 acting as the specially commissioned bearer of a present from the famous Lorenzo de'Medici, to another character of the age, now famous in history and tradition, Lodovico il Moro, ruler of Milan. The present itself indicates the favor in which Da Vinci was regarded at court. It was a strangely-constructed, yet beautifully-sounding instrument which the young ambassador had himself invented and upon which he played with great skill and wondrous sweetness. This mission proved one of the most eventful undertakings in his life, since it was destined to connect him most intimately, for over a quarter of a century, with the city of “il Moro.” But it seems it was not as a painter that the ruler of Milan valued him, so much as for his talents as an engineer and general manager. While in Milan Da Vinci seems to have been tireless. He was, on all occasions, representative and manager for the duke, and acted as the ducal engineer not only in the city but on that ruler's numerous military expeditions and undertakings; and he appears to have had a higher reputation in his day in this activity of his life than in painting and to have prized it higher himself. Among his other activities, at this period, he planned and constructed the Martesana Canal. He was also one of the most notable figures at the ducal court, where he managed the most b r illiant state affairs and public functions and festivals with consummate skill. He seems to have been also a sort of director of public works and, in this capacity, to have himself acted as architect of various public buildings. He is said to have had a hand in the construction of the very handsome Milan Cathedral, but what his part was is not known definitely. Notwithstanding all these wide and varied activities, he was carrying on painting on a very extensive scale and employing numerous talented painters to execute his designs or to do the less important parts of paintings which he was executing. About this time he wrote an important work on painting, which showed a wonderful knowledge of the art. This, it is said, was intended as a guide and mentor for his own numerous pupils. Thus occupied with so many and important activities he continued in Milan until the duke was driven out of the city in 1599. After the departure of the duke Da Vinci went to Venice, where he remained two years, which were devoted mainly to art. Then be returned to Florence, where he seems to have been received with great favor by the Church and the artist fraternity. He secured numerous important commissions from churches and monasteries; and some of the work that he executed in this connection, and the designs

he drew for others to paint from created a great impression upon the artists of his days. They were consequently copied and imitated extensively not only in Italy, but a little later on throughout all the Latin countries. One of the most remarkable of these was a Madonna, the design for which was worked over by Da Vinci several times afterward, notably in his famous Madonna and Saint Catharine in the Louvre.

In the midst of his triumphs in art Da Vinci became military engineer to Cesare Borgia (1502), a position which he probably retained for some considerable time, as it enabled him to move about through central Italy, and when occasion required to make visits to other parts of the peninsula, one of which he made the following year to Florence, where he served on artistic commissions and did additional military engineering. It was about this time that he painted the famous ‘Mona Lisa’ (Louvre), a portrait that has probably been more written about than any other in the world, especially during the second decade of the present century. Da Vinci spent four years on this portrait, and it is said that even then (l503-06) he was not satisfied with it. But notwithstanding his own opinion in the matter, the art judgment of the world is inclined to pronounce it his greatest triumph. About the time of the conclusion of this latter painting Da Vinci was appointed painter to the king (Louis XII). This was perhaps the busiest period in his life. He maintained studios for painting and carried on engineering projects and studies in natural sciences in Florence and Milan, in both of which places he had numerous pupils of surpassing worth who executed his designs for him to supply the incessant demands for his art work from churches and individuals. The art work done by his pupils in Milan was especially notable, and much of it was, at one time, believed to be altogether the work of the master himself. One of the most remarkable canvases of this period is the ‘Madonna of the Grotto,’ of which two copies exist, one in the Louvre and the other in the National Gallery. Much discussion has taken place as to which of these is the original. It is probable that both are, though many critics pretend to see in the copy in the Louvre the more direct embodiment of Da Vinci's style and peculiar artistic qualities. However, both copies are truly worthy of the master; and if one of them was painted by a hand other than his it must have been some one who was able to enter fully into all his moods and who had worked under him so long as to have completely absorbed his atmosphere. From 1513 to 1515 Da Vinci seems to have resided in Rome, having gone there on the departure of the French; but he returned to Milan in the latter year to take charge of the decorations and festivities attendant upon the entry of the French king, Francis I, who rewarded him by appointing him court painter with an annual allowance of 700 scudi in gold. The king also commissioned him to buy up all his own pictures. This he did, and with them he accompanied the French sovereign to France the following year, where he seems to have remained for the rest of his life, giving his time to the study of art and sciences.

Da Vinci, in a sense, revolutionized the art of painting and drawing. His technique was

masterly and really wonderful for his age. It enabled him to work with the greatest freedom and speed and with a sureness of touch and a mastery of design, of drawing and coloring until his day unknown. His portraits, his figures and his designs were always wonderfully true to life; and they led the artists of his age to seek for a fuller and truer expression of all the manifestations of life. This is perhaps the greatest of the many great qualities of the art expression of Da Vinci. Undoubtedly his studies in the natural sciences and, especially in physiology and anatomy, helped him solve many questions that his predecessors had not been able to; and the perfection of his drawing and the representation of the human and other forms seems to have quickened his already keen sense of coloring and of contrast of light and shade and of the blending of the two. He surpassed all his predecessors in the mastery he attained in the depicting of the mystical, the poetical, the sympathetic and the attractive in the human face. It is said that his several years spent in the painting of ‘Mona Lisa’ were constant strivings to catch the fleeting manifestations of the secret soul of his attractive and winsome subject. But he was not satisfied with mastering the atmosphere of the human face; he turned his attention to the atmosphere of landscape; and here again he succeeded so well that he was very fond of introducing landscape backgrounds into his pictures and portraits, which he did with telling effect. His strange genius is manifested in the perfect unity, form and artistic sense of the human and the landscape elements in his pictures. They seem to have been made for one another, to have grown up together. Insensibly the Italian artists of his day and of the following generation felt his power and recognized his superior genius; and among his numerous pupils were several who understood him so well that, as we have seen, their work has been frequently taken for his. There was not a great painter in Italy for the generation following his death who did not owe much to him. Not the least of these was Raphael; and among them were also such masters of the graphic art as Fra Bartolommeo and Andrea del Sarto, who in turn influenced hundreds of art students in favor of the High Rennaissance whose great master was Da Vinci.

Da Vinci was an inventor of note, one of the greatest and most successful engineers of his time and perhaps the deepest thinker and most profound investigator into all the known branches of science of his age. In many of his investigations he went far beyond his contemporaries.

Bibliography. — For a list of pictures consult any good history of Italian art; Da Vinci's own manuscripts, published in facsimile (Paris 1881-91; Milan 1891-95); and his ‘Trattato della pittura,’ which has been published numerous times (London 1802; Vienna 1882; and Rome 1890). An English edition, with original text, of his literary works, was published by J. P. Richter (London 1883). Consult biographies by Amoretti (Milan 1803) and Paul Müller-Walde (Munich 1889-90); the biographies by Rosenberg (Bielefeld 1898; English translation 1903); by E. Müntz (Paris 1899; English translation, London 1899); Volynsky (Saint Petersburg 1900; English translation by Heaton and

Black, London 1904); Horne (London 1908); McCurdy (London 1904); Séailles (Paris 1912) and Gronau (New York 1903); also Uzzielli, ‘Ricerche intorno a Leonardo da Vinci’ (2d ed., Turin 1896 et seq.); and the critical works of Dr. Jens Thüs (London s.d.) and Oswald Sirén (New Haven, rev. ed., 1916); Lomazzo, G. P., ‘Trattato dell' arte della pittura’ (Milan 1585); id., ‘Idea del tempio della pittura’ (ib., 1591); Venturi, J. B., ‘Essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathématiques de Leonardo da Vinci’ (Paris 1797); Bossi, Giuseppe, ‘Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci’ (Milan 1810); Calvi, C. L., ‘Notizie dei principali professori di belle arti’ (ib., 1869); Houssaye, Arsène, ‘Histoire de Leonardo da Vinci’ (Paris 1876); Grothe, Hermann, ‘Leonardo da Vinci als Ingenieur und Philosoph’ (Berlin 1874); Berenson, Bernhard, ‘The Drawings of the Florentine Painters’ (London 1903); Solmi, Edmondo, ‘Studi sulla filosofia naturale di Leonardo da Vinci’ (Modena 1898); id., ‘Leonardo’ (2d ed, Florence 1907), the best critical biography; Von Seidlitz, Woldemar, ‘Leonardo da Vinci, der Wendepunkt der Renaissance’ (2 vols., 1909).


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 fled from him: he it was who kept it at a distance, and, had he liked, a triumphal life could have been his. To Italy he was the incarnation of its genius. At the end of his career, the last survivor of the great Renaissance, he personified it—he alone was a whole century of glory. Artists were not the only people who regarded him as a supernatural being. Princes bowed before him. Francis I. and Catherine de' Medici rendered him homage. Cosimo de' Medici wished to make him a senator; and when he came to Rome treated him as an equal, made him sit by his side, and conversed with him confidentially. Cosimo's son, Don Francesco de' Medici, received him with berretta in hand, "showing a boundless respect for so rare a man." They honoured "his great virtue" no less than his genius. His old age was surrounded by as much glory as that of Goethe or Hugo. But he was a man of another metal. He had neither the


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 Lords on 1 Feb. 1648, which ordered Willoughby to give bail for his appearance to answer them. He declined to give bail (Feb. 6), fled to Holland, and openly joined the royalists (Lords' Journals, ix. 667, x. 11, 34;, ii. 270).

In May 1648, when the fleet in the Downs revolted from the parliament, Willoughby was made its vice-admiral by the Duke of York, and continued in that office by the Prince of Wales, ‘though he had never been at sea or was at all known to the seamen.’ This appointment, which was attributed either to an intrigue of Colonel Bampfield or to the designs of Lord Jermyn, greatly dissatisfied the royalists, but was welcomed with joy by the presbyterians (, Rebellion, xi. 34–6; Nicholas Papers, i. 97; Hamilton Papers). ‘Willoughby is most honest and wholly Scots,’ wrote Lauderdale; ‘he solely engaged on our interest.’ The prince also commissioned Willoughby to command in five of the eastern counties where it was hoped that a landing would be effected. But the crews were insubordinate, the fleet ill provided, and the prince's council torn by dissensions. ‘He stayed on board,’ says Clarendon, ‘purely out of duty to the king, though he liked neither the place he had nor the people over whom he was to command, who had yet more respect for him than anybody else,’ and he was glad to resign his post to Prince Rupert (November 1648; ib. pp. 221, 229, 249;, xi. 139, 149).

Willoughby's estates were sequestered by parliament (25 Dec. 1649) for his adherence to the king's cause, and 2,000l. voted for his arrears of pay was converted to other uses (Cal. of Committee of Compounding, p. 1838; Lords' Journals, ix. 38, 57, 378). ‘Since all is gone at home,’ said he, ‘it is time to provide elsewhere for a being,’ and turned to the colonies. On 26 Feb. 1647 he had made with the second Earl of Carlisle, the proprietor of Barbados, an agreement by which Carlisle leased to him for twenty-one years the profits arising from the island, half of which were to go to the payment of Carlisle's debts, and the other half to Willoughby himself. Carlisle promised also to endeavour to get him a commission as governor from the king, which was now procured. Willoughby arrived at Barbados on 29 April 1650, was received as governor on 7 May, and caused Charles II to be proclaimed the same day (Cal. State Papers, American and West Indies, 1574–1660, p. 327;, Continuation, § 1287; , Cavaliers and Roundheads of Barbadoes, p. 159). He found the colony half ruined by the dissensions of the two parties, pursued a conciliatory policy, ousted the extreme royalists from power, ‘and was welcomed as a blessing sent from God’ [cf. art. ]. Hearing that parliament was sending an expedition to reduce the island, he published a remarkable declaration (18 Feb. 1651) denying the right of a body in which the islanders were not represented either to make laws for them or to restrict their commerce. ‘If ever they get the island,’ he wrote to his wife, ‘it shall cost them more than it is worth. … Let me entreat thee to leave off persuasions to submit to them who so unjustly, so wickedly, have ruined me and mine.’ Already he contemplated establishing himself in Surinam as a last refuge, and sent men to found a settlement there, who reported it ‘the sweetest place that ever was seen’ (ib. p. 197;, Memorials of the Civil War, ii. 312; , Answer to Neal's Puritans, iv. 27, appendix). In October 1651 Sir George Ayscue arrived with a parliamentary fleet, and in December effected a landing. Defections followed, and in January Willoughby was forced to treat, for fear, as he said, lest further fighting ‘should turn the face of a country so flourishing and such an honour to our nation into desolation.’ By the treaty, signed 11 Jan. 1652, Barbados acknowledged the sovereignty of the parliament, and by the sixteenth article Willoughby was promised the restoration of his estates in England and the free enjoyment of his property in Barbados, Antigua, and Surinam. But an act of the assembly passed on 4 March 1652 required him to leave Barbados within eight days, and not to return to it again (, pp. 220–56).

Willoughby arrived in England in August 1652, and his estate was duly discharged from sequestration (1 Sept. 1652), though he could not obtain his back rents or his arrears of pay (Cal. of Committee of Compounding, p. 1840).

In 1654 the king wrote urging him ‘to be ready upon any great occasion,’ and in the spring of 1655 he took an active part in the preparations for a general royalist rising (Cal. Clarendon Papers, ii. 345, 413; Nicholas Papers, ii. 218–22). Imprisoned for plotting in June 1655, and again in March 1656, he was offered his liberty in November 1656 if he would give security to the amount of 10,000l. that he would embark for Surinam within six months, but, though released, he never went (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1655 p. 588, 1655–6 p. 580; ib. Col. 1574–1660, pp. 414, 461, 467). In June 1659 he was again eagerly promoting a new rising, and promising for his part to secure Lynn


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 Giuseppe Campori. "V. C. (Atti e Memorie delle R. R. Deputazioni di Storia Patria per le prov. dell' Emilia)," vol. iii. Modena, 1878.

Alfred de Reumont. " Vittoria Colonna," Fribourg, 1881. Italian translation by Müller and Ferrero, 1892, Turin.

Alessandro Luzio. "Vittoria Colonna" (Riv. Storica Mantovana). Vol. I, Mantua, 1885.


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 Ernst Steinmann. "Die Sixtinische Capelle," 1905, Bruckmann, Munich, vol. ii (for the iconography of Michael Angelo and Vittoria Colonna).

Henry Thode. "Michelangelo und das Ende der Renaissance," vol. i, Grote, Berlin, 1902; vol. ii, the same, 1903. This notable work—still unfinished—is the most important psychological and philosophical study on Michael Angelo and his times which has yet been published. It is permissible to regret—without speaking of its Wagnerian tendency, which is vexatious and fantastic—an abuse of abstract categories and scholastic divisions, which, instead of throwing light on the subject, obscure it and add to the disorder of a too compact text. But these books are full of ideas, and form an extremely valuable storehouse of documents. I have abundantly drawn from them, as well as from the admirable editions and studies of Carl Prey.

"Rime," first edition, 1538, Parma; second edition, 1539; "con giunta di xvi Sonetti Spirituali," 1539; "con giunta di xxiv Sonetti Spirituali, e Trionfo della Croce," 1544, Venice; numerous editions in the sixteenth century.

"Carteggio," published by Erm. Ferrero and Gius. Müller, Torchi, Turin, 1892. A collection of letters from or to Vittoria Colonna, and documents relating to her life—among others, the " Vita di V. C," by Filonico Alicarnasseo.

"Lettere inedite," Salza edition, Florence, 1898.

"II codice delle rime di V. C. appartenente a Margherita, regina di Navarra," scoperto ed illustrato da D. Tordi, Pistoie, 1900.

Henry Roscoe. "V. C., her Life and Poems," London, 1868.


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 for the king (Hist. MSS. Comm. 10th Rep. vi. 206–11).

At the Restoration Willoughby was paid the 2,000l. still due to him for his services to the Long parliament, and obtained the reversion of some crown lands in Lincolnshire from the king (Cal. State Papers, Dom. 1660–1, pp. 502, 578; Lords' Journals, xi. 149). In spite of some opposition from the colonists themselves, he was restored to the government of Barbados, and also made governor of St. Kitts, Nevis, Montserrat, and Antigua. Half the crown revenue from Barbados and half that from the Caribbee Islands were granted to him. He received also, jointly with Lawrence Hyde, a grant of the whole of Surinam in free socage, excepting thirty thousand acres reserved for the king (Cal. State Papers, Col. 1574–1660 pp. 483, 486, 489, 1661–8 pp. 114, 131, 139, 140). Willoughby arrived at Barbados on 10 Aug. 1663. His government was vigorous and arbitrary. One of his first acts was to arrest Walrond, the president of the council, for embezzlement, and to appropriate Walrond's house as his own official residence. He deprived Sir Robert Harley, the keeper of the seal, of his post on the ground of extortion and negligence. With the assembly of Barbados he carried on a long struggle, in the course of which Willoughby dissolved the assembly, arrested Samuel Farmer, its speaker, ‘a great Magna Charta man,’ and shipped him home to be punished. Petitions against his conduct met with no countenance in England, Charles gave him his full confidence, and Clarendon's steady support of his arbitrary acts was one of the charges against the chancellor at his impeachment (ib. 1661–8, pp. 295, 309, 317, 339, 364;, Continuation, §§ 1287–1308). On the other hand, by his persistent representations of the hardships which the Navigation Act inflicted upon Barbados, Willoughby succeeded in getting its non-observance connived at by the home government (Cal. State Papers, Col. 1661–8, pp. 167, 179, 234, 264). In spite of the limited means at his disposal, he maintained and even extended British possessions in the contest with Holland and France. He occupied for a time both St. Lucia and Tobago, though neither could be permanently held. Barbados beat off an attack from De Ruyter in April 1665, but the English part of St. Kitts fell into the hands of the French in April 1666. Willoughby got together a small expedition and started to retake it, but was lost at sea on board the ship Hope about the end of July 1666 (ib. 1661–8, pp. 410, 412, 414).

Willoughby married, about 1628, Elizabeth, third daughter and coheir of Edward Cecil, viscount Wimbledon [q. v.] She died in March 1661, and was buried at Knaith in Lincolnshire (see A Saint's Monument, &c., by, chaplain to Lord Willoughby, 1662, 12mo). Of their two sons, Robert, the elder, died in February 1630, and William, the second, on 13 March 1661. Of their three daughters, Diana became the wife of Heneage Finch, second earl of Winchilsea [q. v.], and died without issue; Frances married William, third lord Brereton, of Loughglinn, co. Roscommon; Elizabeth married Richard Jones, first earl of Ranelagh (, Peerage, iii. 384, vi. 613;, Life of Sir Edward Cecil, ii. 365). By his will, dated 17 July 1666, Willoughby left the greater part of his property in the colonies to the two last-named daughters and their children.

He was succeeded in the peerage by his brother,, sixth (d. 1673). ‘My brother,’ said the latter, ‘hath dealt unkindly with me, but I forgive him; he has done so by himself by giving large legacies out of little or nothing; I shall only say he was honest and careless, for he hath left little behind him’ (Cal. State Papers, Col. 1661–8, pp. 398, 465). On 3 Jan. 1667 Willoughby was on his own petition appointed to succeed his brother as governor of Barbados and the Caribbee Islands (ib. p. 437). He arrived there in April 1667, and by his firm and conciliatory conduct gained immediate popularity. Antigua and Montserrat were regained, the French expelled from Cayenne, and Surinam recaptured from the Dutch. In 1671 Willoughby, being in England, defeated an attempt to impose an additional duty on sugar, which would have ruined Barbados, and he was praised by the representatives of the colony in London as ‘wonderfully affectionate and zealous in all their concerns.’ He returned to Barbados in October 1672, despatched an expedition which recaptured Tobago from the Dutch in December 1672, and died on 10 April 1673 (ib. pp. 437, 454, 619, 1669–74 pp. 213, 366, 453, 493). By his marriage with Anne, daughter of Sir Philip Cary of Hunslet in Yorkshire, he left a numerous family, of whom the eldest, George, became seventh Baron Willoughby, and John and Charles were the ninth and tenth holders of that title. Another son, Henry, was lieutenant-general under his uncle and his father in the West Indies, retook Surinam in October 1667, was subsequently governor of Antigua, and died in December 1669 (ib. p. 204;, Peerage, vi. 613).


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 Giovanni Gaye. " Carteggio inedito d' artisti dei secoli xiv, XV, xvi," Florence, 1840.

Daelli. " Carte Michelangiolesche inedite," Milan, 1865.

"Sammlung ausgewaehlter Briefe an M. A. B., herausgegeben von Carl Frey," Berlin, 1899.

Richard Duppa. "The Life and Literary Works of M. A. B.," London, 1806, 1807.

Quatremère de Quincy. "Histoire de la vie et des Ouvrages de M. A. B.," Paris, 1835.

Hermann Grimm. " Das Leben Michelangelos," first edition, 1860, Hanover; seventh and last, 1900 (with illustrations).

Aurelio Gotti. " Vita di M. A. B.," Florence, 1875.

"L'Œuvre et la Vie de Michel-Ange, dessinateur, sculpteur, peintre, architecte, et poete," par MM. Charles Blanc, E. Guillaume, Paul Mantz, Charles Garnier, Mezieres, A. de Montaiglon, G. Duplessis, et Louis Gonse, Paris, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1876.

C. Heath Wilson. "Life and Works of M. B.," London, 1876.

Anton Springer. "Raffael und Michelangelo," 1878, Leipzig.

Ludwig von Scheffler. "Michelangelo, eine Renaissance-Studie," 1892, Altenburg.

John Addington Symonds. "The Sonnets of M. A. B. and T. Campanella," London, 1878.

John Addington Symonds. "The Life of M. A. B.," London, 1893.

Carl Justi. " Michelangelo," 1900, Leipzig.

Corrado Ricci. "Michelangelo," 1901, Florence.


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Vine

VINE. See.

title: The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Vine


text:
Author:George Percival Mudge

Works about Mudge

 * review of Mudge 1901 in: The Zoologist, 4th series, vol 6, issue 728 (February, 1902), p. 77/8.

title: Author:George Percival Mudge


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Vine in Art and Symbolism

VINE IN ART AND SYMBOLISM. The grape vine (vitis vinifera) figures frequently as a symbol from far distant times. In the Greek mythology Dionysius (and with the Romans Bacchus) was god of the vintage and, therefore, a grape vine with bunches of the fruit are among their attributes. Their attendants on the Bacchanalian festivals — the Bacchanals — hence had the vine as an attribute, together with the thyrsus, the latter often entwined with vine branches. For the same reason the Greek wine-cup (cantharos) is commonly decorated with the vine and grapes; wine, of course, being drunk as a libation to the god. In Christian iconography the vine also frequently enters. It is several times mentioned in the New Testament. We have the parable of the kingdom of heaven likened to the father starting to engage laborers for his vineyard. The vine is used as symbol of Christ based on his own statement, “I am the vine.” In that sense a vine is placed as sole symbol on the tomb of the sister of Constantine, the Empress Constantia, and elsewhere. In Byzantine art the vine and grapes figure in early mosaics and on the throne of Maximien at Ravenna it is used as a decoration. The vine as symbol of the chosen people is employed several times in the Old Testament. The vine and wheat-ear have been frequently used as symbol of the blood and flesh of Christ, hence figuring as symbols (bread and wine) of the Eucharist and are found depicted on ostensories. Often the symbolic vine laden with grapes is found in ecclesiastical decorations with animals biting at the grapes. At times the vine is used as symbol of temporal blessing. In decorative art, while the vine is not as favored as many other motifs it is frequently found in works of the Middle Ages, and in the Renaissance we find the vine as ornament on friezes, pilasters, etc. Its supple branches, the beauty of the leaf and the artistic formation of the bunch of grapes, all tend to make the plant one whose characteristics we would expect to find more

favor in the modern art world, more especially as the grape bunch is so prolifically used in the decorative arts.


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 II. WORKS RELATING TO THE LIFE OF MICHAEL ANGELO

Giorgio Vasari. " Vite degli architetti, pittore e scultori," 1550 (first edition); 1568 (second edition).

Ascanio Condivi. "Vita di Michel Angelo Buonarroti," Antonio Blado, Rome, 1553.

Francisco da Hollanda. " Quatre Entretiens sur la Peinture," held in Rome in 1538-1539—composed in 1548, and published by Joachim de Vasconcellos—French translation in "Les Arts en Portugal," by Comte A. Raczynski, Renouard, Paris, 1846.

Donato Giannotti. " Dialoghi de' giorni che Dante consume nel cercare l'lnferno e 'l Purgatorie "—composed in 1545 — first edition, 1859, Florence.

Paolo Giovio. " Michaelis Angeli Vita "—first published by Tiraboschi in his " Storia della lett. ital.," vol. ix, 1781, Modena.

Benvenuto Cellini. "La Vita," written between 1559 and 1562 — first edition, 1728, Naples.

Benedetto Varchi. "Due Lezzioni," Florence, 1549.

Benedetto Varchi. "Orazione funerale recitata nelle esequie di Michel Angelo Buonarroti," Giunti, Florence, 1564.

Francesco Berni. "Opere burlesche," Giunti, Florence, 1548.

"The Correspondents of Michael Angelo." I. Sebastiano de Piombo. Italian text published for the first time by Gaetano Milanesi, with a French translation by A. le Pileur, Librairie de I'Art, Paris, 1890.

"Sammlung ausgewaehlter Biographien Vasaris, herausgegeben von Carl Frey." Vol. ii. "Le Vite di M. A. B." Critical edition of all the biographies of Michael Angelo, composed by contemporaries.


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In Senate April 23 1789.

The Committee appointed on the 16 April, to report a mode of communication to be observed between the Senate & House of Representatives, with respect to Papers, Bills & Messages, and to confer thereon with such Committee as might be appointed, by the House of Representatives for that purpose, have conferred with a Committee of the House, and have agreed to the following Report.

When a Bill or other message shall be sent from the Senate to the House of Representatives it shall be carried by the Secretary, who shall make one Obeisance to the Chair on entering the door of the House of Representatives, & another on delivering it at the Table, into the hands of the Speaker. After he shall have delivered it, he shall make an Obeisance to the Speaker and repeat it as he retires from the House.

When a Bill shall be sent up by the House of Representatives to the Senate, it shall be carried by two Members, who at the bar of the Senate, shall make their Obeisance to the President, and thence advancing to the Chair make a second Obeisance, and deliver it into the hands of the President. After having delivered the Bill, they shall make their obeisance to the President, and repeat it as they retire from the bar. The Senate shall rise on the entrance of the Members within the bar, & continue standing till they retire.

All other messages from the House of Representatives shall be carried by a single Member, who shall make his Obeisance as above mentioned, but the President of

title: Page:1789 Resolve of the Senate.djvu/1


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 of the Senate alone shall rise.

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text: Resolve of the Senate on the report of the Joint Committee on the Mode of Communication between the two Houses


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  [Collins's Peerage, ed. Brydges; Darnell Davis's Cavaliers and Roundheads of Barbadoes, Georgetown, British Guiana, 1887; Schomburgk's History of Barbadoes, 1848, pp. 268–294; Calendars of Colonial State Papers; Addit. MS. 11411, ff. 55–63.]

WILLOUGHBY or WILLOBIE, HENRY (1574?–1596?), the eponymous hero of the poem called ‘Willobies Avisa,’ was second son of Henry Willoughby, a country gentleman of Wiltshire, by Jane, daughter of one Dauntsey of Lavington, Wiltshire. A younger brother was named Thomas. The father's father, Christopher Willoughby, was illegitimate son of Sir William Willoughby, the brother of Sir Robert Willoughby, first baron Willoughby de Broke [q. v.], (cf., Modern Wiltshire, i. 38–9). Henry matriculated as a commoner from St. John's College, Oxford, on 10 Dec. 1591, at the age of sixteen. According to the report of a ‘friend and chamberfellow,’ he was ‘a scholler of good hope.’ He may be the ‘Henry Willoughbie’ who graduated B.A. from Exeter College on 28 Feb. 1594–5 (Oxford Univ. Reg. Oxf. Hist. Soc. ii. 187, iii. 189). Soon after that date, ‘being desirous to see the fashions of other countries for a time,’ he ‘departed voluntarily to her maiestie's service’ (Willobies Avisa, ed. Grosart, p. 5). Before 30 June 1596 he is reported to have died (ib. p. 149).

On 3 Sept. 1594 there was licensed for the press ‘a book entitled Willoby his Avisa, or the True Picture of a Modest Maid and of a Chaste and Constant Wife’ (, Stationers' Registers, ii. 659), and shortly afterwards the work issued from the press of John Windet. In this volume, which mainly consists of seventy-two cantos in varying numbers of six-line stanzas (fantastically called by the author ‘hexameters’), the chaste heroine, Avisa, holds converse—in the opening sections as a maid, and in the later sections as a wife—with a series of passionate adorers. In every case she firmly repulses their advances. Midway through the book ‘Henry Willobie’ is introduced as an ardent admirer, in his own person, chiefly under the initials ‘H.W.’ It is explained in a prose interpolation that Willobie has sought the advice of a friend, ‘W.S.,’ who had lately gone through the experience of a severe rebuff at the hands of a disdainful mistress. After ‘W.S.’ light-heartedly offers some tantalising advice in verse, ‘H. W.,’ in the twenty-nine cantos which form the last portion of the volume, is made to rehearse his woes and Avisa's obduracy.

Two prefaces, one addressed to ‘all the constant ladies and gentlewomen of England that feare God,’ and the other to ‘the gentle and courteous reader,’ are both signed ‘Hadrian Dorrell.’ The second is dated from Dorrell's ‘chamber in Oxford this first of October.’ Dorrell takes responsibility for the publication, stating that he found the manuscript in his friend Willobie's rooms while he was absent from the country. Dorrell says that he christened the work ‘Willobie his Avisa’ because he supposed it was Willobie's ‘doing and being written with his own hand.’ He explains that the name ‘Avisa’ was derived from the initial letters of the words ‘amans vxor inviolata semper amanda,’ and that there was ‘something of truth hidden under this shadow.’

In 1596 Peter Colse produced a poem on the same model as ‘Willobies Avisa,’ which he called ‘Penelopes Complaint.’ Colse declares that ‘seeing an unknowne author hath of late published a pamphlet called Avisa’ concerning the chastity of a lady of no historical repute, he deemed it fitting to treat of the chastity of Penelope. Colse speaks approvingly of the unknown author's style and verse, which he closely imitates.

To Colse's effort ‘Hadrian Dorrell’ at once replied in 1596 in a new edition of ‘Avisa,’ to which he prefixed an ‘Apologie shewing the true meaning of “Willobie his Avisa.”’ This was dated from Oxford ‘this 30 of June 1596.’ Dorrell, in contradiction to his former statement, declares that the whole of ‘Avisa’ was a poetical fiction which was written ‘thirty-five years since, and long lay among the waste papers in the author's study, with many other pretty things of his devising,’ including a still unpublished work called ‘Susanna.’ The name ‘Avisa’ he now affirms either means that the woman described had never been seen, ‘a’ being the Greek privative particle, and ‘visa’ the Latin participle; or was an irregular derivative from avis, a bird. At the close of the ‘Apologie’ he remarks that Willobie is lately dead.

Dorrell's general tone suggests that his two accounts of the origin and intention of the book are fictitious, while the conflict between his statements respecting the author renders it unlikely that either is wholly true. But that Dorrell had ground for his claim of intimacy with Henry Willoby, the Oxford student, seems supported by the fact that he adds to this edition of 1596 a poem in the same metre as ‘Avisa,’ headed ‘The Victorie of English Chastitie under the fained name of Avisa,’ and signed ‘Thomas Willoby frater Henrici Willoby nuper defuncti.’ The Oxford student Henry Willoby undoubtedly had a brother named Thomas. The name of


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 Hadrian Dorrell was apparently assumed. No Oxford student bearing that appellation is known to the university registers. It is probable that ‘Hadrian Dorrell’ was sole author of ‘Avisa,’ and that he named his work after his friend Henry Willoby, in the same manner as Nicolas Breton named a poem, ‘The Countess of Pembrokes Passion,’ after the patroness in whose honour and for whose delectation it was written.

The chief interest of the poem lies in its apparent bearings on Shakespeare's biography. In prefatory verses in six-line stanzas, which are signed ‘Contraria Contrariis: Vigilantius: Dormitanus,’ direct mention is made of Shakespeare's poem of ‘Lucrece,’ which was licensed for the press on 9 May 1594, only four months before ‘Avisa.’ This is the earliest open reference made in print by a contemporary author to Shakespeare's name. The notice of Shakespeare lends substance to the theory that the alleged friend of Willoby, who is known in the poem under the initials ‘W.S.,’ may be the dramatist himself. ‘W.S.’ is spoken of as ‘the old player.’ If this identity be admitted, there is a likelihood that the troubled amour from which ‘W.S.’ is said in the poem to have recently recovered is identical with the intrigue that forms one of the topics of Shakespeare's sonnets. The frivolous tone in which ‘W.S.’ is made in ‘Avisa’ to refer to his recent amorous adventure suggests, moreover, that the professed tone of pain which characterises the poet's addresses to a disdainful mistress in his sonnets is not to be interpreted quite seriously.

‘Willobies Avisa’ proved popular, and rapidly went through six editions, but very few copies survive. Of the first edition, published in 1594, two perfect copies are known—one in the British Museum, and the other in Mr. Christie Miller's library at Britwell; a slightly imperfect copy is in the Huth Library. No copy is now known either of the edition of 1596, containing for the first time Dorrell's ‘Apologie’ and Thomas Willoby's contribution, or of a third edition published after 1596 and before 1605. A fourth edition (‘the fourth time corrected and augmented’) was issued by Windet, the original printer and publisher, in 1605; a unique copy is at Britwell. Bagford, Benjamin Furley, and other collectors noted an edition of 1609, which was probably a ‘remainder’ issue of the fourth edition. The work was reprinted in 1635 by William Stansby, and was described on the title-page as ‘the fifth time corrected and augmented;’ a copy, said to be unique, is in the British Museum. Dr. Grosart reprinted privately in 1880 the first edition, with extracts from the additions first published in 1596, although now only accessible in the editions of 1609 and 1635. The portion supposed to refer to Shakespeare was reprinted in ‘Shakspere Allusion Books’ (pt. i. ed. C. M. Ingleby, New Shakspere Society, 1864, pp. 69 et seq.)

[Grosart's reprint of Willobie his Avisa, 1880; Sidney Lee's Life of Shakespeare, 1898.]

WILLOUGHBY, HUGH (d. 1554), sea-captain, was the grandson of Sir Hugh Willoughby of Wollaton, Nottinghamshire, and youngest son of Sir Henry Willoughby of Middleton, who was made a knight-banneret at the battle of Stoke in 1487, and died in 1528. He served in the expedition to Scotland in 1544, and was knighted by the Earl of Hertford (afterwards Duke of Somerset) at Leith on 11 May. He afterwards had a commission on the border, and was captain of Lowther Castle in 1548–9 (Cal. State Papers, Dom. Addenda, 1547–1565, p. 402), but the downfall of Somerset materially altered his position, and the friendship of some persons connected with the navy is said to have turned his thoughts towards the sea. It would seem that Sebastian Cabot was one of these. It may be, too, that he was known as a capable commander, and at that time rank and authority were more considered than seamanship and navigation. He was appointed captain of the ship Bona Esperanza and captain-general of the fleet for the intended voyage to Cathay; Richard Chancellor [q. v.] was captain of the Edward Bonaventure and pilot-general of the fleet; and with him, as master of the Edward Bonaventure, was Stephen Borough [q. v.], who was accompanied by his younger brother, William Borough [q. v.] There was a third ship, the Bona Confidentia (cf. ib. p. 432). The object of the voyage, as laid down by Cabot in the instructions dated 9 May 1553, was to search for a north-eastern passage to Cathay and India, and on the next day the ships left Ratcliffe. They dropped down the river by easy stages, were detained for several weeks off Harwich, and did not finally get away till 23 June. On 27 July they anchored at one of the Lofoden Isles, and remained there three days. On 2 Aug., in latitude 70°, a boat came off from the shore and promised to get them a pilot for Vardohuus, apparently the only place they knew by name. But the wind blew them off the shore and freshened into a violent gale, in which the ships were separated. The Esperanza and Confidentia met again the next day, but they saw nothing more of the