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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Lichens

LICHENS, (Lat. lichen, lichen, Gr. ), a large but artificial group of the higher fungi (Carpophyta), characterized by parasitic growth upon the lower blue-green and yellow-green algæ (Protophyta, Chlorophyceæ). Lichens are of the wildest occurrence in nature, appearing as gray, yellow and brown crusts or masses almost everywhere upon trees, rocks and soil. The number of genera and species differs more or less with the authority cited: the valid genera number not far from 250, while the species are in the neighborhood of 4,000.

The vegetative body or thallus varies from a fraction of a millimeter to several decimeters in size, though it shows relatively little variation in thickness. In texture it is powdery, leathery, paper-like, or, in the case of many forms with blue-green algæ, gelatinous; the prevailing colors are gray, brown and yellow, while green and black sometimes occur. The shape of the thallus is typically orbicular or stellate; it is often irregular, especially in branched forms. In general appearance the thallus varies within wide limits; as a rule, however, three types, crustose, foliose and fruticose, may be clearly distinguished. The crustose type is the primitive one, showing in its granular, warty and areolate forms the various stages through which the thallus has passed in its development from the original mycelium. The crustose thallus is so closely in contact with its substratum that it cannot be separated from it without tearing. The foliose type is a higher development of the crustose. It is usually a definite, leaf-like structure, more or less lobed at the margin and attached to the stratum somewhat loosely or at but a single point. The fruticose type is a special modification of the foliose, in which the latter is more or less flattened or cylindrical and erect or pendulous. This form is probably an adjustment to conditions of diffuse light. It is especially characteristic of tree-lichens and of certain ground forms, such as Cladonia, where it is termed the podetium. In the latter there is also developed an accessory or secondary thallus, consisting of minute, leaf-like scales.

The simplest thallus consists merely of a few fungus threads enclosing the irregularly disposed cells of the host or alga. Ordinarily, however, the algal cells not only have a definite position, but the fungal portion of the thallus is likewise highly specialized. Naturally, this differentiation is least in the crustose forms and greatest in the fruticose ones. The structure of the foliose type may be taken as fairly representative, except of the gelatinous lichens, in which the algæ are scattered throughout the thallus. A definite epidermal layer is wanting

except in a few of the higher lichens, where the outer filaments have been gelatinized, resulting in the formation of a structure closely resembling a cuticle. As a rule, however, the uppermost part of the thallus is the cortical layer. This consists of hyphæ (filaments) compacted in such a way as to produce a tissue which looks much like parenchyma and is called in consequence pseudoparenchyma. The function of the cortical layer is in part mechanical or supportive and in part protective. Its structure seems to depend primarily upon the latter function: it is least in those forms growing in forests and greatest in those found in the open. Below the cortical layer and continuous with it is found the host or algal layer, consisting of filaments more or less loosely intertwined with the algæ. This is the nutritive layer, in which the fungal hyphæ draw their nourishment from the host-cells. The connection between the two may be merely by contact or by penetration. In the latter case the fungal hyphæ either penetrate the protoplasm of the host and finally destroy it, or merely pierce the cell-membrane and lie in contact with the protoplasm. In either event, the hyphæ develop special branches for contact or penetration, which are called haustoria. The algal layer is a specialized portion of the medulla which lies just below it. The hyphæ of the two layers are continuous, but they do not develop haustoria in the medulla, where they tend also to run more or less parallel with the direction of growth. The medullary layer primarily serves the function of transport; it is likewise used for the storage of lichenin (lichen-starch) and fats. The lower surface of the thallus is covered with a cortical layer similar in structure to that of the upper surface. Generally, however, it is somewhat thinner and is designed rather for absorption than for protection. It is frequently produced into facicles of hyphæ termed rhizoids and cilia.

The thallus of many lichens exhibits several peculiar structures, which are the direct result of the symbiosis of fungus and alga. The most frequent and most important of these is the soredium. This is a minute irregular mass of fungal hyphæ and algal cells, readily carried by wind or water, and able to grow directly into a lichen thallus under the proper conditions of moisture and warmth. Soredia occur upon the upper face of the thallus of many lichens as elevated powdery masses or tubercles. They arise in the algal layer of the thallus by the repeated branching of a fungal filament in such fashion as to completely enclose one or more cells of the alga, which also increase in number. The hyphæ become more or less gelatinized and compacted into a surface very resistant to desiccation. The soredia are pushed upward through the thallus by the growth of the filaments below and are finally extruded through a rift in the cortical layer, constituting a sorus. Normally, the soredia are carried away from the sorus and develop independently, but in some cases they grow while still in contact with the mother-thallus, producing minute, leaf-like scales upon the latter. These are the so-called isidioid growths or phylloclades, found in Usnea and related genera. Soralia are structures which arise from the medulla or even from the lower-most layer by the upgrowth of a mass of parallel filaments which penetrate the algal layer

and there develop into normal soredia. Cephalodia bear the general appearance of soredia, but in origin and function they are quite different. They are distinguished as external and internal. The cause of their development is unknown: they are said to arise from the soredia of other lichens, which have lodged upon the thallus. They have never been produced experimentally, however, and it seems much more probable that they are modifications of the thallus due to a change in the life form of the algal element. The cyphellæ are flat or concave gaps in the lower cortical layer of the thallus of Sticta and Stictina. They are filled with variously branched hyphæ of the medullary layer and probably function as organs of absorption and respiration. The spermagonia are minute black dots occurring on the upper face of many lichens, especially near the margin of the thallus. Structurally they are identical with those propagative organs of black fungi that are termed pycnidia. They are spherical bodies with a membranous or carbonaceous envelope, containing a layer of rod-like filaments which bear at their tips tiny spore-like bodies called spermatia. As the names indicate, the spermagonia were supposed to be male reproductive organs and the spermatia the fertilizing cells. There now seems to be little doubt, however, that they are propagative organs or pycnidia inherited from fungus ancestors. In a few cases they may be pycnidial parasites, such as Phyllosticta.

The fruit (sporocarp) of those lichens which bear spore-sacs (ascolichens) is called a perithecium when the fungus is one of the black fungi (Pyrenomycetales), a hysterothecium, when it belongs to the cleft fungi (Hysteriales), and an apothecium when the lichen is a cup fungus (Discomycetales). All these agree essentially in structure, though they differ in form: the perithecium is globoid, opening by a minute pore at the top, the hysterothecium, linear or irregular, opening by a cleft, and the apothecium usually open and disc-shaped. The essential parts in each are the same, namely, spore-sacs (asci), the spores, and the sterile threads (paraphyses). The apothecium is the highest type of spore-fruit and the most widely distributed. It consists usually of the following parts: the thecium, the central portion consisting of the asci, sometimes called thekes, and the paraphyses; the epithecium, which lies above the asci; and the hypothecium which is found below them. The latter often extends around the sides of the thecium also, and is there termed the exciple (proper exciple, parathecium). All of these consist of densely compacted elongate hyphæ (prosenchyma) which are without algæ and are often more or less dark colored. In most of the higher lichens the exciple is surrounded by the tissue of the algal layer, producing a thalline margin (thalline exciple) about the apothecium. The apothecium usually sits directly upon the thallus; occasionally it is stalked, and less frequently it is immersed or innate. Lichens show the same differences with respect to paraphyses, asci and spores that are to be found among the other cup-fungi and black fungi. The paraphyses are simple or repeatedly branched, continuous or septate, gelatinized or non-gelatinized, persistent or evanescent. They are often compacted and dark-colored at the tip, appearing to be continuous

with the epithecium. The spore-sacs of lichens are cylindrical or calvate in form, more rarely obovoid. Their walls are thin, though sometimes gelatinized; they do not react to iodine as a rule, except when very young. The asci usually open by a terminal slit; in a few cases the entire wall breaks away. The number of spores in an ascus varies from one (Pertusaria) to many (Acarospora); the normal number is eight, six or four. The arrangement of the spores is usually irregular, though they are sometimes in one row (monostichous), or in two rows (distichous). Lichen spores are ordinarily colorless and simple, less frequently dark brown and many-celled. They may be two-celled (bilocular), several-celled (plurilocular), or muriform, when the partitions run in both directions. The wall of the spore is smooth and without appendages; the contents may be hyaline, granular or guttulate.

Physiology and Reproduction. — The functions of lichens are essentially those involved in the relation between parasite and host, modified to an important degree in those forms with well-developed thallus. Absorption of water takes place readily upon both surfaces of the thallus, but especially on the under side, where hyphæ, cilia and rhizoids all act more or less efficiently as absorptive agents. According to Zukal, the hyphal hairs are capable also of absorbing moisture directly from the air, in Physcia, Peltigera, Sticta, etc. Water-storage takes place in the algal and medullary layers. It is effected primarily by the algal membranes, especially of the blue-green slimes, and to a degree also by the lichenin of the hyphæ. Zukal has suggested that the cephalodia, because of their blue-green algæ, are probably to be regarded as structures for the storage of water. The ability of the lichen thallus to retain water arises from its complexity, and from the presence of the gelatinized cortex. Lichens exhibit a number of somewhat primitive devices for the exchange of gases. These are often mere rifts in the thallus, or degenerate pycnidia; sometimes definite openings are present, or absorption takes place through loose protuberances. A specialized organ for this purpose is found in the cyphellæ of Sticta and Stictina, which are primitive breathing pores, making direct connection between the air and the medullary layer. The latter serves as a pathway for the transport of water and gases to the various parts of the thallus.

The relation of the lichen thallus to the environment is obscure. Of all macroscopic plants lichens resist drying-out the most successfully. With respect to the temperature extremes which they can endure, they are surpassed only by the bacteria. Many lichens withstand temperatures greater than 65° C., and nearly all are able to resist the intense cold of Arctic and Alpine winters, with minima of —40° to —60° C. Lichens exhibit very different sensibility to light: the majority of them grow in the fullest sunlight, while some, Evernia, Usnea, Peltigera, Graphis, etc., are adapted to more or less intense shade. In Alpine regions especially, orange and yellow thalli occur almost exclusively on the under, or shaded, side of rocks. This fact is explained by Zukal's researches, in which he found that the algal layer was most highly developed under a cortex orange or yellow in color, these colors being

most penetrable by the rays active in carbon assimilation. The color of the cortex is also thought to be a protection against excessive illumination, though this explanation can scarcely hold for those lichens in which the lower cortex is highly colored. According to Schwendener, the growth of the thallus is largely intercalary, marginal or apical growth being relatively insignificant. In lichens with yellow-green algæ, the growth of the thallus is determined by the fungus, and the development of the algal layer takes place subsequently. In this process, the algæ and hyphæ show a tendency to aggregate into tubercles, which modify the surface of the thallus. Somewhat similar sculpturings are produced by tensions in the growing thallus, especially by the alternation of wet and dry periods. In nearly all the gelatinous lichens, and particularly those parasitic on filamentous algæ, growth is controlled by the alga, and the fungus has little or no influence upon it.

The propagation of lichens occurs ordinarily by means of soredia. It may take place also by fragments of the thallus, whether abstricted naturally or cut off by accident. The propagative value of the pycnidium (spermogonium) in nature is unknown. The conidia have been germinated in cultures with difficulty, and at present there is no evidence that they grow more readily under normal conditions. Reproduction is a characteristic feature of the lichens: a few species produce apothecia rarely, while in certain sterile forms they are never developed. It is still an open question whether the apothecium is the result of fertilization. Some investigators have thought to demonstrate the presence of a carpogone and trichogyne, and to follow the development of a spore fruit, which results from the contact of spermatium and trichogyne. The germination of many spermatia points strongly to the conclusion that these are mere conidia and not male sexual cells. No fusion of sexual cells has yet been seen in lichens, and, until this is seen, it is impossible to settle the question of their sexual nature. The apothecium arises usually from certain more or less distinctly twisted hyphæ lying between the medulla and the algal layer. Sometimes the point of origin is just beneath the cortex, especially near the margin, and in crustose forms it is in the hyphal layer just above the substratum. The development is essentially the same as in the other cup-fungi; the hyphal fundament increases in size, and becomes differentiated above into two sorts of threads. The first to grow up are the paraphyses, in the centre of which push up the club-shaped branches, which become the asci. Spore formation in the ascus follows the method typical of all sac-fungi. The escape of the spores takes place through a terminal rift in the ascus or by the breaking up of the latter. The mature spores germinate readily under the proper conditions, usually sending out a single filament from each cell; large spores, however, such as those found in Megalospora and Pertusaria, produce many germinating filaments. The young mycelium is capable of slight development only, unless it comes in contact with the proper alga, when it grows at once into the thallus. The uncertainty that the spores will germinate in a place where the proper host occurs makes multiplication by spores much

less sure than by soredia. In a few cases (Endocarpon, Staurothele, etc.), this disadvantage has been overcome by the development of algæ in the thecium between the paraphyses and spore-sacs (hymenial gonidia). These are ejected with the spores, and, clinging to the latter, furnish a certain substratum for the germination of the spores.

Origin and Classification. — Lichens are sac-fungi and rod-fungi which show more or less similarity in their vegetative body because of their parasitism upon certain algæ. The clew to their origin and relationship is to be found in the inherited reproductive organ, the sporocarp, and not in the thallus. From this standpoint, the group is highly artificial, containing representatives of two distinct classes of fungi, the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes. The basidiolichens are a small group, containing but a few genera; the ascolichens consist of the representatives of several unrelated families. It is evident that the lichens have not arisen from a single point, as members or offshoots of one line of development, but that they have originated at several widely separated points. They are of multiple origin; that is, they are polyphyletic. In ascolichens, the form of the sporocarp indicates the main places of origin: the Verrucariaceæ, with perithecia, are Pyrenomycetales; the Graphidaceæ, which show the hysterothecium, belong to the Hysteriales; the remaining families, Caliciaceæ, Collemaceæ, Parmeliaceæ, etc., belong to the Pezizales.

The following synopsis will indicate the relationship and limits of the various families of lichens:

Class Ascomyceteæ: fruit a sporocarp, spores borne in sacs (asci).

perithecium.
 * sporocarp a

Family Spharioceæ: mycelium filamentous, saprophytic or parasitic on tissues.

Family Verrucariaceæ: mycelium thalloid, parasitic on yellow-green algæ.

hysterothecium.
 * sporocarp a

Family Hysteriaceæ: mycelium filamentous, hysterothecium carbonaceous.

Family Hybodermataceæ: mycelium filamentous, hysterothecium membranaceous.

Family Graphidaceæ: mycelium thalloid, on algæ, hysterothecium membranaceous or carbonaceous.

 * sporocarp an apothecium.

Apothecia and thallus leathery, waxy or carbonaceous, never gelatinous.

Family Patellariaceæ: mycelium filamentous, mostly saprophytic.

Family Lecidiaceæ: mycelium thalloid, apothecium sessile, exciple without algæ (proper).

Family Cladoniaceæ: mycelium thalloid of two sorts, primary and secondary; apothecia borne on stalks (podetia), proper exciple.

Family Parmeliaceæ: mycelium thalloid, algæ yellow-green, exciple with algæ (thalline).

Family Pannariacaæ: mycelium thalloid, algæ blue-green, proper exciple.

Apothecia and mycelium gelatinous.

Family Bulgariaceæ: mycelium filamentous.

Family Collemaceæ: mycelium thalloid, on blue-green algæ.

Class Basidiomyceteæ: fruit a hymenophore spores borne on stalks (basidia).

exposed on a pileus.
 * hymenophore

Family Thelephoraceæ: hymenophore smooth, mycelium filamentous or thalloid (in Cora, Rhipidonema, Dictyonema, and Laudatea).

enclosed in peridium.
 * hymenophore

Family Sclerodermataceæ: peridium broad subsessile, gleba excavate, mycelium filamentous, or thalloid in Emericella.

Distribution and Rôle. — Lichens are distributed over the entire earth; they are least numerous in the tropics and reach their maximum development in Alpine and polar lands, where they often form the principal vegetation over immense stretches. Many species are widespread, especially in the northern hemisphere: some of these, such as Cladonia rangiferina, Urceolaria scruposa, Usnea barbata, etc., are truly cosmopolitan. In the tropical and temperate zones, the greatest wealth of lichens is found upon bark and wood. In Alpine and polar regions the stone and earth forms are predominant. In these places lichens play their most important part in the economy of nature. They take the initiative in the disintegration of the hardest rock by virtue of the acids secreted by the thallus; they are likewise very effective in binding together the new soils which result in this way and in contributing organic material by their decay. In all rocky habitats they are the pioneers which prepare the way for the appearance of more highly organized plants, mosses, grasses, etc. In the case of tree-lichens, the tree is not affected by the lichen, except in so far as the bark may be ruptured by it mechanically. It is a question whether lichens exert any really injurious effect upon timber, though they probably hasten the decay of boards, posts, etc., by increasing the amount of moisture present.

A few lichens are of value as food. The most important among these is the so-called “reindeer moss,” Cladonia rangiferina, which covers vast stretches in the north and constitutes an invaluable supply of food for the reindeer and caribou. In Japan, Gyrophora esculenta, which is collected in abundance in the mountains, is of sufficient importance to be an article of export. The arid regions in northern Africa and western Asia produce large quantities of the manna-lichen, which is used to make bread, especially by the Tartars. This lichen is readily torn away from the substratum by the wind and is carried often to considerable distance before falling as “manna rain.” This phenomenon has been observed repeatedly in modern times, and probably accounts for the manna of the Israelites. “Trip-de-roche” is an edible Umbilicaria of Arctic America, but the presence of the bitter principle so common in lichens restricts its use as a food. Lichens owe their food value almost wholly to their high content of lichenin, or lichen-starch. Lichens, though once of extensive application in dyeing and in medicine, have fallen almost completely into disuse in both. The various kinds of orseille, which were made from Roccella tinctoria and held in high esteem for their brilliant purples have been entirely replaced by the aniline dyes. Litmus, which is a similar dye made from a species of Lecanora, is still extensively used in chemistry because of its red coloration in the presence of an acid. “Iceland

moss,” Cetraria islandica, is still used officially: it contains cetrarin, a bitter principle which is tonic and astringent, and a large amount of lichenin.

Consult Hale, E. H., ‘Flowerless Plants’ (New York 1909); Massee, G. E., ‘British Fungi’ (ib. 1912); Marshall, ‘Mosses and Lichens’ (ib. 1907); Tuckerman, E., ‘Synopsis of the North American Lichens’ (Amherst 1882); Schneider, A., ‘A Textbook of General Lichenology’ (1897); Schneider, A., ‘Guide to the Study of Lichens’ (Boston 1898); Sargent, F. L., ‘Lichenology for Beginners’ (Cambridge 1906).


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 land Court, Bristol, and the exchanges of Bristol (1740–3) and Liverpool (1748–55), the latter in conjunction with his son. He died on 23 May 1754, and was buried at Swainswick.

Wood's writings consist of: 1. ‘The Origin of Building, or the Plagiarisms of the Heathens detected,’ fol., Bath, 1741: a whimsical attempt to identify the origin of the orders with the architecture divinely revealed to the Jews. 2. ‘Description of the Exchange at Bristol,’ Bath, 1745, 8vo. 3. ‘Choir Gaure, vulgarly called Stonehenge; described, restored, and explained,’ 1747, 8vo. 4. ‘Essay towards a Description of Bath,’ London, 1742, 2 vols. 8vo; 1749, 1765. This work contains much information as to Wood's buildings, and several illustrations of them. 5. ‘Dissertation upon the Orders of Columns and their Appendages,’ Bath, 1750, 8vo. He also left in manuscript descriptions of Stanton Drew and of Stonehenge, 1740 (Harl. MSS. 7354, 7355).

His son, (d. 1782), was associated with many of his father's works, and the streets laid out in Bath by the younger Wood were largely schemed by the elder. He brought to completion in 1764 the Circus which his father had designed, and in 1767–9 built the Royal Crescent, an ellipse containing thirty houses of the Ionic order. The upper or new assembly rooms were begun by him in 1769 (completed in 1771 at a cost of 20,000l.), and in 1776 he built the Hot Bath and the Royal Private Baths in Hot Bath Street. He was also engaged upon York Buildings, of which the York House Hotel is the chief part (1753), Brock Street (1765), St. Margaret's Chapel (1773, since a skating rink), Edgar Buildings (1762), Princes Buildings (1766), Alfred Street (1768), Russell Street (1775), Belmont (1770), and Kelston Park (1764), sometimes attributed to the elder Wood. Outside Bath he executed Buckland, Berkshire, for Sir R. Throckmorton; and Standlynch for James Dawkins ( and, Vitr. Britannicus, 1767, i. pl. 93–7, ib. 1771, ii. pl. 81–4). The church of Langridge, near Bath, is erroneously associated with his name in the ‘Architectural Publication Society's Dictionary.’ He appears to have designed the church of Woolley and that of Hardenhuish, near Chippenham (consecrated 1779). He died on 18 June 1782, and was buried near his father in the chancel of Swainswick church.

 WOOD, JOHN (1801–1870), painter, son of a drawing-master, was born in London on 29 June 1801. He studied in Sass's school and at the Royal Academy, where in 1825 he gained the gold medal for painting. In the two previous years he had exhibited ‘Adam and Eve lamenting over the Body of Abel,’ and ‘Michael contending with Satan,’ and in 1826 he sent ‘Psyche wafted by the Zephyrs.’ These and other works displayed unusual powers of invention and design, and gained for him a great temporary reputation. In 1834 he competed successfully for the commission for the altar-piece of St. James's, Bermondsey, and in 1836 gained a prize at Manchester for his ‘Elizabeth in the Tower.’ During the latter part of his career he painted chiefly scripture subjects and portraits, which he exhibited largely at the Royal Academy and British Institution down to 1862. His portraits of Sir Robert Peel, Earl Grey, John Britton (in the National Portrait Gallery), and others have been engraved, as well as several of his fancy subjects. Wood died on 19 April 1870.

 WOOD, JOHN (1811–1871), geographer, born in 1811, entered the East India Company's naval service in 1826 and rose to the rank of lieutenant. At the close of 1835, through the exertions of government, the Indus was opened for commerce. The first to take advantage of this concession was Aga Mohammed Rahim, a Persian merchant of Bombay, who purchased a steamer for the navigation of the river. At his request, and with the permission of government, Wood took command of the vessel, named the Indus, which started on 31 Oct. 1835, and returned to Bombay in February 1836, leaving him on the banks of the river to ascertain the area of the annual inundation and the rise and fall of the tide. On the conclusion of these observations he returned to Bombay, and on 9 Nov. was appointed an assistant to the commercial mission to Afghanistan under the command of (Sir) Alexander Burnes [q. v.] Wood drew up a report of the geography of the Kábul Valley and discovered the source of the Oxus. In October 1838 Burnes mentioned Wood's services to the government with the highest praise. His industry was cut short by the differences which arose between Burnes and the governor-general, George Eden, earl of Auckland [q. v.], and Wood accompanied his chief into retirement.

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 After leaving the service with the rank of captain, Wood emigrated to New Zealand in connection with the newly formed New Zealand Company, but, finding he had overestimated the advantages to be derived from association with the undertaking, he returned to Europe. Between 1843 and 1849 his time was chiefly given to mercantile pursuits. In 1849 Sir Charles James Napier [q. v.] wished Wood to accompany him to the Punjaub, but the court of directors refused their consent. Disappointed in this project, Wood emigrated to Victoria in 1852, returning to Europe in 1857, and in the following year he proceeded to Sind as manager of the Oriental Inland Steam Navigation Company. The project was a failure, and, the shareholders refusing to adopt Wood's suggestions for sending vessels suitable for the rapid current of the Indus, the concern was wound up. In 1861 (Sir) William Patrick Andrew, the projector of railway and river communication in western India, secured Wood's services for the Indus steam flotilla, which he continued to superintend until his death in Sind on 13 Nov. 1871. He was married, and left issue.

Wood was the author of: 1. ‘A Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Source of the Oxus,’ London, 1841, 8vo; new edit. by his son, Alexander Wood, London, 1872, 8vo. 2. ‘Twelve Months in Wellington,’ London, 1843, 12mo. 3. ‘New Zealand and its Claimants,’ London, 1845, 8vo.

[Preface by Alexander Wood to Wood's Journey to the Source of the Oxus, 1872; Irving's Book of Scotsmen, 1881.]

WOOD, JOHN (1825–1891), surgeon, son of John and Sarah Wood, appears to have been born on 12 Oct. 1825. He was the youngest child of a large family, and his father, a wool-stapler at Bradford in Yorkshire, could afford to give him only a very simple education at the school of E. Capon. He was then articled to a solicitor, but disliking the law, and finding that his studies were interrupted by a severe injury to his hip, which resulted in permanent shortening and deformity, he went as a dispenser to Edwin Casson, then senior surgeon to the Bradford Infirmary. Here he learnt minor surgery, and was taught so much Latin as enabled him to pass the preliminary examination at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In October 1846 he entered the medical department of King's College, London, where his student career was marked by extraordinary and rapid success; for he gained four college scholarships and two gold medals. In 1848 he passed the first M.B. examination at the London University, obtaining the second place in honours and the gold medal in anatomy and physiology, but he did not further pursue a university career.

Wood was admitted a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England on 30 July 1849, and in the same year he became a licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. He was appointed house surgeon at King's College Hospital for 1850, and in the following year he became one of the demonstrators of anatomy, while Richard Partridge [q. v.] was the lecturer. From 1850 to 1870 Wood almost lived in the dissecting-rooms at King's College, though he was appointed assistant surgeon to King's College Hospital in 1856. When he succeeded to the office of full surgeon he resigned his demonstratorship of anatomy, and in 1871 he was offered the chair of professor of surgery at King's College. In 1877 he became a lecturer on clinical surgery jointly with (Lord) Lister, and in 1889 he was appointed emeritus professor of clinical surgery.

Wood held many important positions at the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Elected a fellow after examination on 11 May 1854, he was Jacksonian prizeman in 1861; examiner in anatomy and physiology 1875–1880; examiner in surgery 1879–89, and in dental surgery 1883–88; a member of the council 1879–87, and vice-president 1885; Hunterian professor 1884–5, and Bradshaw lecturer in 1885. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in June 1871, and in the same year he became an honorary fellow of King's College, London. At various times he acted as an examiner in the universities of London and of Cambridge. He was president of the Metropolitan Counties' branch of the British Medical Association, and he was an honorary fellow of the Swedish Medical Society. He died on 29 Dec. 1891, and is buried in Kensal Green cemetery.

He was twice married: first, on 19 Aug. 1858, to Mary Anne Ward, who died in childbed the following year; secondly, on 5 April 1862, to Emma, widow of the Rev. J. H. Knox and daughter of Thomas Ware. Issue by both marriages survived him.

Wood ranks as one of the last English surgeons who owed their position to a most thorough knowledge of anatomy; yet his mind was sufficiently open to the advantages of pathology to enable him to accept the teaching of his colleague, Lord Lister. Wood's knowledge of anatomy enabled him to invent a somewhat complex method of operation for the cure of rupture, a method


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 which the advance of aseptic surgery has rendered obsolete. In plastic surgery he was an acknowledged master.

Wood published: 1. ‘On Rupture—Inguinal, Crural, and Umbilical,’ London, 1863, 8vo. 2. ‘Lectures on Hernia and its Radical Cure,’ London, 1886, 8vo. 3. ‘The Teeth and Associate Parts,’ Edinburgh, 1886, 12mo.

There is a portrait of Wood in the group of the council of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1884. The picture hangs in the inner hall of the college in Lincoln's Inn Fields.

[Personal knowledge; Brit. Med. Journal, 1892, i. 96; additional information kindly given by Miss Wood and by Dr. Myrtle of Harrogate.]

WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827–1889), writer on natural history, eldest son of John Freeman Wood, surgeon, and his wife Juliana Lisetta (born Arntz), was born in London on 21 July 1827. Being weakly he was educated at home, and, his father having removed to Oxford in 1830, he led an outdoor life, which gave full scope for the development of his innate love of all natural history pursuits.

In 1838 he was placed under his uncle, the Rev. George Edward Gepp, at Ashbourne grammar school in Derbyshire, where he remained till his seventeenth year. Returning then to Oxford, he matriculated at Merton College on 17 Oct. 1844. The following year he obtained the Jackson scholarship. He graduated B.A. in 1848, proceeding M.A. in 1851. For a time he worked under (Sir) Henry Acland in the anatomical museum. In 1851 his first book, ‘The Illustrated Natural History,’ was published. In 1852 he was ordained deacon by Samuel Wilberforce [q. v.], bishop of Oxford, and became curate of the parish of St. Thomas the Martyr, Oxford. In 1854 he was ordained priest. The same year he resigned his Oxford curacy and returned to literary work till April 1856, when he was appointed chaplain to St. Bartholomew's Hospital. In 1858 he was also appointed to a readership at Christ Church, Newgate Street. He resigned his chaplaincy in 1862 and the readership in 1863 on account of ill-health, and removed to Belvedere, near Woolwich. He voluntarily assisted in the work of the neighbouring parish of Erith till the death of the vicar, Archdeacon Smith, in 1873. Owing to his influence choral services were introduced, and the efficiency of his choir led to his appointment as precentor of the Canterbury Diocesan Choral Union, whose annual festivals he conducted from 1869 to 1875.

From as early a period as 1856 Wood delivered occasional lectures on natural history subjects; but in 1879, having given a series of six lectures in Brixton, he resolved to take up lecturing as a second profession, and, assisted by George H. Robinson, manager of the book court at the Crystal Palace, who acted as his agent, sketch-lectures, as they were termed, were arranged for the winter months. These lasted ten seasons (1879–88), and took him to all parts of the country and to America, where he delivered the Lowell lectures at Boston in 1883–4. The conspicuous feature of these lectures was the blackboard illustrations, drawn in coloured pastilles, the outcome of very careful study and practice. In December 1876 he quitted Belvedere, and, after several changes, settled in 1878 in Upper Norwood. Here he continued the production of those numerous works which brought him fame and his publishers profit, till he died while on a lecturing tour at Coventry on 3 March 1889. He was buried in that town. He was a fellow of the Linnean Society of London from January 1854 to June 1877. On 15 Feb. 1859 he married Jane Eleanor, fourth daughter of John Ellis of the Home Office.

Wood's writings were in no sense scientific, and are not to be gauged by the standard exacted in modern scientific research. He was least successful in those books in which a systematic treatment of the subject was imperative, and was himself conscious of their shortcomings. Nor did he make any attempt at fine writing, his single object throughout being to popularise the study of natural history by rendering it interesting and intelligible to non-scientific minds. In this he was thoroughly successful; and to him was due the impulse that, coming at the right moment, turned public attention to the subject, while not a few naturalists of to-day owe their first inspiration to his writings. To the theory of evolution he was at first decidedly opposed, but later in life he modified his opinions.

Wood was author of: 1. ‘The Illustrated Natural History,’ London [1851–]1853, 8vo; new editions in 1855 and 1893. 2. ‘Sketches and Anecdotes of Animal Life,’ 2nd ser., London, 1852, 8vo, and 1855; another edit. entitled ‘Animal Traits and Characteristics,’ 1860. 3. ‘Bees: their Habits, and Management,’ London, 1853, 8vo; other editions up to 1893. 4. ‘Every Boy's Book’ (under the pseudonym of ‘George Forrest, Esq., M.A.’), London 1855, 8vo. 5. ‘My Feathered Friends,’ London, 1856, 8vo; new edit. 1858. 6. ‘The Common Objects of the Seashore,’ London, 1857, 8vo; other editions


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Author:Frederic Edward Clements

Works

 * Plant succession; an analysis of the development of vegetation, Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington (1916)
 * Plant Indicators: the Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice, Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington (1920)
 * Bio-Ecology, New York: J. Wiley & Sons (1939)
 * Plant Indicators: the Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice, Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington (1920)
 * Bio-Ecology, New York: J. Wiley & Sons (1939)

title: Author:Frederic Edward Clements


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 to 1886. 7. ‘The Common Objects of the Country,’ London, 1858, 8vo; other editions to 1886. 8. ‘Zoology: Mammalia,’ London, 1858, 8vo. 9. ‘A Handbook of Gymnastics’ (under the pseudonym of ‘George Forrest, Esq., M.A.’), London, 1858, 8vo. 10. ‘A Handbook of Swimming and Skating’ (under the same pseudonym), London, 1858, 8vo. 11. ‘The Playground’ (under the same pseudonym), London, 1858, 8vo; new edit. 1884. 12. ‘Routledge's Illustrated Natural History,’ London [1859–]1863, 3 vols. 8vo; new edit. 1883–9. 13. ‘Natural History Picture-Book for Children,’ London, 1861–3, 3 pts. 4to. 14. ‘Common Objects of the Microscope’ (in conjunction with Tuffen West), London, 1861, 8vo. 15. ‘Athletic Sports’ (including reissues of Nos. 9 and 10), London, 1861, 8vo. 16. ‘Glimpses into Petland,’ London, 1863, 8vo; 2nd edit., entitled ‘Petland Revisited,’ London, 1882, 8vo; reissued in 1884 and 1890. 17. ‘Our Garden Friends and Foes,’ London, [1863] 1864, 8vo; new edit. 1882. 18. ‘Archery, Fencing’ (written in conjunction with ‘Stonehenge’), London, 1863, 16mo. 19. ‘Athletic Sports and Manly Exercises’ (also with ‘Stonehenge’), London, 1864, 16mo. 20. ‘The Handbook of Manly Exercises’ (by ‘Stonehenge,’ ‘George Forrest,’ and others), London, 1864, 16mo. 21. ‘Old Testament History in Simple Language,’ London, 1864, 8vo. 22. ‘New Testament History in Simple Language,’ London, 1864, 8vo. 23. ‘Homes without Hands,’ London, 1864–5, 8vo; new editions in 1883 and 1892. 24. ‘The Common Shells of the Sea-shore,’ London, 1865, 8vo. 25. ‘The Boys' Own Treasury of Sports and Pastimes’ (written with others), London, 1866, 8vo. 26. ‘Croquet,’ London, 1866, 32mo. 27. ‘Routledge's Popular Natural History,’ London, 1867, 4to; 4th edit. 1885. 28. ‘The Fresh and Salt Water Aquarium,’ London, 1868, 8vo. 29. ‘The Natural History of Man,’ London, 1868–70, 8vo. 30. ‘Bible Animals,’ London, 1869–71, 8vo; new editions 1883 and 1892. 31. ‘The Common Moths of England,’ London [1870], 8vo. 32. ‘Common British Beetles,’ London, 1870, 8vo; new edit. 1875. 33. ‘The Modern Playmate,’ London [1870], 8vo; new editions 1875, and as ‘The Boys' Modern Playmate,’ in 1880 and 1890. 34. ‘Insects at Home,’ London, 1871[–2], 8vo; new editions 1883 and 1892. 35. ‘The Calendar of the Months,’ London, 1873, 8vo. 36. ‘Insects Abroad,’ London, 1874; new editions 1883 and 1892. 37. ‘Man and Beast; Here and Hereafter,’ London, 1874, 2 vols. 8vo; 5th edit. 1882. 38. ‘Out of Doors,’ London, 1874, 8vo; new editions 1882 and 1890. 39. ‘Trespassers,’ London, 1875, 8vo. 40. ‘Nature's Teachings,’ London [1876–]1877, 8vo; new edit. 1883–7. 41. ‘English Scenery Illustrated,’ London [1877], fol. 42. ‘The Lane and Field,’ London, 1879, 8vo. 43. ‘The Field Naturalist's Handbook’ (with T. Wood), London [1879–80], 8vo; 5th edit. 1893. 44. ‘Common British Insects’ (from No. 35), London, 1882, 8vo. 45. ‘Hughes's Illustrated Anecdotal Natural History’ (with T. Wood), London, 1882, 8vo. 46. ‘Natural History Readers,’ 4th ser. London, 1882–4, 8vo. 47. ‘Half-hours in Field and Forest,’ London, 1884, 12mo; 2nd edit. 1886. 48. ‘Half-hours with a Naturalist: Rambles near the Shore,’ London, 1885, 8vo; 2nd edit. 1888. 49. ‘Horse and Man,’ London, 1885, 8vo. 50. ‘Illustrated Stable Maxims’ (London, 1885), s. sh. 51. ‘My Back-yard Zoo,’ London, 1885, 12mo; new edit. 1893. 52. ‘Handy Natural History,’ London, 1886, 4to. 53. ‘Man and his Handiwork,’ London, 8vo. 54. ‘Illustrated Natural History for Young People,’ London, 1887, 8vo. 55. ‘The Romance of Animal Life,’ London, 1887, 8vo. 56. ‘Birds and Beasts,’ London [1888], 8vo. 57. ‘The Brook and its Banks’ (reprinted from the ‘Girls' Own Paper’), London, 1889, 4to. 58. ‘The Dominion of Man,’ London, 1889, 8vo. 59. ‘The Zoo’ (reprinted from the ‘Child's Pictorial’), 2nd ser., London, 1888–9, 4to; 3rd ser. (with T. Wood), 1892. Portions of a number of these works were reissued with fresh titles.

He edited: 1. White's ‘Natural History of Selborne’ (to which he added notes), London, 1854, 8vo. 2. ‘A Tour round my Garden; translated from the French of Alphonse Karr,’ London, 1855, 8vo. 3. ‘The Boys' Own Magazine,’ 1865. 4. ‘Beeton's Annual,’ 1866. 5. ‘Episodes of Insect Life,’ 1867, 8vo. 6. Rennie's ‘Insect Architecture,’ 1869. 7. Waterton's ‘Wanderings in South America’ (to which he added a biography and explanatory index), London, 1879, 8vo; issued in popular form in 1882, 4to. He also contributed many popular articles to various magazines, including those for children, in England and America.

[The Rev. J. G. Wood, London, 1890, 8vo (by his son, the Rev. T. Wood); Crockford, 1889; information kindly supplied by the Rev. T. Wood, and by the assistant-secretary to the Linnean Society of London; Brit. Mus. Cat.]  WOOD, JOHN MUIR (1805–1892), editor of the ‘Songs of Scotland,’ son of Andrew Wood and Jacobina Ferrier, was born at Edinburgh on 31 July 1805. His father was the founder of the firm of Wood & Co., music publishers. Young Wood, after at-


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 tending successively Edinburgh high school and college, began to study music at Edinburgh under Kalkbrenner. Afterwards he was sent to Paris for two years to study under Pixis, and from Paris he proceeded to Vienna to study for two years under Czerny. About 1828 he began his career at Edinburgh as a teacher of music, and was a remarkably good pianist and sight-reader. He then spent several years in London, where he occupied himself mostly in literary pursuits. His half-brother George, afterwards senior partner of Messrs. Cramer & Co. (he died in 1893), had completed an apprenticeship with Messrs. Blackwood, and joined John in the business of music-sellers in Edinburgh and afterwards in Glasgow. John managed the Glasgow establishment. He was associated with Chopin (1848), Grisi, and other great artists who visited Scotland on concert-giving enterprises (cf., Biography). He also helped to organise the lecture tours of Thackeray and Dickens. In conjunction with George Farquhar Graham [q. v.], the nominal editor, he brought out in 1849 an important collection of the ‘Songs of Scotland,’ with critical notices, in three volumes. The materials were collected by Wood. The airs were harmonised by Edinburgh musicians, including Thomas Molleson Mudie [q. v.], Finlay Dun [q. v.], John Thomas Surenne [q. v.], and Graham; Wood spared neither time nor trouble in tracing old airs to their earliest appearance in print, deciphering tablature and comparing versions. The work was reissued in an enlarged form in 1887, with a dedication to the queen, and the arrangements of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Sir George Alexander Macfarren [q. v.], and others. Wood's revisions and additions to the notes in the latest edition contain a mass of information regarding each air. In 1876 Wood edited and published ‘The Scottish Monthly Musical Times,’ which came to an end in 1878. To Grove's ‘Dictionary of Music and Musicians’ he contributed the articles on ‘Scottish Music,’ ‘The Coronach,’ ‘The Scotch Snap,’ and ‘The Skene Manuscript’ (preserved in the Advocates' Library). He was an extremely good linguist, writing and speaking fluently French, German, and Italian; and, having resided at Frankfort with the celebrated Polish violinist Lipinski, he acquired from him a knowledge of Polish which enabled him to converse with Chopin on his visit to Scotland. Wood, during his residence in Glasgow, was the leader of musical enterprise there, and before the days of the Orchestral Society he brought Hallé's band to give concerts. He died at Armadale, Cove, on 25 June 1892, and was buried in the Glasgow necropolis. On 22 Jan. 1851 Wood married Helen Kemlo Stephen. She survived him, with three sons and five daughters.

[Musical Herald (with portrait), August 1892; Brown & Stratton's British Musical Biography; Glasgow Herald, 28 June 1892; Notes and Queries, 8th ser. ii. 40; information received from family.]

WOOD, JOHN PHILIP (d. 1838), Scottish antiquary and biographer, was descended from an ancient family dwelling in the parish of Cramond, near Edinburgh. In spite of labouring from infancy under the infirmity of being deaf and dumb, he held for many years the office of auditor of excise in Scotland. He was of a studious turn of mind, and his leisure was given to historical and antiquarian lore. In 1791 he published his first literary work, ‘A Sketch of the Life and Projects of John Law of Lauriston, Comptroller-general of the Finances of France’ (Edinburgh, 4to). A new and enlarged edition, entitled ‘Memoirs of the Life of John Law,’ appeared in 1824, called forth by the renewed interest in Law which the extravagance of contemporary commercial speculation aroused. After completing this biography of Law, who like himself was a native of Cramond, Wood brought out in 1794 the first parochial history attempted in Scotland, ‘The Ancient and Modern State of the Parish of Cramond’ (Edinburgh, 4to). His principal work was, however, his edition of the ‘Peerage of Scotland,’ by Sir Robert Douglas [q. v.], which was printed at Edinburgh in two folio volumes in 1813. He had originally intended to bring out a separate peerage for the period between 1707 and 1809, but was persuaded to incorporate his collections with Douglas's work. Wood died at Edinburgh in December 1838. He was the friend of Scott, who styled him ‘honest John Wood,’ and the brother-in-law of Robert Cadell [q. v.], the partner of Archibald Constable [q. v.] He made several contributions to the ‘Gentleman's Magazine,’ and communicated to John Nichols [q. v.] most of the biographical notes to the writers of the poetry comprised in ‘The Muses Welcome to King James,’ printed in the ‘Progresses of King James I.’

[Gent. Mag. 1839, i. 323; Allibone's Dict. of Engl. Lit.; Lockhart's Memoirs of Scott, 1845, p. 706.]

WOOD, MARK (1747–1829), bart., colonel Bengal engineers, born in 1747, was the eldest son of Alexander Wood of Perth, descended from the family of the Woods of


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Lich Owl

LICH OWL, or LITCH OWL (A. S. lic, a body, and ule, an owl), a provincial British name for any owl, which screams at night, and is superstitiously regarded as portending death. From the earliest ages the hoot of the owl has been regarded as ominous. Ovid, Virgil and Shakespeare contain many illustrations of this common superstition. See .


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 Largo [see ], to the estates of which Alexander succeeded on the death of his cousin, John Wood, sometime governor of the Isle of Man. Mark became a cadet of the East India Company's army in 1770, and went to India with his brother George (afterwards a major-general of the Indian army and K.C.B.), who died in 1824. Another brother was Sir James Athol Wood [q. v.] He received his first commission on 7 July 1772 in the Bengal engineers, and rose to be colonel 26 Feb. 1795. After a distinguished career in India, culminating in his appointment as surveyor-general in 1787 and chief engineer of Bengal in 1790, he returned to England on account of ill-health in 1793, and purchased the estate of Piercefield on the banks of the Wye. Wood entered the House of Commons for Milborne Port, Somerset, in 1794; he was returned for Newark in 1796, after a severe contest with Sir William Paxton. In 1795 he was brought into the king's service as a colonel, and in an audience he had that year with George III to present a model in ivory of Fort William, Calcutta, the king expressed to him a desire for the union of the East India Company and the royal services. In 1802 he was unsuccessful in a contest with Robert Hurst for the representation of Shaftesbury, and was in consequence returned for his pocket borough of Gatton, Surrey, the domain of which (Gatton Park) he had recently purchased. He was created a baronet on 3 Oct. 1808. He continued to represent Gatton until the dissolution in 1818, when he retired from public life, having given a uniform support to the measures of Pitt and subsequently of Lord Liverpool. He died on 6 Feb. 1829 at his house in Pall Mall, London. He was buried on 13 Feb. in Gatton church, where there is a tablet to his memory.

Wood married at Calcutta, on 17 May 1786, Rachel (d. 1802), daughter of Robert Dashwood, and by her had two sons—Alexander (d. 1805), cornet 11th dragoons; and Mark, who succeeded him and was also member of parliament for Gatton; he married, in 1833, Elizabeth Rachel, daughter of William Newton, but died in 1837, when the title became extinct. The estates passed to George, eldest son of Sir Mark's second brother, Sir George Wood.

Wood was the author of: 1. ‘A Review of the Origin, Progress, and Results of the late War with Tippoo Sultaun,’ 1800, 4to. 2. ‘The Importance of Malta considered in the Years 1796 and 1798, with Remarks during a Journey from England to India through Egypt in 1779,’ with maps, London, 1803, 4to. 3. ‘Remarks during a Journey to the East Indies by way of Holland and Germany to Venice, and from thence by Alexandria … to Fort St. George undertaken by Captain M. Wood … Reprinted by … Mr. Montagu’ (privately printed, Lichfield, 1875, 4to). There are in the king's library at the British Museum three different surveys by Wood of Calcutta and the country on the banks of the Hugli River to its mouth, between the dates 1780 and 1785.

[India Office Records; Royal Military Calendar, 1820; Conolly Papers; Gent. Mag. 1829; Ann. Reg. 1829; Burke's Landed Gentry; Brayley's Hist. of Surrey.]

WOOD, MARY ANN (1802–1864), vocalist. [See .]

WOOD, MARY ANNE EVERETT (1818–1895), afterwards, historian, was born at Sheffield on 19 July 1818. Her father, Robert Wood, a Wesleyan minister, was, as she afterwards established, descended from the Wynford Eagle branch of the Sydenham family, to which the celebrated physician Thomas Sydenham [q. v.] belonged. Her grandfather James Wood, a friend of Wesley, who was twice president of the Wesleyan conference and author of a ‘Dictionary of the Bible’ and other theological works, must be distinguished from James Wood (1672–1759) [q. v.] The name of Everett was given to her in compliment to James Everett [q. v.], a great friend of the Wood family, and afterwards founder of the united methodist free church. In accordance with the itinerating ministerial system, her youth was spent in a succession of large towns in Lancashire and Yorkshire; during nine years of this period she resided in Manchester. She was educated entirely at home. Her literary tastes, and probably also her critical powers, were strengthened by intercourse with her father's gifted friend James Montgomery [q. v.] In 1841 she removed with her parents to London, and, with the aid of the British Museum reading-room, she entered systematically upon the occupations which were to absorb her life.

As early as 1843 she began the composition of her ‘Lives of the Princesses of England;’ but it was thought expedient to defer the publication of the work till after the completion (in 1848) of Miss Strickland's ‘Lives of the Queens of England’ [see ], which had suggested it. In the meantime she published in 3 vols. (1846) her ‘Letters of Royal Ladies of Great Britain, from the 11th Century to the close of Queen Mary's Reign,’ still under her maiden name, though a few months previously she had married George Pycock Green, a member of an old nonconformist family living at Cottingham in Yorkshire. During the first two years of her married life, while her hus-


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Lichfield

LICHFIELD,, England, episcopal city and civic county of Stafford, 17 miles southeast of Stafford. The principal edifice is the cathedral, a noble structure of early English and transitional architecture with a richly decorated west front, and three spires — two on the west, each 180, and one in the centre 280 feet high. Its length internally is 370 feet, and breadth of nave 68 feet. Among other notable monuments is Chantry's celebrated recumbent figures of the “The Sleeping Children.” The cathedral suffered greatly during its sieges in the civil wars from 1643 to 1646, and was restored by Wren. The see of Lichfield was founded in 656, and the city's charter dates from 1549. The city has interesting literary associations, Johnson, Addison and Garrick, born in the town or neighborhood, having been educated at the old grammar school. Johnson's house is now a Johnson Museum. Brewing and carriage and harness works form the principal industries. Pop. 8,616.


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 band was carrying on his studies as a painter at Paris and Antwerp, Mrs. Green busied herself with historical researches. These stood her in good stead on her return to England, when she settled with her husband in the house in Gower Street (afterwards No. 300) which she occupied till her death. The ‘Lives of the Princesses,’ which appeared in six volumes (1849–55), covered six centuries, beginning with the Norman Conquest and ending with the daughters of Charles I; but for the earlier parts of the period the materials were often scanty, and the chronicles of other countries into which our princesses married had to supplement the meagre native records. For the later volumes the materials were abundant; yet her treatment of such a biography as that of Elisabeth of Bohemia may be regarded as the most exhaustive which the subject has yet received. Besides editing for the Camden Society the entertaining ‘Diary of John Rous’ (1856) and the ‘Life of William Whittingham’ in the society's ‘Miscellany,’ vol. vi. (1871), she brought out in 1857 the ‘Life and Letters of Henrietta Maria,’ a volume which was based entirely on original research.

In 1853 Mrs. Everett Green accepted a nomination by Sir John (afterwards Lord) Romilly [q. v.] as one of the editors of the calendars of state papers, in the publication of which as master of the rolls he took a warm interest; and during a period of forty years there was no more devoted and no more capable worker than herself associated with this important national undertaking. In the course of these years, carrying on her labours first in the old state paper office overlooking St. James's Park, and afterwards in the Public Record Office in Chancery Lane, she edited forty-one volumes of the Domestic series, viz. (in the order of publication): Calendars of State Papers of the Reigns of James I (1857–9, 4 vols.), of Charles II (1860–6, vols. i–vii.), and of Elizabeth (1867–72, vols. iii–viii. and xii.), of the Commonwealth (1875–85, 13 vols.), of the Proceedings of the Committee for the Advance of Money (1888, 3 parts), of the Proceedings of the Committee for Compounding with Delinquents (1889–92, 5 parts), and of State Papers of the Reign of Charles II (1893–1895, vols. viii–x.). In accordance with the gradual development of the system on which the calendaring was conducted, the fulness of Mrs. Green's later calendars is much greater than that of the earlier; but throughout the work she showed a sure power of discrimination, an accurate historical knowledge, and an unusual familiarity with languages.

Mrs. Green's time was so fully occupied with her Record Office work that she was unable to carry out plans which she had formed of a memoir of the electress Sophia, and of lives of our queens of the house of Hanover, for which she had collected a large body of materials. These she generously made over a short time before her death to less competent hands. She compiled a pedigree of her family dating from 1225; and wrote, likewise for private circulation, a memoir of her father, besides contributing occasionally to the ‘Athenæum,’ the ‘London Review,’ the ‘Gentleman's Magazine,’ and other periodicals. She taught herself perspective in order to be of assistance to her husband, who had been partially disabled by an accident from carrying on his professional work; and privately printed for the use of her children a reading-book on inductive principles. In harmony with her early religious training, she took a warm personal interest in charitable and philanthropic endeavours, and her personality had the irresistible charm which belongs to perfect simplicity and single-mindedness. Her husband died in 1893. She carried on the work of her life to the last, though her health had begun to fail for eighteen months before her death, which took place in London on 1 Nov. 1895.

In 1876 she had experienced the great sorrow of losing her only son, a young engineer of much promise. She left three daughters, of whom the eldest (Gertrude) is married to Dr. James Gow, headmaster of Westminster School; and the second (Evelyn) is a well-known writer of fiction.

[Manuscript notes relating to my Literary History, 1861, by Mrs. Green, kindly communicated by Mrs. James Gow; Memoir of the late Mrs. Everett Green in the Queen newspaper, 14 Dec. 1895; personal acquaintance.]

WOOD, MATTHEW (1768–1843), municipal and political reformer, born at Tiverton, Devonshire, on 2 June 1768, was the eldest son of William Wood (1738–1809), serge-maker in that town, by his wife Catherine Cluse (d. 1798). Matthew, who was brought up as a dissenter, was sent for a time to Blundell's free grammar school at Tiverton, but was soon obliged to assist his father in his business. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to his first cousin, Mr. Newton, chemist and druggist, in Fore Street, Exeter, and when nineteen years old was traveller for another druggist of that city. Early in 1790 he came to London to travel for Messrs. Crawley & Adcock of Bishopsgate Street, and about two years later


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 was admitted as partner in a new firm of druggists then established in Devonshire Square. This connection did not last long, and when it was dissolved he set up a similar business for himself, at first in Cross Street, Clerkenwell, and from 1801 to 1804 at Falcon Square. He was also a hop merchant with Colonel Edward Wigan in Southwark, and the firm was afterwards known as Wood, Wigan, & Wood. He was largely interested in the copper mine of Wheal Crennis in Cornwall.

Some years before 1804 Wood had become a freeman of the city of London and a member of the whig company of fishmongers. In 1802 he was elected to the common council for the ward of Cripplegate Without, and soon acted as deputy for Sir William Staines, the alderman of the ward. On the death of Staines in 1807 he succeeded as alderman, and in 1809 was appointed sheriff of London and Middlesex, being called upon in his year of office to perform the uncongenial duty of arresting Sir Francis Burdett. He was lord mayor of London in the troublous period of 1815–16, and during his mayoralty suppressed a dangerous riot at Spa Fields (, Memoirs, iii. 265). He was consequently re-elected as lord mayor for 1816–17, this being the first occasion for several hundred years in which a lord mayor had been so honoured. During his second year of office he rescued three Irishmen who had been mistakenly condemned to execution. For this service he was presented by public subscription with a handsome service of plate and received the thanks of the corporation of Dublin. In 1817 he was again returned by the livery, but his name was not accepted by the aldermen. As a member of the corporation he took a leading part in many city improvements. He laid the foundation in 1813 of the debtors' prison in Whitecross Street, and he furthered the construction of the new London bridge and the new post office. His name was long preserved in the social life of the corporation through the fact that the city barge, built in September 1816, at a cost of 5,000l., was called the ‘Maria Wood’ after his daughter.

Wood contested the representation of the city of London at the general election of 1812, but was defeated, though he polled 2373 votes. On the resignation of Alderman Combe he was returned for the city while lord mayor, without a contest, on 10 June 1817, and sat continuously for it until his death, thus having a place in ten successive parliaments. He was four times at the top of the poll, but in 1826, when he had made a declaration in favour of catholic emancipation, he was at the bottom of the list of elected candidates. He was a consistent radical and a strenuous supporter of all the whig ministries.

Wood was one of the chief friends and counsellors of Queen Caroline. He and his son, who acted as interpreter, obtained evidence in Italy to rebut the accusations which had been made against her. When the queen left Italy on the death of George III he met her at Montbarde in Burgundy, accompanied her to England, and at the entry into London on 6 June 1820 sat by her side in an open landau (, Journal, i. 28–9). She took up her abode at first in his house, No. 77 South Audley Street, and he was one of the corporation that presented her with an address of sympathy on 16 June. When she attended at St. Paul's on 29 Nov. to give thanks for the failure of the proceedings against her, he went with the lord mayor to Temple Bar to receive her in state. A dull satire on Wood by ‘Vicesimus Blinkinsop,’ said to be Theodore Hook, was published in 1820. It was entitled ‘Tentamen, or an Essay towards the History of Whittington.’

The affairs of the Duke of Kent were administered by Wood as his trustee, and he rendered a signal service by making arrangements for the residence in England of the duke and duchess. By this means Queen Victoria was born on English instead of on foreign soil. When she dined with the corporation of London at the Guildhall on 9 Nov. 1837, the announcement was made by Lord John Russell of her intention to confer a baronetcy on Alderman Wood. It was the first title that she had bestowed, and it was understood to have been given through personal friendship. By this time Wood had come into a considerable fortune. His conduct in aid of Queen Caroline attracted the attention of Elizabeth, the maiden sister of James Wood, the banker, at Gloucester, and led to his subsequent introduction to the banker himself. She left him at her death, about 1823, a house in Gloucester, and on the banker's death in 1836 the residue of his property was shared among his four executors, Alderman Wood being one. The will was disputed but maintained, and Wood received over 100,000l., including the estate of Hatherley in Gloucestershire.

Wood died at Matson House, near Gloucester, on 25 Sept. 1843, and was buried in a vault in Hatherley churchyard. He had married, on 5 Nov. 1795, Maria, daughter of John Page, surgeon and apothecary of Woodbridge, Suffolk. She died at Ramsgate on 2 July 1848, aged 78. They had issue, with two daughters, three sons, viz.: Sir John Page Wood (see below), William


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The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Lichnowsky, Prince Karl Max

LICHNOWSKY, Prince Karl Max, German diplomat: b. 8 March 1860. His father was Prince (Fürst) Lichnowsky, a general of cavalry, and his mother a Princess of Croy. He is the head of an old noble Bohemian family and of immense wealth, possessing estates at Kuchelna in Silesia and Gratz in Austria. As an hereditary member of the Upper House of the Prussian Diet he has played some part in domestic politics, adopting in general a moderate attitude and deprecating party legislation. Though a Roman Catholic, he steadily avoided identifying himself with the Clerical party in Germany. Entering the diplomatic service, the prince was appointed an attaché at the London embassy in 1885 and later served as legation secretary at Bucharest and as councillor of the German embassy in Vienna. He was for a time employed in the Foreign Office in Berlin, and on his marriage, in 1904, to the Countess Mechthilde von und zu Arco-Zinneberg, he retired to his estate with the rank of Minister. “I spent my time on my farm and in my garden, on horseback and in the fields, but I read industriously and published occasional political articles. . . . Thus eight years passed.” For several years newspaper rumor in Germany had connected the name of Prince Lichnowsky with practically every important diplomatic post vacant from time to time, and even with the Imperial Chancellorship. No official appointment was forthcoming, however, beyond the designation of “Wirklicher

or Privy Councillor, in 1911. In October 1912, Prince Lichnowsky, “to his great surprise,” was offered the post of Ambassador to Great Britain. In May of that year Count Wolff-Metternich, then German Ambassador in London, retired and was succeeded by Baron Marschall von Bieberstein (q.v.). The latter, however, died in September. Prince Lichnowsky, who was “inclined to think that they settled on him as no other candidate was available,” held the post in London until the outbreak of the European War. He had always been credited in England with a sincere desire to encourage friendly relations between his country and Great Britain, and on numerous occasions at festive gatherings in London and the provinces had expressed his earnest wish that the two nations should work harmoniously in the cause of civilization. Little mention is made in official publications of the prince's diplomatic activity in London, especially during the final crisis. Various interpretations have been placed upon the reports he submitted to his government on the attitude of England. After his return to Berlin he assured the American Ambassador there that he had “correctly reported the sentiments of England in saying that England did not want war” (Gerard's ‘My Four Years in Germany,’ pp. 100-102). At all events, according to Mr. Gerard, “the Germans quite unfairly treated him as a man who had failed.” An illuminating analysis of German foreign policy, written by Prince Lichnowsky in retirement during 1916 for his private family archives, found its way into the press and created a profound sensation in March 1918. Prince Lichnowsky was expelled from the Prussian House of Lords in July 1918. See ; —.


text:
Page:The Habitat of the Eurypterida.djvu/8

 {| align="center" width="550px"
 * colspan="5" |
 * algn="right" | PAGE
 * || colspan="4" | Australia || align="right" | 35
 * || || colspan="3" | Siluric || align="right" | 35
 * || || || colspan="2" | Upper Siluric || align="right" | 35
 * || colspan="4" | Germany || align="right" | 35
 * || || colspan="3" | Carbonic || align="right" | 35
 * || || || colspan="2" | Middle Saarbrüicker || align="right" | 35
 * || colspan="4" | South America || align="right" | 36
 * || || colspan="3" | Carbonic || align="right" | 36
 * || || || colspan="2" | Coal Measures of Brazil || align="right" | 36
 * || colspan="4" | Africa || align="right" | 36
 * || || colspan="3" | Devonic || align="right" | 36
 * || || || colspan="2" | Witteberg series || align="right" | 36
 * || colspan="4" | Portugal || align="right" | 37
 * || || colspan="3" | Permic || align="right" | 37
 * || colspan="4" | Summary Tables || align="right" | 37
 * || || colspan="3" style="padding-left:60px; text-indent:-60px;" | Table I. Geological and Geographical Distribution of the Eurypterida throughout the World || align="right" valign="bottom" | 37
 * || || colspan="3" style="padding-left:60px; text-indent:-60px;" | Table II. Summary of the Geological and Geographical Distribution of the Eurypterida throughout the World || align="right" valign="bottom" | 37
 * || || colspan="3" style="padding-left:60px; text-indent:-60px;" | Table III. Summary of the Distribution, Facies and Mode of Occurrence of the Eurypterida || align="right" valign="bottom" | 38
 * || colspan="4" | Synonymy || align="right" | 50
 * colspan="5" | A Résumé of the Opinions on the Habitat of the Eurypterida || align="right" | 52
 * colspan="5" | The Bionomy of the Eurypterid Faunas || align="right" | 64
 * || colspan="4" | Introduction || align="right" | 64
 * || colspan="4" | Classification of Recent Aqueous Habitats || align="right" | 65
 * || || colspan="3" | Classification of Aqueous Bionomic Realms According to Salinity || align="right" | 66
 * || colspan="4" | Recent Aquatic Faunas || align="right" | 67
 * || || colspan="3" | Marine || align="right" | 67
 * || || colspan="3" | Fresh Water || align="right" | 69
 * || || || colspan="2" style="padding-left:40px; text-indent:-40px;" | Table Showing Number of Genera and Species of Mollusca in Various Bionomic Realms || align="right" valign="bottom" | 69
 * || || colspan="3" | Brackish Water || align="right" | 70
 * || || || colspan="2" | The Baltic Sea || align="right" | 70
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * Comparative Number of Species of Invertebrates in the Baltic, etc. || align="right" | 72
 * || || || colspan="2" | The Severn Estuary || align="right" | 73
 * || colspan="4" | Summary of Faunal Criteria for Determining the Type of an Aqueous Habitat || align="right" | 76
 * || colspan="4" | Application to the Past || align="right" | 77
 * || || colspan="3" | Marine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 78
 * || || colspan="3" | Fluviatile Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 79
 * || || colspan="3" | Brackish Water and Estuarine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 83
 * || colspan="4" | The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms || align="right" | 84
 * || || colspan="3" | Ordovicic || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Normanskill Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Schenectady Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * }
 * colspan="5" | The Bionomy of the Eurypterid Faunas || align="right" | 64
 * || colspan="4" | Introduction || align="right" | 64
 * || colspan="4" | Classification of Recent Aqueous Habitats || align="right" | 65
 * || || colspan="3" | Classification of Aqueous Bionomic Realms According to Salinity || align="right" | 66
 * || colspan="4" | Recent Aquatic Faunas || align="right" | 67
 * || || colspan="3" | Marine || align="right" | 67
 * || || colspan="3" | Fresh Water || align="right" | 69
 * || || || colspan="2" style="padding-left:40px; text-indent:-40px;" | Table Showing Number of Genera and Species of Mollusca in Various Bionomic Realms || align="right" valign="bottom" | 69
 * || || colspan="3" | Brackish Water || align="right" | 70
 * || || || colspan="2" | The Baltic Sea || align="right" | 70
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * width="12px" |
 * Comparative Number of Species of Invertebrates in the Baltic, etc. || align="right" | 72
 * || || || colspan="2" | The Severn Estuary || align="right" | 73
 * || colspan="4" | Summary of Faunal Criteria for Determining the Type of an Aqueous Habitat || align="right" | 76
 * || colspan="4" | Application to the Past || align="right" | 77
 * || || colspan="3" | Marine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 78
 * || || colspan="3" | Fluviatile Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 79
 * || || colspan="3" | Brackish Water and Estuarine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 83
 * || colspan="4" | The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms || align="right" | 84
 * || || colspan="3" | Ordovicic || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Normanskill Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Schenectady Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * }
 * || || || colspan="2" | The Severn Estuary || align="right" | 73
 * || colspan="4" | Summary of Faunal Criteria for Determining the Type of an Aqueous Habitat || align="right" | 76
 * || colspan="4" | Application to the Past || align="right" | 77
 * || || colspan="3" | Marine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 78
 * || || colspan="3" | Fluviatile Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 79
 * || || colspan="3" | Brackish Water and Estuarine Deposits and Faunas || align="right" | 83
 * || colspan="4" | The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms || align="right" | 84
 * || || colspan="3" | Ordovicic || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Normanskill Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Schenectady Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * }
 * || colspan="4" | The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms || align="right" | 84
 * || || colspan="3" | Ordovicic || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Normanskill Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Schenectady Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * }
 * || || || colspan="2" | Normanskill Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * || || || colspan="2" | Schenectady Fauna || align="right" | 84
 * }
 * }


text: Author:Henri F. Klein

title: Author:Henri F. Klein


text: Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/7


text: Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/9


text: Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/10


text: Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/11


text: Grimm's Household Tales, Volume 2/Sweet Porridge


text:
Page:Dio's Roman History, tr. Cary - Volume 1.djvu/67

Rh that contention but disputed about the leadership. They saw that it was impossible, on the basis of equal sovereignty, for the two peoples to form an alliance that would be safe and free from strife, owing to the inherent disposition of men to quarrel with their equals and to desire to rule others. On this subject also they made many representations to each other, to see if by any means either would voluntarily concede the sovereignty to the other. However, they accomplished nothing, but agreed to fight for the leadership.

move to it, they gave up this intention. Next they disputed about the leadership; and when neither would yield to the other, they arranged to have a contest for the sovereignty. They did not, however, care to fight with entire armies nor yet to let the issue be decided by single combat. Now there were on both sides brothers born three at a birth, the offspring of twin mothers, of like age and matched in prowess; the Roman brothers were called Publihoratii and the Albans Curiatii. These they put forward as their champions for battle, paying no heed to the relationship between them. So the six took up their arms, arrayed themselves opposite each other in the space between the armies, called upon


text: Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/12


text: Grimm's Household Tales, Volume 2/Wise Folks


text:
Page:Dio's Roman History, tr. Cary - Volume 1.djvu/69

Rh Dio, Book II. "And he [Horatius], attacking them when they expected no further danger."

Tullus was regarded as a most valiant man against the

the same family gods and continually glanced upward at the sun. Then they joined battle, now in groups, and now by pairs. Finally, when two of the Romans had fallen and all of the Albans had been wounded, the surviving Horatius, because he could not contend with the three at once, even though he was unwounded, gave way in order that in pursuing him they might be scattered. And when they had become separated in the pursuit, he attacked each one by himself and slew them all. For this he was honoured; but because he furthermore killed his sister, when she lamented on seeing Horatius carrying the spoils of her cousins, he was tried for murder. However, he appealed to the people and was acquitted.

The Albans now became subjects of the Romans, but later they disregarded the compact. When summoned, as subjects, to serve as allies, they attempted at the crisis of the battle to desert to the enemy and to join in the attack upon the Romans; but they were detected and punished. Many, including their leader, Mettius, were put to death, while the rest suffered deportation; and their city, Alba, was razed to the ground, although for some five hundred years it had been honoured by the Romans as their mother city.

While Tullus was accounted a most valiant man against the enemy, he neglected the worship of the


text:
Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/141

 Rh will you give me," said the hobgoblin, "to do it for you?" "My necklace," replied the maiden. He took her at her word, and sat himself down to the wheel, and whistled and sang—

And round about the wheel went merrily; the work was quickly done, and the straw was all spun into gold.

When the king came and saw this, he was greatly astonished and pleased; but his heart grew still more greedy of gain, and he shut up the poor miller's daughter again with a fresh task. Then she knew not what to do, and sat down once more to weep; but the dwarf soon opened the door, and said, "What will you give me to do your task?" "The ring on my finger," said she. So her little friend took the ring, and began to work at the wheel again, and whistled and sang—

till, long before morning, all was done again.

The king was greatly delighted to see all this glittering treasure; but still he had not enough: so he took the miller's daughter to a yet larger heap, and said, "All this must be spun to-night; and if it is, you shall be my queen." As soon as she was alone the dwarf came in, and said, "What will you give me to

title: Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/141


text:
Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/142

 124 spin gold for you this third time?" "I have nothing left," said she. "Then say you will give me," said the little man, "the first little child that you may have when you are queen." "That may never be," thought the miller's daughter: and as she knew no other way to get her task done, she said she would do what he asked. Round went the wheel again to the old song, and the manikin once more spun the heap into gold. The king came in the morning, and, finding all he wanted, was forced to keep his word; so he married the miller's daughter, and she really became queen.

At the birth of her first little child she was very glad, and forgot the dwarf, and what she had said. But one day he came into her room, where she was sitting playing with her baby, and put her in mind of it. Then she grieved sorely at her misfortune, and said she would give him all the wealth of the kingdom if he would let her off, but in vain; till at last her tears softened him, and he said, "I will give you three days' grace, and if during that time you tell me my name, you shall keep your child."

Now the queen lay awake all night, thinking of all the odd names that she had ever heard; and she sent messengers all over the land to find out new ones. The next day the little man came, and she began with, and all the names she could remember; but to all and each of them he said, "Madam, that is not my name."

The second day she began with all the comical names she could hear of,, and so on; but the little gentleman still said to every one of them, "Madam, that is not my name." The third day one of the messengers came back, and said, "I travelled two days without hearing of any other

title: Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/142


text:
Page:Dio's Roman History, tr. Cary - Volume 1.djvu/71

Rh enemy, but he absolutely despised and neglected the worship of the gods, until, during the occurrence of a pestilence, he himself fell sick. Then, indeed, he paid the strictest regard to all the gods, and in particular established the Salii Collini.

Marcius came to realize that it is not enough for men who desire peace to refrain from injuring others, and that inoffensiveness without aggressiveness is not a means of safety, but the more one strives after peace the more vulnerable does one become to the mass of mankind; and he accordingly changed his policy. He saw that the desire for quiet is not effective as a safeguard unless accompanied by equip-

gods. But when a pestilence visited the Romans and he himself fell sick, [he turned aside to superstition]. He is said to have met his end [by being consumed by lightning, or else] as the result of a plot formed by Ancus Marcius, who was, as we have stated, a son of Numa's daughter. He was king of the Romans thirty-two years.

7. Marcius succeeded Hostilius, receiving the kingdom as a voluntary gift from the Romans. He was not perfect in his arm, for he was maimed at the joint [ankylê], whence he got the nickname Ancus. Though naturally mild, he was compelled to change his policy, and so turned his attention to campaigns.


text:
Page:Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala.djvu/49

CH. II.] high cheek bones and small black eyes, they remind you of the tattooed natives of the South Sea islands. The chief authority came out to welcome me; he was dressed in blue cotton trowsers, much the worse for wear, and a coloured cotton jacket, and bore in his hand his baton of office. A bird-cage kind of house, fifteen feet by six, divided into two apartments by wicker work, was provided for my accommodation; but, having learnt the danger of infection, I walked into an inclosure where they were unloading the mules, and flung myself down on my baggage to rest whilst my supper was being cooked. We had provided ourselves with meat, fowls, and other substantial necessaries at the last town, Tepecoaquilco, as judging we should not be likely to meet with them here; but before they could be cooked, they were stolen by some of the poor wretches who were hovering about the place; a fact which was announced to me with the usual shrug of the shoulder,


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wolstenholme, Dean (1757-1837)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wolstenholme, Dean (1798-1883)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wolstenholme, John


text:
Page:Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala.djvu/50

30 and with the simple ejaculation of "No parecen," They don't appear. It seemed that I was to go to bed supperless; so I composed myself to sleep, after having eaten a bit of bread, and drunk some port-wine, which with a tumbler of water I usually found it necessary to have placed beside my couch, as it was usual for me to be affected, according to the situation, either by shivering or slight fever, generally succeeded by violent drought,—and I diluted the wine according to circumstances. Something like a supper had been prepared, and being brought to me whilst half awake, I told them to put it down by me. About three o'clock in the morning, I awoke exceedingly hungry, and unfortunately discovered that my supper had suffered a "no parece;" the pigs, with which the yard was full, had eaten it for me. I was again awoke by something sniffing at me, and a loud snort in my ear: it was one of the mules which, as I rose, turned sharply round, and nearly planted


text:
The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Lichnowsky Memorandum

LICHNOWSKY MEMORANDUM, a remarkable document and a valuable contribution to the pre-history of the European War, written in retirement of Prince Lichnowy (q.v.), former German Ambassador in London. Under the title of ‘My Mission to London, 1912-1914’ and dated “Kuchelna (Prussia) August 1916,” the ex-Ambassador reviewed the course of German foreign policy and diplomatic relations, which, in his opinion, were directly responsible for the war. The document, it appears, was written by the prince for his private family archives as well as to explain and justify to his personal friends his position as the representative of Germany in England at the outbreak of the war, and the part he had played during the crisis. Its contents were of a kind which would normally not have been available till after many years, till the chief actors had passed away. At first only a few typewritten copies were made, one of which — by a breach of confidence — reached the German Foreign Office, while another copy appears to have fallen into the hands of the minority Socialist party in the Reichstag, by whom, in all probability, it was communicated to the Politiken, a Socialist newspaper in Stockholm, Sweden. Early in March 1918 that journal began to publish extracts from the memorandum, the omitted portions having been

suppressed by the Swedish government. In April it transpired that a member of the German deputy general staff, Capt. Hans von Beerfelde, had had numerous copies made and had sent them to the Crown Prince and various military and political leaders. After the first partial publication by Politiken, the German government made strenuous efforts to prevent further disclosures, but by the end of March 1918 the whole document had become public property and caused a profound sensation. Reproduced all over Europe, as well as in Vorwärts, the German Socialist organ, the “revelations” of Prince Lichnowsky were formally debated by the Main Committee of the Reichstag on 16 March 1918. On that occasion the Vice-Chancellor, Herr von Payer, read a letter of apology, dated 5 March and addressed to the Imperial Chancellor by Prince Lichnowsky, in which the latter expressed his regret that the document had been made public against his wishes, and declared that it had leaked out in the summer of 1917, after the fall of Bethmann-Hollweg (q.v.). The prince resigned his rank as Minister and was placed under police surveillance on his estate. Criminal proceedings, on a charge of high treason, were ordered to be instituted against him. Captain Beerfelde was later arrested and charged, at first, with having taken part in promoting a peace strike in Berlin during January 1918. So far as could be gathered outside of Germany, no further steps had been taken in the matter up till the summer of 1918.

Although the memorandum contained much information that was already embedded in official and unofficial publications, there still remained certain gaps to be filled in the knowledge hitherto inaccessible — evidence which could only be supplied by the man who was the mouthpiece of the German government during the critical days immediately preceding the conflict, and who was the recipient of the proposals put forward by the British government. The general style of the document, with its small personal touches and certain unimportant inaccuracies, indicates that it was not intended for publication; in tone it is a clear and simple testimony to what really happened by one who played a prominent part in the events which he recalls. In effect it is an indictment of the whole policy of the German Foreign Office spread over many years, and a severe criticism of the cardinal point of that policy — the alliance with Austria-Hungary. That alliance, the author contends, has ever been a source of weakness to Germany, in that it ruined any hopes of an understanding with Russia, with the result that instead of being made subservient to German interests, Germany had eventually found herself in the position in which she was compelled to subordinate her own interests to those of a weak and decrepit ally. Prince Lichnowsky raises some great historical questions on which divergent views will always exist. These, however, are mainly of interest to Germany. By far the most important statements he makes are those in which he endeavors to fix the responsibility for the European War. He emphatically asserts that the British government, and particularly Sir Edward (now Viscount) Grey and Mr. Asquith, went to the very limit of what was possible in order to prevent the conflict. He ridicules

the German theory that the war was treacherously plotted by “vengeful France, barbaric Russia and envious England” against a peace-loving fatherland. “I was treated like a departing sovereign. Thus ended my London mission. It was wrecked, not by the perfidy of the British, but by the perfidy of our policy . . . I had to support in London a policy which I knew to be fallacious.” In conclusion, Prince Lichnowsky prophesies that “the program of the great Rhodes, who saw the salvation of mankind in British expansion and British Imperialism, will be realized.” As a result of the war he believes that the world will belong to the English-speaking races, the Russians and the Japanese, while Germany “will remain alone with Austria and Hungary. . . The German appeared too late, and the World War has destroyed the last possibility of catching up the lost ground, and of founding a Colonial Empire.” See — ; . Consult ‘Current History’ (New York, May-June 1918); New York Times of 21 April 1918; ‘Revelations of Prince Lichnowsky’ (pamphlet, New York 1918).


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wolstenholme, Joseph


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wombwell, George


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Womock, Laurence


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Alexander (1725-1807)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Alexander (1817-1884)


text:
Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/143

Rh names; but yesterday, as I was climbing a high hill, among the trees of the forest where the fox and the hare bid each other good night, I saw a little hut; and before the hut burnt a fire; and round about the fire a funny little dwarf was dancing upon one leg, and singing,—

When the queen heard this she jumped for joy, and as soon as her little friend came she sat down upon her throne, and called all her court round to enjoy the fun; and the nurse stood by her side with the baby in her arms, as if it was quite ready to be given up. Then the little man began to chuckle at the thoughts of having the poor child, to take home with him to his hut in the woods; and he cried out, "Now, lady, what is my name?" "Is it ?" asked she. "No, madam!" "Is it ?" "No, madam!" "Is it ?" "It is not." "Can your name be ?" said the lady slily. "Some witch told you that!—some witch told you that!" cried the little man, and dashed his right foot in a rage so deep into the floor, that he was forced to lay hold of it with both hands to pull it out.

Then he made the best of his way off, while the nurse laughed and the baby crowed; and all the court jeered at him for having had so much trouble for nothing, and said, "We wish you a very good morning, and a merry feast, Mr !"

title: Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/143


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Andrew


text:
Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/140

 Rumpel Stilts-Ken.

the side of a wood, in a country a long way off, ran a fine stream of water; and upon the stream there stood a mill. The miller's house was close by, and the miller, you must know, had a very beautiful daughter. She was, moreover, very shrewd and clever; and the miller was so proud of her, that he one day told the king of the land, who used to come and hunt in the wood, that his daughter could spin gold out of straw. Now this king was very fond of money; and when he heard the miller's boast his greediness was raised, and he sent for the girl to be brought before him. Then he led her to a chamber in his palace where there was a great heap of straw, and gave her a spinning-wheel, and said, "All this must be spun into gold before morning, as you love your life." It was in vain that the poor maiden said that it was only a silly boast of her father, for that she could do no such thing as spin straw into gold: the chamber door was locked, and she was left alone.

She sat down in one corner of the room, and began to bewail her hard fate; when on a sudden the door opened, and a droll-looking little man hobbled in, and said, "Good morrow to you, my good lass; what are you weeping for?" "Alas!" said she, "I must spin this straw into gold, and I know not how." "What 122

title: Page:Grimm's Fairy Tales.djvu/140


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Anthony


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Charles


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, David Edward


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Edmund Burke


text:
Page:Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala.djvu/51

CH. II.] both her hind feet on my face, as she galloped off, leaving us each equally astonished at our mutual discovery.

The Indians of this village, who are called Pintos, are not peculiar to it alone: they are found in many other parts of Mexico, and I had frequently seen them in the capital.

The population of Istola might amount to about 1000 souls. There is only one place of worship, hardly large enough to accommodate the congregation, but there are the remains of a church, which was, once, a handsome and convenient structure. It was not likely to be repaired, as the mission was very poor, and they could hardly find a priest who could come to say mass, even once a fortnight.

Tuesday, 26th. Set off before daylight. We passed through a large wood, and missed our road, having mistaken for it a track round the side of some deep ravines, leading to a watering place for cattle. This detour mortified us, as we lost the


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Ellen


text:
Author:Pieter Anton Tiele

Works

 * Biographical and Historical Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators

title: Author:Pieter Anton Tiele


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, George (1743-1824)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, George Adam


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Herbert William


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, James (1672-1759)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, James (1760-1839)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, James Athol


text:
Page:Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala.djvu/52

32 tage of our early start, for we had gone a league out of the road: we however reached Zopilote at midday.

Zopilote is the name of a vulture: we saw about 2000 of these dull birds sitting on the trees, as a sort of advanced guard of the place which so properly bears their designation, since they were the only living things that were to be seen in it: like other watchmen, they were, for the most part, fast asleep. The doors of the two small houses of which the place consisted were closed, denoting that the inhabitants were also enjoying their siesta: we went on to take ours at Zumpango, a tolerably good looking Indian town, where we met with a kind reception and a clean floor, in a house very similar to an English barn; it being situated in a farm-yard, well supplied with stock of all kinds: the water too was particularly fresh and excellent. Two leagues before we reached this place I met the extraordinario, or courier, who had been dispatched to Acapulco, previously to my


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (fl.1482)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (d.1570)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (fl.1596)


text:
Page:Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala.djvu/53

CH. II.] leaving Mexico, to inform Captain Brown of my intended departure for the coast. I was told that, up to seven o'clock on Sunday night, there was no appearance of the Tartar from San Blas; and being now so near my journey's end, I felt secure and happy as to the certainty of my being able to avail myself of that frigate for my conveyance to Guatemala.


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (1705?-1754)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (1801-1870)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (1811-1871)


text: Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala from Mexico/Chapter 2


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John (1825-1891)


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John George


text:
Page:Collodi - The Story of a Puppet, translation Murray, 1892.djvu/13

was once upon a time. ..

'A king!' my little readers will instantly exclaim.

No, children, you are wrong. There was once upon a time a piece of wood.

This wood was not valuable: it was only a common log like those that are burnt in winter in the stoves and fireplaces to make a cheerful blaze and warm the rooms.

I cannot say how it came about, but the fact is, that one fine day this piece of wood was lying in the shop of an old carpenter of


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John Muir


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, John Philip


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Mark


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Mary Anne Everett


text: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Wood, Matthew